In the Third Republic.

The group was founded in 1936–1937 by Eugène Deloncle. Because most of its members were bourgeois, the group enjoyed privileged relations within industrial circles (National Federation of ratepayer, Company Lesieur, L'Oréal, etc).  An important member was Joseph Darnand, who later founded the Service d'ordre légionnaire (SOL), the forerunner of the Milice, the Collaborationist paramilitary of the Vichy regime. His nephew Henri Charbonneau was also a member. Jean Filiol was a member. He was appointed as the head of the Milice in Limoges, and fled to Spain at the end of World War II, where he worked in the Spanish subsidiary of L'Oréal. Gabriel Jeantet, who was a lover of a sister of François Mitterrand who later recommended him for the Francisque. Dr. Henri Martin, a medical doctor who is suspected of having forged the Pacte Synarchique, and worked for the Organisation armée secrète (OAS) after World War II. Mohammed El Maadi, head of "La Cagoule" for French Algeria, creator of the antisemitic newspaper "Er Rachid," and organizer of the North-African Brigade, known as "SS-Mohammed", in 1944.  The group drew most of its members from Orléanists disappointed by the lack of action by "Action Française," which was founded by Charles Maurras. They were opposed to the Popular Front government, created from an alliance of left-wing groups. Historians believe many low-level members were recruited in the belief that it was an auto-defense organization, intended to fight against a Communist takeover.  In Nice, new members were initiated in a formal ritual. In the presence of the Grand Master, dressed in red and accompanied by his "assesseurs" dressed in black, with their faces covered, new members stood before a table draped with a French flag. A sword and torches were placed on it. Each man raised his right arm and swore the oath, "Ad majorem Galliæ gloriam" ("For the greater glory of France"). This oath echoed the Jesuit motto, "Ad Majorem Dei Gloriam" (For the greater glory of God). Disloyalty was punished by death. For instance, the arms suppliers Léon Jean-Baptiste and Maurice Juif were murdered by "Cagoulards" in October 1936 and February 1937, respectively, for attempting to enrich themselves by lying about the price they had paid for the arms.  The paramilitary organization was active in the provinces. In Paris it organized militias and demonstrations, and it amassed arms. They attempted to assassinate Léon Blum, the prime minister. They also trained men in terrorism, built underground prisons, and "ran guns in Belgium, Switzerland and Italy." La Cagoule directed its members in various actions aimed at creating suspicions of Communists to destabilize and destroy the French Republic. Some argue that on 26 January 1937 Jean Filiol stabbed to death Dimitri Navachine, a Russian national and for several years the respected director of the Paris branch of the Soviet State Bank, in the Bois de Boulogne. Others believed that he had been killed by Joseph Stalin's Secret Service, the NKVD, as the Great Purge was underway in the Soviet Union. To ease their obtaining arms from fascist Italy, on 9 June 1937, the group assassinated two Italian antifascists, the Rosselli brothers, who were refugees in France. They sabotaged airplanes clandestinely supplied by the French government to the Spanish Republic. On 11 September 1937, the Cagoule blew up two buildings owned by the "Comité des Forges" (Ironmasters Association), to create the impression of a communist conspiracy. Although it was widely believed at the time that communists had set the bombs, the government took no official action against the French Communist Party, to the disappointment of "Cagoulards." The Cagoule tried to infiltrate the International Brigades for the same purpose. Organized along military lines, the Cagoule infiltrated parts of the French military via Georges Loustaunau-Lacau's "Corvignolles" organization (as a means to acquire weapons). They prepared to overthrow the Popular Front government in November 1937 to install a fascist government. The "Cagoulards" initially intended to make Philippe Pétain chief of state. Pétain refused their overtures, and they chose Marshall Louis Franchet d'Esperey as their future chief of state.  The Cagoule was infiltrated by the French police. On 15 November 1937, Marx Dormoy, Minister of the Interior (and the top officer of law enforcement), denounced their plot and ordered wide arrests of members. The French police seized 2 tons of high explosives, several anti-tank or anti-aircraft guns, 500 machine guns, 65 submachine guns, 134 rifles and 17 sawn-off shotguns. Some of the arms were of German or Italian origin. About 70 men were arrested. Deloncle had boasted that he had 12,000 men under his order in Paris, and 120,000 in the provinces, but it is likely there were no more than 200 men who knew much about the organization and its structure, and another several hundred who were more loosely affiliated with the group.  Reactions to the plot and the revelations by the French government about la Cagoule varied among the international media. In the United States, the editors of the "New York Times" were initially suspicious of the accounts. The journalists of "Time magazine" likened "La Cagoule" to the American Ku Klux Klan, a right-wing group that had a widespread revival from 1915, reaching its peak of influence in 1925, with members elected to political office in midwestern cities and states as well as the South.  At the outbreak of World War II, the French government released imprisoned "cagoulards" to fight in the French Army. Some entered the Milice, as did Jacques de Bernonville.  During the Occupation of France in 1940, the Vichy government arrested Marx Dormoy, as he had refused to vote for full powers for Marshal Philippe Pétain. They eventually interned him under house arrest at Montélimar. He was assassinated on 26 July 1941 by a clockwork bomb set off at the house. It was believed to have been done by La Cagoule terrorists, in reprisal for Dormoy's arrests in 1937 and attempt to suppress the organization.

Organization of the Cagoule.

"La Cagoule" was organized into cells. Light cells comprised 8 men armed with submachine guns (typically one per light cell), rifles, semi-automatic pistols and hand grenades. Heavy cells comprised 12 men, armed with a heavy machine gun and the individual weapons. A group of three cells formed one unit, three units a battalion, three battalions a regiment, two regiments a brigade, and two brigades a division. Battalions could be divided into automobile squads of about 50 men. Written communications were avoided as much as possible. The "street fighting" handbook was titled "Secret Rules of the Communist Party" to avoid revealing La Cagoule in case the booklet was found by the police.

World War II and after.

During World War II, members of the Cagoule were divided. Some of them joined various Fascist movements; Schueller and Deloncle founded the Mouvement Social Révolutionnaire, which conducted various pro-Nazi Germany activities in occupied France. It bombed seven synagogues in Paris in October 1941. Others became prominent members of Philippe Pétain's Vichy Regime. Darnand was the leader of the "Milice", the Vichy paramilitary group who fought the French Resistance, and enforced anti-semitic policies. He took an oath of loyalty to Adolf Hitler after accepting a Waffen SS rank.  Other cagoulards sided against the Germans, either as members of the Resistance (such as Marie-Madeleine Fourcade, Pierre Guillain de Bénouville or Georges Loustaunau-Lacau in the Maquis), or as members of Charles de Gaulle's Free French Forces, such as General Henri Giraud or Colonel Passy. After the war, the writer Henri de Kérillis accused de Gaulle of having been a member of "La Cagoule"; he said that De Gaulle was ready to install a fascist government if the Allies let him become France's chief of state.  The "cagoulards" arrested for the 1937 conspiracy were not brought to trial for those charges until 1948, after the liberation of France. By then many had served in the Vichy government or the Resistance, and few were brought to trial.

La Cagoule ("The Cowl", press nickname coined by the "Action Française" nationalist Maurice Pujo), officially called Comité secret d'action révolutionnaire ("Secret Committee of Revolutionary Action"), was a French fascist-leaning and anti-communist terrorist group that used violence to promote its activities from 1935 to 1941.

La Cagoule (französisch „die Kapuze“, „die Maske“) ist der von der Presse verliehene Beiname für den französischen Geheimbund "Organisation secrète d’action révolutionnaire nationale" (OSARN, wie die Gruppierung von ihren Gründern genannt wurde, kurz darauf nur noch OSAR), später umbenannt in "Comité secret d’action révolutionnaire" (CSAR), einer rechtsextremen Gruppe, die zwischen 1935 und 1937 aktiv war und deren wichtigster Führer Eugène Deloncle war.


History.

This championship was created in 1929 by the Royal Spanish Football Federation. The league has been national, single-table except for a period from 1949 to 1968 in which it was regionalized into two North and South groups. Since 1984 it has been organized by the Liga de Fútbol Profesional.  From 2006, the "Liga de Fútbol Profesional" had a ten-year sponsorship agreement with the banking group BBVA. Initially rebranded as Liga BBVA, the Segunda División was renamed Liga Adelante two years later, after the BBVA sponsorship was extended to the Primera División, which received the Liga BBVA name. Another banking group, Banco Santander, took over the sponsorship of both divisions in 2016, upon which the Segunda División was renamed La Liga 1|2|3, before being renamed LaLiga Smartbank in time for the 2019–20 season.  Since the 2010–11 season, a play-off has been played between the teams that finished 3rd to 6th (reserve teams are not eligible for promotion).

League format.

The league contains 22 teams that play each other home and away for a 42 match season. Each year three teams are promoted to La Liga. The top two teams earn an automatic promotion. The third team to be promoted is the winner of a play-off between the teams that finished 3rd to 6th (reserve teams are not eligible for promotion). The play-offs comprise two-legged semi-finals followed by a two-legged final. The bottom four are relegated to Segunda División B.

All-time standings.

The All-Time Segunda Table is an overall record of all match results, points, and goals of every team that has played in La Segunda División since its inception in 1929. The table that follows is accurate as of the end of the 2018–19 season. League or status at 2019–20:

Champions and promotions.

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Media coverage.

International.

All regular season matches exclusively live and free, in 155 countries on YouTube channel «LaLiga2» (exclude Spain, Balkan countries, Canada, Latin America countries, and USA), with promotion play-offs aired on several other broadcasters around the world based on this broadcasters list.

The Campeonato Nacional de Liga de Segunda División, commercially known as LaLiga 2 and stylized as LaLiga SmartBank for sponsorship reasons, is the men's second professional association football division of the Spanish football league system. Administrated by the Liga de Fútbol Profesional, it is contested by 22 teams, with the top two teams plus the winner of a play-off promoted to LaLiga and replaced by the three lowest-placed teams in that division.

Die Segunda División (; Sponsorenname LaLiga SmartBank) ist die zweite Liga im spanischen Fußball. Von 2006 bis 2008 trug die Liga aufgrund des Sponsorings durch die spanische Bank BBVA den Namen "Liga BBVA". Als zur Saison 2008/09 die Primera División diesen Namen übernahm, wurde die Liga in "Liga Adelante" () umbenannt. 2016 schloss die Liga mit der Banco Santander einen Sponsoringvertrag, nach dem sie den Namen "LaLiga 1|2|3" oder kurz LaLiga 2 erhielt.


History.

The Generalitat of Catalonia finds its origins in the Catalan Courts, as during the reign of James I the Conqueror (1208-1276) they reunited and were convoked by the king, as representatives of the social statements of the time. Under the reign of Peter the Great (1276-1285), the Catalan Courts gained institutional status, after the king obliged himself to celebrate an annual "General Court".  The Catalan Courts exercised as Council and had legislative functions through its three branches: the ecclesiastical (clergy), the military (nobility) and the popular (villages and towns submitted to direct rule of the king). This union of powers was named "Lo General de Cathalunya"  Is in 1289 when the first step into becoming an institution happens during the Courts celebrated in the castle of Montsó (situated in the Kingdom of Aragon, ruled by Count of Barcelona, since the year 1151 AD when Count Ramon Berenguer IV married Princess Petronilla of Aragon). A commission was then designed as ""Diputació del General"" (General Deputation), as to temporarily collect the "services" or tributes that the "branches" granted the king on his demand. This tax was popularly known as ""Drets Generals"" (General Rights) or ""generalitats"" (generalities), finding its counterpart in the French "Généralités", which were also founded as taxing districts.

Medieval origins.

Catalonia's political past as a territorially differentiated community with its own representative and separated institutions, with respect to the sovereign power of the combined Catalan counties (988-1164), the Crown of Aragon (1164-1516), the Monarchy of Spain (1516-1808),(1812-1814) French Empire and of the Spanish constitutional state (since 1814), can be divided into four stages, separated by three great ruptures in the legal/public order.  The "Pau i Treva de Déu" ("Peace and Truce of God") was a social movement born in the eleventh century promoted by the Church, united with the peasantry as the response to the violence perpetrated by feudal nobles. The hometowns, then, delimited a space protected of feudal violence. However, to ensure a coexistence climate, it was necessary to go further, establishing an authority that prohibited the practice of any type of violent act anywhere in the territory. This was the objective of the assemblies of Peace and Truce of God, the first of which, in the Catalan counties, took place in Toluges (Roussillon), in 1027, under the presidency of Abbot Oliba, on behalf of Bishop Berenguer d'Elna, absent from the diocese because he was on a pilgrimage. The origin of the Catalan Courts can be considered from the Peace of Truce of God.  The Generalitat of Catalonia stems from the medieval institution which ruled, in the name of the King of the Crown of Aragon, some aspects of the administration of the Principality of Catalonia. The Catalan Courts were the main institution of the Principality during its existence as a political entity and approved the Catalan constitutions. The first constitutions were that of the Courts of 1283.  The medieval precedent of the Generalitat, the "Diputació del General de Catalunya" ("Deputation of the General of Catalonia", where "General" means the political community of the Catalans and not the military rank) was a permanent council of deputies established by the Courts in order to recapt the new "tax of the General" in 1359, and gained an important political power during the next centuries, assuming tasks of prosecutor. It was chosen by the legislators in 1931 because they felt it was appropriate for invoking as a legitimising base for contemporary self-government.

First abolition.

Catalan institutions which depended on the Generalitat were abolished in what is currently known in Catalonia as Northern Catalonia, one year after the signature of the Treaty of the Pyrenees in the 17th century, which transferred the territory from Spanish to French sovereignty.  Then, by the early 18th century, as the "Nueva Planta Decrees" were passed in Spain after the Catalan defeat in the War of the Spanish Succession, the institution was abolished in the Spanish territory as well.

First restoration.

The Generalitat was restored in the Catalonia under Spanish administration in 1931 during the events of the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic when Francesc Macià, leader of the Republican Left of Catalonia, declared the Catalan Republic on 14 April but later reached an agreement with the Spanish ministers, in which the Catalan Republic was renamed Generalitat of Catalonia (Catalan: Generalitat de Catalunya) and given its modern political and representative function as the autonomous government of Catalonia within the Spanish Republic. The restored Generalitat was ruled by a statute of autonomy approved by the Spanish Cortes and included a parliament, a presidency, a government and a court of appeal. It was presided by Francesc Macià (1931-1933) and Lluís Companys (1933-1940).  After the right wing coalition won the Spanish elections in 1934, the leftist leaders of the Generalitat of Catalonia rebelled in October of that year against the Spanish authorities, and it was temporarily suspended from 1934 to 1936.

Second abolition.

In 1939, as the Spanish Civil War finished with the defeat of the Republican side, the "Generalitat" of Catalonia as an institution was abolished and remained so during the Francoist dictatorship until 1975. The president of the "Generalitat" at the time, Lluís Companys, was tortured and executed in October 1940 for the crime of'military rebellion'. Nonetheless, the Generalitat maintained its official existence in exile, led by presidents Josep Irla (1940-1954) and Josep Tarradellas (1954-1980).

Second restoration.

The succession of presidents of the "Generalitat" was maintained in exile from 1939 to 1977, when Josep Tarradellas returned to Catalonia and was recognized as the legitimate president by the Spanish government. Tarradellas, when he returned to Catalonia, made his often quoted remark ""Ciutadans de Catalunya: ja sóc aquí"" ("Citizens of Catalonia: I am back!"), reassuming the autonomous powers of Catalonia, one of the historic nationalities of present-day Spain.  After this, the powers given to the autonomous Catalan government according to the Spanish Constitution of 1978 were transferred and the Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia ("Estatut d'Autonomia") was passed after being approved both by referendum in Catalonia and by the Spanish parliament.

Recent history.

Governance since 2006.

Artur Mas held the office of President of the "Generalitat" from December 2010 until his resignation in January 2016, leading a minority government dependent on pacts with other parties including the Socialists' Party of Catalonia following the 2010 election and the 2015 election.  José Montilla, leader of the Socialist Party, had been the president of the "Generalitat" until November 2010, he was backed up by a tripartite coalition of left-wing and Catalan nationalist political parties. His party actually won fewer seats in parliament than the main opposition party, Convergence and Union, in the 2006 election, but as he gathered more support from MPs from other parties in the parliament, he was able to repeat the same coalition government that his predecessor (Pasqual Maragall) had formed in order to send CiU to the opposition for the first time after 23 years of Jordi Pujol's government.  On 18 June 2006, a reformed version was approved of the Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia and went into effect in August. In its inception, the reform was promoted by both the leftist parties in the government and by the main opposition party (CiU), which were united in pushing for increased devolution of powers from the Spanish government level, enhanced fiscal autonomy and finances, and explicit recognition of Catalonia's national identity; however the details of its final redaction were harshly fought and the subject became a controversial issue in the Catalan politics, with ERC, themselves members of the Tripartite, finally opposing it. In 2010, the Spanish Constitutional Court reduced the Statute voted in a referendum, eliminating or reinterpreting more than 200 articles, due to a signature collection promoted by then the Spanish opposition leader, Mariano Rajoy. Tis is considered one of the main reasons for the independence boom that happened from 2010 with 8% support to 2018 with 52.4% Support.  Former president Artur Mas (mentioned above) was recently charged by the Spanish government for civil disobedience, after he organised and staged a referendum on independence in 2014.

Current status.

The most recent President of the Generalitat of Catalonia was Carles Puigdemont, member of the Catalan European Democratic Party, successor formation to the defunct Convergence and Union alliance. He was suspended from office on 27 October 2017, by the Spanish government.  After a number of attempts to invest a new president, Quim Torra became president on the 17th of May 2018, with Junts per Catalunya and Republican Left of Catalonia voting in favour of him.

Autonomous system of government.

The autonomous government consists of the Executive Council, the President and the Parliament. Some people wrongly apply this name only to the executive council (the cabinet of the autonomous government); however, "Generalitat de Catalunya" is the system of Catalan autonomous government as a whole.  The region has gradually achieved a greater degree of autonomy since 1979. After Navarre and the Basque Country regions, Catalonia has the greatest level of self-government in Spain. When it is fully instated, the "Generalitat" holds exclusive and wide jurisdiction in various matters of culture, environment, communications, transportation, commerce, public safety and local governments. In many aspects relating to education, health and justice, the region shares jurisdiction with the Spanish government.  One of the examples of Catalonia's degree of autonomy is its own police force, the "Mossos d'Esquadra" ("Troopers"), which has taken over most of the police functions in Catalonia which used to be served by the Civil Guard "(Guardia Civil)" and the Spanish National Police Corps.  With few exceptions, most of the justice system is administered by national judicial institutions. The legal system is uniform throughout the Spanish state, with the exception of some parts of civil law – especially family, inheritance, and real estate law – that have traditionally been ruled by so-called foral law. The fields of civil law that are subject to autonomous legislation have been codified in the Civil Code of Catalonia "(Codi civil de Catalunya)" consisting of six books that have successively entered into force since 2003.  Another institution stemming from the Catalan autonomy statute, but independent from the "Generalitat" in its check and balance functions, is the "Síndic de Greuges" (ombudsman) to address problems that may arise between private citizens or organizations and the Generalitat or local governments.

Legislature.

The Parliament of Catalonia (in Catalan: "Parlament de Catalunya") is the legislative body of the Generalitat and represents the citizens of Catalonia. It is elected every four years by universal suffrage, and it has powers to legislate in different matters such as education, health, culture, internal institutional and territorial organization, election and control of the president of the Generalitat and the Government, budget and others, according with the Statute of Autonomy. The last Catalan election was held on 21 December 2017, and its current president is Roger Torrent, incumbent since January 2018.

Presidency.

The president of the Generalitat of Catalonia (in Catalan: "president de la Generalitat de Catalunya") is the highest representative of Catalonia, and is also responsible of leading the government's action. Since the restoration of the Generalitat on the return of democracy in Spain, the presidents of Catalonia have been Josep Tarradellas (1977–1980, president in exile since 1954), Jordi Pujol (1980–2003), Pasqual Maragall (2003–2006), José Montilla (2006–2010), Artur Mas (2010–2016), Carles Puigdemont (2016–2017) and, after the imposition of direct rule from Madrid, Quim Torra (2018–).

Executive.

The Executive Council (in Catalan: "Consell Executiu") or Government ("Govern"), is the body responsible of the government of the Generalitat, it holds executive and regulatory power. It comprises the president of the Generalitat, the First Minister (or the Vice President) and the Ministers ("consellers"). Its seat is the Palau de la Generalitat, in Barcelona.

International presence.

As an autonomous community of Spain, Catalonia is not recognized as a sovereign state by any sovereign state. However, as Catalonia has progressively gained a greater degree of self-government in recent years, the Catalan Government has established nearly bilateral relationships with foreign bodies. For the most part, these relationships are with the governments of other powerful subnational entities such as Quebec or California. In addition, like most Spanish autonomous communities, Catalonia has permanent delegations before international organizations, such as the European Union.  More recently, Catalonia has embarked upon an expansion process of its international representation by opening a number of delegations worldwide. As of 2017, these exceeded 40. Most of these offices are located in major world cities like London, New York City, Los Angeles, Paris, Tokyo and others. Each office has specific duties assigned by their ministry or department agency. Generally, the functions of these are the representation of specific interests of the Government of Catalonia, trade and foreign investment, Catalan culture and language support, tourist promotion and international cooperation activities.  There are no specific Catalan political institutions in Northern Catalonia, other than the French "département" of Pyrénées-Orientales. However, since 5 September 2003, there has been a "Casa de la Generalitat" in Perpignan, which aims to promote the Catalan culture and facilitate exchanges between each side of the Franco–Spanish border.  Under application of article 155 of the Constitution following the constitutional crisis of 2017 Catalonia only had 1 delegation abroad, after the rest were closed, this delegation was the one of Brussels, Belgium. The Catalan Government elected after 21 December election is in process to restore the closed delegations.  This is the list of the current delegations of the Generalitat of Catalonia abroad:

The Generalitat de Catalunya (; in Spanish: Generalidad de Cataluña; in Aranese: Generalitat de Catalonha), or Government of Catalonia, is the institutional system by which Catalonia politically organizes its self-government. It is formed by the Parliament of Catalonia, the Presidency of the Generalitat de Catalunya, and the Executive Council of Catalonia (also very often referred to as ""Govern"", which means Government, but can not take decisions alone)

Die ([], spanisch "Generalidad de Cataluña") ist die Gesamtheit der politischen Institutionen, die im Rahmen des Autonomiestatuts die Selbstverwaltung der spanischen Autonomen Gemeinschaft Katalonien ausübt.


Mercia in the seventh century.

By the 7th century, England was almost entirely divided into kingdoms ruled by the Anglo-Saxons who had come to Britain two hundred years before. The kingdom of Mercia occupied what is now the English midlands. The origin of the kingdom is not recorded, but royal genealogies preserved in the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" and the Anglian collection agree that the royal houses were descended from a founder named Icel; the Mercian royal house is hence known as the Iclingas. The earliest Mercian king about whom definite historical information has survived is Penda of Mercia, Æthelred's father. The larger neighbouring kingdoms included Northumbria to the north, recently united from its constituent kingdoms of Bernicia and Deira, East Anglia to the east, and Wessex, the kingdom of the West Saxons, to the south.  According to "Ecclesiastical History of the English People", a history of the English church written by the 8th-century monk Bede, there were seven early Anglo-Saxon rulers who held "imperium", or overlordship, over the other kingdoms. The fifth of these was Edwin of Northumbria, who was killed at the battle of Hatfield Chase by a combined force including Cadwallon, a British king of Gwynedd, and Penda. After Edwin's death, Northumbria briefly fell apart into its two subkingdoms of Bernicia and Deira. Within a year Oswald, Edwin's nephew, killed Cadwallon and reunited the kingdoms, subsequently re-establishing Northumbrian hegemony over the south of England. In 642 Penda killed Oswald at the battle of Maserfield, and Northumbria was again divided. Oswald's son Oswiu succeeded to the throne of Bernicia, and Osric's son Oswine to Deira, the southern of the two kingdoms.  In 655, Oswiu defeated and killed Penda at the Battle of the Winwaed. Oswiu installed Peada, a son of Penda, as king of southern Mercia and ruled the northern half himself; after Peada was murdered in 656 Oswiu took direct control of all of Mercia. A coup in 658 threw off Northumbrian overlordship and established Wulfhere as king. By the early 670s, Wulfhere had become the most powerful king in southern Britain, with an effective hegemony over all the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms except for Northumbria.  The main source for this period is Bede's "History", completed in about 731. Despite its focus on the history of the church, this work also provides valuable information about the early Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. For Wessex and Kent, Bede had informants who supplied him with details of the church's history in each province, but he appears to have had no such contact in Mercia, about which he is less well-informed. A further source for this period is the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle", compiled at the end of the 9th century in Wessex. The "Chronicle"s anonymous scribe appears to have incorporated much information recorded in earlier periods.

Ancestry and early reign.

Æthelred was the son of Penda of Mercia. Penda's queen, Cynewise, is named by Bede, who does not mention her children; no other wives of Penda are known and so it is likely but not certain that she was Æthelred's mother. The "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" gives Penda's age as fifty in 626, and credits him with a thirty-year reign, but this would put Penda at eighty years old at the time of his death, which is generally thought unlikely as two of his sons (Wulfhere and Æthelred) were young when he was killed. At least as likely is that Penda was fifty years old at his death, rather than at his accession. Æthelred's date of birth is unknown, but Bede describes Wulfhere as a youth at the time of his accession in 658, so it is likely he and Æthelred were in their middle teens at that time. The early sources do not say whether Æthelred was older or younger than Wulfhere.  Nothing is known of Æthelred's childhood. He had another brother, Peada, and two sisters, Cyneburh and Cyneswith; it is also possible that Merewalh, king of the Magonsæte, was Æthelred's brother.  In 674, according to Stephen of Ripon, Wulfhere "stirred up all the southern nations against [Northumbria]", but he was defeated by Oswiu's son Ecgfrith who forced him to surrender Lindsey, and to pay tribute. Wulfhere survived the defeat, but died in 675, possibly of disease, and Æthelred became king.  The first recorded act of Æthelred's reign is in 676, when his armies ravaged Kent, destroying Rochester, the seat of the bishops of West Kent. The reason for his attack is not recorded, but he may have wished to prevent King Hlothhere of Kent from regaining control of Surrey, which had been recently brought into the Mercian orbit by Wulfhere. It may also be that Æthelred sought revenge for the murder of the sons of Eormenred of Kent; the murders had been instigated by Ecgberht of Kent, Hlothhere's brother, and it is possible that Æthelred was the uncle of the murdered princes. A third suggestion is that the kings of Essex solicited the invasion, in response to recent Kentish attempts to gain dominance over the East Saxons. Regardless of the reason, Hlothhere was likely then forced to accept Æthelred's overlordship. The damage to the see of Rochester was so great that the incumbent bishop, Putta, retired from his diocese; his appointed successor, Cwichhelm, also gave up the see "because of its poverty".  Early in Æthelred's reign, Theodore, the Archbishop of Canterbury, began a substantial reorganization of the church in Mercia. In 675 he removed Winfred from his position as Bishop of Lichfield, and over the next four years he divided the vast Mercian see into the five dioceses of Leicester, Lichfield, Worcester, Dorchester and Hereford. Æthelred was a devout king, "more famed for his pious disposition than his skill in war", and he made several gifts of land to the expanding church, including grants at Tetbury, Long Newnton, and Somerford Keynes. There is also a tradition that Æthelred was associated with the founding of Abingdon Abbey, in southern Oxfordshire.

Relations with Northumbria.

Mercia had been in conflict with Northumbria since at least 633, when Penda of Mercia defeated and killed Edwin of Northumbria at the Battle of Hatfield Chase. However, there were diplomatic marriages between the two kingdoms: Æthelred's sister Cyneburh married Alhfrith, a son of Oswiu of Northumbria, and both Æthelred and his brother Peada married daughters of Oswiu. Cyneburh's marriage to Alhfrith took place in the early 650s, and Peada's marriage, to Ealhflæd, followed shortly afterwards; Æthelred's marriage, to Osthryth, is of unknown date but must have occurred before 679, since Bede mentions it in describing the Battle of the Trent, which took place that year.  Bede does not mention the cause of the battle, simply saying that it occurred in the ninth year of Ecgfrith's reign. He is more informative on the outcome. Ælfwine, the young subking of Deira, was killed; Ælfwine was brother to Osthryth and Ecgfrith, and was well liked in both Mercia and Northumbria since Æthelred's marriage to Osthryth. According to Bede, his death threatened to cause further strife between the two kingdoms, but Theodore, the Archbishop of Canterbury, intervened:Theodore, the beloved of God, enlisting God's help, smothered the flames of this awful peril by his wholesome advice. As a result, peace was restored between the kings and peoples, and in lieu of further bloodshed the customary compensation was paid to King Ecgfrith for his brother's death.  Æthelred took possession of Lindsey again after the battle; the change in control this time was lasting, and Lindsey remained part of Mercia until the Viking invasion of the 9th century remade the map of England. Conflict between Northumbria and Mercia did not completely cease after this date: Scottish annals record that Æthelbald, an 8th-century Mercian king, ravaged Northumbrian territory in 740 while King Eadberht of Northumbria was absent fighting the Picts. However, the Battle of the Trent effectively ended Northumbrian involvement in southern Britain.  A conflict between Bishop Wilfrid of York and the church and secular establishment led to Wilfrid's expulsion from Northumbria and the division of his vast diocese, and Æthelred sided with Ecgfrith against Wilfrid. After Ecgfrith's death in 685, Archbishop Theodore arranged a reconciliation between Wilfrid and Aldfrith, Ecgfrith's successor, but in 692 Aldfrith and Wilfrid fell out and Wilfrid went into exile in Mercia. Æthelred now supported Wilfrid, making him bishop of the Middle Angles, and defending him at the Council of Austerfield in about 702, when Wilfrid argued his case before an assembly of bishops led by Archbishop Berhtwald of Canterbury. Æthelred's support for Wilfrid embroiled him in dispute with both Canterbury and Northumbria, and it is not clear what his motive was, though it may be relevant that some of Wilfrid's monasteries were in Mercian territory.

The southern kingdoms.

Two charters of 681 show Æthelred granting land near Tetbury, on what is now the border between Gloucestershire and Wiltshire. This may indicate that Æthelred was able to extend Mercian influence further into the territory of the West Saxons, as Wulfhere had done before him. The West Saxons managed a significant military resurgence under Cædwalla, king of Wessex from about 685 to 688, but when Cædwalla departed for Rome on pilgrimage there may have been internal strife before Ine, his successor, took the throne. Cædwalla had successfully conquered the kingdoms of Sussex and Kent, and his abdication may have contributed to the unsettled history of the southeast over the next few years. In Kent, Oswine emerged as king, though only in eastern Kent; the western half of the kingdom was ruled by Swæfheard, son of Sæbbi, the king of Essex. It is possible that Æthelred provided support to both Swæfheard and Oswine; for each king a charter survives in which Æthelred confirms land grants they made in Kent, and Æthelred's invasion of Kent in 676 indicates his opposition to the traditional Kentish royal house. A charter of Swæfheard's dated 691 is also of interest as it indicates that Æthelred had invaded Kent; it has been suggested that Æthelred intended to place Wilfrid in the Archbishop's seat at Canterbury, but if so he was unsuccessful. Alternatively, Æthelred may have needed assistance in Kent from the East Saxons who may have been independent of Mercia for a decade or more by that time. The East Saxons did return to the Mercian orbit over the next few years: a charter of Æthelred's, dated between 693 and 704, shows him granting land to Wealdhere, the bishop of London, and in 704 Æthelred consented to a grant made by Swæfheard. The latter charter also appears to show that a "comes", or local official, was put in place by the Mercians to protect their interests.  Despite this evidence of Mercian involvement in the southeast there is very little indication that Æthelred had expansionist ambitions to the south. The increasing strength of the West Saxons under Cædwalla and Ine would have limited Mercian opportunities in that direction. The Northumbrians were no longer a distraction; they had been contained north of the Humber since the Battle of the Trent, and became even less of a threat after their disastrous defeat in 685 at the hands of the Picts. A possible explanation is that Æthelred was preoccupied with war with the Welsh. It was also at this time that the Hwicce came more definitely into the Mercian orbit. The last Hwiccean ruler to take the title of king was Oshere, who died in 685; but from the mid-670s he sought Æthelred's consent for his grants, and Æthelred regarded him as a subking. Further evidence of Æthelred's involvement among the Hwicce comes from a charter in which he grants land for a minster in Gloucestershire, in Hwiccean territory; the charter is generally thought to be a fabrication, but it appears to be based on an authentic earlier source.

Abdication and final years.

Osthryth was murdered in 697, for reasons unknown; according to Bede the murderers were "her own people, the Mercian chieftains". Bede records that Peada's death, forty years earlier, stemmed from "the treachery, it is said, of his own wife"; Peada's wife was Ealhflæd, Osthryth's sister. Hence Osthryth's murder may have been in revenge for Peada's assassination, though it has also been interpreted more directly as a sign of continuing hostility between Northumbria and Mercia. Osthryth was buried at Bardney in Lindsey, the monastery where, at her urging, the relics of her uncle, Oswald of Northumbria, were kept and revered, though evidence of resistance at Bardney to the cult of Oswald is also indicative of the poor relations between the two kingdoms.  In 704, Æthelred abdicated to become a monk and abbot at Bardney, leaving the kingship to his nephew Coenred. Seventh century Mercian rulers often patronised religious establishments outside the Mercian heartlands, perhaps as a way of gaining support in outlying provinces. Æthelred's and Osthryth's interest in Bardney is consistent with this pattern. The encouragement of the cult of royal saints in areas beyond the central Mercian lands also seems to have been a deliberate policy, and both Æthelred and Osthryth were later revered as saints at Bardney. It appears that Æthelred continued to have influence in the kingdom after his abdication: a passage in Stephen of Ripon's "Life of Wilfrid" shows Æthelred summoning Coenred to him and advising him to make peace with Wilfrid. The date of Æthelred's death is not recorded; though it is known that he was buried at Bardney.  Æthelred had at least one son, Ceolred. According to the thirteenth-century "Chronicon Abbatiae de Evesham", Ceolred was not the son of Osthryth, although it does not name Ceolred's mother, and in the view of the historian Ann Williams this may mean that Æthelred remarried after Osthryth's death. However, Susan Kelly states that Osthryth was "most likely (though not certainly)" Ceolred's mother. Ceolred succeeded to the throne in 709, after Coenred abdicated in 709 to go to Rome on pilgrimage. One version of the regnal lists for Mercia shows a king named Ceolwald reigning after Ceolred, and it is possible that Ceolwald, if he existed, was also a son of Æthelred's.

References.

Primary sources  Secondary sources

Æthelred (; died after 704) was King of Mercia from 675 until 704. He was the son of Penda of Mercia and came to the throne in 675, when his brother, Wulfhere of Mercia, died. Within a year of his accession he invaded Kent, where his armies destroyed the city of Rochester. In 679 he defeated his brother-in-law, Ecgfrith of Northumbria, at the Battle of the Trent: the battle was a major setback for the Northumbrians, and effectively ended their military involvement in English affairs south of the Humber. It also permanently returned the kingdom of Lindsey to Mercia's possession. However, Æthelred was unable to re-establish his predecessors' domination of southern Britain.

Æthelred († 716 in Bardney) war König des angelsächsischen Königreichs Mercia von 675–704. Æthelred war ein Sohn König Pendas und jüngerer Bruder von Wulfhere, dem er als König nachfolgte, nachdem Wulfhere 675 in der Schlacht von "Biedanheafde" gegen die Truppen Wessex' unter deren König Æscwine gefallen war.


Life and career.

There is some disagreement over the details of Parker's birth, but most reliable sources now indicate that he was born in March 1932 at Eastover Plantation near Bobo, Coahoma County, Mississippi. He moved with his mother to West Memphis, Arkansas, during the 1940s. Other birth dates in 1927 or 1932 have been suggested, and some research suggests that his name at birth was registered as Herbert Parker.  He sang in gospel groups as a child and, beginning in his teenage years, played on various blues circuits. His biggest influence as a harmonica player was Sonny Boy Williamson, with whom he worked before moving on to work for Howlin' Wolf in 1949. Around 1950, he began performing with a coalition of performers in Memphis known the Beale Streeters, which included Bobby "Blue" Bland and B.B. King. In 1951, Parker formed his own band, the Blue Flames, with the guitarist Pat Hare. In 1952, Parker was discovered by talent scout Ike Turner for Modern Records. Turner recorded his first release, "You're My Angel"/"Bad Women, Bad Whiskey," with Turner playing piano and Matt "Guitar" Murphy on guitar. This record brought him to the attention of Sam Phillips, and he and his band signed with Sun Records in 1953. There they produced three successful songs: "Feelin' Good" (which reached number 5 on the US "Billboard" R&B chart), "Love My Baby," and "Mystery Train", a cover version of which was recorded by Elvis Presley. For Presley's version of "Mystery Train", Scotty Moore borrowed the guitar riff from Parker's "Love My Baby", played by Pat Hare. "Love My Baby" and "Mystery Train" became rockabilly standards.  Later in 1953, Parker toured with Bobby Bland and Johnny Ace, and also joined Duke Records. Parker and Bland headed the highly successful Blues Consolidated Revue, which regularly performed on the southern blues circuit. He continued to have a string of hits on the R&B chart, including the smooth "Next Time You See Me" (1957); remakes of Roosevelt Sykes's song "Driving Wheel" (1961), "Annie Get Your Yo-Yo" (1962), Robert Johnson's "Sweet Home Chicago", Guitar Slim's "The Things That I Used to Do" (1963), and Don Robey's "Mother-in-Law Blues" (1956), plus his own "Stand by Me" (1961).  His success was limited after he left Duke in 1966. He recorded for various labels, including Mercury, Blue Rock, Minit, and Capitol. His final chart hit came in 1971 with "Drowning on Dry Land" on Capitol, which peaked at number 48 on the "Billboard" R&B chart.

Death.

Parker died on November 18, 1971, at age 39, in Blue Island, Illinois, during surgery for a brain tumor. His next album was released by United Artists Records in 1972, titled "I Tell Stories Sad and True, I Sing the Blues and Play Harmonica Too, It Is Very Funky". Reviewing it in "" (1981), Robert Christgau said, "Once a big man on the blues circuit, Parker was turning into the forgotten Beale Streeter by the time he died... and this is a respectful farewell... Never as penetrating as B.B. or Bobby, Parker smooths his way over the arrangements with the calm of a man who was mellow before the concept existed, at least in its present deracinated form. Highlight: the sad, true story that goes with 'Funny How Time Slips Away.'"

Legacy.

On the 1974 album "...Explores Your Mind", Al Green dedicated his song "Take Me to the River" to Parker, whom he described in the song's spoken introduction as "a cousin of mine who's gone on, and we'd kinda like to carry on in his name." Parker's "Annie Get Your Yo-Yo" was later sampled by the Wiseguys for their 1999 hit "Start the Commotion".  Parker's version of "Tomorrow Never Knows" is regularly used as an intro to the live shows by The Chemical Brothers.  In 2001, Parker was inducted into the Blues Hall of Fame. He is also inducted into the Mississippi Musicians Hall of Fame.  In 2011, Parker was honored with a marker on the Mississippi Blues Trail in Bobo.  On June 25, 2019, "The New York Times Magazine" listed Junior Parker among hundreds of artists whose material was reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.

Herman "Junior" Parker (March 27, 1932November 18, 1971) was an American Memphis blues singer and musician. He is best remembered for his voice which has been described as "honeyed" and "velvet-smooth". One music journalist noted, "For years Junior Parker deserted downhome harmonica blues for uptown blues-soul music". In 2001, he was inducted into the Blues Hall of Fame. Parker is also inducted into the Mississippi Musicians Hall of Fame.

„Little“ Junior Parker (* 27. Mai 1932 in Clarksdale, Mississippi, als "Herman Parker Jr."; † 18. November 1971 in Blue Island, Illinois) war ein US-amerikanischer Blues-Sänger und Mundharmonikaspieler. Parker spielte Anfang der 1950er-Jahre für das Label Sun Records einige Hits ein, die später auch von Rockabilly-Musikern wie Elvis Presley und Hayden Thompson aufgenommen wurden.


Narrative.

In the Icelandic "Volsunga Saga" (late 13th century), Fáfnir is a dwarf with a powerful arm and fearless soul. He guards his father's house of glittering gold and flashing gems. He is the strongest and most aggressive of the three brothers.  Regin recounts to Sigurd how Odin, Loki, and Hœnir were traveling when they came across Ótr, who had the likeness of an otter during the day. Loki killed the otter with a stone and the three Æsir skinned their catch. The gods came to Hreidmar's dwelling that evening and were pleased to show off the otter's skin. Hreidmar and his remaining two sons then seized the gods and held them captive while Loki was made to gather the ransom, which was to stuff the otter's skin with gold and cover its outside with red gold. Loki fulfilled the task by gathering the cursed gold of Andvari as well as the ring, Andvaranaut, both of which were told to Loki as items that would bring about the death of whoever possessed them. Fáfnir then killed Hreidmar to get all the gold for himself. He became ill-natured and greedy and ventured into the wilderness to keep his fortune. He turned into a serpent or dragon in order to guard his treasure. Fáfnir breathed poison into the land around him so no one would go near him and his treasure, wreaking terror in the hearts of the people.  Regin plotted revenge so that he could get the treasure and sent his foster-son Sigurd to kill the dragon. Regin instructed Sigurd to dig a pit in which he could lie in wait under the trail Fáfnir used to get to a stream and there plunge his sword, Gram, into Fafnir's heart as he crawls over the pit to the water. Regin then ran away in fear, leaving Sigurd to the task. As Sigurd dug, Odin appeared in the form of an old man with a long beard, advising the warrior to dig more trenches for the blood of Fafnir to run into, presumably so that Sigurd does not drown in the blood. The earth quaked and the ground nearby shook as Fafnir appeared, blowing poison into his path as he made his way to the stream. Sigurd, undaunted, stabbed Fafnir in the left shoulder as he crawled over the ditch he was lying in and succeeded in mortally wounding the dragon. As the creature lay there dying, he spoke to Sigurd and asked for his name, his parentage and who sent him on such a dangerous mission. Fafnir figured out that his own brother, Regin, plotted this, and predicted that Regin would also cause Sigurd's death. Sigurd told Fafnir that he would go back to the dragon's lair and take all his treasure. Fafnir warned Sigurd that all who possessed the gold would be fated to die, but Sigurd replied that all men must one day die anyway, and it is the dream of many men to be wealthy until that dying day, so he would take the gold without fear.  Regin then returned to Sigurd after Fafnir was slain. Corrupted by greed, Regin planned to kill Sigurd after Sigurd cook Fafnir's heart for him to eat, and take all the treasure for himself. However, Sigurd, having tasted Fafnir's blood while cooking the heart, gained knowledge of the speech of birds and learned of Regin's impending attack from the Oðinnic (of Odin) birds' discussion and killed Regin by cutting off his head with Gram. Sigurd then ate some of Fafnir's heart and kept the remainder, which would later be given to Gudrun after their marriage.  Some versions are more specific about Fáfnir's treasure hoard, mentioning the swords Ridill and Hrotti, the helm of terror and a golden coat of chainmail.

In Wagner.

Fafnir appears (as "Fafner") in Richard Wagner's epic opera cycle "Der Ring des Nibelungen" (1848–1874), although he began life as a giant rather than a dwarf. In the first opera, "Das Rheingold" (1869), which has some basis from the Gylfaginning, Fafner and his brother Fasolt try to take the Goddess Freia, based on Idun, who has been promised to them by Wotan, the king of the gods, in exchange for building the castle Valhalla. Fasolt is in love with her, while Fafner wants her as without her golden apples the Gods will lose their youth. The giants, mainly Fafner, agree to accept a massive hoard of treasure stolen from the dwarf Alberich instead. The treasure includes the magic helmet Tarnhelm and a magic ring of power. As they divide the treasure, the brothers argue and Fafner kills Fasolt and takes the ring for himself. Escaping to earth, he uses the Tarnhelm to transform himself into a dragon and guards the treasure in a cave for many years before being ultimately killed by Wotan's mortal grandson Siegfried, as depicted in the opera of the same name. The giants are thought to represent the working class. However, while Fasolt is a romantic revolutionary, Fafner is a more violent and jealous figure, plotting to overthrow the gods. In many productions, he is shown to return to his original giant form while delivering his death-speech to Siegfried.

As Inspiration for Tolkien.

Much of Tolkien's work was inspired by Northern European mythology. Many parallels can be drawn between Fafnir and Smaug, from "The Hobbit", as well as between Fafnir and Glaurung, the first dragon in Middle Earth, who is slain by Turin. The exchange between Bilbo and Smaug nearly mirrors Fafnir's and Sigurd's. The main difference being that Sigurd's conversation occurs after the death blow has been struck. This is most likely due to dramatic effect, as Bilbo has much more at stake when speaking with Smaug.  The other dragon Glaurung has many similarities as well. In Tolkien's "The Book of Lost Tales", Glaurung is described as a flightless dragon that hoards gold, breathes poison, and has "Great cunning and wisdom". In Tolkien's book "The Children of Húrin", he is slain by Turin from below much like Fafnir. Turin and Glaurung also have an exchange after the mortal blow is dealt.

In Norse mythology, Fáfnir ( in Old Norse and in Icelandic) or Frænir is a son of the dwarf king Hreidmar and brother of Regin, Ótr, Lyngheiðr and Lofnheiðr. After being affected by the curse of Andvari's ring and gold, Fafnir became a dragon and was slain by Sigurd.

Fáfnir (auch Fafner, dt. "der Umarmer", "der Greif") ist eine Drachenfigur der nordischen Mythologie, die im Heldenlied Fáfnismál der Liederedda und in der Völsunga saga überliefert ist. Als Fafner taucht die Figur auch in Richard Wagners "„Ring“" auf.


Signs and symptoms.

Symptoms of PPD can occur any time in the first year postpartum. Typically, a diagnosis of postpartum depression is considered after signs and symptoms persist for at least two weeks.

Onset and duration.

Postpartum depression onset usually begins between two weeks to a month after delivery. A study done at an inner-city mental health clinic has shown that 50% of postpartum depressive episodes there began prior to delivery. Therefore, in the DSM-5 postpartum depression is diagnosed under "depressive disorder with peripartum onset", in which "peripartum onset" is defined as anytime either during pregnancy or within the four weeks following delivery. PPD may last several months or even a year. Postpartum depression can also occur in women who have suffered a miscarriage. For fathers, several studies show that men experience the highest levels of postpartum depression between 3–6 months postpartum.

Parent-infant relationship.

Postpartum depression can interfere with normal maternal-infant bonding and adversely affect acute and longterm child development. Postpartum depression may lead mothers to be inconsistent with childcare. These childcare inconsistencies may include feeding routines, sleep routines, and health maintenance.  In rare cases, or about 1 to 2 per 1,000, the postpartum depression appears as postpartum psychosis. In these, or among women with a history of previous psychiatric hospital admissions, infanticide may occur. In the United States, postpartum depression is one of the leading causes of annual reported infanticide incidence rate of about 8 per 100,000 births.

Causes.

The cause of PPD is not well understood. Hormonal changes, genetics, and major life events have been hypothesized as potential causes.  Evidence suggests that hormonal changes may play a role. Hormones which have been studied include estrogen, progesterone, thyroid hormone, testosterone, corticotropin releasing hormone, endorphins, and cortisol. Estrogen and progesterone levels drop back to pre-pregnancy levels within 24 hours of giving birth, and that sudden change may cause it. The use of synthetic oxytocin, a birth-inducing drug, has been linked to increased rates of postpartum depression and anxiety.  Fathers, who are not undergoing profound hormonal changes, can also have postpartum depression. The cause may be distinct in males.  Profound lifestyle changes that are brought about by caring for the infant are also frequently hypothesized to cause PPD. However, little evidence supports this hypothesis. Mothers who have had several previous children without suffering PPD can nonetheless suffer it with their latest child. Despite the biological and psychosocial changes that may accompany pregnancy and the postpartum period, most women are not diagnosed with PPD. Many mothers are unable to get the rest they need to fully recover from giving birth. Sleep deprivation can lead to physical discomfort and exhaustion, which can contribute to the symptoms of postpartum depression.

Risk factors.

While the causes of PPD are not understood, a number of factors have been suggested to increase the risk:  Of these risk factors a history of depression, and cigarette smoking have been shown to have additive effects. Some studies have found a link with low levels of DHA in the mother.  These above factors are known to correlate with PPD. This correlation does not mean these factors are causal. Rather, they might both be caused by some third factor. Contrastingly, some factors almost certainly attribute to the cause of postpartum depression, such as lack of social support. The relationship between breastfeeding and PPD is not clear.  Women with fewer resources indicate a higher level of postpartum depression and stress than those women with more resources, such as financial. Rates of PPD have been shown to decrease as income increases. Women with fewer resources may be more likely to have an unintended or unwanted pregnancy, increasing risk of PPD. Women with fewer resources may also include single mothers of low income. Single mothers of low income may have more limited access to resources while transitioning into motherhood.  Studies have also shown a correlation between a mother's race and postpartum depression. African American mothers have been shown to have the highest risk of PPD at 25%, while Asian mothers had the lowest at 11.5%, after controlling for social factors such as age, income, education, marital status, and baby's health. The PPD rates for First Nations, Caucasian and Hispanic women fell in between.  Migration away from a cultural community of support can be a factor in PPD. Traditional cultures around the world prioritize organized support during postpartum care to ensure the mother's mental and physical health, wellbeing, and recovery.  One of the strongest predictors of paternal PPD is having a partner who has PPD, with fathers developing PPD 50% of the time when their female partner has PPD.  Sexual orientation has also been studied as a risk factor for PPD. In a 2007 study conducted by Ross and colleagues, lesbian and bisexual mothers were tested for PPD and then compared with a heterosexual sample group. It was found that lesbian and bisexual biological mothers had significantly higher Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale scores than did the heterosexual women in the sample. These higher rates of PPD in lesbian/bisexual mothers may reflect less social support, particularly from their families of origin and additional stress due to homophobic discrimination in society.  A correlation between postpartum thyroiditis and postpartum depression has been proposed but remains controversial. There may also be a link between postpartum depression and anti-thyroid antibodies.

Violence.

A meta-analysis reviewing research on the association of violence and postpartum depression showed that violence against women increases the incidence of postpartum depression. About one-third of women throughout the world will experience physical or sexual violence at some point in their lives. Violence against women occurs in conflict, post-conflict, and non-conflict areas. It is important to note that the research reviewed only looked at violence experienced by women from male perpetrators, but did not consider violence inflicted on men or women by women. Further, violence against women was defined as "any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual, or psychological harm or suffering to women". Psychological and cultural factors associated with increased incidence of postpartum depression include family history of depression, stressful life events during early puberty or pregnancy, anxiety or depression during pregnancy, and low social support. Violence against women is a chronic stressor, so depression may occur when someone is no longer able to respond to the violence.

Diagnosis.

Criteria.

Postpartum depression in the DSM-5 is known as "depressive disorder with peripartum onset". Peripartum onset is defined as starting anytime during pregnancy or within the four weeks following delivery. There is no longer a distinction made between depressive episodes that occur during pregnancy or those that occur after delivery. Nevertheless, the majority of experts continue to diagnose postpartum depression as depression with onset anytime within the first year after delivery.  The criteria required for the diagnosis of postpartum depression are the same as those required to make a diagnosis of non-childbirth related major depression or minor depression. The criteria include at least five of the following nine symptoms, within a two-week period:

Differential diagnosis.

Postpartum blues.

Postpartum blues, commonly known as "baby blues," is a transient postpartum mood disorder characterized by milder depressive symptoms than postpartum depression. This type of depression can occur in up to 80% of all mothers following delivery. Symptoms typically resolve within two weeks. Symptoms lasting longer than two weeks are a sign of a more serious type of depression. Women who experience "baby blues" may have a higher risk of experiencing a more serious episode of depression later on.

Psychosis.

Postpartum psychosis is not a formal diagnosis, but is widely used to describe a psychiatric emergency that appears to occur in about 1 in a 1000 pregnancies, in which symptoms of high mood and racing thoughts (mania), depression, severe confusion, loss of inhibition, paranoia, hallucinations and delusions begin suddenly in the first two weeks after delivery; the symptoms vary and can change quickly. It is different from postpartum depression and from maternity blues. It may be a form of bipolar disorder. It is important not to confuse psychosis with other symptoms that may occur after delivery, such as delirium. Delirium typically includes a loss of awareness or inability to pay attention.  About half of women who experience postpartum psychosis have no risk factors; but a prior history of mental illness, especially bipolar disorder, a history of prior episodes of postpartum psychosis, or a family history put some at a higher risk.  Postpartum psychosis often requires hospitalization, where treatment is antipsychotic medications, mood stabilizers, and in cases of strong risk for suicide, electroconvulsive therapy.  The most severe symptoms last from 2 to 12 weeks, and recovery takes 6 months to a year. Women who have been hospitalized for a psychiatric condition immediately after delivery are at a much higher risk of suicide during the first year after delivery.

Screening.

In the US, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists suggests healthcare providers consider depression screening for perinatal women. Additionally, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends pediatricians screen mothers for PPD at 1-month, 2-month and 4-month visits. However, many providers do not consistently provide screening and appropriate follow-up. For example, in Canada, Alberta is the only province with universal PPD screening. This screening is carried out by Public Health nurses with the baby's immunization schedule.  The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale, a standardized self-reported questionnaire, may be used to identify women who have postpartum depression. If the new mother scores 13 or more, she likely has PPD and further assessment should follow.  Healthcare providers may take a blood sample to test if another disorder is contributing to depression during the screening.

Prevention.

A 2013 Cochrane review found evidence that psychosocial or psychological intervention after childbirth helped reduce the risk of postnatal depression. These interventions included home visits, telephone-based peer support, and interpersonal psychotherapy. Support is an important aspect of prevention, as depressed mothers commonly state that their feelings of depression were brought on by "lack of support" and "feeling isolated."  Across different cultures, traditional rituals for postpartum care may be preventative for PPD, but are more effective when the support is welcomed by the mother.  In couples, emotional closeness and global support by the partner protect against both perinatal depression and anxiety. Further factors such as communication between the couple and relationship satisfaction have a protective effect against anxiety alone.  In those who are at risk counselling is recommended. In 2018, 24% of areas in the UK have no access to perinatal mental health specialist services.  Preventative treatment with antidepressants may be considered for those who have had PPD previously. However, as of 2017, the evidence supporting such use is weak.

Treatments.

Treatment for mild to moderate PPD includes psychological interventions or antidepressants. Women with moderate to severe PPD would likely experience a greater benefit with a combination of psychological and medical interventions. Light aerobic exercise has been found to be useful for mild and moderate cases.

Therapy.

Both individual social and psychological interventions appear equally effective in the treatment of PPD. Social interventions include individual counseling and peer support, while psychological interventions include cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and interpersonal therapy (IPT). Other forms of therapy, such as group therapy, home visits, counseling, and ensuring greater sleep for the mother may also have a benefit.  Internet-based cognitive behavioral therapy (iCBT) has shown promising results with lower negative parenting behavior scores and lower rates of anxiety, stress, and depression. iCBT may be beneficial for mothers who have limitations in accessing in person CBT. However, the long term benefits have not been determined.

Medication.

A 2010 review found few studies of medications for treating PPD noting small sample sizes and generally weak evidence. Some evidence suggests that mothers with PPD will respond similarly to people with major depressive disorder. There is evidence which suggests that selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are effective treatment for PPD. The first-line anti-depressant medication of choice is sertraline, an SSRI, as very little of the it passes into the breast milk and, as a result, to the child. However, a recent study has found that adding sertraline to psychotherapy does not appear to confer any additional benefit. Therefore, it is not completely clear which antidepressants, if any, are most effective for treatment of PPD, and for whom antidepressants would be a better option than non-pharmacotherapy.  Some studies show that hormone therapy may be effective in women with PPD, supported by the idea that the drop in estrogen and progesterone levels post-delivery contribute to depressive symptoms. However, there is some controversy with this form of treatment because estrogen should not be given to people who are at higher risk of blood clots, which include women up to 12 weeks after delivery. Additionally, none of the existing studies included women who were breastfeeding. However, there is some evidence that the use of estradiol patches might help with PPD symptoms.  In 2019, the FDA approved brexanolone, a synthetic analog of the neurosteroid allopregnanolone, for use intravenously in postpartum depression. Allopregnanolone levels drop after giving birth, which may lead to women becoming depressed and anxious. Some trials have demonstrated an effect on PPD within 48 hours from the start of infusion. Other new allopregnanolone analogs under evaluation for use in the treatment of PPD include SAGE-2017 and ganaxolone.  Brexanolone has risks that can occur during administration, including excessive sedation and sudden loss of consciousness, and therefore has been approved under the Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategy (REMS) program. The mother is to enrolled prior to receiving the medication. It is only available to those at certified health care facilities with a health care provider who can continually monitor the patient. The infusion itself is a 60-hour, or 2.5 day, process. People's oxygen levels are to be monitored with a pulse oximeter. Side effects of the medication include dry mouth, sleepiness, somnolence, flushing and loss of consciousness. It is also important to monitor for early signs of suicidal thoughts or behaviors.

Breastfeeding.

Antidepressant medications are generally considered safe to use during breastfeeding. Most antidepressants are excreted in breast milk. However, there are limited studies showing the effects and safety of these antidepressants on breastfed babies. Regarding allopregnanolone, very limited data did not indicate a risk for the infant.

Other.

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) has shown efficacy in women with severe PPD that have either failed multiple trials of medication-based treatment or cannot tolerate the available antidepressants. Tentative evidence supports the use of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS).  As of 2013 it is unclear if acupuncture, massage, bright lights, or taking omega-3 fatty acids are useful.

Epidemiology.

Postpartum depression is found across the globe, with rates varying from 11% to 42%. Around 3% to 6% of women will experience depression during pregnancy or shortly after giving birth. About 1 in 750 mothers will have postpartum depression with psychosis and their risk is higher if they have had postpartum episodes in the past.

History.

Prior to the 19th century.

Western medical science's understanding and construction of postpartum depression has evolved over the centuries. Ideas surrounding women’s moods and states have been around for a long time, typically recorded by men. In 460 B.C., Hippocrates wrote about puerperal fever, agitation, delirium, and mania experienced by women after child birth. Hippocrates' ideas still linger in how postpartum depression is seen today.  A woman who lived in the 14th century, Margery Kempe, was a Christian mystic. She was a pilgrim known as "Madwoman" after having a tough labor and delivery. There was a long physical recovery period during which she started descending into "madness" and became suicidal. Based on her descriptions of visions of demons and conversations she wrote about that she had with religious figures like God and the Virgin Mary, historians have identified what Margery Kempe was suffering from as "postnatal psychosis" and not postpartum depression. This distinction became important to emphasis the difference between postpartum depression and postpartum psychosis. A 16th century physician, Castello Branco, documented a case of postpartum depression without the formal title as a relatively healthy woman who suffered from melancholy after childbirth, remained insane for a month, and recovered with treatment. Although this treatment was not described, experimental treatments began to be implemented for postpartum depression for the centuries that followed. Connections between female reproductive function and mental illness would continue to center around reproductive organs from this time all the way through to modern age, with a slowly evolving discussion around "female madness".

19th century and after.

With the 19th century came a new attitude about the relationship between female mental illness and pregnancy, childbirth, or menstruation. The famous short story, The Yellow Wallpaper, was published by Charlotte Perkins Gilman in this period. In the story, an unnamed woman journals her life when she is treated by her physician husband, John, for hysterical and depressive tendencies after the birth of their baby. Gilman wrote the story to protest societal oppression of women as the result of her own experience as a patient. Her tale is likely to have resonated with many women because female hysteria was a common medical diagnosis at the time, having arisen many centuries earlier as the first mental disorder attributed to specifically women. Hysterical neurosis was not removed from the "DSM" until 1980, whereas postpartum depression continues to be excluded as a unique "distinct disorder" and was only added into the fourth edition as a "course modified" in 1994. Thus, in the 19th century, the idea of female hysteria was often conflated and confused with symptoms of postpartum depression, all in connection with the prevailing mindset that women were weak and vulnerable to mental illness.  Also during the 19th century, gynecologists embraced the idea that female reproductive organs, and the natural processes they were involved in, were at fault for "female insanity." Approximately 10% of asylum admissions during this time period are connected to “puerperal insanity,” the named intersection between pregnancy or childbirth and female mental illness. It wasn't until the onset of the twentieth century that the attitude of the scientific community shifted once again: the consensus amongst gynecologists and other medical experts was to turn away from the idea of diseased reproductive organs and instead towards more "scientific theories" that encompassed a broadening medical perspective on mental illness.

Society and culture.

Malay culture holds a belief in Hantu Meroyan; a spirit that resides in the placenta and amniotic fluid. When this spirit is unsatisfied and venting resentment, it causes the mother to experience frequent crying, loss of appetite, and trouble sleeping, known collectively as "sakit meroyan". The mother can be cured with the help of a shaman, who performs a séance to force the spirits to leave.  Some cultures believe that the symptoms of postpartum depression or similar illnesses can be avoided through protective rituals in the period after birth. These may include offering structures of organized support, hygiene care, diet, rest, infant care, and breastfeeding instruction. The rituals appear to be most effective when the support is welcomed by the mother. Globalization and migration can disconnect women from their traditional communities of maternal support, which can be positive or negative depending on the traditions and on the mother's wishes.  Some Chinese women participate in a ritual that is known as "doing the month" (confinement) in which they spend the first 30 days after giving birth resting in bed, while the mother or mother-in-law takes care of domestic duties and childcare. In addition, the new mother is not allowed to bathe or shower, wash her hair, clean her teeth, leave the house, or be blown by the wind.  In the US, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act included a section focusing on research into postpartum conditions including postpartum depression. Some argue that more resources in the form of policies, programs, and health objectives need to be directed to the care of those with PPD.  The stigma of mental health - with or without support from family members and health professionals - often deters women from seeking help for their PPD. When medical help is achieved, some women find the diagnosis helpful and encourage a higher profile for PPD amongst the health professional community.

Media.

Certain cases of postpartum mental health concerns received attention in the media and brought about dialogue on ways to address and understand more on postpartum mental health. Andrea Yates, a former nurse, became pregnant for the first time in 1976. After giving birth to five children in the coming years, she suffered severe depression and had many depressive episodes. This led to her believing that her children needed to be saved, and that by killing them, she could rescue their eternal souls. She drowned her children one by one over the course of an hour, by holding their heads under water in their family bathtub. When called into trial, she felt that she had saved her children rather than harming them and that this action would contribute to defeating Satan.  This was one of the first public and notable cases of postpartum psychosis, which helped create dialogue on women's mental health after childbirth. The court found that Yates’ was experiencing mental illness concerns, and the trial started the conversation of mental illness in cases of murder and whether or not it would lessen the sentence or not. It also started a dialogue on women going against “maternal instinct” after childbirth and what maternal instinct was truly defined by.  Yates' case brought wide media attention to the problem of filicide, or the murder of children by their parents. Throughout history, both men and women have perpetrated this act, but study of maternal filicide is more extensive

Postpartum depression (PPD), also called postnatal depression, is a type of mood disorder associated with childbirth, which can affect both sexes. Symptoms may include extreme sadness, low energy, anxiety, crying episodes, irritability, and changes in sleeping or eating patterns. Onset is typically between one week and one month following childbirth. PPD can also negatively affect the newborn child. While the exact cause of PPD is unclear, the cause is believed to be a combination of physical, emotional, genetic, and social factors. These may include factors such as hormonal changes and sleep deprivation. Risk factors include prior episodes of postpartum depression, bipolar disorder, a family history of depression, psychological stress, complications of childbirth, lack of support, or a drug use disorder. Diagnosis is based on a person's symptoms. While most women experience a brief period of worry or unhappiness after delivery, postpartum depression should be suspected when symptoms are severe and last over two weeks. Among those at risk, providing psychosocial support may be protective in preventing PPD. This may include community support such as food, household chores, mother care, and companionship. Treatment for PPD may include counseling or medications. Types of counseling that have been found to be effective include interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT), cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), and psychodynamic therapy. Tentative evidence supports the use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Postpartum depression affects roughly 15% of women after childbirth. Moreover, this mood disorder is estimated to affect 1% to 26% of new fathers. Postpartum psychosis, a more severe form of postpartum mood disorder, occurs in about 1 to 2 per 1,000 women following childbirth. Postpartum psychosis is one of the leading causes of the murder of children less than one year of age, which occurs in about 8 per 100,000 births in the United States.

Postpartale Stimmungskrisen (von lat. "partus" Geburt, Entbindung) beschreiben psychische Zustände oder Störungen, die in einem zeitlichen Zusammenhang mit dem Wochenbett auftreten (lat. post = nach; partus = Entbindung, Trennung). Die Bandbreite der im Wochenbett auftretenden affektiven Zustände reicht von einer leichten Traurigkeit über Depressionen bis hin zu schweren psychotischen Erkrankungen. Meist sind Frauen betroffen, in der neueren Forschung wird aber auch von postpartalen Depressionen bei Männern berichtet.


Biography.

Men was born in Moscow to a Jewish family on 22 January 1935. He was baptized at six months along with his mother in the banned Catacomb Church, a branch of the Russian Orthodox Church that refused to cooperate with the Soviet authorities.  When Men was 6 years old, the NKVD arrested his father, Volf Gersh-Leybovich (Vladimir Grigoryevich) Men (born 1902). Volf spent more than a year under guard and then was assigned to labor in the Ural Mountains. His son Alexander studied at the Moscow Fur-and-Down Institute in 1955 and transferred to Irkutsk Agriculture Institute from which was expelled in 1958 due to his religious beliefs. In the same year one month after his expulsion, he was ordained a deacon. In, 1960 he became a priest upon graduating from the Leningrad Theological Seminary. In 1965, he completed studies at Moscow Theological Academy.  Alexander Men became a leader with considerable influence and a good reputation among Christians both locally and abroad, among Roman Catholics and Protestants, as well as Orthodox. He served in a series of parishes near Moscow. A unique combination of broad erudition, openness to secular culture, science, to other confessions, to non-Christian religions, and deep Christian roots from the Catacomb Church propelled him into the ranks of leading Christian preachers.  Starting in the early 1970s, Men became a popular figure in Russia's religious community, especially among the intelligentsia. Men was harassed by the KGB for his active missionary and evangelistic efforts. In the late 1980s, he utilised the mass media to spread the message of Christ (he was offered to host a nationally televised program on religion); his days and nights were full of teaching and lecturing at packed lecture halls. Men was one of the founders of the Russian Bible Society in 1990; that same year he founded the Open Orthodox University and "The World of the Bible" journal. His strenuous efforts in educating the Russian populace in the basics and dynamics of the Orthodox faith has garnered him the label as a modern-day apostle to the Soviet people. However, some representatives of the Orthodox circles and those interested in Orthodoxy evaluated the views of Father Alexander as being not fully “orthodox”, and advised against using his books as an introduction to Orthodoxy.

Murder.

On Sunday morning, 9 September 1990, he was murdered while walking along the wooded path from his home in the Russian village of Semkhoz to the local train platform. He was on his way to catch the train to Novaya Derevnya to celebrate the Divine Liturgy. Men had served at the parish in Novaya Derevnya for 20 years. His assailant's or assailants' use of an axe indicated a possible revenge motive. The murder occurred around the time of the collapse of the Soviet Union, and despite orders from within the Soviet (and later the Russian) government that the case be further investigated, the murder remains unsolved. His funeral was held on the day in the Orthodox calendar which commemorates the beheading of John the Baptist.

Legacy.

Since his death, Men's works and ideas have been seen as controversial among the conservative faction of the Russian Orthodox Church, citing his strong tendencies towards ecumenism which his books advocate. Nonetheless, Men has a considerable number of supporters, some of whom argue for his canonization. His lectures are regularly broadcast over Russian radio. His books are published freely in Russia nowadays. During his lifetime, they had to be printed abroad; mainly in Brussels, Belgium by the publishing house Foyer Chrétien Oriental and circulated in secret. Several key Russian Orthodox parishes encourage following his example as one who faithfully followed Christ. Two Russian Orthodox churches have been built on the site of his assassination and a growing number of believers in both Russia and abroad consider him a martyr.  In conjunction with the 25th year Commemoration of Memory, the Moscow Patriarchate Izdatel'stvo publishing house has begun a project to publish Fr. Men's "Collected Works" in a series of 15 volumes.  Men's son, Mikhail Men, is a Russian political figure who from 2005 to 2013 served as the Governor of Ivanovo Oblast and now as Minister of Construction Industry, Housing and Utilities Sector in Dmitry Medvedev's Cabinet. He is also a musician known outside Russia for the Michael Men Project.

Works.

Alexander Men's greatest work is his "History of Religion," published in seven volumes under the title "In Search of the Way, the Truth, and the Life" (volumes 1–6, Brussels, 1970–1983; 2nd edition Moscow, 1991–1992) in which the author examines the history of non-Christian religions as a way for Christians in the struggle of Magiism and Monotheism. Also including as the seventh volume his most famous work, "Son of Man" (Brussels, 1969; 2nd edition Moscow, 1991). Because of the persecution in the Soviet Union at the time, the Brussels editions were published under a pseudonym. Father Alexander Men was one of the first pioneers of Christian “samizdat” (self-publishing) of the 1960s.  An English translation of "Son of Man" by Mormon author Samuel Brown was completed in 1998, but is now out of print, as are several other works in English translation. In 2014, a new project was commenced by Revd Alastair Macnaughton (1954–2017), an Anglican priest and Russian scholar, to translate the entire "History of Religion," into the English language for the first time. Volume 1 was published in 2018. Recent works of Alexander Men in English translation include:  Many other works by Alexander Men have been published in Russian, most notably:

Alexander Vladimirovich Men (; 22 January 1935 – 9 September 1990) was a Russian Orthodox priest, theologian, biblical scholar and writer on theology, Christian history and other religions.

Alexander Wladimirowitsch Men (, wiss. Transliteration ""; * 20. Januar 1935 in Moskau; † 9. September 1990 in Semchos, heute zu Sergijew Possad, Russland) war ein russisch-orthodoxer Religionsphilosoph und Priester. Er zählt zu den führenden russisch-orthodoxen Theologen des 20. Jahrhunderts.


History.

In the 1960s, Chinese pigs that grew to be were sent to zoos in Western cities and were used for medical research in the fields of toxicology, pharmacology, pulmonology, cardiology, aging, and as a source of organs for organ transplantation. These comparatively smaller pigs were easier to work with than larger pig breeds, which typically reach weights of.  In the mid-1980s, Keith Connell of the Bowmanville Zoo in Ontario imported breeding Vietnamese Pot-Bellied pigs to Canada, which became the foundation for the pot-bellied pig in North America. The breed is known for its small stature, swayed back, and pronounced pot belly. Because of custom laws, only their offspring could be sold in the United States. U.S. zoos were the main target for the piglets, but private owners soon began purchasing them as pets. Pet pot-bellied pigs started to appear everywhere; from New York apartment complexes to small suburban residences. Up to five additional imports were made in the following 10 years. To track the pedigrees, the Potbellied Pig Registry Service, Inc (PPRSI) was created to preserve these bloodlines and establish a breed registry in the United States. This registry was dissolved in the late 1990s. Today, most pot-bellied pigs are little to never purebred, as the pure breed is critically endangered.  The Miniature Potbellied Pig Registry Service, Inc (MPPRSI) was established in 1993 to provide a registry for those pigs who were pedigreed in the PPRSI and met the breed standard, when fully grown not being more than tall and weighing under. All of the foundation pigs were dual registered in the PPRSI and MPPRSI.  Beginning in the late 1960s at the Institute of Animal Breeding and Genetics (Institut für Tierzucht und Haustiergenetik) at the University of Göttingen, Germany, the Göttingen minipig was developed by crossbreeding the Minnesota minipig, the Vietnamese Pot-Bellied pig and the German Landrace pig. It is considered the smallest breed of domestic pig in the world.

Medical research.

Miniature pigs have been used for medical research, including toxicology, pharmacology, experimental surgery, pulmonology, cardiology, xenotransplantation, and aging studies. Pigs can be useful in studying human disease, and due to their high intelligence, are easy to manage in a laboratory setting. For example, scientists are working on studying the possibility of utilizing pig hearts for human heart organ transplants, and work has been done to genetically modify the tissues of pigs to be accepted by the human immune system.

As pets.

Miniature pigs are commonly kept as pets. Realistic sizes of pigs vary from pig to pig; genetics drives the growth, along with appropriate nutrition and care. Domesticated miniature pigs can vary from 25 kg (50 lbs) to 100 kg (200 lbs). It may be possible to reduce the risk of ending up with a large pig by looking at the pig's parents and grandparents if possible. However, since pigs can breed years before they fully mature, unscrupulous or ignorant breeders may show off parent pigs which are not fully grown themselves, so have not reached their full adult size.  Domesticated pigs are often trained to urinate and defecate in litter boxes. Typically, pine pellets or pine shreds are used.  In the U.S., laws may vary on if a pet pig can be kept, depending on the location. If there are no laws regarding pet pigs, some areas may consider a pig to be exclusively known as livestock; some towns and cities have ordinances disallowing farm animals within city limits. However, one can petition city councils and have outdated ordinances amended before a pig is introduced into a household, since many ordinances were put into place before the pot-bellied pig was even introduced to the U.S.

Other notable references.

A Yucatan miniature pig is the unofficial mascot of the Animal Rescue League of Boston.  The world's smallest wild pig species is the long wild pygmy hog which lives in Assam, India. It is a critically endangered wild species, not appropriate for domestication.

Miniature pig—known by other terms that erroneously, disproportionately describe size—is used to refer to small breeds of domestic pig, such as Vietnamese Pot-Bellied pigs, Göttingen minipigs, Juliana pigs, Choctaw hogs, Pennywell miniature pigs or Kunekunes (and specimens derived by crossbreeding with these breeds). Notable features of most miniature pigs distinguishing them from other pigs may be defined by their possession of small, perked-back ears, a pot belly, a swayed back, a chubby figure, a rounded head, a short snout, short legs, a short neck and a short tail with thick hair at the end. Typically, most breeds of miniature pigs will range from the minimum weight of to.

Als Minischweine bezeichnet man kleinwüchsige Hausschweine. Neben vielen originären Minischweinrassen bestimmter Regionen werden unter dem Begriff "Minischwein" vor allem Rassen und Linien zusammengefasst, die speziell für Versuchszwecke oder für die Hobbyhaltung gezüchtet wurden.