Early life.

He was born in Montpellier to a family ennobled in the sixteenth century as "noblesse de robe", the eldest son of René Charles de Maupeou (1688–1775), who was president of the "parlement" of Paris from 1743 to 1757.  In 1744 he married a rich heiress, Anne de Roncherolles (1725–1752), a cousin of Madame d'Épinay, the friend of Rousseau who moved in the circles of the "Philosophes". Entering public life, he was his father's right hand in the conflicts between the "parlement" and Christophe de Beaumont, archbishop of Paris, who was supported by the court. Between 1763 and 1768, dates which cover the revision of the Calas case that Voltaire had championed and the trial of the comte de Lally, Maupeou was himself president of the "parlement". In 1768, he became chancellor in succession to his father, who had held the office for twenty-four hours only, largely in order to permit him to retire with the prestigious title. With the disgrace of Choiseul, 24 December 1770, Maupeou was the chief minister.  He determined to support the royal authority against the "parlement", the perennial block to reforms of the tax farming system or the privileges of the propertied classes, which in league with the provincial magistratures was seeking to arrogate to itself the functions of the states-general. He allied himself with the duc d'Aiguillon and the king's mistress Madame du Barry, and secured for a creature of his own, the Abbé Terray, the office of comptroller-general. The struggle erupted over the trial of the case of the duc d'Aiguillon, ex-governor of Brittany, and of La Chalotais, "procureur-général" of the province, who had been imprisoned by the governor for accusations against his administration.  When the "parlement" showed signs of hostility against Aiguillon, Maupeou read letters patent from Louis XV annulling the proceedings. Louis replied to remonstrances from the "parlement" by a "lit de justice", in which he demanded the surrender of the procedural minutes. On 27 November 1770 appeared the "Édit de règlement et de discipline", which was promulgated by the chancellor, forbidding the union of the various branches of the "parlement" and correspondence with the provincial magistratures. It also made a strike on the part of the "parlement" punishable by confiscation of goods, and forbade further obstruction to the registration of royal decrees after the royal reply had been given to a first remonstrance. This edict the magistrates refused to register, and it was registered in a "lit de justice" held at Versailles on 7 December, whereupon the "parlement" was suspended in its functions.

Coup.

After five summonses to return to their duties, the magistrates were surprised individually on the night of 19 January 1771 by musketeers, who required them to sign yes or no to a further request to return. Thirty-eight magistrates gave an affirmative answer, but on the exile of their former colleagues by "lettres de cachet", they retracted and were also exiled. Maupeou installed the council of state to administer justice pending the establishment of six superior courts in the provinces and of a new "parlement" in Paris, in which the magistrature would no longer be a hereditary prorogative but become salaried officials appointed by the Crown. The "cour des aides" was next suppressed. Maupeou proposed to make the judicial system more uniform throughout the country, which was a patchwork of local judicatures.  Voltaire praised this revolution, applauding the suppression of the old hereditary magistrature, but by the aristocrats and the "noblesse de robe", Maupeou's policy was regarded as the triumph of tyranny. The remonstrances of the princes, of the nobles, and of the minor courts, were met by exile and suppression, but by the end of 1771, the new system of the "parlements de Maupeou" was established, and the Bar, which had offered a passive resistance, recommenced to plead. A renewed attempt was made to tax the privileged and exempted groups. But it was not merely the death of Louis XV in May 1774 that ruined the chancellor: Durand Echeverria characterized the dismissal of Maupeou as "the inevitable liquidation of an exhausted expedient".

Fall.

The immediate restoration of the "parlements" by Louis XVI was followed by a renewal of the quarrels between the new king and the magistrature. Maupeou and Terray were replaced on 24 August 1774 by Miromesnil and then by Malesherbes, recalled from his exile in 1775 to be Secretary of State of the Maison du Roi, and by the economist Turgot. Maupeou is said to have remarked, "I had won for the king a case that has lasted three hundred years. He wishes to lose it again; he is the master of it."  Maupeou lived in retreat, still holding the office of Chancellor (abolished 1 July 1790) until his death at Thuit (Eure) in 1792, having lived to see the overthrow of the "ancien régime". His work, in so far as it was directed towards the separation of the judicial and political functions and to the reform of the abuses attaching to a hereditary magistrature, was subsequently endorsed by the Revolution. He had aimed at securing absolute power for Louis XV, but his intrigues and the violence of his judicial actions were in reality a serious blow to the monarchy. "By pressing the issue of sovereignty to an ultimate confrontation in this way," remarks Keith Michael Baker of Maupeou's staffing his remodelled courts with men willing to exercise judicial functions within limits imposed by the royal will, "he undermined in practice exactly that belief in a constitutional middle ground between liberty and despotism that Guillaume-Joseph Saige had been concerned to deny in theory".

Issue.

He had two sons:

René Nicolas Charles Augustin de Maupeou (; 25 February 1714 – 29 July 1792) was a French lawyer, politician, and chancellor of France, whose attempts at reform signalled the failure of enlightened despotism in France. He is best known for his effort to destroy the system of parlements, which were powerful regional courts, in 1770–74. When King Louis XV died in 1774, the parlements were restored and Maupeou lost power.

René-Nicolas-Charles-Augustin de Maupeou (* 25. Februar 1714; † 29. Juli 1792 in Thuit im Département Eure) war Kanzler von Frankreich.


History.

Background.

The earliest origin of the sport is debated. Though many Russians see their old countrymen as the creators of the sport

Early days.

English bandy developed as a winter sport in the Fens of East Anglia. Large expanses of ice would form on the flooded meadows or shallow washes in cold winters, and skating has been a tradition. Members of the Bury Fen Bandy Club published rules of the game in 1882, and introduced it into other countries. The first international

Modern development.

The first national bandy league was started in Sweden in 1902. Bandy was played at the Nordic Games in Stockholm and Kristiania (present day Oslo) in 1901, 1903, and 1905 and between Swedish, Finnish and Russian teams at similar games in Helsinki in 1907. A European championship was

Historical relationship with association football and ice hockey.

As a precursor to ice hockey bandy has influenced its development and history – mainly in European and former Soviet countries. While modern ice hockey was created in Canada, a game more similar to bandy was played initially, after British soldiers introduced the game in the late 19th century. At the same time as modern ice hockey rules were formalized in British North America (present day Canada), bandy rules were formulated in Europe. A cross between English and Russian bandy rules eventually developed, with the football-inspired English rules dominant, together with the Russian low border along most of the two sidelines, and this is the basis of the present sport since the 1950s.  Before Canadians introduced ice hockey into Europe in the early 20th century, "hockey" was another name for bandy, and still is in parts of Russia and Kazakhstan.  With football and bandy being dominant sports in parts of Europe, it was common for sports

Names of the sport.

The sport's English name comes from the verb "to bandy", from the Middle French "bander" ("to strike back and forth"), and originally referred to a 17th-century Irish game similar to field hockey. The curved stick was also called a "bandy". The etymological connection to the similarly named Welsh hockey game of bando is not clear.  An old name for bandy is "hockey on the ice"; in the first rule books from England at the turn of the Century 1900, the sport is literally called "bandy or hockey on the ice". Since the mid-20th century the term bandy is usually preferred to prevent confusion with ice hockey.  The sport is known as bandy in many languages though there are a few notable exceptions.

Games.

Bandy is played on ice, using a single round ball. Two teams of 11 players each compete to get the ball into the other team's goal using sticks, thereby scoring a goal.  The game is designed to be played on a rectangle of ice the same size as a football field. Bandy also has other rules that are similar to football. Each team has 11 players, one of whom is a goalkeeper. The offside rule is also employed. A goal cannot be scored from a goal throw, but unlike football, a goal can be scored from a stroke-in or a corner stroke. All free strokes are "direct" and allow a goal to be scored without another player touching the ball.  The team that has scored more goals at the end of the game is the winner. If both teams have scored an equal number of goals, then, with some exceptions, the game is a draw.  The primary rule is that the players (other than the goalkeepers) may not intentionally touch the ball with their heads, hands or arms during play. Although players usually use their sticks to move the ball around, they may use any part of their bodies other than their heads, hands or arms and may use their skates in a limited manner. Heading the ball results in a five-minute penalty.  In typical game play, players attempt to propel the ball toward their opponents'

Rules.

There are eighteen rules in official play, designed to apply to all levels of bandy, although certain modifications for groups such as juniors, veterans or women are permitted. The rules are often framed in broad terms, which allow flexibility in their application depending on the nature of the game.  The Bandy Playing Rules can be found on the official website of the Federation of International Bandy, and are overseen by the Rules and Referee Committee.  Each team consists of a maximum of 11 players (excluding substitutes), one of whom must be the goalkeeper. A team of fewer than eight players may not start a game. Goalkeepers are the only players allowed to play the ball with their hands or arms, and they are only allowed to do so within the penalty area in front of their own goal.  Though there are a variety of positions in which the outfield (non-goalkeeper) players are strategically placed by a coach, these positions are not defined or required by the rules of the game.  The positions and formations of the players in bandy are virtually the same as the common association football positions and the same terms are used for the different positions of the players. A team usually consists of defenders, midfielders and forwards. The defenders can play in the form of centre-backs, full-backs and sometimes wing-backs, midfielders playing in the centre, attacking or defensive, and forwards in the form of centre forward, second strikers and sometimes a winger. Sometimes one player is also taking up the role of a libero.  Any number of players may be replaced by substitutes during the course of the game. Substitutions can be performed without notifying the referee and can be performed while the ball is in play. However, if the substitute enters the ice before his teammate has left it, this will result in a five-minute ban. A team can bring at the most four substitutes to the game and one of these is likely to be an extra goalkeeper.  A game is officiated by a referee, the authority and enforcer of the rules, whose decisions are final. The referee may have one or two assistant referees. A secretary outside of the field often takes care of the match protocol.  The basic equipment players are required to wear includes a pair of Bandy skates, a helmet, a mouth guard and, in the case of the goalkeeper, a face guard.  The teams must wear uniforms that make it easy to distinguish the two teams. The goal keeper wears distinct colours to single him out from his or her teammates, just as in football. The skates, sticks and any tape on the stick must be of another colour than the bandy ball, which shall be orange or cerise.  In addition to the aforementioned, various protections are used to protect knees, elbows, genitals and throat. The pants and gloves may contain padding.  The stick used in bandy is an essential part of the sport. It should be made of an approved material such as wood or a similar material and should not contain any metal or sharp parts which can hurt the surrounding players. Sticks are crooked and are available in five angles, where 1 has the smallest bend and 5 has the most. Bend 4 is the most common size in professional bandy. The bandy stick should not have similar colours to the ball, such as orange or pink; it should be no longer than, and no wider than.  A bandy field is by, a total of, or about the same size as a football pitch and considerably larger than an ice hockey rink. Along the sidelines a high border (vant, sarg, wand, wall) is placed to prevent the ball from leaving the ice. It should not be attached to the ice, to glide upon collisions, and should end away from the corners.  Centered at each shortline is a wide and high goal cage and in front of the cage is a half-circular penalty area with a radius. A penalty spot is located in front of the goal and there are two free-stroke spots at the penalty area line, each surrounded by a circle.  A centre spot

International.

International federation.

The Federation of International Bandy (FIB) has had 33 members at most. Currently, 27 members are a part. Formed in 1955, the name was changed from "International Bandy Federation" in

World Championships.

The Bandy World Championship for men is arranged by the FIB and was first held in 1957. It was held every two years starting in 1961, and every year since 2003. Currently the record number of countries participating in the World Championships is twenty (2019). Since the number of countries playing bandy is not large, every country which can set up a team is welcome to take part in the World Championship. The quality of the teams varies; however, with only six nations, Sweden, the Soviet Union, Russia, Finland, Norway, and Kazakhstan, having won medals (allowing for the fact that Russia's team took over from the Soviet Union

Olympic Movement.

Bandy is recognized by the International Olympic Committee, and was played as a demonstration sport at the 1952 Winter Olympics in Oslo. However, it has yet to officially be played at the Olympics.  FIB president Boris Skrynnik lobbied for Bandy to be included in the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, given Russia's prominence in the

Asian Winter Games.

At the 2011 Asian Winter Games, open to members of the Olympic Council of Asia, men's bandy was included for the first

Winter Universiade.

Bandy made its debut at the Winter Universiade during the 2019 Games. Originally a six team tournament for men and a four team tournament for women were planned to be held. However, later China withdrew from

World Cup.

The World Championships should not be confused with the annual World Cup in Ljusdal, Sweden, which has been played annually since the 1970s and is the biggest bandy tournament for elite level club teams. It is played indoors in Sandviken since 2009 because Ljusdal has no indoor

Varieties.

Rink bandy is a variety played on an ice hockey-size rink. It was in the programme of the 2012 European Company Sports Games. Some FIB countries don't have a large ice surface and only play rink bandy at home; this includes most of the World Championships Group B participants.  The China Bandy Federation was set up in 2014 and China has since then participated in a number of world championship tournaments, with men's, women's and youth teams. China Bandy is mainly financed by private resources. The

Countries.

The first Ice Hockey Varsity Matches between Oxford University and Cambridge University were played to bandy rules, even if it was called hockey on ice at the time.  England won the European Bandy Championships in 1913, but that turned out to be the grand finale, and bandy is now virtually unknown in England. In March 2004, Norwegian ex-player Edgar Malman invited two big clubs to play a rink bandy exhibition game in Streatham, London. Russian Champions and World Cup Winner Vodnik met Swedish Champions Edsbyns IF in a match that ended 10–10. In 2010 England became a Federation of International Bandy member. The federation is based in Cambridgeshire, the historical heartland.  The England Bandy Federation, now the Great Britain Bandy Federation, was set up on 2 January 2017 at a meeting held in the historic old skaters public house, the Lamb and Flag in Welney in Norfolk, England, replacing the Bandy Federation of England which was founded in 2010. President is Rev Lyn Gibb-de Swarte of Littleport and past resident of Streatham in south west London, where she was chair of the Streatham ice speed club, ice hockey club and of the association of ice clubs. Vice Presidents; Simon Seager and Les Mead. Chair is Andrew Hutchinson. Treasurer is Tammy Nichol Twallin. General Secretary, Fixtures and Minutes Secretary, Cathy Gibb-de Swarte. Participation Officer, Anders Gidrup. Recruitment UK is Oscar Gillingham Aukner. They are all busy promoting the sport for all and will be instituting rink bandy around the country. The president is the project director of the Littleport Ice Stadium Project and plans are already drawn for a 400 metres indoor speed skating oval and an inner ice pad 100 × 60 metres bandy pitch. In September 2017, the federation decided to widen its territory to all of the United Kingdom and changed its name to Great Britain Bandy Federation. Great Britain entered a national team in the 2019 World Championships Group B in January and undefeated up to the final, won the silver medal in their final match against Estonia.  Bandy was played in Estonia in the 1910s to 1930s and the country had a national championship for some years. The national team played friendlies against Finland in the 1920s and '30s. The sport was played sporadically during Soviet occupation 1944–1991. It has since then become more organised again, partly through exchange with Finnish clubs and enthusiasts. As of 2018, Estonia takes part in both the men's and the Women's Bandy World Championship.  Bandy was introduced to Finland from Russia in the 1890s. Finland has been playing bandy friendlies against Sweden and Estonia since its independence in 1917.  The first Finnish national championships were held in 1908 and was the first national Finnish championship held in any team sport. National champions have been named every year except for three years in the first half of the 20th Century when Finland was at war. The top national league is called Bandyliiga and is semi-professional. The best players often go fully professional by being recruited by clubs in Sweden or Russia.  Finland was an original member of the Federation of International Bandy and is the only country beside Russia/Soviet Union and Sweden to have won a Bandy World Championship, which it did in 2004.  Bandy was played in Germany in the early 20th century, including by Crown Prince Wilhelm, but the interest died out in favour of ice hockey. Leipziger Sportclub had the best team and was also last to give bandy up. The sport was reintroduced in the 2010s, with the German Bandy Association being founded in 2013.  Bandy has a long history in many parts of the country and it used to be one of the most popular sports in Soviet times. However, after independence it suffered a rapid decline in popularity and only remained in Oral (often called by the Russian name, Uralsk), where the country's only professional club Akzhaiyk is located. They are competing in the Russian second tier division, the Supreme League. Recently bandy has started to gain popularity again outside of Oral, most notably in Petropavl and Khromtau. Those were for example the three Kazakh cities which at the Youth-17 World Championship 2016 had players in the team. The capital Nur-Sultan has hosted national youth championships in rink bandy. as well as championships in traditional eleven-a-side bandy. The former capital Almaty has in recent years hosted both the Asian Winter Games (with bandy on the program) as well as the Bandy World Championship in which Kazakhstan finished 3rd. Plans are made to reinvigorate the bandy section of the club Dynamo Almaty, who won the Soviet Championships in 1977 and 1990 as well as the European Cup in 1978. The Asian Bandy Federation also has its headquarters in Almaty. Since a few years the state is supporting bandy. Medeu in Almaty is the only arena with artificial ice. A second arena in Almaty was built for the World Championship 2012, but it was taken down afterwards. Stadion Yunost in Oral was supposed to get artificial ice for the 2017–18 season. It got delayed but in 2018 it was officially ready for use.  The national team took a silver medal at the 2011 Asian Winter Games, which led to being chosen as the best Mongolian sport team of 2011. Mongolia was proud to win the bronze medal of the B division at the 2017 Bandy World Championship after which the then President of Mongolia, Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, held a reception for the team.  Bandy was introduced to the Netherlands in the 1890s by Pim Mulier and the sport became popular. However, in the 1920s, the interest turned to ice hockey, but in contrast to other countries in central and western Europe, the sport has been continuously played in the Netherlands and since the 1970s, the country has become a member of FIB and games have been more formalised again. The national team started to compete at the WCS in 1991. However, without a proper venue, only rink bandy is played within the country. The national governing body is the Bandy Bond Nederland.  Bandy was introduced to Norway in the 1910s. The Swedes contributed largely, and clubs sprang up around the capital of Oslo. Oslo, including neighbouring towns, is still today the region where bandy enjoys most popularity in Norway.  In 1912 the Norwegians played their first National Championship, which was played annually up to 1940. During WWII, illegal bandy was played in hidden places in forests, on ponds and lakes. In 1943, −44 and −45, illegal championships were held. In 1946 legal play resumed and still goes on. After WWII the number of teams rose, as well as attendance which regularly were in the thousands, but mild winters in the 1970s and 80s shrunk the league, and in 2003 only five clubs (teams) fought out the 1st division with low attendance numbers and little media coverage.  In recent years, the number of artificially frozen pitches have increased in Norway, and more sports clubs have reinvigorated their bandy sections with new men's and youth teams. Because of this, as well as an increase of Swedish players in Norway, the competitiveness of the game has risen, especially in the first division Eliteserien. The adult men's game in Norway today consists of Eliteserien with eight teams, as well as three lower divisions. Bandy in Norway has also started to spread geographically, but some clubs in apart locations in the 3rd division only have access to ice hockey rinks and therefore play rink bandy for home games. Compared to the past, attendance is still fairly low, but important Eliteserien matches can attract around 1000 spectators.  In Russia bandy is known as hockey with a ball or simply Russian hockey. A similar game became popular among the Russian nobility in the early 1700s, with the imperial court of Peter the Great playing a predecessor of modern bandy on Saint Petersburg's frozen Neva river. Russians played this game using ordinary footwear, with sticks made out of juniper wood, only later were skates introduced. It was only in the second half of the 19th century that bandy became popular among the masses throughout the Russian Empire. Traditionally the Russians used a longer skate blade than other nations, giving them the advantage of skating faster. However, they would find it more difficult to turn quickly. A bandy skate has a longer blade than a hockey skate, and the "Russian skate" is even longer.  When the Federation of International Bandy was formed in 1955, with the Soviet Union as one of its founding members, the Russians largely adopted the international rules of the game developed in England in the 19th century, with one notable exception. The other countries adopted the border.  Bandy is considered a national sport in Russia and is the only discipline to have official support of the Russian Orthodox Church.  The Russian Bandy Super League is played every year and the winner in the final becomes Russian champion. The Russian Cup has been played annually (except for just some years) since 1937.  After the victory in the 2016 World Championship, the fourth in a row, President Putin received four players of the national team, Head Coach and Vice-President of the Russian Bandy Federation Sergey Myaus, the Russian Bandy Federation as well as Federation of International Bandy President Boris Skrynnik in The Kremlin. He talked, among other things, about the need to give more support to Russian bandy. It was the first time a head of state had accepted a meeting to talk about Russian bandy. Attending the meeting were also Minister of Sport, Tourism and Youth policy Vitaly Mutko and presidential adviser Igor Levitin. The month after, Igor Levitin held a follow-up meeting.  Bandy was introduced to Sweden in 1895. The Swedish royal family, noblemen and diplomats were the first players. Swedish championships for men have been played annually since 1907. In the 1920s students played the game and it became a largely middle class sport. After Slottsbrons IF won the Swedish championship in 1934 it became popular amongst workers in the smaller industrial towns and villages. Bandy remains the main sport in many of these places.  Bandy in Sweden is famous for its "culture" – both playing bandy and being a spectator requires great fortitude and dedication. A "" is the classic accessory for spectating – it is typically made of brown leather, well worn and contains a warm drink in a thermos and/or a bottle of liquor. Bandy is most often played at outdoor arenas during winter time, so the need for spectators to carry flasks or thermoses of 'warming' liquid like glögg is a natural effect.  A notable tradition is "annandagsbandy", bandy games played on Saint Stephen's Day, which for many Swedes is an important Christmas season tradition and always draws bigger crowds than usual. Games traditionally begin at 1:15 pm.  The final match for the Swedish Championship is played every year on the third Saturday of March. From 1991 to 2012, it was played at Studenternas Idrottsplats in Uppsala, often drawing crowds in excess of 20,000. The reason the play-off match was set in Uppsala is because of IFK Uppsala's success in the beginning of the 20th century. IFK Uppsala won 11 titles in the Swedish Championships between 1907 and 1920, which made them the most successful bandy club in the entire country. Now, however, the record is held by Västerås SK. A contributing factor was the poor quality of the ice at Söderstadion, where the finals were held from 1967 to 1989.  In 2013 and 2014 the final was played indoors in Friends Arena, the national stadium for football in Solna, Stockholm, with a retractable roof and a capacity of 50 000. The first final at Friends Arena in 2013 drew a record crowd of 38,474 when Hammarby IF Bandy, after ending up in second place in six finals during the 2000s, won their second title. Due to declining attendance since, for 2015 through 2017 Tele2 Arena in southern Stockholm was chosen as a new venue. However, the new indoor venue failed to attract much more than half of the total capacity. In May 2017 it was announced that the finals will again be held at Studenternas IP in Uppsala from 2018 to 2021.  In the late 19th and early 20th century, Switzerland had become a popular place for winter vacations and people went there from all over Europe. Winter sports like skiing, sledding and bandy was played in Geneva and other towns. Students from Oxford and Cambridge went to Switzerland to play each other – the predecessor of the recurring Ice Hockey Varsity Match was a bandy match played in St. Moritz in 1885. This popularity for Swiss venues of winter sport may have been a reason, the European Championship was held there in 1913.  Bandy has mainly been played as a recreational sport in Switzerland in the last decade, but a Swiss national team took part in the 2018 Women's Bandy World Championship.  Bandy was played in Ukraine when it was part of the Soviet Union. After independence in 1991, it took some years before organised bandy formed again, but Ukrainian champions have been named annually since 2012.  Bandy has been played in the United States since around 1980. The sport is centered in Minnesota, with very few teams based elsewhere. The United States national bandy team has participated in the Bandy World Championships since 1985 and is also regularly playing friendly matches against Canada.  United States bandy championships have been played annually since the early 1980s, but the sport is not widely covered by American sports media.

Bandy is a team winter sport played on ice, in which skaters use sticks to direct a ball into the opposing team's goal.

Bandy ist eine Ball- und Mannschaftssportart, die auf Eis ausgetragen wird. Bandy ist der Vorläufer des heutigen Eishockey und wird heute vor allem in Nord- und Osteuropa sowie in Nordamerika betrieben. Erfolgreichstes Nationalteam ist die Männermannschaft von Schweden.


Terminology.

The word backpack was coined in the United States in the 1910s. "Moneybag" and "packsack" were used prior, and now occur mainly as regionalisms.  The word rucksack is a German loanword mainly used in the UK, US and in other Western military forces. In German, "rucken" means "to pull something together (with a net)" and "Sack" means "bag". The combination of both words shows the etymological origin of in hunting, where hunters would "ruck" the prey and carry it on their back. The name rucksack is cognate with the Danish "rygsæk", Norwegian "ryggsekk", Dutch "rugzak", Afrikaans "rugsak", Swedish "ryggsäck", and Russian "рюкзак" ("rjukzak").  The word knapsack was the usual name for a rucksack or backpack up until the middle of the 20th century. This is commonly used in Canada.  Alternative names include haversack from the German "Hafersack" meaning "oat sack" (which more properly describes a small cloth bag on a strap worn over one shoulder and originally referred to the bag of oats carried as horse fodder), "Kraxe" (a German rucksack with a rigid framework), and "bergen" (a large load-carrying rucksack, from a design issued by the British Army during the Second World War). In fact, Britons used to call Alpine-style backpacks "Bergen rucksacks", maybe from the name of their creator, Norwegian Ole F. Bergan, combined with the name of the Norwegian city of Bergen.  Backpacks can often simply be referred to as "packs", especially in outdoors contexts; though sometimes ambiguous compared to other bags such as saddlebags and duffel bags, context is generally sufficient for identification. They are also used in recreational activities, and have long since been used to carry sports equipment and other materials.  Long before its various terminologies began appearing in print, evidence of early backpacks was scarce. A contender for the earliest was found within the mummified remains of Ötzi in 3300BC.

Backpack designs.

Backpacks in general fall into one of four categories: frameless, external frame, internal frame, and bodypack. A pack frame, when present, serves to support the pack and distribute the weight of its contents across the body more appropriately, by transferring much of the weight to the hips and legs. Most of the weight is therefore taken off the shoulders, reducing the chance of injury from shoulder strap pressure (many backpacks equipped solely with shoulder straps can affect the posture of a person carrying more than 14 kg (30 lbs)), as well as being less restrictive of the upper body range of motion. Most backpacks are capable of being closed with either a buckle mechanism, a zipper, or a dry-bag type closure, though a few models use a drawstring fitted with a cord lock for the main compartment.  A bodypack is a backpack fitted with one or more pockets that are suspended on the wearer's chest and loaded in such a way that the load in the front and the load in the back are close to equal. The majority of the load in a bodypack is carried by the hips. The ideal load carrying system should not disturb the wearer's natural posture, balance and maneuverability. The load must be dispersed onto the skeletal structure in an even manner, and should not produce unbalanced forces on the body.

Frameless.

The simplest backpack design is a bag attached to a set of shoulder straps. Such packs are used for general transportation of goods, and have variable capacity. The simplest designs consist of one main pocket. This may be combined with webbing or cordage straps, while more sophisticated models add extra pockets, waist straps, chest straps, padded shoulder straps, padded backs, and sometimes reflective materials for added safety at night. These packs are generally produced inexpensively.  Some outdoor packs, particularly those sold for day hikes, ultralight backpacking and mountaineering are sometimes frameless as well.

Sports.

Sports and hydration backpacks are smaller with a profile closer to the body, wider straps and can come with water bladders and hip belts for running, cycling or hiking. Running hydration packs are the smallest and lightest, many under 2 litres and most under six litres. Compression straps across the top of one's body are common as are hip belts. Cycling hydration packs are six to ten litres sitting high on the back. Although daypacks are small averaging ten to thirty litres, all Trekking and Hiking hydration packs are generally the largest and heaviest. Thirty five up to sixty five litres and above are common.

External frame packs.

External frame packs were designed to carry heavy loads (>20 kg or 40 lb), giving the wearer more support and protection and better weight distribution than a simple, frameless strapped bag. Wooden pack frames were used for centuries around the world. Ötzi the Iceman may have used one in Copper Age Alpine Italy, though some archaeologists believe the frame found with the body was part of a snowshoe. Such packs are common in military and mountaineering applications; metal versions first appeared in the mid-20th century.  The external frame is typically made from aluminum, other lightweight metal alloy, and recently reinforced synthetic polymers or plastic and is equipped with a system of straps and tautly-stretched netting which prevents contact between the metal frame and user's back. In addition to comfort, this "stand-off" provides the additional benefit of creating air circulation between the frame and the wearer's back. For this reason, external frame packs are generally considered to be a "cooler load" than internal frame designs. External frame packs have a fabric "sack" portion which is usually smaller than that of internal frame packs, but have exposed frame portions above and below the sack to accommodate attachment of larger items. In addition, the sack can often be removed entirely, permitting the user to customize the configuration of their load, or to transport a non-conventional load such as a quartered game animal. Military packs are often external frame designs due to their ability to carry loads of different shapes, sizes and weights.  The other type of external frame which recently was proposed, is made from composite plastic which is not flexible like current backpack straps and also it is a kind of material that can be shaped like human spine curvature. In this type of backpack, load directly transfers to the shoulders through the non-flexible straps. This non-flexible structure diminishes the momentum at lumbar region of the back. Strap curvature is shaped close to spine curvature and there are two flexible drawstrings to prevent backpack movement in transverse plane. The straps of this backpack are wide enough to distribute the pressure on shoulders and also a white glass wool layer is added to the internal part of them to absorb dynamic forces, which could be produced through walking. This backpack type is an experimental sample that need further options to be prepared for usage. One of the benefits of backpack with external frame is preventing the spine to incline forward during walking that would be helpful in preventing damage of long term backpack carrying.

Internal frame packs.

The internal frame backpack is a recent innovation, invented in 1967 by Greg Lowe, who went on to found Lowe Alpine and Lowepro, companies specializing in backpacks and other forms of carrying bags for various equipment. An internal-frame pack has a large fabric section around an internal frame composed of strips of either aluminum, titanium or plastic, sometimes with additional metal stays to reinforce the frame. A complex series of straps works with the frame to distribute the weight and hold it in place. The internal frame permits the pack to fit closely to the wearer's back and minimizes shifting of the load, which is desirable when participating in activities that involve upper-body movement such as scrambling over rocky surfaces and skiing. However, the tight fit reduces ventilation, so these type of packs tend to be more sweaty than external frame packs. The internal construction also allows for a large storage compartment; a few lash points (including webbing loops and straps for sleeping bags and other large items) may be present, but as the frame is completely integrated, it is difficult to securely lash larger and heavier items which do not fit inside the compartment to the outside of the pack. Internal frame packs originally suffered from smaller load capacity and less comfortable fit during steady walking, but newer models have improved greatly in these respects. In addition, because of their snug fit, the improved internal frame models have largely replaced external frame backpacks for many activities.

Daily use.

A daypack is a smaller, frameless backpack that can hold enough contents for a day hike, or a day's worth of other activities. They are not large enough for average wilderness backpacking that use full-sized sleeping bags and backpacking tents, but may be large enough for ultralight backpacking. Padded or unpadded waist straps may be provided to distribute weight across the body. In many countries, backpacks are heavily identified with students, and are a primary means of transporting educational materials to and from school. In this context they are sometimes known as bookbags or schoolbags. The purchase of a suitably fashionable, attractive, and useful backpack is a crucial back-to-school ritual for many students. Typical school backpacks generally lack the rigid frame of an outdoor-style backpack and include only a few pockets in the front in addition to the main storage compartment. While traditionally very simple in design, school backpacks are often made with padded shoulder straps and backs as well as additional reinforcement to hold large numbers of heavy textbooks, as well as safety features such as reflective panels to make the wearer of the pack more visible at night.  Backpacks are sometimes worn as fashion accessories, in which they perform the same function as a purse. Some such backpacks designed specifically for women are no larger than a typical purse, and are generally associated with younger women.

Special-purpose backpacks.

Some backpacks are specifically designed to carry certain items. Common examples include backpacks for small valuable items such as laptops and cameras; backpacks designed to hold laptop computers in particular generally have a padded compartment to hold the computer and medium-sized pockets and flaps to accommodate accessories such as charger cables and mice. These are especially common in college and university settings. In order to supply these devices with electricity, a few high-end backpacks are equipped with solar panels.  Rolling backpacks are backpacks with wheels on the bottom and an extending handle. Because of their design, rolling backpacks reduce the strain on the user, though the shoulder straps may be used to carry the pack for short distances when the terrain is not suitable for wheels. Rolling backpacks are most commonly used while traveling by airplane or train.  Hydration backpacks are also available. These light daypacks are especially designed to hold water in a special water bladder (also known as reservoir), and their purpose is to allow the carrier constant fluid hydration handsfree, so that the carrier can focus on the mission ahead without having to stop for water breaks.

Professional use.

Backpacks are a standard part of the load-bearing equipment of soldiers, especially infantry, in most countries, and military-style packs are regularly available to civilians in military surplus stores. Well-known examples include the United States ALICE field pack and the British Army PLCE rucksack attachment, both of which are widely available to civilian markets both as actual military surplus (new or used) and as replicas. Such packs are often, though not always (e.g. the USMC's ILBE pack), external-frame packs, with the pack itself lashed or pinned to a metal or plastic carrying frame. For units that are entering combat situations, packs may be loaded heavily and can weigh in excess of. Each soldier may carry extra weapons, ammunition, rations, medical supplies, tents or other shelter material, and extra clothing.  Many police tactical units, as well as players of military-style combat games such as paintball and airsoft, use these military-style tactical backpacks and webbing for storing gear and ammunition. There is also a small but thriving industry devoted to creating historical reproductions of military gear; such companies generally produce period-appropriate uniforms and other gear in addition to backpacks.  Some more recent military/tactical designs, especially the MOLLE and ILBE packs used by the United States armed forces, are covered with webbing loop attachment points for increased carrying capacity.  Recently, at least one brand of backpack has been specially designed for professional cooks and culinary students. This sort of backpack is meant to safely carry knives, cooking tools, and other miscellaneous equipment such as notebooks, towels, and uniforms.  Specialist backpacks are used by fire services for wildfire fighting, as well as by rescue services for Search and Rescue. These backpacks are generally very modular, allowing the pack to be reconfigured to the users wishes and are designed to load around the wearers hips. They may include features such as sections for water bladders and specially designed pouches, such as those used to carry personal fire shelters.

Backpacks for travel.

Backpacks are sometimes used as luggage, particularly as carry-on bags for airplane travel.  In addition to their use in outdoors pursuits, backpacks are sometimes used in other sports as well. Hydration packs, sometimes used by athletes and military personnel, carry water (in either a bladder or a rigid bottle) and have a tube connected to them from which the wearer can drink without removing the pack; this feature is also included in some more general-purpose hiking backpacks. Backpacks that carry skateboards have also become more popular in the youth culture.

A backpack—also called knapsack, rucksack, rucksac, pack, sackpack, booksack, bookbag or backsack—is, in its simplest frameless form, a cloth sack carried on one's back and secured with two straps that go over the shoulders, but it can have an external frame, internal frame, and there are bodypacks.

Der Rucksack ist ein Behälter aus Stoff, flexiblem Kunststoff (Nylon oder PVC) oder Leder, der an Gurten auf dem Rücken getragen wird und dem Transport von Gegenständen dient. Leichte Rucksäcke werden allein an Schultergurten getragen; bei Rucksäcken für den Transport schwerer Lasten wird die Last über einen Hüftgurt auf die Hüfte verlagert.


Plot.

While exploring his grandfather's shed, Hikaru Shindo stumbles across a Go board haunted by the spirit of Fujiwara-no-Sai, a Go player from the Heian era. Sai wishes to play Go again, having not been able to since the late Edo period, when his ghost appeared to Honinbo Shusaku, a top Go player of that period. Sai's greatest desire is to attain the – a perfect move. Because Hikaru is apparently the only person who can perceive him, Sai inhabits a part of Hikaru's mind as a separate personality, coexisting, although not always comfortably, with the young boy.  Urged by Sai, Hikaru begins playing Go despite an initial lack of interest in the game. He begins by simply executing the moves Sai dictates to him, but Sai tells him to try to understand each move. In a Go salon, Hikaru twice defeats Akira Toya, a boy his age who plays Go at professional level, by following Sai's instruction. Akira subsequently begins a quest to discover the source of Hikaru's strength, an obsession which will come to dominate his life.  Hikaru becomes intrigued by the great dedication of Akira and Sai to the game and decides to start playing solely on his own. He is a complete novice at first, but has some unique abilities to his advantage; for instance, once he has a basic understanding of Go, he can reconstruct a game play by play from memory. Through training at Go clubs, study groups, and practice games with Sai, he manages to become an Insei and later a pro, meeting various dedicated Go players of different ages and styles along the way. He also demonstrates a natural talent for the game and remains determined to prove his own abilities to Akira, Sai, and himself.  Hikaru enters the Hokuto Cup, an international tournament for under-18 Japanese, Chinese, and Korean Go professionals. As the highest-ranking under-18 pro, Akira qualifies for the tournament, but Hikaru has to compete in a series of games to become one of the three Japanese competitors. His friends Waya and Ochi also enter the qualifying matches. He meets Kiyoharu Yashiro, a player from the Kansai Ki-in, whose style is as strange and offbeat as his own. Hikaru, along with Akira and Kiyoharu Yashiro, are selected to represent Japan, while Suyong Hong (a Korean Go player who was beaten by Hikaru earlier in the series) and two others represent Korea and three of Shinichiro Isumi's Chinese friends represent their country.  The captain of the Korean Go team, Ko Yong Ha, is interviewed and his remarks are translated for Japanese viewers. The translator makes an error which causes it to appear that he is disparaging the skill of Honinbo Shusaku, who, like Hikaru, was possessed by Sai. Although Ko Yong Ha later finds out, he refuses to correct the error and instead emphasizes it when he realizes that it enrages Hikaru, who takes it as a direct affront to Sai. Considering their achievements and skills, Hikaru is still slightly under Akira. Therefore, their team coach, Atsushi Kurata, chooses Akira to be the captain. However, Hikaru wants to play against Ko Yong Ha, who is the captain in Korea, in order to show him that Sai is the most skillful Go player in the history of the game. Atsushi Kurata grants Hikaru's request when they play against Korea in the tournament because he sees the burning spirit in him. At the end, Hikaru loses by only half a point. Japan eventually comes in last, behind Korea and China. But the Japanese team impressed both professionals from China and Korea because they did much better than what was expected. At the end of the game, Ko Yong Ha asks Hikaru for his reason for playing Go. With tears in his eyes, he answers with the line "To link the far past, with the far future". The hidden meaning of this line indicates the links and emotional relationships between Sai, Shusaku, and Hikaru. However, no one understands the context of this line besides Hikaru.  A bonus story, set shortly after the Hokuto Cup event, shows two Inseis, who are ranked 14th and 16th in the group, discussing whether Akira Toya or Hikaru Shindo were stronger. In the Young Lions tournament, they are each paired with Hikaru and Akira, making them change their minds about who is stronger. In the second round, Hikaru and Akira are paired against each other and begin a match, but the conclusion is unknown.

Media.

Manga.

Written by Yumi Hotta and illustrated by Takeshi Obata, "Hikaru no Go" was serialized in "Weekly Shōnen Jump" magazine from January 8, 1999 to July 14, 2003. Go professional Yukari Umezawa (5-dan) provided "supervision" for the series. The 189 chapters were collected into 23 "tankōbon" volumes by Shueisha; the first published on April 30, 1999 and the last on September 4, 2003.  Viz Media acquired the North American English-language rights to "Hikaru no Go" in June 2003. The series debuted in the January 2004 issue of Viz's "Shonen Jump" magazine, released in December 2003. However, after the April 2008 issue it was replaced by "Slam Dunk". They released all 23 collected volumes from May 19, 2004 to May 3, 2011. Unlike the "Shonen Jump" serialization, the collected volumes from Viz were censored. Instances of cigarettes were removed, as were some clothing designs and actual trademarks.

Anime.

"Hikaru no Go" was adapted into an anime television series by Studio Pierrot. It was broadcast on TV Tokyo from October 10, 2001 to March 26, 2003 for 75 episodes. A New Year's Special titled aired on January 3, 2004.  Viz Media acquired the North American English-language rights to the "Hikaru no Go" anime at the same time as the manga, in June 2003. The Ocean Group produced an English voice dub for the series. A "Sneak Preview" DVD of the first episode was included in the January 2006 issue of "Shonen Jump" (Volume 4, Issue 1) to subscribers. Viz began releasing the series on DVD on December 27, 2005. However, only eleven volumes were released (covering 45 episodes) before they were officially discontinued in April 2008. "Hikaru no Go" debuted on ImaginAsian TV in the United States on May 2, 2006. Each episode aired in subtitled Japanese every Tuesday, before the English dub of the same episode was shown on Saturday. It premiered on the online streaming service Toonami Jetstream on July 14, 2006, and ran until the service shut down in January 2009 with only three episodes remaining. The entire series was added to Netflix in April 2011 but is no longer available.

Other media.

A series of three Go video games based on the series were created by Konami for the Game Boy Advance. The third was also released on the GameCube. Hikaru and Sai also appear as support characters in the "Weekly Shōnen Jump" crossover game "Jump Super Stars".

Reception.

"Hikaru no Go" has been well-received, with more than 25 million collected volumes in circulation. It also won the Shogakukan Manga Award in 2000 and the Tezuka Osamu Cultural Prize in 2003.  "Hikaru no Go" dramatically increased the popularity of Go in Japan and elsewhere, particularly among young children.  Go professional Yukari Umezawa served as the technical advisor for the anime and promoted the game on behalf of the Nihon Ki-in. She had a short one-minute special at the end of every episode instructing kids how to play Go. One of the reasons she helped increase Go's popularity was from being called the "best looking Go professional".  "Hikaru no Go" also caused an increase in popularity and awareness of Go throughout all other countries where it was read or seen. As a result, many Go clubs were started by people influenced by the manga.  In 2004, "Hikaru no Go" came in 18th on "Animage" readers poll of their Favorite Anime Series. In TV Asahi's 2008 Top 100 Anime poll, the series came in 83rd in the nationwide survey of multiple age groups and 93rd in the online poll. The following year, it came in 81st in the online poll.

It was adapted into an anime television series by Studio Pierrot, that ran for 75 episodes from 2001 to 2003 on TV Tokyo, with a New Year's Special aired in January 2004. Viz Media released both the manga and anime in North America; they serialized the manga in "Shonen Jump" in addition to releasing its collected volumes in entirety, while the anime aired on ImaginAsian in addition to a DVD release that was cancelled prematurely.

Hikaru no Go (jap. ) ist eine abgeschlossene Manga-Serie von der Autorin Yumi Hotta und Zeichner Takeshi Obata. Das Werk handelt vom 2000 Jahre alten chinesischen (und später auch in Japan vertretenen) Brettspiel Go und jugendlichen Go-Spielern.


AIFF on Mac OS X.

With the development of the Mac OS X operating system, Apple created a new type of AIFF which is, in effect, an alternative little-endian byte order format.  Because the AIFF architecture has no provision for alternative byte order, Apple used the existing AIFF-C compression architecture, and created a "pseudo-compressed" codec called sowt (twos spelled backwards). The only difference between a standard AIFF file and an AIFF-C/sowt file is the byte order; there is no compression involved at all.  Apple uses this new little-endian AIFF type as its standard on Mac OS X. When a file is imported to or exported from iTunes in "AIFF" format, it is actually AIFF-C/sowt that is being used. When audio from an audio CD is imported by dragging to the Mac OS X Desktop, the resulting file is also an AIFF-C/sowt. In all cases, Apple refers to the files simply as "AIFF", and uses the ".aiff" extension.  For the vast majority of users this technical situation is completely unnoticeable and irrelevant. The sound quality of standard AIFF and AIFF-C/sowt are identical, and the data can be converted back and forth without loss. Users of older audio applications, however, may find that an AIFF-C/sowt file will not play, or will prompt the user to convert the format on opening, or will play as static.  All traditional AIFF and AIFF-C files continue to work normally on Mac OS X (including on the new Intel-based hardware), and many third-party audio applications as well as hardware continue to use the standard AIFF big-endian byte order.

AIFF Apple Loops.

Apple has also created another recent extension to the AIFF format in the form of Apple Loops used by GarageBand and Logic Pro, which allows the inclusion of data for pitch and tempo shifting by an application in the more common variety, and MIDI-sequence data and references to GarageBand playback instruments in another variety.  AppleLoops use either the.aiff (or.aif) or.caf extension regardless of type.

Data format.

An AIFF file is divided into a number of chunks. Each chunk is identified by a "chunk ID" more broadly referred to as FourCC.  Types of chunks found in AIFF files:

Metadata.

AIFF files can store metadata in Name, Author, Comment, Annotation, and Copyright chunks. An ID3v2 tag chunk can also be embedded in AIFF files, as well as an Application Chunk with Extensible Metadata Platform (XMP) data in it.

Common compression types.

AIFF supports only uncompressed PCM data. AIFF-C also supports compressed audio formats, that can be specified in the "COMM" chunk. The compression type is "NONE" for PCM audio data. The compression type is accompanied by a printable name. Common compression types and names include, but are not limited to:

Audio Interchange File Format (AIFF) is an audio file format standard used for storing sound data for personal computers and other electronic audio devices. The format was developed by Apple Inc. in 1988 based on Electronic Arts' Interchange File Format (IFF, widely used on Amiga systems) and is most commonly used on Apple Macintosh computer systems.

Audio Interchange File Format (AIFF) ist ein Dateiformat (Containerformat) zum Speichern von LPCM-Audiodaten. Es wurde vom Unternehmen Apple entwickelt und wird als Standard-Audioformat auf dem Macintosh eingesetzt. AIFF basiert auf der Struktur des von Electronic Arts entwickelten universellen Formats IFF. Reguläre Audio-CDs speichern ihr Audiosignal im Format PCM, genauso wie AIFF. Das Pendant zu AIFF in Systemen unter Windows ist das Format RIFF WAVE.


History.

Pre-Norman cathedral.

Bede records that in AD604 Augustine of Canterbury consecrated Mellitus as the first bishop to the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of the East Saxons and their king, Sæberht. Sæberht's uncle and overlord, Æthelberht, king of Kent, built a church dedicated to St Paul in London, as the seat of the new bishop. It is assumed, although not proved, that this first Anglo-Saxon cathedral stood on the same site as the later medieval and the present cathedrals.  On the death of Sæberht in about 616, his pagan

Cathedral or temple before 604 AD?

There is evidence for Christianity in London during the Roman period, but no firm evidence for the location of churches or a cathedral. London is said to have sent 2 delegates to the Council of Arles in 314 AD.  A list of the 16 "archbishops" of London was recorded by Jocelyn of Furness in the 12th century, claiming London's Christian community was founded in the 2nd century under the legendary King Lucius and his missionary saints Fagan, Deruvian, Elvanus and Medwin. None of that is considered credible by modern historians but, although the surviving text is problematic, either Bishop Restitutus or Adelphius at the 314 Council of Arles seems to have come from Londinium.  The location of Londinium's original cathedral is unknown. But legend

Old St Paul's.

The fourth St Paul's, generally referred to as "Old St Paul's", was begun by the [[Normans]] after the 1087 fire. A further fire in 1135 disrupted the work, and the new cathedral was not consecrated until 1240. During the period of construction, the style of architecture had changed from [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] to [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] and this was reflected in the pointed arches and larger windows of the upper parts and East End of the building. The Gothic ribbed vault was constructed, like that of [[York Minster]], of wood rather than stone, which affected the ultimate

Present St Paul's.

[[File:Giovanni Antonio Canal - The River Thames, detail.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Canaletto]]: "The River Thames with St. Paul's Cathedral on Lord Mayor's Day" (1746; [[Lobkowicz Palace|Lobkowicz Collections]], Prague)]] [[File:Boats on theThames.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|"Boats on the River Thames and St Paul's Cathedral", 1850s]] [[File:St Pauls Cathedral in 1896.JPG|thumb|upright=1.5|right|St Paul's Cathedral in 1896]]  The task of designing a replacement structure was officially assigned to Sir Christopher Wren on 30 July 1669. He had previously been put in charge of the rebuilding of churches to replace those lost in the Great Fire. More than [[List of Christopher Wren churches in London|50 City churches]] are attributable to Wren. Concurrent with designing St Paul's, Wren was engaged in the production of his five "Tracts" on Architecture.  Wren had begun advising on the repair of the "Old St Paul's" in 1661, five years before the fire in 1666. The proposed work included renovations to interior and exterior to complement the [[Classical revival|classical]] facade designed by Inigo Jones in 1630. Wren planned to replace the dilapidated tower with a dome, using the existing structure as a scaffold. He produced

Since 1900.

War damage.

[[File:Stpaulsblitz.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|alt=Black and White photograph of the dome of St Paul's, starkly lit, appearing through billowing clouds of smoke|The iconic "[[St Paul's Survives]]" taken on 29 December 1940 of St Paul's during [[the Blitz]]]] The cathedral survived [[the Blitz]] although struck by bombs on 10 October 1940 and 17 April 1941. The first strike destroyed the high altar, while the second strike on the north transept left a hole in the floor above the crypt. The latter bomb is believed to have detonated in the upper interior above the north transept and the force was sufficient to shift the entire dome laterally by

Post-war.

On 29 July 1981, the [[Wedding of Prince Charles and

Restoration.

Extensive copper, lead and slate renovation work was carried out on the Dome in

Occupy London.

In October 2011 an anti-capitalism [[Occupy London]] encampment was established in front of the cathedral, after failing to gain access to the London Stock Exchange at Paternoster Square nearby. The cathedral's finances were affected by the ensuing closure. It was claimed that the cathedral was losing revenue of £20,000 per day. Canon Chancellor [[Giles Fraser]] resigned, asserting his view that "evicting the anti-capitalist activists would constitute violence in the name of the Church". The [[Dean of St Paul's]], the Right Revd Graeme Knowles, then resigned too. The encampment was evicted at the end of February 2012, by court order and without violence, as a result of legal action by the City Corporation.

Ministry and functions.

St Paul's Cathedral is a busy church with four or five services every day, including [[Matins]], [[Eucharist]] and Evening Prayer or Choral Evensong In addition, the cathedral has many special services associated with the City of London, its corporation, guilds and institutions. The cathedral, as the largest church in London, also has a role in many state functions such as the service celebrating the [[Diamond Jubilee]] of Queen Elizabeth II. The cathedral is generally open daily to tourists and has a regular programme of organ recitals and other performances. The [[Bishop of London]] is [[Sarah Mullally]], whose appointment was announced in December 2017 and whose enthronement took place in May 2018. [[File:Operation Banner Service Held at St Pauls Cathedral in 2008 MOD 45151837.jpg|thumb|upright= 1.25|St Paul's during a special service in 2008]]

Dean and chapter.

The [[cathedral chapter]] is currently composed of seven individuals: the dean, three residentiary canons (one of whom is, exceptionally,

Registrar.

The registrar, Emma Davies from September 2015, is the cathedral's principal administrator and lay officer, and assists the

Director of Music.

The Director of Music is [[Andrew Carwood]]. Carwood was appointed to succeed [[Malcolm Archer]] as Director of Music, taking up the post in September 2007. He is the first non-organist to hold the post since the 12th century.

Organs.

An organ was commissioned from [[Bernard Smith (organ builder)|Bernard Smith]] in 1694.  In 1862 the organ from the [[Panopticon of Science and Art]] (the Panopticon Organ) was installed in a gallery over the south transept door.  The Grand Organ was completed in 1872, and the Panopticon

Choir.

St Paul's Cathedral has a full professional choir, which sings regularly at services. The earliest records of the choir date from 1127. The present choir consist of up to 30 boy choristers, eight probationers and the vicars choral, 12 professional singers. In February 2017 the cathedral announced the appointment of the first female vicar choral, Carris Jones (a mezzo-soprano), to take up the role in September 2017.  During school terms the choir sings at Evensong six times per week, the service on Mondays being sung by a visiting choir (or occasionally said) and that on Thursdays being sung by the vicars choral alone. On Sundays the choir also sings at Mattins and the 11:30 am Eucharist.  Many distinguished musicians have been organists, choir masters and choristers at St Paul's Cathedral, including the composers [[John Redford]], [[Thomas Morley]], [[John Blow]], [[Jeremiah Clarke]], [[Maurice Greene (composer)|Maurice Greene]] and [[John Stainer]], while well-known performers have included [[Alfred Deller]], [[John Shirley-Quirk]] and [[Anthony Way]] as well as the conductors [[Charles Groves]] and [[Paul Hillier]] and the poet [[Walter de la Mare]].

Wren's cathedral.

Development of the design.

In designing St Paul's, Christopher Wren had to meet many challenges. He had to create a fitting cathedral to replace "Old St Paul's", as a place of worship and as a landmark within the City of London. He had to satisfy the requirements of the church and the tastes of a royal patron, as well as respecting the essentially medieval tradition of English church building which developed to accommodate the liturgy. Wren was familiar with contemporary Renaissance and Baroque trends in Italian architecture and had visited

Final design.

The final design as built differs substantially from the official Warrant design. Wren received permission from the king to make "ornamental changes" to the submitted design, and Wren took great advantage of this. Many of these changes were made over the course of the thirty years as the church was constructed, and the most significant was to the dome: "He raised another structure over the first cupola, a cone of brick, so as to support a stone lantern of an elegant figure... And he covered and hid out of sight the brick

Structural engineering.

Wren's challenge was to construct a large cathedral on the relatively weak clay soil of London. St Paul's is unusual among cathedrals in that there is a crypt, the largest in Europe, under the entire building rather than just under the eastern end. The crypt serves a structural purpose. Although it is extensive, half the space of the crypt is taken up by massive piers which spread the weight of the much slimmer piers of the church above. While the towers and domes of most cathedrals are supported on four piers, Wren designed the dome of St Paul's to be supported on eight, achieving a broader distribution of weight at the level of the foundations. The foundations settled as the building progressed, and Wren made structural changes in response.  One of the design problems that confronted Wren was to create a landmark dome, tall enough to visually replace the lost tower of St Paul's, while at the same time appearing visually satisfying when

Designers, builders and craftsmen.

During the extensive period of design and rationalisation Wren employed from 1684 [[Nicholas Hawksmoor]] as his principal assistant. Between 1696 and 1711 [[William Dickinson (architect)|William Dickinson]] was measuring clerk. Joshua Marshall (until his early death in 1678) and Thomas and his brother Edward Strong were master masons, the latter two working on the construction for its entirety. John Langland was the master carpenter for over thirty years. Grinling Gibbons was

Description.

[[File:Sandy Nairne on St Paul’s Cathedral.ogg|thumb|Audio description of the cathedral by [[Sandy Nairne]]]] [[File:St Pauls Picturesque England Laura Valentine 1891.JPG|thumb|upright=1.75|Plan]] St Paul's Cathedral is built in a restrained [[Baroque architecture|Baroque]] style which represents Wren's rationalisation of the traditions of English medieval cathedrals with the inspiration of [[Palladio]], the classical style of Inigo Jones, the baroque style of 17th century Rome, and the buildings by Mansart and others that he had seen in France. It is particularly in its plan that St Paul's reveals medieval influences. Like the great medieval cathedrals of [[York Minster|York]] and [[Winchester Cathedral|Winchester]], St Paul's is comparatively long for its width, and has strongly projecting transepts. It has much emphasis on its facade, which has been designed to define rather than conceal the form of the building behind it. In plan, the towers jut beyond the width of the aisles as they do at [[Wells Cathedral]]. Wren's uncle [[Matthew Wren]] was the [[Bishop of Ely]], and, having worked for his uncle, Wren was familiar with the unique octagonal lantern tower over the crossing of [[Ely Cathedral]], which spans the aisles as well as the central nave, unlike the central towers and domes of most churches. Wren adapted this characteristic in designing the dome of St Paul's. In section St Paul's also maintains a medieval form, having the aisles much lower than the nave, and a defined clerestory.

Exterior.

The most notable exterior feature is the dome, which rises to the cross at its summit, and dominates views of the City. The height of 365 feet is explained by Wren's interest in astronomy. Until the late 20th century St Paul's was the tallest building on the City skyline, designed to be seen surrounded by the delicate spires of Wren's other city churches. The dome is described by Sir [[Sir Banister Fletcher|Banister Fletcher]] as "probably the finest in Europe", by [[Helen Gardner (art historian)|Helen Gardner]] as "majestic", and by Sir [[Nikolaus Pevsner]] as "one of the most perfect in the world". Sir [[John Summerson]] said that Englishmen and "even some foreigners" consider it to be without equal.

Dome.

[[File:St Paul's Cathedral Dome from One New Change - Square Crop.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.13|The dome]]  Wren drew inspiration from Michelangelo's dome of St Peter's Basilica, and that of Mansart's Church of the Val-de-Grâce, which he had visited. Unlike those of St Peter's and Val-de-Grâce, the dome of St Paul's rises in two clearly defined storeys of masonry, which, together with a lower unadorned footing, equal a height of about 95 feet. From the time of the "Greek Cross Design" it is clear that Wren favoured a continuous colonnade ("[[peristyle]]") around the drum of the dome, rather than the arrangement of alternating windows and projecting columns that Michelangelo had used and which had also been employed by Mansart. Summerson suggests that he was influenced by Bramante's "Tempietto" in the courtyard of [[San Pietro in Montorio]]. In the finished structure, Wren creates a diversity and appearance of strength by placing niches

West front.

[[File:St Pauls Cathedral West Front.jpg|thumb|St Pauls Cathedral West Front Dome Street View]] [[File:St Pauls Cathedral from West adj.JPG|thumb|upright=1.25|West Front]] For the Renaissance architect designing the west front of a large church or cathedral, the universal problem was how to use a facade to unite the high central nave with the lower aisles in a visually harmonious whole. Since [[Leon Battista Alberti|Alberti]]'s additions to [[Santa Maria Novella]] in Florence, this was usually achieved by the simple expedient of linking the sides to the centre

Walls.

[[File:St Paul's Cathedral, London, England - Jan 2010 edit.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|St Paul's from the south-east, with the tower of the destroyed Church of [[St Augustine Watling Street|St Augustine, Watling Street]] to the right, now part of [[St Paul's Cathedral School]].]] The building is of two storeys of ashlar masonry, above a basement, and surrounded by a balustrade above the upper cornice. The balustrade was added, against Wren's wishes, in 1718. The internal bays are marked externally by paired pilasters with Corinthian capitals at the lower level and Composite at the upper level. Where the building behind is of only one story (at the aisles of both nave and choir) the upper story of the exterior wall is sham. It serves a dual purpose

Fencing.

The original fencing, designed by Wren, was dismantled in the 1870s. The [[John George Howard|surveyor for the government of Toronto]] had it shipped to Toronto, where it has since adorned [[High Park]].

Interior.

Internally, St Paul's has a nave and choir in each of its three bays. The entrance from the west portico is through a square domed narthex, flanked by chapels: the Chapel of St Dunstan to the north and the Chapel of the Order of St Michael and St George to the south. The nave is in height and is separated from the aisles by an arcade of piers with attached Corinthian pilasters rising to an entablature. The bays, and therefore the vault compartments, are rectangular, but Wren roofed these spaces with saucer-shaped domes and surrounded the [[clerestory]] windows with [[lunettes]]. The vaults of the choir are decorated with mosaics by Sir [[William Blake Richmond]]. The dome and the apse of the choir are all approached through

Dome.

The main internal space of the cathedral is that under the central dome which extends the full width of the nave and aisles. The dome is supported on pendentives rising between eight arches spanning the nave, choir, transepts, and aisles. The eight piers that carry them are not evenly spaced. Wren has maintained an appearance of eight equal spans by inserting segmental arches to carry galleries across the ends of the aisles, and has extended the mouldings of the upper arch to appear equal to the wider arches.  Above the keystones of the arches, at above the floor and wide, runs a cornice which supports the "[[Whispering gallery|Whispering Gallery]]" so called because of its acoustic properties: a whisper or

Apse.

The eastern [[apse]] extends the width of the choir and is the full height of the main arches across choir and nave. It is decorated with mosaics, in keeping with the choir vaults. The original reredos and high altar were destroyed by bombing in 1940. The present high altar and [[baldacchino]] are the work of [[W. Godfrey Allen]] and [[Stephen Dykes Bower]]. The apse was dedicated in 1958 as the American Memorial Chapel. It was paid for entirely by donations from British people. The Roll of Honour contains the names of more than 28,000 Americans who gave their lives while on their way to, or stationed in, the United Kingdom during the Second World War. It is in front of the chapel's altar. The three windows of the apse date from 1960 and depict themes of service and sacrifice, while the insignia around the edges represent the American states and the [[US armed forces]]. The limewood panelling incorporates a rocket—a tribute to America's [[NASA|achievements in space]].

Artworks, tombs and memorials.

St Paul's at the time of its completion, was adorned by sculpture in stone and wood, most notably that of Grinling Gibbons, by the paintings in the dome by Thornhill, and by Jean Tijou's elaborate metalwork. It has been further enhanced by Sir William Richmond's mosaics and the fittings by Dykes Bower and Godfrey Allen. Other artworks in the cathedral include, in the south aisle, [[William Holman Hunt]]'s copy of his painting "[[The Light of the World (painting)|The Light of the World]]", the original of which hangs in [[Keble College]], Oxford.

Clock and bells.

[[File:South west tower of St Paul's Cathedral.jpg|thumb|The south-west tower]] [[File:St Pauls.jpg|left|thumb|The dome and northwest tower from [[Ludgate Hill]], showing the densely developed area in which St. Paul's is located.]] A clock was installed in the south-west tower by Langley Bradley in 1709 but was worn out by the end of the 19th century. The present mechanism was built in 1893 by [[Smith of Derby Group|Smith of Derby]] incorporating a design of escapement by [[Edmund Beckett, 1st Baron Grimthorpe|Edmund Denison Beckett]] similar to that used by [[Edward John Dent|Edward Dent]] on [[Elizabeth Tower|Big Ben]]'s mechanism in 1895. The clock mechanism is long and is the most recent of the clocks introduced to St Paul's Cathedral over the centuries. Since 1969 the clock has been electrically wound with equipment designed and installed by Smith of Derby, relieving the clock custodian from the work of cranking up the heavy drive weights.  The south-west tower also contains four bells, of which Great Paul, cast in 1881 by [[John Taylor & Co|Taylor's bell foundry]] of [[Loughborough]], at was the largest bell in the [[British Isles]] until the casting

Education, tourism and the arts.

[[File:St Paul's cross, London, England, GB, IMG 5127 edit.jpg|thumb|upright|Gilt statue of Saint Paul at the top of [[St Paul's Cross]] in the cathedral precinct]]

Interpretation Project.

The Interpretation Project is a long-term project concerned with bringing St Paul's to life for all its visitors. In 2010, the [[Dean and Chapter of St Paul's]] opened St Paul's Oculus, a 270° film experience that brings 1400 years of history to life. Located in the former Treasury in the crypt, the film takes visitors on a journey through the history and daily life of St Paul's Cathedral. Oculus was funded by American Express Company in partnership with the [[World Monuments Fund]], J. P. Morgan,

Charges for sightseers.

St Paul's charges for the admission of those people who are sightseers, rather than worshippers; the charge is £20 (£17 when purchased online). Outside service times, people seeking a quiet place to pray or worship are admitted to St Dunstan's Chapel free of charge. On Sundays people are admitted only for services and concerts and there is no sightseeing. The charge to sightseers is made because St Paul's receives little regular or significant funding from the Crown, the Church of England or the state and relies on the income generated by tourism to allow the building to continue to function as a centre for Christian worship, as well as to cover general maintenance and repair work.

St Paul's Cathedral Arts Project.

The St Paul’s Cathedral Arts Project explores art and [[faith]]. Projects have included installations by [[Gerry Judah]], [[Antony Gormley]], [[Rebecca Horn]], [[Yoko Ono]] and [[Martin Firrell]].  In 2014, St Paul's commissioned Gerry Judah to create an artwork in the nave to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the beginning of the [[First World War]]. Two spectacular sculptures consisting of three-dimensional white cruciforms reflect the meticulously maintained war graves of northern France and further afield. Each sculpture is also embellished with miniaturised destroyed residential blocks depicting war zones in the Middle East—Syria, Baghdad, Afghanistan—thus connecting 100 years of warfare.  [[Bill Viola]] has created two altarpieces for permanent display in St Paul's Cathedral. The project commenced production in mid-2009. Following the extensive programme of cleaning and repair of the interior of St Paul's, completed in 2005, Viola was commissioned to create two altarpieces on the themes of Mary and Martyrs. These two multi-screen video installations are permanently located at the end of the Quire aisles, flanking the High Altar of the

Depictions of St Paul's.

St Paul's Cathedral has been depicted many times in paintings, prints and drawings. Among the well-known artists to have painted it are Canaletto, Turner, [[Daubigny]], [[Pissarro]], [[Signac]], [[Derain]], and [[Lloyd Rees]].

Photography and film.

St Paul's Cathedral has been the subject of many photographs, most notably the iconic image of the dome surrounded by smoke during the Blitz. It has also been used in films and TV programmes (including [[Thames Television|The Famous Thames Television Ident]]), either as the focus of the film, as in the episode of "Climbing Great Buildings"; as a feature of the film, as in "Mary Poppins"; or as an incidental location such as Wren's Geometric Staircase in the south-west tower which has appeared in several films including "Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban".  Films in which St Paul's has been depicted include:

External links.

[[Category:St Paul's Cathedral| ]] [[Category:604 establishments]] [[Category:Anglican cathedrals in England|Saint Paul's]] [[Category:Christopher Wren church buildings in London]] [[Category:Church buildings with domes]] [[Category:Churches completed in 1708]] [[Category:Churches in the City of London]] [[Category:Diocese of London]] [[Category:English Baroque architecture]] [[Category:Grade I listed cathedrals]] [[Category:Grade I listed churches in the City of London]] [[Category:Nicholas Hawksmoor buildings]] [[Category:Rebuilt churches in the United Kingdom]] [[Category:Tourist attractions in the City of London]]

St Paul's Cathedral is an Anglican cathedral in London, United Kingdom, which, as the "cathedral" of the Bishop of London, serves as the mother church of the Diocese of London. It sits on Ludgate Hill at the highest point of the City of London and is a Grade I listed building. Its dedication to Paul the Apostle dates back to the original church on this site, founded in AD 604. The present cathedral, dating from the late 17th century, was designed in the English Baroque style by Sir Christopher Wren. Its construction, completed in Wren's lifetime, was part of a major rebuilding programme in the City after the Great Fire of London. The cathedral building largely destroyed in the Great Fire, now often referred to as Old St Paul's Cathedral, was a central focus for medieval and early modern London, including Paul's walk and St Paul's Churchyard being the site of St Paul's Cross.

Die St.-Pauls-Kathedrale "(St Paul’s Cathedral)" ist eine Bischofskirche in London. Sie liegt im Stadtbezirk City of London etwa 300 Meter nördlich der Themse und ist Sitz des Bischofs der Diözese London der Church of England. Die St.-Pauls-Kathedrale gehört zu den größten der Welt. Neben der Westminster Abbey gilt sie außerdem als die bekannteste Kirche der britischen Hauptstadt. Der Bau wurde nach 1666 im Stile des klassizistischen Barocks anstelle der beim großen Brand von London zerstörten Kathedrale errichtet.


History.

In the 12th century, a Slavic settlement was located on the site of modern Korolyov. The settlement stood on a junction of trade routes between the Moscow and Vladimir-Suzdal principalities. After the Mongol conquests in the 13th century, the region was in decline.  The village of Podlipki had formed on the site by the 18th century, when one of the first textile factories in Russia was established there.  From the late 19 century, Podlipki was also known as a dacha village frequented by many literali, as can be witnessed by the name of Podlipki-Dachnye railway station. They later moved their dachas to Peredelkino in Moscow's southeastern suburb, when Podlipki became a closed city.  In 1924, the first OGPU working commune in the Soviet Union was established at Podlipki. In 1938, the Kalininsky settlement near an artillery plant (which had previously been relocated from Leningrad to better protect it in case of any future war) was granted town status and named Kaliningrad (meaning Kalinin City, after Mikhail Kalinin; not to be confused with the Baltic port city also renamed Kaliningrad several years later). Over the next three decades the town expanded greatly as a home of rocket manufacturing for both military missiles and the Soviet space program. As such it was a closed city.

Administrative and municipal status.

Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is incorporated as Korolyov City Under Oblast Jurisdiction—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, Korolyov City Under Oblast Jurisdiction is incorporated as Korolyov Urban Okrug.  In June 2014, Yubileyny, Moscow Oblast Town Under Oblast Jurisdiction was merged into Korolyov City Under Oblast Jurisdiction and on the municipal side, Yubileyny Urban Okrug was merged into Korolyov Urban Okrug. The town of Yubileyny ceased to exist as an independent entity.

Demographics.

As of 1 January 2016, Korolyov was in 93 place out of 1112 cities in Russia based on demographics.  On 2 June 2014, the city of Yubileniy officially became a part of Korolyov. With a total population of 220 thousand people, Korolyov became the third largest city in Moscow Oblast based on population after Balashikha (428,400) and Khimki (239 967).

Economy.

The main enterprise of the city is the RKK Energia, but there are several kinds of industry in the city. This naukograd (science city) is the place in which the first Youth Residential Complex in the Soviet Union was built. Another notable company located in the city is OAO Kompozit, which is engaged in the field of materials science.  Today the city is prosperous overall. But in the Soviet-era economy, the city typified the wide contrasts and ironic juxtapositions that arose as some aspects of life were heavily funded by the government while others remained chronically underfunded. Yuri Krotkov described in his 1967 memoir how, at the same time that advanced technology was being built for space rockets, the textile plants of old Podlipki went on for decades with nearly no improvement on their 1920s equipment, and starkly impoverished workers in various hard and glamourless jobs of prerevolutionary days crossed paths, sometimes resentfully, with the skilled technicians and scientists, who were substantially better paid despite the slogans of Soviet ideology around the equal dignity of manual labourers.

Sports.

The bandy club Vympel has played in the Russian Bandy Supreme League, which is the second-highest division. Their home arena has a capacity of 10 000. A plan existed to equip the stadium with artificial ice, but the project has been abandoned. Although an indoor ice hockey-sized arena entered the plans instead, the official reason given was financial problems. Now Vympel only plays in the amateur league of Moscow Oblast. In 2014 a bandy federation for the city was founded.

Notable people.

The area was a place of elite dachas at the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century. Many famous people, such as Konstantin Stanislavsky, Anton Chekhov, Valery Bryusov, Boris Pasternak, Anna Akhmatova, Isaac Levitan, Pavel Tretyakov, Marina Tsvetaeva, and Vladimir Lenin, lived here.

Twin towns and sister cities.

Korolyov is twinned with:

References.

Notes.

↑ Population of Russian Federation by municipality from 1 January 2016. Численность населения Российской Федерации по муниципальным образованиям на 1 января 2016 года. Таблица «31. Численность населения городов и пгт по федеральным округам и субъектам Российской Федерации на 1 января 2016 года». RAR-архив (1,0 Mб)

Korolyov or Korolev () is an industrial city in Moscow Oblast, Russia, well known as the cradle of Soviet and Russian space exploration. As of the 2010 Census, its population was 183,402, the largest as a science city. As of 2018, the population is more than 220,000 people.

Koroljow () ist eine russische Großstadt rund 20 Kilometer nordöstlich von Moskau. Mit Einwohnern (Stand ) ist Koroljow eine der größten Städte der Oblast Moskau. Sie ist benannt nach dem Raketenkonstrukteur Sergei Koroljow.