Nomenclature.

The name of a county often gives a clue to how it was formed, either as a division that took its name from a centre of administration, an ancient kingdom, or an area occupied by an ethnic group. The majority of English counties are in the first category, with the name formed by combining the central town with the suffix "-shire", for example Yorkshire. Former kingdoms, which became earldoms in the united England did not feature this formulation; so for Kent, the former kingdom of the Jutes, "Kentshire" was not used. Counties ending in the suffix "-sex", the former Saxon kingdoms, are also in this category. Some of these names include compass directions. The third category includes counties such as Cornwall and Devon where the name corresponds to the tribes who inhabited the area. County Durham is anomalous in terms of naming and origin, not falling into any of the three categories. Instead, it was a diocese that was turned into the County Palatine of Durham, ruled by the Bishop of Durham. The expected form would otherwise be "Durhamshire", but it was rarely used.  There are customary abbreviations for many of the counties. In most cases, these consist of simple truncation, usually with an "s" at the end signifying "shire", such as "Berks" for Berkshire or "Bucks" for Buckinghamshire. Some abbreviations are not obvious, such as "Salop" for Shropshire, from the Norman-derived word for its county town Shrewsbury; "Oxon" for Oxfordshire, from Latin "Oxonium" (referring to both the county and the city of Oxford); "Hants" for Hampshire; and "Northants" for Northamptonshire. Counties can be prefixed with "County of" in official contexts with any "-shire" suffix dropped, such as "County of Kent" or "County of York". There is similar usage in the two cases where a county with a "-shire" suffix was not named after a town, where the correct formation is the "County of Berks" and "County of Wilts". The "-shire" suffix was also appended for some counties, such as "Devonshire", "Dorsetshire" and "Somersetshire", despite their origin. For instance, there has been an Earl of Devonshire since 1603, and Duke of Devonshire since 1694.

History.

Origins.

Great Britain was first divided into administrative areas by the Romans, most likely following major geographical features such as rivers. Before their arrival there were distinct tribal areas, but they were in a constant state of flux as territory was gained and lost. After the demise of Roman Britain around 410 these first divisions of land were generally abandoned, although traditional divisions taking the form of petty kingdoms such as Powys, Dumnonia and Elmet, remained in those areas which remained British, such as south west England. The areas that would later form the English counties started to take shape soon afterwards, with the Kingdom of Kent founded by settlers around 445. In southern England more widely, shires emerged from earlier sub-kingdoms as part of the administrative structure of Wessex, which then imposed its system of shires, boroughs (or "burhs") and "ealdormen" on Mercia after it came under West Saxon control during the 10th century. Once the Kingdom of England was united as a whole in 927 it became necessary to subdivide it for administrative convenience and to this end, earldoms were created out of the earlier kingdoms. The whole kingdom was divided into shires by the time of the Norman conquest. Robert of Gloucester accounts for thirty-five shires and William of Malmesbury thirty-two, Henry of Huntingdon, thirty-seven. In most cases the counties or shires in medieval times were administered by a sheriff (derived from "shire-reeve") on behalf of the monarch. After the Norman conquest the sheriff was replaced and the shires became counties, or "areas under the control of a count", in the French manner.  Although all of England was divided into shires by the time of the Norman conquest, some counties were formed later, such as Lancashire in the 12th century. Perhaps because of their differing origins the counties varied considerably in size. The county boundaries were fairly static until the Local Government Act 1888. Each shire was responsible for gathering taxes for the central government; for local defence; and for justice, through assize courts.

Southern England.

In southern England the counties were mostly subdivisions of the Kingdom of Wessex, and in many areas represented annexed, previously independent, kingdoms or other tribal territories. Kent derives from the Kingdom of Kent, and Essex, Sussex and Middlesex come from the East Saxons, South Saxons and Middle Saxons. Norfolk and Suffolk were subdivisions representing the "North Folk" and "South Folk" of the Kingdom of East Anglia. Only one county on the south coast of England now usually takes the suffix "-shire": Hampshire, named after the former town of "Hamwic" (sic), the site of which is now a part of the city of Southampton. A "lost" Saxon county was Winchcombeshire which lasted from 1007 to 1017 before being incorporated into Gloucestershire. Dorset and Somerset derive their names from the "saete" or inhabitants of the areas around the towns of Dorchester and Somerton respectively; the names were first used by the Saxons in the 9th century. Devon and Cornwall were based on the pre-Saxon Celtic tribes known in Latin as the Dumnonii and Cornovii, in the latter case with the suffix "wealas", meaning foreigners, added by the Saxons.

Midlands.

When Wessex annexed Mercia in the 10th century, it subdivided the area into various shires of roughly equal size and tax-raising potential or hidage. These generally took the name of the main town (the county town) of the county, along with "-shire". Examples are Northamptonshire and Warwickshire. In some cases the original names have been worn down: for example, Cheshire was originally "Chestershire".  In the east Midlands, it is thought that county boundaries may represent a 9th-century division of the Danelaw between units of the Danish army. Rutland was an anomalous territory or soke, associated with Nottinghamshire, but it eventually became considered the smallest county. Lincolnshire was the successor to the Kingdom of Lindsey, and took on the territories of Kesteven and Holland when Stamford became the only Danelaw borough to fail to become a county town.

Northern England.

Much of Northumbria was also shired, the best known of these counties being Hallamshire and Cravenshire. The Normans did not use these divisions, and so they are not generally regarded as ancient counties. The huge county of Yorkshire was a successor to the Viking Kingdom of York, and at the time of the Domesday Book in 1086 it was considered to include what was to become northern Lancashire, as well as parts of Cumberland, and Westmorland. Most of the later Cumberland and Westmorland were under Scottish rule until 1092. After the Norman Conquest in 1066 and the harrying of the North, much of the North of England was left depopulated and was included in the returns for Cheshire and Yorkshire in the Domesday Book. However, there is some disagreement about the status of some of this land. The area in between the River Ribble and the River Mersey, referred to as in the Domesday Book, was included in the returns for Cheshire. Whether this meant that this land was actually part of Cheshire is however not clear. The Northeast land that later became County Durham and Northumberland, was left unrecorded.  Cumberland, Westmorland, Lancashire, County Durham and Northumberland were established as counties in the 12th century. Lancashire can be firmly dated to 1182. Part of the domain of the Bishops of Durham, Hexhamshire was split off and was considered an independent county until 1572, when it became part of Northumberland.

Welsh border.

At the time of the Domesday Book, some parts of what later became Wales were included in English counties: Monmouth, for example, was included in Herefordshire. Additionally, the Domesday Book included, as part of Cheshire, areas that later became part of Wales, including the two hundreds of Atiscross and Exestan, and the southern part of Duddestan Hundred (as it was known as the time), which later became known as Maelor Saesneg (English Maelor), and (later still) "Flintshire Detached". Parts of the March of Wales, which after the Norman conquest had been administered by Marcher Lords largely independently of the English monarch, were incorporated into the English counties of Shropshire, Herefordshire and Gloucestershire in 1535.  There was historic ambiguity as to the status of the county of Monmouthshire. As with other Marcher areas added to existing counties, it was created out of "the said Country or Dominion of Wales" by the Laws in Wales Act 1535. It was then added to the Oxford circuit of the English Assizes. For legal purposes it was regarded as part of England, but Laws since the late 19th century were often applied to "Wales and Monmouthshire". It was listed among the English counties for parliamentary purposes until 1950 and for local government until 1974, but the Local Government Act 1972 unambiguously included the area as part of Wales.

Counties corporate.

A charter of Henry I in about 1130 gave the City of London its own Sheriff. The Sheriff of London also had jurisdiction over the county of Middlesex, so that "London and Middlesex were from that time regarded as one from an administrative point of view", although they retained their separate identities. This relationship continued until the Local Government Act 1888 created a new office of High Sheriff of Middlesex appointed in the same manner as other English and Welsh counties, created the County of London with its own high sheriff, and restricted the jurisdiction of the sheriffs of London to the City.  During the Middle Ages a number of other large cities and towns were granted the status of self-governing counties separate from adjacent counties. Such a county became known as a county corporate or "county of itself". For most practical purposes this separate status was replaced in the late 19th century when county boroughs were introduced.  Bristol developed as a major port in the medieval period, straddling both sides of the River Avon which formed the ancient boundary between Gloucestershire and Somerset. In 1373 Edward III decreed  Similar arrangements were later applied to Norwich (1404), Southampton (1447), Canterbury (1471), Gloucester (1483), Exeter (1537), and Poole (1571).  Charters were granted constituting the boroughs or cities of Lincoln (1409), Nottingham (1448), Lichfield (1556) and Worcester (1622) as counties. The County of the City of Coventry was separated from Warwickshire in 1451, and included an extensive area of countryside surrounding the city.  Charters granting separate county status to the cities and boroughs of Chester (1238/9), York (1396), Newcastle upon Tyne (1400) and Kingston-upon-Hull (with the surrounding area of Hullshire) (1440). In 1551 Berwick upon Tweed, on the border with Scotland, was created a county corporate.

Exclaves.

The ancient counties have many anomalies, and many small exclaves, where a parcel of land was politically part of one county despite not being physically connected to the rest of the county. The Counties (Detached Parts) Act 1844 was passed, the effect of which was to treat many of these exclaves as part of the county which surrounded them. This had already been done for Parliamentary purposes under the Great Reform Act 1832.  Large exclaves affected by the 1844 Act included the County Durham exclaves of Islandshire, Bedlingtonshire and Norhamshire, which were subsequently treated as hundreds of Northumberland; and those parts of Halesowen forming part of Shropshire, which was subsequently treated as part of Worcestershire, as the remainder already was.  Exclaves that the 1844 Act did not touch included the part of Derbyshire around Donisthorpe, locally in Leicestershire; and most of the larger exclaves of Worcestershire, including the town of Dudley, which remained surrounded by Staffordshire. Additionally, the Furness portion of Lancashire remained separated from the rest of Lancashire by a narrow strip of Westmorland — though it was accessible by way of the Morecambe Bay tidal flats.

1889.

When the first county councils were set up in 1889, they covered newly created entities known as administrative counties. Several historic subdivisions with separate county administrations were also created administrative counties, particularly the separate ridings of Yorkshire, the separate parts of Lincolnshire, and the East and West divisions of Sussex. The Local Government Act 1888 also contained wording to create both a new "administrative county" and a "county" of London, and to ensure that the county boroughs which were created at the same time continued for non-administrative purposes to be part of the county which they geographically lay. These counties were to be used "for all purposes, whether sheriff, lieutenant, custos rotulorum, justices, militia, coroner, or other". The effect was that new county boroughs which were counties corporate retained their status as separate counties. In retrospect, these "statutory" counties can be identified as the predecessors of the ceremonial counties of England. The censuses of 1891, 1901 and 1911 provided figures for the "ancient counties".  Several towns are historically divided between counties, including Banbury, Burton upon Trent, Newmarket, Peterborough, Royston, Stamford, Tamworth, Todmorden and Warrington. In Newmarket and Tamworth the historic county boundary runs right up the middle of the high street, and in Todmorden, the historically fractious border between Lancashire and Yorkshire (the river known as Walsden Water) had Todmorden Town Hall built right on top of it on a culvert tunnel, dividing the hall down the middle between the two counties – a division reflected in its architecture. The 1888 Act ensured that every urban sanitary district would be considered to be part of a single county. This principle was maintained in the 20th century: when county boroughs such as Birmingham, Manchester, Reading and Sheffield expanded into neighbouring counties, the area added became associated with the county borough's geographic county. However, this principle was not applied to Stockport or Cardiff, which remained divided, the latter even divided between England and Wales.

1965 and 1974.

On 1 April 1965 a number of changes came into effect. The new administrative area of Greater London was created, resulting in the abolition of the administrative counties of London and Middlesex, at the same time taking in areas from surrounding counties. On the same date the new counties of Cambridgeshire and Isle of Ely and of Huntingdon and Peterborough were formed by the merger of pairs of administrative counties. The new areas were also adopted for lieutenancy and shrievalty purposes.  In 1974 a major local government reform took place under the Local Government Act 1972. The Act abolished administrative counties and county boroughs, and divided England (except Greater London and the Isles of Scilly) into counties. These were of two types: "metropolitan" and "non-metropolitan" counties. Apart from local government, the new counties were "substituted for counties of any other description" for judicial, shrievalty, lieutenancy and other purposes. Several counties, such as Cumberland, Herefordshire, Rutland, Westmorland and Worcestershire, vanished from the administrative map, while new entities such as Avon, Cleveland, Cumbria and Humberside appeared, in addition to the six new metropolitan counties.  The built-up areas of conurbations tend to cross historic county boundaries freely. Examples are Bournemouth–Poole–Christchurch (Dorset and Hampshire) Greater Manchester (Cheshire, Derbyshire, Lancashire and Yorkshire), Merseyside (Cheshire and Lancashire), Teesside (Yorkshire and County Durham), South Yorkshire (Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire), Tyneside (County Durham and Northumberland) and West Midlands (Staffordshire, Warwickshire and Worcestershire). Greater London itself straddles five ancient counties — Essex, Hertfordshire, Kent, Middlesex, Surrey — and the London urban area sprawls into Buckinghamshire and Berkshire. The Local Government Act 1972 sought generally to unite conurbations within a single county, while retaining the historic county boundaries as far as was practicable.

Postal counties.

In a period of financial crisis, the Post Office was able to alter many of its postal counties in accordance with the 1965 and 1974 reforms, but not all. The two major exceptions were Greater London and Greater Manchester. Greater London was not adopted in 1965, since, according to the Post Office at the time, it would have been too expensive to do so, while it gave as its reason for not adopting Greater Manchester the ambiguity of the name with the Manchester post town. Perhaps as a result of this, the ancient counties appear not to have fallen completely out of use for locating places in Greater Manchester, along with areas of Greater London that are not part of the London post town. It is common for people to speak of "Uxbridge, Middlesex", "Dagenham, Essex" or "Bromley, Kent" (which are outside the London postal district), but much less so to speak of "Brixton, Surrey", "Greenwich, Kent", or "West Ham, Essex" (which are inside it).  In 1996, following further local government reform and the modernisation of its sorting equipment, the Royal Mail ceased to use counties at all in the direction of mail. Instead it now uses the outward code (first half) of the postcode. The former postal counties were removed in 2000 from its Postcode Address File database and included in an "alias file", which is used to cross-reference details that may be added by users but are no longer required, such as former street names or historic, administrative and former postal counties.  During a public consultation in 2009 Postcomm found that many respondents objected to the use of counties in the alias file. In May 2010 Postcomm announced that it was encouraging Royal Mail to discontinue the use of counties in its alias file at the earliest opportunity. However because some existing software included the use of counties, Royal Mail was advised not to implement the change before 2013.

County cricket.

The historic counties of England continue to be used as the basis for county cricket teams and the governance of cricket in England through the ECB County Boards. There are exceptions in that Rutland is integrated with Leicestershire; the Isle of Wight has its own board outside the Hampshire one; there is a board for the ceremonial county of Cumbria which is representative of both Cumberland and Westmorland. In addition, the ECB County Boards include one for the country of Wales.

Recognition of historic county boundaries.

A review of the structure of local government in England by the Local Government Commission for England led to the restoration of the East Riding of Yorkshire, Herefordshire, Rutland and Worcestershire as administrative areas in the 1990s; the abolition of Avon, Cleveland and Humberside within 25 years of their creation; and the restoration of the traditional borders between Somerset and Gloucestershire (except at Bristol), County Durham and Yorkshire (towards the mouth of the River Tees; not in Teesdale), and Yorkshire and Lincolnshire for ceremonial purposes in these areas. The case of Huntingdonshire was considered twice, but the Commission found that "there was no exceptional county allegiance to Huntingdonshire, as had been perceived in Rutland and Herefordshire".  The Association of British Counties (ABC), with its regional affiliates, such as the Friends of Real Lancashire and the Yorkshire Ridings Society, promotes the historic counties. It states that the ""...ABC contends that Britain needs a fixed popular geography, one divorced from the ever changing names and areas of local government...The ABC, therefore, seeks to fully re-establish the use of the historic counties as the standard popular geographical reference frame of Britain and to further encourage their use as a basis for social, sporting and cultural activities."  In 2013, Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government Eric Pickles formally recognised and acknowledged the continued existence of England's 39 historic counties. On 23 April 2014 a new initiative was announced to support the ‘tapestry’ of traditional English counties, including the removal of a restriction preventing the names of traditional counties being displayed on street and road signs. In August 2014, the first road sign was erected to mark the boundary of the historic county of Yorkshire. The Government is also publishing a new online interactive map of England’s county boundaries. The Government has previously changed rules to allow local and county flags to be flown without planning permission, and supported the Flag Institute in encouraging a new wave of county and community flags to be designed and flown by local communities. The flags of England's historic counties have been flown from Government offices in support of these identities. Of the 39 historic counties in England, 37 now have registered flags, many of them recently adopted. In July 2019 the UK Government published official guidance on Celebrating the Historic Counties of England, stating that "the tapestry of England's historic counties is one of the bonds which draws our nation together".  Sussex and Yorkshire, both historic counties and long abandoned as units for administrative purposes, have continued to be widely recognised as cultural regions, significant in sport and used by many organisations as regional units. These counties, and several others, have a county day in which the culture and history of the historic county is celebrated; many of these county days were created in the 21st century.  A direct action group, CountyWatch, was formed in 2004 to remove what its members consider to be wrongly placed county boundary signs that do not mark the historic or traditional county boundaries of England and Wales. They have removed, resorted or erected a number of what they claim to be "wrongly sited" county boundary signs in various parts of England. For instance, in Lancashire 30 signs were removed. CountyWatch has been criticised for such actions by the councils that erected the signs: Lancashire County Council pointed out that the taxpayers would have to pay for the signs to be re-erected.  The only political party with a manifesto commitment to restore the boundaries and political functions of all ancient counties, including Middlesex and Monmouthshire, is the English Democrats Party.

Functions.

By the late Middle Ages the county was being used as the basis of a number of functions.

Administration of justice and law enforcement.

The Assize Courts used counties, or their major divisions, as a basis for their organisation. Justices of the peace originating in Norman times as Knights of the Peace, were appointed in each county. At the head of the legal hierarchy were the High Sheriff and the Custos rotulorum (keeper of the rolls) for each county.  The justices had responsibility for maintaining county gaols and houses of correction. During the 19th century penal reformers campaigned against the often primitive conditions in gaols, and under the Prison Act 1877 they came under Home Office control.  Until the 19th century law enforcement was mostly carried out at the parish level. With an increasingly mobile population, however, the system became outdated. Following the successful establishment of the Metropolitan Police in London, the County Police Act 1839 empowered justices of the peace to form county constabularies outside boroughs. The formation of county police forces was made compulsory by the County and Borough Police Act 1856.

Defence.

In the 1540s the office of Lord Lieutenant was instituted. The lieutenants had a military role, previously exercised by the sheriffs, and were made responsible for raising and organising the militia in each county. The lieutenancies were subsequently given responsibility for the Volunteer Force. In 1871 the lieutenants lost their positions as heads of the militia, and their office became largely ceremonial. The Cardwell and Childers Reforms of the British Army linked the recruiting areas of infantry regiments to the counties.

Parliamentary representation.

Each English county sent two Knights of the Shire to the House of Commons (in addition to the burgesses sent by boroughs). Yorkshire gained two members in 1821 when Grampound was disenfranchised. The Great Reform Act of 1832 reapportioned members throughout the counties, many of which were also split into parliamentary divisions. Constituencies based on the ancient county boundaries remained in use until 1918.

Local government.

From the 16th century onwards the county was increasingly used as a unit of local government as the justices of the peace took on various administrative functions known as "county business". This was transacted at the quarter sessions, summoned four times a year by the lord lieutenant. By the 19th century the county magistrates were exercising powers over the licensing of alehouses, the construction of bridges, prisons and asylums, the superintendence of main roads, public buildings and charitable institutions, and the regulation of weights and measures. The justices were empowered to levy local taxes to support these activities, and in 1739 these were unified as a single "county rate", under the control of a county treasurer. In order to build and maintain roads and bridges, a salaried county surveyor was to be appointed.  By the 1880s it was being suggested that it would be more efficient if a wider variety of functions were provided on a county-wide basis.

Subdivisions.

Some of the counties have major subdivisions. Of these, the most significant are the divisions of Yorkshire: the East Riding, West Riding, North Riding and the ainsty of York. Since Yorkshire is so big, its ridings became established as geographical terms quite apart from their original role as administrative divisions. The second largest county, Lincolnshire, was divided into three historic "parts": Parts of Lindsey, Holland and Kesteven. Other divisions include the special status of Tower Hamlets within Middlesex, those of Sussex into East Sussex and West Sussex and Suffolk into East Suffolk and West Suffolk, and, more informally and hence more vaguely, of Kent into East Kent and West Kent.  Several counties had liberties or sokes within them that were administered separately. Cambridgeshire had the Isle of Ely, and Northamptonshire had the Soke of Peterborough. Such divisions were used by such entities as the Quarter Sessions courts and were inherited by the later administrative county areas under the control of county councils.  Most English counties were subdivided into smaller subdivisions called hundreds. Nottinghamshire, Yorkshire and Lincolnshire were divided into wapentakes (a unit of Danish origin), while Durham, Northumberland, Cumberland and Westmorland were divided into wards, areas originally organised for military purposes, each centred on a castle. Kent and Sussex had an intermediate level between their major subdivisions and their hundreds, known as lathes in Kent and rapes in Sussex. Hundreds or their equivalents were divided into tithings and parishes (the only class of these divisions still used administratively), which in turn were divided into townships and manors. In the 17th century the Ossulstone hundred of Middlesex was further divided into four divisions, which replaced the functions of the hundred. The borough and parish were the principal providers of local services throughout England until the creation of ad-hoc boards and, later, local government districts.

List of counties.

The ancient counties are as follows:  The historic counties of England are included in the Index of Place Names (IPN) published by the Office for National Statistics. Each "place" included in the IPN is related to the historic county it lies within, as well as to a set of administrative areas.

Administrative and ceremonial uses.

At the time of the 2009 structural changes to local government in England, the ancient counties continue to form, with considerably altered boundaries, many of the ceremonial and non-metropolitan counties in England. Some ancient counties have their names preserved in multiple contemporary units, such as Yorkshire in North Yorkshire and West Yorkshire or now correspond to another type of subdivision, such as the Huntingdonshire district. In some areas ancient counties have been abandoned for local government use and then later revived.

Other uses.

The vice counties, used for biological recording since 1852, are largely based on historic county boundaries. They ignore all exclaves and are modified by subdividing large counties and merging smaller areas into neighbouring counties; such as Rutland with Leicestershire and Furness with Westmorland. The static boundaries make longitudinal study of biodiversity easier. They also cover the rest of Great Britain and Ireland.

The historic counties of England are areas that were established for administration by the Normans, in many cases based on earlier kingdoms and shires created by the Anglo-Saxons and others. They are alternatively known as ancient counties, traditional counties, former counties or simply as counties. In the centuries that followed their establishment, as well as their administrative function, the counties also helped define local culture and identity. This role continued even after the counties ceased to be used for administration after the creation of administrative counties in 1889, which were themselves amended by further local government reforms in the years following.

Die traditionellen Grafschaften Englands oder historischen Grafschaften Englands sind die 39 Grafschaften "(counties)", in die England bis 1889 gegliedert war. Im Englischen werden diese Grafschaften als "ancient counties", "historic counties" oder seltener auch "traditional counties" bezeichnet. Verwaltungstechnisch sind die traditionellen Grafschaften Englands heute ohne Bedeutung.


Dataflow programming.

The programming paradigm used in LabVIEW, sometimes called G, is based on data availability. If there is enough data available to a subVI or function, that subVI or function will execute. Execution flow is determined by the structure of a graphical block diagram (the LabVIEW-source code) on which the programmer connects different function-nodes by drawing wires. These wires propagate variables and any node can execute as soon as all its input data become available. Since this might be the case for multiple nodes simultaneously, LabVIEW can execute inherently in parallel. Multi-processing and multi-threading hardware is exploited automatically by the built-in scheduler, which multiplexes multiple OS threads over the nodes ready for execution.

Graphical programming.

LabVIEW integrates the creation of user interfaces (termed front panels) into the development cycle. LabVIEW programs-subroutines are termed virtual instruments (VIs). Each VI has three components: a block diagram, a front panel, and a connector pane. The last is used to represent the VI in the block diagrams of other, calling VIs. The front panel is built using controls and indicators. Controls are inputs: they allow a user to supply information to the VI. Indicators are outputs: they indicate, or display, the results based on the inputs given to the VI. The back panel, which is a block diagram, contains the graphical source code. All of the objects placed on the front panel will appear on the back panel as terminals. The back panel also contains structures and functions which perform operations on controls and supply data to indicators. The structures and functions are found on the Functions palette and can be placed on the back panel. Collectively controls, indicators, structures, and functions are referred to as nodes. Nodes are connected to one another using wires, e.g., two controls and an indicator can be wired to the addition function so that the indicator displays the sum of the two controls. Thus a virtual instrument can be run as either a program, with the front panel serving as a user interface, or, when dropped as a node onto the block diagram, the front panel defines the inputs and outputs for the node through the connector pane. This implies each VI can be easily tested before being embedded as a subroutine into a larger program.  The graphical approach also allows nonprogrammers to build programs by dragging and dropping virtual representations of lab equipment with which they are already familiar. The LabVIEW programming environment, with the included examples and documentation, makes it simple to create small applications. This is a benefit on one side, but there is also a certain danger of underestimating the expertise needed for high-quality G programming. For complex algorithms or large-scale code, it is important that a programmer possess an extensive knowledge of the special LabVIEW syntax and the topology of its memory management. The most advanced LabVIEW development systems offer the ability to build stand-alone applications. Furthermore, it is possible to create distributed applications, which communicate by a client–server model, and are thus easier to implement due to the inherently parallel nature of G.

Widely-accepted design patterns.

Applications in LabVIEW are usually designed using well-known architectures, known as design patterns. The most common design patterns for graphical LabVIEW applications are listed in the table below.

Benefits.

Interfacing to devices.

LabVIEW includes extensive support for interfacing to devices, instruments, camera, and other devices. Users interface to hardware by either writing direct bus commands (USB, GPIB, Serial) or using high-level, device-specific, drivers that provide native LabVIEW function nodes for controlling the device.  LabVIEW includes built-in support for NI hardware platforms such as CompactDAQ and CompactRIO, with a large number of device-specific blocks for such hardware, the "Measurement and Automation eXplorer" (MAX) and "Virtual Instrument Software Architecture" (VISA) toolsets.  National Instruments makes thousands of device drivers available for download on the NI Instrument Driver Network (IDNet).

Code compiling.

LabVIEW includes a compiler that produces native code for the CPU platform. The graphical code is converted into Dataflow Intermediate Representation, and then translated into chunks of executable machine code by a compiler based on LLVM. Run-time engine calls these chunks, allowing better performance. The LabVIEW syntax is strictly enforced during the editing process and compiled into the executable machine code when requested to run or upon saving. In the latter case, the executable and the source code are merged into a single binary file. The execution is controlled by LabVIEW run-time engine, which contains some pre-compiled code to perform common tasks that are defined by the G language. The run-time engine governs execution flow, and provides a consistent interface to various operating systems, graphic systems and hardware components. The use of run-time environment makes the source code files portable across supported platforms. LabVIEW programs are slower than equivalent compiled C code, though like in other languages, program optimization often allows to mitigate issues with execution speed.

Large libraries.

Many libraries with a large number of functions for data acquisition, signal generation, mathematics, statistics, signal conditioning, analysis, etc., along with numerous for functions such as integration, filters, and other specialized abilities usually associated with data capture from hardware sensors is enormous. In addition, LabVIEW includes a text-based programming component named MathScript with added functions for signal processing, analysis, and mathematics. MathScript can be integrated with graphical programming using "script nodes" and uses a syntax that is compatible generally with MATLAB.

Parallel programming.

LabVIEW is an inherently concurrent language, so it is very easy to program multiple tasks that are performed in parallel via multithreading. For example, this is done easily by drawing two or more parallel while loops and connecting them to two separate nodes. This is a great benefit for test system automation, where it is common practice to run processes like test sequencing, data recording, and hardware interfacing in parallel.

Ecosystem.

Due to the longevity and popularity of the LabVIEW language, and the ability for users to extend its functions, a large ecosystem of third party add-ons has developed via contributions from the community. This ecosystem is available on the LabVIEW Tools Network, which is a marketplace for both free and paid LabVIEW add-ons.

User community.

There is a low-cost LabVIEW Student Edition aimed at educational institutions for learning purposes. There is also an active community of LabVIEW users who communicate through several electronic mailing lists (email groups) and Internet forums.

Home Bundle Edition.

National Instruments provides a low cost LabVIEW Home Bundle Edition.

Free for Non-Commercial use, Edition.

National Instruments provides a free for non-commercial use version called LabVIEW Community Edition. This version includes everything in the Professional Editions of LabVIEW, has no watermarks, and includes the LabVIEW NXG Web Module for non-commercial use. These editions may also be used by K-12 schools.

Criticism.

LabVIEW is a proprietary product of National Instruments. Unlike common programming languages such as C or Fortran, LabVIEW is not managed or specified by a third party standards committee such as American National Standards Institute (ANSI), Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), International Organization for Standardization (ISO), etc. Some users have criticised it for its tendency to freeze or crash during simple tasks, requiring the software to be shut down and restarted.

Slow.

Very small applications still have to start the run-time environment which is a large and slow task. This tends to restrict LabVIEW to larger applications. Examples of this might be tiny programs to grab a single value from some hardware that can be used in a scripting language - the overhead of the run-time environment render this approach impractical with LabVIEW.

Non-textual.

G language being non-textual, software tools such as versioning, side-by-side (or diff) comparison, and version code change tracking cannot be applied in the same manner as for textual programming languages. There are some additional tools to make comparison and merging of code with source code control (versioning) tools such as subversion, CVS and Perforce.

No zoom function.

There was no ability to zoom in to (or enlarge) a VI which will be hard to see on a large, high-resolution monitor. However, the ability to zoom has been added into LabVIEW NXG.

Release history.

In 2005, starting with LabVIEW 8.0, major versions are released around the first week of August, to coincide with the annual National Instruments conference NI Week, and followed by a bug-fix release the following February.  In 2009, National Instruments began naming releases after the year in which they are released. A bug-fix is termed a Service Pack, for example, the 2009 service pack 1 was released in February 2010.  In 2017, National Instruments moved the annual conference to May and released LabVIEW 2017 alongside a completely redesigned LabVIEW NXG 1.0 built on Windows Presentation Foundation (WPF).

Repositories and libraries.

OpenG, as well as LAVA Code Repository (LAVAcr), serve as repositories for a wide range of Open Source LabVIEW applications and libraries. SourceForge has LabVIEW listed as one of the possible languages in which code can be written.  VI Package Manager has become the standard package manager for LabVIEW libraries. It is very similar in purpose to Ruby's RubyGems and Perl's CPAN, although it provides a graphical user interface similar to the Synaptic Package Manager. VI Package Manager provides access to a repository of the OpenG (and other) libraries for LabVIEW.  Tools exist to convert MathML into G code.

Related software.

National Instruments also offers a product named Measurement Studio, which offers many of the test, measurement, and control abilities of LabVIEW, as a set of classes for use with Microsoft Visual Studio. This allows developers to harness some of LabVIEW's strengths within the text-based.NET Framework. National Instruments also offers LabWindows/CVI as an alternative for ANSI C programmers.  When applications need sequencing, users often use LabVIEW with TestStand test management software, also from National Instruments.  The Ch interpreter is a C/C++ interpreter that can be embedded in LabVIEW for scripting.  DSP Robotics' FlowStone DSP also uses a form of graphical programming similar to LabVIEW, but is limited to the robotics industry respectively.  LabVIEW has a direct node with modeFRONTIER, a multidisciplinary and multi-objective optimization and design environment, written to allow coupling to almost any computer-aided engineering tool. Both can be part of the same process workflow description and can be virtually driven by the optimization technologies available in modeFRONTIER.

Laboratory Virtual Instrument Engineering Workbench (LabVIEW) is a system-design platform and development environment for a visual programming language from National Instruments.

LabVIEW ist ein grafisches Programmiersystem von National Instruments. Das Akronym steht für „Laboratory Virtual Instrumentation Engineering Workbench“. Die erste Version erschien 1986 für Macintosh-Computer. Heute gibt es die Entwicklungsumgebung außerdem für Windows und Linux. Vergleichbar entwickelte Hewlett-Packard (inzwischen Agilent) die visuelle Programmiersprache VEE. Hauptanwendungsgebiete von LabVIEW sind die Mess-, Regel- und Automatisierungstechnik. Die Programmierung erfolgt mit einer grafischen Programmiersprache, genannt „G“, nach dem Datenfluss-Modell. Im Vordergrund steht dabei die Datenerfassung und -verarbeitung. LabVIEW-Programme werden als Virtuelle Instrumente oder einfach VIs bezeichnet. Sie bestehen aus zwei Komponenten: Das Frontpanel enthält die Benutzerschnittstelle, das Blockdiagramm den grafischen Programmcode. Dieser wird nicht von einem Interpreter abgearbeitet, sondern kompiliert. Dadurch ist die Leistung vergleichbar mit anderen Hochsprachen. LabVIEW benutzt die gleichen Bibliotheken und Datenerfassungsmodule wie LabWindows/CVI, der Integrierten Entwicklungsumgebung der Firma National Instruments und ist deshalb kompatibel mit LabWindows/CVI. Für viele komplexe mathematische Aufgaben stehen auch Funktionsbibliotheken zur Verfügung. Ähnlich wie Matlab deckt LabVIEW auch die Bereiche SP-Steuerung und flexible Versuchsautomatisierung ab.


History.

William Hyde Wollaston in 1802 and Joseph von Fraunhofer in 1814 described the dark lines within the solar spectrum. Later, Gustav Kirchhoff explained the lines by atomic absorption or emission, which allowed the lines to be used for the identification of chemical elements.  In the early days of telescopic astronomy, the word nebula was used to describe any fuzzy patch of light that did not look like a star. Many of these, such as the Andromeda Nebula, had spectra that looked like stellar spectra, and these turned out to be galaxies. Others, such as the Cat's Eye Nebula, had very different spectra. When William Huggins looked at the Cat's Eye, he found no continuous spectrum like that seen in the Sun, but just a few strong emission lines. The two green lines at 495.9 nm and 500.7 nm were the strongest. These lines did not correspond to any known elements on Earth. The fact that helium had been identified by the emission lines in the Sun in 1868, and had then also been found on Earth in 1895, encouraged astronomers to suggest that the lines were due to a new element. The name "nebulium" (occasionally "nebulum" or "nephelium") was first mentioned by Margaret Lindsay Huggins in a short communication in 1898, although it is stated that her husband occasionally used the term before.  In 1911, John William Nicholson theorized that all known elements consisted of four protoelements, one of which was Nebulium. The development of the periodic table by Dimitri Mendeleev and the determination of the atomic numbers by Henry Moseley in 1913 left nearly no room for a new element. In 1914 French astronomers were able to determine the atomic weight of nebulium. With a measured value of 2.74 for the lines near 372 nm and a slightly lower value for the 500.7 nm line indicating two elements responsible for the spectrum.  Ira Sprague Bowen was working on UV spectroscopy and on the calculation of spectra of the light elements of the periodic table when he became aware of the green lines discovered by Huggins. With this knowledge he was able to suggest that the green lines might be forbidden transitions. They were shown as due to doubly ionized oxygen at extremely low density, rather than the hypothetical nebulium. As Henry Norris Russell put it, "Nebulium has vanished into thin air." Nebulae are typically extremely rarefied, much less dense than the hardest vacuums produced on Earth. In these conditions, lines can form which are suppressed at normal densities. These lines are known as forbidden lines, and are the strongest lines in most nebular spectra.

Nebulium was a proposed element found in astronomical observation of a nebula by William Huggins in 1864. The strong green emission lines of the Cat's Eye Nebula, discovered using spectroscopy, led to the postulation that an as yet unknown element was responsible for this emission. In 1927, Ira Sprague Bowen showed that the lines are emitted by doubly ionized oxygen (O), and no new element was necessary to explain them.

Nebulium (selten "Nebulum" oder "Nephelium") ist der Name für ein im 19. Jahrhundert postuliertes hypothetisches Element. Ihm wurden die grünen Emissionslinien im Spektrum planetarischer Nebel und diffuser Gasnebel zugeordnet (vgl. Emissionsnebel).


Life.

Titus was a Greek, apparently from Antioch, who is said to have studied Greek philosophy and poetry in his early years. He seems to have been converted by Paul, whereupon he served as Paul's secretary and interpreter. In the year 49, Titus accompanied Paul to the council held at Jerusalem, on the subject of the Mosaic rites.  Towards the close of the year 56, Paul, as he himself departed from Asia, sent Titus from Ephesus to Corinth, with full commission to remedy the fallout precipitated by Timothy's delivery of 1 Corinthians and Paul's "Painful Visit", particularly a significant personal offense and challenge to Paul's authority by one unnamed individual. During this journey, Titus served as the courier for what is commonly known as the "Severe Letter", a Pauline missive that has been lost but is referred to in 2 Corinthians.  After success on this mission, Titus journeyed north and met Paul in Macedonia. There the apostle, overjoyed by Titus' success, wrote 2 Corinthians. Titus then returned to Corinth with a larger entourage, carrying 2 Corinthians with him. Paul joined Titus in Corinth later. From Corinth, Paul then sent Titus to organize the collections of alms for the Christians at Jerusalem. Titus was therefore a troubleshooter, peacemaker, administrator, and missionary.  Early church tradition holds that Paul, after his release from his first imprisonment in Rome, stopped at the island of Crete to preach. Due to the needs of other churches, requiring his presence elsewhere, he ordained his disciple Titus as bishop of that island, and left him to finish the work he had started. Chrysostom says that this is an indication of the esteem St. Paul held for Titus.  Paul summoned Titus from Crete to join him at Nicopolis in Epirus. Later, Titus traveled to Dalmatia. The New Testament does not record his death.  It has been argued that the name "Titus" in 2 Corinthians and Galatians is nothing more than an informal name used by Timothy, implied already by the fact that even though both are said to be long-term close companions of Paul, they never appear in common scenes. The theory proposes that a number of passages—1 Cor. 4:17, 16.10; 2 Cor. 2:13, 7:6, 13–14, 12:18; and Acts 19.22—all refer to the same journey of a single individual, Titus-Timothy. 2 Timothy seems to dispute this, by claiming that Titus has gone to Dalmatia (). The fact that Paul made a point of circumcising Timothy () but refused to circumcise Titus () would indicate that they are different men, although certain manuscripts of Galatians () have been taken (by Marius Victorinus, for example) to indicate that Paul "did" circumcise Titus.

Veneration.

The feast day of Titus was not included in the Tridentine Calendar. When added in 1854, it was assigned to 6 February. In 1969, the Catholic Church assigned the feast to 26 January so as to celebrate the two disciples of Paul, Titus and Timothy, the day after the feast of the Conversion of St. Paul. The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America celebrates these two, together with Silas, on the same date. The Orthodox Church commemorates him on 25 August and on 4 January.  His relics, now consisting of only his skull, are venerated in the Church of St. Titus, Heraklion, Crete, to which it was returned in 1966<ref name="The Orthodox Messenger, v. 8(7/8), July/Aug 1997">The Orthodox Messenger, v. 8(7/8), July/Aug 1997</ref> after being removed to Venice during the Turkish occupation.  St. Titus is the patron saint of the United States Army Chaplain Corps. The Corps has established the Order of Titus Award, described by the Department of Defense:

Titus ( ; ) was an early Christian missionary and church leader, a companion and disciple of Paul the Apostle, mentioned in several of the Pauline epistles including the Epistle to Titus. He is believed to be a Gentile converted to Christianity by Paul and, according to tradition, he was consecrated as Bishop of the Island of Crete.

Titus ( "Ágios Títos" bzw. = heiliger Titus); (* 10 oder 11, Geburtsort vermutlich Korinth; † 105 auf Kreta), der im Neuen Testament als ein Schüler des Apostels Paulus bezeichnet wird, war der erste Bischof von Kreta und gilt als Schutzpatron der kretischen Kirche. Er wurde später zu den Siebzig Jüngern Jesu gezählt. Seine Lebensdaten sind unbekannt, der altkirchlichen Legende nach starb er um 105 n. Chr. mit etwa 94 Jahren auf Kreta.


Uses.

Tortoiseshell was widely used from ancient times in the North and in Asia, until the trade was banned in the 2014. It was used, normally in thin slices or pieces, in the manufacture of a wide variety of items such as combs, small boxes and frames and inlays in furniture (known as Boulle Work carried out by André-Charles Boulle) and other items, frames for spectacles, guitar picks and knitting needles. Despite being expensive, tortoiseshell was attractive to manufacturers and consumers because of its beautiful mottled appearance, its durability, and its organic warmth against the skin.  The initial processing involved separating the layers of the scutes from the animal's carapace by heating, softening the plates by boiling them in salt water and flattening them under a press. Two pieces could be fused by use of a hot iron, but like the earlier stages, great care had to be taken not to lose the colour. Finishing and polishing was done by various techniques mainly in Europe or in the US. Craftsmen in various Asian countries have also perfected this art.

Availability.

In 1973, the trade of tortoiseshell worldwide was banned under CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species). The material was already often imitated in stained horn, plastic like cellulose acetate, and other materials, and this continues. The synthetic Delrin has been used especially for guitar picks.  Brands of synthetic substitutes for tortoiseshell include Tortoloid and Tor-tis.

History.

Tortoiseshell has been used since ancient times, and the ancient Greek chelys or lyre often used a whole shell to form its body. Inlaid veneers of tortoiseshell were popular with wealthy ancient Romans for furniture, especially couches for dining, and for small items. The "Periplus of the Erythraean Sea", probably a work of the 1st century AD, distinguishes between shell from different species, with that regarded as the best probably the hawksbill.  André Charles Boulle (1642-1732), cabinetmaker to Louis XIV of France introduced or perfected marquetry combining thin inlays of tortoiseshell backed with metal, with woods and metal, a style still called after him. Small luxury objects such as snuff-boxes were decorated in piqué work, inlays of precious metals and jewels into tortoiseshell (or other materials).  Hopes of capturing a large store of tortoiseshell led to the Ngatik massacre by Australian "beachcombers" of up to 50 men of Sapwuahfik in Micronesia in July 1837.

Tortoiseshell or tortoise shell is a material produced from the shells of the larger species of tortoise and turtle, mainly the hawksbill sea turtle, which is a Critically Endangered species according to the IUCN Red List largely because of its exploitation for this trade. The large size, fine colour and unusual form of the hawksbill's scutes make it especially suitable. The distinctive patterning is referred to in names such as the tortoiseshell cat, several breeds of guinea pig, and the common names of several species of the butterfly genera "Nymphalis" and "Aglais", and some other uses.

Schildpatt (auch Bissa, Schildkrot, von nordd./niederl. "Schildpadde" für Schildkröte) ist ein biogenes Material, das aus den flachen Hornschuppen (Scuta) des Rückenschildes (Carapax) von drei Arten von Meeresschildkröten gewonnen werden kann.


Characteristics.

The areas such as those between drawing and poetry, or between painting and theatre could be described as "intermedia". With repeated occurrences, these new genres between genres could develop their own names (e.g. visual poetry, performance art); historically, an example is haiga, which combined brush painting and haiku into one composition.  Higgins described the tendency of what he thought was the most interesting and best in the new art to cross boundaries of recognized media or even to fuse the boundaries of art with media that had not previously been considered for art forms, including computers.  With characteristic modesty, he often noted that Samuel Taylor Coleridge had first used the term.  Gene Youngblood also described intermedia, beginning in his "Intermedia" column for the Los Angeles Free Press beginning in 1967 as a part of a global network of multiple media that was "expanding consciousness"—the intermedia network—that would turn all people into artists by proxy. He gathered and expanded ideas from this series of columns in his 1970 book Expanded Cinema, with an introduction by Buckminster Fuller.

Academia.

In 1968, Hans Breder founded the first university program in the United States to offer an M.F.A. in intermedia. The Intermedia Area at The University of Iowa graduated artists such as Ana Mendieta and Charles Ray. In addition, the program developed a substantial visiting artist tradition, bringing artists such as Dick Higgins, Vito Acconci, Allan Kaprow, Karen Finley, Robert Wilson and others to work directly with Intermedia students.  Over the years, especially on the Iowa campus, "intermedia" has been used interchangeably with "multi-media". However, recently the latter term has become identified with electronic media in pop-culture. While Intermedia values both disciplines, the term "Intermedia" has become the preferred term for interdisciplinary practice.  Two other prominent University programs that focus on intermedia are the Intermedia program at Arizona State University and the Intermedia M.F.A. at the University of Maine, founded and directed by Fluxus scholar and author Owen Smith. Additionally, the Roski School of Fine Arts at the University of Southern California features Intermedia as an area of emphasis in their B.A. and B.F.A. programs. The University of Maryland Baltimore County [UMBC] offers an M.F.A. in Intermedia and Digital Art. Concordia University in Montreal, QC offers a B.F.A. in Intermedia/Cyberarts. Herron School of Art and Design, Indiana University, Purdue University, Indianapolis, has a M.F.A. Program Photography and Intermedia degree. The University of Oregon offers a Master of Music degree in Intermedia Music Technology. The Pacific Northwest College of Art offers a B.F.A. in Intermedia.  In the UK, Edinburgh College of Art [within University of Edinburgh] introduced a BA (Hons) Degree in Intermedia Arts, and intermedia can be a focus of study in Masters programmes. The Academy of Fine Arts [AVU] in Prague offers a Masters in Intermedia Studies founded by Milan Knizack and The Hungarian University of Fine Arts has an Intermedia Program.

Intermedia was a term used in the mid-1960s by Fluxus artist Dick Higgins to describe various inter-disciplinary art activities that occurred between genres in the 1960s.

Intermedialität bezeichnet in der Kultur-, Medienwissenschaft und Publizistik die Untersuchung der Beziehungen zwischen Medien, insbesondere von Möglichkeiten ästhetischer Kopplungen bzw. Brüchen. Intermediale Beziehungen können innerhalb und zwischen den traditionellen, handwerklichen Künsten, den analogen technisch-apparativen sowie den digitalen Medien (Neue Medien) bestehen.


Features.

The small cube, suspended in a acrylic glass enclosure, housed a PowerPC G4 processor running at 450 or 500 MHz, and had a unique, slot-loading, low-profile DVD-ROM or CD-RW drive. A separate monitor, with either an ADC or a VGA connection, was required for the Cube, in contrast to the all-in-one iMac series. Also unlike the iMacs, it had a video card in a standard AGP slot. However, there was not enough space for full-length cards. The Cube also featured two FireWire 400 ports and two USB 1.1 ports for connecting peripherals. The Cube is exceptional as the only Macintosh without a built-in speaker (as of 2016). Sound was provided by an external USB amplifier and a pair of Harman Kardon speakers. Although the USB amplifier had a standard mini-plug headphone output, it lacked any audio input. The Cube also used a silent, fanless, convection-based cooling system like the iMacs of the time.

History and sales.

Apple targeted the Cube at the market between the iMac G3 and the Power Mac G4, and was the first desktop configuration offering since the discontinued Power Macintosh G3 almost two years earlier. Despite its innovative design, critics complained it was too expensive—it was initially priced US $200 higher than the similarly equipped Power Mac G4 (450 MHz CPU, 64 MB RAM, 20 GB hard drive) and did not include a monitor, thus leading to slow sales. Additionally, early Cubes suffered from a manufacturing issue that led to faint lines (referred to as "cracks" or "mold lines") in the acrylic case. This was often considered damaging to the aesthetic quality of the computer.  After seeing low profits, Apple attempted to increase sales by bundling more software with it, lowering the price of the base model, incorporating a CD-RW drive standard for the 500 MHz version, and offering an improved Nvidia graphics card as an option. These efforts could not offset the earlier perception of reduced value compared to the iMac and Power Mac G4 lineup. According to an Apple press release on July 3, 2001, production of the Cube stopped indefinitely because of low demand.  In 2003, the G4 Cube received a brief return to the spotlight after a series of articles in "Wired" charted its cult popularity. The articles, focusing on upgrades installed by individual users and retailers such as Kemplar, led to a sharp rise in the Cube's resale value. Nevertheless, with the release of the relatively inexpensive Mac Mini (seen by some as a replacement), coupled with Apple's switch to G5 processors and eventually Intel Core-based processors, the Cube again faded into the background.

Modifications and upgrades.

Since the Cube's demise, a number of Cube enthusiasts have made modifications to their machines. Some of the more popular upgrades are high-performance video cards (duct tape may be used to allow the GPU fan to work correctly in the small Cube case) and third-party CPU upgrade cards (up to 1.8 GHz); a few people have even modified their Cubes to take a dual-processor upgrade. A popular upgrade is the GeForce2 MX, which exists in a version specially created for the Cube. Case modifications, such as lighting and extra cooling, are also popular. The Cube uses the same type of memory and hard drive as many other desktop computers, thus making upgrades for the said components popular. Although the Cube uses a fanless, convection-based cooling system, the mounting holes make it possible to install a standard desktop cooling fan.

Comparison to other Apple products.

Following Apple's discontinuation of the Power Mac G4 Cube, several of its products have been released in even smaller sizes while maintaining a similarly shaped, square base.

Apple TV.

The Apple TV is a digital media receiver designed to bring digital content to a television. Like the Power Mac G4 Cube, the Apple TV has a square base. The first generation's base measured on both sides, one-tenth of an inch longer than the G4 Cube's, but had a much shorter height of compared to the G4 Cube's. The second- and third-generation Apple TVs were about 75% smaller than the first-generation model. The AirPort Express shares the same dimensions as those Apple TV models, but is white instead of black.

Mac Mini.

Apple released the first Mac Mini on January 22, 2005, nearly three-and-a-half years after the G4 Cube was discontinued. Rather than being a mid-range computer, the Mini was typically sold as a low-end consumer model for use as a desktop, although a server model existed for the late-2009, mid-2010, mid-2011 and late-2012 models.  The Mac Mini had a square base, just like the G4 Cube. Models prior to mid-2010 had a base which was noticeably smaller than the G4 Cube's. The smaller machines also had a shorter height of. Mac Mini models released since mid-2010 had a larger square base, matching the dimensions of the G4 Cube.

Mac Pro 2013.

In 2013, Apple announced a redesigned version of the Mac Pro with dimensions similar to that of the G4 Cube. The new Mac Pro is a cylinder high and in diameter.

Appearances.

In popular culture.

The Cube can be found in many publications related to design and some technology museums. In addition, the computer has been featured in other forms of media. The G4 Cube was used as a prop on shows such as "Absolutely Fabulous", "The Drew Carey Show", "Curb Your Enthusiasm", "Dark Angel", "The Gilmore Girls" and "24". The computer was parodied in "The Simpsons" episode "Mypods and Boomsticks." The Cube is also seen in films such as "Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back", "40 Days and 40 Nights", "About a Boy", "August" and "The Royal Tenenbaums". In William Gibson's 2003 novel "Pattern Recognition", the character Cayce uses her film producer friend's Cube while staying in his London flat. In the movie "Big Fat Liar," a G4 Cube and a Studio Display can be seen in the background of Wolf's kitchen.  Sixteen Cubes were used to power the displays of the computer consoles in "".

As artwork.

The G4 Cube and its peripherals were showcased at The Museum of Modern Art, and at the Digital Design Museum (a division of Design Museum). G4 Cubes are also a popular candidate for "Macquariums"—fish tanks made from the chassis of Apple computers.

The Power Mac G4 Cube is a small form factor Macintosh personal computer from Apple Computer, Inc., sold between 2000 and 2001. Designed by Jonathan Ive, its cube shape is reminiscent of the NeXTcube from NeXT, acquired by Apple in 1996. The New York Museum of Modern Art holds a G4 Cube, along with its distinctive Harman Kardon transparent speakers, as part of its collection.

Der Power Mac G4 Cube (, englisch für Würfel) ist ein PC-Modell der Power-Mac-Reihe von Apple. Der " wurde am 19. Juli 2000 auf der MacWorldExpo in New York von Steve Jobs angekündigt, als technischer Olymp gepriesen und nur kurze Zeit gebaut. Er war zwischen 19. Juli 2000 bis Juli 2001 erhältlich und wurde aufgrund schlechter Verkaufszahlen auf unbestimmte Zeit gestoppt, jedoch nie mehr wieder ins Produktprogramm aufgenommen. Außer dem Netzteil war die gesamte Hardware des Rechners in einem Quader aus Acryl mit ca. 20 × 20 cm Grundfläche untergebracht.


Values.

Carbon dioxide has a GWP of exactly 1 (since it is the baseline unit to which all other greenhouse gases are compared). Values for other gases have been estimated on  The values given in the table assume the same mass of compound is analyzed; different ratios will result from the conversion of one substance to another. For instance, burning methane to carbon dioxide would reduce the global warming impact, but by a smaller factor than 25:1 because the mass of methane burned is less than the mass of carbon dioxide released (ratio 1:2.74). If you started with 1 tonne of methane which has a GWP of 25, after combustion you would have 2.74 tonnes of CO, each tonne of which has a GWP of 1. This is a net reduction of 22.26 tonnes of GWP, reducing the global warming effect by a ratio of 25:2.74 (approximately 9 times).  The global warming potential of perfluorotributylamine (PFTBA) over a 100-year time horizon has been estimated to be approximately 7100. It has been used by the electrical industry since the mid-20th century for electronic testing and as a heat transfer agent. PFTBA has the highest radiative efficiency (relative effectiveness of greenhouse gases to restrict long-wave radiation from escaping back into space) of any molecule detected in the atmosphere to date. The researchers found an average of 0.18 parts per trillion of PFTBA in Toronto air samples, whereas carbon dioxide exists around 400 parts per million.

Use in Kyoto Protocol.

Under the Kyoto Protocol, the Conference of the Parties standardized international reporting, by deciding (decision 2/CP.3) that the values of GWP calculated for the IPCC Second Assessment Report are to be used for converting the various greenhouse gas emissions into comparable CO equivalents when computing overall sources of greenhouse gase and "sinks" or absorption of greenhouse gases.

Importance of time horizon.

A substance's GWP depends on the timespan over which the potential is calculated. A gas which is quickly removed from the atmosphere may initially have a large effect, but for longer time periods, as it has been removed, it becomes less important. Thus methane has a potential of 34 over 100 years but 86 over 20 years; conversely sulfur hexafluoride has a GWP of 22,800 over 100 years but 16,300 over 20 years (IPCC Third Assessment Report). The GWP value depends on how the gas concentration decays over time in the atmosphere. This is often not precisely known and hence the values should not be considered exact. For this reason when quoting a GWP it is important to give a reference to the calculation.  The GWP for a mixture of gases can be obtained from the mass-fraction-weighted average of the GWPs of the individual gases.  Commonly, a time horizon of 100 years is used by regulators (e.g., the California Air Resources Board).

Water vapour.

Water vapour is one of the primary greenhouse gases, but some issues prevent its GWP to be calculated directly. It has a profound infrared absorption spectrum with more and broader absorption bands than CO, and also absorbs non-zero amounts of radiation in its low absorbing spectral regions. Next, its concentration in the atmosphere depends on air temperature and water availability; using a global average temperature of ~16 °C, for example, creates an average humidity of ~18,000ppm at sea level (CO is ~400ppm and so concentrations of [HO]/[CO] ~ 45x). Unlike other GHG, water vapor does not decay in the environment, so an average over some time horizon or some other measure consistent with "time dependent decay," q.v., above, must be used in lieu of the time dependent decay of artificial or excess CO molecules. Other issues complicating its calculation are the Earth's temperature distribution, and the differing land masses in the Northern and Southern hemispheres.

Other metrics: Global Temperature change Potential (GTP).

The "Global Temperature change Potential" is another way to quantify the ratio change from a substance relative to that of CO, in global mean surface temperature, used for a specific time span.

Calculating the global warming potential.

The GWP depends on the following factors: A high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime. The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated. Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength, this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength. A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a "window" of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent. The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph.  Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum, the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change.  Just as radiative forcing provides a simplified means of comparing the various factors that are believed to influence the climate system to one another, global warming potentials (GWPs) are one type of simplified index based upon radiative properties that can be used to estimate the potential future impacts of emissions of different gases upon the climate system in a relative sense. GWP is based on a number of factors, including the radiative efficiency (infrared-absorbing ability) of each gas relative to that of carbon dioxide, as well as the decay rate of each gas (the amount removed from the atmosphere over a given number of years) relative to that of carbon dioxide.  The radiative forcing capacity (RF) is the amount of energy per unit area, per unit time, absorbed by the greenhouse gas, that would otherwise be lost to space. It can be expressed by the formula:  where the subscript "i" represents an interval of 10 inverse centimeters. Abs represents the integrated infrared absorbance of the sample in that interval, and F represents the RF for that interval.  The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) provides the generally accepted values for GWP, which changed slightly between 1996 and 2001. An exact definition of how GWP is calculated is to be found in the IPCC's 2001 Third Assessment Report. The GWP is defined as the ratio of the time-integrated radiative forcing from the instantaneous release of 1 kg of a trace substance relative to that of 1 kg of a reference gas:  where TH is the time horizon over which the calculation is considered; a is the radiative efficiency due to a unit increase in atmospheric abundance of the substance (i.e., Wm kg) and [x(t)] is the time-dependent decay in abundance of the substance following an instantaneous release of it at time t=0. The denominator contains the corresponding quantities for the reference gas (i.e. ). The radiative efficiencies a and a are not necessarily constant over time. While the absorption of infrared radiation by many greenhouse gases varies linearly with their abundance, a few important ones display non-linear behaviour for current and likely future abundances (e.g., CO, CH, and NO). For those gases, the relative radiative forcing will depend upon abundance and hence upon the future scenario adopted.  Since all GWP calculations are a comparison to CO which is non-linear, all GWP values are affected. Assuming otherwise as is done above will lead to lower GWPs for other gases than a more detailed approach would. Clarifying this, while increasing CO has less and less effect on radiative absorption as ppm concentrations rise, more powerful greenhouse gases like methane and nitrous oxide have different thermal absorption frequencies to CO that are not filled up (saturated) as much as CO, so rising ppms of these gases are far more significant.

Global warming potential (GWP) is the warming caused by any greenhouse gas, as a multiple of the warming caused by the same mass of carbon dioxide (CO). GWP is 1 for CO. For other gases it depends on the gas and the time frame. Some gases, like methane, have large GWP, since a ton of methane causes much more warming than a ton of CO. Some gases, again like methane, break down over time, and their warming, or GWP, over the next 20 years is a bigger multiple of CO than their warming will be over 100 or 500 years. Values of GWP are estimated and updated for each time frame as methods improve.

Das (relative) Treibhauspotential (auch Treibhauspotenzial;,, "GWP") oder CO-Äquivalent einer chemischen Verbindung ist eine Maßzahl für ihren relativen Beitrag zum Treibhauseffekt, also ihre mittlere Erwärmungswirkung der Erdatmosphäre über einen bestimmten Zeitraum (in der Regel 100 Jahre). Sie gibt damit an, wie viel eine bestimmte Masse eines Treibhausgases im Vergleich zur gleichen Masse CO zur globalen Erwärmung beiträgt.


Band name.

The band name is derived from a German term referring to cigars with a discoloured wrapper leaf and sold cheaply; singer Peter Hein was in this line of work at Xerox while in the band.

Band history.

Fehlfarben was formed in 1979 out of members of "Mittagspause" and other musicians from the Düsseldorf punk scene. Initially moving away from the Clash and Wire influenced punk of Mittagspause to experiment with ska, Fehlfarben settled into a sound perhaps most comparable to their English contemporaries Gang of Four. Signing a contract with the German subsidiary of EMI lost them their status as an underground band, but in 1980 they released their debut, "Monarchie und Alltag" ("Monarchy and everyday life"), an album recognized then and now as one of the most important German-language rock records. Despite its cultural impact, "Monarchie und Alltag" did not reach gold status in Germany until 2000.  The single "Ein Jahr (Es geht voran)" ("One Year (It's moving onward)") from "Monarchie und Alltag", which would be their only hit single, was in fact disliked by the band members themselves, who had initially produced its slick disco groove more in jest than seriousness.  Shortly after having released their debut album, Fehlfarben suffered the departure of lead singer Peter Hein owing to his frustration at the follow-up tour's being lengthened from three to six weeks on short notice. He went back to his day job at Xerox, where he worked until 2003. The band released two more albums without Hein during the 1980s, "33 Tage in Ketten" ("33 days in chains") and "Glut und Asche" ("Blaze and ashes"), with only the latter making it onto the German charts. After struggles with their label, they disbanded at the end of 1984.  The first comeback with all the original members took place in 1990s; it saw (to mixed reviews) the release of two LPs: "Die Platte des himmlischen Friedens" ("The record of heavenly peace") and "Popmusik und Hundezucht" ("Pop music and dog breeding").  In 2002, the band launched another comeback behind the album "Knietief im Dispo" ("Knee deep in the overdraft loan"). The album coincided with a general revival of interest in the early days of German punk and new wave.

Fehlfarben is a Neue Deutsche Welle music band from Düsseldorf, Germany, that was formed in 1979. Its founding members were Peter Hein (vocals), former member of the Band "Mittagspause" ("lunch break"), Thomas Schwebel (guitar, former Mittagspause, S.Y.P.H.), Michael Kemner (bass, former member of 20 Colors, Mau Mau, DAF, YOU), Frank Fenstermacher (saxophone, later Der Plan), Markus Oehlen and Uwe Bauer (drums, former Mittagspause, Materialschlacht).

Fehlfarben ist eine deutschsprachige Rockband aus Düsseldorf und Wuppertal, die 1979 während eines Auftritts von The Teardrop Explodes in London gegründet wurde.


Biography.

Ellis was a member of the Catholic Worker Movement in 1974-1975. He wrote an autobiographical book (1997) "Unholy alliance: religion and atrocity in our time". He earned B.A. and M.A. degrees in Religion and American Studies at Florida State University, where he studied under Richard Rubenstein and William Miller. In 1980 he received his doctorate in contemporary American Social and Religious Thought from Marquette University. He then became a faculty member at the Maryknoll School of Theology in Maryknoll, New York, and director of the M.A. program at the Maryknoll Institute for Justice and Peace. He was made full professor in 1988, and remained at Maryknoll until 1995. He was a Senior Fellow and then visiting scholar at Harvard Divinity School's Center for the Study of World Religions and Harvard University's Center for Middle Eastern Studies, as well as a visiting professor at Florida State University. In 1998 he was appointed Professor of American and Jewish Studies at Baylor University, where the next year he was named University Professor of American and Jewish Studies. In 1999 he founded Baylor University's Center for American and Jewish Studies. In 2006, the Center was renamed The Center for Jewish Studies.  His current writings deal with contemporary Judaism, Jewish liberation theology, Jewish-Arab relations, justice, and peace. Ellis retired from Baylor University in 2012 and is currently visiting professor of international universities such as the United Nations mandated University for Peace in Costa Rica and the University of Innsbruck, Austria.  Among those who have commented positively on the work of Ellis are George McGovern, Noam Chomsky, Edward Said, Professor Susannah Heschel, Elliot Dorff and Desmund Tutu.  Ellis's departure from Baylor was controversial as he and his supporters, including Cornel West, Rosemary Ruether, and Desmond Tutu, stated that a concerted effort was made to remove him due to his views on Israeli-Palestinian relations. Baylor President Ken Starr and the university administration denied that Ellis was being targeted for his views but that the investigation had to do with privacy rules. Ellis responded that the privacy rules he was charged with violating were selectively enforced.

Marc H. Ellis (born 1952) is an American author, liberation theologian, and a retired University Professor of Jewish Studies, Professor of History and Director of the Center for Jewish Studies at Baylor University. He is currently visiting professor of several international universities, including the University of Innsbruck, Austria and the United Nations University for Peace, Costa Rica.

Marc H. Ellis (* 1952 in North Miami Beach, Florida) ist ein US-amerikanischer jüdischer Befreiungstheologe und Friedensaktivist. Nach seinem Doktorat 1980 wurde Ellis Professor an der Maryknoll School of Theology in Maryknoll, New York und erster Direktor des Maryknoll Institute for Justice and Peace. Seit 1998 ist er Universitätsprofessor für Amerikanische und Jüdische Studien an der Baylor University in Waco, Texas.


History.

Kyšperk.

The first mention in a written document comes from 1308 – during the reign of a weak king the castle "Geiersberg" harbored villain noblemen harassing their neighbourhood. In 1513 Kyšperk was first mentioned as a town. During the last quarter of the 17th century, the owner of the town Hynek Jetřich Vitanovský from Vlčkovice greatly improved its state: he ordered to rebuild the fortress into a baroque palace, founded a baroque church of St. Wenceslas (this church is beautifully decorated with fabulous plasters (stucco) by the Italian master Giovanni Maderna), handcraftsmen were allowed to establish guilds, and a hospital for poor and old people was founded. The large fire from 1824 burned down 76 houses. In 1874 a railway crossed Kyšperk, starting the growth of industry in the town.

Červená village.

The village was called "Rotnek" until 1950. It is separated from the rest of the town by a cliff called Hrubý Kámen with a cross on its top.

Kunčice village.

The village was first mentioned in a written document from 1292. In 1685 a brick church building was founded. It was rebuilt in 1761. Castelet Ovčín was built in 1686. From the second half of the 19th century until 1922, a phosphorus matches manufacture existed here. The village became a part of Letohrad in 1950.

Orlice village.

The place was first mentioned in a written document from 1361 (a small fortress existed here) under its original name "Pratum" (in Latin). Since 1406 it has been called Orlice. The village has an old church building which was burned down during the Hussite Wars and for the last time was rebuilt in 1711. Since the end of the 19th century, several textile factories have been built here.

Letohrad today.

The main source of employment after World War II have been electrotechnical industry and production of construction materials, as well as agriculture. Paneláks were built to provide housing. After the Velvet Revolution in 1989 the historical centre of the town was renovated.  The town tries to attract tourists with cultural festivals, sport events and rich collection of historical sights.

Twin towns — sister cities.

Letohrad is twinned with:

Letohrad (; until 1950 called Kyšperk; ) is a town in the Ústí nad Orlicí District, Pardubice Region of the Czech Republic. It has around 6,500 inhabitants. The town lies beneath Orlice Mountains, on the river Tichá Orlice.

Letohrad (deutsch: "Geiersberg", tschechisch bis 1950: "Kyšperk") ist eine Stadt im Okres Ústí nad Orlicí in Tschechien. Sie liegt sechs Kilometer südöstlich von Žamberk.


Geography.

Varberg is located in a terrain of hills and plains. It is largely without trees and green areas, in its place are bald rocks and sand. The Swedish authoritative author and bishop Esaias Tegnér described it in 1826 as the least appealing place in Sweden, which has later been used in the marketing of Varberg. The sandy beaches are however very popular in the summer. Another main factor in Varberg is its natural surroundings. The landscape further inland has rolling hills with lakes and forests in contrast to the flatter coastal areas.

Climate.

Varberg has an oceanic climate that although moderate by Swedish standards, still retains quite large seasonal variation. Summers are in general cooler than both in Halmstad and Gothenburg, with highs being moderated by the marine airflow. Although this moderation occurs, some summer days can be very warm, and some winter nights see severe frosts. The highest recorded temperature since 1901 is 33.6°C (92.5°F) on July 31, 2018 and the lowest is -25.5°C (-13.9°F) in January 1942.

History.

A fortress called Varberg (at that time written "Wardbergh", "watch hill") was erected in the 1280s as part of a chain of military establishments along the coast, in what was then Danish territory. In the middle of the 14th century, the old settlement "Getakärr" north of the fortress took its new name from the fortress. The town was moved northwards around the year 1400. It was destroyed during the Kalmar War (1611-1612) and rebuilt near the fortress. In 1645 Halland passed from Denmark to Sweden by the Treaty of Brömsebro for a period of 30 years. It had at that time about 600 inhabitants. The transfer was made permanent by the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658. The town was moved again after a fire in 1666 to where the city centre is located today. The city was devastated by a huge fire in 1863 and was subsequently rebuilt with stone or brick houses. In 1890 the population figure had passed 4,000 and with industrialization it reached 8,500 in 1930. The local government reform of 1971 made Varberg the seat of the much larger Varberg Municipality, with a current population of close to 56,000 inhabitants. Although several houses were torn down in the 1970s, most of the city center still remains intact.

Sights.

Varberg's fortress is its most notable historical building, mostly because of its size as it has no architectural uniformity. It was first built as a castle in 1280, with new parts being built in successions.  Near Varberg there is the VLF transmitter Grimeton, an interesting radio-technical facility and classified by UNESCO to be a World Cultural Heritage site. It can be visited during the summer. Bexell Cottage is also located in the area.

Sports.

The following sports clubs are located in Varberg:

Varberg () (old ) is a locality and the seat of Varberg Municipality, Halland County, Sweden with 27,602 inhabitants in 2010.

Varberg (alte Schreibweise: "Warberg") ist eine Stadt in der schwedischen Provinz Hallands län und der Landschaft Halland. Varberg, gelegen am Kattegat, ist der Hauptort der Gemeinde Varberg.


History.

Ancient Haleion.

Modern Galaxidi is built on the site of ancient Haleion, a city of western Locris. Traces of habitation are discernible since prehistoric times with a peak in the Early Helladic Period (Anemokambi, Pelekaris, Kefalari, islet of Apsifia). A significant Mycenaean settlement has been located at Villa; the hill of St. Athanasios also revealed a fortified Geometric settlement (ca. 700 BC). In the Archaic and Classical periods (7th-4th centuries BC) was developed the administrative and religious centre at the modern site of Agios Vlasis. It seems that in ca. 300 BC the present site was settled and surrounded by a fortification wall; it is the period of the expansion of power of the Aetolian League. Haleion flourished throughout the Hellenistic and Roman periods until the 2nd century AD.

Middle Ages.

Galaxidi is mentioned for the first time in the late 10th century (981 or 996), when it was destroyed in a raid by the Bulgarians under Tsar Samuel. The inhabitants fled to the offshore islands, and the town was not settled again until 50 years later. The most important harbour of the Gulf of Itea alongside Krissa, the town was again devastated by the Norman invasions of 1081 and 1147.  After the Fourth Crusade (1204) it came under the control of the Frankish Lordship of Salona, but was recovered by the Greek Despotate of Epirus in 1211. The town remained under Epirote control until the division of the realm in, when it passed under the rule of John I Doukas, ruler of Thessaly. In 1311 it was conquered, along with Salona, by the Catalan Company. It was captured by the Ottomans in 1397, but was regained shortly after by the Despotate of the Morea under Theodore I Palaiologos. In 1403 it was ceded briefly to the Knights Hospitaller. In 1447/8 it was refortified by Constantine Kantakouzenos, but this did not prevent its final capture by the Ottomans shortly after.

Ottoman period and maritime trade.

Ottoman presence in the settlement was minimal, the majority of the inhabitants consisting of Orthodox Christians. The city flourished due to the development of maritime trade in the 18th century. The commercial exchanges with the West, particularly for the agricultural products of Corinthia and the Corinthian Gulf in general triggered the development of a local commercial fleet, taking advantage also of the exquisite natural port of Galaxidi. Particularly after the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (1774), many of the ship owners of Galaxidi operated under the Russian flag.

Greek Independence.

Despite their privileged position, the inhabitants joined immediately the forces of the revolutionaries (especially naval) during the Greek War for Independence and their city was destroyed twice by the Ottoman army, namely in 1821 and in 1825-6. It recovered, however, and in the course of the 19th century it thrived as a commercial and maritime centre, a fact attested also by the spacious and luxurious houses of the traditional settlement.  Until the late 19th century, Galaxidi had a sizeable merchant marine fleet and was a prosperous commercial centre. This is reflected in the size and style of the local buildings and mansions. Preservation of the traditional architecture has facilitated the growth of tourism in recent decades. The marine museum contains exhibits from this period.  In recent years commercial fish farming has been developing.

The Chronicle of Galaxidi.

In the Monastery of Sotir, on a hill just outside the city, the Greek ethnographer and scholar Constantine Sathas discovered in 1864 a manuscript containing the “Chronicle of Galaxidi”, written in 1703 by the monk Euthymios; it constituted the only source for the history of Phocis from the medieval period to the year of its composition.

Town layout.

Galaxidi is a small port situated on a natural double harbour surrounded by mountains. The deeper main harbour provides docking facilities for yachts and small fishing boats and is lined with restaurants, bars, and stores. The smaller harbour is Chirolaka.  On the rocky shoreline by the side of the larger harbour, is a pine forest planted by school children in the early twentieth century. There is a road behind the town that leads up the mountain to the Monastery of the Metamorphosis (actually a convent that was inhabited by one nun as of 2010). This provides a splendid view of the town and its surroundings.  No traces remain of the town's medieval castle. The Church of Saint John of Jerusalem, built by the Hospitallers in 1404, survived until after World War I, when it was replaced by a modern church dedicated to Saint Nicholas.

Subdivisions.

The municipal unit Galaxidi consists of the following communities:

Sites of interest.

In an old mansion of Galaxidi are situated two museums: the Archaeological Collection and the Maritime and Historical Museum of Galaxidi. The building was constructed in ca 1870, in order to shelter the Girls' School, the Town Hall and the Police department. It was continuously used as such until 1979, whereas already since 1932 it sheltered the school of weaving and handcrafts

Archaeological Collection of Galaxidi.

The Archaeological Collection of Galaxidi is under the directorate of the Ephorate of Antiquities of Phocis. The collection was established in 1932 in order to host antiquities found and donated by citizens as well as excavation finds from the regions in and around Galaxidi. The exhibition is organised in three main themes: (a) Private and daily life, (b) Trade and maritime activity and (c) Cemeteries. It focuses on the educational aspects as the finds are accompanied by pictures and texts, revealing the history of ancient Haleion, the precursor of Galaxeidi. The settlements represented in the first window case are Dexameni, Kefalari, Apsifia and Anemokambi; the Early Helladic period (3200-1900 B.C.)of Haleion itself is also represented. Among the exhibits stand out Mycenaean vessels (three-eared pithoid amphora, stirrup jar and pyxis) and Geometric vessels from the cemetery of Agios Athanasios. In the next case are exhibited finds from the city of Haleion (Galaxeidi) itself. The city wall, dating to the period of the Aetolian League delimited the settlement and made it one of the best protected ports of the Corinthian gulf. At Heroon Square there was excavated a cemetery rich in finds, which reveal aspects of the daily life in Haleion. Among the finds stands out a black glazed kantharos, two lagynoi, some spindle-shaped unguentaria and terracotta lamps. To the Archaic period (7th century BC) date cotylae with angular handles, aryballoi and pyxides originating from Corinth and other vessels. Attic pottery is also represented through black-figure cylixes and lekythoi and two black-glazed kantharoi. Particularly interesting is the red-figured pelike with the representation of a man wearing the himation, supported by a stick and talking to a young man, also wearing the himation (2nd quarter of the 5th century B.C.).This is a type quite common as a similar one is exhibited in the Archaeological Museum of Amphissa and one in the Archaeological Museum of Messenia, found in Nihoria. Seven glass vessels represent the glassmaking of the 1st century A.D. Among them stands out a cast cup, bearing the inscription “Be happy in everything that you participate at”. From the woman's world are displayed mainly beauty items, such as the two bronze mirrors, pieces of bronze Geometric jewelry and a remarkable pendant in the form of a head of Ammon Zeus probably dating to the Roman period. Household weaving, one of the basic women's activities, is attested by numerous clay loom weights one of which bears the name “Agesiou”. The case opposite to the entrance comprises clay figurines and metal vessels and tools from the site Akona or Ankona. They are mainly busts, seated figures and standing figures with a tall headcover holding a bird in her chest. More than 100 bronze vessels and utensils from Galaxeidi are found scattered in 15 museums in America and Europe. They have all been illegally exported in the 19th century. In 1973 these vessels were identified through the discovery of a bell-shaped lekythos and a tall handle, which reminded of the two lekythoi of the British Museum and the one in Edinburgh which bear the indication “Galaxeidi”. In a corner case is displayed a globular amphora of the Late Early Helladic II period (2400-2200 B.C.) from Anemokambi, covered entirely with shells' residues. In a compartment with sand on the floor have been placed seven commercial amphoras for transportation of wine, dated in various periods and coming from different regions (Corinth, Corfu, Cnidus, Hellenistic of the 1st century B.C., Aegean type of the 5th-6th century A.D). At the end of the hall are displayed finds from Agios Athanasios (Geometric period) and from the town of Galaxeidi itself (Classical-Roman period). Part of a Roman marble statue and a funerary relief as well as three inscribed funerary stele of the late Hellenistic period are displayed. Geometric pottery comprises mainly skyphoi and wine jugs from Corinth as well as other vessels. The Hellenistic pottery comprises lagynoi, Corinthian kantharoi, miniature lekythoi, etc. Among the Roman vessels stands out one with the pattern of a gladiator, another one with a cupid and a third one with the depiction of a female figure, holding torches and bearing a crescent on the head, possibly an incarnation of the Night.

Maritime Museum of Galaxidi.

Maritime Museum of Galaxidi, a museum which includes the "Chronicle of Galaxidi" which was published by Konstantinos Sathas in 1865. It used to serve as a town hall for Galaxidi.

Flour Wars.

The Carnival Season in Greece ends with the celebration of Clean Monday which coincides with the beginning of the Greek Orthodox Lent. On that particular day the custom of "Alevromoutzouroma" (, literally Flour Smudging, or else Flour Wars), takes place in Galaxidi. The origins of the custom are unclear, however it appears in its current form since the mid-19th century.  Around noon, locals and visitors of all ages dressed up in old clothes rendezvous at a predefined location where flour is distributed in large quantities. Various types of coloring is added for effect while people paint their faces with charcoal. Then they march to the harbor which is usually split into a war zone and a neutral zone for the observers and the fight begins. The participants throw each other (and to unsuspected bystanders) colored flour until essentially they run out of supplies.  The event often attracts media coverage.

Galaxidi or Galaxeidi (), is a town and a former municipality in the southern part of Phocis, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Delphi, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 126.088 km.

Galaxidi (, bis 1940 ) ist eine Kleinstadt und seit 2011 ein Gemeindebezirk der Gemeinde Delfi in Mittelgriechenland. Die Ortschaft befindet sich in einer Bucht des Golf von Korinth südwestlich des Orakels von Delphi, südlich von Amfissa und südwestlich von Itea.