Etymology.

The word crochet is derived from the Old French "crochet", a diminutive of "croche", in turn from the Germanic "croc", both meaning "hook". It was used in 17th-century French lace-making, where the term "crochetage" designated a stitch used to join separate pieces of lace. The word "crochet" subsequently came to describe both the specific type of textile, and the hooked needle used to produce it.

Origins.

Knitted textiles survive from as early as the 11th century CE, but the first substantive evidence of crocheted fabric emerges in Europe during the 19th century. Earlier work identified as crochet was commonly made by nålebinding, a different looped yarn technique.  The first known published instructions for crochet explicitly using that term to describe the craft in its present sense appeared in the Dutch magazine "Penélopé" in 1823. This includes a colour plate showing five styles of purse, of which three were intended to be crocheted with silk thread. The first is "simple open crochet" ("crochet simple ajour"), a mesh of chain-stitch arches. The second (illustrated here) starts in a semi-open form ("demi jour"), where chain-stitch arches alternate with equally long segments of slip-stitch crochet, and closes with a star made with "double-crochet stitches" ("dubbelde hekelsteek": double-crochet in British terminology; single-crochet in US). The third purse is made entirely in double-crochet. The instructions prescribe the use of a tambour needle (as illustrated below) and introduce a number of decorative techniques.  The earliest dated reference in English to garments made of cloth produced by looping yarn with a hook—"shepherd's knitting"—is in "The Memoirs of a Highland Lady" by Elizabeth Grant (1797–1830). The journal entry, itself, is dated 1812 but was not recorded in its subsequently published form until some time between 1845 and 1867, and the actual date of publication was first in 1898. Nonetheless, the 1833 volume of "Penélopé" describes and illustrates a shepherd's hook, and recommends its use for crochet with coarser yarn.  In 1844, one of the numerous books discussing crochet that began to appear in the 1840s states:  Two years later, the same author writes:  An instruction book from 1846 describes "Shepherd or single crochet" as what in current British usage is either called single crochet or slip-stitch crochet, with U.S. American terminology always using the latter (reserving single crochet for use as noted above). It similarly equates "Double" and "French crochet". Notwithstanding the categorical assertion of a purely British origin, there is solid evidence of a connection between French tambour embroidery and crochet. French tambour embroidery was illustrated in detail in 1763 in Diderot's Encyclopedia. The tip of the needle shown there is indistinguishable from that of a present-day inline crochet hook and the chain stitch separated from a cloth support is a fundamental element of the latter technique. The 1823 "Penélopé" instructions unequivocally state that the tambour tool was used for crochet and the first of the 1840s instruction books uses the terms "tambour" and "crochet" as synonyms. This equivalence is retained in the 4th edition of that work, 1847. The strong taper of the shepherd's hook eases the production of slip-stitch crochet but is less amenable to stitches that require multiple loops on the hook at the same time. Early yarn hooks were also continuously tapered but gradually enough to accommodate multiple loops. The design with a cylindrical shaft that is commonplace today was largely reserved for tambour-style steel needles. Both types gradually merged into the modern form that appeared toward the end of the 19th century, including both tapered and cylindrical segments, and the continuously tapered bone hook remained in industrial production until World War II.  The early instruction books make frequent reference to the alternative use of 'ivory, bone, or wooden hooks' and'steel needles in a handle', as appropriate to the stitch being made. Taken with the synonymous labeling of shepherd's- and single crochet, and the similar equivalence of French- and double crochet, there is a strong suggestion that crochet is rooted both in tambour embroidery and shepherd's knitting, leading to thread and yarn crochet respectively; a distinction that is still made. The locus of the fusion of all these elements—the "invention" noted above—has yet to be determined, as does the origin of shepherd's knitting.  Shepherd's hooks are still being made for local slip-stitch crochet traditions. The form in the accompanying photograph is typical for contemporary production. A longer continuously tapering design intermediate between it and the 19th-century tapered hook was also in earlier production, commonly being made from the handles of forks and spoons.

Irish crochet.

In the 19th century, as Ireland was facing the Great Irish Famine (1845–1849), crochet lace work was introduced as a form of famine relief (the production of crocheted lace being an alternative way of making money for impoverished Irish workers). Men, women, children joined a cooperative in order to crochet and produce products to help with famine relief during the Great Irish Famine. Schools to teach crocheting were started. Teachers were trained and sent across Ireland to teach this craft. When the Irish immigrated to the Americas, they were able to take with them crocheting. Mademoiselle Riego de la Blanchardiere is generally credited with the invention of Irish Crochet, publishing the first book of patterns in 1846. Irish lace became popular in Europe and America, and was made in quantity until the first World War.

Modern practice and culture.

Fashions in crochet changed with the end of the Victorian era in the 1890s. Crocheted laces in the new Edwardian era, peaking between 1910 and 1920, became even more elaborate in texture and complicated stitching. The strong Victorian colours disappeared, though, and new publications called for white or pale threads, except for fancy purses, which were often crocheted of brightly colored silk and elaborately beaded. After World War I, far fewer crochet patterns were published, and most of them were simplified versions of the early 20th-century patterns. After World War II, from the late 1940s until the early 1960s, there was a resurgence in interest in home crafts, particularly in the United States, with many new and imaginative crochet designs published for colorful doilies, potholders, and other home items, along with updates of earlier publications. These patterns called for thicker threads and yarns than in earlier patterns and included wonderful variegated colors. The craft remained primarily a homemaker's art until the late 1960s and early 1970s, when the new generation picked up on crochet and popularized granny squares, a motif worked in the round and incorporating bright colors. Although crochet underwent a subsequent decline in popularity, the early 21st century has seen a revival of interest in handcrafts and DIY, as well as great strides in improvement of the quality and varieties of yarn. There are many more new pattern books with modern patterns being printed, and most yarn stores now offer crochet lessons in addition to the traditional knitting lessons. There are many books you can purchase from local book stores to teach yourself how to crochet whether it be as a beginner or intermediate. There are also many books for children and teenagers who are hoping to take up the hobby. Filet crochet, Tunisian crochet, tapestry crochet, broomstick lace, hairpin lace, cro-hooking, and Irish crochet are all variants of the basic crochet method.  Crochet has experienced a revival on the catwalk as well. Christopher Kane's Fall 2011 Ready-to-Wear collection makes intensive use of the granny square, one of the most basic of crochet motifs. In addition, crochet has been utilized many times by designers on the popular reality show "Project Runway". Websites such as Etsy and Ravelry have made it easier for individual hobbyists to sell and distribute their patterns or projects across the internet.  Laneya Wiles released a music video titled "Straight Hookin'" which makes a play on the word "hookers," which has a double meaning for both "one who crochets" and "a prostitute."

Materials.

Basic materials required for crochet are a hook and some type of material that will be crocheted, most commonly yarn or thread. Yarn, one of the most commonly used materials for crocheting, has varying weights which need to be taken into consideration when following patterns. Additional tools are convenient for keeping stitches counted, measuring crocheted fabric, or making related accessories. Examples include cardboard cutouts, which can be used to make tassels, fringe, and many other items; a pom-pom circle, used to make pom-poms; a tape measure and a gauge measure, both used for measuring crocheted work and counting stitches; a row counter; and occasionally plastic rings, which are used for special projects. In recent years, yarn selections have moved beyond synthetic and plant and animal-based fibers to include bamboo, qiviut, hemp, and banana stalks, to name a few. Many advanced crocheters have also incorporated recycled materials into their work in an effort to "go green" and experiment with new textures by using items such as plastic bags, old t-shirts or sheets, VCR or Cassette tape, and ribbon.

Crochet hook.

The crochet hook comes in many sizes and materials, such as bone, bamboo, aluminium, plastic, and steel. Because sizing is categorized by the diameter of the hook's shaft, a crafter aims to create stitches of a certain size in order to reach a particular gauge specified in a given pattern. If gauge is not reached with one hook, another is used until the stitches made are the needed size. Crafters may have a preference for one type of hook material over another due to aesthetic appeal, yarn glide, or hand disorders such as arthritis, where bamboo or wood hooks are favored over metal for the perceived warmth and flexibility during use. Hook grips and ergonomic hook handles are also available to assist crafters.  Steel crochet hooks range in size from 0.4 to 3.5 millimeters, or from 00 to 16 in American sizing. These hooks are used for fine crochet work such as doilies and lace.  Aluminium, bamboo, and plastic crochet hooks are available from 2.5 to 19 millimeters in size, or from B to S in American sizing.  Artisan-made hooks are often made of hand-turned woods, sometimes decorated with semi-precious stones or beads.  Crochet hooks used for Tunisian crochet are elongated and have a stopper at the end of the handle, while double-ended crochet hooks have a hook on both ends of the handle. There is also a double hooked apparatus called a Cro-hook that has become popular.  A hairpin loom is often used to create lacy and long stitches, known as hairpin lace. While this is not in itself a hook, it is a device used in conjunction with a crochet hook to produce stitches.  See : List of United States standard crochet hook and knitting needle sizes

Yarn.

Yarn for crochet is usually sold as balls or skeins (hanks), although it may also be wound on spools or cones. Skeins and balls are generally sold with a "yarn band", a label that describes the yarn's weight, length, dye lot, fiber content, washing instructions, suggested needle size, likely gauge, etc. It is a common practice to save the yarn band for future reference, especially if additional skeins must be purchased. Crocheters generally ensure that the yarn for a project comes from a single dye lot. The dye lot specifies a group of skeins that were dyed together and thus have precisely the same color; skeins from different dye lots, even if very similar in color, are usually slightly different and may produce a visible stripe when added onto existing work. If insufficient yarn of a single dye lot is bought to complete a project, additional skeins of the same dye lot can sometimes be obtained from other yarn stores or online.  The thickness or weight of the yarn is a significant factor in determining how many stitches and rows are required to cover a given area for a given stitch pattern. This is also termed the gauge. Thicker yarns generally require large-diameter crochet hooks, whereas thinner yarns may be crocheted with thick or thin hooks. Hence, thicker yarns generally require fewer stitches, and therefore less time, to work up a given project. The recommended gauge for a given ball of yarn can be found on the label that surrounds the skein when buying in stores. Patterns and motifs are coarser with thicker yarns and produce bold visual effects, whereas thinner yarns are best for refined or delicate pattern-work. Yarns are standardly grouped by thickness into six categories: superfine, fine, light, medium, bulky and superbulky. Quantitatively, thickness is measured by the number of wraps per inch (WPI). The related "weight per unit length" is usually measured in tex or denier.  Before use, hanks are wound into balls in which the yarn emerges from the center, making crocheting easier by preventing the yarn from becoming easily tangled. The winding process may be performed by hand or done with a ballwinder and swift.  A yarn's usefulness is judged by several factors, such as its "loft" (its ability to trap air), its "resilience" (elasticity under tension), its washability and colorfastness, its "hand" (its feel, particularly softness vs. scratchiness), its durability against abrasion, its resistance to pilling, its "hairiness" (fuzziness), its tendency to twist or untwist, its overall weight and drape, its blocking and felting qualities, its comfort (breathability, moisture absorption, wicking properties) and its appearance, which includes its color, sheen, smoothness and ornamental features. Other factors include allergenicity, speed of drying, resistance to chemicals, moths, and mildew, melting point and flammability, retention of static electricity, and the propensity to accept dyes. Desirable properties may vary for different projects, so there is no one "best" yarn. Although crochet may be done with ribbons, metal wire or more exotic filaments, most yarns are made by spinning fibers. In spinning, the fibers are twisted so that the yarn resists breaking under tension; the twisting may be done in either direction, resulting in a Z-twist or S-twist yarn. If the fibers are first aligned by combing them and the spinner uses a worsted type drafting method such as the short forward draw, the yarn is smoother and called a "worsted"; by contrast, if the fibers are carded but not combed and the spinner uses a woolen drafting method such as the long backward draw, the yarn is fuzzier and called "woolen-spun". The fibers making up a yarn may be continuous "filament" fibers such as silk and many synthetics, or they may be "staples" (fibers of an average length, typically a few inches); naturally filament fibers are sometimes cut up into staples before spinning. The strength of the spun yarn against breaking is determined by the amount of twist, the length of the fibers and the thickness of the yarn. In general, yarns become stronger with more twist (also called "worst"), longer fibers and thicker yarns (more fibers); for example, thinner yarns require more twist than do thicker yarns to resist breaking under tension. The thickness of the yarn may vary along its length; a "slub" is a much thicker section in which a mass of fibers is incorporated into the yarn.  The spun fibers are generally divided into animal fibers, plant and synthetic fibers. These fiber types are chemically different, corresponding to proteins, carbohydrates and synthetic polymers, respectively. Animal fibers include silk, but generally are long hairs of animals such as sheep (wool), goat (angora, or cashmere goat), rabbit (angora), llama, alpaca, dog, cat, camel, yak, and muskox (qiviut). Plants used for fibers include cotton, flax (for linen), bamboo, ramie, hemp, jute, nettle, raffia, yucca, coconut husk, banana trees, soy and corn. Rayon and acetate fibers are also produced from cellulose mainly derived from trees. Common synthetic fibers include acrylics, polyesters such as dacron and ingeo, nylon and other polyamides, and olefins such as polypropylene. Of these types, wool is generally favored for crochet, chiefly owing to its superior elasticity, warmth and (sometimes) felting; however, wool is generally less convenient to clean and some people are allergic to it. It is also common to blend different fibers in the yarn, e.g., 85% alpaca and 15% silk. Even within a type of fiber, there can be great variety in the length and thickness of the fibers; for example, Merino wool and Egyptian cotton are favored because they produce exceptionally long, thin (fine) fibers for their type.  A single spun yarn may be crochet as is, or braided or plied with another. In plying, two or more yarns are spun together, almost always in the opposite sense from which they were spun individually; for example, two Z-twist yarns are usually plied with an S-twist. The opposing twist relieves some of the yarns' tendency to curl up and produces a thicker, "balanced" yarn. Plied yarns may themselves be plied together, producing "cabled yarns" or "multi-stranded yarns". Sometimes, the yarns being plied are fed at different rates, so that one yarn loops around the other, as in bouclé. The single yarns may be dyed separately before plying, or afterwards to give the yarn a uniform look.  The dyeing of yarns is a complex art. Yarns need not be dyed; or they may be dyed one color, or a great variety of colors. Dyeing may be done industrially, by hand or even hand-painted onto the yarn. A great variety of synthetic dyes have been developed since the synthesis of indigo dye in the mid-19th century; however, natural dyes are also possible, although they are generally less brilliant. The color-scheme of a yarn is sometimes called its colorway. Variegated yarns can produce interesting visual effects, such as diagonal stripes.

Process.

Crocheted fabric is begun by placing a slip-knot loop on the hook (though other methods, such as a magic ring or simple folding over of the yarn may be used), pulling another loop through the first loop, and repeating this process to create a chain of a suitable length. The chain is either turned and worked in rows, or joined to the beginning of the row with a slip stitch and worked in rounds. Rounds can also be created by working many stitches into a single loop. Stitches are made by pulling one or more loops through each loop of the chain. At any one time at the end of a stitch, there is only one loop left on the hook. Tunisian crochet, however, draws all of the loops for an entire row onto a long hook before working them off one at a time. Like knitting, crochet can be worked either flat (back and forth in rows) or in the round (in spirals, such as when making tubular pieces).

Types of stitches.

There are five main types of basic stitches (the following description uses US crochet terminology which differs from the terminology used in the UK and Europe).  While the horizontal distance covered by these basic stitches is the same, they differ in height and thickness.  The more advanced stitches are often combinations of these basic stitches, or are made by inserting the hook into the work in unusual locations. More advanced stitches include the "shell stitch", "V stitch", "spike stitch", "Afghan stitch", "butterfly stitch", "popcorn stitch", "cluster stitch", and "crocodile stitch".

International crochet terms and notations.

In the English-speaking crochet world, basic stitches have different names that vary by country. The differences are usually referred to as UK/US or British/American. Crochet is traditionally worked off a written pattern in which stitches and placement are communicated using textual abbreviations. To help counter confusion when reading patterns, a diagramming system using a standard international notation has come into use (illustration, left).  Another terminological difference is known as "tension" (UK) and "gauge" (US). Individual crocheters work yarn with a loose or a tight hold and, if unmeasured, these differences can lead to significant size changes in finished garments that have the same number of stitches. In order to control for this inconsistency, printed crochet instructions include a standard for the number of stitches across a standard swatch of fabric. An individual crocheter begins work by producing a test swatch and compensating for any discrepancy by changing to a smaller or larger hook. North Americans call this "gauge", referring to the end result of these adjustments; British crocheters speak of "tension", which refers to the crafter's grip on the yarn while producing stitches.

Differences from and similarities to knitting.

One of the more obvious differences is that crochet uses one hook while much knitting uses two needles. In most crochet, the artisan usually has only one live stitch on the hook (with the exception being Tunisian crochet), while a knitter keeps an entire row of stitches active simultaneously. Dropped stitches, which can unravel a knitted fabric, rarely interfere with crochet work, due to a second structural difference between knitting and crochet. In knitting, each stitch is supported by the corresponding stitch in the row above and it supports the corresponding stitch in the row below, whereas crochet stitches are only supported by and support the stitches on either side of it. If a stitch in a finished crocheted item breaks, the stitches above and below remain intact, and because of the complex looping of each stitch, the stitches on either side are unlikely to come loose unless heavily stressed.  Round or cylindrical patterns are simple to produce with a regular crochet hook, but cylindrical knitting requires either a set of circular needles or three to five special double-ended needles. Many crocheted items are composed of individual motifs which are then joined together, either by sewing or crocheting, whereas knitting is usually composed of one fabric, such as entrelac.  Freeform crochet is a technique that can create interesting shapes in three dimensions because new stitches can be made independently of previous stitches almost anywhere in the crocheted piece. It is generally accomplished by building shapes or structural elements onto existing crocheted fabric at any place the crafter desires.  Knitting can be accomplished by machine, while many crochet stitches can only be crafted by hand. The height of knitted and crocheted stitches is also different: a single crochet stitch is twice the height of a knit stitch in the same yarn size and comparable diameter tools, and a double crochet stitch is about four times the height of a knit stitch.  While most crochet is made with a hook, there is also a method of crocheting with a knitting loom. This is called "loomchet". Slip stitch crochet is very similar to knitting. Each stitch in slip stitch crochet is formed the same way as a knit or purl stitch which is then bound off. A person working in slip stitch crochet can follow a knitted pattern with knits, purls, and cables, and get a similar result.  It is a common perception that crochet produces a thicker fabric than knitting, tends to have less "give" than knitted fabric, and uses approximately a third more yarn for a comparable project than knitted items. Although this is true when comparing a single crochet swatch with a stockinette swatch, both made with the same size yarn and needle/hook, it is not necessarily true for crochet in general. Most crochet uses far less than 1/3 more yarn than knitting for comparable pieces, and a crocheter can get similar feel and drape to knitting by using a larger hook or thinner yarn. Tunisian crochet and slip stitch crochet can in some cases use less yarn than knitting for comparable pieces. According to sources claiming to have tested the 1/3 more yarn assertion, a single crochet stitch (sc) uses approximately the same amount of yarn as knit garter stitch, but more yarn than stockinette stitch. Any stitch using yarnovers uses less yarn than single crochet to produce the same amount of fabric. Cluster stitches, which are in fact multiple stitches worked together, will use the most length.  Standard crochet stitches like sc and dc also produce a thicker fabric, more like knit garter stitch. This is part of why they use more yarn. Slip stitch can produce a fabric much like stockinette that is thinner and therefore uses less yarn.  Any yarn can be either knitted or crocheted, provided needles or hooks of the correct size are used, but the cord's properties should be taken into account. For example, lofty, thick woolen yarns tend to function better when knitted, which does not crush their airy structure, while thin and tightly spun yarn helps to achieve the firm texture required for Amigurumi crochet.

Charity.

It has been very common for people and groups to crochet clothing and other garments and then donate them to soldiers during war. People have also crocheted clothing and then donated it to hospitals, for sick patients and also for newborn babies. Sometimes groups will crochet for a specific charity purpose, such as crocheting for homeless shelters, nursing homes, etc.  It is becoming increasingly popular to crochet hats (commonly referred to as "chemo caps") and donate them to cancer treatment centers, for those undergoing chemotherapy and therefore losing hair. During October pink hats and scarves are made and proceeds are donated to breast cancer funds. Organizations dedicated to using crochet as a way to help others include Knots of Love, Crochet for Cancer, and Soldiers' Angels. These organizations offer warm useful items for people in need.

Health benefits.

Crocheting and other forms of needlecraft or handicraft are proven to have several health benefits including reducing stress and anxiety. Studies show that the constant repetition of hand movement helps keep the mind calm and distracts the brain from the stresses of life. When crocheting, the brain releases serotonin that helps calm the mind and improve mood. Crocheting and similar activities are shown to improve Alzheimer's disease, insomnia, and depression. The colors and textures of the yarn are usually pleasing to the senses, and the finished product can give a person a sense of accomplishment.

Literacy.

Some elementary school teachers have used crocheting to enhance their students' literacy skills. Crocheting can help young children with fine motor skills (such as handwriting). Learning to crochet in a literary setting encourages young children to stay focused, multitask better, and be more excited about school. This fun yet challenging skill can in the process teach students to have better social skills in their community, with their peers, and with their families.

Mathematics and hyperbolic crochet.

Crochet has been used to illustrate shapes in hyperbolic space that are difficult to reproduce using other media or are difficult to understand when viewed two-dimensionally.  Mathematician Daina Taimiņa first used crochet in 1997 to create strong, durable models of hyperbolic space after finding paper models were delicate and hard to create. These models enable one to turn, fold, and otherwise manipulate space to more fully grasp ideas such as how a line can appear curved in hyperbolic space yet actually be straight. Her work received an exhibition by the Institute For Figuring. Examples in nature of organisms that show hyperbolic structures include lettuces, sea slugs, flatworms and coral. Margaret Wertheim and Christine Wertheim of the Institute For Figuring created a travelling art installation of a coral reef using Taimina's method. Local artists are encouraged to create their own "satellite reefs" to be included alongside the original display.  As hyperbolic and mathematics-based crochet has continued to become more popular, there have been several events highlighting work from various fiber artists. Two such shows include Sant Ocean Hall at the Smithsonian in Washington D.C. and Sticks, Hooks, and the Mobius: Knit and Crochet Go Cerebral at Lafayette College in Pennsylvania.

Architecture.

In "Style in the technical arts", Gottfried Semper looks at the textile with great promise and historical precedent. In Section 53, he writes of the "loop stitch, or Noeud Coulant: a knot that, if untied, causes the whole system to unravel." In the same section, Semper confesses his ignorance of the subject of crochet but believes strongly that it is a technique of great value as a textile technique and possibly something more.  There are a small number of architects currently interested in the subject of crochet as it relates to architecture. The following publications, explorations and thesis projects can be used as a resource to see how crochet is being used within the capacity of architecture.

Yarn bombing.

In the past few years, a practice called yarn bombing, or the use of knitted or crocheted cloth to modify and beautify one's (usually outdoor) surroundings, emerged in the US and spread worldwide. Yarn bombers sometimes target existing pieces of graffiti for beautification. In 2010, an entity dubbed "the Midnight Knitter" hit West Cape May. Residents awoke to find knit cozies hugging tree branches and sign poles. In September 2015, Grace Brett was named "The World's Oldest Yarn Bomber". She is part of a group of yarn graffiti-artists called the Souter Stormers, who beautify their local town in Scotland.

Crochet (; ) is a process of creating textiles by using a crochet hook to interlock loops of yarn, thread, or strands of other materials. The name is derived from the French term "crochet", meaning'small hook'. Hooks can be made from a variety of materials, such as metal, wood, bamboo, or plastic. The key difference between crochet and knitting, beyond the implements used for their production, is that each stitch in crochet is completed before the next one is begun, while knitting keeps many stitches open at a time. Some variant forms of crochet, such as Tunisian crochet and broomstick lace, do keep multiple crochet stitches open at a time.

Häkeln ist eine Methode der Textilverarbeitung, bei der mit Faden und Häkelnadel Maschen erzeugt und miteinander verknüpft werden. Im Unterschied zur glatten Stricknadel hat die Häkelnadel an ihrer Spitze einen Haken. Mit Hilfe dieses Hakens ist es möglich, den Faden durch bereits gearbeitete Maschen zu ziehen und damit ein zusammenhängendes Maschengebilde zu erzeugen.


History.

The government of North Rhine-Westphalia decided in 1988 to carry out the IBA Emscher Park to achieve a paradigm shift from the “rust belt” towards a green, modern and wealthy metropolitan area. In the past the regions who had carried out an Internationale Bauausstellung (Darmstadt 1901, Leipzig 1913, Stuttgart 1927, Berlin 1957 and 1984) mainly aimed at architectural improvements and highlights, whereas the IBA Emscher Park aimed a holistic approach by restructuring a former industrial region, the Ruhr, with outstanding urbanistic, architectural, cultural, ecological and economic incentives. In the 1980s, the Ruhr region faced growing unemployment rates as a result of the shutdown of most mines and many steel works, environmental problems especially regarding brownfields and waste land and the river Emscher system. The IBA programme therefore was covering 7 general principles to overcome the structural difficulties:

The 7 general principles details.

The intention of the IBA Emscher Park was to develop in parallel structural changes covering the whole area and to initiate lighthouse projects that work as local stimulation and attract attention. The region was suffering from its image as rust belt for more than a hundred years and even though a lot of green spaces and landscape existed this was not highlighted before and made the region – a misgiving of the government – not attractive for investments or long-term improvements. The time stretch of 10 years (1989-1999) was chosen to create changes that do not only present single solutions on buildings but to enable public partners to activate complex interdisciplinary planning processes that work in the long run. Moreover, the processes partly were organized in a way that projects like the restoration of the Emscher system were scheduled to last up to the year 2025. The initiators of the IBA were aiming at changes to become deeply rooted in regional planning culture.

Reconstruction of landscape – the Emscher Landscape Park.

The Emscher Landscape Park was identified to be the 800 km2 of “open space” in the region – agricultural land, forests, brownfields with plant carpet, vegetation at railway embankments, slag heaps, and other more or less green structures. The classical meaning of a park was not visible here, so the aim was to connect fragmented green structures, develop new ones and make the open spaces accessible for public. For example, within the Emscher Landscape Park a huge number of previous railway lines were located that lost their meaning and function with the decline of the mines. With support of the IBA and public funding these railway dams were converted to work as regional bike path network. The Kommunalverband Ruhrgebiet (today Regionalverband Ruhrgebiet, RVR) took over the responsibility for the development and coordination of the Emscher Landscape Park and worked in cooperation with the municipalities in 7 “sub-parks” (green belts A to G), with Emschergenossenschaft and Lippeverband and other public players like the owner of slag heaps RAG AG on the quality and quantity of green connections. From 1991 on the government of North Rhine-Westphalia supported the Emscher Landscape Park projects with the “Ökologieprogramm Emscher-Lippe”, a funding instrument fed by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) and Federal State funds, co-financing measures with 80% to 90%. Within 20 years (1991 – 2010) around 680 Mio. € funding have been invested in more than 400 Emscher Landscape Park projects, mainly by municipalities and RVR. The Regionalverband Ruhrgebiet is still responsible and caring for the Emscher Landschaftspark.

Ecological restoration of the river Emscher system.

The river Emscher with its approximately 80 km and some hundred kilometres of tributaries was since the 19th century a symbol for the rust belt and ecological problems as the network was working like an open waste water collection and discharge system. The construction of “normal” sewers was in most areas impossible due to mining-induced subsidence. With the decline of the mines the Emschergenossenschaft started in the 1980s first tests for restoration and with the beginning of the IBA processes the Emschergenossenschaft set up a programme for pilot projects. Besides the very technical measures (construction of new decentralised waste water treatment plants, construction of about 350 km of new sewers) it was necessary to start as well with the renaturation of open water courses to show the ecological potential and urban development chances such projects can bring. One of the very first IBA projects was the 9 km Dorneburger Mühlenbach/Hüller Bach in Bochum, jointly developed by the Emschergenossenschaft and the municipality of Bochum in cooperation with neighbouring cities and many private land owners. Regarding the above-mentioned effects for investments and structural changes in the long run the restoration was for example leading to the construction of a new quarter at the banks. In the frame of the IBA the Emschergenossenschaft started to change the waste water fee system. It was the first catchment area in Germany that had a split of the fees, charging both for domestic waste water and paved areas with the consequence that disconnection and infiltration of rain water from roofs etc. was economically interesting for everybody.

Rhein-Herne Canal – an adventure space.

The 46 km Rhein-Herne Canal had been developed from 1906 to 1914 to support the trade of coal and steel in the growing Ruhr region. With the decline of the mines it lost a little its meaning and many ancient harbours had not been used for commercial purposes any more. The IBA idea was to use the former industrial harbours for new uses and initiate waterfront architecture, combined with leisure and ecological qualities. The legal frame was partly complicated as the artificial shipping canals are legally handled like a “motorway for ships” and not like rivers, so permissions and uses are very regulated. Nevertheless, many improved leisure uses, bike paths and a couple of new buildings were established, for example at Stadthafen Recklinghausen or the new city quarter at harbour Bismarck in Gelsenkirchen Further changes will appear when the canal and its locks are widened until 2025 to be adapted to modern push boats.

Industrial cultural heritage as national treasure.

Industrial cultural heritage was a challenging IBA topic as it dealt with many deserted mine buildings and technical equipment that was no longer needed and used. Therefore, on the one hand (public) funding to restore these buildings and on the other hand a follow-up application was needed to manage the cultural heritage successfully. The IBA initiators aimed at creating identification and a unique atmosphere by restoring and presenting the relicts of the 150 years industry history. The idea behind was that all other metropolitan regions have special features that form images and identification – internally for the inhabitants as well as for tourists and visitors. Besides many smaller buildings that are often used for businesses or administrations now some of the large sites managed to fulfil the expectations. Industrial relicts like Gasometer Oberhausen, Jahrhunderthalle Bochum or Landschaftspark Duisburg-Nord are today very popular sites with millions of visitors.

Working in the park.

Increasing unemployment rates especially regarding the former primary sector, influx of the population into the city districts after German reunification and the structural changes in general after the pull-out of the industrial sector asked for new solutions on working places. The idea of “working in the park” meant that former mine or steel sites should be redeveloped to attractive, green and modern working places in combination with cultural heritage if possible. The development of these sites was often asking for environmental remediation and innovative ideas on how to deal with surface water (that should not infiltrate through polluted soil). Projects like in Bochum “Ökologischer Gewerbepark Zeche Holland” with outstanding stormwater management systems or the business park on the former coal mine Erin in Castrop-Rauxel with the polluted soil being encapsulated in pyramids show some of the innovative approaches.

New forms of houses and housing.

The search for “new” forms of houses and living together was partly a kind of “back to the roots” as the historical settlements like mine owners and steel companies had created for their workers were becoming very popular again. Beautiful settlements were restored and partly new houses were adapted that followed the rules of former architects and spatial planners. The garden city ideal can be seen today in settlements like in Herne, or in Bottrop at Gartenstadt Welheim. The Gelsenkirchen project “Siedlung Küppersbusch” tried to realize the historical garden city approach in a completely new developed settlement on a previous industrial site.

New options for social, cultural and sports activities.

The idea behind this cross-cut topic was to offer new kinds of employment or chances to spend leisure time due to the ongoing reduction of working lifetime. Garden plots or aspects of “urban gardening” were discussed additionally to the Emscher Landscape Park offers and the cultural events that came up in combination with the orchestration of cultural heritage.

Participants.

The management of the IBA Emscher Park was carried out by a public body (Planungsgesellschaft IBA Emscher Park GmbH) that coordinated the municipal participants and other public and private bodies. The involved cities were Dortmund, Kamen, Bergkamen, Waltrop, Lünen, Castrop-Rauxel, Recklinghausen, Herten, Herne, Bochum, Essen, Mülheim, Gelsenkirchen, Gladbeck, Bottrop, Oberhausen and Duisburg. Supporting partners were Emschergenossenschaft and Lippeverband, Kommunalverband Ruhrgebiet, Deutsche Bahn, RAG AG and many other local partners. Within the cities more than 100 large projects were carried out.

The Internationale Bauausstellung Emscher Park (IBA Emscher Park) or International Architecture Exhibition Emscher Park was a programme for structural changes in the so-called German Ruhr region from 1989 to 1999 in order to show new concepts in terms of social, cultural and ecologic ideas.

Die Internationale Bauausstellung Emscher Park (IBA Emscher Park) war ein auf zehn Jahre angelegtes Zukunftsprogramm des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen zur Bewältigung der Strukturkrise im nördlichen Ruhrgebiet. Sie begann am 21. April 1989; ihre Tätigkeit endete 1999. Sie trug entscheidend zu einem neuen Selbstbewusstsein der Region bei.


Plot.

Following the ousting of the central government in 1993 amid the civil war in Somalia, the United Nations Security Council authorizes a military operation with a peacekeeping mandate. After the bulk of the peacekeepers withdraw, the Mogadishu-based militia loyal to Mohamed Farrah Aidid declares war on the remaining UN personnel. In response, the U.S. Army deploys three of its special operations forces – 75th Rangers, Delta Force counter-terror operators, and 160th SOAR - Night Stalkers aviators – to Mogadishu to capture Aidid, who has proclaimed himself president.  To consolidate his power and subdue the population in the south, Aidid and his militia seize Red Cross food shipments. The UN forces are powerless to intervene directly. Outside Mogadishu, Rangers and Delta Force capture Osman Ali Atto, a faction leader selling arms to Aidid's militia. The US then plans a mission to capture Omar Salad Elmi and Abdi Hassan Awale Qeybdiid, two of Aidid's top advisers.  The U.S. forces include experienced men as well as new recruits, including 18-year-old Private First Class Todd Blackburn and Specialist John Grimes, a desk clerk. Staff Sergeant Matthew Eversmann receives his first command, of Ranger Chalk Four, after his lieutenant suffers a seizure. Eversmann responds to mocking remarks about Somalis from fellow soldiers by saying he respects the Somalis and has compassion for the terrible conditions of civil war for the Somali people, saying there are two things we can do, "We can help, or we can sit back and watch a country destroy itself on CNN."  The operation begins, and Delta Force operators capture Aidid's advisers inside the target building, while the Rangers and helicopters escorting the ground-extraction convoy take heavy fire. Blackburn is severely injured when he falls from one of the Black Hawk helicopters, so three Humvees led by Staff Sergeant Jeff Struecker are detached from the convoy to return Blackburn to the UN-held Mogadishu Airport.  Sergeant Dominick Pilla is shot and killed just as Struecker's column departs, and shortly thereafter Black Hawk "Super Six-One", piloted by Chief Warrant Officer Clifton "Elvis" Wolcott, is shot down by a rocket-propelled grenade. Wolcott and his co-pilot are killed, the two crew chiefs are wounded, and one Delta Force sniper on board, Busch, escapes in an MH-6 Little Bird helicopter but dies later from his wounds.  The ground forces are rerouted to converge on the crash site. The Somali militia erects roadblocks, and Lieutenant Colonel Danny McKnight's Humvee column is unable to reach the crash area and sustains heavy casualties. Meanwhile, two Ranger Chalks, including Eversmann's unit, reach "Super-Six One"s crash site and set up a defensive perimeter to await evacuation with the two wounded men and the fallen pilots. In the interim, "Super Six-Four", piloted by Chief Warrant Officer Michael Durant, is also shot down by a rocket-propelled grenade and crashes several blocks away.  With Captain Mike Steele's Rangers pinned down and sustaining heavy casualties, no ground forces can reach "Super Six-Four"s crash site nor reinforce the Rangers defending "Super Six-One". Two Delta Force snipers, Sergeant First Class Randy Shughart and Master Sergeant Gary Gordon, are inserted by helicopter to "Super Six-Four"s crash site, where they find Durant still alive. The site is eventually overrun, Gordon and Shughart are killed, and Durant is captured by Aidid's militia.  McKnight's column relinquishes their attempt to reach "Six-One"s crash site, and returns to base with their prisoners and the casualties. The men prepare to go back to extract the Rangers and the fallen pilots, and Major General Garrison sends Lieutenant Colonel Joe Cribbs to ask for reinforcements from the 10th Mountain Division, including Malaysian and Pakistani armored units from the UN coalition.  As night falls, Aidid's militia launches a sustained assault on the trapped Americans at "Super Six-One"s crash site. The militants are held off throughout the night by strafing runs and rocket attacks from AH-6J Little Bird helicopter gunships, until the 10th Mountain Division's relief column is able to reach the American soldiers. The wounded and casualties are evacuated in the vehicles, but a few Rangers and Delta Force soldiers are forced to run on foot from the crash site to reach the Safe Zone at the stadium.  The end titles recount the immediate aftermath of the mission and end of US military operations in Somalia: Michael Durant was released after 11 days of captivity, after which President Bill Clinton withdrew all US forces from Somalia. During the raid more than 1000 Somalis died, and 19 American soldiers lost their lives. The names of the 19 soldiers who died, including Delta Sgts. Gordon and Shughart, who were the first soldiers to receive the Medal of Honor posthumously since the Vietnam War, were listed by name. Mohamed Farah Aidid was killed in 1996. The following day, General Garrison retired.

Production.

Adapting "Black Hawk Down: a Story of Modern War" by Mark Bowden was the idea of director Simon West, who suggested to Jerry Bruckheimer that he should buy the film rights and let West direct. West moved on to direct "" (2001) instead.  Ken Nolan was credited as screenwriter, and others contributed uncredited: Mark Bowden wrote an adaptation of his own book, Stephen Gaghan was hired to do a rewrite, Steven Zaillian and Ezna Sands rewrote the majority of Gaghan and Nolan's work, actor Sam Shepard (MGen. Garrison) rewrote some of his own dialogue, and Eric Roth wrote Josh Hartnett and Eric Bana's concluding speeches. Ken Nolan was on set for four months rewriting his script and the previous work by Gaghan, Zaillian, and Bowden. He was given sole screenwriting credit by a WGA committee.  The book relied on a dramatization of participant accounts, which were the basis of the movie. SPC John Stebbins was renamed as fictional "John Grimes." Stebbins had been convicted by court martial in 1999 for the rape and forcible sodomy of his six-year-old daughter. Mark Bowden said the Pentagon, ever sensitive about public image decided to alter factual history by requesting the change. Bowden wrote early screenplay drafts, before Bruckheimer gave it to screenwriter Nolan. The POW-captor conversation, between pilot Mike Durant and militiaman Firimbi, is from a Bowden script draft.  To keep the film at a manageable length, 100 key figures in the book were condensed to 39. The movie also does not feature any Somali actors. Additionally, no Somali consultants were hired for accuracy, according to writer Bowden.  For military verisimilitude, the Ranger actors took a one-week Ranger familiarization course at Fort Benning, the Delta Force actors took a two-week commando course from the 1st Special Warfare Training Group at Fort Bragg, and Ron Eldard and the actors playing 160th SOAR helicopter pilots were lectured by captured aviator Michael Durant at Fort Campbell.  The U.S. Army supplied the materiel and the helicopters from the 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment. Most pilots (e.g., Keith Jones, who speaks some dialogue) had participated in the historic battle on October 3–4, 1993.  On the last day of their week-long Army Ranger orientation at Fort Benning, the actors who portrayed the Rangers received letters slipped under their doors. It thanked them for their hard work, and asked them to "tell our story true", signed with the names of the men who died in the Mogadishu firefight. A platoon of Rangers from B-3/75 did the fast-roping scenes and appeared as extras; John Collette, a Ranger Specialist during the battle, served as a stunt performer.  Many of the actors bonded with the soldiers who trained them for their roles. Actor Tom Sizemore said, "What really got me at training camp was the Ranger Creed. I don't think most of us can understand that kind of mutual devotion. It's like having 200 best friends and every single one of them would die for you".  Filming began in March 2001 in Salé, Morocco, and concluded in late June.  Although the filmmakers considered filming in Jordan, they found the city of Amman too built up and landlocked. Scott and production designer Arthur Max subsequently turned to Morocco, where they had previously worked on "Gladiator". Scott preferred that urban setting for authenticity. Most of the film was photographed in the cities of Rabat and Salé; the Task Force Ranger base sequences were filmed at Kénitra.

Music.

The musical score for "Black Hawk Down" was composed by Hans Zimmer, who previously collaborated with director Scott on several films including "Thelma & Louise" (1991) and "Gladiator" (2000). Zimmer developed the score through a collaboration with a variety of musicians that blended "east African rhythms and sounds with a more conventional synthesizer approach." In doing so, Zimmer avoided a more traditional composition in favor of an experimental approach that would match the tone of the film. "I wanted to do it like the way the movie was," said Zimmer. "So I got myself a band together and we just went into my studio [...] and we'd just be flailing away at the picture, I mean, you know with great energy." A soundtrack album was released on January 15, 2002, by Decca Records.

Reception.

Box office.

"Black Hawk Down" had a limited release in four theaters on December 28, 2001, in order to be eligible for the 2001 Oscars. It earned $179,823 in its first weekend, averaging $44,956 per theater. On January 11, 2002, the release expanded to 16 theaters and continued to do well with a weekly gross of $1,118,003 and an average daily per theater gross of $9,982. On January 18, 2002, the film had its wide release, opening at 3,101 theaters and earning $28,611,736 in its first wide-release weekend to finish first at the box office for the weekend. Opening on the Martin Luther King holiday, the film grossed $5,014,475 on the holiday of Monday, January 21, 2002, for a 4-day weekend total of $33,628,211. Only "Titanic" had previously grossed more money over the Martin Luther King holiday weekend. "Black Hawk Down" finished first at the box office during its first three weeks of wide release. When the film was pulled from theatres on April 14, 2002, after its 15th week, it had grossed $108,638,746 domestically and $64,350,906 overseas for a worldwide total of $172,989,651.

Critical response.

On Rotten Tomatoes the film holds an approval rating of 76% based on 171 reviews, with an average rating of 6.85/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Though it's light on character development and cultural empathy, "Black Hawk Down" is a visceral, pulse-pounding portrait of war, elevated by Ridley Scott's superb technical skill." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 74 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".  "Empire" magazine gave it a verdict of "ambitious, sumptuously framed, and frenetic, "Black Hawk Down" is nonetheless a rare find of a war movie which dares to turn genre convention on its head". Film critic Mike Clark of "USA Today" wrote that the film "extols the sheer professionalism of America's elite Delta Force—even in the unforeseen disaster that was 1993's Battle of Mogadishu," and praised Scott's direction: "in relating the conflict, in which 18 Americans died and 70-plus were injured, the standard getting-to-know-you war-film characterizations are downplayed. While some may regard this as a shortcoming, it is, in fact, a virtue".  The film has had a small cultural legacy, which has been studied academically by media analysts dissecting how media reflects American perceptions of war. "Newsweek" writer Evan Thomas considered the movie one of the most culturally significant films of the George W. Bush presidency. He suggested that although the film was presented as being anti-war, it was at its core pro-war. He further wrote that "though it depicted a shameful defeat, the soldiers were heroes willing to die for their brothers in arms... The movie showed brutal scenes of killing, but also courage, stoicism and honor... The overall effect was stirring, if slightly pornographic, and it seemed to enhance the desire of Americans for a thumping war to avenge 9/11."  Stephen A. Klien, writing in "Critical Studies in Media Communication," argued that the film's sensational rendering of war had the effect of encouraging audiences to empathize with the film's pro-soldier leitmotif and "conflate personal support of American soldiers with support of American military policy" and discourage "critical public discourse concerning justification for and execution of military interventionist policy."

Controversies and inaccuracies.

Soon after "Black Hawk Down"s release, the Somali Justice Advocacy Center in California denounced what they felt was its brutal and dehumanizing depiction of Somalis and called for its boycott.  In a radio interview, Brendan Sexton, an actor who briefly appeared in the movie, said the version of the film which made it onto theater screens significantly differed from the one recounted in the original script. According to him, many scenes asking hard questions of the US regarding the violent realities of war and the true purpose of their mission in Somalia were cut.  In a review featured in "The New York Times", film critic Elvis Mitchell expressed dissatisfaction with the film's "lack of characterization" and opined that the film "reeks of glumly staged racism". Owen Gleiberman and Sean Burns, the film critics for the mainstream magazine "Entertainment Weekly" and the alternative newspaper "Philadelphia Weekly", respectively, echoed the sentiment that the depiction was racist.  American film critic Wheeler Winston Dixon also found the film's "absence of motivation and characterization" disturbing, and wrote that while American audiences might find the film to be a "paean to patriotism", other audiences might find it to be a "deliberately hostile enterprise"; nevertheless, Dixon lauded the film's "spectacular display of pyrotechnics coupled with equally adroit editing."  Jerry Bruckheimer, the film's producer, rejected such claims on "The O'Reilly Factor", putting them down to political correctness in part due to Hollywood's liberal leanings.  Somali nationals charge that the African actors chosen to play the Somalis in the film do not resemble the culturally unique features of the Horn of Africa, nor does the language they communicate in sound like the Afro-Asiatic tongue spoken by the Somali people. They also claim the abrasive way lines are delivered and lack of authenticity regarding Somali culture fails to capture the tone, mannerisms, and spirit of actual life in Somalia. No Somali actors were used in the movie.  In an interview with the BBC, the faction leader Osman Ali Atto said that many aspects of the film are factually incorrect. Taking exception with the ostentatious depiction of his character, Ali Atto claimed he looks nothing like the actor who portrayed him, nor that he smoked cigars or wore earrings. These details were later confirmed by SEAL Team Six sniper Howard E. Wasdin in his 2012 memoirs. Wasdin also indicated that while the character in the movie ridiculed his captors, in reality, Atto seemed concerned that Wasdin and his men had been sent to kill rather than apprehend him. Atto additionally stated that he had not been consulted about the project, nor was he approached for permission to use his likeness, and that the film sequence re-enacting his arrest contained several inaccuracies:  Navy SEAL Wasdin similarly remarked that while olive green military rigger's tape was used to mark the roof of the car in question in the movie, his team in actuality managed to track down Atto's whereabouts using a much more sophisticated technique involving the implantation of a homing device. (This was hidden in a cane presented to Atto as a gift from a contact who routinely met with him, which eventually led the team directly to the faction leader.)  Malaysian military officials whose own troops were involved in the fighting have likewise raised complaints regarding the film's accuracy. Retired Brigadier-General Abdul Latif Ahmad, who at the time commanded Malaysian forces in Mogadishu, told the AFP news agency that Malaysian moviegoers would be under the erroneous impression that the real battle was fought by the Americans alone, with Malaysian troops relegated to serving as "mere bus drivers to ferry them out".  General Pervez Musharraf, who later became President of Pakistan after a coup, similarly accused the filmmakers of not crediting the work done by the Pakistani soldiers. In his autobiography "", Musharraf wrote:

Mogadishu Mile.

It is often believed that the soldiers involved in the Mogadishu Mile had to run all the way to the Mogadiscio Stadium, as shown in the film. However, in that scene the filmmakers took artistic license and dramatized the event, departing from the book. In the film, the Mogadishu Mile ends with about a dozen soldiers entering the Mogadiscio Stadium having run all the way through the city. In the book, it ends with soldiers reaching a rendezvous point on National Street (in the opposite direction from the stadium):  It was not only the Rangers and Delta Force soldiers who made the Mogadishu Mile, but soldiers from the U.S. 10th Mountain Division as well:  On the whole, the film version where the convoy leaves the soldiers running through the city alone does not correspond to the real event:

"Only the dead have seen the end of war.".

The film begins with the quote, "Only the dead have seen the end of war," misattributed to Plato. Research shows this quote first appeared in the works of George Santayana.

Black Hawk Down is a 2001 war film produced and directed by Ridley Scott, from a screenplay by Ken Nolan. It is based on the 1999 non-fiction book of the same name by journalist Mark Bowden, about the U.S. military's 1993 raid in Mogadishu. The film features a large ensemble cast, including Josh Hartnett, Ewan McGregor, Eric Bana, Tom Sizemore, William Fichtner, Sam Shepard, and Tom Hardy in his first film role.

Black Hawk Down ist ein US-amerikanischer Kriegsfilm aus dem Jahr 2001. Der unter der Regie des Briten Ridley Scott gedrehte Spielfilm schildert eine Episode des Bürgerkrieges in Somalia, die Schlacht von Mogadischu am 3. und 4. Oktober 1993. Als Vorlage des auf Tatsachen beruhenden Films diente das Buch "Black Hawk Down – Kein Mann bleibt zurück" (Originaltitel "Black Hawk Down") des Journalisten Mark Bowden, der neben diesem auch weitere Bücher über US-amerikanische Militäroperationen schrieb. Das Verteidigungsministerium der Vereinigten Staaten gab ihm zwar Zugang zu allen Quellen, ein zusammenfassender Bericht existierte jedoch nicht.


World War I.

During the German war on trade Allied ships travelled independently prior to the introduction of the convoy system, and were vulnerable to attacks by U-boats operating as 'lone wolves'. By gathering up merchant ships into convoys the British Admiralty denied them targets and presented a more defensible front if found and attacked. The logical remedy for the U-boat Arm was to gather U-boats similarly into attacking formations.  In early 1917 Hermann Bauer, the Commander of the High Seas U-boats (FdU) proposed establishing patrol lines of U-boats across convoy routes, in order to mass for attack on any convoy reported. These boats would be supported by a forward base on land, and a headquarters and supply vessel, such as the -class converted U-cruisers equipped with radio and resupplies of fuel and torpedoes. The shore station would monitor radio transmissions and the commander in the HQ boat would co-ordinate the attack.  This proved easier to propose than to carry out, and proved disastrous when tried. In May 1918 six U-boats under the command of KL Rucker, in, were operating in the English Channel; "U-103" made contact with a troop convoy, but was rammed and sunk by the troopship before she could attack, while found convoy HS 38 but managed only one torpedo attack, which missed. Finally, "UB 72" was caught on the surface by British submarine, torpedoed and sunk. During the period of operation, 19 homeward and 11 outward convoys passed through the patrol area without loss, and two U-boats (a third of the force) had been destroyed.  In October 1918 another attempt at a co-ordinated attack was made in the Mediterranean; when two U-boats attempted a co-ordinated attack on a convoy one of them was sunk, and its commander, ObLt. Karl Dönitz, was taken prisoner.

Inter war years.

During the interwar years the German Navy was forbidden to have U-boats, but began to re-arm in 1935. Under Karl Dönitz as FdU developed co-ordinated attack tactics based on Bauer's plan and his own experience, and trials of the new tactics in 1936 proved successful. Dönitz called his strategy of submarine warfare "Rudeltaktik", which literally translates as "pack tactic", but referred specifically to the hunting tactics of wolves and submarines were known by their nickname of "graue Wölfe" (grey wolves).

German submarines in World War II.

With the outbreak of the Second World War the U-boat Arm found the success of the pre-war trials had created some complacency; when these tactics were first tried in October 1939 (Hartmann's wolfpack) they were a failure; Hartmann found he was unable to exercise any tactical control from his boat at sea, and the convoy attack was unsuccessful, while three U-boats were lost in the operation. A second attempt the following month also failed. A further attempt in June 1940 following the Norwegian campaign (Rösing's wolfpack) also failed, leading to a re-think of German tactics.

Tactics.

The revised approach saw Dönitz micromanaging the operations at sea from his headquarters in occupied France, relying on the supposedly unbreakable Enigma code to transmit and receive orders and co-ordinate movements. U-boat movements were controlled by U-boat Command ("BdU)" from Kerneval. Accordingly, U-boats usually patrolled separately, often strung out in co-ordinated lines across likely convoy routes to engage individual merchants and small vulnerable destroyers, only being ordered to congregate after one located a convoy and alerted the BdU, so a "Rudel" consisted of as many U-boats as could reach the scene of the attack. With the exception of the orders given by the BdU, U-boat commanders could attack as they saw fit. Often the U-boat commanders were given a probable number of U-boats that would show up, and then when they were in contact with the convoy, make call signs to see how many had arrived. If their number were sufficiently high compared to the expected threat of the escorts, they would attack. This proved a success, leading to a series of successful pack attacks on Allied convoys in the latter half of 1940 (known as "the Happy Time" to the U-boat men)

Drawbacks.

While the German pack tactic was effective, it had several drawbacks. Most notably was the fact that wolfpacks required extensive radio communication to coordinate the attacks. This left the U-boats vulnerable to a device called the High Frequency Direction Finder (HF/DF or "Huff-Duff"), which allowed Allied naval forces to determine the location of the enemy boats transmitting and attack them. The pack tactic was able to bring about a concentration of force against a convoy, but no tactics for co-ordinated attack were developed; each U-boat commander present was left to move against the convoy as he saw fit. This meant the escort groups, which went on to develop group tactics against U-boat attack, gained an advantage. Also, as packs got larger the risks from this lack of co-ordination increased, such as overlapping attacks, or collision, or friendly fire incidents (in May 1943 for example, two U-boats stalking a Gibraltar convoy, and collided, with the loss of both)  Away from the Atlantic, the U-boat Arm had less scope for pack attacks; the operations against US shipping in early 1942 off the US eastern coast, and in the Caribbean, were conducted by U-boats on individual patrol, while the introduction of a convoy system there saw the U-boats withdraw to easier hunting grounds. In the South Atlantic and the Indian Ocean individual routing by the Allies and small numbers of U-boats active there again saw the employment of the lone wolf approach by the U-boat Arm.

Countermeasures.

Although the wolfpacks proved a serious threat to Allied shipping, the Allies developed countermeasures against it. The expansion of the escort force, and the development of well-trained and well-organized escort groups, led to more and more successes as the campaign went on. Time and again escort groups were able to fight off numerically superior packs and destroy attackers, until the rate of exchange became ruinous. Also, effective air cover, both long-range planes with radar, and escort carriers and blimps, allowed U-boats to be spotted as they shadowed a convoy (waiting for the cover of night to attack).

Naming.

Some sources refer to different wolfpacks by name, or provide lists of named wolfpacks, though this can be a misnomer. Donitz’s pack tactic envisaged a patrol line of 6 to 10 boats (later, 20 to 30 or more) across a convoy route to search for targets. If a convoy was found the boats would form a pack, to mount a simultaneous attack. At the outbreak of the Second World War Germany had had 27 sea- and ocean-going U-boats, enough to mount a single patrol line in the Atlantic. At this point patrol lines were not named, and if a pack was formed it was referred to by the name of the skipper who’d found the target. This situation improved with the fall of France and the occupation of the French Atlantic ports, but U-boat construction had barely kept pace with losses, and it was not until the summer of 1941 that multiple patrol groups were possible, creating the need to differentiate them. At first this was by location (West, Centre, South, Greenland) but in August BdU began to assign codenames, chosen for their historical or cultural value. This continued until the end of the campaign, though after the spring of 1944 the UbW had moved away from pack attacks to its inshore campaign of individual patrols operating in Britain’s coastal areas. The last named U-boat group was "Seawolf", a seven boat operation against the North American coast, countered by the USN’s Operation Teardrop.  The codename applied to the group, or to the patrol line that they formed. Not all groups so named were involved in pack tactics; the "Goeben" group, for example, was formed to enter the Mediterranean and support operations there; the "Eisbar" group were dispatched to the waters off South Africa, where they operated independently. Of those groups forming patrol lines not all found convoys, or were able to form packs if they did. Where a named group formed and mounted a pack attack on a convoy, referring to it by name as a wolfpack is appropriate.

American submarines in World War II.

In the Pacific the United States Navy (USN) used both individual patrol and pack tactics; the South West Pacific command ("SoWePac") under Rear Admiral R. W. Christie, based at Brisbane and Fremantle favoured the individual patrol, while the Central Pacific command, under RAdm C. A. Lockwood at Pearl Harbor ("SubPac") used the pack tactic.

Tactics.

American wolfpacks, officially called "coordinated attack groups", usually comprised three boats that patrolled in close company and organized before they left port under the command of the senior captain of the three. "Swede" Momsen devised the tactics and led the first American wolfpack – composed of,, and – from Midway on 1 October 1943. In this way the USN was able to make command at sea work; by forming stable groups of three submarines that sailed together, these groups were able to develop group tactics for attack on Japanese convoys.

Naming.

Part of this development, and to promote an "esprit de corps", was naming the groups as they formed. These names were based on that of the group commander; the group comprising (Cdr. "Ben" Oakley),, and were known as "Ben's Busters"; the group,, and were "Blakely's Behemoths"

Cold War.

Wolfpacks fell out of use during the Cold War as the role of the submarine changed. With trade returned to peacetime conditions and the end of convoying the submarine ceased to be a commerce raider and moved to a range of more traditional military roles, such as scouting, intelligence-gathering, clandestine transport and, in the event of a full-scale war, fleet operations. Instead, the USN deploys its attack submarines on individual patrols, with the exception of one or (rarely) two attack submarines in each carrier strike group.  American ballistic missile submarines have always operated alone, while Soviet ballistic missile submarines operated in well-protected bastions.

Post-Cold War.

To date the world's navies continue to deploy their submarines on individual patrols.

The wolfpack was a convoy attack tactic employed in the Second World War. It was used principally by the U-boats of the Kriegsmarine during the Battle of the Atlantic, and by the submarines of the United States Navy in the war in the Pacific. The idea of a co-ordinated submarine attack on convoys had been proposed during the First World War but had no success. In the Atlantic during World War II the Germans had considerable successes with their wolfpack attacks, but were ultimately defeated by the defenders. In the Pacific the American submarine force was able to devastate Japan’s merchant marine, though this was not solely due to the wolfpack tactic. Conflicts since the end of the Second World War have not so far required convoying, so the wolfpack hasn't been used or needed.

Rudeltaktik (auch Wolfsrudeltaktik) war eine Taktik deutscher U-Boote im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Die alternative Benennung Wolfsrudeltaktik leitet sich von dem englischen Begriff „wolfpack“ ab. Die Briten benutzten den Begriff nach deutschen U-Boot-Angriffen; die Amerikaner auch für Angriffe der USS Flounder (SS-251) im Rahmen eines amerikanischen "wolf packs".


History.

The name of the settlement area derives from the rock salt deposits in the former Prince-Provostry of Berchtesgaden. Salt mining at "Pherg" is documented since the 12th century and a major salt mine opened in 1517. It was destroyed in 1834 but rebuilt and named the "Old Salt Works". The rectangular layout and some components still exist.  The area was part of the provostry's eight localities (so-called "Gnotschaften") mentioned in the first land register of 1456 and was ruled by the Augustinian abbey. From 1517 the Petersberg gallery was built, the first of the Berchtesgaden salt mines which became the economic base of the Prince-provostry. The area was annexed by Austria in 1805 and then ruled by France in 1809–1810. With Berchtesgaden it was secularised in 1803 and passed to the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1810. Salzberg was re-established as a Bavarian municipality in 1817. Plans by Nazi authorities to merge it with Berchtesgaden were not carried out and Salzberg was not incorporated into Berchtesgaden until 1972. It was the scene of the filming of "The Sound of Music" film's last scene where the von Trapps were escaping into what was thought to be Switzerland and to their freedom.

Hitler's retreat.

In 1877 Mauritia Mayer, a pioneer in Alpine tourism, opened the "Pension Moritz" boarding house in Obersalzberg. In the late 19th century German intellectuals like Mayer's close friend Richard Voss, artists such as Clara Schumann, Johannes Brahms, Joseph Joachim, Peter Rosegger, Ludwig Ganghofer, Ludwig Knaus, and Franz von Lenbach as well as industrialists like Carl von Linde began using the area as both a summer and winter vacation retreat. The Obersalzberg boarding house was leased to the former racing driver Bruno Büchner in the early 1920s. When he acquired the property in 1928, he renamed it "Platterhof" inspired by Richard Voss' novel "Zwei Menschen".  The scenic landscape and sweeping mountain views also attracted Adolf Hitler, who in 1923 visited his fellow party member and anti-semite, Dietrich Eckart at the Obersalzberg boarding house, shortly before the Beer Hall Putsch and his imprisonment at Landsberg. It was in a cabin on the premises where, after his release from custody in 1925, he dictated Part Two of "Mein Kampf", which earned him large royalties.  He became so fond of the area that by 1928 he began using his royalty income to rent a small chalet nearby called "Haus Wachenfeld" from the widow of a Buxtehude manufacturer. Hitler put his half-sister Angela Raubal in charge of the household, together with her daughter Geli. Several months after the Nazi seizure of power ("Machtergreifung") in January 1933, Chancellor Hitler purchased "Haus Wachenfeld" and began making a series of three important renovations. The first included window shutters and a small office, followed a year later by a winter garden and stonework; finally the most extensive in 1935–1936 when the once modest chalet was finally transformed into the sprawling landhaus with a series of extensions, a bowling alley in the cellar, and a giant window that could be lowered to provide a panoramic view. The house became known as the Berghof or Mountain Court in English.  Among other buildings in the area was the Kehlsteinhaus ("the house on Kehlstein mountain", called the "Eagle's Nest" by English speakers) atop the summit of the Kehlstein, a rocky outcrop, that was used for Nazi Party meetings and to host dignitaries; the building had no beds. It was presented to Adolf Hitler in 1939, on his 50th birthday, but he only visited the site on 14 occasions, because of a fear of heights among the reasons; Eva Braun used it more frequently.

Security zones.

Around Hitler's home, several Nazi leaders such as Hermann Göring, Martin Bormann and Albert Speer acquired residences. By 1935–36 Party Secretary Bormann had all residents of Obersalzberg either bought out or evicted, and the area evolved into a retreat for high-level Nazis with a cinema, a school for young children, an SS barracks, and an underground shooting range. Most of the original buildings were demolished. The Berghof became something of a German tourist attraction during the mid-1930s. This led to the introduction of severe restrictions on access to the area and other security measures. A large contingent of the SS Leibstandarte Adolf Hitler were housed in barracks adjacent to the Berghof. Under the command of "Obersturmbannführer" Bernhard Frank, they patrolled an extensive cordoned security zone that encompassed the nearby homes of the other Nazi leaders. The Obersalzberg comprised three security zones.  The so-called "Führersperrgebiet" ("the Führer's autonomous area") shielded Hitler and his staff from public access. Two other security zones protected the heavily expanded SS and SD barracks, support staff, guest houses, underground bunkers, and air raid shelters.  In 1938 Bormann also had the Kehlsteinhaus lodge erected on a rocky promontory, including a lift system from the upper end of the access road. Hitler seldom visited it, though he and his mistress Eva Braun spent much time at Obersalzberg. From 1937 the German Reich Chancellery maintained a second seat in the nearby village of Bischofswiesen with Hitler receiving numerous guests of state at the Berghof.  With the outbreak of war extensive anti-aircraft defences were installed, including smoke generating machines to conceal the Berghof complex from hostile aircraft. Further, the nearby former Hotel zum Türken was turned into quarters to house the "Reichssicherheitsdienst" (RSD) SS security men who patrolled the grounds of the Berghof. Several Heer mountain troop units were also housed nearby. Hence, the British never planned a direct attack on the compound.  Hitler spent much of August 1939 at the Berghof, making final plans for the invasion of Poland. Hitler's last known visit was on 14 July 1944. “What they found here was not really a fortress

Destruction of the compound.

The premises – except for the Kehlsteinhaus – were heavily damaged by an Allied air raid on 25 April 1945. On 4 May, four days after Hitler's suicide in Berlin, retreating SS troops set fire to the villa as Hitler had previously ordered.  Only hours later, the U.S. 3rd Infantry Division arrived at Berchtesgaden along with the French 2nd Armoured Division. The Obersalzberg was placed under U.S. administration. At the time, the Berghof still contained destroyed paintings, evening gowns, medical equipment, and a wine cellar. The house was stripped and looted by Americans.  The Berghof's shell survived and had been attracting tourists until 1952 when the Bavarian government decided to demolish the buildings so they would not become a Nazi shrine. On 30 April, the Berghof, the houses of Göring and Bormann, the SS barracks, the Kampfhäusl, and the teahouse were all destroyed. In total, over 50 Obersalzberg Nazi buildings were destroyed.

Restoration of the area.

The Platterhof, which had been a hostel for visitors to the area, was not destroyed since it had been turned into the General Walker Hotel for US troops after the war. It was demolished in 2001.  The nearby Hotel zum Türken, often used by the SS, later occupied by Hitler's bodyguard, and then the "Generalmajor" of the Police, was badly damaged in 1945. It was rebuilt in 1950 and reopened as a hotel before Christmas.  The nearby Dokumentationszentrum Obersalzberg museum, opened in 1999, provides historical information on the use of the mountainside retreat during the war, and about the history of National Socialism; visitors can tour the bunker complex. (Access to the bunkers was closed for construction in September 2017 and remained closed in July 2018 "until further notice".) The museum is operated by the Institut für Zeitgeschichte (Institute of Contemporary History).  The Berchtesgaden National Park, billed as "the only National Park in the German Alps", was established in 1978 and has gradually become one of Berchtesgaden's largest draws. The park attracts 1.5 million visitors per year. Mass tourism is confined to a few popular spots, leaving the rest to nature-seekers. The trail system covers 250 kilometers (155 miles).  In 1995, the entire area was returned to the Bavarian state government that facilitated the erection of a hotel (operated by the InterContinental Hotels Group, which opened in 2005. Since May 2015, the InterContinental hotel has been renamed the Kempinski Hotel Berchtesgaden. Other tourist draws are the Königssee, the salt mine where visitors can tour the pumping hall, some tunnels and the museum. The "Kehlsteinhaus" (Eagle's Nest) is open seasonally as a restaurant. During one of the bus trips to the restaurant, visitors can see the ruins of some Third Reich buildings.

Obersalzberg is a mountainside retreat situated above the market town of Berchtesgaden in Bavaria, Germany. Located about southeast of Munich, close to the border with Austria, it is best known as the site of Adolf Hitler's former mountain residence, the Berghof, and of the mountaintop Kehlsteinhaus, popularly known in the English-speaking world as the "Eagle's Nest." All of the Nazi buildings (except the Kehlsteinhaus, which still exists and now serves as a restaurant and tourist attraction) were demolished in the 1950s but the relevant past of the area is the subject of the "Dokumentationszentrum Obersalzberg" museum which opened in 1999.

Der Obersalzberg ist ein Ortsteil des Markts Berchtesgaden im oberbayerischen Landkreis Berchtesgadener Land. Er war Teil der Gemeinde Salzberg, bis diese am 1. Januar 1972 nach Berchtesgaden eingemeindet wurde.


History.

Cold War era.

Human spaceflight capability was first developed during the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR), which developed the first intercontinental ballistic missile rockets to deliver nuclear weapons. These rockets were large enough to be adapted to carry the first artificial satellites into low Earth orbit. After the first satellites were launched in 1957 and 1958, the US worked on Project Mercury to launch men singly into orbit, while the USSR secretly pursued the Vostok program to accomplish the same thing. The USSR launched the first human in space, Yuri Gagarin, into a single orbit in Vostok 1 on a Vostok 3KA rocket, on 12 April 1961. The US launched its first astronaut, Alan Shepard, on a suborbital flight aboard "Freedom 7" on a Mercury-Redstone rocket, on 5 May 1961. Unlike Gagarin, Shepard manually controlled his spacecraft's attitude, and landed inside it. The first American in orbit was John Glenn aboard "Friendship 7", launched 20 February 1962 on a Mercury-Atlas rocket. The USSR launched five more cosmonauts in Vostok capsules, including the first woman in space, Valentina Tereshkova aboard Vostok 6 on 16 June 1963. The US launched a total of two astronauts in suborbital flight and four into orbit

US / Russian cooperation.

The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 brought an end to the Cold War and opened the door to true cooperation between the US and Russia. The Soviet Soyuz and Mir programs were taken over by the Russian Federal Space Agency, now known as the Roscosmos State Corporation. The Shuttle-Mir Program included American Space Shuttles visiting the "Mir" space station, Russian cosmonauts flying on the Shuttle, and an American astronaut

China.

After Russia's launch of Sputnik 1 in 1957, Chairman Mao Zedong intended to place a Chinese satellite in orbit by 1959 to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the founding of the People's Republic of China (PRC), However, China did not successfully launch its first satellite until 24 April 1970. Mao and Premier Zhou Enlai decided on 14 July 1967, that the PRC should not be left behind, and started China's own human spaceflight program. The first attempt, the Shuguang spacecraft copied from the US Gemini, was cancelled on 13 May

Abandoned programs of other nations.

The European Space Agency began development in 1987 of the Hermes shuttle spaceplane, to be launched on the Ariane 5 expendable launch vehicle and to be docks with European Columbus space station. The projects were cancelled in 1992, when it became clear that neither cost nor performance goals could be achieved. No Hermes shuttles were ever built. Columbus space station reconfigured to same name European module in International Space Station.  Japan (NASDA) began development in the 1980s of the HOPE-X experimental shuttle spaceplane, to be launched on its H-IIA expendable launch vehicle. A string of failures in

United States post-Space Shuttle gap.

Under the Bush administration, the Constellation program included plans for retiring the Shuttle program and replacing it with the capability for spaceflight beyond low Earth orbit. In the 2011 United States federal budget, the Obama administration cancelled Constellation for being over budget and behind schedule while not innovating and investing in critical new technologies. As part of the Artemis program, NASA is developing the Orion spacecraft to be launched by the Space Launch System. Under the Commercial Crew Development plan,

Commercial private spaceflight.

Since the early 2000s, a variety of private spaceflight ventures have been undertaken. Several of the companies, including Blue Origin, SpaceX, Virgin Galactic, and Sierra Nevada have explicit plans to advance human spaceflight., all four of those companies have development programs underway to fly commercial passengers.  A commercial suborbital spacecraft aimed at the space tourism market is being developed by Virgin Galactic called SpaceshipTwo which reached space in December 2018. Blue Origin has begun a multi-year test program of their New Shepard vehicle and carried out 11 successful

Milestones.

By nationality or sex.

Sally Ride became the first American woman in space in 1983. Eileen Collins was the first female Shuttle pilot, and with Shuttle mission STS-93 in 1999 she became the first woman to command a U.S. spacecraft.  For many years,

Space programs.

Human spaceflight programs have been conducted by the former Soviet Union and currently Russia, the United States, Mainland China, and by the American private spaceflight companies.

Current programs.

Space vehicles are spacecraft used for transportation between the Earth's surface and outer space, or between locations in outer space. The following space vehicles and spaceports are currently used for launching human spaceflights:  The following space stations are currently maintained in Earth orbit for human occupation:  Numerous private companies attempted human spaceflight programs in an effort to win the $10 million Ansari X Prize. The first private human spaceflight

Planned future programs.

On 15 August 2018 the Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi, from the rampart of the Red Fort in New Delhi, formally announced the Indian Human Spaceflight Programme. Through this Programme, India is planning to send humans into space on its orbital vehicle Gaganyaan by the end of 2021. The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) began work on this project in 2006. The objective is to carry a crew of three to low Earth orbit (LEO) and return them safely for a water-landing at a predefined landing zone. The program is proposed to be implemented in defined phases. Currently, the activities are progressing with a focus on the development of critical technologies for subsystems such as the Crew Module (CM), Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS), Crew Escape System, etc. The department has initiated activities to study

Passenger travel via spacecraft.

A number of spacecraft have been proposed over the decades that might facilitate spaceliner passenger travel. Somewhat analogous to travel by airliner after the middle of the 20th century, these vehicles are proposed to transport a large number of passengers to destinations in space, or to destinations on Earth which travel through space. To date, none of these concepts have been built, although a few vehicles that carry fewer than 10 persons are currently in the flight testing phase of their development process.  One large spaceliner concept currently in early development is the SpaceX Starship which, in addition

Safety concerns.

There are two main sources of hazard in space flight: those due to the environment of space which make it hostile to the human body, and the potential for mechanical malfunctions of the equipment required to accomplish space flight.

Environmental hazards.

Planners of human spaceflight missions face a number of safety concerns.

Life support.

The basic needs for breathable air and drinkable

Medical issues.

Medical consequences such as possible blindness and bone loss have been associated with human space flight.  On 31 December 2012, a NASA-supported study reported that spaceflight may harm the brain of astronauts and accelerate the onset of Alzheimer's disease.  In October 2015, the NASA Office of Inspector General issued a health hazards report related to space exploration, including a human mission to Mars.  On 2 November 2017, scientists reported that significant changes in the position and structure of the brain have been found in astronauts who have taken trips in space, based on MRI studies. Astronauts who took longer space trips were associated with greater brain changes.  Researchers in 2018 reported, after detecting the presence on the International Space Station (ISS) of five "Enterobacter bugandensis" bacterial strains, none pathogenic to humans, that microorganisms on ISS should be carefully monitored to continue assuring a medically healthy environment for astronauts.  In March 2019, NASA reported that latent viruses in humans may be activated during space missions, adding possibly more risk to astronauts in future deep-space missions.

Mechanical hazards.

Space flight requires much higher velocities than ground or air transportation, which in turn requires the use of high energy density propellants for launch, and the dissipation of large amounts of energy, usually as heat, for safe reentry through the Earth's atmosphere.

Launch.

Since rockets carry the potential for fire or explosive destruction, space capsules generally employ some sort of launch escape system, consisting either of a tower-mounted solid-fuel rocket to quickly carry the capsule away from the launch vehicle (employed on Mercury, Apollo, and Soyuz), or else ejection seats (employed on Vostok and Gemini) to carry astronauts out of the capsule and away for individual parachute landing. The escape tower is discarded at some point before the launch is complete, at a point where an abort can be performed using the spacecraft's engines.  Such a system is not always practical for multiple crew member vehicles (particularly spaceplanes), depending on location of egress hatch(es). When the single-hatch Vostok capsule was modified to become the 2 or 3-person Voskhod, the single-cosmonaut ejection seat could not be used, and no escape tower system was added. The two Voskhod flights in 1964 and 1965 avoided launch mishaps.

Spacewalking.

Despite the ever-present risks related to mechanical failures while working in open space, no spacewalking astronaut has ever been lost. There is a requirement for spacewalking astronauts to use tethers and sometimes supplementary anchors. If those fail, a spacewalking astronaut would most probably float away according to relevant forces that were acting on him when breaking loose. Astronaut would possibly be spinning as kicking and flailing is of no use. At the right angle and velocity, he might even re-enter the Earth's atmosphere and burn away completely. NASA

Reentry and landing.

The single pilot of Soyuz 1, Vladimir Komarov was killed when his capsule's parachutes failed during an emergency landing on 24 April 1967, causing the capsule to crash.  The crew of seven aboard the were killed on

Artificial atmosphere.

There are two basic choices for an artificial atmosphere: either an Earth-like mixture of oxygen in an inert gas such as nitrogen or helium, or pure oxygen, which can be used at lower than standard atmospheric pressure. A nitrogen-oxygen mixture is used in the International Space Station and Soyuz spacecraft, while low-pressure pure oxygen is commonly used in space suits for extravehicular activity.  The use of a gas mixture carries the risk of decompression sickness (commonly known as "the bends") when transitioning to or from the pure oxygen space

Reliability.

The March 1966 Gemini 8 mission was aborted in orbit when an attitude control system thruster stuck in the on position, sending the craft into a dangerous spin which threatened the lives of Neil Armstrong and David Scott. Armstrong had to shut the control system off and use the reentry control system to stop the spin. The craft made an emergency reentry and the astronauts landed safely. The most probable cause was determined to be an electrical short due to a static electricity discharge, which caused the thruster to remain powered even when switched off. The control system was modified to put each thruster on its own isolated circuit.  The third lunar landing expedition Apollo 13 in April 1970, was aborted and the lives of the crew, James Lovell, Jack Swigert and Fred Haise, were threatened by failure of a cryogenic liquid oxygen tank en route to the Moon.

Fatality risk.

, 23 crew members have died in accidents aboard spacecraft.

Human representation and participation.

Women.

The first woman to ever enter space was Valentina Tereshkova. She flew in 1963 but it was not until the 1980s that another woman entered space again. All astronauts were required to be military test pilots at the time and women were not able to enter this career, this is one reason for the delay in allowing women to join space crews. After the rule changed, Svetlana Savitskaya became the second woman to enter space, she was also from the Soviet Union. Sally Ride became the next woman to enter space

Human spaceflight (also referred to as crewed spaceflight) is spaceflight with a crew or passengers aboard a spacecraft. Spacecraft carrying people may be operated directly, by human crew, or it may be either remotely operated from ground stations on Earth or be autonomous, able to carry out a specific mission with no human involvement.

Bemannte Raumfahrt ist der Sammelbegriff für alle Weltraummissionen, bei der Menschen in Raumschiffen in den Weltraum vorstoßen. Sind Raumfahrer gezwungen, außerhalb der schützenden Hülle ihres Raumschiffs oder Raumstation zu arbeiten "(Außenbordeinsatz)", so müssen sie luftdichte, temperierte Raumanzüge tragen.