Trade facilitation and electronic business.

UN/CEFACT focusses on two main areas of activity to make international trade processes more efficient and streamlined, namely: trade facilitation and electronic business.  Trade facilitation involves the simplification of trade procedures (or the elimination of unnecessary procedures). This includes work to standardize and harmonize the core information used in trade documents, to ease the flow of information between parties by relying on appropriate information and communication technology, and to promote simplified payment systems to foster transparency, accountability and cost-effectiveness.  Electronic business, in the UN/CEFACT context, focuses on harmonizing, standardizing and automating the exchange of information that controls the flow of goods along the international supply chain. UN/CEFACT's work on electronic business is driven by the understanding that goods cannot move faster than the processes and information that accompany them.  UN/CEFACT takes a total trade transaction approach to trade facilitation and associated electronic business, covering all the processes from initial placement of orders through to final payments. This is best illustrated through the UN/CEFACT Buy-Ship-Pay model of the international supply chain, which forms the basis of its work.

Deliverables.

UN/CEFACT has produced over 30 trade facilitation recommendations and a range of electronic business standards (collectively referred to as “instruments”) which are used throughout the world by both governments and the private sector. They reflect best practices in trade procedures and data and documentary requirements. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has adopted many of them as international standards.  UN/CEFACT Recommendations and Standards are implemented throughout the world. Some of the more well known instruments are:  "Recommendation 1: United Nations Layout Key (UNLK) for Trade Documents." This provides an international basis for the standardized layout of documents used in international trade. The Layout Key facilitates the exchange of information between the various parties involved in a commercial transaction and is used as the basis for many key trade documents such as the European Union's Single Administrative Document (SAD); FIATA's Freight Forwarding Instruction; UNECE's Dangerous Goods Declaration; and the World Customs Organization (WCO) Goods Declaration for Export. Use of the UN Layout Key is specifically recommended in the WCO's Revised Kyoto Convention. It is important to note that the Layout Key is so widely used in international trade that many expect normal trade documents to conform to the Recommendation.  "Recommendation 16: UN/LOCODE Code for Trade and Transport Locations" provides an alphabetic code for seaports, airports, inland freight terminals and other customs clearance sites. Recommended by the International Maritime Organization (IMO), it is used by most major shipping companies and also by the universal Postal Union (UPU). UN/LOCODE's website is regularly visited, accounting for 6% of all “hits” to the UNECE website. The first issue of UN/LOCODE in 1981 provided codes to represent the names of some 8000 locations in the world. Today, UN/LOCODE, which is updated twice annually, contains almost 100 000 entries with strong demand for further updates and extension. Every recognised national and international airport or maritime port will have a UN/LOCODE coding.  "Recommendation 25 and the UN/EDIFACT Standard" represent a set of internationally agreed standards, directories, and guidelines for the electronic interchange of structured data, between independent computerized information systems. UN/EDIFACT is the international standard for Electronic Data Interchange and is used throughout the commercial and administrative world. UN/EDIFACT accounts for over 90% of all electronic data interchange (EDI) messages exchanged globally. UN/EDIFACT messages are used by almost all national customs administrations, all major seaports and a large range of companies (including over 100 000 in the retail sector), and throughout international supply chains. For example, more than 7 million EDIFACT messages are exchanged each year in the French agricultural supply chain.  "Recommendation 33 on Single Windows" proposes that governments establish a Single Window facility that allows parties involved in trade and transport to lodge standardized information and documents with a single entry point to fulfil all import, export and transit-related regulatory requirements. A suite of complementary Single Window Recommendations has also been developed, namely Recommendation 34 on Data Simplification and Standardization and 35 on Establishing a Legal Framework for Single Windows.  A family of "Supply Chain “Cross-Industry” messages" are exchanged globally between trading partners covering the majority of business-to-business (B2B) electronic exchanges from order to payment. One of the key documents within this family is the Cross Industry Invoice (CII) which functions primarily as a request for payment, used as a key document for Value Added Tax (VAT) declaration and reclamation, for statistics declarations and to support export and import declarations in international trade.  The "eDAPLOS message" describes the data crop sheet exchanged between farmers and their partners. This message has allowed users to harmonize the definitions of technical data, develop consensual data dictionaries which can be used as a basis for all the steps of traceability and create a standardized Crop Data Sheet message. DAPLOS, which is based on the UN/CEFACT Core Component Library, has been adopted by 25 000 farmers and regional agriculture chambers in France and Belgium.  CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) has developed a version of their declaration using the Core Component Library of UN/CEFACT and has generated an XML message according to the specifications of UN/CEFACT. CITES is an international agreement between governments. Its aim is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival. The CITES declarations are used in customs clearance procedures in all countries around the globe.

Benefits.

Governments, traders and consumers all benefit from having simpler and more cost-effective trade procedures. UN/CEFACT's work is particularly relevant for developing countries, where the elimination of trade-related inefficiencies is many times more beneficial than the reduction or removal of tariff barriers to trade. In addition, UN/CEFACT's work is of particular benefit to landlocked countries and countries distant from major markets. These countries experience challenges and constraints resulting from complex and inefficient procedures, including the creation of many additional costs in bringing goods to market. The gains from this work are considerable for small and medium-sized enterprises, for which the costs of compliance with various trade-related procedures are proportionally higher. This is particularly true in the case of low-value shipments, where the cost of administrative procedures represents a large proportion of total cost.

The structure.

In view of the global character of its work on trade facilitation and electronic business standards, UN/CEFACT is open to representatives of all UN Member States and all organisations recognized by the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). The participation of developing countries and countries in transition in standards development processes is strongly encouraged.  The highest authority regarding all aspects of UN/CEFACT's work is the intergovernmental Plenary which meets once a year in Geneva. Delegations to the Plenary include UN Member States, intergovernmental organizations and non-governmental organizations (NGO's) recognized by the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations (ECOSOC). Only UN Member States have the right to vote at Plenary meetings – all other members are observers.  The Plenary elects the UN/CEFACT Bureau which consists of a Chair and at least four vice-Chairs. The Bureau acts in the name of the Plenary between sessions and meets physically an average of four times per year and more frequently through virtual conference calls.  Each UN Member States may nominate a permanent Head of Delegation (HOD) to UN/CEFACT. HODs participate in the Plenary, are consulted by the Bureau on key strategic issues, and are responsible for nominating experts to participate in UN/CEFACT activities.  The technical work to develop UN/CEFACT standards and recommendations is done by over 200 volunteer experts from around the world, nominated by HODs. The experts come from both the public and the private sectors, forming a public-private partnership in support of trade facilitation and electronic business. They participate as independent volunteer experts in their own right, without representing any special interests of their countries or institutions. The experts are representatives from:  UN/CEFACT experts meet physically in UN/CEFACT Forums, which are held twice a year (one in Geneva and one hosted by a UN member State) in order to coordinate their work. The vast majority of the work is done virtually between Forums.  UNECE provides secretarial support to UN/CEFACT in order that the Centre may implement its programme of work. Annually, the UN/CEFACT Bureau (acting on behalf of the Plenary) and the UNECE Secretariat plan for the implementation of UN/CEFACT's programme of work, taking into account the resources available from both the United Nations and externally. The secretariat takes responsibility for supporting the work of UN/CEFACT including supporting the maintenance of Recommendations and standards; and handles the administrative functions related to UN/CEFACT, including UN oversight, organizing meetings and preparing official documents and papers. The technical work of standards development is undertaken by the UN/CEFACT experts.  Some important users of UN/CEFACT norms, standards and recommendations

The UN/CEFACT electronic data forms.

The following 94 forms are until May 2014 (version D13B), developed by UN/CEFACT. In September 2017, this was increased to 123 forms (XML Schemas)

UN/CEFACT is the United Nations Centre for Trade Facilitation and Electronic Business. It was established as an intergovernmental body of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) in 1996 and evolved from UNECE's long tradition of work in trade facilitation which began in 1957

UN/CEFACT steht für United Nations Centre for Trade Facilitation and Electronic Business, d. h. "Zentrum der Vereinten Nationen für Handelserleichterungen und elektronische Geschäftsprozesse". Die Abkürzung CEFACT kommt vom ursprünglichen französischen Namen "Centre pour la facilitation des procédures et des pratiques dans l’administration, le commerce et les transports", was in etwa mit "Zentrum für die Erleichterung der Prozeduren und Praktiken in Verwaltung, Handel und Transport" übersetzt werden kann.


Biblical background.

Narrative.

According to the Bible, Jesse was the son of Obed and the grandson of Ruth and of Boaz. He lived in Bethlehem, in Judah, and was of the Tribe of Judah, he was a farmer, breeder and owner of sheep. He was a prominent resident of the town of Bethlehem. Jesse is important in Judaism because he was the father of the most famous King of Israel. He is important in Christianity, in part because he is in the Old Testament and mentioned in the genealogy of Jesus. Later rabbinic traditions name him as one of four ancient Israelites who died without sin, the other three being Benjamin, Chileab and Amram.  The Book of Samuel states that Jesse had eight sons, naming the first three as Eliab, Abinadab and Shammah, and David as the youngest. The Book of Chronicles names seven sons of Jesse—Eliab, Abinadab, Shimea, Nethanel, Raddai, Ozem and David—as well as two daughters, Zeruiah and Abigail. Among his grandchildren were the three sons of Zeruiah: Abishai, Joab and Asahel; and Amasa, the son of Abigail.  One day the prophet Samuel came to Bethlehem sent by God, to anoint the next king of Israel. Ostensibly, his visit to Bethlehem was to offer a sacrifice to God. He used that excuse because he was afraid that King Saul might kill him if he suspected the true reason for his arrival in Bethlehem. Samuel offered a sacrifice with Jesse and then went to his house, where he sanctified him and his family. The prophet asked Jesse to present his sons. When Samuel saw Eliab, Jesse's eldest son, he was impressed by his stature and convinced that he must be God's anointed king, however, God said to Samuel, "Do not consider his appearance or his height, for I have rejected him. The Lord does not look at the things man looks at. Man look at the outward appearance, but the Lord looks at the heart" (1 Samuel 16:7 NIV). When Jesse presented his second son, Abinadab, God told Samuel, "The Lord has not chosen this one either" (1 Samuel 16:8 NIV). This happened again with his third son, Shammah, then his fourth, fifth, sixth and seventh sons. Finally, Samuel inquired of Jesse if he had any other sons. Jesse told him that David the youngest was tending the flock. The prophet then asked for him to be brought in from tending the sheep. Samuel waited, and when he arrived God asked the prophet to anoint David as king over Israel (1 Samuel 16:13).  Some time later, Saul, suffering from depression and melancholy, asked Jesse for his son David to play the harp for him, since he had heard that David played the harp beautifully. Jesse sent his son along with some gifts for the King. The King was so taken with David's harp playing that he asked Jesse to keep him in his court to play for him whenever he was depressed. Later on Jesse sent his son David with gifts to be given to his older brothers who were to fight in the war against the Philistines in Saul's army. Years later David fled to the desert away from Saul, who sought to kill David in order for him to stay in power and not have his throne be taken away from him. David, worried about the safety of his parents, went to Mizpah in Moab, to ask permission from the King to allow his father Jesse and his mother to stay under the royal protection of the King. They stayed there until David's fortunes took a turn for the better.

In prophecy.

The name "Jesse" is referenced in the Old Testament, and in particular the passages of Isaiah, Chapter 11, Verses 1–3:  Also Chapter 11, Verse 10:  These are two of the verses regarded by Christians as prophecy of the advent of Jesus, whom they consider to be the Christ and Messiah. These two prophecies are regarded by Bahá'ís as referring to Bahá'u'lláh, alleged to also have arisen from "the stump of Jesse". These prophecies are also regarded in Latter-Day Saint Movement about the coming Root of Jesse, an ensign who holds special priesthood keys and a gathering of the Lord's people.

Tomb of Jesse.

The Tomb of Ruth and Jesse is an old stone structure on a hilltop in Hebron which today serves as a synagogue. It receives numerous visitors every year, especially on the Jewish holiday of Shavuot when the Book of Ruth is read. The 1537 book "Yihus HaAvos V'Neviim (Lineage of the Patriarch and the Prophets)" describes the tomb as "a handsome building up on the mount, where Jesse, the King David's father is buried." It includes a drawing of the site, and notes an "ancient Israelite burial ground" nearby and Crusader courtyard. Rabbi Moshe Basola wrote in his travel journal that the site houses a cave which connects to the Tomb of Machpela, an assertion postulated by many over the years. The site was refurbished in 2009.

Jesse, or Yishai ( – "Yišay", in pausa – "Yišāy", meaning "King" or "God exists" or "God's gift"; – "Eshai"; – "Iessaí"; ) is a figure described in the Bible as the father of David, who became the king of the Israelites. His son David is sometimes called simply "Son of Jesse" ("Ben Yishai"). The role as both father of King David and ancestor of Christ has been used in various depictions in art, e.g. as the Tree of Jesse or in hymns like "Lo, how a rose e'er blooming."

Isai (auch "Jesse";, in Pausalform יִשָׁי "Jišāj"; griechisch Ἰεσσαί "Iessaí") ist eine biblische Person aus dem Alten Testament der Bibel; übersetzt bedeutet sein Name "Geschenk Gottes". Er war nach der biblischen Überlieferung der Vater des Königs David (; ; ; ) und ein Efratiter aus Bethlehem (; ). Isai war der Sohn von Obed und ein Enkel von Boas und Rut. Nach dem 1. Buch Samuel hatte er acht Söhne; David war der jüngste Sohn. Nach dem 1. Buch der Chronik waren es nur sieben Söhne: Eliab, Abinadab, Schima, Netanel, Raddai, Ozem und David. Seine Töchter heißen Zeruja und Abigajil.


History.

Etymology.

There are multiple interpretations of how Šibenik was named. In his fifteenth century book "De situ Illiriae et civitate Sibenici," Juraj Šižgorić describes the name and location of Šibenik. He attributes the name of the city to it being surrounded by a palisade made of "šibe" (sticks, singular being "šiba"). Another interpretation is associated with the forest through the Latin toponym "Sibinicum," which covered a narrower microregion within Šibenik on and around the area of St. Michael's Fortress.

Early history.

Unlike other cities along the Adriatic coast, which were established by Greeks, Illyrians and Romans, Šibenik was founded by Croats. Excavations of the castle of St. Michael, have since proven that the place was inhabited long before the actual arrival of the Croats. It was mentioned for the first time under its present name in 1066 in a Charter of the Croatian King Petar Krešimir IV and, for a period of time, it was a seat of this Croatian King. For that reason, Šibenik is also called "Krešimirov grad" (Krešimir's city).  Between the 11th and 12th centuries, Šibenik was tossed back and forth among Venice, Byzantium, and Hungary. It was conquered by the Republic of Venice in 1116, who held it until 1124, when they briefly lost it to the Byzantine Empire, and then held it again until 1133 when it was retaken by the Kingdom of Hungary. It would change hands among the aforementioned states several more times until 1180.  The city was given the status of a town in 1167 from Stephen III of Hungary. It received its own diocese in 1298.  In the 14th century, "Vlachs" were present in the hinterland of Šibenik.

Under Venice and the Habsburgs.

The city, like the rest of Dalmatia, initially resisted the Venetian Republic, but it was taken over after a three-year war in 1412. Under Venetian rule, Šibenik became in 1412 the seat of the main customs office and the seat of the salt consumers office with a monopoly on the salt trade in Chioggia and on the whole Adriatic Sea.  In August 1417, Venetian authorities were concerned with the "Morlachs and other Slavs" from the hinterland, that were a threat to security in Šibenik. The Ottoman Empire started to threaten Šibenik (known as Sebenico), as part of their struggle against Venice, at the end of the 15th century, but they never succeeded in conquering it. In the 16th century, St. Nicholas Fortress was built and, by the 17th century, its fortifications were improved again by the fortresses of St. John (Tanaja) and Šubićevac (Barone).  The Morlachs started settling Šibenik during the Cretan War (1645–69).  The fall of the Republic of Venice in 1797 brought Sebenico under the authority of the Habsburg Monarchy.  After the Congress of Vienna until 1918, the town was (again) part of the Austrian monarchy (Austria side after the compromise of 1867), head of the district of the same name, one of the 13 "Bezirkshauptmannschaften" in Kingdom of Dalmatia. The Italian name only was used until around 1871.  In 1872, at the time in the Kingdom of Dalmatia, Ante Šupuk became the town's first Croat mayor elected under universal suffrage. He was instrumental in the process of the modernization of the city, and is particularly remembered for the 1895 project to provide street lights powered by the early AC Jaruga Hydroelectric Power Plant. On 28 August 1895, Šibenik became the world's first city with alternating current-powered street lights.

20th century.

During World War I, the Austro-Hungarian navy used the port facilities here, and the light cruisers and destroyers which escaped the Allied force after the battle of Cape Rodoni (or Gargano) returned to safety here, where some battleships were based. After the war Šibenik was occupied by the Kingdom of Italy until 12 June 1921. As a result of the Treaty of Rapallo, the Italians gave up their claim to the city and it became a part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. During World War II it was occupied by Italy and Germany. Communist partisans liberated Šibenik on 3 November 1944.  After World War II it became a part of the SFR Yugoslavia until Croatia declared independence in 1991.  During the Croatian War of Independence (1991–95), Šibenik was heavily attacked by the Yugoslav National Army and Serbian paramilitary troops. Although under-armed, the nascent Croatian army and the people of Šibenik managed to defend the city. The battle lasted for six days (16–22 September), often referred to as the "September battle". The bombings damaged numerous buildings and monuments, including the dome of the Cathedral of St. James and the 1870-built theatre building.  In an August 1995 military operation, the Croatian Army defeated the Serb forces and reconquered the occupied areas, which allowed the region to recover from the war and continue to develop as the centre of Šibenik-Knin county. Since then, the damaged areas of the city have been fully restored.

Climate.

Šibenik has a mediterranean climate ("Csa"), with mild, humid winters and hot, dry summers. January and February are the coldest months, July and August are the hottest months. In July the average maximum temperature is around. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Csa" (Mediterranean Climate).

Main sights.

The central church in Šibenik, the Cathedral of St. James, is on the UNESCO World Heritage list.  Several successive architects built it completely in stone between 1431 and 1536, both in Gothic and in Renaissance style. The interlocking stone slabs of the Cathedral's roof were damaged when the city was shelled by Yugoslav forces in 1991. The damage has since been repaired.

Fortifications in Šibenik.

In the city of Šibenik there are four fortresses, each of which has views of the city, sea and nearby islands. The fortresses are now tourist sightseeing destinations.

Culture and events.

The annual Šibenik International Children's Festival ("Međunarodni Dječji Festival") takes place every summer and hosts children's workshops, plays and other activities. From 2011 to 2013 the Terraneo festival (music festival) was held in August on a yearly basis on a former military area in Šibenik, and since 2014 Šibenik (and other nearby towns) are the home of its spiritual successor Super Uho festival. The composer Jakov Gotovac founded the city's "Philharmonia Society" in 1922. The composer Franz von Suppé was part of the city's cultural fabric, as he was a native of nearby Split. Each summer, a lot of concerts and events take place in the city (especially on the St. Michael Fortress). Also, starting in 2016 on a nearby island of Obonjan ( southwest of the city) is held music, art, health and workshop festival.  Šibenik chanson festival is a musical event of a long tradition that takes place in Šibenik in the second half of month August.

Sports.

A famous sports town, Šibenik is the hometown of many successful athletes such as: Aleksandar and Dražen Petrović, Perica Bukić, Ivica Žurić, Predrag, Veselinka and Dario Šarić, Vanda Baranović-Urukalo, Danira Nakić, Nik Slavica, Miro Bilan, Dražan Jerković, Petar Nadoveza, Krasnodar Rora, Dean Računica, Mladen Pralija, Ante Rukavina, Duje Ćaleta-Car, Mile Nakić, Franko Nakić, Siniša Belamarić, Renato Vrbičić, Ivica Tucak, Andrija Komadina, Miro Jurić, Antonio Petković, Neven Spahija, Antonija Sandrić, Mate Maleš, Stipe Bralić and many others.

Basketball.

The famous multi-purpose hall located in the Baldekin neighborhood, called Baldekin Sports Hall has been the home arena of GKK Šibenka, that is a successor to KK Šibenik, the famous basketball club which has played in the final of the FIBA Korać Cup twice and in the final of the 1982–83 Yugoslav League. The team was leading by then 19-year-old Dražen Petrović.  The women's basketball club, ŽKK Šibenik, is the most successful club in Croatia, winning the Yugoslav League in 1991, Croatian Championship four times, Yugoslav Cup twice, Croatian Cup four times, Adriatic League five times and the Vojko Herksel Cup four times.  The dissolved men's basketball club, Jolly Jadranska Banka, has played the semifinal of the Croatian Championship twice and the Krešimir Ćosić Cup final in the 2016–17 season.

Football.

Šubićevac Stadium, located in the neighborhood of the same name has been the home ground of the football club HNK Šibenik, that has played many years in the Yugoslav Second League and later many years in the Croatian First League. In the 2009–10 season, the club played in the Croatian Cup final which they lost to the powerhouse Hajduk Split. Today, it also competes in the Croatian First League.

Water polo.

VK Šibenik, the dissolved water polo club, is considered one of the best clubs in former Yugoslavia, winning the second place in the 1986–87 domestic league season. It also has played in the LEN Euro Cup final in the 2006–07 season, but lost to Sintez Kazan, as well as the club played in the LEN Champions League in the 2008–09 season, led both times by Ivica Tucak, today the head coach for the senior men's Croatia national team.  Perica Bukić and Renato Vrbičić are Olympic medalists, winning the gold medal at the 1996 Summer Olympics held in Atlanta, representing the Croatia national team. Ivica Tucak has been the most successful coach of the senior men's Croatia national team ever.

Demographics.

In the 2011 Croatian census, Šibenik's total city population is 46,332 which makes it the tenth-largest city in Croatia, with 34,302 in the urban settlement.  Of Šibenik's citizens, 94.02% were ethnic Croats.  The list of settlements is as follows:

Economy.

Port.

Šibenik is one of the best protected ports on the Croatian Adriatic and is situated on the estuary of the Krka River. The approach channel is navigable by ships up to 50,000 tonnes deadweight. The port itself has depths up to 40 m.

International relations.

Šibenik is twinned with:

Šibenik (; ) is a historic city in Croatia, located in central Dalmatia where the river Krka flows into the Adriatic Sea. Šibenik is a political, educational, transport, industrial and tourist center of Šibenik-Knin County and also the third-largest city in the historic region of Dalmatia. It is the oldest native Croatian town on the shores of the sea.

Šibenik [] (deutsch veraltet "Sibenning", italienisch "Sebenico") ist eine Stadt mit 46.332 Einwohnern (Volkszählung von 2011) an der Adriaküste im Süden Kroatiens. Sie befindet sich in der Gespanschaft Šibenik-Knin (kroatisch "Šibensko-kninska županija") und ist Sitz der katholischen Diözese Šibenik.


Biological theories.

Function.

The ultimate function of a pecking order is to increase the individual or inclusive fitness of the animals involved in its formation. Fighting to acquire resources such as food and mates is expensive in terms of time, energy and the risk of injury. By developing a pecking order, animals determine which individuals will get priority of access to resources, particularly when they are limited; there is a reduction in aggression when a pecking order has been developed. Therefore, the proximate functions of a pecking order are to reduce the costs of time, energy and risk of injury incurred during resource acquisition and defence.

Mechanism.

The basic concept behind the establishment of the pecking order among, for example, chickens, is that it is necessary to determine who is the 'top chicken,' the 'bottom chicken' and where all the rest fit in between. The establishment of the dominance hierarchy may reduce the incidence of conflict and thus reduce the expenditure of energy required for aggressive competition. The dominance level determines which individual gets preferential access to resources such as food and mates.  In the wild, pecking order status is inherited along a strict basis, so that the first daughter of the most dominant chicken will inherit that most dominant status, the second most dominant will give second most dominant status to her daughter, etc. unless the most dominant chicken has a second daughter, in which case that chicken will become the second most dominant. Studies of the genetic basis of pecking orders in chickens have indicated that it may largely be determined by the coloration patterns.  It is not necessary for animals to be able to recognise individuals within the group for a pecking order to be maintained. Animal behaviours may be motivated by "rule of thumb". For example, if chickens can predict the fighting ability of others simply by assessing their body size, they will be able to maintain the hierarchy whilst avoiding a fight which could cause injury and will be energetically costly. Using this rule of thumb, if Chicken A sees that Chicken B is larger, Chicken A will defer; if Chicken B is smaller, it will defer to Chicken A. In this way, only chickens of similar sizes will fight and the pecking order of the group overall is maintained without requiring individual recognition.  Wild and feral chickens form relatively small groups, usually including no more than 10 to 20 individuals. It has been shown that in larger groups, which is common in farming, the dominance hierarchy becomes less stable and aggression increases.

Pecking order or peck order is the colloquial term for the hierarchical system of social organization. It was first described by Thorleif Schjelderup-Ebbe in 1921 under the German terms "Hackordnung" or "Hackliste" and introduced into English in 1927.

Als Rangordnung bezeichnet man in der Verhaltensbiologie eine soziale Hierarchie, durch die bestimmte „Rechte“ und „Pflichten“ innerhalb einer Gruppe geregelt und für eine längere Zeitspanne festgelegt sind. An der Spitze dieser Hierarchie stehen stets starke und erfahrene Tiere, die häufig gewisse Vorrechte genießen, zum Beispiel Vortritt an der Futterstelle und an der Tränke, Benutzung bevorzugter Schlafplätze oder Vorrechte beim Paarungsverhalten. Das ranghöchste Gruppenmitglied wird von Verhaltensbiologen "Alpha-Tier" (α-Tier) genannt, das rangniedrigste Gruppenmitglied "Omega-Tier" (ω-Tier). Ranghohe Individuen werden gegenüber rangniedrigeren als dominant bezeichnet.


History.

Origins.

France was one of the first countries to hold motor racing events of any kind. The first competitive motor race, the Paris to Rouen Horseless Carriages Contest was held on 22 July 1894, and was organized by the Automobile Club de France (ACF). The race was 126 km (78 mi) long and was won by Count Jules-Albert de Dion in his De Dion Bouton steam powered car in just under 7 hours. This race was followed by races starting in Paris to various towns and cities around France such as Bordeaux, Marseille, Lyon and Dieppe, and also to various other European cities such as Amsterdam, Berlin, Innsbruck and Vienna. The 1901 Paris-Berlin race was noteworthy as the race winner, Henri Fouriner averaged an astonishing 57 mph (93

The world's oldest Grand Prix.

Public road courses.

The French "Grand Prix", open to international competition was first run on 26 June 1906 under the auspices of the Automobile Club de France in Sarthe with a starting field of 32 automobiles. The Grand Prix name ("Great Prize") referred to the prize of 45,000 French francs to the race winner. The franc was pegged to the gold at 0.290 grams per franc, which meant that the prize was worth 13kg of gold, or €191,000 adjusted for inflation. The earliest French Grands Prix were held on circuits consisting of public roads near towns through northern and central France, and they usually were held at different towns each year, such as Le Mans, Dieppe, Amiens, Lyon, Strasbourg, and Tours. Dieppe in particular was an extremely dangerous circuit – 9 people (5 drivers, 2

France's first permanent circuit and other public road circuits.

In 1925, the first permanent autodrome in France was built, it was called Autodrome de Linas-Montlhéry, located 20 miles south of the centre of the French capital of Paris. The 7.7mile (12.3km) circuit included a 51degree concrete banking, an asphalt road course and then-modern facilities, including pit garages and grandstands. After the construction of Brooklands in England in 1907, and Indianapolis in the United States in 1908 and after World War I, Monza in Italy was opened in 1922, and Stiges–Terramar in Spain was also opened in 1923. The French were then prompted to construct a purpose-built racing circuit at Montlhéry in the north and then Miramas in the south. Nürburgring in Germany followed in 1927. Montlhery first held the Grand Prix

Reims, Rouen and Charade.

The French Grand Prix returned to the Reims-Gueux circuit for 1938 and 1939, where the Silver Arrows continued their domination of Grand Prix racing. The Reims-Gueux circuit had its straights widened and facilities updated for the 1938 race. But when World War II began, the French Grand Prix did not come back until 1947, where it was held at the one-time Parilly circuit near Lyon, a race that was marred by an accident involving Pierre Levegh crashing into and killing 3 spectators. After that, Grand Prix racing returned to Reims-Gueux, where another manufacturer – Alfa Romeo – would dominate the event for 4 years. 1950 was the first year of the Formula One World Championship, but all the Formula One-regulated races were held in Europe. The race was won by Argentine Juan Manuel Fangio, who also won the next year's race – the longest Formula

Paul Ricard and Dijon-Prenois.

Formula One returned to Paul Ricard in 1973; the French Grand Prix was never run on public road circuits like Reims, Rouen and Charade ever again. Paul Ricard also had a driving school, the École de Pilotage Winfield, run by the Knight brothers and Simon Delatour, that honed the talents of people such as France's first (and so far only) Formula One World Champion Alain Prost, and Grand Prix winners Didier Pironi and Jacques Laffite. The event was run at the new fast, up-and-down Prenois circuit near Dijon in 1974, before returning to Ricard in 1975 and 1976. The race was originally scheduled to be run at Clermont-Ferrand for 1974 and 1975, but the circuit was deemed too dangerous for Formula One. The two venues alternated the venue until 1984, with Ricard getting

Magny-Cours.

In 1991, the race moved to the Circuit de Nevers Magny-Cours, where it stayed for another 17 years. The move to Magny-Cours was an attempt to stimulate the economy of the area, but many within Formula One complained about the remote nature of the circuit. Highlights of Magny-Cours's time hosting the French Grand Prix include Prost's final of six wins on home soil in 1993, and Michael Schumacher's securing of the 2002 championship after only 11 races. The 2004 and 2005 races were in doubt

Absence.

After various negotiations, the future of the race at Magny-Cours took another turn, with increased speculation that the 2008 French Grand Prix would return, with Ecclestone himself stating "We're going to maybe resurrect it for a year, or something like that". On 24 July, Ecclestone and the French Prime Minister met and agreed to possibly maintain the race at Magny Cours for 2008 and 2009. The change in fortune was completed on July, when the FIA published the calendar with a 2008 French Grand Prix scheduled at Magny-Cours once again. The 2009 race, however, was again cancelled on 15 October 2008, with the official website citing "economic reasons". A huge makeover of Magny-Cours ("2.0") was planned, but cancelled in the end. The race's

Return to Paul Ricard.

In December 2016, it was confirmed that the French Grand Prix would return in 2018 at the Circuit Paul Ricard and it currently holds a contract to host the French Grand Prix until at least 2022. In an

Winners of the French Grand Prix.

Repeat winners (drivers).

"Drivers in bold are competing in the Formula One championship in the current season."<br> "A pink background indicates an event which was not part

Repeat winners (constructors).

"Teams in bold are competing in the Formula One championship in the current season."<br> "A pink background indicates an event which was not part

Repeat winners (engine manufacturers).

"Manufacturers in bold are competing in the Formula One championship in the current season."
 "A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship."

By year.

"A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship."<br> "A yellow

Races sometimes considered to be French Grand Prix.

Beginning in the early 1920s, French media represented eight races held in France before 1906 as being Grands Prix de l'Automobile Club de France, leading to the first

The French Grand Prix (), formerly known as the Grand Prix de l'ACF, is an auto race held as part of the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile's annual Formula One World Championship. It is one of the oldest motor races in the world as well as the first "Grand Prix". It ceased shortly after its centenary in with 86 races having been held, due to unfavourable financial circumstances and venues. The race returned to the Formula One calendar in with Circuit Paul Ricard hosting the race.

Der Große Preis von Frankreich (Grand Prix de France, bis 1967 auch Grand Prix de l’A.C.F.) ist eine seit 1906 durchgeführte französische Motorsportveranstaltung. Bis 1967 wurden die Rennen um „den“ französischen Grand Prix offiziell immer als "Grand Prix de l’Automobile Club de France" (kurz: "„Grand Prix de l’A.C.F.“") bezeichnet. Auch zuvor waren jedoch schon vereinzelt auch Rennen unter dem Titel "Grand Prix de France" gelaufen, die jedoch nicht an den Stellenwert des "Grand Prix de l’ACF" als ein Grande Épreuve heranreichten.


Early life and education.

Pople was born in Burnham-on-Sea, Somerset, and attended the Bristol Grammar School. He won a scholarship to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1943. He received his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1946. Between 1945 and 1947 he worked at the Bristol Aeroplane Company. He then returned to the University of Cambridge and was awarded his PhD in mathematics in 1951 on lone pair electrons.

Career.

After obtaining his PhD, he was a research fellow at Trinity College, Cambridge and then from 1954 a lecturer in the mathematics faculty at Cambridge. In 1958, he moved to the National Physical Laboratory, near London as head of the new basics physics division. He moved to the United States of America in 1964, where he lived the rest of his life, though he retained British citizenship. Pople considered himself more of a mathematician than a chemist, but theoretical chemists consider him one of the most important of their number. In 1964 he moved to Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, where he had experienced a sabbatical in 1961 to 1962. In 1993 he moved to Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois where he was Trustees Professor of Chemistry until his death.

Research.

Pople's major scientific contributions were in four different areas:

Statistical mechanics of water.

Pople's early paper on the statistical mechanics of water, according to Michael J. Frisch, "remained the standard for many years. This was his thesis topic for his PhD at Cambridge supervised by John Lennard-Jones.

Nuclear magnetic resonance.

In the early days of nuclear magnetic resonance he studied the underlying theory, and in 1959 he co-authored the textbook "High Resolution Nuclear Magnetic Resonance" with W.G. Schneider and H.J. Bernstein.

Semi-empirical theory.

He made major contributions to the theory of approximate molecular orbital (MO) calculations, starting with one identical to the one developed by Rudolph Pariser and Robert G. Parr on pi electron systems, and now called the Pariser-Parr-Pople method. Subsequently, he developed the methods of Complete Neglect of Differential Overlap (CNDO) (in 1965) and Intermediate Neglect of Differential Overlap (INDO) for approximate MO calculations on three-dimensional molecules, and other developments in computational chemistry. In 1970 he and David Beveridge coauthored the book "Approximate Molecular Orbital Theory" describing these methods.

Ab initio electronic structure theory.

Pople pioneered the development of more sophisticated computational methods, called ab initio quantum chemistry methods, that use basis sets of either Slater type orbitals or Gaussian orbitals to model the wave function. While in the early days these calculations were extremely expensive to perform, the advent of high speed microprocessors has made them much more feasible today. He was instrumental in the development of one of the most widely used computational chemistry packages, the Gaussian suite of programs, including coauthorship of the first version, Gaussian 70. One of his most important original contributions is the concept of a model chemistry whereby a method is rigorously evaluated across a range of molecules. His research group developed the quantum chemistry composite methods such as Gaussian-1 (G1) and Gaussian-2 (G2). In 1991, Pople stopped working on Gaussian and several years later he developed (with others) the Q-Chem computational chemistry program. Prof. Pople's departure from Gaussian, along with the subsequent banning of many prominent scientists, including himself, from using the software gave rise to considerable controversy among the quantum chemistry community.  The Gaussian molecular orbital methods were described in the 1986 book "Ab initio molecular orbital theory" by Warren Hehre, Leo Radom, Paul v.R. Schleyer and Pople.

Awards and honours.

Pople received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1998. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1961. He was made a Knight Commander (KBE) of the Order of the British Empire in 2003. He was a founding member of the International Academy of Quantum Molecular Science.  An IT room and a scholarship are named after him at Bristol Grammar School, as is a supercomputer at the Pittsburgh Supercomputing Center.

Personal life.

Pople married Joy Bowers in 1952 and was married until her death from cancer in 2002. Pople died of liver cancer in Chicago in 2004. He was survived by his daughter Hilary, and sons Adrian, Mark and Andrew. In accordance with his wishes, Pople's Nobel Medal was given to Carnegie Mellon University by his family on 5 October 2009.

Sir John Anthony Pople (31 October 1925 – 15 March 2004) was a British theoretical chemist who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Walter Kohn in 1998 for his development of computational methods in quantum chemistry.

Sir John Anthony Pople KBE (* 31. Oktober 1925 in Burnham-on-Sea; † 15. März 2004 in Sarasota, Florida) war ein britischer Mathematiker und theoretischer Chemiker.


Taxonomy.

The English word porpoise comes from the French "pourpois" (Old French "porpais", 12th century), which is from Medieval Latin "porcopiscus", which is a compound of "porcus" (pig) and "piscus" (fish). The old word is probably a loan-translation of a Germanic word, compare Danish "marsvin" and Middle Dutch "mereswijn" (sea swine). Classical Latin had a similar name, "porculus marinus". The species' taxonomic name, "Phocoena phocoena", is the Latinized form of the Greek φώκαινα, "phōkaina", "big seal", as described by Aristotle; this from φώκη, "phōkē", "seal".  The species is sometimes known as the common porpoise in texts originating in the United Kingdom. In parts of Atlantic Canada it is known colloquially as the puffing pig, and in Norway ‘nise’, derived from an Old Norse word for sneeze; both of which refer to the sound made when porpoises surface to breathe.

Description.

The harbour porpoise is a little smaller than the other porpoises, at about long at birth, weighing 6.4–10 kg. Adults of both sexes grow to. The females are heavier, with a maximum weight of around compared with the males'. The body is robust, and the animal is at its maximum girth just in front of its triangular dorsal fin. The beak is poorly demarcated. The flippers, dorsal fin, tail fin and back are a dark grey. The sides are a slightly speckled, lighter grey. The underside is much whiter, though there are usually grey stripes running along the throat from the underside of the body.  Many anomalously white coloured individuals have been confirmed, mostly in the North Atlantic, but also notably around Turkish and British coasts, and in the Wadden Sea, Bay of Fundy and around the coast of Cornwall.  Although conjoined twins are rarely seen in wild mammals, the first known case of a two-headed harbour porpoise was documented in May 2017 when Dutch fishermen in the North Sea caught them by chance. A study published by the online journal of the Natural History Museum Rotterdam points out that conjoined twins in whales and dolphins are extremely rare.

Distribution.

The harbour porpoise species is widespread in cooler coastal waters of the North Atlantic, North Pacific and the Black Sea. The populations in these regions are not continuous and are classified as separate subspecies with "P. p. phocoena" in the North Atlantic and West Africa, "P. p. relicta" in the Black Sea and Sea of Azov, an unnamed population in the northwest Pacific and "P. p. vomerina" in the northeast Pacific. Recent genetic evidence suggests the harbour porpoise population structure may be more complex, and that they should be reclassified.  In the Atlantic, harbour porpoises may be present in a curved band of water running from the coast of West Africa to the coasts of Spain, France, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Scandinavia, Iceland, Greenland, Nova Scotia and Newfoundland and the eastern seaboard of the United States. The population in the Baltic Sea is limited in winter due to sea freezing, and is most common in the southwest parts of the sea. There is another band in the Pacific Ocean running from the Sea of Japan, Vladivostok, the Bering Strait, Alaska, British Columbia, and California.

Population status.

The harbour porpoise has a global population of at least 700,000. In 2016, a comprehensive survey of the Atlantic region in Europe, from Gibraltar to Vestfjorden in Norway, found that the population was about 467,000 harbour porpoises, making it the most abundant cetacean in the region, together with the common dolphin. Based on surveys in 1994, 2005 and 2016, the harbour porpoise population in this region is stable. The highest densities are in the southwestern North Sea and oceans of mainland Denmark; the latter region alone is home to about 107,000 harbour porpoises. The entire North Sea population is about 335,000. In the Western Atlantic it is estimated that there are about 33,000 harbour porpoises along the mid-southwestern coast of Greenland (where increasing temperatures have aided them), 75,000 between the Gulf of Maine and Gulf of St. Lawrence, and 27,000 in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The Pacific population off mainland United States is about 73,000 and off Alaska 89,000. After sharp declines in the 20th century, populations have rebounded in the inland waters of Washington State. In contrast, some subpopulations are seriously threatened. For example, there are less than 12,000 in the Black Sea, and only about 500 remaining in the Baltic Sea proper, representing a sharp decrease since the mid-1900s.

Natural history.

Ecology.

Harbour porpoises prefer temperate and subarctic waters. They inhabit fjords, bays, estuaries and harbours, hence their name. They feed mostly on small pelagic schooling fish, particularly herring, capelin, and sprat. They will, however, eat squid and crustaceans in certain places. This species tends to feed close to the sea bottom, at least for waters less than deep. However, when hunting sprat, porpoise may stay closer to the surface. When in deeper waters, porpoises may forage for mid-water fish, such as pearlsides. A study published in 2016 showed that porpoises off the coast of Denmark were hunting 200 fish per hour during the day and up to 550 per hour at night, catching 90% of the fish they targeted. Almost all the fish they ate were very small, between long.  Harbour porpoises tend to be solitary foragers, but they do sometimes hunt in packs and herd fish together. Young porpoises need to consume about 7% to 8% of their body weight each day to survive, which is approximately 15 pounds or 7 kilograms of fish. Significant predators of harbour porpoises include white sharks and killer whales (orcas). Researchers at the University of Aberdeen in Scotland have also discovered that the local bottlenose dolphins attack and kill harbour porpoises without eating them due to competition for a decreasing food supply. An alternative explanation is that the adult dolphins exhibit infanticidal behaviour and mistake the porpoises for juvenile dolphins which they are believed to kill. Grey seals are also known to attack harbour porpoises by biting off chunks of fat as a high energy source.

Behaviour, reproduction and life-span.

Some studies suggest porpoises are relatively sedentary and usually do not leave a certain area for long. Nevertheless, they have been recorded to move from onshore to offshore waters along coast. Dives of by harbour porpoises have been recorded. Dives can last five minutes but typically last one minute.  The social life of harbour porpoises is not well understood. They are generally seen as a solitary species. Most of the time, porpoises are either alone or in groups of no more than five animals. Porpoises mate promiscuously. Males produce large amounts of sperm, perhaps for sperm competition. Females become sexually mature by their third or fourth year and can calve each year for several consecutive years, being pregnant and lactating at the same time. The gestation of the porpoise is typically 10–11 months. Most births occur in late spring and summer. Calves are weaned after 8–12 months. Their average life-span is 8–13 years, although individuals have reached 20. In a study of 239 dead harbour porpoises in the Gulf of Maine–Bay of Fundy, the vast majority were less than 12 years old and the oldest was 17.

Threats.

Hunting.

Harbour porpoises were traditionally hunted for food, as well as for their blubber, which was used for lighting fuel. Among others, hunting occurred in the Black Sea, off Normandy, in the Bay of Biscay, off Flanders, in the Little Belt strait, off Iceland, western Norway, in Puget Sound, Bay of Fundy and Gulf of Saint Lawrence. The drive hunt in the Little Belt strait is the best documented example. Thousands of porpoises were caught there until the end of the 19th century, and again in smaller scale during the world wars. Currently, however, this species is not subject to commercial hunting, but it is hunted for food and sold locally in Greenland. In prehistoric times, this animal was hunted by the Alby People of the east coast of Öland, Sweden.

Interactions with fisheries.

The main threat to porpoises is static fishing techniques such as gill and tangle nets. Bycatch in bottom-set gill nets is considered the main anthropogenic mortality factor for harbour porpoises worldwide. Several thousand die each year in incidental bycatch, which has been reported from the Black Sea, the Baltic Sea, the North Sea, off California, and along the east coast of the United States and Canada. Bottom-set gill nets are anchored to the sea floor and are up to in length. It is unknown why porpoises become entangled in gill nets, since several studies indicate they are able to detect these nets using their echolocation. Porpoise-scaring devices, so-called pingers, have been developed to keep porpoises out of nets and numerous studies have demonstrated they are very effective at reducing entanglement. However, concern has been raised over the noise pollution created by the pingers and whether their efficiency will diminish over time due to porpoises habituating to the sounds.  Mortality resulting from trawling bycatch seems to be less of an issue, probably because porpoises are not inclined to feed inside trawls, as dolphins are known to do.

Overfishing.

Overfishing may reduce preferred prey availability for porpoises. Overfishing resulting in the collapse of herring in the North Sea caused porpoises to hunt for other prey species. Reduction of prey may result from climate change, or overfishing, or both.

Noise pollution.

Noise from ship traffic and oil platforms is thought to affect the distribution of toothed whales, like the harbour porpoise, that use echolocation for communication and prey detection. The construction of thousands of offshore wind turbines, planned in different areas of North Sea, is known to cause displacement of porpoises from the construction site, particularly if steel monopile foundations are installed by percussive piling, where reactions can occur at distances of more than. Noise levels from operating wind turbines are low and unlikely to affect porpoises, even at close range.

Pollution.

Marine top predators like porpoises and seals accumulate pollutants such as heavy metals, PCBs and pesticides in their fat tissue. Porpoises have a coastal distribution that potentially brings them close to sources of pollution. Porpoises may not experience any toxic effects until they draw on their fat reserves, such as in periods of food shortage, migration or reproduction.

Climate change.

An increase in the temperature of the sea water is likely to affect the distribution of porpoises and their prey, but has not been shown to occur. Reduced stocks of sand eel along the east coast of Scotland, a pattern linked to climate change, appears to be the main reason for the increase in malnutrition in porpoises in the area.

Conservation status.

Overall, the harbour porpoise is not considered threatened and the total population is in the hundreds of thousands.  The harbour porpoise populations of the North Sea, Baltic Sea, western North Atlantic, Black Sea and North West Africa are protected under Appendix II of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS). In 2013, the two Baltic Sea subpopulations were listed as vulnerable and critically endangered respectively by HELCOM. Although the species overall is considered to be of Least Concern by the IUCN, they consider the Baltic Sea and Western African populations critically endangered, and the subspecies "P. p. relicta" of the Black Sea endangered.  In addition, the harbour porpoise is covered by the Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic, North East Atlantic, Irish and North Seas (ASCOBANS), the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS) and the Memorandum of Understanding Concerning the Conservation of the Manatee and Small Cetaceans of Western Africa and Macaronesia (Western African Aquatic Mammals MoU).

The harbour porpoise ("Phocoena phocoena") is one of six species of porpoise. It is one of the smallest marine mammals. As its name implies, it stays close to coastal areas or river estuaries, and as such, is the most familiar porpoise to whale watchers. This porpoise often ventures up rivers, and has been seen hundreds of miles from the sea. The harbour porpoise may be polytypic, with geographically distinct populations representing distinct races: "P. p. phocoena" in the North Atlantic and West Africa, "P. p. relicta" in the Black Sea and Sea of Azov, an unnamed population in the northwestern Pacific and "P. p. vomerina" in the northeastern Pacific.

Der Gewöhnliche Schweinswal ("Phocoena phocoena") ist ein bis zu 1,85 Meter langer Zahnwal. Seine Farbe ist oberseits schwarz, unterseits weiß. Er lebt in den Küstengewässern des Nordatlantiks vor Europa, Nordwestafrika und dem Osten Nordamerikas, im Schwarzen Meer sowie in den amerikanischen und asiatischen Küstengewässern des Nordpazifiks. Seine Nahrung sind Fische, Krebstiere und Tintenfische.


Theories of Liability.

Claimants can prove liability through a myriad of different theories, known as theories of liability. Which theories of liability are available in a given case depends on nature of the law in question. For example, in case involving a contractual dispute, one available theory of liability is breach of contract; or in the tort context, negligence, negligence per se, respondeat superior, vicarious liability, strict liability, or intentional conduct are all valid theories of liability.  Each theory of liability has certain conditions, or elements, that must be proven by the claimant before liability will be established. For example, the theory of negligence requires the claimant to prove that (1) the defendant had a duty; (2) the defendant breached that duty; (3) the defendant's breach caused the injury; and (4) that injury resulted in recoverable damages.  Theories of liability can also be created by legislation. For example, under English law, with the passing of the Theft Act 1978, it is an offense to evade a liability dishonestly. Payment of damages usually resolves the liability. A given liability may be covered by insurance. In general, however, insurance providers only cover liabilities arising from negligent torts rather than intentional wrongs or breach of contract.

Liability in Business.

In commercial law, limited liability is a business form that shields its owners from certain types of liability and that amount a given owner will be liable for. A limited liability form separates the owner(s) from the business. This means that when a business is found liable in case, the owners are not themselves liable; rather, the business is. Thus, only the funds or property the owner(s) have invested into the business are subject to that liability. If, for example, a limited liability business goes bankrupt, then the owner(s) will not lose unrelated assets, such as a personal residence (assuming they do not give personal guarantees).  This is the standard model for larger businesses, in which a shareholders will only lose the amount invested (in the form of stock value decreasing). (For an explanation, see business entity.)  There is an exception to this rule, however, which allows a claimant to litigate against the owner(s) of a limited liability business, if the owner(s) have engaged in conduct that justifies the claimant's recovery from the owner(s): This is known as "piercing the veil."

Additional Concepts.

Manufacturer's liability, a legal concept in most countries, reflects the fact that producers have a responsibility not to sell a defective product (see product liability).  Economists use the term "legal liability" to describe the legal-bound obligation to pay debts.

In law, liable means "responsible or answerable in law; legally obligated." Legal liability concerns both civil law and criminal law and can arise from various areas of law, such as contracts, torts, taxes, or fines given by government agencies. The claimant is the one who seeks to establish, or prove, liability.

Haftung ist ein unterschiedlich verwendeter Rechtsbegriff, der die Leistungspflicht des Schuldners gegenüber seinem Gläubiger, das Einstehen müssen eines Rechtssubjekts für einen entstandenen Schaden oder im engeren Sinn das Unterworfen sein des Vermögens eines Schuldners gegenüber dem Zugriff des Gläubigers umschreibt.


Rover description.

"Lunokhod 1" was a lunar vehicle formed of a tub-like compartment with a large convex lid on eight independently powered wheels. Its length was. Lunokhod was equipped with a cone-shaped antenna, a highly directional helical antenna, four television cameras, and special extendable devices to test the lunar soil for soil density and mechanical properties. An X-ray spectrometer, an X-ray telescope, cosmic ray detectors, and a laser device were also included. The vehicle was powered by batteries which were recharged during the lunar day by a solar cell array mounted on the underside of the lid. To be able to work in a vacuum, special fluoride-based lubricant was used for the mechanical parts, and the electric motors (one in each wheel hub) were enclosed in pressurized containers. During the lunar nights, the lid was closed, and a polonium-210 radioisotope heater unit kept the internal components at operating temperature. "Lunokhod 1" was intended to operate through three lunar days (approximately three Earth months), but actually operated for eleven lunar days.

Launch and lunar orbit.

"Luna 17" was launched on November 10, 1970 at 14:44:01 UTC. After reaching earth parking orbit, the final stage of "Luna 17"s launching rocket fired to place it into a trajectory towards the Moon (1970-11-10 at 14:54 UTC). After two course correction maneuvers (on November 12 and 14), it entered lunar orbit on November 15, 1970 at 22:00 UTC.

Landing and surface operations.

The spacecraft soft-landed on the Moon in the Mare Imbrium ("Sea of Rains") on November 17 at 03:47 UTC. It landed in western Mare Imbrium, about 60 km south of the Promontorium Heraclides. The lander had dual ramps from which the payload, "Lunokhod 1", could descend to the lunar surface. At 06:28 UTC the rover moved onto the Moon's surface.  The rover would run during the lunar day, stopping occasionally to recharge its batteries via the solar panels. At night the rover hibernated until the next sunrise, heated by the radioactive source.  Small craters along its traverse were named unofficially during the mission. The names were officially approved by the IAU in 2012. They are called Albert, Leonid, Kolya, Valera, Borya, Gena, Vitya, Kostya, Igor, Slava, Nikolya, and Vasya.  1970: 1971:

End of mission and results.

Controllers finished the last communications session with "Lunokhod 1" at 13:05 UT on September 14, 1971. Attempts to re-establish contact were finally discontinued and the operations of "Lunokhod 1" officially ceased on October 4, 1971, the anniversary of Sputnik 1. During its 322 Earth days of operations, "Lunokhod 1" travelled 10,540 metres (6.55 miles) and returned more than 20,000 TV images and 206 high-resolution panoramas. In addition, it performed 25 lunar soil analyses with its RIFMA x-ray fluorescence spectrometer and used its penetrometer at 500 different locations.

Current location.

The final location of "Lunokhod 1" was uncertain until 2010, as lunar laser ranging experiments had failed to detect a return signal from it since 1971. On March 17, 2010, Albert Abdrakhimov found both the lander and the rover in Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter image M114185541RC. In April 2010, the Apache Point Observatory Lunar Laser-ranging Operation (APOLLO) team from the University of California at San Diego used the LRO images to locate the rover closely enough for laser range (distance) measurements. On April 22, 2010 and days following, the team successfully measured the distance several times. The intersection of the spheres described by the measured distances then pinpoint the current location of Lunokhod 1 to within 1 meter. APOLLO is now using "Lunokhod 1"s reflector for experiments, as they discovered, to their surprise, that it was returning much more light than other reflectors on the Moon. According to a NASA press release, APOLLO researcher Tom Murphy said, "We got about 2,000 photons from Lunokhod 1 on our first try. After almost 40 years of silence, this rover still has a lot to say."  By November 2010, the location of the rover had been determined to within about a centimeter. The location near the limb of the Moon, combined with the ability to range the rover even when it is in sunlight, promises to be particularly useful for determining aspects of the Earth–Moon system.  In a report released in May 2013, French scientists at the Côte d'Azur Observatory led by Jean-Marie Torre reported replicating the 2010 laser ranging experiments by American scientists after research using images from the NASA Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. In both cases, laser pulses were returned from the "Lunokhod 1" retroreflector.

Lunokhod 1 (Луноход, "moon walker" in Russian; "Аппарат 8ЕЛ No 203", "vehicle 8ЕЛNo203") was the first of two robotic lunar rovers landed on the Moon by the Soviet Union as part of its Lunokhod program. The "Luna 17" spacecraft carried "Lunokhod 1" to the Moon in 1970. "Lunokhod 1" was the first remote-controlled robot "rover" to freely move across the surface of an astronomical object beyond the Earth. It was also the first wheeled craft on another celestial body. Lunokhod 0 (No.201), the previous and first attempt to do so, launched in February 1969 but failed to reach orbit.

Lunochod 1 ( ‚Mondgänger‘) war ein sowjetischer Mond-Rover, und der erste Rover überhaupt, der einen fremden Himmelskörper erkundete. Lunochod wurde von einem fünfköpfigen Team von der Erde aus gesteuert (Kommandant, Fahrer, Betriebsingenieur, Navigator, Funker). Zur Erleichterung der Fahrmanöver waren die Lunochods mit einem Kreiselsystem, einem Bodenfühler und einem Neigungsmesser ausgestattet. Beim Nachfolger Lunochod 2 kam eine dritte Frontkamera zur Verbesserung der Manövrierfähigkeit hinzu.


Early life and works.

Schlick was born in Berlin to a wealthy family. His father was Ernst Albert Schlick and his mother was Agnes Arndt. At the age of sixteen, he started to read Descartes' Meditations and Schopenhauer's "Die beiden Grundprobleme der Ethik". Especially "Also sprach Zarathurstra" ("Thus Spoke Zarathustra") by Friedrich Nietzsche would impress him.  He studied physics at the University of Heidelberg, the University of Lausanne, and, ultimately, the University of Berlin under Max Planck. Schlick explained this choice in his autobiography by saying that, despite his love for philosophy, he believed that only mathematical physics could help him obtain actual and exact knowledge. He felt deep distrust towards any metaphysical speculation.  In 1904, he completed his PhD thesis at the University of Berlin, "Über die Reflexion des Lichts in einer inhomogenen Schicht" ("On the Reflection of Light in a Non-Homogeneous Medium"). After a year as Privatdozent at Göttingen, he turned to the study of Philosophy in Zurich. In 1907, he married Blanche Hardy. In 1908, he published "Lebensweisheit" ("The Wisdom of Life"), a slim volume about eudaemonism, the theory that happiness results from the pursuit of personal fulfillment as opposed to passing pleasures.  His habilitation thesis at the University of Rostock, "Das Wesen der Wahrheit nach der modernen Logik" ("The Nature of Truth According to Modern Logic"), was published in 1910. Several essays about aesthetics followed, whereupon Schlick turned his attention to problems of epistemology, the philosophy of science, and more general questions about science. In this last category, Schlick distinguished himself by publishing a paper in 1915 about Einstein's special theory of relativity, a topic only ten years old. He also published "Raum und Zeit in der gegenwärtigen Physik" ("Space and Time in Contemporary Physics"), which extended his earlier results by applying Poincaré's geometric conventionalism to explain Einstein's adoption of a non-Euclidean geometry in the general theory of relativity.

The Vienna Circle and Wittgenstein.

After early appointments at Rostock and Kiel, in 1922 Schlick assumed the chair of Naturphilosophie at the University of Vienna which had previously been held by Ludwig Boltzmann and Ernst Mach. Schlick displayed an unusual success in organizing talented individuals in the philosophical and scientific spheres. When Schlick arrived in Vienna, he was invited to lead a group of scientists and philosophers who met regularly (on Thursday evenings in the Chemistry Building) to discuss philosophical topics in the sciences. Early members included the mathematician Hans Hahn and, within a few years, they were joined by Rudolf Carnap, Herbert Feigl, Kurt Gödel, Otto Neurath, Friedrich Waismann and others. They initially called themselves the Ernst Mach Association, but they eventually became best known as the Vienna Circle. In the years 1925–26, the Thursday night group discussed recent work in the foundations of mathematics by Gottlob Frege, Bertrand Russell, and Ludwig Wittgenstein. Wittgenstein's book, "Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus", was a work that advanced, among other things, a logical theory of symbolism and a "picture" or "model" theory of language. Schlick and his group were impressed by the work, devoting considerable time to its study and, even when it was no longer the principal focus of their discussion, it was mentioned in discussion. Eventually Wittgenstein agreed to meet with Schlick and other Circle members to discuss the "Tractatus" and other ideas but he later found it necessary to restrict the visitors to sympathetic interlocutors. Through Schlick's influence, Wittgenstein was encouraged to consider a return to philosophy after some ten years away from the field. Schlick and Waismann's discussions with Wittgenstein continued until the latter felt that germinal ideas had been used without permission in an essay by Carnap, a charge of dubious merit. But he continued discussions in letters to Schlick after he no longer met with other Circle members.

"General Theory of Knowledge" and later works.

Schlick had worked on his "Allgemeine Erkenntnislehre" ("General Theory of Knowledge") between 1918 and 1925, and, though later developments in his philosophy were to make various contentions of his epistemology untenable, the "General Theory" is perhaps his greatest work in its acute reasoning against synthetic "a priori" knowledge. This critique of synthetic "a priori" knowledge argues that the only truths which are self-evident to reason are statements which are true as a matter of definition, such as the statements of formal logic and mathematics. The truth of all other statements must be evaluated with reference to empirical evidence. If a statement is proposed which is not a matter of definition, and not capable of being confirmed or falsified by evidence, that statement is "metaphysical", which is synonymous with "meaningless", or "nonsense". This is the principle upon which members of the Vienna Circle were most clearly in agreement — with each other, as well as with Wittgenstein.

"Problems of Ethics".

Between 1926 and 1930, Schlick labored to finish "Fragen der Ethik" ("Problems of Ethics"'), in which he surprised some of his fellow Circlists by including ethics as a viable branch of philosophy. In his 1932-33 contribution to "Erkenntnis", "Positivism and Realism", Schlick offered one of the most illuminating definitions of positivism as every view "which denies the possibility of metaphysics" (Schlick [1932-1933], p. 260). Accordingly he defined metaphysics as the doctrine of “true being”, “thing in itself” or “transcendental being”, a doctrine which obviously "presupposes that a non-true, lesser or apparent being stands opposed to it" (Ibid). Therefore in this work he bases the positivism on a kind of epistemology which holds that the only true beings are givens or constituents of experience. Also during this time, the Vienna Circle published "The Scientific View of the World: The Vienna Circle" as a homage to Schlick. Its strong anti-metaphysical stance crystallized the viewpoint of the group.

Comment on Wittgenstein's "Tractatus".

Carnap, in his book "Logical Syntax of Language", included a comment by Schlick on Wittgenstein's "Tractatus".

Schlick's murder.

With the rise of the Nazis in Germany and Austrofascism in Austria, many of the Vienna Circle's members left for the United States and the United Kingdom. Schlick, however, stayed on at the University of Vienna. When visited by Herbert Feigl in 1935, he expressed dismay at events in Germany. On June 22, 1936, Schlick was ascending the steps of the university for a class when he was confronted by a former student, Johann Nelböck, who killed Schlick with a pistol. The court declared Nelböck to be fully compos mentis; he confessed to the act, and was detained without any resistance, but was unrepentant. The delinquent used the judicial proceedings as a chance to present himself and his ideology in the public. He claimed that Schlick's anti-metaphysical philosophy had "interfered with his moral restraint". In another version of the events, the murderer covered up all political causes and claimed that he was motivated by jealousy over his failed attachment to the female student Sylvia Borowicka, leading to a paranoid delusion about Schlick as his rival and persecutor. Nelböck was tried and sentenced, but the event became a distorted "cause célèbre" around which crystallized the growing nationalist and anti-Jewish sentiments in the city. (The fact that Schlick was not Jewish did not seem to matter to propagandists capitalizing on the crime.) After the annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany in 1938 the assassin was released on probation after serving two years of a 10-year sentence.

Legacy.

Schlick's enduring contribution to the world of philosophy is as the fount of logical positivism. His humanity, good will, gentleness, and especially his encouragement have been documented by many of his peers. Herbert Feigl and Albert Blumberg, in their introduction to the "General Theory of Knowledge", wrote,

Friedrich Albert Moritz Schlick (; ; April 14, 1882 – June 22, 1936) was a German philosopher, physicist, and the founding father of logical positivism and the Vienna Circle.

Friedrich Albert Moritz Schlick (* 14. April 1882 in Berlin; † 22. Juni 1936 in Wien) war ein deutscher Physiker und Philosoph. Schlick war der Begründer und einer der führenden Köpfe des Wiener Kreises im Logischen Empirismus. Seine Beiträge im Rahmen einer wissenschaftlichen Philosophie reichen von der Naturphilosophie und Erkenntnislehre bis zur Ethik und Ästhetik.


History.

Foundation.

Djurgårdens IF was founded, primarily by John G. Jansson, on 12 March 1891 at a café in Alberget 4A in the island Djurgården. Most of the founding members were young working class men. The club originally focused on winter sports and athletics. The first real football field in Stockholm was created in 1896. Djurgårdens IF's football department was formed in 1899, with the help of former GAIS player Teodor Andersson. Djurgården played their first match in July 1899, a 1–2 loss against AIK.

First era.

The first real achievement was made in 1902 when the team finished second in the tournament Rosenska Pokalen. Just two years later, in 1904, the first Swedish Championship final of the club was played, ending in a defeat against Örgryte IS. The team finished second in three more finals before the first Championship victory came in 1912 after two draws in the final matches against Örgryte, and a replay which Djurgården won. The club won three more Swedish Championships in the early years, in 1915 against Örgryte, 1917 against AIK and 1920 against IK Sleipner. However, DIF never managed to win Svenska Serien, the top Swedish league of the period, before the club's first great era ended. Between 1911 and 1935, Tranebergs Idrottsplats was the homeground for Djurgården. For the 1912 Summer Olympics, Stockholms Stadion was built. It became Djurgården's permanent home arena in 1936.  The club did not qualify for the first season of Allsvenskan, and only reached that league twice between 1924 and 1944, being directly relegated back down to Division 2 both times. The club did also play three seasons in the then third highest league, Division 3, between 1929 and 1932. From 1944 on, the club became a stable Allsvenskan club. In 1951, the team became runners-up in Svenska Cupen after Malmö FF; this was the team's first Cup final.

Second era.

The second great era took place in the 1950s and 1960s, winning Allsvenskan four times during the period. Djurgården's fifth Swedish championships, and first Allsvenskan championship, was taken in the 1954–55 season under the lead of Frank Soo. In the 1955–56 season, Djurgården became the first Swedish team to enter the European Cup. Beating Gwardia Warszawa in the first round, Djurgården advanced to quarter finals against Scottish Hibernian that they lost by 1–4 over two matches.  In 1959, both the football team and Djurgårdens IF's hockey team won their respective Swedish Championships of Sweden's two most popular sports, a remarkable happening. The 1959 title was secured on Råsunda Stadium, in front of 48,894 people, marking a record attendance for Djurgården, with a team of Sven Tumba, Birger Eklund, Lars Broström, John Eriksson, Hans Karlsson, Gösta Sandberg, Olle Hellström, Stig Gustafsson, Arne Arvidsson, Hans Mild and Sigge Parling.  The year after, in the 1960 season Djurgården finished 11th and was relegated to Division 2. The team only needed one year to return to Allsvenskan. In 1964 and 1966, Djurgården took its seventh and eight championships, with 1966 marking the end of the career of Gösta Sandberg. Sandberg played 322 league matches for the team 1951–66 and scored 77 goals. Gösta Sandberg is known as "Mr Djurgården" and was in 1991 named "Djurgårdare of the century". Sandberg also played for the club's Bandy and Ice Hockey section. He died on his way home after attending the Tvillingderbyt in 2006.  It's during this era that the nickname "Järnkaminerna" ("The Iron Furnaces") was established, due to the club's physical playing style. The ideal of a strong and uncomprimising Djurgården player might also be traced back to the club's working-class roots.

Middle years.

The 1970s saw no greater successes; however, Djurgården was steady in Allsvenskan and had three third-places and a final loss in the 1975 Svenska Cupen Final as the best results. Gary Williams became the first foreign player in the team in the 1977 season. The 1980s was not a good decade for the club, being relegated from Allsvenskan in 1981, and losing two promotion play-offs, before making a one-year visit in the highest league in 1986, although DIF returned two years later, and stayed in Allsvenskan for five consecutive seasons, but had no greater success except losing the Championship final in 1988. In 1987, Djurgårdens IF Fotboll presented a 12 million SEK deficit and later transformed into an aktiebolag. Former England striker Teddy Sheringham had a brief spell at Djurgården early in his career, as a 19-year-old loanee in 1985.  The 1990s saw Djurgården being relegated from Allsvenskan no less than three times, and being promoted back two times. During this decade, the club suffered from great economical problems and was close to bankruptcy. The 1995 season started well, but ended badly; in the last home match of the 1995 Allsvenskan, a supporter, later named Terror-Tommy in media, came on pitch and kicked referee Anders Frisk.

Third era.

In the middle of 1999 season, Zoran Lukic and Sören Åkeby took over the team and won the inaugural 2000 Superettan and finished 2nd as newly promoted in the 2001 Allsvenskan. With a team consisting of Stefan Rehn, Kim Källström, Andreas Johansson, and Andreas Isaksson, Djurgården secured its first title in 36 years in the last round of the 2002 Allsvenskan. The first half of the 2000s was a golden era for the club, with three championships (2002, 2003 and 2005) and three cup wins (2002, 2004 and 2005). This marked the end of the golden era for Djurgården, which ended on sixth place in 2006. The club was one of the main contenders for the league championship in 2007, which ultimately lead to a third place.

Present day.

The results went downhill in 2008 and 2009; Djurgården ended up in 14th place in 2009, and had to play through a relegation playoff against Assyriska Föreningen to remain in Allsvenskan. In the early 2010s, Djurgården was a mid-table Allsvenskan team finishing 7th to 11th between 2010 and 2014. When the newly appointed Director of sport Bo Andersson who led Djurgården to three titles in the early 21st century came back in 2014 he was forced to sell players such as Daniel Amartey (who became the most expensive defender ever sold by an Allsvenskan club for about 25 million SEK), Erton Fejzullahu, Christian Rubio Sivodedov and Simon Tibbling which stabilized the financials.  In January 2017, Djurgården sold the Kenyan international forward Michael Olunga for a club record fee of 40 million SEK which made the club's financial positions one of the best in the country. The transfer also made it possible to sign club legend Kim Källström and fellow former Swedish international Jonas Olsson. Both players, together with recently returned goalkeeper Andreas Isaksson, played important roles as Djurgården finished in third place in the 2017 allsvenskan, qualifying for the second qualifying round for the 2018–19 UEFA Europa League for the first time in ten years. After 13 years without a title Djurgården won the Svenska Cupen (Swedish Cup) on 10 May 2018 going through the Cup scoring 14 goals and not conceding a single goal.  In 2019 they won the league title for the first time in fourteen years (2005). They secured the title on the last day of the season after a 2-2 draw away from home against IFK Norrköping. This means they will try to qualify for champions league in the 20/21 season.

Supporters.

Djurgården is one of the most supported clubs in Sweden, with most of its supporters living in Stockholm and the neighbouring suburbs. Traditionally the Östermalm district is considered to be the club's stronghold. No reliable research exists about the spread of Djurgården supporters, but a 2015 T-shirt campaign suggests that supporters are spread fairly evenly throughout the Stockholm area.  Although Djurgården's supporters have been organizing themselves since the late 1940s, with the founding of DIF Supporters Club back in 1947, the 1970s saw singing supporter sections emerging which led to a new supporter club to be founded in 1981, named Blue Saints. The supporter club later changed its name in 1997 to Järnkaminerna (lit. "the Iron Furnaces") since the old name was perceived to be associated with violence. Järnkaminerna is Djurgården's official supporters' group with a membership of a few thousand.  The 2000s saw the emergence and creation of independent ultras groups. The oldest active ultra group, Ultra Caos Stockholm, formed in 2003 is largely influenced by southern European supporter culture.  In 2005 Fabriken Stockholm was formed and took over the role of creating tifos for the team's games from a former, now abolished group, Ultras Stockholm, founded in the late 1990s. In 2013 a larger and more open organization was started and took charge of the terrace choreography, headed by Ultra Caos Stockholm.

Rivalries.

Djurgården's archrival is AIK due to several reasons. AIK was founded February 15th 1891, while Djurgården was founded March 12th, just four weeks later, both in Stockholm City Centre. Because of this, games between the teams are called Tvillingderbyt (lit. "Derby of the twins") by the media, a name that hasn't caught on amongst supporters since they don't view themselves as twins and want no affiliation with one another.  Games between the two teams are very popular and draw large attendances. The games can often be heated occasions given the fact that there is a lot of animosity between both sets of supporters and can produce great atmospheres. They are also historically the biggest and most successful clubs from Stockholm, with 21 titles won by AIK and 17 by Djurgården.  Hammarby is the other main rival, mostly because of the geographical proximity with Djurgården having its stronghold in the Östermalm district of Stockholm and Hammarby considering Södermalm, also in central Stockholm, its heartland. Since 2013, the two teams share the same home ground: Tele2 Arena.

Affiliated clubs and schools.

Affiliated clubs.

On 22 May 2016, Djurgården announced a cooperation with Spårvägens FF as part of strengthening the presence of Djurgården in the southern suburbs of Stockholm as for example Skarpnäck, Bagarmossen and Skölndal. One of the aims of the cooperation is to make a natural way for talents in southern Stockholm to become a part of Djurgården. On 4 August 2016 a similar cooperation with Kista Sports Club was announced.

Kit.

The home shirt is vertically striped in sky and dark blue. The shorts are usually dark blue but have some years been white.

Kit manufacturers and sponsors.

The club's kit manufacturer Adidas presents a new kit every other (even) year. Apart from Adidas, Djurgården has the logos of the following companies visible on their shirt and shorts: Prioritet Finans, a financial-services company; Stadium, a sporting-goods retail chain; Erlandsson, a construction company; ABT Bolagen, another construction company; German automakers Volkswagen; NRC Group, a rail-infrastructure contractor; and league sponsors Svenska Spel, a government-owned gambling company (whose logo is on the right sleeve of the shirts of all Allsvenskan teams).

Stadiums.

Djurgården's primary stadium since 2013 is Tele2 Arena. The club's first match at the new arena was the 1–2 defeat to IFK Norrköping on 31 July 2013, with an attendance of 27,798 people, which also counts as Djurgården's record attendance on the arena.  Between 1936 and 2013, Djurgården's primary stadium was Stockholm Olympic Stadium, where the national league and cup games were played. The secondary stadium was Råsunda Stadium, where Stockholm derbies against AIK and Hammarby IF were played. The old Olympic Stadium, built in 1912, didn't fulfill UEFA's stadium requirements and therefore international cup games were also played at Råsunda. The club's record attendance at the Olympic Stadium is at least 21,995 against AIK on 16 August 1946. Djurgården's record attendance at Råsunda is 48,894 against IFK Göteborg on 11 October 1959.  The club's first stadium was Stockholms idrottspark where the club played from 1899 when the football department was founded until 1906 when the club moved to the newly built Östermalm Athletic Grounds. Djurgården did not stay long at Östermalm, in August 1910 the club signed a 25-year contract with the Stockholm City Council to dispose of an area in Traneberg, a district west of the inner city, to build a stadium. Tranebergs Idrottsplats was finished in October 1911 and inaugurated by Crown Prince Gustaf Adolf. The contract expired in 1935, and the City Council intended to build a residential area where the stadium was situated. Djurgården therefore moved to the Stockholm Olympic Stadium in 1936, where the club had played previously on several occasions since it was finished in 1912.  The later half of the 1940s saw a significant increase in attendances, which led the club to play some games at the larger, more modern, Råsunda Stadium. As Djurgården climbed in the league table in the beginning of the 1950s, all games were played at Råsunda. The end of the 1960s saw a return to the Olympic stadium, and soon all games were played there, with the exception of derbies.  The club's achievements in the early 2000s drew large attendances with led Djurgården to plan for a new stadium. The old 1912 Olympic Stadium also lacked modern facilities and individual seats. Along with political promises in 2006, Djurgården aimed for a rehaul of Stockholm Olympic Stadium and later an entirely new stadium at Östermalm Athletic Grounds. These plans were abandoned in December 2011 due to the building costs exceeding the club's financial capabilities. New stadium requirements from the Swedish Football Association also did not allow Djurgården to play at the Olympic Stadium after 2013. Thus, the club board made the decision to move to Tele2 Arena for the 2013 season.

Youth academy.

The youth academy is located at Hjorthagens IP. In December 2012 an indoor arena named "Johan Björkmans hall" with one full-size turf, and two smaller turfs was built at Hjorthagens IP which enables football training all year around. In 2007 Djurgården invested 65 million SEK (roughly 7 million Euro) for the upcoming five years in their youth academy. This project was described as a unique investment by a Swedish club by the former director of sports, Göran Aral. In 2015 the training ground for the first team was renovated which enabled the U-19 and U-17 teams to be training at Kaknäs IP and therefore come closer to the first team. The academy has produced players like Simon Tibbling, Emil Bergström and Christian Rubio Sivodedov.

Players.

First-team squad.

(captain)

Notable players.

List criteria:

Management and boardroom.

Management.

"As of 8 January 2019"

Boardroom.

"As of 6 March 2019"

Managerial history.

It is not known for sure who was the team's manager until 1922, though it is believed that Birger Möller was in charge during a part of the club's first decades.

Records.

Most appearances.

"Competitive matches only, includes appearances as substitute. Numbers in brackets indicate goals scored."

Djurgårdens IF Fotbollsförening – commonly known as Djurgårdens IF, Djurgården Fotboll (official name), Djurgården (), and (especially locally) Djurgår'n (), Dif or DIF – is the association football department of Djurgårdens IF. Founded 1891 on the island Djurgården, the club's home ground is Tele2 Arena, situated in the Johanneshov district of Stockholm.

Djurgårdens IF Fotbollsförening ist ein schwedischer Fußballverein, der Mitglied des Allianzvereins Djurgårdens IF ("Djurgårdens Idrottsförening") ist, einem der erfolgreichsten schwedischen Sportvereine. Djurgårdens Idrottsförening, normalerweise DIF abgekürzt, wurde am 12. März 1891 in Stockholm gegründet. Nach ökonomischen Problemen des Klubs seit spätestens Mitte der 1980er Jahre wandelte sich der Verein 1991 in einen Allianzverein um, die vormaligen Abteilungen wurden eigenständige.