Extending northwards.

In 1830 the Liverpool and Manchester Railway opened, heralding a new age of steam powered public railways. It did not take many years for a railway network to form, and by October 1838 it reached Preston, enabling through journeys from London. On 26 June 1840 the Lancaster and Preston Junction Railway further extended the network north as far as Lancaster.  Already in 1835 many observers saw that a trunk line connecting England and Scotland could be expected soon; surveys had already been carried out and routes suggested. George Stephenson had developed two routes, a direct one via Shap following the valley of the River Lune. This involved steep gradients, which Stephenson disliked, and he preferred a route crossing Morecambe Bay by a long barrage, and round the Cumberland coast. This had much easier gradients and would serve numerous populated settlements, but at the expense of considerable extra distance. Stephenson’s proposals were not carried forward at this stage. Joseph Locke carried out a series of assessments of practicable routes in the years 1835 to 1837, not all of them actual surveys. In particular, on 4 November 1836 Joseph Locke was commissioned by the Grand Junction Railway to "report on the practicability of making a railway communication between Preston and Glasgow". He proposed a route passing east of Lancaster and running up the valley of the River Lune past Kirkby Lonsdale. There was to be a summit tunnel at Shap, miles long, after which the line would descend through Bampton, Askham and Penrith into Carlisle. The steepest gradients were to be 1 in 100. His report was well received, but no progress was made at this stage.  In 1837 George Stephenson was commissioned by interests in the Whitehaven area to design a route round the coast of Cumberland linking with the Maryport and Carlisle Railway. Stephenson was sceptical about the ability of locomotives of the day to ascend gradients, and he was happy to prepare a route that followed the coast closely, crossing Morecambe Bay from Poulton-le-Sands to Humphrey Head, crossing to Ulverston and then tunnelling under the Furness peninsula and crossing the Duddon Estuary, next following round the Cumberland coast to Whitehaven, where a railway from Carlisle was already proposed. Modifications to that prodigious scheme were put forward the following year.  At the time Kendal was a significant community of 9,000 persons, and local interests were dismayed to be by-passed by Locke's scheme. They argued that a line could be made running north from Kendal up Long Sleddale. At the head of the valley a mile tunnel could take the line to a viaduct over Mardale, and the line would then follow the west side of Haweswater to Bampton and Penrith. The tunnel under Gatescarth Pass (1,950 feet above sea level) would require construction shafts 700 feet deep. Meanwhile Locke revisited his Lune Valley route and proposed a deviation between Tebay and Penrith, involving a shorter tunnel under Orton Scar, before curving to the west through Crosby Ravensworth, Morland and Clifton.

The Commission on Railway Communication.

Carlisle was not the ultimate destination in these considerations: the issue was a route between the emerging English network and central Scotland. Although Lancaster was an obvious starting point for a westerly route, there were advocates for an eastern route from York. Here too the terrain northwards was a major difficulty: selection of the route of such a line within Scotland was just as controversial as that in England, and it incorporated just as great a difficulty in finding a practicable route.  At the time there was a firm belief that only one such route could be sustained, and the Government took the unusual step of establishing a Commission on Railway Communication to determine what that route should be. The Commission was appointed in November 1839 and had two members, Lt Col Sir Frederic Smith and Peter Barlow, Professor of Mathematics at the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich. Their task was to examine the whole question of railway communication between England and Scotland, as well as between London and Ireland.  The Smith and Barlow Commission became bogged down by energetic advocacy of rival schemes, and their first report of May 1840 was ambiguous. However it rejected the Stephenson scheme for a Cumberland coast railway. They suggested that a route combining the Lancaster to Kendal part of the Long Sleddale route and the northern part of the Lune Valley route might be feasible. George Larmer, working as Locke's local engineering representative while Locke was engaged elsewhere, quickly surveyed the connecting link from near Kendal to Borrowbridge in the Lune Valley, finding a route that offered reasonable gradients.  The commission issued a second report in November 1840, which approved Larmer's route, which became the preferred option for a Lancaster to Carlisle line. The Commission stuck to the policy that only one Anglo-Scottish route was viable, but it refrained from any definite recommendation as between west and east coasts. Their opinion was becoming irrelevant, as the west coast faction was now building to Lancaster, and the east coast railways were shortly to reach Newcastle.

Final route selection.

At the time a London to Glasgow journey involved a steamer section, at first from Liverpool to Ardrossan, and from 1840 from Fleetwood to Ardrossan. Provision of a direct railway connection was now inevitable and the Commission's view was no longer authoritative. However the money market had become tight, but after considerable hesitation in committing money, there was a meeting on 6 November 1843 at Kendal which determined to build what became the Lancaster and Carlisle Railway company. The London and Birmingham Railway had offered to subscribe £100,000, the Grand Junction Railway had offered £250,000 and the [North Union Railway]] and the Lancaster and Preston Junction Railway had each agreed to take £65,000. Locke was asked to be engineer-in-chief and he made some last minute revisions to the route previously advanced. The line was to strike north from the Penny Lane terminus of the Lancaster and Preston Junction Railway and pass round the east side of the town. Locke adopted the Lancaster - Oxenholme - Grayrigg - Tebay route, but eliminated the tunnel at Orton Scar, and determined to cross Shap without any tunnel. In doing so he increased ruling gradients from 1 in 140 in the earlier scheme to four miles of 1 in 75. To avoid landowner opposition, he altered the Bampton and Askham route to run via Thrimby Grange and Clifton. The Bill for the Lancaster and Carlisle Railway went forward to the 1844 session of Parliament.

Authorisation and construction.

The scheme received the Royal Assent without much opposition, on 6 June 1844. Authorised share capital was £900,000.  The line was to be built as a single track with land acquired sufficient for double track. However on 4 October 1844 the directors resolved: "That viewing probable increase of traffic and the extension of the railway to Scotland... it is desirable that this board shall recommend to the shareholders at a special meeting to be held as early as possible, to lay down a double line of rails for the whole line or for any part that may be considered desirable." This was obviously in consideration of a continuation to central Scotland, although it was nine months before the Caledonian Railway Act of Incorporation of 31 July 1845.  In early 1845 a petition was received from citizens of Lancaster, asking that the new line should pass to the west of the town, near the navigable section of the River Lune. This was agreed to, and an amending Act obtained on 30 June 1845 authorising a deviation line leaving the L&PJR south of Lancaster, and passing through a new Lancaster station; the old L&PJR station was thus to remain a terminus. Kendal interests were also dismayed to learn that the L&CR would pass about two miles from their town, and they quickly developed a scheme for a branch line to their town, running on to the shore of Windermere. Approval for the Kendal and Windermere Railway was received in the same Act as the Lancaster deviation, without opposition in Parliament; authorised capital was £125,000.

Construction and opening.

The allied railways building the east coast route to Scotland, via Berwick, were pressing ahead, and there was serious concern that if the L&CR was not built swiftly, it would suffer a huge competitive disadvantage.  The line was opened between Lancaster and Kendal Junction (later named Oxenholme) was opened formally on 21 September 1846, and the following day to the general public. For the time being it was a single line only. The section from Kendal Junction to Kendal on the Windermere line was opened on the same day. On 15 December 1846 the remainder of the line from Kendal Junction to Carlisle was opened formally, and fully on 17 December 1846. By January 1847 double track had been installed throughout. Two passenger trains ran each way daily throughout on the line at first.  The Caledonian Railway opened its line from Carlisle northwards to Beattock on 11 September 1847, the first stage of its own construction.

Windermere branch.

The first branch connection of any sort off the L&CR was the Kendal and Windermere Railway. The two miles from Kendal Junction (later named Oxenholme) to Kendal opened to passenger traffic with the southern section of the L&CR on 22 September 1846, but goods traffic was delayed until 4 January 1847. The Kendal to Windermere section was opened on 20 April 1847.

Company amalgamations.

The L&CR depended on the Lancaster and Preston Junction Railway for its southward connection. At the end of 1844, the common interests of the L&CR and the L&PJR Railway were becoming plain, and talk of an amalgamation turned into serious negotiation. An arrangement was agreed, but the L&PJR shareholders refused the proposal. The directors of the L&PJR felt aggrieved that their considerable hard work in negotiation was so casually cast aside, and they all, except one, resigned. This left the L&PJR without a properly constituted directorate, and it was unable to function at corporate level.  The Lancaster and Carlisle Railway had been backed by the money of principal investors in more southerly railways, who saw the advantage of a future west coast main line to Scotland. On 16 July 1846, just as the Lancaster-Carlisle was nearing completion, a merger occurred between three important concerns: the London and Birmingham Railway, the Grand Junction Railway and the Manchester and Birmingham Railway amalgamated to form the London and North Western Railway. The L&CR had agreed that the Grand Junction Railway would work its line, and the LNWR therefore inherited that task. The L&CR wished to form connecting and through services with the LNWR at Preston, so the paralysis in the intervening L&PJR was a problem. Accordingly the L&CR gave notice of its intention to run trains over the L&PJR when it opened from Lancaster to Kendal, and nobody had the authority to prevent it. This service began on 22 September 1846.  Opening on 15 February 1848, the Caledonian Railway now connected Glasgow and Edinburgh into the west coast network. This led to a huge increase in business, and a 44 per cent rise in the receipts of the Lancaster and Carlisle Railway. Nevertheless the new Anglo-Scottish expresses were running without authority over the Lancaster and Preston Junction Railway. The L&CR was carefully accounting for the toll charges it would pay, against the day when there was an active owning company to which it could pay them. The alarming situation was discussed at a shareholders' general meeting on 4 August 1848, when authority was given to plan an independent line between Lancaster and Preston, as no resolution of the dangerously unsatisfactory status quo seemed imminent. In fact matters were brought to a head by a rear-end collision at Bay Horse, on the L&PJR line, on 21 August 1848, when a London to Glasgow express passenger train ran into a stationary train carrying out station duties there. One person was killed and several injured. The subsequent Board of Trade Inquiry report elaborated the entire chaotic situation, and public opinion forced the L&PJR to re-constitute itself.  On 1 August 1849 the management of the L&PJR line was taken over by the L&CR. Up until this time the L&PJR had been running local trains from its terminus at Lancaster, but now all passenger business was transferred to the L&CR station, and the L&PJR terminus became a goods station.  The full amalgamation of the L&PJR with the L&CR, and the lease of the Kendal and Windermere Railway were authorised by Act of 13 August 1859. Within the next month the L&CR, including the properties which had belonged to these two other lines, was leased for 900 years to the LNWR as from 1 August 1859. Thus the L&CR came to an end as an active operator.

Connecting railways.

The North Western Railway wanted to connect Morecambe, where a harbour was being developed, with Skipton. The NWR opened a line from Morecombe to its own station at Lancaster, Green Ayre in 1848 and was extended eastward to Wennington, joining the uncompleted Skipton to Low Gill route there, on 17 November 1849. The NWR opened a single track connection from Green Ayre to the L&CR Lancaster Castle station on 19 December 1849.  The Ulverston and Lancaster Railway was incorporated on 24 July 1851, to make a line from Ulverston to Carnforth. It opened to goods traffic on 10 August 1857 and to passenger traffic on 16 August 1857. The Furness Railway and the Midland Railway jointly built a line from Carnforth to Wennington, on the North Western Railway line, and this opened in 1867.  In 1849 the North Western Railway had opened its line from Skipton to Ingleton. In 1855 there was an upsurge in interest in rival long-distance railways and the idea of continuing to Low Gill, originally authorised but never completed, was revived. The L&CR saw that this was a threat to abstract traffic from it, and it promoted its own Bill for a line from near Tebay to Ingleton. This was obviously a spoiling tactic, and Parliament inserted a clause into the Bill requiring the L&CR Ingleton branch to be physically connected to the NWR terminus there. The Act was passed on 25 August 1857 with additional capital of £300,000. The junction at Low Gill was to be triangular. Having achieved the object of blocking the approach of other railways, the L&CR was no hurry to build the line, and it opened after the LNWR takeover, on 24 August (goods) and 16 September (passengers), 1861. The south curve of the intended triangular Low Gill junctions was never built.  The LNWR did what it could to discourage through traffic. Through running at Ingleton did not take place, and at Tebay there were no worthwhile connections. Midland Railway carriages to or from Scotland were not permitted for a long time. The Midland Railway later took over the North Western Railway, but eventually gave up the idea of running from Leeds to Carlisle over the line and the L&CR (now LNWR) north from Low Gill. In frustration the Midland Railway promoted what became the Settle and Carlisle Line. The LNWR saw that this would abstract far more business than if it permitted the Midland Railway to use its line from Low Gill to Carlisle, on which it could charge tolls on the traffic, and it belatedly offered to concede the facility. The Midland Railway wished to take advantage of this, which would avoid the expense of constructing the Settle and Carlisle Line, but Parliament refused to allow the abandonment of the project. In this way the LNWR secured a pyrrhic victory, and the Midland Railway was obliged to construct the Settle and Carlisle line.  One more branch was promoted by the L&CR before the LNWR takeover. A short loop was authorised from Hest Bank to a junction on the Little North Western line at Bare Lane, on the outskirts of Morecambe. The Royal Assent was obtained on 13 August 1859, and it was the LNWR that actually built the line. It opened on 8 August 1864. It was built as double track, but was soon singled.

Carlisle.

At the time of the incorporation of the L&CR there were two railways already in Carlisle: the Maryport and Carlisle Railway and the Newcastle and Carlisle Railway. In March 1844 the L&CR board discussed a possible joint station with the Maryport and Carlisle Railway. The M&CR had a Bill in Parliament for an extension to an improved station of its own, at Crown Street, and felt that its Bill should proceed, but undertook to make arrangements with the L&CR for the joint use of this station and land to the south-west of it. At this stage the eventual construction of the Caledonian Railway was regarded as certain, although that company's powers were not being applied for yet. Next month the L&CR suggested that if the M&CR station Bill was withdrawn, the L&CR, the N&CR, and the Caledonian would share the M&CR's Parliamentary expenses among them, and that the four companies should then form a joint station committee to decide on the best site and other matters. The N&CR gave this idea approval in principle, but the M&CR declined.  The L&CR made agreements with the N&CR in the summer of 1845 to use their London Road station from when the L&CR reached Carlisle, until such time as a joint station was completed. London Road station was reached by a short extension spur from Upperby, but the station was itself on a spur facing Newcastle, so L&CR trains had to reverse into it.  The question of the joint station was on hold awaiting the formation of the Caledonian Railway. In May 1845, the L&CR tried to get the issue moving again, but the M&CR continued to obstruct an agreement, and retaining a plot of intervening land needed by the L&CR approach to the intended joint station. The N&CR too prevaricated, hoping to get compensated for its expenditure on the London Road station. Considerable negotiation on points of detail continued, until from the beginning of 1846 the L&CR determined to have one common station at Carlisle, even if it had to provide all the money itself. A Bill for the station was passed on 27 July 1846. The new station began to be referred to as "Citadel" from February 1847. The Caledonian Railway got its Act the same day for a line to approach the station from the north.  In 1846 the M&CR planned to cross the N&CR’s Canal Branch to get direct access to its Crown Street station, which had hitherto been reached by a reversal on the N&CR line. In the summer of 1847 the L&CR construction was approaching Citadel, and crossed the existing Crown Street branch on the level, and it crossed the N&CR Canal branch on the level at St Nicholas. In 1849 the L&CR went to law to get possession of M&CR ground it needed. From 1 June 1851, M&CR trains used Citadel station, at first by reversal off the N&CR line, but from 8 August 1852 up the new direct spur from Bog Street.  On 24 May 1847 the L&CR wrote to the three other companies; it had by now expended £60,000 on the joint station, and it invited the other companies to contribute some money at once, in the proportions 3:3:3:1 (L&CR:NCR:Caledonian:M&CR). Only the N&CR responded, sending a cheque for part of the sum requested. In frustration the L&CR returned the cheque and stated that it could no longer treat the N&CR as a party to the construction of the joint station; this action resulted in a complete breakdown of relations.  The L&CR diverted its trains to the Citadel station in September 1847, probably 1 September: the station was far from complete. The Caledonian Railway started using the station on 10 September 1847 when the first part of its own line was opened, as far as Beattock.  The L&CR negotiated briefly in March 1848 to lease the Newcastle and Carlisle Railway. George Hudson, the so-called Railway King, was chairman of the York, Newcastle and Berwick Railway, and he saw the N&CR as part of his kingdom. He was accustomed to using underhand tactics, and was later found out and disgraced At this stage however, he immediately leased the N&CR, from 1 August 1848, to keep the L&CR away. He soon went further, leasing the M&CR from 1 October in the same year. The alignment of the L&CR approaching from the south crossed the N&CR Canal Branch on the level at St Nicholas, and also the M&CR Crown Street line on the level. An M&CR passenger train arriving at Crown Street crossed the L&CR line on the level three times in doing so; if the train proceeded to London Road, as some did, and its engine returned light, then five level crossings of the L&CR took place.  The Lancaster and Carlisle Railway considered the M&CR Crown Street terminal to be temporary, and actually illegal. It negotiated with the M&CR and offered £7,005 for the land it needed for the development of Citadel station. Hudson intevened, and demanded £100,000. A jury was appointed to assess the value of the land, and it decided on £7,171, which the L&CR immediately paid. Hudson still refused to give up the land, and the L&CR called in the Under Sheriff of Cumberland. At 10 am on 17 March 1849 that officer took possession of the site and handed it over to the solicitor of the L&CR. Workmen employed by the L&CR immediately dismantled Crown Street station and the tracks there. Hudson's fall from power took place shortly afterwards, and Parliament refused to sanction his leases of the N&CR and the M&CR, so that control of those networks reverted to the owning companies.  The M&CR now reached an agreement with the L&CR and the Caledonian Railway, and became a permanent tenant of Citadel station, effective from 1 June 1851. Its trains reversed into the station from the London Road direction on the N&CR, until a direct curve was opened on 8 August 1852.  The N&CR never used Citadel station, and it was not until the North Eastern Railway took over the N&CR on 17 July 1862 that discussion resumed, and the NER used Citadel from 1 January 1863 as a tenant. The N&CR had always run on the right-hand track and the start of regular train working into Citadel showed this to be a problem. In 1864 the NER changed the running to normal left hand running, and to suit this some signal alterations had to be made around St Nicholas crossing and junction.  It was left to the L&CR and the Caledonian Railway between them to share the cost of Citadel, but the Caledonian was not a good payer. By July 1847 the L&CR had advanced £56,490 on the station, and the Caledonian had only paid in £5,000. It was not until 1854, when the station works had cost £178,324, that the Caledonian Railway then paid £85,391 as its portion. This great leniency of the L&CR over a long and difficult period was probably motivated by the desire that the Caledonian Railway should emerge as a vigorous partner in the Anglo-Scottish trade.  The level crossing of the N&CR Canal Branch was hardly appropriate for a main line railway, and on 7 July 1877 a new L&CR alignment came into use carrying the main line over the Canal Branch, which was itself realigned.

Absorption by the LNWR.

Finding itself now very prosperous, thanks to the Anglo-Scottish traffic, the L&CR delayed absorption by the LNWR, until on 10 September 1859 it leased its line to the LNWR. The terms were very generous to L&CR shareholders, as the LNWR feared the line's allegiance might pass to the Midland Railway, which at that time was advancing towards Carlisle from Leeds. The L&PJR amalgamated with the L&CR immediately before this arrangement, so that the whole line from Preston to Carlisle was included. The L&CR was vested outright in the LNWR from 21 July 1879.  Reed observes that:  During the 15 years’ independent working existence of the L&CR the board had had to suffer only one open contretemps, though there were internal dissensions from time to time. Dividends continued to rise until the beginning of 1855, when, due to the depression in general trade, the Crimean War, and a slight decrease in the Anglo-Scottish traffic, there was a fall in receipts and a small drop in the dividend rate. Seizing on this as an excuse, disturbed at what was said to be frequent LNWR domination, and angry that the board would not sanction a lease of the Little North Western Railway, a section of the shareholders led by John Barker, of Milnthorpe, made sweeping charges of defective management causing weak dividends. At the half-yearly meeting in September 1855 at which the issue came to a head, the board adjourned the meeting and asked for a committee of enquiry. This was, perhaps, the only case of such charges being made against a board that had been paying 8 to per cent and had dropped only to per cent, all paid out of revenue.

LNWR branches.

Two branch lines off the L&CR main line were promoted and built by the LNWR after the takeover. A double-track south curve from the Lancaster direction leading to the Hest Bank branch near Bare Lane was authorised by Act of 19 July 1887, and opened on 19 May 1888.

Later development of the line.

The Lancaster and Carlisle Railway line was a key part of the west coast route from London to Glasgow. The line continued as the principal route through Carlisle, and to this day is part of the West Coast Main Line. The steep gradients designed by Locke was for many years an operational difficulty, and all but the lightest trains had to be assisted by a banking engine or a pilot engine. Even after the introduction of diesel traction, this necessity continued, only being obviated on electrification of the route.

Electrification.

The Preston to Carlisle section of the West Coast Main line was electrified on the 25kV overhead system; it was energised on 25 March 1974. A full electrically operated train service started on 6 May 1974. On 7 May HM the Queen travelled the route and 'drove' the train from Preston to Lancaster.

The Lancaster and Carlisle Railway was a main line railway opened between those cities in 1846. With its Scottish counterpart, the Caledonian Railway, the Company launched the first continuous railway connection between the English railway network and the emerging network in central Scotland. The selection of its route was controversial, and strong arguments were put forward in favour of alternatives, in some cases avoiding the steep gradients, or connecting more population centres. Generating financial support for such a long railway was a challenge, and induced the engineer Joseph Locke to make a last-minute change to the route: in the interests of economy and speed of construction, he eliminated a summit tunnel at the expense of steeper gradients.

Die Lancaster and Carlisle Railway wurde im Juni 1844 gegründet. Die Gesellschaft sollte eine Eisenbahnverbindung zwischen den beiden Städten Lancaster und Carlisle ermöglichen. Im Juli 1844 wurde auf dem Pass des Shap Summit auf 278,59 m – dem höchsten Punkt der geplanten Strecke – mit dem Bau der Strecke begonnen. Die Verbindung wurde in zwei Teilstücken in Betrieb genommen. Am 22. September 1847 wurde die Strecke zwischen Lancaster und Oxenholme eröffnet. In Oxenholme zweigte die ebenfalls von der "Lancaster and Carlisle Railway" betriebene Kendal and Windermere Railway ab, die mit der Inbetriebnahme der Strecke von Lancaster nach Oxenholme bis nach Kendal den Betrieb aufnahm. Der Abschnitt zwischen Oxenholme und Carlisle wurde am 22. Dezember 1847 eröffnet.


Life and work.

David Gelernter's father was computer science professor Herbert Gelernter, who taught at Stony Brook University. He received his Bachelor of Arts and Master of Arts degrees in classical Hebrew literature from Yale University in 1976 and his Ph.D. from S.U.N.Y. Stony Brook in 1982.  In the 1980s, he made seminal contributions to the field of parallel computation, specifically the tuple space coordination model, as embodied by the Linda programming system (named for Linda Lovelace, an actress in the porn movie "Deep Throat", mocking Ada's tribute to the scientist and first attributed computer programmer, Ada Lovelace). Bill Joy cites Linda as the inspiration for many elements of JavaSpaces and Jini. On June 24, 1993, Gelernter was severely injured opening a mail bomb sent by the Unabomber. He recovered from his injuries, but his right hand and eye were permanently damaged. He chronicled the ordeal in his 1997 book "Drawing Life: Surviving the Unabomber".  He helped found the company Mirror Worlds Technologies, which in 2001 released Scopeware software using ideas from his 1992 book "Mirror Worlds". Gelernter believed that computers can free users from being filing clerks by organizing their data. The company announced it would "cease operations effective May 15, 2004". On May 23, 2013, a related company Mirror Worlds, LLC filed a complaint of patent infringement against Apple Inc., Best Buy Co. Inc., Dell Inc., Hewlett Packard Co., Lenovo (United States) Inc., Lenovo Group Ltd., Microsoft Corporation, Samsung Electronic USA Inc, Samsung TeleCommunications America, LLC in the Texas Eastern District Court (case no. 6:2013cv00419). In August 2016, the case was dismissed with prejudice. The case has been considered by the Supreme Court of the United States but a petition for writ of certiorari was denied on June 24, 2013.  In 2003, he became a member of the National Council on the Arts.  Gelernter has critiqued what he perceives as cultural illiteracy among students. In 2015, he commented, "They [students] know nothing about art. They know nothing about history. They know nothing about philosophy. And because they have been raised as not even atheists, they don't rise to the level of atheists, insofar as they've never thought about the existence or nonexistence of God. It has never occurred to them. They know nothing about the Bible."

Political views.

"Time Magazine" profiled Gelernter in 2016, describing him as a "stubbornly independent thinker. A conservative among mostly liberal Ivy League professors, a religious believer among the often disbelieving ranks of computer scientists." In October 2016, he wrote an op-ed in "The Wall Street Journal" endorsing Donald Trump for President, calling Hillary Clinton "as phony as a three-dollar bill," and saying that Barack Obama "has governed like a third-rate tyrant."  Gelernter contributes to magazines such as "City Journal", "The Weekly Standard", and "Commentary" which are generally considered neoconservative. For seven months, he contributed a weekly op-ed column to the "LA Times".

Controversial positions on science.

"The Washington Post", profiling him in early 2017 as a potential science advisor to Donald Trump, called him "a vehement critic of modern academia" who has "condemned 'belligerent leftists' and blamed intellectualism for the disintegration of patriotism and traditional family values." Shortly thereafter, The Atlantic published a rebuttal of the Washington Post profile, saying it was "hard to imagine a more misleading treatment" of the "pioneering polymath" Gelernter. David Gelernter "expressed skepticism about the reality" of anthropogenic climate change. In July 2019, Gelernter challenged Darwin's theories. In a review of Stephen Meyer's book "Darwin's Doubt", which he wrote for the Claremont Review of Books, Gelernter does not accept evolution "as Darwin presents it" On the other hand, Gelernter stipulates he "cannot accept" intelligent design either, saying that "as a theory, it would seem to have a long way to go."

Book reviews.

Gelernter's book "Mirror Worlds" (1991) "prophesied the rise of the World Wide Web." Bill Joy, founder and Chief Scientist of Sun Microsystems, says Gelernter is "one of the most brilliant and visionary computer scientists of our time." "The New York Times" called him a computer science "rock star".  In "", Gelernter argues that American higher education no longer cares about producing well-rounded and cultured students; academics instead believe their role is to dictate how other Americans live and think. Stephen Daisley wrote in "Commentary" magazine that Gelernter portrays Obama's presidency as a symbol of the failure of American education and the success of its replacement with a liberal indoctrination system. As a solution, Gelernter proposes moving all of human knowledge to online servers so that the in-person college experience can be replaced by user-driven self-education. Daisley wrote, ""America-Lite" is lean, incisive convincing, delightfully indelicate, and, in a break from the conventions of the literature on education, honest. It is a fine dissection—de-construction, if you must—of the corruption of higher education and the resulting debasement of political culture. If it makes its way on to a single college reading list, Hell will have frozen over."  Russell Jacoby was critical in his review of Gelernter's book "America-Lite", feeling it contained insufficient arguments. Jacoby claimed that Gelernter blamed Jews for causing the breakdown of patriotism and the traditional family, writing "Gelernter is Jewish, and it is not likely that a non-Jew would airily argue that obnoxious leftist Jews have taken over elite higher education."

David Hillel Gelernter is an American artist, writer, and professor of computer science at Yale University. He is a former national fellow at the American Enterprise Institute and senior fellow in Jewish thought at the Shalem Center, and sat on the National Endowment for the Arts. He publishes widely; his work has appeared in "The Wall Street Journal", "New York Post", "Los Angeles Times", "The Weekly Standard", "Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung", and elsewhere. His paintings have been exhibited in New Haven and Manhattan.

David Hillel Gelernter (* 5. März 1955) ist ein US-amerikanischer Informatiker und Kulturjournalist. Er ist der Sohn des Informatikers Herbert Gelernter. Seine Vorfahren lebten in Hamburg, sie waren dorthin teils aus Osteuropa immigriert; ein anderer Zweig seiner Familie stammt aus den Südstaaten der USA.


Terminals.

Terminal 1.

Terminal 1, with 32,000 m2 of space, has 3 concourses (T1-A, T1-B and T1-c). It was opened in 2000, and the proposed capacity was 4.6 million passengers annually. Terminal 1 was closed for renovation from July 2011 to 17 May 2018 after Terminal 2 became fully operational.  Terminal 1 reopened on 18 May 2018. After renovation, Terminal 1 has 39,000 m2 of space, 38 check-in counters, 10 security lanes and 10 aerobridges. It has the capacity of 6 million passengers annually. Terminal 1 serves Air China, Chengdu Airlines, Joy Air, Okay Airways, Tibet Airlines, Shandong Airlines, Shenzhen Airlines and Kunming Airlines.

Terminal 2.

The inauguration of Terminal 2 was on July 19, 2011. With 212,000 square meters of space, the new terminal is the 5th largest airport terminal in mainland China (after Beijing–Capital, Shanghai–Pudong, Guangzhou, and Shenzhen). The 39.9m tall main building of Terminal 2, being 672m in length and 168m in depth, is the largest single steel-truss structure in Hunan. The new terminal has 22 bridge gates, to which the longest passenger walking distance is within 300m. With this new facility, the airport can handle 151,000 aircraft movements and another 15.6 million passengers every year. The peak hour volume of passengers is 3,940.  The Departure Hall has 4 automatic double-glass-door entrances which are directly facing Check-in Areas A,B,C & D respectively. Entrances 1-3 are domestic entrances and Entrance 4 is for International, Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan Departures, which will be checked in at Area D. Area A is the exclusive check-in Area for China Southern Airlines. Area B&C are domestic check-in areas for other airlines. The terminal has 80 check-in counters and 24 self-checkin kiosks, 24 security checkpoints and more than 6,390 seats.  The Arrival Hall is equipped with 8 baggage carousels (6 at domestic area and 2 at international area). The indoor parking garage P4, which has 693 parking spaces, is on floor B2. There are also three outdoor parking areas, P1,2&3, which provide over 1000 parking spaces.

History.

From 1957 to 1989, Datuopu Airport served as a dual-use military and civil airport for Changsha. It was only capable of handling small aircraft and a few flights per day. The Hunan Provincial Government proposed the construction of a new airport in October 1984, which was approved by the State Council of China. Construction for Huanghua Airport began in June 1986, and it was opened on 29 August 1989, when all civil flights were transferred to the new airport, and Datuopu reverted to sole military use.  On October 28, 2000, the 34,000-square-meter Terminal 1-A, which cost 40.4 million CNY, was opened. The airport was capable of handling 4.6 million passengers per year. Afterwards, the construction of Terminal 1-B and Terminal 1-C were finished to ensure growing passengers and cargo.  The airport then went through a major expansion in 2008–2011, with lengthening of runway 18/36 from 2600m to 3200m and the addition of Terminal 2 which went into operation in 2011. The airport welcomed its first intercontinental destination when China Southern Airlines began service to Frankfurt, Germany on 23 June 2014.  The construction of the second runway was completed in November, 2016. The new 3800mx60m Code-4F runway was built parallel to the current 18/36 runway and lies 380m to the east. The second runway officially came into use on March 30, 2017. The new runway means that Huanghua Airport is now ranked as a 4F, the highest level for an airport, and capable of accommodating wide-body aircraft such as the A380.  On May 16, 2018, the renovated Terminal 1 of the Changsha Huanghua International Airport resumes operation. The domestic flights operated by Air China, Shenzhen Airlines, Shandong Airlines, Chengdu Airlines, Kunming Airlines, Okay Airways, Joy Air, and Tibet Airlines arrive at T1.

Short-Term Expansion (2030).

The airport is undergoing a major expansion eastwards. After the completion of the 2nd runway, Terminal 3 and the east terminal area will be constructed on the east side of airport, with 500,000 square meters of space. The airport will be capable of handling 60 million passengers annually and an annual cargo capacity of 6 million tons. The airport becomes a hub in Central China after this stage. A third runway of 3600m*45m in length and a GTC with 280,000 square meters of space will also be constructed and ready for use in 2024.

Long-Term Expansion (2050).

Terminal 4 is to be constructed on the north side of the East terminal area. The east terminal area, in which both Terminals 3&4 lie, is located between the 2nd and 3rd Runways. At the final stage, the fourth parallel runway (3600m) of 4E will be constructed 1035m in the east of the third runway. Two tunnels connecting the west area (Terminal 1&2) and the east terminals (Terminal 3&4) are considered.  Changsha Huanghua Int'l airport will become a major hub in China which hosts a number of based airlines. The ultimate capacity of the airport will be 90 million passengers annually.

Statistics.

As for 2016, Changsha Huanghua International Airport was the 13th busiest airport in the People's Republic of China with 21,296,700 passengers.  <div

Changsha Huanghua International Airport is the airport serving Changsha, the capital of Hunan province, China, as well as nearby cities such as Zhuzhou and Xiangtan. As of 2016, it is the 13th busiest civil airport in China. Located about from downtown Changsha in the town of Huanghua in Changsha County, the airport has two terminal buildings. The airport is managed by the Hunan Airport Authority, a publicly owned corporation managing all five airports in Hunan Province. Huanghua airport was opened in August 1989, replacing Changsha Datuopu Airport, which is now a military air base.

Der Flughafen Changsha-Huanghua (; Englisch: "Changsha Huanghua International Airport") ist ein internationaler Flughafen Chinas. Er ist am Passagieraufkommen gemessen der dreizehntgrößte Flughafen Chinas. Der Flughafen gehört zum Verwaltungsgebiet der Großgemeinde Huanghua (黄花镇) im Kreis Changsha der Stadt Changsha, Hauptstadt der Provinz Hunan.


Biography.

Ramsay Richard Reinagle was a pupil of his father Philip Reinagle, whose style he followed, and he exhibited at the Royal Academy as early as 1788. He afterwards went to Italy, and was studying in Rome in 1796. Subsequently, he visited Holland in order to study from the Dutch masters. After his return home he painted for a time at Robert Barker's panorama in Leicester Square, and then entered into partnership with Thomas Edward Barker, Robert's eldest son, who was not himself an artist, in order to erect a rival building in the Strand. They produced panoramas of Rome, the Bay of Naples, Florence, Gibraltar, Bay of Gibraltar, and Paris, but in 1816 disposed of their exhibition to Henry Aston Barker and John Burford.  In 1805 Reinagle was elected an associate of the Society of Painters in Watercolours, and in 1806 a member. He became its treasurer in 1807, and was president from 1808 to 1812 Between 1806 and 1812 he sent to its exhibitions sixty-seven drawings, mostly Italian landscapes and scenery of the English lakes. During the same period he exhibited portraits and landscapes in oil at the Royal Academy, of which he became an associate in 1814, and an academician in 1823. He was a clever copyist of the old masters, and is said to have been much employed by a picture-dealer in restoring and "improving" their works.  In 1848 he sent to the Royal Academy exhibition as his own work a small picture of "Shipping a Breeze and Rainy Weather off Hurst Castle" painted by a young artist named J. W. Yarnold, which he had purchased at a broker's shop, and to which he had made some slight alterations. Attention was called to the deception, and a full inquiry made by the academy resulted in his being called upon to resign his diploma as a royal academician. In 1850 he unsuccessfully endeavoured to exculpate himself in two letters published in the "Literary Gazette".  He continued to exhibit at the academy until 1857, but in his later years sank into poverty, and was assisted by a pension from the funds of the academy. He died at Chelsea on 17 November 1862.

Works.

Three plates, "Richmond", "Sion House", and "The Opening of Waterloo Bridge" in William Bernard Cooke's "The Thames" were engraved after him by Robert Wallis, and many of the illustrations in Peacock's "Polite Repository" from 1818 to 1830, were engraved by John Pye from his designs. There is also a view of Haddon Hall, engraved by Robert Wallis, in the "Bijou" for 1828, and one of Bothwell Castle, engraved by Edward Finden, in John Tillotson's "Album of Scottish Scenery", 1860. Reinagle wrote the scientific and explanatory notices to Turner's "Views in Sussex" published in 1819, and the life of Allan Ramsay in Allan Cunningham's "Lives of the British Painters."  Reinagle's paintings are included in the collections of several British institutions including Sheffield, Rotherham, Doncaster and Derby Art Gallery and in the Government Art Collection.

Family.

Reinagle married Oriana Bullfinch in 1801. They had three sons, of whom George Philip Reinagle the painter, who was the youngest. There was one daughter, Oriana Jane, who married Philip Dottin Souper.

Ramsay Richard Reinagle (19 March 1775 – 17 November 1862) was an English portrait, landscape, and animal painter, and son of Philip Reinagle.

Ramsay Richard Reinagle (* 19. März 1775 in London; † 17. November 1862 ebenda) war ein englischer Porträt-, Landschafts- und Tiermaler.


Colonial period.

First fortified by the British prior to 1632, the fort guarded access to the harbor at Portsmouth and served as the colony's main munitions depot. The fort also served to protect Kittery, Maine, on the opposite shore, which was raided numerous times by the tribes of the Wabanaki Confederacy during the French and Indian Wars. Shadrach Walton commanded the fort during different periods at the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th century.

American Revolution.

In 1774, it was the only permanently manned military post in New Hampshire.

1774 Raid.

On December 14, 1774, local Patriots from the Portsmouth area, led by John Langdon, stormed the post (overcoming a six-man caretaker detachment) and seized the garrison's powder, which was distributed through several New Hampshire towns for potential use in the looming struggle against Great Britain. On December 15, 1774, patriots led by John Sullivan again raided the fort, this time seizing numerous cannons.

Fort Constitution.

Following the Revolution the fort was called Castle Fort or Fort Castle. The state gave Fort Point, on which the fort stood, to the federal government in 1791. In 1800, the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard was established upriver on Fernald's Island (now part of Seavey's Island), and the fort was rebuilt under the Second System of US fortifications. Walls were doubled in height and new brick buildings added. Work was completed in 1808 and the defense renamed "Fort Constitution". On July 4, 1809, an accidental explosion marred Independence Day celebrations at the fort, killing a number of soldiers and civilians. The Secretary of War's report on fortifications for December 1811 describes Fort Constitution as "an enclosed irregular work of masonry, mounting 36 heavy guns... (with) brick barracks for two companies..." During the War of 1812 the fort was manned and expanded, Walbach Tower, a Martello tower with a single 32-pounder cannon, being built in 1814.  During the Civil War, Fort Constitution was projected to be rebuilt as a three-tiered granite fort under the Third System of US fortifications. However, advances in weaponry, particularly armored, steam-powered warships with heavy rifled guns, rendered the masonry design obsolete before it was finished. The fort's construction was abandoned in 1867 with the Second System fort largely intact and two walls from the Third System built around parts of it. At some point in the Civil War era, four 100-pounder (6.4 inch, 163 mm) Parrott rifles were mounted at the fort, and remained there at least through late 1903. In 1897 construction began on Battery Farnsworth, located under the hill on which the ruins of Walbach Tower stand, as part of the large-scale Endicott Program of seacoast fortifications. It was part of the Coast Defenses of Portsmouth, along with Fort Stark and Fort Foster. The battery was completed in 1899. Named for Brigadier General Elon J. Farnsworth, the installation included two 8-inch (203 mm) M1888 guns on disappearing carriages. The battery was accompanied in 1904 by Battery Hackleman, with two 3-inch (76 mm) M1903 guns on pedestal mounts. A mine casemate for an underwater minefield in the harbor was built; Battery Hackleman was built primarily to defend this minefield against minesweepers.  After the American entry into World War I in early 1917, many guns were removed from coast defenses for potential service on the Western Front. Both 8-inch guns of Battery Farnsworth were removed for use as railway artillery in October 1917 and were not returned to the fort. In 1920 a mine casemate was built next to Battery Farnsworth to replace a similar facility at Fort Stark.  In World War II Battery Hackleman's 3-inch guns were sent to a new battery of the same name at Fort H. G. Wright on Fisher's Island, New York. They were replaced by two 3-inch (76 mm) M1902 guns from Battery Hays at nearby Fort Stark. In 1940-1944 the Harbor Defenses of Portsmouth were garrisoned by the 22nd Coast Artillery Regiment. Also, a mine observation station was built atop Battery Farnsworth. Battery Hackleman was disarmed by 1948 and the fort was turned over to the Coast Guard. Battery Hackleman was demolished, but Battery Farnsworth can still be seen.  Given back to the state in 1961, Fort Constitution State Park was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973, and is today open to the public.

The lighthouse.

Since 1771 the fort has been home to a lighthouse. The current installation, the Portsmouth Harbor Light, was completed in 1878. Its Fourth Order Fresnel lens remains a valuable aid to navigation. The tower and the grounds immediately around it are open for scheduled tours.

Fort William and Mary was a colonial fortification in Britain's worldwide system of defenses, manned by soldiers of the Province of New Hampshire who reported directly to the royal governor. The fort, originally known as "The Castle", was situated on the island of New Castle, New Hampshire, at the mouth of the Piscataqua River estuary. It was renamed Fort William and Mary circa 1692, after the accession of the monarchs William III and Mary II to the British throne. It was captured by Patriot forces, recaptured, and later abandoned by the British in the Revolutionary War. The fort was renamed Fort Constitution in 1808 following rebuilding. The fort was further rebuilt and expanded through 1899 and served actively through World War II.

Fort Constitution im heutigen US-Bundesstaat New Hampshire diente über 300 Jahre lang als militärische Einrichtung und war die wichtigste Festung in New Hampshire. Die Küstenbefestigung liegt auf einer Halbinsel im Nordosten von New Castle an der Mündung des Piscataqua River in den Atlantik. Die Ruinen des Forts sind heute eine State Historic Site.


Design and development.

The KM was an experimental aircraft developed from 1964 to 1966, during a time when the Soviet Union saw interest in ground effect vehicles—airplane-like vehicles that use ground effect to fly several meters above surfaces, primarily bodies of water (such as the Caspian Sea). It was designed at the Central Hydrofoil Design Bureau, by the chief designer Rostislav Alexeyev and the lead engineer V. Efimov, and manufactured at the Red Sormovo plant in Gorky (now Nizhny Novgorod). The KM was among the earliest major "ekranoplan" (English: "screen effect") projects and was notable for its massive size and payload, becoming the largest aircraft in the world when it was completed in 1966. The KM had a wingspan of ; a length of ; a maximum take-off weight of ; and was designed to fly at an altitude of to use the ground effect. The KM was also undetectable to many radar systems, as it flew below the minimum altitude of detection. Despite technically being an aircraft, it was considered by the authorities to be closer to a boat and was assigned to the Soviet Navy, but operated by test pilots of the Soviet Air Forces. The KM was documented as a marine vessel and prior to the first flight a bottle of champagne was broken against its nose, a tradition for the first voyage of a watercraft.

Operational history.

On June 22, 1966, the completed KM began transportation along the Volga River to the testing grounds on the Caspian Sea near the town of Kaspiysk. It was transported from Gorky along the river in secret, covered in camouflage and moving only at night. The aircraft's first flight was on October 16, 1966, performed by V. Loginov and Rostislav Alexeyev himself, which was very unusual as most Soviet aircraft designers never piloted their own creations. All the work was conducted under patronage of the Ministry of Shipbuilding Industry. Testing showed the KM to have an optimum (fuel efficient) cruising speed of 430 km/h (267 mph, 232 knots), and a maximum operational speed of 500 km/h (311 mph, 270 knots). The maximum speed achieved was 650 km/h (404 mph, 350 knots), although some sources claim up to 740 km/h (460 mph, 400 knots).  The KM was at first seen as a promising vehicle specialized for use by military and rescue workers but its design caused many difficulties; progress slowed and Alexeyev moved on to other ekranoplan projects. It was tested on the Caspian Sea for an extensive 15 years until 1980, when it was destroyed following a crash caused by pilot error. There were no human casualties, but the KM was damaged and no attempts were made to save it, it being left to float before eventually sinking a week later. The KM was deemed too heavy to recover and has remained underwater at the crash site ever since, with no plans to build a second ever made. However, the KM later became the basis for the "Lun"-class ekranoplan developed by the Central Hydrofoil Design Bureau in the 1980s, which saw one example, the "MD-160", enter service with the Soviet Navy and later the Russian Navy before being decommissioned in the late 1990s.  The KM remained the largest aircraft in the world during the entirety of its existence and is the second-largest aircraft ever built, behind the Antonov An-225 "Mriya" that flew for the first time in 1988, eight years after the KM's destruction.

Western discovery.

The secret Soviet KM project was discovered by the United States in 1967, when photographs taken from spy satellites showed the KM taxiing during testing near Kaspiysk. The strange aircraft puzzled intelligence agencies in the Western world, noting the small stubby wings despite its large size, as well as the "KM" markings and flag of the Soviet Navy on its fuselage. The United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) branded the aircraft the "Kaspian Monster" after the KM markings, it later becoming known as the "Caspian Sea Monster", while "KM" actually stood for "Korabl-maket" meaning "Prototype ship" in Russian. The discovery, at the height of the Cold War, greatly concerned the CIA, which set up a dedicated task force and developed a purpose-built unmanned drone under Project AQUILINE, just to determine what the secret behind the vehicle was. The KM was initially assumed to be an unfinished conventional aircraft, but it was quickly determined that the vehicle could not fly high. In the 1980s, after the KM was already destroyed, the United States discovered it was a large ekranoplan. The development of ground effect vehicles was not as widespread in the West as in the Soviet Union.

The KM (Korabl Maket) (Russian: Корабль-макет, literally "Ship-prototype"), known colloquially as the Caspian Sea Monster, was an experimental ground effect vehicle (ekranoplan) developed in the Soviet Union in the 1960s by the Central Hydrofoil Design Bureau. The KM began operation in 1966, and was continuously tested by the Soviet Navy until 1980, when it was damaged in a testing accident and sank in the Caspian Sea.

Das KM (für корабль-макет, russisch etwa für „Schiffsanschauungsmodell“), auch bekannt unter den Namen „Kaspisches Seemonster“ oder „Monster des Kaspischen Meeres“, war ein Bodeneffektfahrzeug-Typ, der vom sowjetischen Schiffs- und Flugzeugkonstrukteur Rostislaw Jewgenjewitsch Alexejew entworfen und von Nikita Chruschtschow gefördert wurde.


Early life and education.

Anhalt was born in New York City. He began writing at the age of 15, with his first play being "" by George Bernard Shaw. He got criticized by Shaw for messing with his work, and went to attend Columbia and Princeton universities instead.

Career.

During World War II, Anhalt served with the Army Air Force First Motion Picture Unit in Culver City, California as a scenarist for training films.  After the war, Anhalt graduated to writing screenplays for thrillers, initially using the joint pseudonym Andrew Holt. The works by him and his wife, Edna Anhalt had attracted Hollywood, and they moved from New York to Los Angeles, where he made his first screenwriting debut in 1946 with "Strange Voyage".  Put under contract by Columbia, the Anhalts scripted "Bulldog Drummond Strikes Back" (1947). After a stint at Twentieth Century Fox during which they won the Academy Award for Best Story for the screen story to the urban thriller "Panic in the Streets" (1950), the husband and wife team returned to Columbia as writer-producers, earning another Academy Award nomination for their story to the thriller "The Sniper" in 1952.  The Anhalts wrote the 1952 screen version of Carson McCullers' "The Member of the Wedding", which preserved the stage performances of Julie Harris, Brandon deWilde and Ethel Waters.  After the couple divorced, Anhalt proved a versatile, consistently effective (and reputedly speedy) scenarist. He penned the adaptation of Irwin Shaw's World War II novel "The Young Lions" (1958) and "Wives and Lovers" (1963). The screenwriter earned a second Academy Award for his adaptation of Jean Anouilh's play "Becket" (1964).  Subsequent solo outings included "Girls! Girls! Girls!" (1962), "The Boston Strangler" (1968), "The Madwoman of Chaillot" (1969), and two for Ely A. Landau's American Film Theater, "Luther" (1973) and "The Man in the Glass Booth" (1975). He had box office successes with "The Satan Bug" (1965) and "Jeremiah Johnson" (1972). In the early 1970s, Anhalt returned to the small screen, earning an Emmy nomination for the ABC miniseries "QB VII" (1974). Three years later, he scripted the Frank Sinatra vehicle "Contract on Cherry Street" (NBC) and contributed to the small screen remake of "Madame X" (NBC, 1981) and the biblically inspired "The Day Christ Died" (CBS, 1982). Anhalt was also the guiding force behind the 1985 NBC miniseries "Peter the Great".  His feature film output towards the end of his life included films like "Escape to Athena" (1979), "Green Ice" (1981), "The Holcroft Covenant" (1985) and "The Neon Empire".

Edward Anhalt (March 28, 1914 – September 3, 2000) was a noted screenwriter, producer, and documentary filmmaker. After working as a journalist and documentary filmmaker for Pathé and CBS-TV he teamed with his wife Edna Anhalt, one of his five wives, during World War II to write pulp fiction.

Edward Anhalt (* 28. März 1914 in New York City, New York; † 3. September 2000 in Pacific Palisades, Kalifornien) war ein US-amerikanischer Drehbuchautor.


Career.

Club.

In 1906, Hilsdon was recommended to then-Chelsea manager John Robertson, who had been advised that Hilsdon would be available for transfer; so enthralled was Robertson with Hilsdon's ability that he promised to turn him into Chelsea's next centre forward. Hilsdon joined Chelsea later that year on £4 a week wages. He scored five goals on his debut in a 9–2 win over Glossop North End, and would later score six in an FA Cup tie with Worksop Town, a club record which remains unequalled. The club programme described him as "living proof that to become a first-class footballer it is not necessary to be born north of the Tweed".  Hilsdon scored 27 goals that season, which helped earn Chelsea promotion to the First Division in their second year of professional football. Within three years he had scored 76 goals in 99 appearances. His later days with Chelsea were hindered by problems with injuries and his personal life, including a battle with alcoholism, though he did score 19 goals in 1910–11. He became the first Chelsea player to score 100 goals, and ended his time there with 108 from 164 games. He is currently the club's 9th highest goal scorer of all time.  In 1912, Hilsdon returned to West Ham, and was top scorer for them in the 1912–13 season, scoring 17 goals in 36 games. He was known at this point as the "old international", even though he was still only 27 years of age. Hilsdon played for West Ham until 1915, and during his two spells there he recorded 92 Southern League appearances, and scored 35 goals. Hilsdon also played in four World War I games for the East London club. He is also credited with helping the development of young West Ham striker Syd Puddefoot.

International.

Hilsdon received international recognition for England, often playing alongside his Chelsea teammate, Jimmy Windridge. Shortly after joining Chelsea he was selected to play for a Football League XI, for whom he hit a hat-trick in a 6–0 win over the Irish League on his debut. He made his England debut in February 1907, against Ireland. He scored four goals for England in a 7–0 win over Hungary and two apiece in wins over Ireland, Austria, Wales and Bohemia. In all, he scored 14 times in just eight international games for England, eight of his goals coming from games in England's first overseas tour in 1908.

Military service and later life.

During the First World War Hilsdon tried to avoid active service and was caught by the police hiding in a chicken run, and was called up. He fought on the Western Front where he was attacked by gas. This affected him greatly, and in the words of his son, he "copped the mustard gas at Arras".  The gas attack caused sufficient damage to Hilsdon to end his footballing career. After the War, he worked as a teaboy on building sites, ran a pub and organised raffles in East End pubs.  He died in Leicester in 1941 and only four people came to his funeral. In October 2015 Chelsea supporters raised funds for a headstone to mark his grave. A weather vane modelled on Hilsdon is still a feature of Stamford Bridge, Chelsea's home ground. It was said to cause great misfortune if removed, and when it had to be removed during renovation in the late 1970s, Chelsea suffered financial and footballing difficulties.

Rijksmuseum Boerhaave is a museum of the history of science and medicine, based in Leiden, Netherlands. The museum hosts a collection of historical scientific instruments from all disciplines, but mainly from medicine, physics, and astronomy.

Das Rijksmuseum Boerhaave, vor 2017 nur Museum Boerhaave, ist ein Museum für die Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften und der Medizin in Leiden (Niederlande). Es bewahrt eine Sammlung von historischen wissenschaftlichen Apparaten und Geräten vornehmlich aus der Medizin, Physik und Astronomie sowie von Dokumenten zu den einzelnen Wissenschaften.


Early life and career.

Carmen is the daughter of former motor racing driver Jose Miguel Jordá, who introduced her to the sport at an early age. She began her career in karting, before progressing to Master Junior Formula as a teenager, and then onto Spanish Formula 3.  In the 2007 Spanish Formula 3 season, Jordá finished fourth in the Copa F300 standings – recording three podium finishes during the season. She continued to race in F3 in 2008 and 2009 – competing in the very first season of the new European F3 Open Championship.  In 2009 she competed in the Le Mans Series for the Q8 Oils Hache Team, racing in the LMP2 class.

Indy Lights Series (2010).

On 19 January 2010, Jordá tested an Indy Lights car for Walker Racing at Sebring International Raceway and later tested an Indy Lights car for Andersen Racing at Barber Motorsports Park. Almost two months later, on March 8, 2010, it was announced that Jordá had signed with Andersen Racing full-time to drive in the Firestone Indy Lights Series for the 2010 season.  Jordá made her first career start in the Firestone Indy Lights Series on March 28, 2010 at the Firestone Indy Grand Prix of St. Petersburg on the Streets of St. Petersburg, finishing in 11th position as the last car running after starting in 15th of 16 cars. After completing only one lap before retiring at Barber Motorsports Park, Jordá had her best career finish in the Firestone Indy Lights Series and attained her first top–10 finish on April 18, 2010 at the Streets of Long Beach. After a three-race hiatus, missing races at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, Iowa Speedway, and Watkins Glen International, Jordá made her return to competition at the Exhibition Place in Toronto on July 18, 2010. However, the race did not fare well for her, as she finished in last place. The next weekend, at Edmonton City Centre Airport for the Edmonton Indy 100, Jordá completed only six laps in the race before encountering gearbox problems. She finished in last place for the second straight race. Jordá did not make another start for the remainder of the season and missed races at Mid-Ohio Sports Car Course, Infineon Raceway, Chicagoland Speedway, Kentucky Speedway, and Homestead–Miami Speedway.

GP3 (2012–2014).

Jordá made her debut in GP3 with Ocean Racing Technology in 2012. Jordá finished the season 28th in the driver's championship failing to score any points. In 2013 Jordá signed with Bamboo Engineering and finished the season 30th in the driver's championship, again failing to score any points. For 2014 season Jordá signed with Koiranen GP, again failing to score any points.

Formula 1 (2015–2016).

On 6 February 2015, it was announced that Jordá had joined Lotus F1 as a development driver. This made her just one of 11 women in history to be included on a Formula 1 team's driver line-up.  The recruitment of Jorda was vocally criticized by some within the sport. Former rally driver and head of the FIA's Women & Motor Sport Commission, Michèle Mouton, described her as a "marketing gimmick", citing "Simona de Silvestro, Danica Patrick, Susie Wolff or even Beitske Visser" as better choices. Writing for "Vice", James Newbold commented that the signing of Jorda had been "the wrong message", suggesting she got the position based on her looks rather than her performances in GP3, where she finished 29th in 2014, while only the series winner Alex Lynn also secured a spot with a Formula One team for 2015. In an interview with Motorsport.com, Jordá spoke of her surprise at Mouton's comments and her ambition to invite her to an F1 race so "she can better understand exactly what her plans are with Lotus". In April 2015, Jordá spoke out in favour of a separate championship for women, saying: "It's not fair that women have to compete in the same championship as men, because we're never going to become World Champion, and I think women deserve that chance." Her view was criticised by other female racing drivers, such as ADAC Formula 4 participant Sophia Flörsch and Indianapolis 500 driver Pippa Mann.  Formula 1 chief executive Bernie Ecclestone defended the appointment of Jordá, praising her in particular for being “prepared to give up what it takes". In an interview with "Motorsport.com" he spoke of his hopes to unearth more female talent in the future, arguing that a lack of other women racing at a comparable level makes criticism of Jordá unfair. He said: "She is very good. We asked Lotus to see and she has done a good job for them. She wants to be in F1. We have to try to find the right way, but she is not alone. There are plenty of other people." For, Jorda remained with the team, now known as Renault Sport Formula One Team, after Lotus was bought out by the French manufacturer.  In early 2016, former Lotus test driver Marco Sørensen claimed that she had been as much as twelve seconds off his pace in simulator runs. This claim was rejected by Jordá, who told Spanish newspaper AS that her simulator times had been "more or less within a second" of fellow Lotus driver Romain Grosjean.

Off-track activities.

In December 2017, Jordá was appointed to the FIA's Women in Motorsport commission. Her appointment was greeted with derision by many successful female racing drivers. Speaking to "Autosport" magazine, current Indianapolis 500 driver and race-winning Indy Lights driver Pippa Mann commented that "it is extremely disappointing to learn that a racer with no notable results in any of the categories in which she has competed, and who believes and is quoted as saying that she does not believe we as female racers can compete, has been appointed to the FIA Women in Motorsport Commission."

Carmen Jordá Buades (born 28 May 1988) is a Spanish former motor racing driver. From 2015 to 2017, she was a development driver for the Lotus and Renault Sport Formula One teams. Her appointment by Lotus saw her become just the eleventh woman in history to be part of a Formula 1 team's driver line-up.

Carmen Jordá (* 28. Mai 1988 in Alcoi) ist eine spanische Automobilrennfahrerin. Sie fuhr von 2012 bis 2014 in der GP3-Serie.


Background.

During the Libyan civil war, Gaddafi's loyalist forces allegedly carried out aerial bombings in Tripoli over civilian protesters, which drew widespread condemnation. However, these massacres likely never took place. Nonetheless, under pressure from mutinying Libyan diplomats the UN was brought to act.

Adoption.

Resolution 1970, proposed by France, Germany, the United Kingdom and the United States, was adopted after a day-long discussion. Libyan Ambassador to the United Nations Abdurrahman Mohamed Shalgam, who defected from the Libyan government, appealed to the Security Council to act on the situation in Libya. He persuaded China, India and Russia to include a reference to the International Criminal Court, after they previously expressed concern that it could inflame the situation. Russia secured a provision preventing nations from using the resolution as a pretext for intervention in Libya. Another provision proposed by Libyan representatives to include a no-fly zone over the country was rejected.

Resolution.

Observations.

In the introduction of the resolution, the Council expressed "grave concern" at the situation in Libya and condemned the use of force against civilians. It also condemned the repression and violations of human rights, and attempts by the Libyan government to incite violence; statements of condemnation from the Arab League, African Union, Organisation of the Islamic Conference and United Nations Human Rights Council were welcomed by the Council. Such attacks on protesters were considered to amount to crimes against humanity.  There was concern at the refugee situation, a shortage of medical supplies and the welfare of foreign nationals. The Security Council recalled the Libyan government's responsibility to protect its people, respect the freedoms of assembly, expression and a free media. Additionally, the government was reminded of the need to bring those responsible for attacks on civilians to account.  The text of the resolution recalled article 16 of the Rome Statute under which no investigation or prosecution may be commenced or proceeded with by the International Criminal Court for a period of 12 months after a Security Council request to that effect.

Acts.

The remainder of the resolution was enacted under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter and Article 41, thus making its provisions legally enforceable.  The Council demanded an immediate end to the violence in Libya and for the government to address the "legitimate demands of the population". It urged the authorities to respect international humanitarian and human rights law, act with restraint, ensure the safety of foreign nationals and humanitarian supplies and lift restrictions placed on the media. International co-operation was advised to evacuate foreign nationals from the country.  The resolution then referred the situation in Libya to the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, who was to address the Council within two months following the adoption of Resolution 1970 and every six months thereafter on action taken, further deciding that Libyan officials should fully co-operate with the Court. An arms embargo was also imposed, preventing weapons from being exported to or out of Libya. States neighbouring Libya were encouraged to inspect suspicious cargo for weapons and to seize any found, while they were also called upon to prevent mercenaries from being used in the uprising. Furthermore, a travel ban and asset freeze was imposed on individuals both in and closely linked to Gaddafi's government; any frozen assets would be made available to benefit the population.  The Security Council established a Committee to monitor the implementation of the sanctions, investigate violations and to impose targeted sanctions on additional individuals and entities. All states were called upon to facilitate humanitarian assistance to Libya. The resolution concluded with the Council stating its intention to review, modify, strengthen or lift the measures in light of the situation.

Travel ban.

The following members of the Gaddafi government were subjects of the travel ban:

Asset freeze.

The following were also subjects of an asset freeze:

Infraction of the resolution.

On 16 April 2011, one of the rebel leaders, General Abdul Fatah Younis told Al-Arabiya that his forces were receiving armament supplies from abroad. This information was confirmed by Mustafa Gheriani, a spokesman for the rebels' National Transitional Council. On 28 July, it became known that it was France that parachuted assault rifles, machineguns and anti-tank guided weapons for the first time, and was airlifting weapons to the airfields that had recently been constructed by rebels.

United Nations Security Council Resolution 1970 was a measure adopted unanimously by the UN Security Council on 26 February 2011. It condemned the use of lethal force by the government of Muammar Gaddafi against protesters participating in the Libyan Civil War, and imposed a series of international sanctions in response.

Die Resolution 1970 des UN-Sicherheitsrates ist eine Resolution, die der Sicherheitsrat der Vereinten Nationen auf seiner 6491. Sitzung am 26. Februar 2011 einstimmig angenommen hat. Mit der Resolution, die aufgrund von Artikel 41 im Kapitel VII der Charta der Vereinten Nationen verabschiedet wurde und deswegen völkerrechtlich verbindlich ist, reagierte das Gremium auf die Entwicklung der Situation in Libyen und verhängte Wirtschaftssanktionen gegen den nordafrikanischen Staat. Diese umfassen ein Waffenembargo, ein Reiseverbot für Muammar al-Gaddafi und einige seiner Familienmitglieder sowie hochrangige Angehörige seiner Regierung. Bankkonten Libyens und der Personen auf der Liste in der Anlage der Resolution wurden eingefroren.


Personal life.

Bradley was born in Saint Joseph, Missouri, and comes from a family of skaters. His sister, Becky, is a skating coach and former competitive skater, and his mother is a USFSA judge.  Bradley studied business at the University of Colorado at Colorado Springs. He is a volunteer at the Broadmoor Skating Club and a coach at the Colorado Springs World Arena.

Career.

Ryan Bradley began skating at the age of two and participated in the U.S. Figure Skating Basic Skills program from 1986-1988.  From 1996-1998, Bradley competed in pair skating with Tiffany Vise. They competed twice at the U.S. Championships. In 2001, he reached Sectionals with Melissa Gallegos. Bradley decided not to continue with pairs, preferring to focus on his singles career and not having enough time to train in both.  As a single skater, he won the silver medal on the Intermediate level at the Junior Olympics (later renamed "Junior Nationals") in the 1994-1995 season. The 1995-1996 season was Bradley's first on the Novice level, and he did not make it out of Sectionals. In the 1996-1997 season, he placed 7th at the novice level at Nationals. In the 1997-1998 season, Bradley won the silver medal on the novice level at Nationals. This win earned him a trip to the Triglav Trophy, which he won.  The following season, 1998–1999, Bradley debuted on the ISU Junior Grand Prix. He won medals at both his events. At that time, the World Junior Championships were held before the U.S. Championships. At the Junior Worlds selection competition, Bradley placed second and was placed on the team for the 1999 Junior Worlds, where he placed 10th. At the 1999 U.S. Championships, he won the Junior title. He competed at the Gardena Spring Trophy following Nationals and won the competition.  In the 1999-2000 season, Bradley remained on the Junior Grand Prix circuit. He won two more medals and qualified for the Junior Grand Prix Final, where he finished 8th. He went on to place 7th in his senior debut at the 2000 U.S. Championships. He went on to place 5th at the 2000 Junior Worlds.  In the 2000-2001 season, Bradley won both of his Junior Grand Prix events and made his senior international debut at the Golden Spin of Zagreb, which he won. He placed 5th at the Junior Grand Prix Final. He placed 9th at the 2001 U.S. Championships. He was originally placed on the team for the 2001 Junior Worlds. However, he was forced to withdraw prior to the event with injury. He had surgery to repair damage to his landing knee. His vacated spot was given to Evan Lysacek.  In the 2001-2002 season, U.S. Figure Skating did not allow American skaters to compete on the Junior Grand Prix because of security concerns following the September 11, 2001 attacks. Bradley placed 7th at the 2002 U.S. Championships. He went on to the 2002 Junior Worlds and placed 15th.  In the 2002-2003 season, Bradley competed at the Karl Schafer Memorial, placing 4th. He made his Grand Prix debut at the 2003 Skate Canada International, where he placed 6th. He was 9th at the 2003 U.S. Championships.  In the 2003-2004 season, he placed 6th at the 2004 U.S. Championships. He made his senior ISU Championship debut at the 2004 Four Continents, where he placed 11th.  Bradley missed most of the 2004-2005 season after breaking his arm while playing dodge ball; he had a spiral fracture in the humerus of his right arm and was off the ice for six months.  He competed in the 2005-2006 season, hoping to contend for a spot to the 2006 Winter Olympics. He placed 8th at the 2006 U.S. Championships. In the 2006-2007 season, Bradley was given a host invitation to the 2006 Skate America due to the retirement of skaters who had placed ahead of him at the 2006 Nationals. Bradley placed 8th.  Bradley accidentally cut his shin with his blade three weeks before the 2007 U.S. Championships. At the event, he held 3rd place after the short program. He skated last in the free skate, and won the silver medal, ahead of defending champion Johnny Weir. Upon learning that he had won the silver, Bradley skated back onto the ice and performed a backflip for the crowd. Bradley went on to the 2007 Four Continents, held at his home rink, the World Arena in Colorado Springs, Colorado, where he placed fourth behind training-mate Jeremy Abbott. During the off-season, he dealt with a torn meniscus in his right knee.  In the 2007-2008 season, Bradley competed on the Grand Prix circuit with a 6th place finish at Skate America and a 5th at Trophee Eric Bompard. He finished 5th at the 2008 U.S. Championships.  Bradley began the 2008-2009 season at the 2008 Skate Canada International, where he won the silver medal. He then placed 7th at 2008 Trophée Eric Bompard. At the 2009 U.S. Championships Bradley finished 4th. He was added to the U.S. team to the 2010 World Championships after Evan Lysacek withdrew. Before the event, Bradley broke the fifth metatarsal in his left foot but was cleared to compete. He finished 18th.  Bradley was initially planning to retire from competitive skating but decided to resume training in mid-October. He missed the Grand Prix season but competed at the 2011 U.S. Championships. Bradley won the short program and placed fourth in the free skate to win the overall competition and become the US National Champion for the first time in his career. He was selected to compete at the 2011 World Championships.  On May 10, 2011, Bradley announced his retirement from competitive skating. He was coached by Tom Zakrajsek for 22 years.

Commercials and endorsements.

Bradley appeared in a commercial for Fuji Xerox with Stéphane Lambiel, wearing heavy makeup to appear as an old man. He performed a backflip in this commercial. Due to its popularity, Fuji released a second one explaining how it was done.

Ryan Scott Bradley (born November 17, 1983) is an American figure skater. He is the 2008 Skate Canada International silver medalist, the 2009 Skate America bronze medalist, the 2011 U.S. national champion, and a three-time U.S. Collegiate champion.

Ryan Bradley (* 17. November 1983 in Saint Joseph, Missouri) ist ein ehemaliger US-amerikanischer Eiskunstläufer, der im Einzellauf startete. Bradley stammt aus einer Eiskunstlauffamilie, sowohl seine Eltern wie auch seine Schwester waren Eiskunstläufer. Heute arbeitet seine Schwester als Eiskunstlauftrainerin und seine Mutter als Punktrichterin beim US-Verband. So begann Bradley schon im Alter von zwei Jahren mit dem Eislaufen. Er startet für den Broadmoor Skating Club in Colorado Springs. Sein Trainer ist Tom Zakrajsek. Neben seiner Wettkampfkarriere studiert Bradley Wirtschaft an der Universität von Colorado Springs und arbeitet als Freiwilliger im Broadmoor Skating Club und als Trainer in der Colorado Springs World Arena. Bradley ist besonders bekannt für seine spektakulären Schauläufe, bei denen er u. a. einen Rückwärtssalto zeigt.


History.

The Angat Watershed was first gazetted on July 26, 1904 as the Angat River Reserve through Executive Order No. 33 signed by Civil Governor Luke Edward Wright. It set aside the Angat River in the municipality of Norzagaray bordering Mounts Salacot, Balugan and Sulip in the Sierra Madre range and including the Bulagao and Bitbit creeks for purposes of the development of water power from the river. On March 10, 1927 through Proclamation No. 71 signed by Governor-General Leonard Wood, the Angat Watershed Forest Reserve was established covering portions of the municipalities of Montalban, San José del Monte, Norzagaray, Angat, San Rafael, San Miguel, Peñaranda and Infanta in the provinces of Rizal, Bulacan, Nueva Ecija and Tayabas, with the administration and control placed under the Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources. At about this time, the Metropolitan Water District (now Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System) started construction on the Angat–Novaliches Water System including the Ipo Dam located within the reserve, which was completed in 1939 and inaugurated in 1940. On December 4, 1965, with the construction of the Angat Hydroelectric Dam within the protected area, President Diosdado Macapagal signed Proclamation No. 505 transferring the administration of the whole reserve to the National Power Corporation.  On April 30, 1968, of land surrounding the Ipo Dam was declared as a separate forest range and watershed management pilot project reserve through Proclamation No. 391 issued by President Ferdinand Marcos. This declaration effectively excluded the southern section of the watershed from the control of the National Power Corporation and placed it instead under the joint administration and control of the Director of Forestry of the Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources and the General Manager of the Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System.

Geography.

The Angat Watershed Forest Reserve is located approximately northeast of Metro Manila largely in the mountainous eastern region of Bulacan. It contains the headwaters of the Angat River, a tributary of the Rio Grande de Pampanga, and stretches along upper Angat River from San Jose del Monte and Rodriguez to Doña Remedios Trinidad, and extending to General Tinio and General Nakar. The forest reserve is divided into two sub-catchment areas: the Forest Range and the Metro Water District. The Angat Watershed and Forest Range, also known as the Angat Watershed Management Pilot Project Reserve, covers in San Jose del Monte, Norzagaray and Rodriguez, and supports the Ipo Dam, which has a capacity of and a spilling level of. It is under the administration of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources and Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System. The Metro Water District, also known as the Angat–Maasim River Watershed, covers the remaining and contains the Angat Hydroelectric Dam, which has a reservoir capacity of and a normal water level of. The Angat Hydropower Corporation, a joint venture of San Miguel Corporation and K-water, has managed the reserve since taking over ownership of the hydroelectric power plant from the National Power Corporation in 2014. The watershed is characterized by hilly to mountainous topography and a moderate to intensive forest cover. It is considered as one of the few remaining well-forested and well-managed watersheds in the country. The highest peak in Bulacan, Mount Oriod, rises to a height of at the border of the two sub-catchment areas in Norzagaray. It also contains Mount Maranat, a popular destination for hikers and is also visited for its waterfalls. These mountains in the southern Sierra Madre range feed the Angat River's water source from its three major tributaries: the Talaguio, Catmon and Matulid Rivers. It stretches downstream from the watershed into several municipalities and irrigates more than of prime agricultural lands before draining into the Pampanga River in Calumpit and eventually exiting into the Manila Bay. Additional water supply is fed into the Angat reservoir through the Angat–Umiray trans-basin tunnel which runs for from Umiray River on the eastern side of Sierra Madre in General Nakar.  The reserve is home to an indigenous population known as Dumagat tribe which inhabit twelve sitios in the villages of San Mateo, San Lorenzo and San Isidro in Norzagaray, and Kabayunan in Doña Remedios Trinidad. In December 2014, the National Power Corporation inaugurated the Angat Rainforest and Ecological Park within the reserve in Sitio Bitbit, San Lorenzo, Norzagaray. It offers many different opportunities for nature and outdoors enthusiasts including the hilltop view deck, ecological center, and the Tarictic fun trail. A museum of natural history is also planned for the park, as well as a Dumagat cultural heritage site, seedling propagation, rattan gene bank and a bambusetum.  The Upper Marikina River Basin Protected Landscape borders Angat Watershed on the south, while on the north, it is also contiguous with the Doña Remedios–General Tinio Watershed Forest Reserve. It is also bordered by the Biak-na-Bato National Park and Minalungao National Park on the west and northwest. It is accessible from Manila via Quirino Highway, Del Monte–Norzagaray Road and Bigti–San Mateo Road in Norzagaray.

Biodiversity.

The Angat Watershed supports a variety of wildlife thanks to its location in the Sierra Madre and its rich hydrology and terrestrial ecology coated by lowland dipterocarp forests, submontane forests, grasslands, secondary bamboo and scrublands. It is home to 290 endemic species of woody and non-woody plants, including the white lauan (known locally as "bagtikan"), tanguile, yakal, acacia and narra. A good area for bird-watching, the Angat reserve attracts 43 different bird species, many of which are threatened or restricted. In addition to the two most visible birds in the reserve, the Luzon hornbill (known locally as kalao) and the Rufous hornbill, the reserve also attracts large flocks of spotted imperial pigeon, scale-feathered malkoha, rough-crested malkoha, grey-backed tailorbird, and Philippine eagle owl. These avian species are all endemic to the Philippines, with the Luzon hornbill and Philippine eagle-owl classified as near-threatened and vulnerable. The data-deficient Worcester's buttonquail has also been recorded in the watershed, as well as the Philippine hawk-eagle, Philippine dwarf kingfisher, green racket-tail, whiskered pitta, celestial monarch, ashy thrush, ashy-breasted flycatcher, flame-breasted fruit dove, and green-faced parrotfinch.  Two near-threatened mammals are known to roam the watershed forest at Angat, the crab-eating macaque and the Philippine warty pig. It is also a known habitat of the Philippine deer. Other rare species of note in the protected area include the blazed Luzon shrew rat, and 66 species of vertebrates, including the endemic Japanese bullet frog and marbled water monitor. The Angat reservoir is stocked with huge tilapia and eel.

The Angat Watershed Forest Reserve is a conservation area that protects the drainage basin in the southern Sierra Madre range north of Metro Manila in the Philippines where surface water empties into the Angat River and its tributaries. It is spread over an area of in the eastern portion of Bulacan and northern Rizal province at an altitude of between. The conservation area also extends to the provinces of Nueva Ecija and Quezon and is centered on an artificial lake created by the Angat Dam which, together with the Ipo Dam located downstream, supply 97% of the water requirement of Metro Manila via an aqueduct system to the La Mesa Dam and Reservoir and the Balara Filtration Plant in Quezon City. The Angat Dam and Reservoir is also a major source of hydroelectricity for Metro Manila and surrounding provinces, contributing some 200 megawatts to the Luzon grid. The watershed is a popular birdwatching site and is a biodiversity hotspot containing most of the remaining closed-canopy forests in Central Luzon.

Das Angat Watershed Forest Reserve ist ein Wasser- und Landschaftsschutzgebiet auf der Insel Luzon in den Philippinen. Es umfasst eine Fläche von 57.891 Hektar und liegt an der östlichen Grenze der Provinz Bulacan, auf dem Gebiet der Gemeinden Doña Remedios Trinidad, Norzagaray und San Jose del Monte City. Es ist die wichtigste Quelle zur Wasserversorgung der 12 Millionen Einwohner zählenden Hauptstadtregion Metro Manila. Mit dem Präsidenten-Erlass Nr. 391 wurde es am 30. April 1968 eingerichtet.


Background.

In the 5th century, during the reign of Pope Sixtus III, the town of Genazzano, about south of Rome, had contributed a large portion of its revenue for the Roman basilica now known as Santa Maria Maggiore. In appreciation, a church, called Santa Maria, was built in Genazzano and was later entrusted to the Augustinian Order in 1356. The Genazzano church became a popular place of pilgrimage. Numerous cures were said took place there. The Augustinian friars were invited to minister to the spiritual needs of the pilgrims. They continue to serve there to this day.

Legend.

According to tradition, the story is said to have begun in 1467 in a small church in Albania. In this church there was the old painting of Our Lady with the child Jesus and no one in the village knew where it had came from.  Due to the Turks invading Albania, many villagers were fleeing. Two young men, Giorgio and De Scalvis, often visited the church to pray. They had had a particular devotion to Mary as depicted in the painting of Mary and regretted that it would be left behind. One night as they prayed in the church, they both fell asleep and dreamt that Mary had commanded them to leave the country. She also said that the painting would also depart to escape from the Turks and that they must follow the painting wherever it went.  In the morning the painting had detached itself from the wall and hovered, wrapped white cloud. They followed after as the painting led them to the coast. Then they followed it out across the water until they reached the Italian coast. After a few days the cloud and the painting disappeared. Giorgio and De Scalvis began searching the city until they found the old Augustinian church of Santa Maria in Genazzano.  In the year 1467, in the midst of the festivities for the Feast of Saint Mark, the townfolk suddenly heard "exquisite music." A mysterious cloud was then said to have descended on the unfinished wall of the parish church. In front of the people, the cloud dissipated and a beautiful fresco, no thicker than a carte-de-visite and no more than eighteen inches square, of the Virgin Mary and the Christ Child was revealed. It was widely believed that it had been miraculously transported from a church in Scutari, Albania. The picture of Our Lady was at first called "La Madonna del Paradiso" and now better known as "Madonna del Buon Consiglio" (Our Lady of Good Counsel).  Such was the holy image's reputation that Pope Urban VIII made a "glittering" pilgrimage there in 1630, invoking the protection of the Queen of Heaven, as did Pope Pius IX in 1864. On November 17, 1682, Pope Innocent XI had the picture solemnly crowned. Among her noted clients have been St Aloysius Gonzaga, St Alphonsus Liguori, St John Bosco, and Blessed Stephen Bellesini.

History.

Art experts consulted during a restoration conducted between 1957 and 1959 suggest that the image of the Madonna was once part of a larger fresco that covered the wall and was subsequently covered over with plaster. They believe the fresco is likely the work of the early fifteenth century artist Gentile da Fabriano, probably painted around the time of Pope Martin V (1417-1431).

Veneration.

The Augustinian Order contributed to the spread of this devotion internationally. In 1753, Pope Benedict XIV established the Pious Union of Our Lady of Good Counsel. Leo XIII, who was himself a member of the pious union, was deeply attached to this devotion. On April 22, 1903, Pope Leo XIII included the invocation "Mater boni consilii" in the Litany of Loreto. In 1939, Venerable Pope Pius XII placed his pontificate under the maternal care of Our Lady of Good Counsel and composed a prayer to her.  Through the years, various institutions have been named in honor of Mary under the title of Our Lady of Good Counsel. These institutions include a college, high schools, and churches.  Her Feast is celebrated on April 26 so as not to conflict with that of St. Mark.

The White Scapular.

The small Scapular of Our Lady of Good Counsel (the White Scapular) was presented by the Hermits of St Augustine to Pope Leo XIII, who, on December 19-21, 1893, approved it and endowed it with indulgences in a Decree of the Congregation of Rites.  On the front panel of the sacramental (to be made of white wool) is the image of the fresco of Our Lady of Good Counsel, with the inscription, “Mater boni consilii [ora pro nobis].” On the second segment is found the papal coat-of-arms, which includes the Triple Tiara and the Keys of Heaven, with the words of Leo XIII: “” (Child, listen to her counsels).

Patronage.

Our Lady of Good Counsel is the Patroness of the Missionary Sisters of Saint Peter Claver, the National Council of Catholic Women, and of the Catholic Women's League of Canada.  The "Midwest Augustinians" headquartered in Chicago have also adopted Our Lady of Good Counsel as their patroness, having named their Augustinian jurisdiction as the "Province of Our Mother of Good Counsel."  The town Essen in the German Ruhr- Area is under the patronage of the Lady. The High church the Münster of Essen as it is called was given to her after the Ruhrbistum was established.

Legacy.

Our Lady of Good Counsel in White Plains, New York is the site of the motherhouse of the Sisters of the Divine Compassion. The Good Counsel Complex is on the National Register of Historic Places.

Our Lady of Good Counsel () is a title given to the Blessed Virgin Mary, after a painting said to be miraculous, now found in the thirteenth century Augustinian church at Genazzano, near Rome, Italy. Measuring 40 by 45 centimeters the image is a fresco executed on a thin layer of plaster no thicker than an egg shell. Over the centuries, devotions to Our Lady of the Good Counsel grew among saints and Popes, to the extent that a reference to it was added to the Litany of Loreto and the devotion spread throughout the world. Her feast day is April 26.

Mutter vom guten Rat () ist eine Anrufung Mariens. Papst Leo XIII. fügte mit dem Dekret "Ex quo Beatissima Vergine" (Über die allerseligste Jungfrau) die Anrufung „Du Mutter des guten Rates“ in die Lauretanische Litanei ein. Pius XII. unterstellte sein Pontifikat dem Patronat der Mutter vom guten Rat und verfasste ein Gebet an sie.