Early life.

Oakey was born on 2 October 1955 in Hinckley, Leicestershire. His father worked for the General Post Office and moved jobs regularly: the family moved to Coventry when Oakey was an infant, to Leeds when he was five and to Birmingham when he was nine, attending Catherine-de-Barnes primary school near Solihull, and gaining a scholarship to the independent Solihull School. He settled in Sheffield when he was fourteen. He was educated at King Edward VII School in Sheffield. He left school at 18 without finishing his exams and worked in a number of casual jobs: in a university bookshop, and from 1975 as a porter at Thornbury Annex Hospital in Sheffield. He was married briefly to his girlfriend, whom he met at school, but the marriage did not last long and they were divorced in 1980.

Entry into music.

Oakey's entry into music in 1977 was entirely accidental. He had bought a saxophone but had given up trying to learn how to play it, and had no aspiration to be in a pop group.  In Sheffield in 1977, a school friend of Oakey's, Martyn Ware, along with Ian Craig Marsh and Adi Newton had formed a band called The Future. They were part of an emerging genre of music that used analogue synthesisers instead of traditional instruments, which would later be called synth-pop. Although they had recorded a number of demo tapes, they remained unsigned. Newton left the band after they were turned down by record companies. Ware decided that The Future needed a dedicated lead singer to replace Newton. His first choice, Glenn Gregory, was unavailable. So Ware suggested his old school friend Philip Oakey to Marsh. Although Oakey had no musical experience, he was well known in the Sheffield social scene, principally for his eclectic dress sense and classic motorcycle. Ware went to visit Oakey to ask him to join The Future; finding him away from home, he left a note on Oakey's front door asking him to join. Oakey accepted and joined the band in mid-1977.

Human League career.

In late 1977, The Future changed its name to The Human League—after an element of a The new band played their first live gig at Psalter Lane Arts College in June 1978 (a blue plaque now marks the spot) and signed to Fast Records. The early Human League had a reputation for being arty and had very little commercial success, releasing two singles, "Being Boiled" and "Empire State Human", with lyrics written by Oakey. They would eventually release two albums, "Reproduction" (1979) and "Travelogue" (1980), both recorded at the band's Monumental Pictures studio. "Reproduction" failed to chart, but after an impromptu appearance on "Top of the Pops" in May 1980, "Travelogue" entered the UK Album Chart and peaked at No.16. Despite this, the band still had no hit singles and, dogged by the lack of commercial success, Oakey and Ware's working relationship became increasingly strained. In October 1980, on the eve of a European tour, it reached breaking point and Ware walked out taking Marsh with him. Oakey and director of visuals Adrian Wright were permitted to retain the band name but would be responsible for all band debts and the tour commitment. Ware and Marsh soon recruited Glenn Gregory and became Heaven 17.  Facing financial ruin with the tour promoters threatening to sue him, Oakey had less than a week to put a new band together. In an unplanned move Oakey went to a Sheffield city centre discothèque called The Crazy Daisy (Subsequently, The Geisha Bar, now a row of shops) and recruited two totally unknown teenage girls he saw dancing there: Susan Ann Sulley and Joanne Catherall into the band. As luck would have it, they were already fans of the Human League and recognised Oakey. He now calls this the best decision of his career, as the girls would be critical in the band's further success, and Sulley and Catherall are now Oakey's business partners in the present-day band.  After the tour, the band had their first UK Top 20 hit, "The Sound of the Crowd", in April 1981. Now with the addition of Jo Callis and Ian Burden, the band became a six-piece and went on to release the single "Love Action (I Believe In Love)" which became a Top 3 hit in the UK. This was followed by "Open Your Heart", which became another Top 10 hit. Soon afterwards they released a full album, "Dare", much of it written by Oakey. "Dare" would soon become a number one album in the UK and achieve multi-platinum status. At the end of 1981, the fourth and final single from the album, "Don't You Want Me", gave the band their first number one and went on to sell over 1.5 million in the UK, staying at number one for five weeks. It also topped the chart in the US the following year, selling another million copies there. By the end of 1981/82 Oakey and the Human League would be famous worldwide.  In mid-1981, Oakey and Catherall commenced a long-term relationship that lasted until the end of the decade. Oakey and Catherall split amicably in 1990, remaining friends and colleagues. Contrary to press stories, they never married.  The remainder of the 1980s saw the band's success peak and dip, with the follow-up release of the album "Hysteria" in 1984 underachieving. In 1986, Oakey accepted an offer to work with US producers Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis which resulted in the release of the album "Crash" and the single "Human" which became another international hit and went to number one in the US. However, by 1987, the band had lost most of its members leaving only Oakey, Sulley and Catherall. In 1989, Oakey persuaded Sheffield City Council to invest a business development loan for the building of Human League Studios in Sheffield, Oakey's dedicated studio for the band and a commercial venture.  The 1990 album "Romantic?" underperformed commercially, peaking at #24 in the UK and in 1992, Virgin Records cancelled the band's recording contract. This had a devastating effect on the band, causing Oakey to seek counselling for depression, and Sulley to have a breakdown. Oakey recalled in 1995: "We watched "Romantic" disappear without a trace. Gone, gone into the past with all you've hoped for. [...] About that time, I think, I had a low-grade nervous breakdown." The emotional problems of the pair nearly caused the band to break up. Thanks mainly to the efforts of Catherall, by 1993 Oakey and Sulley had recovered and the band was back on its feet. They signed to East West Records which resulted in the release of the gold-selling album "Octopus" in 1995 and the hit singles "Tell Me When" and "One Man in My Heart".  Another change of record label saw the release of the critically acclaimed "Secrets" album in 2001. "Secrets" failed to sell because the record label went into receivership, curtailing promotion. After the failure of a project he had put so much work and time into, Oakey lost faith in the record industry and changed the band's focus to more lucrative live work. Between 2002 and the present day, they have toured regularly either on their own or as guests at festivals. They have played at such prestigious events as V Festival, Festival Internacional de Benicàssim and to 18,000 fans at the Hollywood Bowl, Los Angeles in 2006.  In 2011, the band released a new album, "Credo". Though the album was commercially unsuccessful, the band continues to tour regularly.

Solo and collaborative career.

Oakey has worked on his own, and also with other artists and producers. His first collaboration was producing the Spanish-released single "Amor Secreto" by Nick Fury in 1983 for which he also played synthesiser, together with Jo Callis.  His highest profile and most commercially successful collaboration was with producer Giorgio Moroder. In 1984 for the film "Electric Dreams", he and Moroder provided the film theme song, "Together in Electric Dreams". When later released as a single it would go on to become an international hit. The song went on to become a bigger hit than some of Oakey's Human League singles of the same period.  In 1985, Oakey and Moroder released the joint album "Philip Oakey & Giorgio Moroder" which generated two further single releases, "Be My Lover Now" and "Good-Bye Bad Times". Released in both the UK and US, these singles were not as successful as "Together in Electric Dreams" and the Oakey/Moroder partnership effectively ended.  In 1990, Oakey provided guest vocals on "What Comes After Goodbye", the one-off release by the short-lived Sheffield dance band, Respect. In 1991, Oakey was involved with Vic Reeves on the track "Black Night" which is a Deep Purple cover. In 1999, he provided vocals for the single "1st Man in Space" by the Sheffield band All Seeing I. The song was written by Jarvis Cocker. In 2003, he provided vocals for Sheffield band Kings Have Long Arms on the single "Rock and Roll is Dead"; also in 2003 he worked with producer/DJ Alex Gold and they released the trance single "LA Today". In 2008, Oakey worked with Hiem, a band fronted by former All Seeing I lead singer David "Bozz" Boswell, on the song "2 am".  In early 2009, Oakey collaborated with the Pet Shop Boys on their tenth studio album "Yes", supplying vocals for the intended bonus disc song "This Used to Be the Future". Also in 2009, Oakey collaborated with British female synthpop artist Little Boots on her first album, "Hands", recording the duet track "Symmetry".

Fashion style.

Throughout his career and in his personal life, Oakey has been a flamboyant dresser and fashion trend-setter. His outrageous dress sense and original hairstyle would make him an iconic figure of the early 1980s music scene.  Before 1977, during the era of punk rock, Oakey adopted various styles; at one time having a crew cut, he later had collar-length hair and once turned up in a club wearing a household power lead with plug as a necklace. He also often wore bike leathers and rode a classic Norton motorcycle around Sheffield. Ware, who sought commercial success, reasoned that half the battle was won "as Oakey already looked like a pop star".  Soon after The Future transformed into the Human League, Oakey wanted a look that would make him stand out from other lead singers. After spotting a girl on a Sheffield bus with a Veronica Lake hairstyle, Oakey was inspired to adopt a strange lopsided geometric hairstyle, shoulder length on one side and short on the other. Between 1978 and 1979 with his unique hairstyle, he maintained a masculine dress style and at one time wore a full beard.  In 1979, inspired by the 1970s glam rock style of Brian Eno, Oakey began wearing makeup. His style became increasingly more feminine, including the use of bright red lipstick.  By 1981, after the formation of the new Human League, Oakey's trademark style of the early 1980s was complete. As well as full makeup, Oakey had begun wearing androgynous clothing. The addition of teenage school girls Susan Ann Sulley and Joanne Catherall as vocalists to the band in 1980 complemented his look. At times, all three would wear the same eyeliner and lipstick. Oakey and Catherall, who were to enter into a relationship with each other, often looked and dressed almost identically.  The media regularly commented and joked about his style. Oakey pushed his style further and began wearing high-heeled shoes. He already had both his ears pierced and wore dangling women's diamante earrings. Keen to shock, on one of the Human League's posters in 1981 Oakey posed shirtless, displaying pierced nipples linked together by a gold chain. Oakey says of his early-1980s style: "I deliberately wore clothes that either men or women could wear. But I don't think I ever really looked like a woman. And I never wore very masculine clothes".<ref name="The Scotsman 15/11/2008"></ref>  It wasn't just a stage look. Oakey openly went about in public in full makeup, dressed in his eclectic style. "Sheffield was so accepting," he claimed, "that no one ever blinked an eyelid".  By 1983 Oakey wanted to change his androgynous look. He adopted a more macho image of denim, collar-length hair and 'designer stubble'.  For the "Crash" album of 1986, Oakey adopted a smoother style of designer clothes and a manicured look which he says was inspired by Sean Young's character Rachael from the film "Blade Runner".  By 1990, the Human League had begun to decline. For their "Romantic?" album, Oakey wore denim, leather and readopted his lop-sided hairstyle from 1981 in a rebellion against ""the male model look of Crash"". The band went through dark times and the style was quickly abandoned.  When the band returned in a comeback in 1995, the 40-year-old Oakey reappeared with designer clothes and a suave, short, neat hair cut.  In 1999, after beginning to develop male pattern baldness, Oakey adopted an all-over 'number two' crop hairstyle. This is the style he wears today.  Oakey now generally wears a simple Armani suit on stage. He has a prince albert piercing, stating in 2007, "Yes, I have a Prince Albert ring. I had it done about six years ago. It didn't hurt too much... when I pierced my ear it hurt more!"

External links.

Oakey deliberately does not have an official website, not wanting to do what others do, and apparently believing it is expensive to have one.

Philip Oakey (born 2 October 1955) is an English singer, songwriter and record producer. He is best known as the lead singer, songwriter, and co-founder of English synth-pop band The Human League. Aside from The Human League, he has had an extensive solo music career and collaborated with numerous other artists and producers.

Philip Oakey (* 2. Oktober 1955 in Sheffield, England) ist ein britischer Musiker, der als Leadsänger der Gruppe The Human League bekannt wurde.


Plot.

Generals Miki and Washizu are samurai commanders and friends under Lord Tsuzuki, a local lord, who reigns in the castle of the Spider's Web Forest. After defeating the lord's enemies in battle, they return to Tsuzuki's castle. On their way through the thick forest surrounding the castle, they meet a spirit, who foretells their future. The spirit tells them that today Washizu will be named Lord of the Northern Garrison and Miki will become commander of the first fortress. She then foretells that Washizu eventually will become Lord of Spider's Web Castle, and finally she tells Miki that his son will become lord of the castle. When the two return to Tsuzuki's estate, he rewards them with exactly what the spirit had predicted. As Washizu discusses this with Asaji, his wife, she manipulates him into making the second part of the prophecy come true by murdering Tsuzuki when he visits.  Washizu kills Tsuzuki with the help of his wife, who gives drugged sake to the lord's guards, causing them to fall asleep. When Washizu returns in shock at his deed, Asaji grabs the bloody spear and puts it in the hands of one of the three unconscious guards. She then yells "murder" through the courtyard, and Washizu slays the guard before he has a chance to plead his innocence. Tsuzuki's vengeful son Kunimaru and Noriyasu, an advisor to Tsuzuki, both suspect Washizu as the traitor and try to warn Miki, who refuses to believe what they are saying about his friend. Under Asaji's influence, Washizu is unsure of Miki's loyalty, but chooses Miki's son as his heir because he and Asaji have no child of their own. Washizu plans to tell Miki and his son about his decision at a grand banquet. However, Asaji tells him that she is pregnant, which leaves him with a quandary concerning his heir; now Miki and his son have to be eliminated.  During the banquet, Washizu clearly is agitated by the non-appearance of Miki and his son, and drinks sake copiously. He loses his self-control when Miki's pale ghost suddenly appears. In a delusional panic, he reveals what has happened to Miki by exclaiming that he is willing to slay Miki for a second time, going so far as unsheathing his sword and striking over Miki's mat. Asaji, attempting to pick up the pieces of Washizu's blunder, tells the guests that he is only drunk and that they must retire for the evening. One of his men arrives and presents the severed head of Miki, and tells them that Miki's son escaped. Washizu is horrified by his own betrayal of his best friend, and kills the assassin.  Later, Washizu is distraught upon hearing that his child and heir is stillborn and so Miki's murder was unnecessary. In dire need of help with the impending battle with his foes, he returns to the forest to summon the spirit. She tells him that he will not be defeated in battle unless the very trees of Spider's Web Forest rise against the castle. Washizu believes this is impossible and becomes confident of his victory. Washizu knows he must kill all his enemies, so he tells his troops of the last prophecy, and they share his confidence. The next morning, Washizu is awakened by the screams of attendants. Striding into his wife's quarters, he finds Asaji in a semi-catatonic state, trying to wash clean the imaginary foul stench of blood from her hands, obviously distraught at her grave misdeeds. Distracted by the sound of his troops moving outside the room, he investigates, and he is told by a panicked soldier that the trees of Spider's Web Forest "have risen to attack us". The prophecy has come true, and Washizu is doomed.  As Washizu tries to get his troops to attack, they remain still. Disillusioned with his increasingly unstable leadership, the troops finally accuse Washizu of the murder of Tsuzuki. For his treachery, and to appease Miki's son and Noriyasu, they turn on their master and begin firing arrows at him. Washizu finally succumbs when one of the arrows leaves a mortal wound just as his enemies approach the castle gates. It is revealed that the attacking force is using trees cut during the previous night to disguise and protect themselves in their advance on the castle.

Production.

Development.

William Shakespeare's plays had been read in Japan since the Meiji Restoration in 1868, though banned during World War II for not being Japanese. Director Akira Kurosawa stated he had had an admiration for Shakespeare's "Macbeth" for a long time, and envisioned making a film based on it. He hoped to make one after his 1950 film "Rashomon", but opted to wait when he learned Orson Welles was releasing a "Macbeth" film in 1948.  Kurosawa believed that Scotland and Japan in the Middle Ages shared social problems and that these had lessons for the present day. Moreover, "Macbeth" could serve as a cautionary tale complementing his 1952 film "Ikiru".  The film combines Shakespeare's play with the Noh style of drama. Kurosawa was an admirer of Noh, which he preferred over Kabuki. In particular, he wished to incorporate Noh-style body movements and set design. Noh also makes use of masks, and the evil spirit is seen, in different parts of the film, wearing faces reminiscent of these masks, starting with "yaseonna" (old lady). Noh often stresses the Buddhist doctrine of impermanence. This is connected to Washizu being denied salvation, with the chorus singing that his ghost is still in the world. The film score's use of flute and drum are drawn from Noh.  Originally, Kurosawa planned only to produce the film, and hand over the reins to another director. However, Toho, assessing the budget and seeing the film would be costly, insisted Kurosawa direct it.

Filming.

The castle exteriors were built and shot on Mount Fuji. The castle courtyard was constructed at Toho's Tamagawa studio, with volcanic soil brought from Fuji so that the ground matched. The interiors were shot in a smaller studio in Tokyo. The forest scenes were a combination of actual Fuji forest and studio shots in Tokyo. Washizu's mansion was shot in the Izu Peninsula.  In Kurosawa's own words,  Production designer Yoshirō Muraki said the crew opted to employ the color black in the set walls, and a lot of armor, to complement the mist and fog effects. This design was based on ancient scrolls depicting Japanese castles.  Washizu's death scene, in which his own archers turn upon him and shoot him with arrows, was in fact performed with real arrows, shot by knowledgeable and skilled archers. During filming, Mifune waved his arms, which was how the actor indicated his intended bodily direction. This was for his own safety in order to prevent the archers accidentally hitting him.

Release.

In Japan, the film was released by Toho on 15 January 1957. It played at 110 minutes and brought in more revenue than any other Toho film that year.  In the United States, the film was distributed by Brandon Films at 105 minutes and opened on 22 November 1961. In Region A, The Criterion Collection released the film on Blu-ray in 2014, having released a DVD version 10 years before.

Reception.

Critical reception.

In 1961, the "Time" review praised Kurosawa and the film as "a visual descent into the hell of greed and superstition". Writing for "The New York Times", Bosley Crowther called the idea of Shakespeare in Japanese "amusing," and complimented the cinematography. Most critics stated it was the visuals that filled the gap left by the removal of Shakespeare's poetry. U.K. directors Geoffrey Reeve and Peter Brook considered the film to be a masterpiece, but denied it was a Shakespeare film because of the language. Author Donald Richie praised the film as "a marvel because it is made of so little: fog, wind, trees, mist".  The film has received praise from literary critics despite the many liberties it takes with the original play. The American literary critic Harold Bloom judged it "the most successful film version of "Macbeth"". Sylvan Barnet writes it captured Macbeth as a strong warrior, and that "Without worrying about fidelity to the original," "Throne of Blood" is "much more satisfactory" than most Shakespeare films.  In his "2015 Movie Guide", Leonard Maltin gave the film four stars, calling it a "Graphic, powerful adaptation". "Throne of Blood" currently holds a 95% "rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 43 reviews.

Legacy.

Roman Polanski's 1971 film version of "Macbeth" has similarities to "Throne of Blood", in shots of characters on twisted roads, set design, and music to identify locations and psychological conditions. Toshiro Mifune's death scene was the source of inspiration for Piper Laurie’s death scene in the 1976 film "Carrie", in which knives are thrown at her, in this case by character Carrie White using her psychic powers. Kurosawa returned to adapting Shakespeare, choosing the play "King Lear" for his 1985 film "Ran", and again moving the setting to feudal Japan.  "Throne of Blood" is referenced in the anime film "Millennium Actress" (2001) in the form of the Forest Spirit/Witch. It was adapted for the stage by director Ping Chong, premiering at the 2010 Oregon Shakespeare Festival in Ashland, Oregon.

As with the play, the film tells the story of a warrior who assassinates his sovereign at the urging of his ambitious wife. Kurosawa was a fan of the play and intended to make his own adaptation for several years, delaying it after learning of Orson Welles' "Macbeth" (1948). Among his changes was the ending, which required archers to fire arrows around Mifune. The film was shot around Mount Fuji and Izu Peninsula.

Das Schloss im Spinnwebwald (jap. "Kumonosu-jō", wörtlich: „Burg Spinnennetz“) ist ein Film von Akira Kurosawa aus dem Jahre 1957. Der Stoff ist dem Theaterstück Macbeth von William Shakespeare entnommen und ins historische Japan übertragen worden. Der Film wird dem japanischen Jidaigeki-Genre zugeordnet.


History.

Jack Wolfskin was founded as a trademark of the company Sine in Frankfurt am Main by Ulrich Dausien in 1981. With proceeding success Jack Wolfskin was incorporated separately from Sine. In 1991, the company was sold to Johnson Outdoors. Jack Wolfskin had supplied only specialist shops until the first own shop was opened in Heidelberg in 1993. Up to now there are more than 600 Jack Wolfskin-Stores worldwide (mid-2012). Almost all of them are organized in a franchise system.  In 2002, the private equity corporation Bain Capital acquired Jack Wolfskin from Johnson Outdoors for 42 million Euro. In 2005, Bain Capital sold Jack Wolfskin for 93 million Euro to the two finance investors Quadriga Capital and Barclays Private Equity. In 2011, these owners sold the company to the US holding company Blackstone Group. Blackstone is expected to help Jack Wolfskin to grow further on an international level. Simultaneously the former CEO and co-owner Manfred Hell left the company with immediate effect, after 25 years on the top of the company.  In November 2014, Melody Harris-Jensbach was selected as CEO of the company.  July 6, 2017 Outdoor clothing brand Jack Wolfskin has successfully completed a financial restructuring with its main creditors and reduced its debt by 225 million euros ($256m), it announced on Thursday. The move has brought down its debt from 365 million euros to 110 million euros, with terms extended until 2022. Additionally, the clothing firm will receive a new temporary loan of 25 million euros ($28m) from current senior creditors, who will become new shareholders of the company as a result of the restructuring process. Jack Wolfskin’s new owners will hold their stake via a Luxemburg-based holding company. These include Bain Capital Credit, HIG / Bayside Capital and CQS, who now own more than 50% of the brand.  Reports announced in April that private equity firm Blackstone had handed over control of the German company to a group of its lenders in a debt for equity swap.  On 30 November 2018, Jack Wolfskin announced they were to be purchased by Callaway Golf Company. On 4 January 2019, Callaway completed the acquisition of Jack Wolfskin for €418 million.

Corporate responsibility.

Since July 2010 Jack Wolfskin has been a member of the Fair Wear Foundation, a multi-stakeholder initiative working to improve workplace conditions in the garment and textile industry. In July 2007, Jack Wolfskin became patron of the I.C.E. Youth Camp a UNEP-initiative which has the aim to train young persons an environmentally awareness and a thrifty use of resources in cooperation with Arved Fuchs.  Even since 2008 an extensive supplier monitoring was established at Jack Wolfskin and in 2009 Jack Wolfskin announced that a membership in a multi-stakeholder initiative will be checked. When the Clean Clothes Campaign distributed questionnaires about working and production conditions to several outdoor producers in 2009 and 2010, Jack Wolfskin decided to become a member of the FWF as there were many similarities to the own established social audit system. Together with Wolfgang Niedecken and World Vision Germany the project "Rebound" was initiated in 2008. The aim of the project is to improve life conditions of former child soldiers in Uganda and to reintegrate them into society. In 2010, the Swiss NGO Erklärung von Bern compared working condition standards in countries of production of 77 fashion brands. Jack Wolfskin was graded into the second best category of five categories.

Litigation.

Jack Wolfskin has a history of aggressive legal action related to their paw print logo. In 2002 they succeeded in prohibiting the "taz" newspaper from using a paw print design on merchandise designed for outdoor use on the grounds that the taz logo designed in 1978 was not registered as a trademark, whereas the Jack Wolfskin logo was registered in 1982. This led to many people boycotting their products.  In October 2009 Jack Wolfskin's lawyers sent demands for damage payments to handicraft hobbyists who had used paw designs in their creations, irrespective of whether the paw design was of wolf, cat or other animal. This prompted a backlash in online forums for handicrafts and bloggers documenting corporate behaviour, outraged at the bullying tactics used by a large firm against individual hobbyists with barely measurable income through clothing and no intention to mimic Jack Wolfskin goods. The protest reached national news media in Germany. A blunt refusal to back down by Jack Wolfskin led to calls to boycott their products in several online communities in Germany and abroad. As the impact of the negative publicity became apparent Jack Wolfskin later issued a press release to indicate they would in future open dialog directly with people it suspected of breaching its copyright, rather than sending damage payment demands as the first contact.  In November 2009 Jack Wolfskin threatened the Dutch company Bearwear, a clothing supplier to the gay bear scene, with legal action causing it to suspend its European web shop and generating ill-feelings to Wolfskin with its customers. This was eventually resolved, allowing Bearwear to continue trading with its logo that incorporates a bear paw print.  On 19 December 2011 the Civic Association Dog Soul from Slovak Republic (a non-profit organization) received an e-mail with a copy of a letter from an attorney and patent office representing the JACK WOLFSKIN Ausrüstung für Draussen GmbH & Co. KGaA company. Simultaneously - without any valid court decision - they directly accused them of violating trademark property rights.

Sponsorship.

In August 2010 Jack Wolfskin signed a 3-year deal to sponsor the English football club Liverpool FC, in a chance to increase its exposure in the UK. In April 2013 Liverpool FC and Jack Wolfskin announced a 3-year extension of their current partnership deal.

Jack Wolfskin is a major German producer of outdoor wear and equipment headquartered in Idstein. It was founded in 1981 and is now one of the biggest suppliers of outdoor products and at the same time most successful franchiser in the German specialist trade market of sports equipment. Their products include mountain and leisure clothing, footwear, rucksacks, sleeping bags, and tents. The brand is popular not only among hikers and mountaineers but predominantly worn in everyday situations; Jack Wolfskin clothes and accessories are fashionable amongst urban Germans Wilderness chic.

Die Jack Wolfskin Ausrüstung für Draussen GmbH & Co. KGaA (Eigenschreibweise "JACK WOLFSKIN", kurz "JW") ist ein dem US-amerikanischen Golf-Ausrüster Callaway Golf Company gehörender deutscher Hersteller von Funktionsbekleidung, Outdoor-Ausrüstung (z. B. Rucksäcke und Zelte) und Schuhen mit Sitz in Idstein im Taunus. Das Unternehmen ist ferner als Franchisegeber im deutschen Sportfachhandel tätig. Die Artikel werden in vielen europäischen Ländern angeboten.


History.

Wooster was established in 1808 by John Bever, William Henry, and Joseph Larwill and named after David Wooster, a general in the American Revolutionary War.

Geography.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, of which, is land and is water.

Geology.

The local bedrock consists of the Cuyahoga Formation (shale) and the overlying Logan Formation (sandstone and conglomerate), both Lower Carboniferous and rich in fossils.

Demographics.

In 2011, 93.3% spoke English, 2.4% Spanish, and 1.3% German.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 26,119 people, 10,733 households, and 6,244 families residing in the city. The population density was. There were 11,822 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 91.2% White, 3.6% African American, 0.3% Native American, 1.9% Asian, 0.7% from other races, and 2.4% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.2% of the population.  There were 10,733 households of which 26.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.1% were married couples living together, 11.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.8% had a male householder with no wife present, and 41.8% were non-families. 35.4% of all households were made up of individuals and 14.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.21 and the average family size was 2.86.  The median age in the city was 37.3 years. 20.4% of residents were under the age of 18; 14.8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 23.1% were from 25 to 44; 25.1% were from 45 to 64; and 16.6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47.6% male and 52.4% female.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 24,811 people, 10,040 households, and 6,174 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,726.1 people per square mile (666.6/km2). There were 10,674 housing units at an average density of 742.6 per square mile (286.8/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 92.59% White, 3.82% African American, 0.26% Native American, 1.54% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.36% from other races, and 1.42% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.07% of the population.  There were 10,040 households out of which 28.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.9% were married couples living together, 11.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38.5% were non-families. 32.4% of all households were made up of individuals and 11.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.28 and the average family size was 2.88.  In the city, the population was spread out with 22.0% under the age of 18, 14.9% from 18 to 24, 25.9% from 25 to 44, 22.4% from 45 to 64, and 14.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.3 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $37,400, and the median income for a family was $47,118. Males had a median income of $34,021 versus $23,608 for females. The per capita income for the city was $21,505. About 7.8% of families and 10.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 14.5% of those under age 18 and 8.0% of those age 65 or over.

Economy.

Wooster is the headquarters of several industrial entities. Buehler Food Markets Inc., Wooster Brush, Seaman Corp., Tricor Industrial, Wooster Motor Ways, and Certified Angus Beef have corporate headquarters located in Wooster. Rubbermaid made its corporate headquarters in Wooster until the end of 2003. LuK, the German maker of dual-clutch transmissions has its North America headquarters in Wooster where mainly torque converters are produced. Other large commercial operations in Wooster are Frito-Lay, Akron Brass, United Titanium, Western Reserve Group Insurance Company, Daisy Brands, and Bogner Construction Company.  Wooster is also the world headquarters of the Prentke Romich Company (PRC) which is a member of a consortium of companies that produce assistive technology and augmentative communication devices.  For its size, Wooster is also dedicated to the "industry of education." It has The College of Wooster, and two subsidiaries of The Ohio State University: the Agricultural Technical Institute (ATI); and the Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center (OARDC), a teaching and research facility dedicated to agricultural science.  In addition to these industries, Wooster remains an agricultural center for Ohio. The OARDC enriches the local farms with knowledge and expertise, which is proudly displayed at the annual Wayne County Fair, held each September (see also Fair). Students in Wooster and surrounding rural communities continue to enroll in youth farming programs such as 4-H and National FFA Organization. Many Amish farmers come to Wooster by horse-and-buggy for commerce as well.  In June 2013, the city of Wooster announced that Daisy Brand, a sour cream producer, plans to open a new Midwest manufacturing plant in Wooster. Daisy Brand promised to create at least 89 full-time positions and is slated to begin production sometime in 2016.  The overlap of strong education and advanced manufacturing has led to number of small innovative firms being founded in Wooster in recent years including Quasar Energy Group, ExpenseWire, ABSMaterials, 3i-ingredients, and Cureo.  Wooster also has a local food community including Local Roots, a collective year round farmer's market for locally produced goods. At present, there are over 150 local farmers and producers. Local Roots has garnered national attention for its innovative efforts.  The Wayne County Airport (BJJ) serves as an air access point for many of the businesses throughout the city.

Arts and culture.

The arts.

Wooster, and the greater Wayne County community, is served by the Wayne Center for the Arts, which displays artwork by local artists, offers instructional courses, and stages performances.  The College of Wooster is home to the Ohio Light Opera, a professional opera company that performs the light opera repertory, including Gilbert and Sullivan, and American, British, and continental operettas of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Music.

The Wooster Symphony Orchestra, founded in 1915, is a joint venture between the Wooster community and the College of Wooster. The Symphony is the second oldest continually performing in the state.

Sports.

For the 2007–2008 season, Wooster was granted a team in the Mid-Atlantic Hockey League called the Wooster Warriors. The MAHL suspended operations of February 2008, and the Warriors subsequently relocated to Trenton, Michigan.  Wooster was the home to the Wooster Korn Kings, which was a minor league professional ice hockey team that was a member of the All American Hockey League. The team's home arena was Alice Noble Ice Arena.  The Wooster Oilers began playing at the Alice Noble Ice Arena in 2006. The team competes in the North American 3 Hockey League, and won the 2009–2010 championship. The team moves players to higher levels of junior or college hockey.

Parks and recreation.

Wooster Memorial Park, locally known as Spangler Park, contains of hiking trails through woods, ravines, and open fields along the Rathburn Run. Christmas Run Park has playgrounds, pavilions, and a picnic area. Schellin Park has a skate park, playground and picnic facilities. Oak Hill Park has pavilions and walking trails. Freedlander park has the pool, basketball courts, pavilions, and a pond as well.  Acres of Fun is a local entertainment complex which offers family activities like go-karting and laser tag. The College of Wooster has a golf course, bowling alley, and multipurpose athletic facility open to the public. Also located in the city is Wooster Skateland, an indoor ice skating and hockey facility open year-round.

Government.

Mayor and council.

The city is governed by an elected mayor. On January 1, 2008, former Councilman Bob Breneman (R) was sworn in as Mayor.  There is a seven-member City Council: Mark Cavin (D-1st Ward), Jennifer Warden (D-2nd Ward), David Silvestri (R-3rd Ward), Scott Myers (I-4th Ward), and at-large members Bill Bostansic (D), Jon Ansel (R) and Craig Sanders (R). Meetings are presided over by Mike Buytendyk (R) the City Council president who is elected at-large and only votes to break a tie. Jon Ansel is the council president pro tempore.

Elected representatives.

As of 2019, the city is represented in the Ohio House of Representatives by Scott Wiggam (R); in the Ohio Senate by Kristina Roegner (R); in the U.S. House of Representatives by Anthony Gonzalez (R), and in the U.S Senate by Sherrod Brown (D) and Rob Portman (R).

Media.

Newspapers.

The city has a daily newspaper, "The Daily Record", previously published by Dix Communications/Wooster Republican Printing Co. Currently published by Gatehouse Media, and a weekly paper, "The Wooster Weekly News", published by Graphic Publications Inc. In addition, the "Akron Beacon Journal" occasionally covers the city and Wayne County.

Magazines.

The city has a locally owned interactive city magazine, "WoosterGrapevine.com". It includes local news, events, classifieds, arcades, photos, videos, and other local information.

Notable people.

The following individuals were born in, raised in, lived in, or currently live in Wooster.

Sister cities.

The town of Collepietro in the Province of L'Aquila in the Abruzzi region of Italy, is officially recognized as a Sister City of Wooster.

Wooster ( ) is a city in the U.S. state of Ohio and the county seat of Wayne County. The municipality is located in northeastern Ohio approximately SSW of Cleveland, SW of Akron and W of Canton. The population was 24,811 at the 2000 census and 26,119 at the 2010 Census. The city is the largest in Wayne County, and the center of the Wooster Micropolitan Statistical Area (as defined by the United States Census Bureau). Wooster has the main branch and administrative offices of the Wayne County Public Library.

Wooster ist eine Stadt mit 25.668 Einwohnern (2005) im Wayne County im US-Bundesstaat Ohio. Sie liegt 45 Autominuten südlich von Cleveland und 75 Autominuten nordöstlich von Columbus. Die Stadt ist bekannt durch das College of Wooster. Außerdem gibt es eine Außenstelle der Ohio State University (Ohio State University Agricultural Technical Inst).


Biography.

Origins and early career.

Justinian was born in Constantinople sometime shortly after 525, the second son of Germanus, a cousin to the Emperor Justinian I (r. 527–565). He had an elder brother, Justin, and a sister, Justina, who married the general John.  Justinian was first appointed to military command in 550, when he, together with his brother Justin, were to accompany their father in his expedition against Ostrogoth Italy. Germanus, however, died suddenly in autumn 550, before the army had left the Balkans, where it was assembling. After this, Justinian and John (Germanus's son-in-law) were ordered to lead the army towards Salona (modern Split, Croatia), in preparation for a crossing over to Italy or an overland march to Venetia. John remained in charge of the army until the eunuch Narses, who was appointed as the expedition's new commander-in-chief in early 551, arrived at Salona to take up command. In early 552, Justinian was placed at the head of an expedition against the Slavs who were raiding Illyricum, and shortly after, was sent to assist the Lombards against the Gepids. His brother Justin was also a member of this army. The two brothers, however, were detained by the need to suppress a revolt in the city of Ulpiana, and never arrived to aid the Lombards.

Career in the East.

Nothing is known of Justinian during the next 20 years. By 572, however, he had risen to the rank of "patricius" and was placed as commander-in-chief of the forces in the northeastern sector of the Empire's frontier with Sassanid Persia ("magister militum per Armeniam"). From this post, he supported the outbreak of the Iberian and Armenian rebellion against the Sassanids, which led to the outbreak of a twenty-year-long conflict between Byzantium and Persia.  In 572, he supported the Armenian forces under Vardan III Mamikonian in their defence of Dvin, and, when the fortress eventually fell, in its recapture later in the year. Soon, however, he was recalled to Constantinople because of friction with the Armenians. In late 574 or early 575, he was appointed as "magister militum per Orientem" and overall commander of the Byzantine forces in the East. In this role, he set about training the numerous fresh troops raised by the Empire, and effected a reconciliation with the Ghassanid ruler al-Mundhir, restoring thus the traditional Byzantine alliance with his people. A three-year truce was soon after concluded for the Mesopotamian front, but it did not apply to Armenia.  In summer 575 or 576, Justinian failed to block the advance of the Persian army, headed by Shah Khosrau I (r. 531–579) himself, through Persarmenia. When the shah entered into Byzantine Cappadocia and advanced towards Caesarea, Justinian gathered a superior army and blocked the mountain passes leading to it. Khosrau withdrew, sacking Sebasteia in the process. Justinian pursued Khosrau, and twice he trapped him in a pincer movement: the first time, the Persian shah and his army only escaped after abandoning their camp and their belongings to the Byzantines, while the second, the Romans were defeated at a night attack against their encampments near Melitene due to dissension amongst the army's commanders. Then the Persians stormed Melitene and burned it down. As the Persian army was preparing to cross the Euphrates, however, Justinian's forces caught up with them. The next day, the two armies drew up in battle formation near Melitene, but did not clash. Come nightfall, the Persians tried to cross the river in secret, but were detected and attacked by the Byzantines during the crossing. The Persians suffered heavy casualties, while the Byzantines captured great booty, including 24 war elephants which were sent to Constantinople. In the following winter, Justinian advanced deep into Persian territory, through Media Atropatene, and wintered with his army on the southern shores of the Caspian Sea. Nevertheless, he was unable to regain control over Persarmenia.  In 576/577, the Persian general Tamkhusro invaded Armenia, where he defeated the Byzantines under Justinian. Later, Tamkhusro and Adarmahan launched a major raid into the Byzantine province of Osroene. They threatened the town of Constantina, but withdrew when they received word of the approach of the Byzantine army under Justinian. Following these reversals, later in the same year, the Byzantine regent, "Caesar" Tiberius, appointed Maurice as Justinian's successor.

Last years and court intrigues.

Returning to the capital, according to reports preserved exclusively in Western sources, Justinian was involved in a plot with the Empress Sophia over the succession of her husband, Justin II (r. 565–578), whose health was rapidly deteriorating. They intended to assassinate Justin's heir, the "Caesar" Tiberius (ruled as Tiberius II in 578–582), and have Justinian ascend the throne. Tiberius, however, discovered the plot, whereupon Justinian pleaded for forgiveness and offered 1,500 pounds of gold as a sign of contrition. Soon, however, between 579 and 581, Sophia and Justinian were plotting again. This conspiracy too was uncovered, but Justinian was again pardoned. Justinian had a daughter and a son, who is likely identifiable with Germanus, who was married to Tiberius's daughter Charito and raised to the rank of "Caesar". Justinian died at Constantinople in 582.

Justinian (,, after 525–582) was an East Roman (Byzantine) aristocrat and general, and a member of the ruling Justinian dynasty. As a soldier, he had a distinguished career in the Balkans and in the East against Sassanid Persia. In his later years, he plotted unsuccessfully against regent and later emperor Tiberius II (r. 574–582).

Justinian (* um 525; † 582) war ein spätantiker oströmischer Feldherr. Er war der Sohn des Germanus, eines Vetters Kaiser Justinians I., und galt als ein erfahrener Militär.


History.

In 1946, the first FAL prototype was completed. It was designed to fire the intermediate 7.92×33mm Kurz cartridge developed and used by the forces of Germany during World War II (with the Sturmgewehr 44 assault rifle). After testing this prototype in 1948, the British Army urged FN to build additional prototypes, including one in bullpup configuration, chambered for their new.280 British [7x43mm] caliber intermediate cartridge. After evaluating the single bullpup prototype, FN decided to return instead to their original, conventional design for future production.  In 1950, the United Kingdom presented the redesigned FN rifle and the British EM-2, both in.280 British calibre, to the United States for comparison testing against the favoured United States Army design of the time—Earle Harvey's T25. It was hoped that a common cartridge and rifle could be standardized for issue to the armies of all NATO member countries. After this testing was completed, U.S. Army officials suggested that FN should redesign their rifle to fire the U.S. prototype ".30 Light Rifle" cartridge. FN decided to hedge their bets with the U.S., and in 1951 even made a deal that the U.S. could produce FALs royalty-free, given that the UK appeared to be favouring their own EM-2.  This decision appeared to be correct when the British Army decided to adopt the EM-2 (as Rifle No.9 Mk1) and.280 British cartridge. This decision was later rescinded after the Labour Party lost the 1951 General Election and Winston Churchill returned as Prime Minister. It is believed that there was a quid pro quo agreement between Churchill and U.S. President Harry Truman in 1952 that the British accept the.30 Light Rifle cartridge as NATO standard in return for the U.S. acceptance of the FN FAL as NATO standard. The.30 Light Rifle cartridge was in fact later standardized as the 7.62 mm NATO; however, the U.S. insisted on continued rifle tests. The FAL chambered for the.30 Light Rifle went up against the redesigned T25 (now redesignated as the T47), and an M1 Garand variant, the T44. Eventually, the T44 won, becoming the M14. However, in the meantime, most other NATO countries were evaluating and selecting the FAL.  FN created what is possibly the classic post-war battle rifle. Formally introduced by its designer Dieudonné Saive in 1951, and produced two years later, it has been described as the "Right Arm of the Free World." The FAL battle rifle has its Warsaw Pact counterpart in the AKM, each being fielded by dozens of countries and produced in many of them. A few, such as Israel and South Africa, manufactured and issued both designs at various times. Unlike the Soviet AKM assault rifle, the FAL utilized a heavier full-power rifle cartridge.

Design details.

The FAL operates by means of a gas-operated action very similar to that of the Russian SVT-40. The gas system is driven by a short-stroke, spring-loaded piston housed above the barrel, and the locking mechanism is what is known as a "tilting breechblock". To lock, it drops down into a solid shoulder of metal in the heavy receiver much like the bolts of the Russian SKS carbine and French MAS-49 series of semi-automatic rifles. The gas system is fitted with a gas regulator behind the front sight base, allowing adjustment of the gas system in response to environmental conditions. The piston system can be bypassed completely, using the gas plug, to allow for the firing of rifle grenades and manual operation. The FAL's magazine capacity ranges from five to 30 rounds, with most magazines holding 20 rounds. In fixed stock versions of the FAL, the recoil spring is housed in the stock, while in folding-stock versions it is housed in the receiver cover, necessitating a slightly different receiver cover, recoil spring, and bolt carrier, and a modified lower receiver for the stock. For field stripping the FAL can be opened. During opening the rifle rotates around a two piece pivot lock and pin assembly located between the trigger guard and magazine well to give access to the action and piston system. This opening method causes a suboptimal iron sight line as the rear sight element is mounted on the lower receiver and the front sight element of the sight line is mounted on the upper receiver/barrel and hence are fixed to two different movable subassemblies. The sight radius for the FAL 50.00 and FAL 50.41 models is and for the 50.61 and FAL 50.63 models.  FAL rifles have also been manufactured in both light and heavy-barrel configurations, with the heavy barrel intended for automatic fire as a section or squad light support weapon. Most heavy barrel FALs are equipped with bipods, although some light barrel models were equipped with bipods, such as the Austrian StG58 and the German G1, and a bipod was later made available as an accessory.  Among other 7.62×51mm NATO battle rifles at the time, the FN FAL had relatively light recoil, due to the user-adjustable gas system being able to be tuned via a regulator in fore-end of the rifle, which allowed for excess gas which would simply increase recoil to bleed off. The regulator is an adjustable gas port opening that adjusts the rifle to function reliably with various propellant and projectile specific pressure behavior, making the FAL not ammunition specific. In fully automatic mode, however, the shooter receives considerable abuse from recoil, and the weapon climbs off-target quickly, making automatic fire only of marginal effectiveness. Many military forces using the FAL eventually eliminated full-automatic firearms training in the light-barrel FAL.

Variants.

FN production variants.

Depending on the variant and the country of adoption, the FAL was issued as either semi-automatic only or select-fire (capable of both semi-automatic and fully automatic firing modes).

Sturmgewehr 58.

The "Sturmgewehr" 58 ("StG" 58) is a selective fire (semi-automatic and fully automatic) battle rifle. The first 20,000 were manufactured by "Fabrique Nationale d’Armes de Guerre"-Herstal Belgique, but later the StG58 was manufactured under licence by Steyr-Daimler-Puch (now Steyr Mannlicher), and was formerly the standard rifle of the "Österreichisches Bundesheer" (Austrian Federal Army). It is essentially a user-customized version of the FAL and is still in use, mainly as a drill weapon in the Austrian forces. It was selected in a 1958 competition, beating the Spanish CETME and American Armalite AR-10.  Most StG 58s featured a folding bipod, and differ from the FAL by using a plastic stock rather than wood in order to reduce weight in the later production rifles (although some of the early FN-built production rifles did come with wooden stocks). The rifle can be distinguished from its Belgian and Argentine counterparts by its combination flash suppressor and grenade launcher. The foregrip was a two-part steel pressing.  Steyr-built StG 58s had a hammer forged barrel that was considered to be the best barrel fitted to any FAL. Some StG58s had modifications made to the fire mode selector so that the fully automatic option was removed, leaving the selector with only safe and single-shot positions. The StG 58 was replaced by the Steyr AUG (designated StG 77) in 1977, although the StG 58 served with many units as the primary service rifle through the mid-1980s.

Olin/Winchester FAL.

A semi-automatic, twin-barrel variant chambered in the 5.56mm "Duplex" round during Project SALVO. This weapon was designed by Stefan Kenneth Janson who previously designed the EM-2 rifle.

Armtech L1A1 SAS.

Dutch company Armtech built the L1A1 SAS, an assault-carbine variant of the L1A1 with a barrel length of 290 mm (11.4 inches). This was similar to short-barreled L1A1 carbines used by the ANZAC forces in Vietnam.

DSA FAL (DSA-58).

American company DSA (David Selvaggio Arms) manufactures a copy of the FAL called the DSA-58 that is made with the same Steyr-Daimler-Puch production line equipment as the StG-58. It comes with a 406 mm (16 in), 457 mm (18 in) or 533 mm (21 in) barrel, an aluminum-alloy lower receiver, and improved Glass-filled Nylon furniture. Civilian models are semi-automatic, but military and Law Enforcement clients can procure select-fire models that have a fully automatic cyclic rate of 750 rounds/minute. The DSA-58 can use any metric-measurement FAL magazines, which come in 5, 10, 20 or 30-round capacities.

Production and use.

The FAL has been used by over 90 countries, and some seven million have been produced. The "FAL" was originally made by Fabrique Nationale de Herstal (FN) in Liège, Belgium, but it has also been made under license in fifteen countries. As of August 2006, new examples were still being produced by at least four different manufacturers worldwide.  A distinct sub-family was the Commonwealth inch-dimensioned versions that were manufactured in the United Kingdom and Australia (as the L1A1 Self Loading Rifle or SLR), and in Canada as the C1. The standard metric-dimensioned FAL was manufactured in South Africa (where it was known as the "R1"), Brazil, Israel, Austria and Argentina. Both the SLR and FAL were also produced without license by India.  Mexico assembled FN-made components into complete rifles at its national arsenal in Mexico City. The FAL was also exported to many other countries, such as Venezuela, where a small-arms industry produces some basically unchanged variants, as well as ammunition. By modern standards, one disadvantage of the FAL is the amount of work which goes into machining the complex receiver, bolt and bolt carrier. Some theorized that the movement of the tilting bolt mechanism tends to return differently with each shot, affecting inherent accuracy of the weapon, but this has been proven to be false. The FAL's receiver is machined, while most other modern military rifles use quicker stamping or casting techniques. Modern FALs have many improvements over those produced by FN and others in the mid-20th-century.

Argentina.

The Argentine Armed Forces officially adopted the FN FAL in 1955, but the first FN made examples did not arrive in Argentina until the autumn of 1958. Subsequently, in 1960, licensed production of FALs began and continued until the mid-to-late 1990s, when production ceased. In 2010, a project to modernize all existing FAL and to produce an unknown number of them was approved. This project was called FAL M5.  Argentine FALs were produced by the government-owned arsenal FM (Fabricaciones Militares) at the Fábrica Militar de Armas Portátiles "Domingo Matheu" (FMAP "DM") in Rosario. The acronym "FAL" was kept, its translation being "Fusil Automático Liviano", (Light Automatic Rifle). Production weapons included "Standard" and "Para" (folding buttstock) versions. Military rifles were produced with the full auto fire option. The rifles were usually known as the FM FAL, for the "Fabricaciones Militares" brand name (FN and FM have a long-standing licensing and manufacturing agreement). A heavy barrel version, known as the "FAP" ("Fusil Automático Pesado", or heavy automatic rifle) was also produced for the armed forces, to be used as a squad automatic weapon. The Argentine 'heavy barrel' FAL, also used by several other nations, was found to frequently experience a failure to feed after firing two rounds from a full magazine when in automatic mode.  A version of the FALMP III chambered in the 5.56×45mm NATO cartridge was developed in the early 1980s. It used M16 type magazines but one version called the FALMP III 5.56mm Type 2 used Steyr AUG magazines. The FARA 83 (Fusil Automático República Argentina) was to replace the Argentine military's FAL rifles. The design borrowed features from the FAL such as the gas system and folding stock. It seems to have been also influenced to some degree by other rifles (the Beretta AR70/223, M16, and the Galil). An estimated quantity of between 2,500 and 3,000 examples were produced for field testing, but military spending cuts killed the project in the mid-1980s.  There was also a semi-automatic–only version, the "FSL", intended for the civilian market. Legislation changes in 1995 (namely, the enactment of "Presidential Decree No 64/95") imposed a "de facto" ban on "semi-automatic assault weapons". Today, it can take up to two years to obtain a permit for the ownership of an FSL. The FSL was offered with full or folding stocks, plastic furniture and orthoptic sights.  Argentine FALs saw action during the Falklands War (Falklands-Malvinas/South Atlantic War), and in different peace-keeping operations such as in Cyprus and the former Yugoslavia. Rosario-made FALs are known to have been exported to Bolivia (in 1971), Colombia, Croatia (during the wars in former Yugoslavia during the 1990s), Honduras, Nigeria (this is unconfirmed, most Nigerian FALs are from FN in Belgium or are British-made L1A1s), Peru, and Uruguay (which reportedly took delivery of some Brazilian IMBEL-made FALs as well). Deactivated Argentinean FALs from the many thousands captured during the Falklands War are used by UK forces as part of the soldier's load on some training courses run over public land in the UK.  The Argentine Marine Corps, a branch of the Argentine Navy, has replaced the FN/FM FAL in front line units, adopting the U.S. M16A2. The Argentine Army has expressed its desire to acquire at least 1,500 new rifles chambered for the 5.56×45mm NATO SS109/U.S. M855 (.223 Remington) cartridge, to be used primarily by its peacekeeping troops on overseas deployments.  The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) secretly purchased several thousand Argentine FAL rifles in 1981, which were supplied to the Nicaraguan Contras rebel group. These rifles have since appeared throughout Central America in use with other organizations.  These rifles are currently being modernized to a new standard, the FAL M5 (or FAL V), which uses polymer parts to reduce weight, and has Picatinny rails and optic mounts for carrying accessories, that created these variants:

Brazil.

Brazil took delivery of a small quantity of FN-made FAL rifles for evaluation as early as 1954. Troop field testing was performed with FN made FALs between 1958 and 1962. Then, in 1964, Brazil officially adopted the rifle, designating the rifle M964 for 1964. Licensed production started shortly thereafter at the "Indústria de Material Bélico do Brasil" (IMBEL), in Itajubá in the state of Minas Gerais. The folding stock version was designated M964A1. By the late 1980s/early 1990s, IMBEL had manufactured some 200,000 M964 rifles. Later Brazilian made FALs have Type 3, hammer forged receivers. Early FN made FALs for Brazil are typical FN 1964 models with Type 1 or Type 2 receivers, plastic stock, handguard, and pistol grip, 22 mm cylindrical flash hider for grenade launching, and plastic model "D" carrying handle. Brazilian-made FALs are thought to have been exported to Uruguay. A heavy barrel version, known as the FAP (Fuzil Automático Pesado, or heavy automatic rifle) was also produced for the armed forces, to be used as a squad automatic weapon. Brazil's planned service weapon was a development of the FAL in 5.56×45mm. Known as the MD-2 and MD-3 assault rifles, it was also manufactured by IMBEL. The first prototype, the MD-1, came out around 1983. In 1985, the MD-2 was presented and adopted by the Military Police. Its new 5.56×45mm NATO chambering aside, the MD-2/MD-3 is still very similar to the FAL and externally resembles it, changes include a change in the locking system, which was replaced by an M16-type rotating bolt. The MD-2 and MD-3 use STANAG magazines, but have different buttstocks. The MD-2 features an FN 50.63 'para' side-folding stock, while the MD-3 uses the same fixed polymer stock of the standard FAL.  However, Brazil's current service weapon is a Brazilian FAL-based assault rifle in 5.56×45mm and 7.62×51mm versions, with Assault Rifle and Carbine variants, including a Sniper and CQB rifle, called the IA2, also produced by IMBEL.  Along with the IA2, MD-2 and MD-3 assault rifles, Brazil produces the M964A1/Pelopes (Special Operations Platoon), with an 11" barrel, 3-point sling and a Picatinny rail with a tactical flashlight and sight.  Brazilian Army officially used the FAP ("Fuzil Automático Pesado", or heavy automatic rifle) as its squad automatic weapon until 2013/2014, when the FN Minimi was adopted to replace it. The Marine Corps and Air Force also adopted the Minimi to replace the FAP.  IMBEL also produced a semi-automatic version of the FAL for Springfield Armory, Inc. (not to be confused with the US military Springfield Armory), which was marketed in the US as the SAR-48 (standard model) and SAR-4800 (made after 1989 with some military features removed to comply with new legislation), starting in the mid-1980s. IMBEL-made receivers have been much in demand among American gunsmiths building FALs from "parts kits."  IMBEL in 2014 offered the FAL in 9 versions: Currently, Brazilian Army and Marine Corps Groups still use the FAL as their main rifle, as many troops are not yet issued the IA2.

Germany.

The first German FALs were from an order placed in late 1955/early 1956, for several thousand FN FAL so-called "Canada" models with wood furniture and the prong flash hider. These weapons were intended for the "Bundesgrenzschutz" (border guard) and not the nascent "Bundeswehr" (army), which at the time used M1 Garands and M1/M2 carbines. In November 1956, however, West Germany ordered 100,000 additional FALs, designated the G1, for the army. FN made the rifles between April 1957 and May 1958. G1s served in the West German "Bundeswehr" for a relatively short time in the late 1950s and early 1960s, before they were replaced by the Spanish CETME Modelo 58 rifle in 1959 (which was extensively reworked into the later G3 rifle). The G1 featured a pressed metal handguard identical to the ones used on the Austrian Stg. 58, as well as the Dutch and Greek FALs, this being slightly slimmer than the standard wood or plastic handguards, and featuring horizontal lines running almost their entire length. G1s were also fitted with a unique removable prong flash hider, adding another external distinction. The main reason for the replacement of the G1 in Germany was the refusal of the Belgians to grant a license for production of the weapon in Germany. Many G1 FALs were passed on to Turkey after their withdrawal from German service. Of note is the fact that the G1 was the first FAL variant with the 3mm lower sights specifically requested by Germany, previous versions having the taller Commonwealth-type sights also seen on Israeli models.

Greece.

FN FAL rifles produced in Belgium were adopted by the Greek Army before the adoption of HK G3A3s rifles produced under license by Hellenic Arms Industry (ΕΒΟ). For a few years, FN FAL rifles were also produced under license by the Greek PYRKAL (ΠΥΡΚΑΛ) factory. FN FAL and FALO rifles were in use by the Greek Army Special Forces and IV Army Corps from 1973 till 1999, and are still in use by the Greek Coast Guard.

Israel.

After the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, the Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) had to overcome several logistics problems which were a result of the wide variety of old firearms that were in service. In 1955 the IDF adopted the IMI-produced Uzi submachine gun. To replace the German Mauser Kar 98k and some British Lee–Enfield rifles, the IDF decided in the same year to adopt the FN FAL as its standard-issue infantry rifle, under the name "Rov've Mitta'enn" or "Romat" (רומ"ט), an abbreviation of "Self-Loading Rifle". The FAL version ordered by the IDF came in two basic variants, both regular and heavy-barrel (automatic rifle), and were chambered for 7.62mm NATO ammunition. In common with heavy-barrel FALs used by several other nations, the Israeli 'heavy barrel' FAL (called the "Makle'a Kal", or "Makleon") was found to frequently experience a failure to feed after firing two rounds from a full magazine when in automatic mode. The Israeli FALs were originally produced as selective-fire rifles, though later light-barrel rifle versions were altered to semi-automatic fire only. The Israeli models are recognizable by a distinctive handguard with a forward perforated sheet metal section, and a rear wood section unlike most other FALs in shape, and their higher 'Commonwealth'-type sights. Israel has been a keen user of rifle grenades, in particular the AT 52 which is often seen in photographs with the FAL.  The Israeli FAL first saw action in relatively small quantities during the Suez Crisis of 1956, the Six-Day War in June 1967, the War of Attrition of 1967 until 1970, it was the standard Israeli rifle. During the Yom Kippur War of October 1973 it was still in front-line service as the standard Israeli rifle, though increasing criticism eventually led to the phasing-out of the weapon. Israeli forces were primarily mechanized in nature; the long, heavy FAL slowed deployment drills, and proved exceedingly difficult to maneuver within the confines of a vehicle. Additionally, Israeli forces experienced repeated jamming of the FAL due to heavy sand and dust ingress endemic to Middle Eastern desert warfare, requiring repeated field-stripping and cleaning of the rifle, sometimes while under fire. During the later stages of the Yom Kippur War, it was noted that some Israeli soldiers had informally exchanged their FALs for the far more reliable Soviet Kalashnikov AK-47 assault rifles taken from dead and captured Arab soldiers. Though the IDF evaluated a few modified FAL rifles with'sand clearance' slots in the bolt carrier and receiver (which were already part of the Commonwealth L1A1/C1A1 design), malfunction rates did not significantly improve. The sand cuts for the Israeli FAL models were inferior to the effective Commonwealth L1A1 sand cuts. The Israeli FAL was eventually replaced by the M16 and the Galil (a weapon using the Soviet Kalashnikov operating system, and chambered in either 5.56×45 or 7.62 NATO), though the FAL remained in production in Israel until 1986.

Rhodesia.

Like most British dependencies of the time, Southern Rhodesia had equipped its security forces with the British L1A1, or SLR, by the early 1960s. Following that country's unilateral declaration of independence in 1965, new rifles could not be readily procured from the UK, so Belgian FNs and South African R1s were imported instead. The older L1s subsequently completed their service with the British South Africa Police and to a lesser extent territorial troops in the Rhodesia Regiment.  During the Rhodesian Bush War, security forces fitted some standard FNs with customised flash suppressors to reduce recoil on fully automatic fire. Rhodesian Security Forces seldom ever used the FN on automatic fire and were trained to use a "double tap" on semi-automatic in combat, as automatic fire was considered a total waste of ammunition. However, a few soldiers rejected these devices, which they claimed upset the balance of their weapons during close action. In this theatre, the FN was generally considered superior to the Soviet Kalashnikovs or SKS carbines carried by communist-backed PF insurgents.  Trade sanctions and the gradual erosion of South African support in the 1970s led to serious part shortages. Consequently, shipments of G3s were accepted from Portugal, although the security forces considered these less reliable than the FAL. Following Robert Mugabe's ascension to power in 1980, Rhodesia's remaining FNs were passed on to Zimbabwe, its successor state. To simplify maintenance and logistics, the weapon initially remained a standard service rifle in the Zimbabwe Defence Forces. It was anticipated that more 7.62mm NATO ammunition would be imported to cover existing shortages, but a sabotage action carried out against the old Rhodesian Army stockpiles negated this factor. Zimbabwe promptly supplemented its surviving inventory with Soviet and North Korean arms.

South Africa.

The FAL was produced under licence in South Africa by Lyttleton Engineering Works, where it is known as the R1. The first South African-produced rifle, serial numbered 200001, was presented to the then Prime Minister, Dr Hendrik Verwoerd, by Armscor and is now on view at the South African National Museum of Military History in Johannesburg.

Syria.

Syria adopted the FN FAL in 1956. 12,000 rifles were bought in 1957. The Syrian state produced 7.62×51mm cartridges and is reported to have acquired FALs from other sources. During the Syrian Civil War, FALs from various sources, including Israel, were used by governmental forces, rebels, Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant and Kurdish forces. The Syrian Arab Army and loyalist paramilitary forces used it as a designated marksman rifle. At the end of 2012, the use of.308 Winchester cartridges may have caused these FALs to malfunction, thus reducing the popularity of the weapon.

United States.

Following World War II and the establishment of the NATO alliance, there was pressure to adopt a standard rifle, alliance-wide. The FAL was originally designed to handle intermediate cartridges, but in an attempt to secure US favor for the rifle, the FAL was redesigned to use the newly developed 7.62×51mm NATO cartridge. The US tested several variants of the FAL to replace the M1 Garand. These rifles were tested against the T44, essentially an updated version of the basic Garand design. Despite the T44 and T48 showing performing similarly in trials, the T44 was, for several reasons, selected and the US formally adopted the T44 as the M14 service rifle. During the late 1980s and 1990s, many countries decommissioned the FAL from their armories and sold them "en masse" to United States importers as surplus. The rifles were imported to the United States as fully automatic guns. Once in the U.S., the FAL's were "de-militarized" (upper receiver destroyed) to eliminate the rifles' character as an automatic rifle, as stipulated by the Gun Control Act of 1968 (GCA 68 currently prohibits the importation of foreign-made full-automatic rifles prior to the enactment of the Gun Control Act; semiautomatic versions of the same firearm were legal to import until the Semiautomatic Assault Rifle Ban of 1989). Thousands of the resulting "parts kits" were sold at generally low prices ($90 – $250) to hobbyists. The hobbyists rebuilt the parts kits to legal and functional semi-automatic rifles on new semi-automatic upper receivers. FAL rifles are still commercially available from a few domestic firms in semi-auto configuration: Entreprise Arms, DSArms, and Century International Arms. Century Arms created a semi-automatic version L1A1 with an IMBEL upper receiver and surplus British Enfield inch-pattern parts, while DSArms used Steyr-style metric-pattern FAL designs (this standard-metric difference means the Century Arms and DSArms firearms are not made from fully interchangeable batches of parts).

Venezuela.

Until recently, the FAL was the main service rifle of the Venezuelan army, made under license by CAVIM. The first batch of rifles to arrive in Venezuela were chambered in 7×49mm (also known as 7 mm Liviano or 7 mm Venezuelan). Essentially a 7×57mm round shortened to intermediate length, this caliber was jointly developed by Venezuelan and Belgian engineers motivated by a global move towards intermediate calibers. The Venezuelans, who had been exclusively using the 7×57mm round in their light and medium weapons since the turn of the 20th century, felt it was a perfect platform on which to base a calibre tailored to the particular rigours of the Venezuelan terrain.  Eventually the plan was dropped despite having ordered millions of rounds and thousands of weapons of this caliber. As the Cold War escalated, the military command felt it necessary to align with NATO despite not being a member, resulting in the adoption of the 7.62×51mm NATO cartridge and the rechambering of the 5,000 or so FAL rifles that had already arrived in 7×49mm by 1955–56.  Venezuela has bought 100,000 AK-103 assault rifles from Russia in order to replace the old FALs. Although the full shipment arrived by the end of 2006, the FAL will remain in service with the Venezuelan Reserve Forces and the Territorial Guard.

Conflicts.

In the more than 60 years of use worldwide, the FAL has seen use in conflicts all over the world. During the Falklands War, the FN FAL was used by both sides. The FAL was used by the Argentine armed forces and the L1A1 Self Loading Rifle (SLR), a semi-automatic only version of the FAL, was used by the armed forces of the UK and other Commonwealth nations.

The FAL (, English: "Light Automatic Rifle") is a battle rifle designed by Belgian small arms designer Dieudonné Saive and manufactured by FN Herstal.

Das FAL ("Fusil Automatique Léger" – leichtes automatisches Gewehr) ist ein Schnellfeuergewehr der belgischen Fabrique Nationale Herstal im Kaliber 7,62 × 51 mm NATO und war bei vielen Streitkräften weltweit im Einsatz. Es wurde bei der Bundeswehr "G1", im österreichischen Bundesheer Stg 58, bei den kanadischen Streitkräften "C1" und "C2" und bei den südafrikanischen Streitkräften "R1" genannt.


Transcription.

Most transcription conventions have been devised for describing one particular accent or language, and the specific conventions therefore need to be explained in the context of what is being described. However, for general purposes the International Phonetic Alphabet offers the two intonation marks shown in the box at the head of this article. Global rising and falling intonation are marked with a diagonal arrow rising left-to-right and falling left-to-right, respectively. These may be written as part of a syllable, or separated with a space when they have a broader scope:  Here the rising pitch on "street" indicates that the question hinges on that word, on where he found it, not whether he found it.  Here, as is common with "wh-" questions, there is a rising intonation on the question word, and a falling intonation at the end of the question.  In many descriptions of English, the following intonation patterns are distinguished:  It is also common to trace the pitch of a phrase with a line above the phrase, adjacent to the phrase, or even through (overstriking) the phrase. Such usage is not supported by Unicode as of 2015, but the symbols have been submitted. The following example requires an SIL font such as Gentium Plus, either as the default browser font or as the user-defined font for IPA text, for which see.

Functions.

All vocal languages use pitch pragmatically in intonation—for instance for emphasis, to convey surprise or irony, or to pose a question. Tonal languages such as Chinese and Hausa use intonation in addition to using pitch for distinguishing words. Many writers have attempted to produce a list of distinct functions of intonation. Perhaps the longest was that of W.R. Lee, who proposed ten. J.C. Wells and E. Couper-Kuhlen both put forward six functions. Wells's list is given below; the examples are not his: It is not known whether such a list would apply to other languages without alteration.

English.

The description of English intonation has developed along different lines in the US and in Britain.

British analyses.

British descriptions of English intonation can be traced back to the 16th century. Early in the 20th century the dominant approach in the description of English and French intonation was based on a small number of basic "tunes" associated with intonation units: in a typical description, Tune 1 is falling, with final fall, while Tune 2 has a final rise. Phoneticians such as H. E. Palmer broke up the intonation of such units into smaller components, the most important of which was the "nucleus", which corresponds to the main accented syllable of the intonation unit, usually in the last lexical word of the intonation unit. Each nucleus carries one of a small number of nuclear tones, usually including fall, rise, fall-rise, rise-fall, and possibly others. The nucleus may be preceded by a "head" containing stressed syllables preceding the nucleus, and a "tail" consisting of syllables following the nucleus within the tone unit. Unstressed syllables preceding the head (if present) or nucleus (if there is no head) constitute a "pre-head". This approach was further developed by Halliday and by O'Connor and Arnold, though with considerable variation in terminology. This "Standard British" treatment of intonation in its present-day form is explained in detail by Wells and in a simplified version by Roach. Halliday saw the functions of intonation as depending on choices in three main variables: "Tonality" (division of speech into intonation units), "Tonicity" (the placement of the tonic syllable or nucleus) and "Tone" (choice of nuclear tone); these terms (sometimes referred to as "the three T's") have been used more recently.  Research by Crystal emphasized the importance of making generalizations about intonation based on authentic, unscripted speech, and the roles played by prosodic features such as tempo, pitch range, loudness and rhythmicality in communicative functions usually attributed to intonation.  The transcription of intonation in such approaches is normally incorporated into the line of text. A typical example would be:  In this example, the | mark indicates a division between intonation units.  An influential development in British studies of intonation has been Discourse Intonation, an offshoot of Discourse Analysis first put forward by David Brazil. This approach lays great emphasis on the communicative and informational use of intonation, pointing out its use for distinguishing between presenting new information and referring to old, shared information, as well as signalling the relative status of participants in a conversation (e.g. teacher-pupil, or doctor-patient) and helping to regulate conversational turn-taking. The description of intonation in this approach owes much to Halliday. Intonation is analysed purely in terms of pitch movements and "key" and makes little reference to the other prosodic features usually thought to play a part in conversational interaction.

American approaches.

The dominant framework used for American English from the 1940s to the 1990s was based on the idea of pitch phonemes, or tonemes. In the work of Trager and Smith there are four contrastive levels of pitch: low (1), middle (2), high (3), and very high (4). (Unfortunately, the important work of Kenneth Pike on the same subject had the four pitch levels labelled in the opposite way, with (1) being high and (4) being low). In its final form, the Trager and Smith system was highly complex, each pitch phoneme having four pitch allophones (or allotones); there was also a Terminal Contour to end an intonation clause, as well as four stress phonemes. Some generalizations using this formalism are given below. The American linguist Dwight Bolinger carried on a long campaign to argue that pitch "contours" were more important in the study of intonation than individual pitch levels.  Thus the two basic sentence pitch contours are rising-falling and rising. However, other within-sentence rises and falls result from the placement of prominence on the stressed syllables of certain words.  For declaratives or wh-questions with a final decline, the decline is located as a step-down to the syllable after the last prominently stressed syllable, or as a down-glide on the last syllable itself if it is prominently stressed. But for final rising pitch on yes–no questions, the rise always occurs as an upward step to the last stressed syllable, and the high (3) pitch is retained through the rest of the sentence.

The ToBI system.

A more recent approach to the analysis of intonation grew out of the research of Janet Pierrehumbert and developed into the system most widely known by the name of ToBI (short for "Tones and Break Indices"). The approach is sometimes referred to as autosegmental. The most important points of this system are the following:  A simplified example of a ToBI transcription is given below. In this example, two phrases "we looked at the sky" and "and saw the clouds" are combined into one larger intonational phrase; there is a rise on "sky" and a fall on "clouds":  Because of its simplicity compared with previous analyses, the ToBI system has been very influential and has been adapted for describing several other languages.

French.

French intonation differs substantially from that of English. There are four primary patterns.

Continuation pattern.

The most distinctive feature of French intonation is the continuation pattern. While many languages, such as English and Spanish, place stress on a particular syllable of each word, and while many speakers of languages such as English may accompany this stress with a rising intonation, French has neither stress nor distinctive intonation on a given syllable. Instead, on the final syllable of every "rhythm group" except the last one in a sentence, there is placed a rising pitch. For example (as before the pitch change arrows ↘ and ↗ apply to the syllable immediately following the arrow):  Adjectives are in the same rhythm group as their noun. Each item in a list forms its own rhythm group:  Side comments inserted into the middle of a sentence form their own rhythm group:

Finality pattern.

As can be seen in the example sentences above, a sharp fall in pitch is placed on the last syllable of a declarative statement. The preceding syllables of the final rhythm group are at a relatively high pitch.

Yes/no pattern.

Most commonly in informal speech, a yes/no question is indicated by a sharply rising pitch alone, without any change or rearrangement of words. For example  A form found in both spoken and written French is the "Est-ce que..." ("Is it that...") construction, in which the spoken question can end in either a rising or a falling pitch:  The most formal form for a yes/no question, which is also found in both spoken and written French, inverts the order of the subject and verb. There too, the spoken question can end in either a rising or a falling pitch:  Sometimes yes/no questions begin with a topic phrase, specifying the focus of the utterance. Then, the initial topic phrase follows the intonation pattern of a declarative sentence, and the rest of the question follows the usual yes/no question pattern:

Information question pattern.

Information questions begin with a question word such as "qui, pourquoi, combien," etc., referred to in linguistics as interrogatives. The question word may be followed in French by "est-ce que" (as in English "(where) is it that...") or "est-ce qui", or by inversion of the subject-verb order (as in "where goes he?"). The sentence starts at a relatively high pitch which falls away rapidly after the question word, or its first syllable in case of a pollysyllabic question word. There may be a small increase in pitch on the final syllable of the question. For example:  In both cases, the question both begins and ends at higher pitches than does a declarative sentence.  In informal speech, the question word is sometimes put at the end of the sentence. In this case, the question ends at a high pitch, often with a slight rise on the high final syllable. The question may also start at a slightly higher pitch:

Mandarin Chinese.

Mandarin Chinese is a tonal language so pitch contours within a word distinguish the word from other words with the same vowels and consonants. Nevertheless, Mandarin also has intonation patterns that indicate the nature of the sentence as a whole.  There are four basic sentence types having distinctive intonation: declarative sentences, unmarked interrogative questions, yes–no questions marked as such with the sentence-final particle "ma", and A-not-A questions of the form "He go not go" (meaning "Does he go or not?"). In the Beijing dialect, they are intonationally distinguished for the average speaker as follows, using a pitch scale from 1 (lowest) to 9 (highest):  Thus, questions are begun with a higher pitch than are declarative sentences; pitch rises and then falls in all sentences; and in yes–no questions and unmarked questions pitch rises at the end of the sentence, while for declarative sentences and A-not-A questions the sentence ends at very low pitch.  Because Mandarin distinguishes words on the basis of within-syllable tones, these tones create fluctuations of pitch around the sentence patterns indicated above. Thus, sentence patterns can be thought of as bands whose pitch varies over the course of the sentence, and changes of syllable pitch cause fluctuations within the band.  Furthermore, the details of Mandarin intonation are affected by various factors like the tone of the final syllable, the presence or absence of focus (centering of attention) on the final word, and the dialect of the speaker.

Punjabi.

Intonation in Punjabi has always been an area of discussion and experimentation. There are different studies [Gill and Gleason (1969), Malik (1995), Kalra(1982), Bhatia (1993), Joshi (1972 & 1989)] that explain intonation in Punjabi, according to their respective theories and models.  Chander Shekhar Singh carried forward a description of the experimental phonetics and phonology of Punjabi intonation based on sentences read in isolation. His research design is based on the classification of two different levels of intonation (horizontal level and vertical level). The first experiment (at the horizontal level) is conducted to investigate three utterance types: declarative, imperative, and interrogative. In his second experiment, the investigation of sentences is conducted to view intonation but in vertical sense. 'Vertical' here means a comparative analysis of intonations of the three types of sentences by keeping the nuclear intonation constant.  The experiment shows some extremely significant results. The vertical level demonstrates four different types of accentuations in Punjabi:  The second experiment provides a significant difference between the horizontal level and the vertical level.

Comparative studies.

Cruttenden points out the extreme difficulty of making meaningful comparisons among the intonation systems of different languages, the difficulty being compounded by the lack of an agreed descriptive framework.  Falling intonation is said to be used at the end of questions in some languages, including Hawaiian, Fijian, and Samoan and in Greenlandic. It is also used in Hawaiian Creole English, presumably derived from Hawaiian. Rises are common on statements in urban Belfast; falls on most questions have been said to be typical of urban Leeds speech.  An ESRC-funded project (E. Grabe, B. Post and F. Nolan) to study the intonation of nine urban accents of British English in five different speaking styles has resulted in the IViE Corpus and a purpose-built transcription system. The corpus and notation system can be downloaded from the project's website. Following on this work is a paper explaining that the dialects of British and Irish English vary substantially.  A project to bring together descriptions of the intonation of twenty different languages, ideally using a unified descriptive framework (INTSINT), resulted in a book published in 1998 by D. Hirst and A. Di Cristo. The languages described are American English, British English, German, Dutch, Swedish, Danish, Spanish, European Portuguese, Brazilian Portuguese, French, Italian, Romanian, Russian, Bulgarian, Greek, Finnish, Hungarian, Western Arabic (Moroccan), Japanese, Thai, Vietnamese and Beijing Chinese. A number of contributing authors did not use the INTSINT system but preferred to use their own system.

Disorders.

Those with congenital amusia show impaired ability to discriminate, identify and imitate the intonation of the final words in sentences.

In linguistics, intonation is variation in spoken pitch when used, not for distinguishing words as sememes (a concept known as tone), but, rather, for a range of other functions such as indicating the attitudes and emotions of the speaker, signalling the difference between statements and questions, and between different types of questions, focusing attention on important elements of the spoken message and also helping to regulate conversational interaction. (The term "tone" is used by some British writers in their descriptions of intonation but to refer to the pitch movement found on the nucleus or tonic syllable in an intonation unit.)

Intonation beschreibt in der Linguistik verschiedene Merkmale der Prosodie. In der Phonetik versteht man unter "Intonation" den wahrgenommenen zeitlichen Verlauf der Tonhöhe innerhalb eines Wortes (Wortmelodie), eines Satzes (Satzmelodie) oder eines vollzogenen Sprechakts (im Sinne einer Sprachmelodie).