Timeline.

The 2020 coronavirus pandemic in Japan can be divided into two waves based on the genome sequence of the country's COVID-19 virus. The (NIID) has determined from its genetic research that the COVID-19 variant of the first wave is derived from the Wuhan type that is prevalent in patients from China and East Asia. After entering Japan in January through travellers and returnees from China, the virus resulted in numerous infection clusters across the country before moving towards its disappearance in March. Japanese medical surveillance confirmed its first case of the virus on 16 January in a resident of Kanagawa Prefecture who had returned from Wuhan.  The first wave was followed by a second one that originated from a COVID-19 variant of the European type that is traced back to early patients from France, Italy, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. Japanese medical surveillance detected the second wave on 26 March when the government's expert panel concluded the likelihood of a new outbreak caused by travellers and returnees from Europe and the United States between 11 March and 23 March. The NIID has established that the majority of viruses spreading in Japan since March is the European type. This has led it to conclude that the data "strongly suggests" that the Japanese government has succeeded in containing the Wuhan variant and that it is the European variant that is spreading across the country.

First wave (January–March).

January.

On 16 January, Kanagawa Prefecture confirmed its first case of COVID-19 when a man in his 30s who had previously travelled to Wuhan tested positive for it, marking the first confirmed case in Japan.  On 24 January, Tokyo Prefecture confirmed its first case of COVID-19. The Japanese government announced that it would provide repatriation services for all Japanese citizens in Hubei Province on that same day. Officials negotiated with Chinese authorities to

February.

On 1 February, a passenger of the Diamond Princess cruise ship who had disembarked in Hong Kong on 25 January tested positive for COVID-19. The ship received quarantine orders from the Japanese government in Naha on that same day.  On 3 February, the Japanese government announced entry restrictions for all foreign citizens who had had a travel history to and from Hubei Province or had a Chinese passport issued from there. The Diamond Princess arrived at Yokohama and was placed under quarantine by the Japanese government on the same day.  On 5 February, the Japanese government announced that several passengers of the Diamond Princess had tested positive for COVID-19.  On 12 February, the Japanese government announced entry restrictions for all foreign citizens who had a travel history to and from Zhejiang Province or had a Chinese passport issued from there.  On 13 February, Wakayama Prefecture confirmed its first case of COVID-19. A

March.

On 1 March, Hyogo Prefecture confirmed its first case of COVID-19. Ehime Prefecture reported its first case on 2 March, followed by Oita Prefecture on 3 March, Yamaguchi Prefecture and Miyazaki Prefecture on 4 March, Shiga Prefecture on 5 March, Akita Prefecture and Yamanashi Prefecture on 6 March, and Hiroshima Prefecture, Gunma Prefecture, and Fukui Prefecture on 7 March.  On 5 March, Japan announced quarantine restrictions for all visitors arriving from China and South Korea. On 6 March, the South Korean government protested the restrictions by suspending visas for all Japanese citizens travelling to South Korea.  On 10 March, the Japanese government categorized the 2020 coronavirus pandemic in Japan as a.  On 13 March, Saga Prefecture confirmed its first case of COVID-19. Nagasaki Prefecture reported its first case on 14 March, followed by Ibaraki Prefecture and Kagawa

Second wave (March–present).

March.

On 25 March, MHLW officials announced 71 people tested positive, including 41 cases in Tokyo. Governor Yuriko Koike held an emergency press conference in the late afternoon. She said that "the current situation is a serious situation where the number of infected people may explode." Koike also asked "if possible, work at home and refrain from going out at night as much as possible on weekdays." Koike asked people returning from abroad to refrain from going out for 14 days. The request

April.

On 3 April, Japan expanded its entry ban, effectively barring entrance to the country for visitors from 73 countries and regions. On 7 April, Abe proclaimed a state of emergency from 8 April to 6 May for Tokyo and the prefectures of Kanagawa, Saitama, Chiba, Osaka, Hyogo and Fukuoka. He also said there would be no lockdown like in other countries, and that public transportation and other services needed to keep the economy and society going would be maintained as much as possible. This was the first emergency declaration in Japan. Abe also stated that the pandemic had created the nation's greatest economic crisis since the end of World War II.  On 9 April, Kiminobu Okada (岡田公伸), an executive of Mainichi Broadcasting System in Osaka, died due to coronavirus in Nishinomiya.  Narita International Airport closed one of its two runways on 12 April due to an 85 percent reduction in traffic caused by the virus.  A second wave of infections hit Hokkaido, prompting the prefectural government to declare a second state of emergency that closed schools and that asked residents

May.

On 1 May, smaller towns and villages began distributing the 100,000 yen stimulus payment to residents. Larger municipalities are expected to follow suit within the next two months.  On 3 May, at the event held by the Japanese conference, Prime Minister Abe announced through a video that he intends to revise Japan's peace constitution in order to deal with the resolute infectious disease. On this topic, the Constitutional Democratic Party leader Yukio Edano underscored Japan has the basic law on disaster management that also restricts private rights during the time of emergency and allows authorities to implement essential measures, saying the law can be applied in efforts to contain the coronavirus. At a news conference on Friday, Democratic Party for the People leader Yuichiro Tamaki expressed that even after the coronavirus situation has calmed down, the constitutional amendment can proceed in a quiet environment. Komeito, the LDP ’s coalition partner, is also cautious about hasty talks on revising the Constitution. “It ’s important to hold discussions on constitutional issues in a calm manner,” Komeito leader Natsuo

June.

On 2 June, Tokyo Gov. Yuriko Koike issued a warning Tuesday amid signs of a possible resurgence of coronavirus infections, as 34 cases were newly reported in the Japanese capital.  On 3 June, Two Yomiuri Giants players have tested positive for the new coronavirus, casting a shadow over Nippon Professional Baseball's plan to start the 2020 season on June 19.  On 5 June, Japanese electronics giants Hitachi Ltd. and Toshiba Corp. said that they would jointly set up a facility with Fujirebio to produce antigen-testing kits for the coronavirus.  As of 6 June, Japanese economic revitalization minister Yasutoshi Nishimura said that he would hold talks with Tokyo Governor Yuriko Koike on Sunday to discuss how to curb rising infections in Tokyo's nightlife districts while preventing the spread of the virus among young people and in nightlife districts.  As of 8 June, the lack of leadership has led to a decrease in the approval ratings of Prime Minister Abe, and it is reported that Secretary General Toshihiro Nikai, who had a sense of distance from Senator Kishida, is in contact with former secretary Ishiba to recreate the Liberal Democratic Party's regime.  On 9 June, it was reported that Hosts forced to work to protect the livelihoods of employees despite virus risk even nightlife districts demonized over infection fears while grappling with virus impacts, because lack of financial support from government lead some night workers to work for their daily living, which could become political problem. Some experts expressed that there could be ponderous epidemic in Japan before end of June.  On 10 June, Organizers of the postponed Tokyo Games said Wednesday they have agreed with the International Olympic Committee to hold a "simplified" games next summer to ensure safety from the coronavirus and reduce the financial impact of the one-year delay.  As of 11 June, The Tokyo metropolitan government on Thursday lifted its warning about a possible increase in the number of coronavirus infections in the capital, moving a step closer to a full resumption of economic and social activities in the capital.  On 12 June, the organizing committee of the Tokyo Olympics and Paralympics confirmed on Friday that it has not yet reached agreements to use about 20 percent of the venues for the postponed games next year. About 80% of the facilities needed for next year’s postponed Tokyo Olympics have been lined up, the president of the organizing committee commented on Friday.  As of 12 June, Japan's health authorities reported 61 new cases of the coronavirus and three deaths on Friday. Meanwhile, Japanese drugmaker Daiichi Sankyo Co. said Friday that they are aiming to launch a clinical study of a genetic vaccine for the new coronavirus around March 2021.  As of 12 June, Japanese Authorities confirmed that they eased restrictions on returning after visiting outside of Japan due to humanitarian excuses such as calling of court, clinical treatment and family visits.  As of 13 June, Tokyo’s nightlife is beginning to rebound, as the metropolitan government lifts another raft of restrictions. Venues that have been closed since early April at the government’s request because of the coronavirus will be opening their doors once more. Operators of nightlife establishments were required to keep a record of their customers' names and contact information in sheets and requested to ensure social distancing rules as part of measures to contain the wide spread of the coronavirus, according to guidelines released by the government on Saturday.  On 14 June, NHK reported that Japan's daily

Government response.

Phase 1: Containment.

The initial response of the Japanese government to the COVID-19 outbreak was a policy of containment that focused on the repatriation of Japanese citizens from Wuhan, the point of origin of the pandemic, and the introduction of new border control regulations.  On 24 January, Abe convened the Ministerial Meeting on Countermeasures Related to the Novel Coronavirus at the Prime Minister's Office with members of his Cabinet in response to a statement by the World Health Organization (WHO) confirming human-to-human transmission of the coronavirus. Abe announced that he would introduce appropriate countermeasures to the disease in coordination with the (NIID).  On 27 January, Abe designated the new coronavirus as an "infectious disease" under the, which allows the government to order patients with COVID-19 to undergo hospitalization. He also designated the disease as a "quarantinable infectious disease" under the Quarantine Act, which allows the government to quarantine people suspected of infection and order them to undergo diagnosis

Reinforcement of medical service system.

After the COVID-19 outbreak on the cruise ship "Diamond Princess", the Japanese government shifted its focus from a containment policy to a prevention and treatment one because it anticipated increasing community spread within Japan. This policy prioritized the creation of a COVID-19 testing and consultation system based on the National Institute of Infectious Diseases (NIID) and the government's 83 existing municipal and prefectural public health institutions that is separate from the civilian hospital system. The new system handles the transfer of COVID-19 patients to mainstream medical facilities to facilitate patient flow, triage, and the management of limited testing kits on their behalf to prevent a rush of infected and uninfected patients from overwhelming healthcare providers and transmitting diseases

Phase 2: Mitigation.

On 23 February, Abe instructed the government's coronavirus task force to quickly draft a comprehensive basic policy. Health Minister Katsunobu Kato reconvened the medical experts from the first Novel Coronavirus Expert Meeting on 24 February to draft this policy. During the meeting, the medical establishment presented its policy recommendations in the form of a views report (Japanese: 新型コロナウイルス感染症対策の基本方針の具体化に向けた見解), concluding that the most important objective must be the prevention of large-scale disease clusters and a decrease in outbreaks and deaths. They stated that it would not be possible for the government to prevent the spread of COVID-19 in Japan on a person-to-person basis, but that it might be possible to regulate the overall speed of infection. They cited the next week or two as a "critical moment" determining whether the country would experience

State of Emergency declaration.

On 5 February, the Abe Administration's coronavirus task force initiated political debate on the introduction of emergency measures to combat the COVID-19 outbreak a day after the British cruise ship "Diamond Princess" was asked to quarantine. Initial debate focused on constitutional reform due to the task force's apprehension that the Japanese Constitution may restrict the government's ability to enact such compulsory measures as quarantines on the grounds that it violated human rights. After lawmakers representing almost all of the major political parties – including the Jimintō, Rikken-minshutō, and Kokumin-minshutō – voiced their strong opposition towards this proposal and asserted that the Constitution allowed for emergency measures, the Abe Administration moved forward with legislative reform instead.  On 5 March, Abe introduced a draft amendment to the Special Measures Act to Counter New Types of Influenza of 2012 to extend the law's emergency measures for an influenza outbreak to include COVID-19. He met separately with the heads of five opposition parties on 4 March to promote a "united front" in passing the reforms. The National Diet passed the amendment on 13 March, making it effective for the next two years. The amendment allows the Prime Minister to declare a "state of emergency" in specific areas

Novel Coronavirus Expert Meeting.

On 16 February, Abe convened the Novel Coronavirus Expert Meeting to incorporate members of the Japanese medical community

Government support measures.

On 12 February, Abe announced that the government would secure 500 billion yen for emergency lending and loan guarantees to small and medium enterprises affected by the COVID-19 outbreak. He also declared that his Cabinet would set aside 15.3 billion yen from contingency funds to facilitate the donation of isolated virus samples to relevant research institutions across the globe.  On

Controversies and criticisms.

On 17 February, the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare asked people who have had a fever over 37.5 °C for more than four days or those who have lethargy and difficulty breathing worse than those for influenza to consult with the coronavirus-related Return and Contact Consultation Centres around the country to determine if they should get tested for novel coronavirus. However, some media outlets asserted that restrictive standards for testing would delay societal and public health responses, leading to the spread of the disease, which could later lead to the collapse of the health care system and the medically protected regional community.  In early February,, a hematologist, chairman of the Institute for Healthcare Governance, and outside director of SBI Pharma Co., Ltd. and SBI Biotech Co., Ltd., compared with Italy and criticized Japan's response to the cruise ship. Japan quarantined everyone for two weeks, and then tested them all twice before releasing them but Italy disembarked all passengers in 12 hours. Italy only tested two people who were ill and suspected of being infected, and they tested negative, they immediately released all the remaining 6000 passengers.  In late February, several Japanese media outlets reported that there were people with fever or other symptoms who could not

Medical response.

The medical task-force advising the government, known as the Novel Coronavirus Expert Meeting, has adopted a three-pronged strategy to contain and mitigate COVID-19 that includes (1) early detection of and early response to clusters through contact tracing; (2) early patient diagnosis and enhancement of intensive care and the securing of a medical service system for the severely ill; and (3) behaviour modification of citizens. Medical experts have prioritized COVID-19 testing for the first two purposes, while relying on the behaviour modification of citizens rather than mass testing to prevent the spread of the virus at a large-scale level.

Contact tracing against clusters.

On 25 February, the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare established the Cluster Response Team (Japanese: クラスター対策班) in accordance with the Basic Policies for Novel Coronavirus Disease Control. The purpose of the section is to identify and contain small-scale clusters of COVID-19 infections before they grow into mega-clusters. It is led by university professors and Nishiura Hiroshi and consists of a contact tracing team and a surveillance team from the (NIID), a data analysis team from Hokkaido University, a risk management team from Tohoku University, and an administration team. Whenever a local government determines the existence of a cluster from hospital reports, the Ministry of Health dispatches the section to the area to conduct an epidemiological survey and contact tracing in coordination with members of the local public health centre. After the teams determine the original source of infection, the ministry and local government officials enact countermeasures to locate, test, and place under medical surveillance anybody who may have come into contact with an infected person. They can

Reinforcement of the medical system.

During the initial stages of the outbreak, medical experts recommended the government to focus COVID-19 testing for contact tracing purposes and patients with the following symptoms: (1) cold symptoms and a fever of at least 37.5 °C (or need to take antipyretic medication) for over four days; and (2) extreme fatigue and breathing difficulties. The

Behaviour modification of citizens.

The Japanese government's medical task-force anticipates multiple waves of COVID-19 to arrive in the country for at least the next three years, with each one prompting the public to engage in a cycle of restricting and easing movement. Under the current law, the Prime Minister can restrict movement by declaring a "state of emergency" in specific areas where COVID-19 poses a grave threat to residents. During such periods, the governors of affected areas can request citizens to avoid unnecessary outings and temporarily close certain businesses and facilities. Since the government cannot enact compulsory measures to enforce these requests, it has instead embarked on a social engineering program to train its citizens to comply with them on a voluntary basis

Regional developments.

The following are examples of the spread of infections for three of the eight regions in Japan.

Hokkaido.

The first case was identified in Hokkaido on 28 January 2020, and the first case of an infected person in Hokkaido was

Kanto.

On 13 February 2020, three confirmed cases were announced in the Kanto region, and one case was confirmed in each of Kanagawa, Tokyo, and Chiba. On 6 March

Aichi.

The first case was identified in Aichi on 26 January 2020, and the first case of an infected person in Aichi was on 14

Socio-economic impact.

Abe said that "the new coronavirus is having a major impact on tourism, the economy and our society as a whole". Japan into recession. In Q1 2020 GDP there was 0.9 contraction, whereas in Q4 2019 GDP there was 1.9 contraction. Face masks have sold out across the nation and new stocks are quickly depleted. There has been pressure placed on the healthcare system as demands for medical checkups increase. Chinese people have reported increasing discrimination.  The aviation, retail and tourism sectors have reported decreased sales and some manufacturers have complained about disruption to Chinese factories, logistics and supply chains. Abe has considered using emergency funds to mitigate the outbreak's impact on tourism, 40% of which is by Chinese nationals. S&P Global noted that the worst hit stocks were for travel, cosmetics and retail companies, which are most exposed to Chinese tourism. Nintendo warned that delays on shipments of hardware and accessories for its Nintendo Switch video game console would be "unavoidable" due to the impact on its Chinese supply chain and manufacturing, and on 7 April announced that shipments to Japan would be delayed due to increased demand for the device.  On the same day the Nagoya Expressway Public Corporation announced plans to temporarily close some toll gates and let employees work from their homes after an employee staffing the toll gates was diagnosed positive for SARS-CoV-2. Due to personnel shortages, six toll gates on the Tōkai and Manba routes of the expressway network were closed over the weekend.

Sporting events.

The outbreak has affected professional sports in Japan. Nippon Professional Baseball's preseason games and the Haru Basho sumo tournament in Osaka were announced to be held behind closed doors, while the J.League football and Top League rugby suspended or postponed play entirely. On the weekend of 29 February, the Japan Racing Association closed its horse racing meets to spectators and off-track betting until further notice, but continued to offer wagering by phone and online.  The outbreak expansion has affected sports schedule of school in Japan. Since

Entertainment.

On 26 February, Abe suggested that major sporting, cultural and other events should be cancelled, delayed or scaled down for about two weeks amid the new coronavirus outbreak. As a result, J-pop groups Perfume and Exile cancelled their concerts scheduled that night at Tokyo Dome and Kyocera Dome Osaka, respectively, both of which have a capacity of 55,000. On 27 February, AnimeJapan 2020, originally scheduled to be held in Tokyo Big Sight in late March, was cancelled.  A number of major amusement parks announced temporary closures. On 28 February, Tokyo Disneyland, Tokyo DisneySea and Tokyo Disney Resort were temporarily closed from 29 February. Universal Studios Japan also announced a closure the same day.

Distance learning.

On 27 February 2020, Prime Minister Shinzo Abe requested that all Japanese elementary, junior high, and high schools close until early April to help contain the virus. This decision came days after the education board of Hokkaido called for the temporary closure of its 1,600 public and private schools. Nursery schools were excluded from the nationwide closure request. As of 5 March, 98.8 per cent of all municipally run elementary schools have complied with Abe's request, resulting in 18,923 school closures.  Along with the school suspension, the online education was being piloted in some areas

Harassment.

Due to prejudice and ignorance, social harassment is expanding in relation to infectious diseases. Because of their worries about being contracted, the number of cases where medical personnel's family commuting is restricted or people around the infected person are disturbed has increased. In addition, there are increasing cases where small business owners, who were inevitably operating, are forced to take self-sufficiency by neighbours who feel anxious and deprived.

Aid to China.

On 26 January, Japanese people donated a batch of face masks to Wuhan. According to the "Liberty Times" of Taiwan, these were actually purchased by China, but Japanese media and the stated that it was a donation.

Festivals and contests.

The following major festivals were cancelled:  The following major fireworks events were also

International travel restrictions.

Restrictions on entry to Japan.

On 3 April, foreign travellers who had been in any of the following countries and regions within the past 14 days were barred from entering Japan. This travel ban covers all foreign nationals, including those holding Permanent

Restrictions on entry from Japan.

The following countries and

Statistics.

Number of cases and deaths.

No. of total confirmed cases No. of new cases per day No.

The COVID-19 pandemic in Japan is part of the worldwide pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 () caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (). The virus was first confirmed to have spread to Japan in January 2020. Definitively reported cases have been recorded in each of the 47 prefectures except for Iwate. The country has seen over 10,000 confirmed cases.

Die COVID-19-Pandemie tritt in Japan im Zuge der weltweiten COVID-19-Pandemie auf. Seit dem 16. Januar 2020 sind Fälle in dem Land bekannt.


Biography.

Born in Boston, Massachusetts, Webster was from a well-connected family: his grandfather was a successful merchant; his mother, Hannah (White) Webster, was a Leverett; his wife's sister married into the Prescotts; he was friends with the Shaws;, and his Unitarian pastor was the Reverend Francis Parkman Sr. (brother of George). Webster, indulged as a child and pampered in youth, had a petulant and fussy disposition, but was known for his kindly nature.  He graduated from Harvard College in 1811. In 1814, he was among the founders of the Linnaean Society of New England, and was appointed cabinet-keeper of the society's quickly growing collection of specimens in Joy's Buildings in Boston. He graduated from Harvard Medical College in 1815.  Around 1815, he went to London for further study. At Guy's Hospital, he was a surgeon’s pupil, a physician’s pupil, and a surgeon's dresser. He then went to São Miguel Island in the Azores (1817–18). There, he practiced medicine; published his first book; and met the daughter of the American vice-consul on the island, Harriet Fredrica Hickling, whom he married on May 16, 1818, with whom he fathered four daughters. After returning to Boston, he entered private medical practice, but a lack of success prompted him to change careers. Webster was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, in 1823.

Harvard lecturer.

In 1824, Webster was appointed a lecturer of chemistry, mineralogy, and geology at the Harvard Medical College, and three years later he was promoted to the Erving professorship. In Boston he lived on Common Street.  Webster was a popular lecturer at Harvard Medical College. Webster was described by Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. as "pleasant in the lecture room, rather nervous and excitable." Many of Webster's class-room demonstrations involved some of the latest chemical discoveries. Cohen (1950) particularly noted Webster's demonstrating Michael Faraday's liquefaction of the common gasses and Webster even made solid carbon dioxide among his demonstrations. Edward Everett Hale reminisced about the student-based Davy Club at Harvard: "Dr. Webster... gave us the most good-natured and kindly assistance." George F. Hoar mentioned that Webster's lectures were "tedious", at least for a non-chemistry major, but that: "[Webster] was known to the students by the sobriquet of Sky-rocket jack, owing to his great interest in having some fireworks at the illumination when President Everett, his former classmate, was inaugurated. There was no person less likely to commit such a bloody and cruel crime as that for which he was accused." Many anecdotes suggest his class-room demonstrations were livened by pyrotechnic drama, although on one occasion the President of Harvard warned that some of them were dangerous if an accident occurred.  Reports written after the trial criticized his teaching ability: for instance, "The Boston Daily Bee" described him as "tolerated rather than respected, and has only retained his position on account of its comparative insignificance. As a lecturer he was dull and common-place and while the students took tickets to his lectures, they did not generally attend them."  Webster had financial problems. The family had been forced to give up a mansion he had built in Cambridge, although they were leasing a respectable but not grand house in 1849. He was in debt to a number of friends, as his salary and meager lecture earnings could not cover his expenses.  Henry Wadsworth Longfellow attested to his macabre streak in an anecdote relating how at one dinner at the Webster home, the host amazed his guests by lowering the lights, fitting a noose around his own neck, and lolling his head forward, tongue protruding, over a bowl of blazing chemicals, to give a ghastly imitation of a man being hanged.  He wrote "A Description of the Island of St. Michael" (1821), was associate editor of the "Boston Journal of Philosophy and the Arts" (1824–26), compiled "A Manual of Chemistry" (1826), and brought out editions of Andrew Fyfe's "Elements of Chemistry" (1827) and Justus von Liebig's "Animal Chemistry or Organic Chemistry" (1841). Noted mineralogist and Harvard Professor, Clifford Frondel appraised Webster's books as "creditable" and had praise for them.

Parkman–Webster murder case.

On November 23, 1849, Dr. George Parkman was murdered. After an investigation, Dr. John White Webster was accused of the murder on January 26, 1850. The murder trial was the 19th century equivalent of the "Case of the Century" and has been widely cited as one of the earliest uses of forensic evidence to identify a body. As the remains had been partially cremated, dental evidence and bone fragments were used to verify that they were Dr. Parkman's. The case was widely publicized in newspapers, particularly as Webster was also a professor at Harvard University. Webster was known to be in debt to Parkman and there had been arguments when Parkman pressed Webster for money.  After a lengthy trial, where, under current Massachusetts law, Webster could not testify in his own defense, the jury was instructed by the principal judge, a close relative of the victim, that they "Must come back with a guilty verdict." The judge also issued one of the first ever “reasonable doubt” instructions to the jury, however. The most important factor about the case is that a great body of documentary testimony was either not used by Webster's lawyers or was denied admission into his defense. Helen Thomson wrote utilizing mostly the extensively re-written court testimony and newspaper accounts. Her book partially perpetuated the notion that Webster was guilty, although, she too had reservations about the testimony and verdict. Robert Sullivan, the chief criminal prosecutor for the State of Massachusetts, reviewed the entire documentary records of the Webster case and was convinced that Webster was innocent and that the murderer was actually Webster's accuser, Ephraim Littlefield: "The verdict not only was unwarranted, but appears to have been unduly guided by the judge's charge to the jury."  Webster was sentenced to death, was taken to Boston's Leverett Street Jail on August 30, 1850, and publicly hanged.

In popular culture.

The Parkman–Webster murder case was dramatized in the CBS radio program "Crime Classics" on July 13, 1953 in the episode entitled "The Terrible Deed of John White Webster". Webster was portrayed in this program by Jay Novello. The case was also discussed at length in the first episode of television programme Catching History's Criminals: The Forensics Story, focussing on identity. The series was produced by the BBC and the Open University in 2015. The case was also the subject of one of the 'Famous Trials' series of books edited by George Dilnot (qv) and published in England by Geoffrey Bles in 1928.

John White Webster (May 20, 1793 – August 30, 1850) was an American professor of chemistry and geology at Harvard Medical College. In 1850, he was convicted of murder in the Parkman–Webster murder case and hanged.

John White Webster (* 20. Mai 1793 in Boston, Massachusetts; † 30. August 1850 ebendort) war ein US-amerikanischer Gelehrter (Mediziner, Chemiker, Mineraloge), Harvard-Professor und hingerichteter Mörder.


Setting.

Kipo Oak, a thirteen-year-old girl, is searching for her father after being forced to flee from her underground city. To do so, she travels through an overgrown post-apocalyptic urban wasteland ruled by sentient mutant animals ("mutes"), together with her new friends Wolf, Mandu, Benson and Dave. Sechrist compared the series to "The Wizard of Oz", "but instead of ruby slippers [Kipo] has Converse on".

Development.

The series was announced at the Annecy International Animated Film Festival in June 2019. It is based on Sechrist's 2015 webcomic "Kipo".  The series has five writers in addition to showrunner Radford Sechrist and executive producer Bill Wolkoff. They worked in two teams, each comprising a director and three board artists. The animation is made by Studio Mir in South Korea using traditional animation methods. About sixty people worked on the series at DreamWorks, and about fifty-five at Studio Mir.

Music.

The soundtrack to the series, including several original songs, was composed by Daniel Rojas. It draws on an eclectic mix of musical styles, from folk to classical music and hip-hop. The first soundtrack album, "Kipo and the Age of Wonderbeasts: Season 1 Mixtape", was released in January 2020 by Back Lot Music.

Reception.

At "io9", Beth Elderkin described "Kipo" as a "must-watch", writing that it joined the likes of "She-Ra and the Princesses of Power", "Gravity Falls" and "Steven Universe" as a series with a broad appeal to many age groups, and highlighting its music and art design. At "Collider", Dave Trumbore noted "Kipo"s similarity to other recent female-led animated portal fantasy series such as "Amphibia" and "The Owl House", and described it as a "classic in the making" that drew on cultural touchstones such as "Fallout", "The Warriors", "The Island of Doctor Moreau", "Planet of the Apes" and "Alice in Wonderland".  Writing for "Polygon", Petrana Radulovic appreciated that beneath a standard fantasy exploration quest, the series is a "vibrant mosaic, with a unique world, multidimensional character relationships, and a deeper underlying plot" about the tensions between mutes and humans. She also noted that Benson was the first character to have an explicit coming out as gay in an all-ages animation series, and that the understated manner of the scene, in episode 6, made it all the more noteworthy. Charles Pulliam-Moore at "io9" likewise wrote that the series's "casual queerness is fantastic" because Benson's orientation is not treated as a plot point to complicate Kipo's feelings for him, but, "with a distinct matter-of-factness", as just one aspect of his character.

Kipo and the Age of Wonderbeasts is an American animated television series created by Radford Sechrist, adapted from his 2015 webcomic "Kipo". The series is produced by DreamWorks Animation Television and animated by South Korean studio Mir. Its first season of ten episodes premiered on Netflix on January 14, 2020.

Kipo und die Welt der Wundermonster (Originaltitel: "Kipo and the Age of Wonderbeasts") ist eine US-amerikanische Zeichentrick-Fernsehserie von Radford Sechrist, basierend auf dessen Webcomic "Kipo". Die erste Staffel erschien am 14. Januar 2020 auf Netflix. Die zweite Staffel erschien am 12. Juni 2020.


Construction and career.

United States Navy service (1919–1940).

The ship was launched on 14 January 1919 by Mare Island Navy Yard; sponsored by Mrs. F. W. Kellogg. "Claxton" commissioned on 13 September 1919, Lieutenant Commander F. T. Leighton in command.  "Claxton" operated on the west coast until 18 June 1922, when she was decommissioned at San Diego, California. Re-commissioned 22 January 1930, she served on the west coast and on reserve training from New Orleans until September 1933, when she joined the Special Service Squadron for patrol duty off Cuba. Between January and November 1934 she was in rotating reserve at Charleston, then returned to Cuban patrols until October 1935. After exercising with the Battle Force, she was assigned to the Naval Academy during 1936 and 1937, making three coastal cruises.  Duty with Squadron 40-T, formed to patrol European waters protecting American interests during the civil war in Spain, occupied "Claxton" from October 1937 until November 1938. In January 1939 she returned to duty at the Naval Academy, but in September began service on the Neutrality Patrol off the Florida Straits. In January and February 1940, she patrolled off the New England coast, and after training cruises on the east coast, arrived at Halifax, Nova Scotia, 21 November 1940. On 26 November she was delivered to British authorities in the destroyers-for-bases exchange. She was decommissioned 5 December 1940, and commissioned in the Royal Navy the same day as HMS "Salisbury".

Service with the Royal Navy (1940–1944).

HMS "Salisbury", as a, arrived at Belfast, Northern Ireland, 30 December 1940 for duty with the Western Approaches Command escorting Atlantic convoys. In April and May 1942, she joined in escorting the US aircraft carrier on her two voyages to fly planes off for beleaguered Malta. Returning to the Clyde, HMS "Salisbury" was modified for trade convoy escort service by removal of three of the original 4"/50 caliber guns and one of the triple torpedo tube mounts to reduce topside weight for additional depth charge stowage and installation of hedgehog. "Salisbury" guarded troop convoys in the Atlantic until September, when she was assigned to the Royal Canadian Navy. Based at St. John's, HMS "Salisbury" served on local escort duty until November 1943 when, with newer escorts available, she was placed in care and maintenance status at Halifax, Nova Scotia and paid off on 10 December 1943. She was sold for scrap 26 June 1944 at Vancouver, British Columbia.

USS "Claxton" (DD-140), named for Thomas Claxton, was a in the United States Navy. Entering service in 1919, the destroyer saw intermittent use during the interwar period. During World War II, "Claxton" was transferred to the Royal Navy and renamed HMS "Salisbury". The ship saw service in the Battle of the Atlantic before sold for scrapping in 1944.

Im Herbst 1940 wurde die USS "Claxton" im Rahmen des Zerstörer-für-Stützpunkte-Abkommens an die "Royal Navy" abgegeben. Das in HMS "Salisbury" umbenannte Schiff wurde im September 1942 an die Royal Canadian Navy weitergegeben, die den alten Zerstörer schon im Dezember 1943 außer Dienst stellte und zum Abbruch verkaufte.


History.

The background for the controversy was a published plan by the Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate (NVE) that called for the construction of a dam and hydroelectric power plant that would create an artificial lake and inundate the Sami village of Máze. After the initial plan met political resistance, a less ambitious project was proposed that would cause less displacement of Sami residents and less disruption for reindeer migration and wild salmon fishing.  On July 12, 1978, the popular movement against development of the Alta-Kautokeino waterway (Folkeaksjonen mot utbygging av Alta-Kautokeinovassdraget) was founded, creating an organizational platform for first opposing and then resisting construction work. This group and others filed for an injunction in Norwegian courts against the Norwegian government to prevent construction from beginning.  In the fall of 1979, as construction was ready to start, protesters performed two acts of civil disobedience: at the construction site itself at Stilla, activists sat down on the ground and blocked the machines, and at the same time, Sami activists began a hunger strike outside the Norwegian parliament.  Documents that have since been declassified, show that the government planned to use military forces as logistical support for police authorities in their efforts to stop the protests.  The prime minister at the time, Odvar Nordli, pre-empted such an escalation by promising a review of the parliament's decision, but the Norwegian parliament subsequently confirmed its decision to dam the river. More than one thousand protesters chained themselves to the site when the work started again in January 1981. The police responded with large forces; at one point 10% of all Norwegian police officers were stationed in Alta (during which time they were quartered in a cruise ship). The protesters were forcibly removed by police.  For the first time since World War II, Norwegians were arrested and charged with violating laws against rioting. The central organizations for the Sami people discontinued all cooperation with the Norwegian government. Two Sami women even travelled to Rome to petition the Pope.  The Supreme Court ruled in favor of the government in early 1982, at which point organized opposition to the power plant ceased, and construction of the Alta Hydroelectric Power Station was completed by 1987.

Legacy.

As the first serious political upheaval since the debate about Norwegian EC membership in 1972, the Alta controversy was important in several ways:  The NGO organised the opposition against the construction in the Alta controversy, and had at the most 20,000 members. Of these 10,000 actively participated in demonstrations, including the Stilla March. The organisation functioned as a cooperation between environmentalists and Sami activists, and not only succeeded at putting focus on environmental issues but also on Sami rights.  After their acts of civil disobedience, the four leaders, Alfred Nilsen, Tore Bongo, Svein Suhr and Per Flatberg (information leader), were sentenced for encouraging illegal acts.  "La Elva Leve!" ["let the river live"] was a 1980 docudrama inspired by the events of the Alta protests.  In 2014 "in one of the scenes of the Donald Duck Christmas story, mining activists—clad in "gákti"—and a chain gang show up. Associations to the Alta conflict of the 70s and 80s, where there was great resistance to the building of a dam on the Alta River, are clear", according to NRK. A documentary film "Tidsvitne: Alta-kampen" ["the Alta Struggle" episode of the Tidsvitne series] was produced by NRK.  A subplot in the 2019 animated musical film "Frozen II" where a dam built on tribal land by King Runeard, Elsa and Anna's grandfather, alludes to the Alta controversy. Runeard had the dam built ostensibly as a gift to the Northuldrans, a fictional tribe inspired by the Sámi people, but was actually a means to further subjugate the tribe whom the king distrusted for their reliance on magic.

The Alta conflict or Alta controversy refers to a series of massive protests in Norway in the late 1970s and early 1980s concerning the construction of a hydroelectric power plant in the Alta river in Finnmark, Northern Norway.

Der Alta-Konflikt (norwegisch: "Alta-saken" oder "Alta-konflikten") war ein politischer Konflikt, der von etwa 1968 bis 1982 andauerte. Dabei protestierten Samen und Umweltaktivisten gegen den Ausbau der Wasserkraft in der Finnmark in Nordnorwegen. Der Ausbau konnte zwar nicht verhindert werden, die Demonstrationen hatten jedoch eine große Auswirkung auf die samische Politik in Norwegen.


History.

The Erie Western was incorporated in August 1977 and began operations under an Interstate Commerce Commission car service order on September 25, 1977 to operate freight service for 158 miles on the former Erie Lackawanna Railway main line from the Indiana/Ohio state line near Wren, Ohio west to Hammond, Indiana. The railroad also operated a 27-mile branch line extending from Decatur, Indiana to Portland, Indiana. The Erie Western also possessed ICC-granted rights to operate from Hammond to Chicago on trackage rights over the Chicago and Western Indiana Railroad.  The Erie Western was created because the former main line of the Erie Lackawanna Railway, which went bankrupt in 1972, was not included in the federal government's creation of Conrail, prompting the Erie Western to be formed by shippers and others who wanted to retain and preserve rail service. The railroad was operated by Craig Burroughs' Joliet, Illinois-based Trans-Action Associates.  Conrail began operations on the Erie Lackawanna and other Northeastern rail lines on April 1, 1976. The Erie Lackawanna mainline west of Marion, Ohio, was not conveyed to Conrail because of the Erie Lackawanna's 11th hour entry into the Final System Plan. The ownership of this line remained with the Erie Lackawanna Estate, which was a holding company to which all of the railroad's outstanding debt was transferred. However, since all locomotives and rolling stock were conveyed to Conrail, Conrail was responsible for continuing freight service to customers along the Erie Lackawanna mainline. The condition of this service was only until a suitable short line could assume operations. Conrail's local freight service lasted from April 1976 until early 1977 when Erie Western was formed and began operations.  The Erie Western's headquarters office was at 10 W. Franklin Street in Huntington, Indiana.  The railroad began operations with seven locomotives: three Alco C420s (which previously had belonged to the Long Island Rail Road) and four Alco RS-3s.  Commodities hauled include grain, lumber, fertilizer, steel, food products, manufactured goods and plastic.  The railroad failed and discontinued operations on June 24, 1979. Operations were replaced by a short-lived operator, the Chicago & Indiana Railroad (CINR). The Chicago & Indiana discontinued operations on December 31, 1979.  After the failure of both the Erie Western and Chicago and Indiana, the Erie Lackawanna Estate realized that the real estate value of this right of way could be used to offset the debts incurred during and after Erie Lackawanna's bankruptcy. Realizing that profitable local freight service was no longer achievable, mostly due to the increase in trucking shipments, the Erie Lackawanna Estate sold the mainline, and all wayside signalling and structures, to L.B. Foster Company. L.B. Foster's sole intent was to remove the trackage and sell the ties, rails, and ballast to other railroads, and sell the physical right of way to local farmers and developers. The Erie Lackawanna right of way was mostly removed by 1983.

North Judson-Monterey segment.

After December 31, 1979, the Tippecanoe Railroad Co. took over operations of a 16-mile stretch of the railroad from North Judson, Indiana to Monterey, Indiana that was known as the JK Line. In the spring of 1990, the Tippecanoe Railroad was sold to another operator, Daniel R. Frick, and renamed J.K. Line. In 2003, the operator of J.K. Line, the Toledo, Peoria and Western Railway, applied for and later received permission from the federal government to abandon the 16-mile line.  The line has been removed and has been named the Monterey Bike Trail.

The Erie Western Railway was a Class III railroad operating in Illinois and Indiana from 1977 until 1979, operating a segment of the former Erie Lackawanna mainline that was not included in the Conrail Final System Plan.

Die Erie Western Railway (AAR-reporting mark: ERES) war eine Class-3-"local railroad"-Bahngesellschaft, die von 1977 bis 1979 in den US-Bundesstaaten Indiana und Illinois Güterverkehr auf Strecken mit einer Gesamtlänge von rund 300 km (zzgl. 100 km Trackage Rights) durchführte. Rund 255 km der eigenen Infrastruktur entfielen auf den westlichen Abschnitt der insolventen Erie Lackawanna Railway (EL), der im Gegensatz zu den meisten EL-Verbindungen östlich von Indiana 1976 nicht in das Conrail-Netz übernommen worden war. Nachdem die erzielten Einnahmen die Kosten und nötigen Investitionen nicht ausgleichen konnten, stellte die Erie Western im Juni 1979 den Betrieb ein. Bis Jahresende 1979 übernahm die Chicago & Indiana Railroad (AAR-reporting mark: CINR) ihre Aufgaben; anschließend wurde ein Großteil der Infrastruktur stillgelegt und abgebaut.


Founders.

MK's origins date to 1905, when Harry Morrison (1885–1971) met Morris Knudsen (1862–1943) while working on the construction of the New York Canal (Boise Project) in southwestern Idaho. Morrison was a 20-year-old concrete superintendent for the Reclamation Service; Knudsen was a forty-something Nebraska farmer (and Danish immigrant) with a team of horses and  Their first venture together was in 1912, on a pump plant in nearby Grand View for $14,000; they lost money but gained experience. MK earned some revenue in 1914, when they constructed the Three Mile Falls Diversion Dam, south of Umatilla, Oregon. For several years, the firm built irrigation canals, logging roads, and railways; they incorporated in 1923, the year gross revenues topped $1 million. significant milestone with its joint venture in the construction of

World War II.

During World War II, MK built airfields, storage depots, and bases throughout the Pacific, and built ships along the West Coast. Japanese forces captured 1,200 workers, including many MK employees, stationed on Midway and Wake Islands in late 1941. After the war, MK expanded into a variety of international

Post-war projects.

MK won contracts for many domestic and foreign Cold War projects. It built the locks on the St. Lawrence Seaway, the Distant Early Warning Line system, Minuteman missile silos, NASA’s Kennedy Space Center, and over 100 major dams. Morrison was featured on the cover of "Time" magazine on May 3, 1954, and the article claimed Morrison was "the man who has done more than anyone else to change the face of the earth."  In the 1950s it was involved in the construction of the Rimutaka Tunnel in New Zealand, the longest rail tunnel in the southern hemisphere. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, MK was involved in the construction of the Hamersley & Robe River and Mount Newman railways in the Pilbara region of  From 1962 to 1972, MK managed a joint venture to serve the U.S. military as civilian contractors for infrastructure in the Vietnam War; in 1971, they constructed 384 of the infamous "tiger cage" cells of was called RMK-BRJ and included Raymond International, Brown & Root, and JA Jones Construction  MK was also involved in the construction of rail projects such as the Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) extension (MK also built 80 C2 cars for BART in 1994) and the single track Apoera-Bakhuys Railway in Suriname (1976–1977).

MK Rail.

Morrison–Knudsen established a separate rail division, MK Rail, in 1972. MK built the Caltrans California Cars (1994–96) as well as other rail passenger cars and built locomotives, originally under its own name and later under subsidiary MK Rail from 1994 to 1996, such as the MK5000C and the F40PHM-2C. MK also rebuilt locomotives, including the four Delaware & Hudson ALCO PAs. Its Australian operation, based in Whyalla, South Australia, rebuilt 17 CL and eight AL class locomotives for Australian National and six DE class locomotives for BHP in the 1990s. It rebuilt four Southern Pacific U25Bs with a Sulzer V-12 prime mover. These locomotives, designated M-K TE70-4S, operated from 1978 to 1987.  MK was also one of the largest passenger railcar builders, located at the former Erie Railroad shop in Hornell, New York, overhauling and rebuilding many New York City Transit subway cars between 1984 and 1992 including R26/R28s, R29s, R32s (Phase I & II), some R36 World's Fair cars (pilot program), R42s, R44s, and R46s. It also overhauled NJ Transit's Arrow I series cars, converting from electric MUs to push-pull coaches, and SEPTA's Silverliner II and III series electric commuter cars in the late 1980s. The CTA 3200 series and Metro-North M-6 "Cosmopolitan" cars were built by MK in 1992–1994.  Morrison–Knudsen spun-off MK Rail in 1993; it became a publicly traded company in 1994. After Morrison–Knudsen's bankruptcy in 1996 the company renamed itself MotivePower, Inc. The company merged with Westinghouse Air Brake Company in 1999 to form the Wabtec Corporation. MotivePower is now a wholly owned subsidiary

Financial difficulty.

By the 1990s, Morrison–Knudsen had been led into some risky non-core areas by Boise native William Agee, who became CEO in 1988 and was ousted by the board of directors in February 1995. MK had announced a loss of $310 million for fiscal year 1994, and a leak of an intended Agee resignation drew broad media attention which resulted in Agee resigning earlier than originally The company had been in financial difficulty for several and declared bankruptcy that same It was purchased by Washington Group in 1996 for

Additional growth.

For several years after the 1996 merger, the company continued as Morrison–Knudsen. Growth by acquisition brought it into the top tier (by size) of American construction firms. In 1999, MK acquired the government-services operations of Westinghouse Electric Company, becoming a science and technology services leader.  The company expanded its market leadership in 2000 by acquiring Raytheon Engineers & Constructors, which owned engineering giant Rust International of Birmingham, Alabama, to produce one of the largest companies in the industry.

End.

Following the acquisition, the MK's corporate name changed to Washington Group International in Issues with the Raytheon acquisition caused WGI to declare bankruptcy in 2001 – virtually eliminating all shareholder value, but later successfully exited it.  WGI was acquired by rival URS Corporation of San Francisco in 2007, which was acquired by AECOM of Los Angeles With a greatly diminished presence in Idaho, the last positions in Boise were eliminated

Morrison–Knudsen (MK) was an American civil engineering and construction company, with headquarters MK designed and constructed major infrastructure throughout the world and was one of the consortium of firms that built Hoover Dam, San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge, the NASA Vehicle Assembly Building, the Trans-Alaska Pipeline, and many other large projects of American

Morrison-Knudsen war ein US-amerikanischer Mischkonzern, der 1912 von Harry Morrison und Morris Knudsen gegründet wurde. Ein Geschäftsbereich stellte der Ingenieurbau dar. In diesem Bereich war Morrison-Knudsen an der Konstruktion und Errichtung wichtiger Bauwerke wie dem Hoover Dam, der Oakland Bay Bridge, dem Vehicle Assembly Building und der Trans-Alaska-Pipeline beteiligt. Ab den 1970er Jahren baute das Unternehmen Lokomotiven um und remotorisierte diese. Später wurden eigene Lokomotiven, Personenwagen und U-Bahnwagen gebaut.


Etymology and nomenclature.

"Murti" literally means any solid body or form with definite shape or limits produced from material elements. It contrasts with mind, thought and the immaterial in ancient Indian literature. The term also refers to any embodiment, manifestation, incarnation, personification, appearance, image, idol or statue of a deity.  The earliest mention of the term "murti" occurs in primary Upanishads composed in the 1st millennium BCE, particularly in verse 3.2 of Aitareya Upanishad, verse 1.13 of Shvetashvatara Upanishad, verse 6.14 of Maitrayaniya Upanishad and verse 1.5 of Prashna Upanishad. For example, the Maitrayaniya Upanishad uses the term to mean a "form, manifestation of time". The section sets out to prove Time exists, acknowledges the difficulty in proving Time exists by Pramana (epistemology in Indian philosophy), then inserts a theory of inductive inference for epistemological proof as follows,  The section includes the concept of Time and non-Time, stating that non-Time as that which existed before creation of universe, and time as which came into existence with the creation of universe. Non-time is indivisible, time is divisible, and the Maitri Upanishad then asserts that the "year is the "mūrti" of time". Robert Hume translates the discussion of ""mūrti" of time", in verse 6.14 of the Maitri Upanishad, as "form".  Most scholars, such as Jan Gonda, Max Muller, PV Kane and Stephanie Jamison, state that there were neither murti nor temples nor idol-facilitated worship in the Vedic era. The Vedic Hinduism rituals were directed at nature and abstract deities called during yajna with hymns. However, there isn't universal consensus, with scholars such as AC Das, pointing to the word "Mūradeva" in Rig Veda verses 7.104.24, 10.87.2 and 10.87.14. This word may refer to "Deva who is fixed" or "Deva who is foolish". The former interpretation, if accurate, may imply that there were communities in the Vedic era who had Deva in the form of murti, and the context of these hymns suggest that the term could possibly be referring to practices of the tribal communities outside of the Vedic fold. One of the earliest firm textual evidence of Deva images, in the sense of "murti", is found in "Jivikarthe Capanye" by the Sanskrit grammarian Pāṇini who lived about 4th century BCE. He mentions "Acala" and "Cala", with former referring to images in a shrine, and the latter meaning images that were carried from place to place. Panini also mentions "Devalaka", meaning custodians of images of worship who show the images but do not sell them, as well as "Jivika" as people whose source of livelihood was the gifts they received from devotees. In ancient Sanskrit texts that follow Panini's work, numerous references are found to divine images with terms such as "Devagrha", "Devagara", "Devakula", "Devayatana" and others. These texts, states Noel Salmond, strongly suggest that temples and murti were in existence in ancient India by about 4th century BCE. Recent archaeological evidence confirms that the knowledge and art of sculpture was established in India by the Maurya Empire period (~3rd century BCE).  By early 1st millennium BCE, the term "murti" meant idols, image or statue in various Indian texts such as Bhavishya Purana verse 132.5.7, Brihat Samhita 1.8.29 and inscriptions in different parts of India. The term "murti" has been a more generic term referring to an idol or statue of anyone, either a deity, of any human being, animal or any art. "Pratima" includes murti as well as painting of any non-anthropomorphic object. In contrast, "Bera" or "Bimba" meant "idol of god" only, and "Vigraha" was synonymous with "Bimba".

Types.

A "murti" in contemporary usage is any image or statue. It may be found inside or outside a temple or home, installed to be moved with a festive procession ("utsava murti"), or just be a landmark. It is a significant part of Hindu iconography, and is implemented in many ways. Two major categories include:  Beyond anthropomorphic forms of religious murti, some traditions of Hinduism cherish aniconism, where alternate symbols are shaped into a murti, such as the linga for Shiva, yoni for Devi, and the saligrama for Vishnu.

Methods and manuals.

Murti, when produced properly, are made according to the design rules of the Shilpa Shastras. They recommend materials, measurements, proportion, decoration and symbolism of the murti. Explanation of the metaphysical significance of each stage of manufacture and the prescription of specific mantras to sanctify the process and evoke and invoke the power of the deity in the image are found in the liturgical handbooks the Agamas and Tantras. In Tantric traditions, a murti is installed by priests through the "Prana pratishta" ceremony, where mantras are recited sometimes with yantras (mystic diagrams), whereby state Harold Coward and David Goa, the "divine vital energy of the cosmos is infused into the sculpture" and then the divine is welcomed as one would welcome a friend. According to Gudrun Buhnemann, the esoteric Hindu tantric traditions through texts such as "Tantra-tattva" follow elaborate rituals to infuse life into a murti. Some tantra texts such as the "Pancaratraraksa" state that anyone who considers an icon of Vishnu as nothing but "an ordinary object" made of iron "goes to hell". The use of murti and particularly the "prana pratistha" consecration ceremony, states Buhnemann, has been criticised by Hindu groups. These groups state that this practice came from more recent "false tantra books", and there is not a single word in the Vedas about such a ceremony. The artists who make any art or craft, including murti, were known as "shilpins". The formally trained "Shilpins" shape the murti not in accordance with fancy but in accordance with canonical manuals such as the Agamas and the Shilpa Shastras texts such as Vishvakarma. The material of construction range from clay to wood to marble to metal alloys such as panchaloha. The sixth century "Brihat Samhita" and eighth century text "Manasara-Silpasastra" (literally: "treatise on art using method of measurement"), identify nine materials for murti construction – gold, silver, copper, stone, wood, "sudha" (a type of stucco, mortar plaster), "sarkara" (gravel, grit), "abhasa" (marble types), and earth (clay, terracotta). For "abhasa", the texts describe working methods for various types of marble, specialised stones, colours, and a range of opacity (transparent, translucent and crystal).  "Brihat Samhita", a 6th-century encyclopaedia of a range of topics from horticulture to astrology to gemology to murti and temple design, specifies in Chapter 56 that the "pratima" (murti) height should be formula_1 of the sanctum sanctorum's door height, the "Pratima" height and the sanctum sanctorum room's width be in the ratio of 0.292, it stand on a pedestal that is 0.146 of sanctum room width, thereafter the text describes 20 types of temples with their dimensions. Chapter 58 of the text describes the ratios of various anatomical parts of a murti, from head to toe, along with the recommendation in verse 59.29 that generally accepted variations in dress, decoration and dimensions of local regional traditions for the murti is the artistic tradition. The texts recommend materials of construction, proportions, postures and mudra, symbolic items the murti holds in its hands, colours, garments and ornaments to go with the murti of each god or goddess, vehicles of deities such as Garuda, bull and lion, and other details. The texts also include chapters on the design of Jaina and Buddhist murti, as well as reliefs of sages, apsaras, different types of devotees (based on bhakti yoga, jnana yoga, karma yoga, ascetics) to decorate the area near the murti. The texts recommend that the material of construction and relative scale of murti be correlated to the scale of the temple dimensions, using twelve types of comparative measurements.  In Southern India, the material used predominantly for murti is black granite, while material in North India is white marble. However, for some Hindus, it is not the materials used that matter, but the faith and meditation on the universal Absolute Brahman. More particularly, devotees meditate or worship on the formless God (nirguna Brahman) through murti symbolism of God (saguna Brahman) during a puja before a murti, or the meditation on a Tirthankara in the case of Jainism, thus making the material of construction or the specific shape of the murti not spiritually important.  According to John Keay, "Only after achieving remarkable expertise in the portrayal of the Buddha figure and of animal and human, did Indian stonemasons turn to producing images of the orthodox 'Hindu' deities". This view is, however, not shared by other scholars. Trudy King et al. state that stone images of reverential figures and guardian spirits ("yaksha") were first produced in Jainism and Hinduism, by about 2 century BCE, as suggested by Mathura region excavations, and this knowledge grew into iconographic traditions and stone monuments in India including those for Buddhism.

Role in worship.

Major Hindu traditions such as Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Smartaism favour the use of murti. These traditions suggest that it is easier to dedicate time and focus on spirituality through anthropomorphic or non-anthropomorphic icons. Hindu scriptures such as the Bhagavad Gita, states in verse 12.5,  In Hinduism, states Jeaneane Fowler, a murti itself is not god, it is an "image of god" and thus a symbol and representation. A murti is a form and manifestation, states Fowler, of the formless Absolute. Thus a literal translation of "murti" as 'idol' is incorrect, when idol is understood as superstitious end in itself. Just like the photograph of a person is not the real person, a "murti" is an image in Hinduism but not the real thing, but in both cases the image reminds of something of emotional and real value to the viewer. When a person worships a murti, it is assumed to be a manifestation of the essence or spirit of the deity, the worshipper's spiritual ideas and needs are meditated through it, yet the idea of ultimate reality or Brahman is not confined in it. Devotional ("bhakti movement") practices centred on cultivating a deep and personal bond of love with God, often expressed and facilitated with one or more murti, and includes individual or community hymns, japa or singing ("bhajan", "kirtan" or "aarti"). Acts of devotion, in major temples particularly, are structured on treating the murti as the manifestation of a revered guest, and the daily routine can include awakening the murti in the morning and making sure that it "is washed, dressed, and garlanded." In Vaishnavism, the building of a temple for the murti is considered an act of devotion, but non-murti symbolism is also common wherein the aromatic Tulsi plant or "Saligrama" is an aniconic reminder of the spiritualism in Vishnu. These puja rituals with the murti correspond to ancient cultural practices for a beloved guest, and the murti is welcomed, taken care of, and then requested to retire.  Christopher John Fuller states that an image in Hinduism cannot be equated with a deity and the object of worship is the divine whose power is inside the image, and the image is not the object of worship itself, Hindus believe everything is worthy of worship as it contains divine energy emanating from the one god. According to the Agamas, the "bimba murti" ( / ) is different from the "mantra murti" () from the perspective of rituals, gestures, hymns and offerings.  Some Hindu denominations like Arya Samaj and Satya Mahima Dharma reject idol worship.

Role in history.

Murti and temples were well established in South Asia, before the start of Delhi Sultanate in the late 12th century CE. They became a target of destruction during raids and religious wars between Islam and Hinduism through the 18th-century.  During the colonial era, Christian missionaries aiming to convert Hindus to Christianity wrote memoirs and books that were widely distributed in Europe, which Mitter, Pennington and other scholars call as fictionalised stereotypes, where murti were claimed as the evidence of lack of spiritual heritage in primitive Hindus, of "idolatry and savage worship of stones" practices akin to Biblical demons, calling Murti as monstrous devils to eroticised bizarre beings carved in stone. The British Missionary Society with colonial government's assistance bought and sometimes seized, then transferred murti from India and displayed it in their "trophies" room in the United Kingdom with the note claiming that these were given up by Hindus who now accept the "folly and sin of idolatry". In other instances, the colonial British authorities, seeking additional government revenue, introduced Pilgrim Tax on Hindus to view murti inside major temples.  The missionaries and orientalist scholars attempted to justify the need for colonial rule of India by attacking murti as a symbol of depravity and primitiveness, arguing that it was, states Tanisha Ramachandran, "the White Man's Burden to create a moral society" in India. This literature by the Christian missionaries constructed the foundation of a "Hindu image" in Europe, during the colonial era, and it blamed murti idolatry as "the cause for the ills of Indian society". By 19th-century, ideas such as pantheism (universe is identical with god), contained in newly translated Sanskrit texts were linked to idolatry of murti and declared as additional evidence of superstitions and evil by Christian missionaries and colonial authorities in British India.  The polemics of Christian missionaries in colonial India triggered a debate among Hindus, yielding divergent responses. It ranged from activists such as Rammohun Roy who denounced all murti, to Vivekananda who refused to denounce murti and asked Hindus in India and Christians in the West to introspect, that images are used everywhere to help think and as a road to ideas, in the following words,  Religious intolerance and polemics, state Halbertal and Margalit, have historically targeted idols and material symbols cherished by other religions, while encouraging the worship of material symbols of one's own religion, characterising the material symbols of others as grotesque and wrong, in some cases dehumanising the others and encouraging the destruction of idols of the others. The outsider conflates and stereotypes the "strange worship" of the other religions as "false worship" first, then calls "false worship" as "improper worship and false belief" of pagan or an equivalent term, thereafter constructing an identity of the others as "primitive and barbarians" that need to be saved, followed by justified intolerance and often violence against those who cherish a different material symbol than one's own. In the history of Hinduism and India, states Pennington, Hindu deity images ("murti") have been a religious lens for focusing this anti-Hindu polemic and was the basis for distortions, accusations and attacks by non-Indian religious powers and missionaries.

Significance.

Ancient Indian texts assert the significance of murti in spiritual terms. The "Vāstusūtra Upaniṣad", whose palm-leaf manuscripts were discovered in the 1970s among remote villages of Orissa – four in Oriya language and one in crude Sanskrit, asserts that the doctrine of murti art making is founded on the principles of origin and evolution of universe, is a "form of every form of cosmic creator" that empirically exists in nature, and it functions to inspire a devotee towards contemplating the Ultimate Supreme Principle (Brahman). This text, whose composition date is unknown but probably from late 1st millennium CE, discusses the significance of images as, state Alice Boner and others, "inspiring, elevating and purifying influence" on the viewer and "means of communicating a vision of supreme truth and for giving a taste of the infinite that lies beyond". It adds (abridged):  In the fifth chapter of Vāstusūtra Upaniṣad, Pippalada asserts, "from tattva-rupa (essence of a form, underlying principle) come the "pratirupani" (images)". In the sixth chapter, Pippalada repeats his message that the artist portrays the particular and universal concepts, with the statement "the work of the "Sthapaka" is a creation similar to that of the Prajapati" (that which created the universe). Non-theistic Jaina scholars such as Jnansundar, states John Cort, have argued the significance of murti along the same lines, asserting that "no matter what the field – scientific, commercial, religious – there can be no knowledge without an icon", images are part of how human beings learn and focus their thoughts, icons are necessary and inseparable from spiritual endeavours in Jainism.  While murti are an easily and commonly visible aspect of Hinduism, they are not necessary to Hindu worship. Among Hindus, states Gopinath Rao, one who has realised Self (Soul, Atman) and the Universal Principle (Brahman, god) within himself, there is no need for any temple or divine image for worship. Those who have yet to reach this height of realisation, various symbolic manifestations through images, idols and icons as well as mental modes of worship are offered as one of the spiritual paths in the Hindu way of life. This belief is repeated in ancient Hindu scriptures. For example, the Jabaladarshana Upanishad states:

Murti (Sanskrit:, ISO: ; ) is a general term for an image, statue or idol of a deity or mortal in Indian culture. In Hindu temples, it is a symbolic icon. A "murti" is itself not a god in Hinduism, but it is a shape, embodiment or manifestation of a deity. Murti are also found in some nontheistic Jainism traditions, where they serve as symbols of revered mortals inside Jain temples, and are worshiped in "murtipujaka" rituals.

Murti (Sanskrit मूर्ति IAST mūrti f.) bedeutet Form, Gestalt, Figur, Abbild oder Verkörperung. Im Hinduismus bezeichnet Murti eine geweihte Statue, die als sichtbare Verkörperung einer Gottheit, eines Aspektes Gottes oder eines Gurus angesehen wird. Traditionell wird die Murti in einer speziellen Zeremonie (IAST mūrti stāpana) geweiht, um nach der Vorstellung der Gläubigen die Figur mit dem Geist des Gottes zu füllen, den sie abbildet.


Background.

On 12 January 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) confirmed that a novel coronavirus was the cause of a respiratory illness in a cluster of people in Wuhan City, Hubei Province, China, which was reported to the WHO on 31 December 2019.  The case fatality ratio for COVID-19 has been much lower than SARS of 2003, but the transmission has been significantly greater, with a significant total death toll.

Response.

The government ordered schools closed beginning 16 March. In addition, all cultural activities planned by the government were cancelled. In an appearance on March 13 the Head of Government (Prime Minister) Xavier Espot announced that all public establishments would be closed for two weeks except those that provide essential products, gas stations, and pharmacies. The next day, Constitution Day celebrations were cancelled. In addition, the borders were restricted, and people were only permitted to leave for health reasons, to transport goods, or for residents abroad. The sale of tobacco and alcohol to tourists was prohibited, and the quantity permitted to be sold to Andorran nationals and residents was restricted.  On 16 March, Espot ordered the cessation of high-risk work activities, such as construction and "liberal" (high-education) professions, for a minimum of eight days, and public administration would be reduced to a minimal level to avoid the collapse of the healthcare system. Meanwhile, the government began working on legal steps to manage states of alarm and of emergency, provided for in the Constitution but never developed in any laws.  The Government procured antibody tests at a cost of 1.5 million euros. While the tests will not be obligatory, being able to prove that one has antibodies can give them access to less restrictive measures.

Timeline.

March 2020.

On 2 March, Andorra confirmed its first coronavirus case, a 20-year-old man who had returned from Milan. The tests conducted have shown a positive infection, and he will remain in hospital for further tests and his immediate social circle will be monitored, the government said in a statement. He was discharged on 8 March.  On 12 March, a second case was confirmed, an 87-year-old woman whose daughter is a teacher. The Government announced that it would close all schools from 16 March.  On 13 March, Xavier Espot announced in a special public appearance that ordered the closure of all public establishments except basic stores, pharmacies and gas stations during two weeks.  On 14 March, the acts of the 27th day of the Constitution were not carried out after the suspension by the General Council.  On 15 March, it was announced that there were four new active cases in Andorra, making a total of 6 cases (5 of them being active at the time). All four people that contracted the virus had been in contact with the 87-year-old woman.  On 16 March the Prime Minister ordered the closing of all construction and industrial activity as the coronavirus cases amounted to 14 after a rise of 9 on the day with the highest number of cases registered.  On 17 March, the toll of cases rose to 39. The Co-Prince Joan Enric Vives Sicília addressed a special televised message calling for the calm gratitude and collaboration among all.  On 22 March, an 88-year-old man became the first confirmed death in the country as the number of cases rose to 112.  On 24 March, the third death was confirmed.  On 29 March, the Minister of Health announced that 80 of the active cases were health care staff. Further, Cuba was sending 27 nurses and 12 physicians to aid the SAAS staff.

April 2020.

On 11 April, a 79-year-old patient from La Seu d'Urgell (Lleida, Spain) was transferred to the ICU of Nostra Senyora de Meritxell hospital. By 20 April, thirty-six persons had succumbed to the coronavirus in Andorra.

The COVID-19 pandemic in Andorra is part of the worldwide pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 () caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (). The virus was confirmed to have reached Andorra on 2 March 2020, when a 20-year-old man returned to the country from Milan, Italy. With a total population of 77,543 (as of 31 December 2019) on 26 April, the infection rate was 1 case per 105 inhabitants and the death rate was 1 case per 1,939 inhabitants.

Die COVID-19-Pandemie tritt in Andorra seit März 2020 als Teil der weltweiten COVID-19-Pandemie auf, die im Dezember 2019 in Wuhan, Provinz Hubei, Volksrepublik China ihren Ausgang nahm. Die Erkrankung wird durch das Virus SARS-CoV-2 aus der Gruppe der Coronaviridae verursacht. Die Krankheit gehört in die Gruppe der Atemwegserkrankungen. Ab dem 11. März 2020 stufte die Weltgesundheitsorganisation (WHO) das Ausbruchsgeschehen des neuartigen Coronavirus als weltweite Pandemie ein.


Life and career.

He was born Frederick Dalrymple on 7 January 1907 in Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England. His family emigrated to South Africa in 1920, where he sang in the choir of Pretoria Cathedral as boy and man.  He studied at the Dresden Conservatory in Germany. Having Germanised his name to "Friedrich Dalberg", he made his debut in 1931 as Monterone in "Rigoletto" at the Leipzig Opera where he also sang Sarastro in "The Magic Flute", Osmin in "Die Entführung aus dem Serail", Henry the Fowler in "Lohengrin" and several other Wagner roles. He appeared in Munich, Dresden, Vienna and Berlin, where he also spent the war years. Dalberg sang at the Bayreuth Festival (1942–44 and 1951), taking the parts of Fafner in "Das Rheingold" and Hagen in "Götterdämmerung". In the post-war years he was engaged at the Bavarian State Opera in Munich. In 1949 he visited South Africa for a guest appearance which was not agreed with the Munich opera director's office.  Dalberg joined the company of the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, London in 1951. There he created roles in two Benjamin Britten operas, John Claggart in "Billy Budd" (1951), and Sir Walter Raleigh in "Gloriana" (1953). He was in the British stage première of Alban Berg's "Wozzeck" (1952) as well as the debut casts of William Walton's "Troilus and Cressida" (1954) and Michael Tippett's "The Midsummer Marriage" (1955). In addition, his repertoire included King Mark in "Tristan und Isolde", Hunding in "Die Walküre", Caspar in "Der Freischütz", Don Pizarro in "Fidelio", Sparafucile in "Rigoletto" and Bartolo in "The Marriage of Figaro". In 1957, he returned to Germany, accepting an engagement at the Mannheim National Theatre, which he retained until his retirement in 1970. There, he appeared as Daland in "The Flying Dutchman" and Gurnemanz in "Parsifal" as well as the title role in "Boris Godunov". In 1961 he created Cousin Brandon in Paul Hindemith's "The Long Christmas Dinner".  He died in Cape Town in May 1988.

Personal life.

He married German soprano Ellen Winter. Their daughter, Evelyn Dalberg (born 1939), is also an opera singer in South Africa.

Frederick Dalberg (7 January 1907 – 9 May 1988) was an English-born South African opera bass. As an ensemble member of the Leipzig Opera, Bavarian State Opera, Covent Garden and Mannheim National Theatre, he excelled in German romantic operas, especially those by Richard Wagner, but also took part in several premieres of contemporary compositions.

Friedrich Dalberg (auch Frederick oder Fred Dalberg, eigentlich "Frederick Dalrymple"; * 7. Januar 1907 in Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England; † 9. Mai 1988 in Kapstadt) war ein südafrikanischer Opernsänger (Bass). Als Ensemblemitglied der Oper Leipzig, der Bayerischen Staatsoper, des Royal Opera House (Covent Garden) und des Nationaltheaters Mannheim zeichnete er sich in Rollen der deutschen Romantik aus, insbesondere in Wagner-Opern. Er wirkte aber auch an Uraufführungen zeitgenössischer Kompositionen mit.


Life.

Hüseyin Pasha was born to the Begolli Albanian family from the region of İpek in the mid to late 16th century. It is purported that he never learned to speak Turkish, a very rare occurrence in the Turkish-controlled Ottoman Empire.  He began his government career as the "aşcıbaşı" (chief cook) of Satırcı Mehmed Pasha, soon becoming a member of the sipahi corps. He then took on a series of increasingly high level government posts, until July 1620, when he was appointed the governor of Egypt Eyalet and made a vizier.  As the governor of Egypt, Hüseyin Pasha's manners were described as "rough and unpolished." He was ill for the first few months of his term, but when he recovered, he threw a feast for his children and received many gifts, although he sent most of the gifts given to him by the wealthy back. While he was governor, the flooding of the Nile caused widespread drought in Egypt, leading to his dismissal from the office in March or April 1622. His "defterdar" (finance minister) Hasan, having become the acting governor ("kaymakam") after Hüseyin Pasha's removal, accused him of having embezzled money from the treasury and crops from the granary and prevented him from leaving Cairo. Hüseyin Pasha paid 25,000 gold pieces (dinars; half of the claimed amount) and claimed that a local, who had disparaged him after his removal from office, should pay the rest, claiming that the Money Lender was indebted to Hüseyin Pasha in the same amount, with this obtaining permission to leave. However, when the authorities went to the Money Lender to demand payment of the money that Hüseyin Pasha had said he owed him, the Lender claimed that he had already paid Hüseyin Pasha. When this response was made known to Hüseyin Pasha, he claimed that he was not at fault and the Lender was lying, but agreed to pay the remaining 25,000 gold pieces in exchange for the Lender being brought to him. The acting governor accepted this proposal and delivered the Lender to Hüseyin Pasha, who tortured and killed him and took the 25,000 gold pieces by force. After these events, Hüseyin Pasha traveled to Romania Rumelia, not to be confused with modern day Romania.  A few months later, on June 13, 1622, Hüseyin Pasha was appointed grand vizier for the first time, serving for less than a month until July 8, 1622 under sultan Mustafa I. The next year, the sultan appointed him grand vizier once more, from February 5, 1623 to August 30, 1623.

Mere Hüseyin Pasha (died July 1624) was an Ottoman statesman of Albanian origin. He was two times Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire in 1622 and 1623, and previously the Ottoman governor of Egypt between 1620 and 1622. His epithet "Mere!" comes from the word for "Take it!" in Albanian; he was nicknamed so because of the many times he ordered his men to "take [the heads]" of his opponents, i.e. execute them. He was purportedly the only grand vizier who did not speak Turkish.

Mere Hüseyin Pascha (* 16. Jahrhundert; † im Juli 1624) war ein osmanischer Staatsmann mit albanischen Wurzeln. Er war 1622 und 1623 Großwesir des Osmanischen Reiches und zuvor zwischen 1620 und 1622 Statthalter des osmanischen Sultans im Eyâlet Ägypten. Er war vermutlich der einzige Großwesir, der kein Osmanisch sprach.


Chess career.

Iturrizaga learned to move the chess pieces at age five. "I opened with pawn to e4, then moved my knights, and put pawns on h3 and a3 for castling and to connect the rooks. For me that was all", he recalls. He moved to Peru when he was seven, and it was upon his return to Venezuela at age nine he started to take the game seriously. At age thirteen he attained the title of International Master. Iturizzaga won the Pan American under-16 championship in 2004 and the Pan American junior (U20) championship in 2006, both times in Bogotà.  Iturrizaga won four consecutive national championships from 2005 to 2008, and has been playing for Venezuela at the Chess Olympiad since 2004. His best performance came at the 37th Chess Olympiad (2006), when he scored 8.5/11 points playing second board. The result earned him an individual bronze medal. He qualified for the Chess World Cup 2007 after a shared first place at the American Continental Championship. He was set to face Peter Svidler in the first round, but forfeited the first game due to getting lost between Russian airports. He lost the second game. In 2008, Iturrizaga won an online qualifier for the C-group in the 2009 Corus Chess Tournament, defeating GM Alexandr Fier 3-1 in the final. He ended up on a shared eight place out of fourteen in the main tournament, scoring 5.5/13. Iturrizaga finished second in the 2008 Ibero-American Championship in Linares, Spain, losing to Julio Granda in the final. Iturrizaga was the last person to arrive at the tournament, had to play one game at night, and nearly arrived late for one of the matches.  After sharing first place at the Zonal 2.3 Chess Championships in San Jose, Costa Rica with Lázaro Bruzón, Iturrizaga qualified for the Chess World Cup 2009. He was knocked out by Baadur Jobava in the second round, having defeated Sergei Tiviakov 3.5 - 2.5 in the first round.  In April 2010, Iturrizaga won the 12th Dubai Open Chess Championship with 7 points out of 9, besting a field consisting of 36 GMs and 154 players total. He placed fourth in the 2010 Ibero-American Championship held in Mexico City. He defaulted the third-fourth playoff, despite winning the first game, after arriving an hour late for the second.  Iturrizaga competed in the Chess World Cup 2013, where he was knocked out in the first round by Alexander Onischuk. In the 2015 edition of the same event, he was eliminated in round one again, this time by Maxim Rodshtein. In January 2015 Iturrizaga tied for 1st–5th with Arkadij Naiditsch, Alexander Donchenko, Matthias Dann and Miloš Pavlović in the Masters tournament of the Basel Chess Festival. In 2017, Iturrizaga won the 21st Hogeschool Zeeland Open in Vlissingen, Netherlands on tiebreak from Jorden Van Foreest.

Playing style.

As of 2010, Iturrizaga mostly plays queen's pawn openings, and the English Opening with the white pieces, and the Accelerated Dragon Sicilian Defence with black. Iturrizaga admires Bobby Fischer and is a follower of Levon Aronian's playstyle.

Eduardo Patricio Iturrizaga Bonelli (born 1 November 1989) is a Venezuelan chess player. He was awarded the title Grandmaster by FIDE in 2008, making him the first Venezuelan to achieve this. He competed in the FIDE World Cup in 2007, 2009, 2013 and 2015. He is a four-time Venezuelan champion and has represented his country at eight Chess Olympiads.

Eduardo Patricio Iturrizaga Bonelli (* 1. November 1989 in Caracas) ist ein venezolanischer Schachspieler. Die venezolanische Einzelmeisterschaft konnte er fünfmal gewinnen: 2005 bis 2008 und 2019. Er spielte für Venezuela bei acht Schacholympiaden: 2004 bis 2018, dabei gewann er bei der Schacholympiade 2006 am zweiten Brett die individuelle Bronzemedaille.


Early life and career.

Lake was born in St. Marys, Ontario, Canada and moved to Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan with his family in 1886. He was born into a large family of 16 siblings (eight of whom died young). He graduated from high school in St Mary's shortly before the move to Michigan, and claimed to have been ordained into the Methodist ministry at the age of twenty-one. However, his seminary attendance has never been confirmed and census records cannot confirm even ten years' education. Lake, then, may have had no formal theological training.  Lake moved to a suburb of Chicago, Harvey, in 1890, where he worked as a roofer and construction worker before returning to his hometown in 1896. According to Lake, he became an industrious businessman and started two newspapers, the "Harvey Citizen" in Harvey, Illinois and the "Soo Times" in Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, before beginning a successful career in real estate, and later, becoming a millionaire in life insurance dealings. Historian Barry Morton found no evidence that Lake ever owned the two newspapers, citing sources which indicate the "Harvey Citizen" was founded by the Harvey township, and the "Soo Times" was started by George A. Ferris and owned by Ferris & Scott Publishers. Morton further alleges that Lake exaggerated his business career, and that "clear evidence" shows Lake instead worked as a small-scale contractor, roofer and "house-flipper". In the 1900 Census, Lake's occupation is listed as "carpenter". In February 1893, Lake married Jennie Stevens of Newberry, Michigan, and the two had six children and adopted another before her death in 1908. During the 1890s Lake and many members of his family began appearing regularly in Dowie's services, where they were invariably healed and allegedly brought back from death's door. In 1898 Lake opened a small chapter of Dowie's Christian Catholic Church in Sault Ste Marie and held meetings in the attic of his parents' home. In 1901 he relocated his family to Zion, Illinois, where he worked in the theocratic town's construction department.  After massive retrenchments affected ever-bankrupt Zion City, Lake found new employment around 1905. He later claimed that he maintained relationships with many of the leading figures of his day including railroad tycoon James Jerome Hill, Cecil Rhodes, Mahatma Gandhi, Arthur Conan Doyle, and others. When he began his preaching career he claimed to have walked away from a $50,000 year salary (around $1.25 million in 2007 US dollars), as well as his seat on the Chicago Board of Trade. Lake's biographer, Burpeau, reported no evidence outside of Lake's own assertions that Lake was connected to these wealthy financiers and industrialists. According to Morton, contemporary records show Lake never left Zion City at the time Lake was said to be making his name in Chicago; he instead worked in nearby Waukegan as an "ordinary, small-town insurance salesman". Lake does not appear in contemporary newspapers until 1907 where he gave an account of his experience of speaking in tongues. In 1907 Lake was converted to Pentecostalism when Charles Parham staged a tent revival in Zion in an attempt to woo Dowie's supporters. After Parham's departure a group of several hundred "Parhamites" remained in Zion, led by Thomas Hezmalhalch—a recent arrival from the Azusa Street Revival. As 1907 wore on, Lake grew in stature among this group, and was usually listed as co-leader. After Parham's arrest for (unsubstantiated) reports of sodomy and pedophilia in the summer of 1907, the Parhamites descended into disorganization. Believing that many had been possessed by demons, a number of brutal exorcisms began, in which at least two deaths occurred. [invalid, non-working citation links] In the face of arrests and potential mob violence, the Parhamites were forced to flee en masse from Illinois. Lake and Hezmalhalch left for Indianapolis. Once there, they raised $2000 to finance a Pentecostal mission to South Africa.

Missionary work in Africa.

With Thomas Hezmalhalch, Lake founded the Apostolic Faith Mission of South Africa (AFM) in 1908 and carried on missionary work from 1908-13. Lake and Hezmalhalch would appear to be the first Pentecostal missionaries to South Africa, and introduced speaking in tongues. Many of those who joined their church had previously been Zionists allied to Dowie's organization who believed in faith healing. Morton writes, "Lake was instrumental in spreading this fusion of Zionism/Pentecotalismas that is unique to southern Africa... about half of southern African Christians today [2012] are adherents of it... Lake played a decisive role in the spreading of this'second evangelization'." Lake's movement attracted many of the early Zionists led by Pieter L. Le Roux of Wakkerstroom. Due to the segregationist impulses of the AFM's white membership, the majority of its African members eventually seceded, forming many different Zionist Christian sects.  Just six months after Lake's arrival in South Africa, his first wife, Jennie, died on December 22, 1908. He referred to the death of his wife as “Satan’s masterstroke”. He continued his work in Africa for another four years, raising his seven children with the help of his sister Irene.  Lake's ministry in South Africa was not without controversy. Morton wrote that Lake was accused of: misappropriating the AFM's funds, particularly that funds did not flow to poor rural areas but was eventually disproved. The healings that occurred under his ministry were documented thoroughly. He also wrote that "an analysis of the missionary that was full of blatant lies. " Marius Nel takes a different position, and mentions a "seemingly preconceived notion of Lake as a fraud and scam, supported by an unbalanced utilisation and unfair treatment of resources"

Later life and religious work.

Lake returned to America on February 1, 1913, and married Florence Switzer in November 1913. Lake's comment on this second marriage was, "Men in these days consider themselves to be happily married once. I have been especially blessed in that I have been happily married twice." From this marriage five children were born.  After a year of itinerant preaching, Lake relocated to Spokane, WA by July 1914 and began ministering in "The Church of Truth". He started an organization called The Divine Healing Institute and opened what he called "Lake's Divine Healing Rooms". Lake ran the "healing rooms" from 1915 until May 1920, at which time he moved to Portland, Oregon, for a similar ministry that lasted for another five years. He continued to found churches and "healing rooms" down the California coast and eventually to Houston, TX in 1927, before finally returning to Spokane in 1931. Upon his return to Spokane he purchased an old church and began his final church and healing room.  In 1935, Lake suffered a serious stroke and died on September 16, 1935, at age 65.

Legacy.

Several books have been written recording Lake's experiences and the miracles attributed to Lake.  Lake's history has served as a guide to other ministries, such as Curry R. Blake's "John G. Lake Ministries," based in Dallas, TX, (www.jglm.org) and Healing Rooms Ministries, led by Cal Pierce, headquartered in Spokane, Washington.  In 1987, Wilford Reidt (the son-in-law of Lake) and his wife, Gertrude (Lake's daughter) passed the leadership of their ministry to Curry R. Blake. Blake was named the General Overseer of the International Apostolic Council, an organization founded by John G. Lake in 1914. Today, the ministry establishes "John G. Lake Healing Rooms" and trains Christians in divine healing.  In 1999, the Healing Rooms in Spokane, Washington were opened, which are not affiliated with John G. Lake Ministries. The Healing Rooms place an emphasis on not only serving the city of Spokane, but in duplicating the ministry of healing globally, with currently 2,002 Healing Rooms in 58 nations.  Morton (2012a, 115-116) claims that his analysis of historical sources demonstrates that Lake was a religious fraud, and that much of his sources had purposefully not been used by sympathetic religious historians to Lake's case before. However, Morton utilizes sources from newspapers that were critical of Dowie and newspaper reports about the opinion of Bowie when he left Lake. In most instances statements are not substantiated by any historical references. In this way the historian discredits Lake as well as the churches that flowed from his work, as demonstrated by the way Morton (2012a, 116) ends his article, with a reference from the atheist journalist Christopher Hitchens (2009, 165) that such a story about the founder of a religious movement demonstrates what happens when a plain racket turns into a serious religion before our eyes. For more information on John Lake and John G. Lake Ministries please visit www.jglm.org.

John Graham Lake (March 18, 1870 – September 16, 1935) was a Canadian-American leader in the Pentecostal movement that began in the early 20th century, and is known as a faith healer, missionary, and with Thomas Hezmalhalch, co-founder of the Apostolic Faith Mission of South Africa. Through his 1908–19 African missionary work, Lake played a decisive role in the spread of Pentecostalism in South Africa, the most successful southern African religious movement of the 20th century. After completing his missionary work in Africa, Lake evangelized for 20 years, primarily along the west coast of the United States setting up "healing rooms" and healing campaigns, and establishing churches. Lake was influenced by the healing ministry of John Alexander Dowie and the ministry of Charles Parham.

John Graham Lake (* 18. März 1870 in West Perth Township, Ontario; † 16. September 1935 in Spokane, Washington) war ein kanadischer Heilungsevangelist und Missionar, sowie Gründer der "Apostolic Faith Mission of South Africa."