Authors.

The Polish Brethren or "Ecclesia Minor" were an antitrinitarian minority of the Reformed Church in Poland who had separated from the Calvinist majority, or "Ecclesia Major", in 1565.  Several authors had a hand in drafting the Catechism: Valentinus Smalcius, Hieronim Moskorzowski, Johannes Völkel and others. It is likely that some of the text had been prepared by the Italian exile Fausto Sozzini, who had settled among the Polish Brethren in 1579, without ever formally joining, and who died in the year before the Catechism was drafted. Despite his lack of any official status in the church Sozzini had been influential in bringing the Polish church round to a Christology which closely resembled what he had learnt from his uncle Lelio Sozzini in exile in Switzerland as a young man.  The Racovian Catechism was published in 1605, and subsequently translated into other languages. Smalcius produced a German version.  The "Ecclesia Minor" survived in Poland until 1656 when it was outlawed by the Polish Sejm in the Roman Catholic Counter-Reformation. These nontrinitarians, and their Catechism, would later become known as Socinians due to the prominence given to Fausto Sozzini's writings after his death in the series "Bibliotheca Fratrum Polonorum" published in Amsterdam 1665 and widely circulated in England and elsewhere.  On April 2, 1652 The English Parliament voted to seize and burn all copies circulating.  A revised Latin edition of the Racovian catechism appeared in 1680 in Amsterdam, revised by Sozzini's grandson Andrzej Wiszowaty Sr. and great-grandson Benedykt Wiszowaty. This was the base of Thomas Rees' 1818 English translation.

Contents (1818).

Preface

Distinctive doctrines.

Christology.

The most distinctive element in Socinian, as opposed to Arian, Christology is the rejection of the personal pre-existence of Christ. The theme of Christ's preexistence occurs repeatedly in the Racovian Catechism, with detailed discussion of disputed verses, such as: Most early Socinians accepted the infallibility of the New Testament and so accepted the account of the literal virgin birth of Jesus, but many later Socinians (i.e., Unitarians) did not.

The personal devil.

The Racovian Catechism makes muted reference to the devil in seven places which prompts the 1818 translator Thomas Rees, to footnote references to the works of Hugh Farmer (1761) and John Simpson (1804). Yet these references are in keeping with the somewhat subdued handling of the devil in the "Biblioteca Fratrum Polonorum". The Collegia Vicentina at Vicenza (1546) had questioned not only the existence of the devil but even of angels.

The Racovian Catechism ("Pol.": Katechizm Rakowski) is a nontrinitarian statement of faith from the 16th century. The title "Racovian" comes from the publishers, the Polish Brethren, who had founded a sizeable town in Raków, Kielce County, where the Racovian Academy and printing press was founded by Jakub Sienieński in 1602.

Der Rakauer Katechismus (auch "Rakówer Katechismus") ist die Zusammenfassung der von Lelius und Faustus Sozzini initiierten radikal-reformatorischen Theologie des Sozinianismus, der zum ersten Mal 1605 in polnischer Sprache in Rakau "(Raków)" erschien. Er ist bis heute eine bedeutende Bekenntnisschrift des polnischen Unitarismus bzw. der Polnischen Brüder. Sein Entstehungsort Rakau war in der frühen Neuzeit eines der Zentren des polnischen Unitarismus; hier befand sich bis zur Vertreibung durch die Gegenreformation auch die Rakauer Schule (auch "Rakauer Akademie").


Television.

His career in television began in 1949 and lasted through the 1980s. In the fall of 1953, he played a theatrical agent representing Ezio Pinza's title character in the NBC situation comedy "Bonino". Other costars were Mary Wickes, Chet Allen, and Van Dyke Parks. The series focused upon an Italian American opera singer trying to rear his six children after having been widowed. In 1963 he co-starred with James Doohan in an episode of "The Twilight Zone", titled "Valley of the Shadow". He guest-starred in the 1964 "The Outer Limits" episode "A Feasibility Study"; in the 1965 "Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea" episode "The Price of Doom'; and in the 1965 two-part episode of "The Man from U.N.C.L.E." called "The Alexander the Greater Affair". In 1967 he played Anan 7 in the original "" series episode "A Taste of Armageddon", and also in the 1969 season 3 "Ironside" episode "L'Chayim", and in Mannix, in the episode "A Pittance of Faith", as Mr. Lardelli, in the same year.  Opatoshu played in a 1970 episode of "Daniel Boone" as "Tamenund", an aged Pequot Indian bent on revenge for his tribe's near-extinction. He was also in the "No Way to Treat a Relative" episode of the 1973 situation comedy "Needles and Pins" (never broadcast because of the show's cancellation), the "Kojak" episode "Both Sides of the Law", the 1977 "The Bionic Woman" episode "Doomsday is Tomorrow", the 1981 "Buck Rogers in the 25th Century" episode "Time of the Hawk", and the 1981 miniseries "Masada". In 1986 he played an Iranian ambassador in the TV thriller "Under Siege", about Islamic terrorist attacks in the United States. On October 30, 1989, Opatashu guest-starred as the Tenctonese ex-slave "Paul Revere", in the episode "Night of the Screams", of the television series "Alien Nation". In 1991 he won an Emmy Award for his guest appearance in the episode "A Prayer for the Goldsteins" of the ABC series "Gabriel's Fire".

Films.

His first film, "The Light Ahead" (1939), directed by Henry Felt and Edgar G. Ulmer, is notable for being entirely in Yiddish. Opatoshu appeared as the homicide detective, Sgt. Ben Miller, in the film noir, "The Naked City" (1948) produced by Mark Hellinger. In 1958, he played a supporting character in "The Brothers Karamazov" with his future "Star Trek" co-star William Shatner. He also portrayed Herr Jacobi, one of the people who help Paul Newman and Julie Andrews escape from East Germany in Alfred Hitchcock's 1966 film "Torn Curtain". He also played the father of Benny Rampell in 1963's "The Cardinal" un credited.  He played the Irgun leader (and Ari Ben Canaan's estranged uncle) in Otto Preminger's 1960 film "Exodus". In 1967, Opatoshu played Morris Kolowitz, the father of the main character David (Reni Santoni), in Carl Reiner's directorial debut "Enter Laughing". In the 1977 film, "Raid on Entebbe", he played the part of Menachem Begin, a film based on the actual Operation Entebbe and the freeing of hostages at Entebbe Airport in Entebbe, Uganda on July 4, 1976. He had played Begin's fictional counterpart in "Exodus".

Stage.

He appeared on Broadway in "Silk Stockings" in 1956, "The Wall" in 1960, and "Bravo Giovanni" in 1962, and others.

Screenwriter.

David Opatoshu also wrote the screenplay for the film "Romance of a Horsethief" (1971), based on a novel by his father, Joseph Opatoshu.

Family.

David Opatoshu was survived by his wife, Lillian Weinberg, a psychiatric social worker, whom he married on June 10, 1941. They had one child together, a son, Danny. Lillian died on May 13, 2000.

David Opatoshu (born David Opatovsky; January 30, 1918 – April 30, 1996) was an American actor. He is best known for his role in the film "Exodus" (1960).

David Opatoshu (* 30. Januar 1918 in New York City, New York; † 30. April 1996 in Los Angeles, Kalifornien) war ein US-amerikanischer Film- und Theaterschauspieler sowie Drehbuchautor.


Career.

Born in the city of Nazret, he endured a difficult childhood. His parent divorced when he was three and he was raised by his father until the age of fifteen, when his father died. Tilahun worked for a stone company and lived on the streets for three years afterwards, relying on food handouts. Tilahun's first road races came as a teenager in Addis Ababa. He ran at the Great Ethiopian Run in 2006 and came fourth with a time of 28:34.77 minutes. He returned a year later but managed only ninth. Having demonstrated promise as a runner, local coaches told Hussein Makke, an elite running manager, of his potential. Makke took him into his stable of runners and Tilahun began training full-time.  Tilahun began competing in Europe for the first time in 2008 and his calibre became obvious. He was runner-up at the 20 kilomètres de Maroilles (timing 59:18 minutes), then ran 5000 metres and 10,000 metres bests of 13:12.40 and 27:32.60 minutes on the track. He showed his aptitude was for longer races, however, as at the Lille Half Marathon he won on his debut over the distance with a time of 59:36 minutes. It was one of the fastest times for a teenage athlete and set a new all-comers record for France. He ran his second half marathon race two months later in Delhi and his time of 1:00:28 was good enough for fourth in the high quality race. He was runner-up to Tadesse Tola at the inaugural Bahir Dar Cross Country in December.  He ran frequently in 2009 and began in the United States. He won the Monument Avenue 10K, Cooper River Bridge Run, and Bolder Boulder races, as well as taking second at the Bay To Breakers. He was dominant at the Falmouth Road Race 7-miler in August, winning in a time of 31:41 minutes. In his first international selection he ran at the 2009 IAAF World Half Marathon Championships: although he was only eleventh overall, he led the Ethiopian men to the bronze medal in the team competition. He returned to the Delhi Half Marathon in November and again took fourth place. He took his first a career victory at the Great Ethiopian Run that month, edging Abera Kuma at the finish.  The first race of 2010 was an impressive one for Tilahun: he ran a new best and course record of 59:19 minutes to win the Zayed International Half Marathon. This brought him US$300,000 in prize money and his manager later reflected that these sudden earnings affected the athlete, saying that ""Tilahun is one of the most talented athletes in the world. Unfortunately, he is a wild man, in every meaning of the word. He is a great guy, a great talent, but he is wild." Heading to the United States he ran under 28 minutes for the 10K at the Cooper River Bridge Run (placing third with 27:52), won the Crescent City Classic, then ran a best of 45:50 minutes for third at the Cherry Blossom Ten Mile Run. He was top three at both the Bay to Breakers and Bolder Boulder, but missed the rest of the season through injury. After a long period out, he returned in good form as a pacemaker at the 2011 Chicago Marathon and reached the 30 km mark in 1:29:25 hours. Towards the end of 2011 he had run of 60:59 minutes in Delhi and ran a 10K best at the São Silvestre De Luanda taking third with 27:50 minutes.  He opened 2012 with a runner-up performance at the Houston Half Marathon, finishing behind Feyisa Lelisa. He set a 10,000 m best of 27:18.90 minutes on the track at the FBK Games and won the Crazy 8's Road Race and Boilermaker Road Race in July. This was the build up for his debut over the marathon distance that October. He entered the 2012 Chicago Marathon and produced a surprise performance on his first attempt, running the third fastest debut ever and taking third place with a time of 2:05:27 hours. His first victory over the distance came soon after, as he won the 2013 Rotterdam Marathon by over a minute in April 2013.

Tilahun Regassa Dabe (born 18 January 1990) is an Ethiopian long-distance runner who mainly competes in road running competitions. He has a half marathon best of 59:19 minutes and has won the Zayed International Half Marathon and Lille Half Marathon. He made his marathon debut at the 2012 Chicago Marathon and ran the third fastest ever debut of 2:05:27 hours.

Tilahun Regassa (* 18. Januar 1990 in Dukem) ist ein äthiopischer Langstreckenläufer, der sich auf Straßenläufe spezialisiert hat. Er wuchs bei seinem Vater in Nazret auf, nachdem sich seine Eltern geschieden hatten als er drei Jahre alt war. Nach dem Tod seines Vaters war Regassa als Fünfzehnjähriger auf sich allein gestellt und verbrachte drei Jahre auf der Straße. Schließlich wurde er von dem Leichtathletik-Manager Hussein Makke entdeckt und in dessen Trainingsgruppe aufgenommen.


Etymology.

The name of the town derives from Afar "Lē-ʿádu" or "Lē-ʿadó", which means "white watering-place" and in Somali became "Loowyaʿádde", "with white calves", by cacography. The French colonial authorities wrote it "Loyada"; the standard Somali spelling is "Lawya caddo".

History and politics.

During antiquity Loyada was part of the city-states that in engaged in a lucrative trade network connecting the merchants with Phoenicia, Ptolemaic Egypt, Greece, Parthian Persia, Saba, Nabataea, and the Roman Empire.  Between Djibouti City and Loyada are a number of anthropomorphic and phallic stelae. The structures are associated with graves of rectangular shape flanked by vertical slabs. The Djibouti-Loyada stelae are of uncertain age, and some of them are adorned with a T-shaped symbol. During the Middle Ages, the Djibouti area including Loyada was part of the Adal and Ifat Sultanates.  In 1888, the colonial powers drew the border between British Somaliland and French Djibouti from Loyada south to Jaldessa. On 3 February 1976, insurgents of the Somali-backed FLCS hijacked a bus carrying 31 French children in Djibouti City and drove it to Loyada. France sent legionnaires and gendarmes from the GIGN and the hostages were rescued the following day under covering fire from Somali border troops, but two children were killed and five wounded.  In the early 1990s, like much of Djibouti, the area was subject to conflict. Rebels took the town and were driven out by government forces, but on 5 May 1990 the Somali National Movement (SNM) attacked Loyada and killed a number of Somali National Army (SNA) people. The event, took place while negotiations between the Djibouti and Somali governments was taking place, and the Somali government protested to the Djibouti Ministry of Foreign Affairs, blaming the Djibouti government for the incident.  The town is currently the only official border crossing between Djibouti and Somalia (Awdal, part of the unrecognised state of Somaliland). Beginning late in 1999, Djibouti and Somaliland closed the border crossing several times for political reasons. In 2002, after Dahir Riyale Kahin became president of Somaliland, they agreed to reopen it. The UNHCR has established a centre for the assistance of Somali refugees at Loyada.

Climate.

The average annual temperature in Loyada is 30 °C. About 163 mm of precipitation falls annually. The warmest month of the year is July with an average temperature of 36 °C. In January, the average temperature is 25.5 °C. It is the lowest average temperature of the whole year. The largest cities most proximate to Loyada are Djibouti City (25 km), Zeila (36 km) and Berbera (289 km).

Demographics.

, the population of Loyada has been estimated to be 1,367. The town's inhabitants belong to various mainly Afro-Asiatic-speaking ethnic groups, with the Issa Somali predominant.

Loyada () is a small town in Djibouti. Located in the Arta Region, it is the only official border crossing from Djibouti into Somalia. It is situated on the west coast of Gulf of Aden, from the capital, Djibouti City.

Loyada () ist eine kleine Ortschaft im östlichsten Teil der Region Arta in Dschibuti, an der Grenze zur Region Awdal in Somalia bzw. dem faktisch unabhängigen Somaliland.


Definition.

Grand potential is defined by where "U" is the internal energy, "T" is the temperature of the system, "S" is the entropy, μ is the chemical potential, and "N" is the number of particles in the system.  The change in the grand potential is given by where "P" is pressure and "V" is volume, using the fundamental thermodynamic relation (combined first and second thermodynamic laws);  When the system is in thermodynamic equilibrium, Φ is a minimum. This can be seen by considering that dΦ is zero if the volume is fixed and the temperature and chemical potential have stopped evolving.

Landau free energy.

Some authors refer to the grand potential as the "Landau free energy" or Landau potential and write its definition as:  named after Russian physicist Lev Landau, which may be a synonym for the grand potential, depending on system stipulations. For homogeneous systems, one obtains formula_5.

Homogeneous systems (vs. inhomogeneous systems).

In the case of a scale-invariant type of system (where a system of volume formula_6 has exactly the same set of microstates as formula_7 systems of volume formula_8), then when the system expands new particles and energy will flow in from the reservoir to fill the new volume with a homogeneous extension of the original system. The pressure, then, must be constant with respect to changes in volume:  and all extensive quantities (particle number, energy, entropy, potentials,...) must grow linearly with volume, e.g.  In this case we simply have formula_11, as well as the familiar relationship formula_12 for the Gibbs free energy. The value of formula_13 can be understood as the work that can be extracted from the system by shrinking it down to nothing (putting all the particles and energy back into the reservoir). The fact that formula_11 is negative implies that the extraction of particles from the system to the reservoir requires energy input.  Such homogeneous scaling does not exist in many systems. For example, when analyzing the ensemble of electrons in a single molecule or even a piece of metal floating in space, doubling the volume of the space does double the number of electrons in the material. The problem here is that, although electrons and energy are exchanged with a reservoir, the material host is not allowed to change. Generally in small systems, or systems with long range interactions (those outside the thermodynamic limit), formula_15.

The grand potential is a quantity used in statistical mechanics, especially for irreversible processes in open systems. The grand potential is the characteristic state function for the grand canonical ensemble.

Das Großkanonische Potential formula_1 (Formelzeichen z. T. auch formula_2, formula_3 oder formula_4; auch Landau-Potential nach Lew Landau) ist ein in der Statistischen Mechanik verwendetes thermodynamisches Potential, welches vorwiegend für irreversible Prozesse offener Systeme verwendet wird. Es ist das angepasste thermodynamische Potential für das μVT-Ensemble.


Location.

The Thüster Berg lies within a triangle formed by the villages of Eime, Duingen and Salzhemmendorf in the western half of the Leine Uplands, which itself is in the northern part of the Lower Saxon Hills. It is about long and its highest peak is the Kanstein. It lies between Hemmendorf and Oldendorf in the north, Ahrenfeld, Deilmissen and Deinsen in the south, Marienhagen in the southeast, Weenzen and Thüste in the south, Levedagsen and the Domäne Eggersen in the west and the village of Salzhemmendorf to the northwest.  North of the Thüster Berg is the Osterwald, to the east the Külf, to the southeast the Duinger Berg and to the west the Ith. The River Saale, a southwestern tributary of the Leine flows to the west and north of the ridge. Its northwestern part belongs to the Weser Uplands Schaumburg-Hamelin Nature Park.  The B 1 federal highway runs past the Thüster Berg to the north and the B 240 to the southeast.

Geology and landscape.

The Thüster Berg is an upfold of Thüster limestone. On its steeply sloping northern flanks there are several limestone crags, mostly hidden in forest, which have names such as "Eckturm", "Dreckturm", "Falkenturm" and "Liebesnadel" (literally: "Corner Tower", "Mud Tower", "Falcon Tower" and "Needle of Love"). The rock ledge of the "Eckturm" () juts out of the forest towards the northwest below the summit of the Kanstein and forms a natural observation platform. There are disused limestone quarries on the southwestern side of the ridge.  The Thüster Berg is densely wooded, especially with stands of deciduous trees. Amongst the species of tree that thrive here are birch and pine.

Towers.

On the Kanstein, the main summit () of the Thüster Berg, stands an observation tower, known as the Löns Tower ("Lönsturm", ) and about 1 km further east-southeast is a telecommunication tower ().

Walking.

Numerous forest tracks run over the Thüster Berg. One of them runs over the crest of the ridge from Salzhemmendorf to Marienhagen past the "Eckturm", Löns Tower and telecommunication tower.

The Thüster Berg is a ridge, up to, in the Lower Saxon Hills in central Germany. It is situated in the districts of Hameln-Pyrmont and Hildesheim in the federal state of Lower Saxony.

Der Thüster Berg ist ein bis hoher Höhenzug des Niedersächsischen Berglandes in den Landkreisen Hameln-Pyrmont und Hildesheim in Niedersachsen (Deutschland).


Plot.

Part 1.

The novel's protagonist, Okonkwo, is famous in the villages of Umuofia for being a wrestling champion, defeating a wrestler nicknamed "Amalinze The Cat" (because he never lands on his back). Okonkwo is strong, hard-working, and strives to show no weakness. He wants to dispel his father Unoka's tainted legacy of unpaid debts, a neglected wife and children, and cowardice at the sight of blood. Okonkwo works to build his wealth entirely on his own, as Unoka died a shameful death and left many unpaid debts. He is also obsessed with his masculinity, and any slight compromise to this is swiftly destroyed. As a result, he often beats his wives and children, and is unkind to his neighbours. However, his drive to escape the legacy of his father leads him to be wealthy, courageous, and powerful among the people of his village. He is a leader of his village, having attained a position in his society for which he has striven all his life.  Okonkwo is selected by the elders to be the guardian of Ikemefuna, a boy taken by the clan as a peace settlement between Umuofia and another clan after Ikemefuna's father killed an Umuofian woman. The boy lives with Okonkwo's family and Okonkwo grows fond of him, although Okonkwo does not show his fondness so as not to appear weak. The boy looks up to Okonkwo and considers him a second father. The Oracle of Umuofia eventually pronounces that the boy must be killed. Ezeudu, the oldest man in the village, warns Okonkwo that he should have nothing to do with the murder because it would be like killing his own child – but to avoid seeming weak and feminine to the other men of the village, Okonkwo disregards the warning from the old man, striking the killing blow himself even as Ikemefuna begs his "father" for protection. For many days after killing Ikemefuna, Okonkwo feels guilty and saddened.  Shortly after Ikemefuna's death, things begin to go wrong for Okonkwo. He falls into a great depression, as he has been greatly traumatized by the act of murdering his own adopted son. His sickly daughter Ezinma falls unexpectedly ill and it is feared she may die; during a gun salute at Ezeudu's funeral, Okonkwo's gun accidentally explodes and kills Ezeudu's son. He and his family are sent into exile for seven years to appease the gods he has offended.

Part 2.

While Okonkwo is away in Mbanta, he learns that white men are living in Umuofia with the intent of introducing their religion, Christianity. As the number of converts increases, the foothold of the white people grows and a new government is introduced. The village is forced to respond with either appeasement or resistance to the imposition of the white people's nascent society. Okonkwo’s son Nwoye starts getting curious about the missionaries and the new religion. After he is beaten by his father for the last time, he decides to leave his family behind and live independently. He wants to be with the missionaries because his beliefs have changed while being introduced to Christianity by Mr. Brown. In the last year of his exile, Okonkwo wants his best friend Obierika to sell all of his yams and to buy two men to build him two huts so he can have a house to go back to with his family. Okonkwo also wants a feast for his mother's kinsmen before he leaves his exile.

Part 3.

Returning from exile, Okonkwo finds his village changed by the presence of the white men. After a convert commits a heinous act by unmasking an elder as he embodies an ancestral spirit of the clan, the village retaliates by destroying a local Christian church. In response, the District Commissioner representing the British government takes Okonkwo and several other native leaders prisoner pending payment of a fine of two hundred cowries. Despite the District Commissioner's instructions to treat the leaders of Umuofia with respect, the native "court messengers" humiliate them, doing things such as shaving their heads and whipping them. As a result, the people of Umuofia finally gather for what could be a great uprising. Okonkwo, a warrior by nature and adamant about following Umuofian custom and tradition, despises any form of cowardice and advocates war against the white men. When messengers of the white government try to stop the meeting, Okonkwo beheads one of them. Because the crowd allows the other messengers to escape and does not fight alongside Okonkwo, he realizes with despair that the people of Umuofia are not going to fight to protect themselves – his society's response to such a conflict, which for so long had been predictable and dictated by tradition, is changing.  When the District Commissioner comes to Okonkwo's house to take him to court, he finds that Okonkwo has hanged himself to avoid being tried in a colonial court. Among his own people, Okonkwo's actions have tarnished his reputation and status, as it is strictly against the teachings of the Igbo to commit suicide. The District Commissioner reflects that Okonkwo's story will make for a good page in his book, or perhaps a "reasonable paragraph".

Background.

The title is a quotation from "The Second Coming", a poem by W. B. Yeats.  Most of the story takes place in the fictional village of Iguedo, which is in the Umuofia clan. Umuofia is located west of the actual city of Onitsha, on the east bank of the Niger River in Nigeria. The events of the novel unfold in the 1890s. The culture depicted, that of the Igbo people, is similar to that of Achebe's birthplace of Ogidi, where Igbo-speaking people lived together in groups of independent villages ruled by titled elders. The customs described in the novel mirror those of the actual Onitsha people, who lived near Ogidi, and with whom Achebe was familiar.  Within forty years of the arrival of the British, by the time Achebe was born in 1930, the missionaries were well established. He lived in the British culture but he refused to change his Igbo name Chinua to Albert. Achebe's father was among the first to be converted in Ogidi, around the turn of the century. Achebe himself was an orphan raised by his grandfather. His grandfather, far from opposing Achebe's conversion to Christianity, allowed Achebe's Christian marriage to be celebrated in his compound.

Language choice.

Achebe wrote his novels in English because the written standard Igbo language was created by combining various dialects, creating a stilted written form. In a 1994 interview with "The Paris Review", Achebe said, "the novel form seems to go with the English language. There is a problem with the Igbo language. It suffers from a very serious inheritance which it received at the beginning of this century from the Anglican mission. They sent out a missionary by the name of Dennis. Archdeacon Dennis. He was a scholar. He had this notion that the Igbo language—which had very many different dialects—should somehow manufacture a uniform dialect that would be used in writing to avoid all these different dialects. Because the missionaries were powerful, what they wanted to do they did. This became the law. But the standard version cannot sing. There's nothing you can do with it to make it sing. It's heavy. It's wooden. It doesn't go anywhere."  Achebe's choice to write in English has caused controversy. While both African and non-African critics agree that Achebe modelled "Things Fall Apart" on classic European literature, they disagree about whether his novel upholds a Western model, or, in fact, subverts or confronts it. Achebe continued to defend his decision: "English is something you spend your lifetime acquiring, so it would be foolish not to use it. Also, in the logic of colonization and decolonization it is actually a very powerful weapon in the fight to regain what was yours. English was the language of colonization itself. It is not simply something you use because you have it anyway."  Achebe is noted for his inclusion of and weaving in of proverbs from Igbo oral culture into his writing. This influence was explicitly referenced by Achebe in "Things Fall Apart": "Among the Igbo the art of conversation is regarded very highly, and proverbs are the palm-oil with which words are eaten."

Literary significance and reception.

"Things Fall Apart" is regarded as a milestone in African literature. It has come to be seen as the archetypal modern African novel in English, and is read in Nigeria and throughout Africa. Of all of Achebe's works, "Things Fall Apart" is the one read most often, and has generated the most critical response, examination, and literary criticism. It is studied widely in Europe, India, and North America, where it has spawned numerous secondary and tertiary analytical works. It has achieved similar status and repute in Australia and Oceania. Considered Achebe's magnum opus, it has sold more than 20 million copies worldwide. "Time" magazine included the novel in its "TIME 100 Best English-language Novels from 1923 to 2005". The novel has been translated into more than 50 languages, and is often used in literature, world history, and African studies courses across the world.  Achebe is now considered to be the essential novelist on African identity, nationalism, and decolonization. Achebe's main focus has been cultural ambiguity and contestation. The complexity of novels such as "Things Fall Apart" depends on Achebe's ability to bring competing cultural systems and their languages to the same level of representation, dialogue, and contestation.  Reviewers have praised Achebe's neutral narration and have described "Things Fall Apart" as a realistic novel. Much of the critical discussion about "Things Fall Apart" concentrates on the socio-political aspects of the novel, including the friction between the members of Igbo society as they confront the intrusive and overpowering presence of Western government and beliefs. Ernest N. Emenyonu commented that ""Things Fall Apart" is indeed a classic study of cross-cultural misunderstanding and the consequences to the rest of humanity, when a belligerent culture or civilization, out of sheer arrogance and ethnocentrism, takes it upon itself to invade another culture, another civilization."  Achebe's writing about African society, in telling from an African point of view the story of the colonization of the Igbo, tends to extinguish the misconception that African culture had been savage and primitive. In "Things Fall Apart", western culture is portrayed as being "arrogant and ethnocentric," insisting that the African culture needed a leader. As it had no kings or chiefs, Umuofian culture was vulnerable to invasion by western civilization. It is felt that the repression of the Igbo language at the end of the novel contributes greatly to the destruction of the culture. Although Achebe favours the African culture of the pre-western society, the author attributes its destruction to the "weaknesses within the native structure." Achebe portrays the culture as having a religion, a government, a system of money, and an artistic tradition, as well as a judicial system.

Influence and legacy.

The publication of Achebe's "Things Fall Apart" helped pave the way for numerous other African writers. Novelists who published after Achebe were able to find an eloquent and effective mode for the expression of the particular social, historical, and cultural situation of modern Africa. Before "Things Fall Apart" was published, most of the novels about Africa had been written by European authors, portraying Africans as savages who were in need of western enlightenment.  Achebe broke from this outsider view, by portraying Igbo society in a sympathetic light. This allows the reader to examine the effects of European colonialism from a different perspective. He commented: "The popularity of "Things Fall Apart" in my own society can be explained simply... this was the first time we were seeing ourselves, as autonomous individuals, rather than half-people, or as Conrad would say, 'rudimentary souls'."  The language of the novel has not only intrigued critics but has also been a major factor in the emergence of the modern African novel. Because Achebe wrote in English, portrayed Igbo life from the point of view of an African man, and used the language of his people, he was able to greatly influence African novelists, who viewed him as a mentor.  Achebe's fiction and criticism continue to inspire and influence writers around the world. Hilary Mantel, the Booker Prize-winning novelist in a 7 May 2012 article in "Newsweek", "Hilary Mantel's Favorite Historical Fictions", lists "Things Fall Apart" as one of her five favourite novels in this genre. A whole new generation of African writers – Caine Prize winners Binyavanga Wainaina (current director of the Chinua Achebe Center at Bard College) and Helon Habila ("Waiting for an Angel" [2004] and "Measuring Time" [2007]), as well as Uzodinma Iweala ("Beasts of No Nation" [2005]), and Professor Okey Ndibe ("Arrows of Rain" [2000]) count Chinua Achebe as a significant influence. Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, the author of the popular and critically acclaimed novels "Purple Hibiscus" (2003) and "Half of a Yellow Sun" (2006), commented in a 2006 interview: "Chinua Achebe will always be important to me because his work influenced not so much my style as my writing philosophy: reading him emboldened me, gave me permission to write about the things I knew well."  "Things Fall Apart" was listed by "Encyclopædia Britannica" as one of "12 Novels Considered the 'Greatest Book Ever Written'".  The 60th anniversary of the first publication of "Things Fall Apart" was celebrated at the South Bank Centre in London, UK, on 15 April 2018 with live readings from the book by Femi Elufowoju Jr, Adesua Etomi, Yomi Sode, Lucian Msamati, Jennifer Nansubuga Makumbi, Chibundu Onuzo, Ellah Wakatama Allfrey, Ben Okri, and Margaret Busby.  On November 5, 2019, the "BBC News" listed "Things Fall Apart" on its list of the 100 most influential novels.

Film, television, music and theatrical adaptations.

A radio drama called "Okonkwo" was made of the novel in April 1961 by the Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation. It featured Wole Soyinka in a supporting role.  In 1970, the novel was made into a film starring Princess Elizabeth of Toro by Francis Oladele and Wolf Schmidt, executive producers Hollywood lawyer Edward Mosk and his wife Fern, who wrote the screenplay. Directed by Jason Pohland.  In 1987, the book was made into a very successful miniseries directed by David Orere and broadcast on Nigerian television by the Nigerian Television Authority. It starred several established film actors, including Pete Edochie, Nkem Owoh, and Sam Loco Efe.  In 1999, the American hip-hop band The Roots released their fourth studio album "Things Fall Apart" in reference to Achebe's novel.  In 2008, a film adaptation of "Things Fall Apart" was made by a Nigerian production company with an all-Nigerian cast. Pete Edochie starred as Okonkwo.  In 2019, the lyrics of "No Holiday for Madiba", a song honoring Nelson Mandela include the phrase, "things fall apart", in reference to the book's title.

Things Fall Apart is the debut novel by Nigerian author Chinua Achebe, first published in 1958. Its story chronicles pre-colonial life in the southeastern part of Nigeria and the arrival of Europeans during the late 19th century. It is seen as the archetypal modern African novel in English, and one of the first to receive global critical acclaim. It is a staple book in schools throughout Africa and is widely read and studied in English-speaking countries around the world. The novel was first published in the UK in 1962 by William Heinemann Ltd., and became the first work published in Heinemann's African Writers Series.

Things Fall Apart (deutsch "Okonkwo oder Das Alte stürzt" bzw. "Alles zerfällt") ist der erste Roman des nigerianischen Schriftstellers Chinua Achebe. Er erschien 1958 und wurde zu einem Meilenstein und zugleich Klassiker der afrikanischen Literatur. Bis heute ist er das meistgelesene Buch eines afrikanischen Autors. Der Roman schildert am Beispiel eines Igbo-Dorfes auf tragische Weise, wie eine nach althergebrachten, patriarchalen Regeln funktionierende afrikanische Gesellschaft durch das Eindringen christlicher Missionare und kolonialer Herrschaft zerfällt. Ein Jahr nach dem Erscheinen wurde der Band bereits in deutscher Übersetzung unter dem Titel "Okonkwo oder Das Alte stürzt" aufgelegt; der englische Titel des Romans, "Things Fall Apart" (wörtlich „(Die) Dinge fallen auseinander“), ist ein Zitat aus William Butler Yeats’ Gedicht "The Second Coming" (1919).


History.

In the late 1990s the Calgary-based Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists, a group modeled on the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, invited Chris de Freitas, from The University of Auckland, a critic of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), as guest speaker. Following these talks in which de Frietas was "very critical of what was being said about the role of carbon dioxide in global warming,...[w]e all left the luncheon speeches all shaking our heads that this silliness was going on." After the Canadian government signed the Kyoto Protocol, Eric Loughead, former editor of the "Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin" and his fellow members of the Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists responded by creating the Friends of Science Society, who held its first meeting in the curling lounge of the Glencoe Club in Calgary in 2002.  The first board of directors in 2002 included oil industry geologist and member of the Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists, Arthur M. Patterson, as President; Gordon C. Wells, as Vice-President; Charles Simpson as Secretary and H. Graham Donoghue as Treasurer. Founding members of the Friends of Science, Arthur M. Patterson, Albert Jacobs, and David Barss (Hons. Geol. published the Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists (CSPG) position on global climate change science in January 2003 in which they cite an article by Chris de Freitas entitled "Are Observed Changes in the Concentration of Carbon Dioxide in the Atmosphere Really Dangerous?"  In 2002, as faculty member of the University of Calgary, political scientist Barry Cooper, set up the Science Education Fund which could accept donations through the Calgary Foundation. The 57-year-old charity, Calgary Foundation administers charitable giving in the Calgary area and had "a policy of guarding donors' identities." Albert Jacobs, a geologist and retired oil explorations manager, who attended the first meeting held in the curling lounge of Calgary's Glencoe Club back in 2002, described how donations from industry donors were passed on to the Science Education Fund set up by Barry Cooper, which in turn supported the activities of the Friends of Science.  In 2004 Talisman Energy, a Calgary-based, global oil and gas exploration and production company, one of Canada's largest independent oil and gas companies, donated $175,000 to fund a University of Calgary-based "public relations project designed to cast doubt on scientific evidence linking human activity to global warming." Journalist Mike De Souza published the list of significant donations to the Friends of Science which had been received by the press, in an article published in the Vancouver Sun in 2011. Sydney Kahanoff, a Calgary oil and gas executive and philanthropist donated $50,000 through his Kahanoff Foundation, a charity he established in 1979. Murphy Oil matched one of its employees $1,050 donations. Douglas Leahey defended the donations to the Friends of Science from the then CEO of Talisman Energy, James Buckee, who shared the Friends' views on climate change.  On their original web page, dated 2002, the Friends recommended several key documents explaining their standpoint, including testimonies by George C. Marshall Institute former board members, Richard S. Lindzen and Sallie Baliunas. Richard S. Lindzen's testimony before the Senate Environment and Public Works Committee on 2 May 2001. Lindzen, a former member of the UN's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change became one of the most well-known climate ”skeptic” scientists. A prolific writer, he has been criticizing the IPCC since the early 1990s. Noted deniers Sallie Baliunas was also a paid consultant of the George C. Marshall Institute.  The Friends' short recommended reading list also included the anti-Kyoto testimony provided by Harvard-Smithsonian astrophysicist, Sallie Baliunas, well-known denier, to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works. Baliunas claimed that, "[p]roposals like the Kyoto agreement to sharply cut greenhouse gas emissions are estimated in most economic studies to have enormous economic, social and environmental costs. The cost estimates for the U.S. alone amount to $100 billion to $400 billion per year. Those costs would fall disproportionately on America's and the world's elderly and poor." MacRae, an engineer, investment banker and environmentalist warned of economic fall-out and inaccurate science of the Kyoto accord. The Friends recommended Wildavaky's 1995 publication in which he claimed that "an all-powerful environmental community" overstated risks in everyday life.  In 2008 Canwest News Service confirmed that Morten Paulsen, senior vice president and general manager of Fleishman-Hillard Canada, was hired by the Friends of Science in 2006 on "a one-year contract to manage communications" and during that time was also a registered lobbyist for the Friends as well as two oil and gas industry companies. Paulsen, who had ties with the Reform and Canadian Alliance parties, volunteered for the Conservative party’s 2006 federal election campaign while working for the Friends of Science as paid communications consulted. The Friends of Science launched radio ads, directed by Paulsen, "targeting key markets in vote-rich Ontario" during the 2006 federal election. The ads attacking the Liberal government's spending on climate change, attracted 300,000 visits to the Friends of Science webpage.

Position.

Friends of Science publishes a list of "ten myths of climate change," each of which they disagree with:  Friends of Science states that the satellite and balloon temperature records indicate no significant global warming has taken place over the last three decades.  Friends of Science states:

Activism.

In April 2005, Friends of Science released a 23-minute on-line video directed by Mike Visser, entitled "Climate Catastrophe Cancelled: What You're Not Being Told About the Science of Climate Change" that contrasts the views of politicians and scientists on the question of climate change. The video featured consultant Tim Ball, Sallie L. Baliunas, geologist Tim Patterson of Carleton University, Ross McKitrick and political scientist Barry F. Cooper of the University of Calgary, all of whom are known for their rejection of the mainstream scientific view on global warming. A second edition was released 13 September 2007.  Madhav Khandekar, Chris de Freitas, Tim Patterson, Sallie Baliunas and Douglas Leahey were among the 60 "accredited experts in climate and related scientific disciplines," signatories along with prominent members of The Heartland Institute, to the letter sent to Prime Minister Stephen Harper calling on him to walk away from the Kyoto agreement, which he eventually did. On 31 December 2011, Canada became the first signatory to announce its withdrawal from the Kyoto Protocol.  The Friends of Science endorsed the Heartland Institute's 2008 "Manhattan Declaration on Climate Change." Some of the Friends, such as Madhav Khandekar, Chris de Freitas, Tim Patterson, Sallie Baliunas and Douglas Leahey, Tom Harris, were present at the conference which took place in New York City at the Heartland Institute's 2008 International Conference on Climate Change in March 2008. Other Friends, like Timothy F. Ball, who were endorsers are climate science specialists or scientists in closely related fields. Arthur M. Patterson was another Friend and endorser.  The Friends of Science are proponents of the Manhattan Declaration statements agreeing that "global Warming is not a global crisis" and arguing that "there is no convincing evidence that CO2 emissions from modern industrial activity has in the past, is now, or will in the future cause catastrophic climate change." The Manhattan Declaration calls for an end to "all taxes, regulations, and other interventions intended to reduce emissions of CO2."  In 2013 in his opinion piece in the "Financial Post" Tom Harris described the climate symposium, "Earth climate: past, present, future" at the Geological Association of Canada, the Mineralogical Association of Canada (GAC-MAC) annual joint conference where Friends of Science presenters included Calgary geophysicist, independent oil and energy professional, Norm Kalmanovitch, a long-time member of Friends of Science. Kalmanovitch argued that the greenhouse effect from greenhouse gas emissions has never existed to any measurable extent. In a letter to the editor of the "Calgary Herald" dated 16 April 2015, Kalmanovitch claimed that in 1970, "the world was in the grips of a global cooling scare brought on by the 1942 reversion from global warming to global cooling, ending the 250-year recovery from the Little Ice Age and threatening its return. In 1975, the threat ended with the reversion to global warming, but returned with the reversion to global cooling in 2002 that is in place today." Kalmanovitch based his arguments on those of Jim Peden.  In June 2014, the organization put up a billboard in Calgary stating that the sun is "the main driver of climate change." This provoked criticism from, among others, Greenpeace, whose request for their own advertisement to appear on an Alberta billboard had been denied by the same company that displayed Friends of Science's ad.

Funding.

In October 2005 Barry Cooper set up the Science Education Fund at the University of Calgary which was able to access funds from the Calgary Foundation. Critics remark that Cooper established the Science Education Fund to "obscure the political and financial interests behind the donations, not only providing anonymity to donors but also a tax break for their contributions to science education." Friends of Science has been "criticized for its close financial ties to the Alberta patch." In 2010, in the section on "Donations" published in the Friends of Science's newsletter in 2010, Chuck Simpson, the Past Director of Friends of Science called for fund raising to help this "small group of volunteers" with administrative costs. One of their claimed problems is that they were unable to "attract money from corporations", although their antagonists claim the Friends of Science are funded by the petroleum industry and close links to the oil and gas industry. In April 2007, The Friends of Science newsletter claimed their "efforts to bring balance to the climate change debate are being restricted because of our lack of funding. We have mostly relied upon the good nature of our members, with some contributions from Charitable Foundations. There has also been some funding from 'big oil', but they seldom smile on us. They appear to believe that marketing is more important than historical climate information."

Friends of Science (FoS) is a non-profit advocacy organization based in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. The organization rejects the established scientific conclusion that humans are largely responsible for the currently observed global warming. Rather, they propose that "the Sun is the main direct and indirect driver of climate change," not human activity. They argued against the Kyoto Protocol. The society was founded in 2002 and launched its website in October of that year. They are largely funded by the fossil fuel industry.

Friends of Science ist eine kanadische Non-profit-Organisation mit Sitz in Calgary (Alberta). Nach eigener Aussage setzen sich die Mitglieder hauptsächlich aus pensionierten Geo- und Atmosphärenwissenschaftlern sowie Ingenieuren zusammen. Bei der Gruppierung handelt es sich um eine Astroturfing-Organisation, die sich für die petrochemische Industrie einsetzt und von dem Lobbyisten Robert Harris gegründet wurde, der zuvor für eine Lobbyorganisation der Energiewirtschaft tätig war. Friends of Science leugnet die menschengemachte globale Erwärmung und wird u. a. vom Kohlekonzern Peabody Energy sowie von Öl- und Gasunternehmen finanziert.


Biography.

Amram ben Sheshna was a pupil of Natronai ben Hilai, Gaon of Sura, and was exceptionally honored with the title of Gaon within the lifetime of his teacher. Eventually, he broke away from his teacher and started his own seat of learning.

Rabbinic career.

Upon Natronai's death, about 857, the full title and dignities of the "geonate" were conferred upon Amram, a title which he held for 18 years, until his death. He is the author of about 120 responsa (the greater part published in Salonica, 1792, in the collection entitled "Sha'are Tzedek") touching almost every aspect of Jewish jurisprudence. They afford insight into Amram's personality as well as religious practice among Jews of that period. For example, the ruling that interest may not be exacted even from non-Jews, nor even such minor profits as the Talmud designates as "the dust of interest", these being allowed only when customary in non-Jewish business circles. It is characteristic of Amram's method to avoid extreme rigor; thus he decides that a slave who has embraced Judaism, but desires to postpone circumcision until he feels strong enough for it, is not to be hurried. He combats superstition, and places himself almost in opposition to the Talmud, when he protests that there is no sense in fasting on account of bad dreams, since the true nature of dreams is not known. Amram's rules concerning the methodology of the Talmud are of considerable value.

Siddur Rab Amram.

The most important work of Amram, marking him as one of the most prominent of the geonim before Saadia, is his "Prayer-book," the so-called "Siddur Rab Amram". Amram was the first to arrange a complete liturgy for use in synagogue and home. His book forms the foundation both of the Spanish-Portuguese and of the German-Polish liturgies, and has exerted great influence upon Jewish religious practise and ceremonial for more than a thousand years, an influence which to some extent is still felt at the present day. For Amram did not content himself with giving the mere text of the prayers, but in a species of running commentary added very many Talmudical and gaonic regulations relating to them and their allied ceremonies. His siddur, which was made familiar by the many extracts quoted from it by the liturgical writers of the Middle Ages, and which served as the model for Saadia's and Maimonides' own prayer rituals, was published complete for the first time in Warsaw, in the year 1865, by N. N. Coronel, under the title "Siddur Rab Amram Gaon".  The work as published is composed of two parts. The second part containing the selichot (propitiatory prayers) and pizmonim (liturgical poems) for the month of Elul, for New Year and the Day of Atonement, is certainly not the work of Amram, but appears to belong to a much later period. Even the first portion, which contains the prayers proper, is full of interpolations, some of which, as the "kedushah" (Sanctification) for private prayer, are evidently later additions in the manuscripts. But not much weight can be attached even to portions of the book which are specifically given under the name of Amram; many of the explanations are certainly not by him, but by the academical copyists who appended his name to them, speaking of him in the third person. These explanations of the prayers make no reference to any authorities later than the following: Natronai II, Amram's teacher (17 times), Shalom, Natronai's predecessor in the gaonate (7 times), Judah, Paltoi, Zadok, and Moses, geonim before Amram (once each) Cohen Tzedek (twice), Nahshon and Tzemach, contemporaries of Amram (twice each), and Nathan of unknown date. The only authority mentioned of later date than Amram is Saadia (p. 4b). This indicates that the additions to the text of the prayers must have originated in Amram's time. Certainty on this head, however, can only be obtained by a comparison of the printed text with the manuscripts; that of Almanzi, according to the specimens given by Luzzatto, varies considerably from the printed text. Israel ben Todros (1305) mentions some azharot as having been composed by Amram; but no trace of these can now be found.

The text.

No early manuscripts of this prayer book survive, and later manuscripts appear to be heavily edited to conform with the rites in use at the time: we therefore cannot be certain of the exact wording preferred by Amram Gaon himself. Evidence for this is:

Relation to current rites.

The "Siddur Rab Amram" was originally sent to the communities of Spain, in response to a request for guidance on the laws of prayer. However, it never seems to have been adopted by them as a package deal, though they respected the individual halachic rulings contained in it. On the contrary, they appear to have edited it to suit their own requirements, so that the wording of the manuscripts and the printed version often contains variants likely to be derived from early versions of the Spanish rite. None of these early versions survives, but secondary evidence such as the Sefer ha-Manhig and the Siddur Rab Amram itself indicates that in certain respects these were different from the Sephardic rite in use today and nearer to other old European rites such as the Provençal, Italian and Old French rites, which reflect varying degrees of Palestinian influence. The later Sephardic rite has been revised to bring it into closer conformity with the rulings of the halachic codes, which themselves often reflect the opinions of the Geonim, and is therefore of a more purely Babylonian character: thus, paradoxically, it has moved away from the current wording of the "Siddur Rab Amram" and towards what was presumably its original wording.  Conversely, the "Siddur Rab Amram" was a major source used in the standardization of the nusach Ashkenaz, which was already akin to the old European family. For this reason, to a modern reader the wording of the "Siddur Rab Amram" appears far closer to an Ashkenazi than a Sephardi text, a fact which misled Moses Gaster into believing that the Ashkenazi rite was based on the Babylonian while the Sephardic rite was essentially Palestinian.

Amram Gaon (, or Amram bar Sheshna, Hebrew: עמרם בר רב ששנא, or sometimes: Amram ben Sheshna or Amram b. Sheshna; died 875) was a famous "Gaon" or head of the Jewish Talmud Academy of Sura during the 9th century. He authored many "Responsa," but his chief work was liturgical.

Amram ben Scheschna ("Amram Gaon"; † um 880) war seit ca. 860 Gaon zu Sura als Nachfolger von Natronaj II.


Origin.

Analytical Marxism is understood to have originated with the publication of G. A. Cohen's "Karl Marx's Theory of History: A Defence" (1978). Cohen's book was, from the outset, intended as a defence of historical materialism. Cohen painstakingly reconstructed historical materialism through a close reading of Karl Marx's texts, with the aim of providing the most logically coherent and parsimonious account. For Cohen, Marx's historical materialism is a technologically deterministic theory, in which the economic relations of production are functionally explained by the material forces of production, and in which the political and legal institutions (the "superstructure") are functionally explained by the relations of production (the "base"). The transition from one mode of production to another is driven by the tendency of the productive forces to develop. Cohen accounts for this tendency by reference to the rational character of the human species: where there is the opportunity to adopt a more productive technology and thus reduce the burden of labour, human beings will tend to take it. Thus, human history can be understood as a series of rational steps that increase human productive power.

Theory.

Exploitation.

At the same time as Cohen was working on "Karl Marx's Theory of History", the American economist John Roemer was employing neoclassical economics to defend the Marxist concepts of exploitation and class. In his "A General Theory of Exploitation and Class" (1982), Roemer employed rational choice and game theory to demonstrate how exploitation and class relations may arise in the development of a market for labour. Roemer would go on to reject the necessity of the labour theory of value to explain exploitation and class. Value was in principle capable of being explained in terms of any class of commodity inputs, such as oil, wheat, etc., rather than being exclusively explained by embodied labour power. Roemer was led to the conclusion that exploitation and class were thus generated not in the sphere of production but of market exchange. Significantly, as a purely technical category, exploitation did not always imply a moral wrong (see section Justice below).

Rational choice Marxism.

By the mid-1980s, "analytical Marxism" was being recognized as a "paradigm". The September Group had been meeting for several years, and a succession of texts by its members were published. Several of these appeared under the imprint of Cambridge University Press's series Studies in Marxism and Social Theory, including Jon Elster's "Making Sense of Marx" (1985) and Adam Przeworski's "Capitalism and Social Democracy" (1985). Among the most methodologically controversial were these two authors, and Roemer, due to their use of rational-actor models. Not all analytical Marxists are rational-choice Marxists, however.  Elster's account was an exhaustive examination of Marx's texts in order to ascertain what could be salvaged out of Marxism employing the tools of rational choice theory and methodological individualism (which Elster defended as the only form of explanation appropriate to the social sciences). His conclusion was that – contra Cohen – no general theory of history as the development of the productive forces could be saved. Like Roemer, he also rejected the labour theory of value and, going further, virtually all of Marxian economics. The "dialectical" method is rejected as a form of Hegelian obscurantism. The theory of ideology and revolution continued to be useful to a certain degree, but only once they had been purged of their tendencies to holism and functionalism and established on the basis of an individualist methodology and a causal or intentional explanation.  Przeworski's book uses rational choice and game theory in order to demonstrate that the revolutionary strategies adopted by socialists in the twentieth century were likely to fail, since it was in the rational interests of workers to strive for the reform of capitalism through the achievement of union recognition, improved wages and living conditions, rather than adopting the risky strategy of revolution. Przeworski's book is clearly influenced by economic explanations of political behaviour advanced by thinkers such as Anthony Downs ("An Economic Theory of Democracy", 1957) and Mancur Olson ("The Logic of Collective Action", 1965).

Justice.

The analytical (and rational choice) Marxists held a variety of leftist political sympathies, ranging from communism to reformist social democracy. Through the 1980s, most of them began to believe that Marxism as a theory capable of explaining revolution in terms of the economic dynamics of capitalism and the class interests of the proletariat had been seriously compromised. They were largely in agreement that the transformation of capitalism was an ethical project. During the 1980s, a debate had developed within Anglophone academia about whether Marxism could accommodate a theory of justice. This debate was clearly linked to the revival of normative political philosophy after the publication of John Rawls's "A Theory of Justice" (1971). Some commentators remained hostile to the idea of a Marxist theory of justice, arguing that Marx saw "justice" as little more than a bourgeois ideological construct designed to justify exploitation by reference to reciprocity in the wage contract.  The analytical Marxists, however, largely rejected this point of view. Led by G. A. Cohen (a moral philosopher by training), they argued that a Marxist theory of justice had to focus on egalitarianism. For Cohen, this meant an engagement with moral and political philosophy in order to demonstrate the injustice of market exchange, and the construction of an appropriate egalitarian metric. This argument is pursued in Cohen's books, "Self-Ownership, Freedom and Equality" (1995) and "If You're an Egalitarian How Come You're So Rich?" (2000b).  Cohen departs from previous Marxists by arguing that capitalism is a system characterized by unjust exploitation not because the labour of workers is "stolen" by employers, but because it is a system wherein "autonomy" is infringed and which results in a distribution of benefits and burdens that is unfair. In the traditional Marxist account, exploitation and injustice occur because non-workers appropriate the value produced by the labour of workers. This would be overcome in a socialist society where no class would own the means of production and be in a position to appropriate the value produced by labourers. Cohen argues that underpinning this account is the assumption that workers have "rights of self-ownership" over themselves and thus, should "own" what is produced by their labour. Because the worker is paid a wage less than the value he or she creates through work, the capitalist is said to extract a surplus-value from the worker's labour, and thus to steal part of what the worker produces, the time of the worker and the worker's powers.  Cohen argues that the concept of self-ownership is favourable to Rawls's difference principle as it ensures "each person's rights over his being and powers" – i.e. that one is treated as an end always and never as a means – but also highlights that its centrality provides for an area of common ground between the Marxist account of justice and the right-libertarianism of Robert Nozick. However, much as Cohen criticizes Rawls for treating people's personal powers as just another external resource for which no individual can claim desert, so does he charge Nozick with moving beyond the "concept" of self-ownership to his own right-wing "thesis" of self-ownership. In Cohen's view, Nozick's mistake is to endow people's claims to legitimately acquire external resources with the same moral quality that belongs to people's ownership of themselves. In other words, proprietarianism allows inequalities to arise from differences in talent and differences in external resources, but it does so because it assumes that the world is "up for grabs", that it can be justly appropriated as private property, with virtually no restriction(s).

Criticisms.

Analytical Marxism received criticism from a number of different quarters, both Marxist and non-Marxist.

Method.

A number of critics argued that analytical Marxism proceeded from the wrong methodological and epistemological premises. While the analytical Marxists dismissed "dialectically oriented" Marxism as "bullshit", others maintain that the distinctive character of Marxist philosophy is lost if it is understood "non-dialectically". The crucial feature of Marxist philosophy is that it is not a reflection in thought of the world, a crude materialism, but rather an intervention in the world concerned with human praxis. According to this view, analytical Marxism wrongly characterizes intellectual activity as occurring in isolation from the struggles constitutive of its social and political conjuncture, and at the same time does little to intervene in that conjuncture. For dialectical Marxists, analytical Marxism eviscerated Marxism, turning it from a systematic doctrine of revolutionary transformation into a set of discrete theses that stand or fall on the basis of their logical consistency and empirical validity.  Analytical Marxism's non-Marxist critics also raised methodological objections. Against Elster and the rational choice Marxists, Terrell Carver argued that methodological individualism was not the only form of valid explanation in the social sciences, that functionalism in the absence of micro-foundations could remain a convincing and fruitful mode of inquiry, and that rational choice and game theory were far from being universally accepted as sound or useful ways of modelling social institutions and processes.

History.

Cohen's defence of a technological determinist interpretation of historical materialism was, in turn, quite widely criticized, even by analytical Marxists. Together with Andrew Levine, Wright argued that in attributing primacy to the productive forces (the development thesis), Cohen overlooked the role played by class actors in the transition between modes of production. For the authors, it was forms of class relations (the relations of production) that had primacy in terms of how the productive forces were employed and the extent to which they developed. It was not evident, they claimed, that the relations of production become "fetters" once the productive forces are capable of sustaining a different set of production relations. Likewise, the political philosopher Richard W. Miller, while sympathetic with Cohen's analytical approach to Marxism, rejected Cohen's technological interpretation of historical materialism, to which he counterpoised with what he called a "mode of production" interpretation which placed greater emphasis on the role of class struggle in the transition from one mode of production to another. The Greek philosopher Nicholas Vrousalis generalized Miller's critique, pointing out that Cohen's distinction between the material and social properties of society cannot be drawn as sharply as Cohen's materialism requires.  Other non-Marxist critics argued that Cohen, in line with the Marxist tradition, underestimated the role played by the legal and political superstructure in shaping the character of the economic base. Finally, Cohen's anthropology was judged dubious: whether human beings adopt new and more productive technology is not a function of an ahistorical rationality, but depends on the extent to which these forms of technology are compatible with pre-existing beliefs and social practices. Cohen recognized and accepted some, though not all, of these criticisms in his "History, Labour, and Freedom" (1988).  Roemer's version of the cause of change in the mode of production as due to being inequitable rather than inefficient is also the source of criticism. One such criticism is that his argument relies of the legal ownership of production which is only present in later forms of class society rather than the social relations of production.

Justice and power.

Some Marxists argue, against analytical Marxist theories of justice, that it is mistaken to suppose that Marxism offers a theory of justice; others question analytical Marxists' identification of justice with rights. The question of justice cannot be seen in isolation from questions of power, or from the balance of class forces in any specific conjuncture. Non-Marxists may employ a similar criticism in their critique of liberal theories of justice in the Rawlsian tradition. They argue that the theories fail to address problems about the configuration of power relations in the contemporary world, and by so doing appear as little more than exercises in logic. "Justice", on this view, is whatever is produced by the assumptions of the theory. It has little to do with the actual distribution of power and resources in the world.

Analytical Marxism is an approach to Marxist theory that was prominent amongst English-speaking philosophers and social scientists during the 1980s. It was mainly associated with the September Group of academics, so called because of their biennial September meetings to discuss common interests. Described by G. A. Cohen as "non-bullshit Marxism", the group was characterized, in the words of David Miller, by "clear and rigorous thinking about questions that are usually blanketed by ideological fog." Members of this school seek to apply the techniques of analytic philosophy, along with tools of modern social science such as rational choice theory, to the elucidation of the theories of Karl Marx and his successors.

Der Analytische Marxismus ist eine philosophische und sozialwissenschaftliche Denkrichtung des Marxismus, die in den 1980er Jahren vornehmlich im englischen Sprachraum verbreitet war. Er versucht marxistische Fragestellungen mit Methoden der analytischen Philosophie, rational choice- oder neoklassischen Ansätzen zu bearbeiten. Er wird in eine enge Verbindung mit der akademischen September-Gruppe gebracht und im engeren Sinne auch als Rational-Choice-Marxism bezeichnet. Diese Gruppe bezeichnete sich selbst auch als „Non-Bullshit Marxism“ und war, in den Worten von David Miller, durch "„clear and rigorous thinking about questions that are usually blanketed by ideological fog“" charakterisiert.


Personal.

Korolev was raised in Moscow, then in the Russian SFSR of the Soviet Union, and began playing tennis at age four with his father, also named Evgeny, who still coaches him. Korolev did not play on the junior circuit and picked up his first ATP points at age 15 in three German competitions. His mother, Irina, is a housewife and sometimes travels to tournaments as well. He has one older brother, Alexey, who is also his physiotherapist and helps with his business matters. Korolev also had a private tutor who helped him speak Spanish, German and English.  Korolev's favorite surfaces are hard and clay courts and he considers the backhand his favorite shot, although he admits to generating more power off his forehand wing.  Korolev married his long-time girlfriend, Anna, on 15 July 2011.  Korolev retired from Tennis in 2016 due to persistent injuries.

Career.

Early years.

Korolev began playing on the main tours in 2004 at the age of 16 in order to become physically stronger, and scored a run of wins. By the age of 16, he had compiled a respectable win/loss record.  In 2005, he won three futures and a challenger event. He started off the year with a defeat in a German futures event, although only after beating fellow hopeful Andrey Golubev on the way. He later claimed a second futures win in France, in which he beat home favorite Mathieu Montcourt in the final. He later won another futures event in Austria and an F1 event in France. His success in these contests convinced him to start playing more challenger events, including a victory in the Aachen challenger event, in which he beat Igor Kunitsyn and Dominik Meffert on his way to the title.  In 2006 Korolev claimed a win in Marseille over fellow countryman and world number 5 Nikolay Davydenko, but went on to lose in the quarter finals to French veteran Sébastien Grosjean. Shortly after, Korolev beat former World Number 1 and Grand Slam winner Carlos Moyá, before eliminating Andreas Seppi on his Grand Slam debut at Roland Garros, before going out to Gastón Gaudio. He then won another challenger contest, but lost to Sluiter in the final of the Aachen event, after having compiled a 14 match winning streak in that tournament.

2007–2008.

Korolev then went on to the Australian Open 2007, in which he lost to the eventual runner-up Fernando González. He also lost to both Radek Štěpánek and James Blake prior to the event. He then reached the semi-finals of an American contest, losing to Jürgen Melzer, after beating James Blake and Sam Querrey in the earlier rounds. Korolev then played his first masters series event in Indian Wells, in which he was eliminated by Novak Djokovic in straight sets. He later described this as a learning curve, after wins over Simon Greul and close friend Dmitry Tursunov.  He later lost in the US Open to Stanislas Wawrinka. Korolev then once again claimed the Aachen challenger title by defeating Andreas Beck in the final to win the tournament for the third time. He then played in Saint Petersburg, but went out in straight sets against the British number 1, Andrew Murray.  In 2008, Korolev also claimed victories over the likes of Paul-Henri Mathieu and Fernando González, and reached the quarter-finals in Sydney, losing to Frenchman Fabrice Santoro.  During the second round of a tournament in Las Vegas, Korolev was leading 6–3, 5–2 against number one seed Fernando González. He served for the match twice and was broken each time. He eventually prevailed in a second set tiebreak but needed 11 match points to win. He said that if he had lost that second set, he would have lost the match. In his first semifinal of the year, he lost to Nicolás Almagro in Valencia.  Korolev faced Robin Söderling in the first round in Rome. After losing in the first round at both Munich and Roland Garros, Korolev reached his third quarter-final of the year, in which he lost to the Russian number one, Nikolay Davydenko. At the US Open, Korolev beat Swedish Robin Söderling before losing to Gaël Monfils in the second round. After undergoing another hernia surgery, Korolev made a comeback on the Challenger Circuit in the fall. His biggest successes were a title win in Aachen and a semifinal showing in Düsseldorf.

2009.

At the 2009 Australian Open, Korolev made his way through the qualifying rounds and beat former world number 1 Carlos Moyá, in the first round. He lost to Roger Federer in the second round 2–6, 3–6, 1–6.  At the end of February, Korolev reached his first ATP World Tour final at the Delray Beach tournament in the United States. Again starting in qualifying, he won seven straight matches (including wins over world number 38, Igor Kunitsyn, and over Guillermo García-López) before eventually falling in the final to top seed, Mardy Fish, 7–5, 6–3. This placed him back into the ATP Tour's top 100 players, at number 79.  After early losses in Masters 1000 events in Indian Wells and Miami, including a loss in the Sunrise, Florida Challenger, Korolev moved on to Houston, his first clay tournament of the year. There, he reached the semifinal, scoring wins against players such as Leonardo Mayer, Daniel Gimeno Traver, and Guillermo Cañas, before losing to the eventual champion Lleyton Hewitt 6–7, 4–6. That result brought him to the No. 72 in the world rankings.  Korolev struggled to build on that run, with Masters 1000 defeats to Juan Mónaco and Eduardo Schwank when aiming to qualify and was also put out of Munich in straight sets to Frenchman Jérémy Chardy. However, Korolev did manage to claim a victory in Düsseldorf over Andreas Seppi, later losing to both Troicki of Serbia and Máximo González of Argentina. At Roland Garros, Korolev had to pull out of a match with Gimeno Traver due to an ankle problem which had also forced him out of the doubles the week prior to the event.  His next scheduled event was at Queens Club where he was defeated by Frenchman Michaël Llodra. In Eastbourne, he bowed out to Garcia Lopez despite his previous winning record against the Spaniard. Korolev then faced good friend and fellow country man Igor Andreev at Wimbledon and lost in four sets. He has since taken part in occasional challenger events, although he admits his motivation has been hindered by the move to the lower ranks of world tennis, possibly contributing to losses against Pere Riba and Roberto Bautista-Agut.  In September 2009, Evgeny Korolev won the 17th Szczecin Pekao Open, defeating Albert Montañés 4–6, 6–3, 6–2 in the semi-final, and Frenchman Florent Serra 6–4, 6–3 in the final. He reached three straight ATP level quarterfinals. In the first, the 2009 Open de Moselle he lost to Philipp Kohlschreiber 6–1, 6–3. In the 2009 PTT Thailand Open he lost to eventual champion Gilles Simon after defeating Fabrice Santoro and Robby Ginepri. Finally, in the 2009 Kremlin Cup he lost to Illya Marchenko 0–6, 6–2, 6–3 after defeating compatriots Igor Kunitsyn and Marat Safin.  As the sixth seed he lost in the first round of the 2009 St. Petersburg Open to qualifier and eventual champion Sergiy Stakhovsky. He played his last tournament of the year in the 2009 Davidoff Swiss Indoors as a qualifier, defeating Simone Bolelli 3–6, 7–6, 6–2 and Jérémy Chardy 6–4, 7–6, before losing to top seed Roger Federer 6–3, 6–2.

2010–2011.

Korolev began the year at the 2010 Qatar ExxonMobil Open and the 2010 Medibank International Sydney, in both cases reaching the second round, losing to Roger Federer and Mardy Fish respectively. In the 2010 Australian Open he reached the third round losing to eleventh seed Fernando González in five sets 7–6, 3–6, 6–1, 3–6, 4–6 after defeating 21st seed Tomáš Berdych in straight sets. He then suffered early defeats in the first round of the 2010 PBZ Zagreb Indoors to Ivan Dodig, in the second round of the 2010 Regions Morgan Keegan Championships to Philipp Petzschner, and in the second round of the 2010 Delray Beach International Tennis Championships to Jarkko Nieminen. In the 2010 BNP Paribas Open, he lost to Robin Söderling 6–2, 6–4 in the second round, after defeating Florian Mayer 6–3, 6–2. In the first round of the 2010 Sony Ericsson Open he lost to Dudi Sela 6–3, 6–3. He then fell in the first rounds of 2010 U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships, 2010 Monte-Carlo Rolex Masters, and 2010 Barcelona Open Banco Sabadell, He then broke the losing streak at the 2010 Serbia Open defeating Michael Russell 6–1, 6–0, but fell in the next round to Sam Querrey. He then fell in his next four matches at the 2010 Mutua Madrileña Madrid Open, 2010 French Open, 2010 Aegon Championships and 2010 Aegon International. He then won against Eduardo Schwank 6–1, 7–6, 4–6, 6–2 but retired in the second round of 2010 Wimbledon against Lleyton Hewitt down 2 sets to love and 0–3. He then fell in the qualifying draw of 2010 MercedesCup and first round of 2010 International German Open. He then made his best performance of the year by reaching the quarterfinals of the 2010 Pilot Pen Tennis without dropping a set but lost to Thiemo de Bakker in straight sets. At the US Open he retired against Kei Nishikori in the first round due to an elbow injury which sidelined him for the rest of the year and caused him to fall outside the top 100.  In 2011, due to his low ranking he started playing in the qualifying rounds and the challenger tour, but fell short, not being able to score back-to-back wins, until the 2011 Status Athens Open, where he reached the quarterfinals before falling to Dmitry Tursunov 7–5, 7–5.

Non-tennis activities and plans.

Korolev has endorsed products such as deodorants and chocolate in Russia.

Evgeny Evgenyevich Korolev (; born 14 February 1988) is a retired Russian tennis player and the cousin of former Russian player Anna Kournikova. He began playing tennis at age four with his father, and picked up his first ATP points at age 15 in three German challenger events. He can speak Russian, German, English and Spanish.

Jewgeni Jewgenjewitsch Koroljow (, wissenschaftliche Transliteration: "Evgeny Korolev", * 14. Februar 1988 in Moskau, Sowjetunion) ist ein ehemaliger russisch-kasachischer Tennisspieler. Er ist ein Cousin der ehemaligen russischen Tennisspielerin Anna Kurnikowa.


Plot.

1. Grizzled L.A. cop Roland Sallinger (Steven Seagal) and his partner Trevor Johnson (Brian Keith Gamble) violently take down a group of drug dealers in an apartment. Trevor observes that there is what looks like a couple million dollars on the table, and Trevor suggests that he and Roland take some of it. Roland refuses, and Trevor shoots him twice in the chest.  2. Trevor realizes that he should’ve checked Roland's pulse, because much to Trevor’s surprise, he gets word that Roland is still breathing and is on the way to the hospital, so Trevor decides that he has to go to the hospital and finish him off.  3. Roland's niece Regina Lawson (Trine Christensen), who is also a cop, visits. Roland, having seen Trevor peeking into his room, secretly takes Regina's gun out of her purse. After Regina leaves, Trevor walks in and holds a pillow over Roland's face. Roland whips out the gun and shoots Trevor twice in the chest, killing Trevor.  4. Roland is later on the mend, and he has been released from his job via medically mandated retirement, which has him feeling depressed. Roland is a graduate of the Firearms & Explosives Training Academy, and is the Texas Training Expo Tactical Trainer of the Year. Roland also qualifies as a SWAT team trainer.  5. An old friend named Connor Wells (Steph DuVall), who lives in San Antonio, Texas, has some security issues surrounding his daughter Nikita (Liezl Carstens), in that someone has made a violent attempt to kidnap her. Connor calls Roland, who agrees to fly to Texas.  6. In Texas, Roland is met by Detective Simon Pacheco (Carlton Liggins). Because Roland has brought weapons with him on the private airplane that Connor owns, Simon warns Roland that he'll be watching him.  7. Roland is also met by Manuelo (Johnnie Hector), Connor's driver. On the way to Connor's mansion, they find Manuelo's cousin Allegra (Kisha Sierra) being harassed by a pair of men. Manuelo stops the limo, and Roland beats up the two men, who say that Allegra's two brothers Enrique and Gustavo owe them money. Enrique and Gustavo arrive, and Manuelo and Roland leave.  8. At the mansion, Roland and Connor talk. Connor tells Roland about the kidnapping attempt. Connor wants Roland to be Nikita's bodyguard. Nikita's previous bodyguard, Jorge (Tomas Sanchez), was killed in the kidnapping attempt.  9. Conor thinks someone inside his organization may be an enemy. Connor tells Roland that Nikita hasn't been off the estate since the kidnapping attempt happened. Roland agrees to be Nikita's bodyguard.  10. Roland makes sure the security at the mansion is improved. Roland escorts Nikita to a night club so she can dance with her boyfriend Mason Silver (Arron Shiver), who is a boxer. Roland points out a suspicious-looking man, and asks Manuelo who the guy is. Manuelo says that the man is Jason Cross (Luce Raines), whom Manuelo describes as a dangerous man.  11. In a back room, Mason snorts some coke and necks with a woman who is not Nikita. Cross walks up to Mason, saying that they need to talk. Cross wants Mason to throw his upcoming fight against Tornado Jones. Cross gives Mason some money. And Roland beats up a guy who was harassing Nikita and a friend of hers. Nikita and Mason have an argument before Nikita and Roland leave.  12. At the mansion, Nikita, talking to Connor, is wishing Roland had knocked Mason on his ass as well. Nikita thinks Mason is getting arrogant and out-of-control. Later, Simon arrives at the mansion, looking for Roland, but Victor (Rio Alexander), a man who works for Connor, tells Simon that Roland is in town to get some medicine. Simon says "If he becomes a problem, you and your boss will pay the price."  13. Simon finds Roland in town. Simon tells Roland that Connor is involved with some rough people, namely Jason Cross. They've had dealings in the past, when Connor's father ran a business. Simon believes that Cross is a violent separatist, a man who believes that whites and Mexicans shouldn't mix. Simon says he's been after Cross for years, but nobody is willing to talk about him. Simon thinks maybe he and Roland can help each other.  14. Back at the mansion, Nikita tells Roland that she appreciates what he's doing for her. On Friday night, Nikita throws up in the parking lot after hanging out in a club. After a heartfelt talk between Roland and Nikita, they leave to go to the mansion.  15. On the next day, Roland follows Mason to a restaurant where Mason meets with two of Cross's men. Mason tells them to tell Cross that he won't throw the fight. One of the men holds Mason while the other gets out a pair of cutters and threatens to start cutting Mason's fingers off.  16. Mason figures out that Cross is out to kidnap Nikita. Mason says that he knows what's on Connor's land. Mason thinks he and Cross can do some business so Mason won't get killed. 17. They all leave, and Roland follows Mason to the mansion. After Mason pulls back out of the estate with Nikita in his car, Roland follows them, using the signal from the transponder in Nikita's necklace.  18. Mason drives to where some masked men with guns tell them to get out of the car. Nikita gets out and runs. Roland kills some of the men. One of the men grabs Nikita while Mason gets beat up. Nikita is forced into an SUV, and Roland chases them. The two men in the SUV fire at Roland, and the SUV's driver rips off Nikita's necklace and throws it out the window.  19. A motorcycle comes up behind Roland. Roland manages to stop the SUV, and the driver gets out, taking Nikita with him. The man on the motorcycle attacks Roland, and Roland kills him by throwing a knife into his neck. Cops arrive and point guns at Roland as the driver gets away on the motorcycle with Nikita. They arrest Roland.  20. Simon talks to Roland at the station. Connor calls the police and tells them that it was self-defense. Roland tells Simon that the kidnappers work for Cross. Simon shows Roland a picture of Tory Harris (Eli Lattimer), one of Cross's lieutenants.  21. Simon steps out of the room to take care of something he's been alerted to. Minutes later, Roland is told that he's free to go. Simon returns to his office, and is angry to see that Roland is not there. That night, Simon goes to the mansion and tells Connor that if the kidnappers contact him, to tell Simon immediately.  22. After Simon leaves, Cross calls Connor, and Simon listens in from a car. Cross gives Connor 24 hours to give him what he wants. It seems that there is uranium on Connor's property. That's why Cross wants Connor's land, plus $5,000,000 in cash and diamonds. Cross hangs up on Connor.  23. At a church, Roland and Manuelo meet with Allegra. Manuelo tells Roland what Victor told him about the demands. After that, Roland heads to Mason's place, where a man is standing guard outside. Roland snaps the man's neck. Inside the house, Mason is making out with a woman, and two men are playing poker. Roland kills the two men.  24. Mason says he had no choice but to help them kidnap Nikita, and Mason admits that he let his pride get in the way by not agreeing to throw the fight, and he screwed up. Roland asks Mason where Nikita is. Mason says he doesn't know, and Roland and Manuelo take Mason with them. On the next day, they have Mason bound and gagged in a truck.  25. Roland and Manuel go to a restaurant called Hermano's. Cross is there. He calls Connor, and tells Connor that time is running out. Cross says that Connor will see Nikita tomorrow when Cross has the property deeds.  26. They hang up, and Cross is told that his men have found Mason in the truck outside. Cross has Harris grab Mason. Cross leaves a couple of men behind. They open fire. Roland kills one of the men, and Manuelo gets shot in the shoulder. Manuelo retreats inside the restaurant, and so does Roland. The other man follows them in, and Roland kills him.  27. That night, Roland goes to the mansion and talks to Connor. Connor admits that he and Cross grew up together, and that Cross wants the rich deposit of uranium that's on Connor's property. Connor says he doesn't care what happens, he just wants Nikita back. Connor tells Roland about a hacienda that Cross has. Roland promises that he'll get Nikita back from Cross.  28. Outside, Manuelo, Enrique, and Gustavo are waiting for Roland. At the Hacienda, Nikita learns the truth about Mason, who now wants Roland dead. At the mansion, Connor gets the ransom ready to drop off. Simon gets a message from Roland to be at Cross Ranch at 8pm.  29. At Cross Ranch, Roland sees Connor's limo arriving, and then sees Nikita being held by her captors. Connor gets out of his limo, and Cross gets out of an SUV. Connor hands Cross a satchel, and Roland starts silently killing Cross's men.  30. Connor gives Cross the money, and tells him to let Nikita go. Cross is alerted that Roland is there, and Connor whips out a gun and shoots Cross. Connor and Cross fight while Harris holds on to Nikita.  31. Simon and a SWAT team start arriving. Simon tries to keep Connor from shooting Cross again. Roland follows Harris inside the building. After beating Harris up, Roland kills Harris. Connor gives his gun to Simon. The SWAT team takes Cross away. Mason is also loaded into a van. Nikita is reunited with Connor.

The Keeper is a 2009 American action film starring Steven Seagal and directed by Keoni Waxman. It is the first collaboration between Seagal and director Waxman; the two have subsequently made eight more films and two seasons of a limited tv- series together.

Steven Seagal's The Keeper ist ein US-amerikanischer Direct-to-Video-Actionfilm aus dem Jahre 2009, mit Steven Seagal in der Rolle eines im Ruhestand befindlichen Polizeibeamten aus LA.


History.

Greco-Roman.

The area is believed to correspond with the ancient emporium of Nikon, which is described in the 1st century CE Greco-Roman travelogue the "Periplus of the Erythraean Sea".  The archaeogical site (known by the early 20th century name "Port Dunford") contains a number of ancient ruins, including several pillar tombs. Prior to its collapse, one these structures' pillars stood 11 meters high from the ground, making it the tallest tower of its kind in the wider region.  Additionally, the area features a square edifice covered with a low, dome-shaped vault. It is one of the main local standing structures.  In 1913, Haywood reportedly found at Port Dunford a large collection of old coins, along with a vessel similar to a Greek amphora. He later disposed of the amphora pieces, and the vessel was also said to have been crushed during a storm. In 1930, Hayward showed the coins to an official with the British Museum, H. Mattingly. 87 pieces in total, they ranged in date from the 3rd century BCE to the early 4th century CE. Among the coins were 17 copper mints from the Ptolemy III to Ptolemy V dynasties of Ptolemaic Egypt, five pieces of uncertain origin dating from the 1st to 3rd centuries BCE, six pieces that had been minted under Imperial Rome between the reigns of Nero and Antoninus Pius, forty-six coins ranging from Roman Emperors Maximinus II to Constans, six mints derived from the Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate, and seven pieces from Ottoman Egypt.

Early trading.

Based on the archaeological finds, Mortimer Wheeler suggested that Port Dunford was likely a trading station from at least the Roman period. In 1955, he and Dr. A.G. Mathew in turn visited the area. They discovered porcelain, pottery and building remains dating from the 16th century onwards.

19th century.

Following an agreement between the German East Africa Company and Sultan Ali ibn Ismail of Kismayo at the end of 1886, a German trading station called Hohenzollernhafen was established at Wubushi (Burgabo) Bay. At that time, the entire southern part of the Somali coast was nominally in the hands of the Sultanate of Zanzibar, but the Germans circumvented that problem by concluding a protection treaty with Ali ibn Ismail, who was hostile to Zanzibar.  After the Heligoland–Zanzibar Treaty of 1890, the area came under British suzerainty and the port was renamed Port Durnford (also Port Dunford or Wubushi).

20th century.

In 1905, the area was described as follows: Port Durnford formed part of the East Africa Protectorate (first part of Tanaland province and later Jubaland) until, along with the rest of Jubaland, was ceded to the Italians in 1924 when it became known as Bur Gavo. First part of Trans-Juba, it became part of Italian Somaliland in 1926 and, with independence in 1960, part of Somalia.

21st century.

At the beginning of the 21st century, the town numbered just under 4,000 residents, similar to the population at the start of the 20th century (about 3,500 residents). In the Somali Civil War, the city was a haven for various Islamist groups, and the population fell to around 300 in 2011. Expeditionary Kenya Defence Forces and Somali Armed Forces of the Federal Government of Somalia, supported by French naval artillery and U.S. air strikes, occupied the area of Burgabo at the end of October 2011 in the campaign against Al-Shabaab terrorists.

Burgabo () is a port town in Lower Jubba province in southern Somalia near the border with Kenya. Other names and variants of the town include "Berikau, Bircao, Birikao, Birikau, Bur Gabo, Bur Gao, Bur Gavo, Hohenzollernhafen, Port Dunford, Port Durnford and Wubushi".

Buur Gaabo (auch "Bur Gap, Bur Gavo, Bur Gabo, Burgao, Bircao") ist eine Hafenstadt im Süden Somalias, Provinz Jubbada Hoose, nahe der Grenze zu Kenia.