Location and geography.

Nome, Alaska lies approximately 2 degrees south of the Arctic Circle, and while greatly diminished from its peak of 20,000 inhabitants during the gold rush days, at the turn of the 20th century, it was still the largest town in northern Alaska in 1925, with 455 Alaska Natives and 975 settlers of European descent. From November to July, the port on the southern shore of the Seward Peninsula of the Bering Sea was icebound and inaccessible by steamship.  The only link to the rest of the world during the winter was the Iditarod Trail, which ran from the port of Seward in the south, across several mountain ranges and the vast Alaska Interior before reaching Nome. The primary source of mail and needed supplies in 1925 was the dog sled, but within a decade, bush pilots would become the dominant method of transportation during the winter months.

Outbreak and call for help.

In the winter of 1924–1925, Curtis Welch was the only doctor in Nome, a town of fewer than 2,000 people, and the surrounding communities; he was supported by four nurses at the 25 bed Maynard Columbus Hospital. Several months earlier, Welch had placed an order for more diphtheria antitoxin after discovering that the hospital's entire batch had expired. However, the replacement shipment did not arrive before the port was closed by ice for the winter, and more could not be shipped in to Nome until spring.  In December 1924, several days after the last ship left the port, Welch treated a few children for what he first diagnosed as sore throats or tonsillitis, initially dismissing diphtheria as it is extremely contagious, and he would have expected to see more symptoms in family members, or other cases around town, instead of a few isolated cases. In the next few weeks, as the number of “tonsillitis” cases grew and four children died, whom Welch had not been able to autopsy, he became increasingly concerned about diphtheria.  By mid-January 1925, Welch officially diagnosed the first case of diphtheria in a three-year-old boy who died only two weeks after first becoming ill. The following day, when a seven-year-old girl presented the same tell-tale symptoms of diphtheria, Welch attempted to administer some of the expired antitoxin to see if it might still have any effect, but the girl died a few hours later. Realizing that an epidemic was imminent, that same evening, Welch called Mayor George Maynard to arrange an emergency town council meeting. The council immediately implemented a quarantine. The following day, on January 22, 1925, Welch sent radio telegrams to all other major towns in Alaska alerting them of public health risk and he also sent one to the U.S. Public Health Service in Washington, D.C. asking for assistance. His message to the Public Health Service said: Despite the quarantine, there were over 20 confirmed cases of diphtheria and at least 50 more at risk by the end of January. Without antitoxin, it was expected that in the surrounding region's population of around 10,000 people, the mortality rate could be close to 100 percent. A previous influenza pandemic of the so-called "Spanish flu" had hit the area in 1918 and 1919 and wiped out about 50 percent of the native population of Nome, and 8 percent of the native population of Alaska. More than 1,000 people died in northwest Alaska, and double that across the state. The majority were Alaska Natives who did not have resistance to either disease.

Problem solving.

At the January 24 meeting of the board of health, superintendent Mark Summers of the Hammon Consolidated Gold Fields proposed a dogsled relay using two fast teams. One would start at Nenana and the other at Nome, and they would meet at Nulato. The trip from Nulato to Nome normally took 30 days, although the record was nine. Welch estimated that the serum would only last six days under the brutal conditions on the trail. Summers' employee, the Norwegian Leonhard Seppala, was chosen for the 630 mile (1,014 km) round trip from Nome to Nulato and back. He had previously made the run from Nome to Nulato in a record-breaking four days, won the All-Alaska Sweepstakes three times, and had become something of a legend for his athletic ability and rapport with his Siberian huskies. His lead dog, the 12 year-old Togo, was equally famous for his leadership, intelligence, and ability to sense danger.  Mayor Maynard proposed flying the antitoxin by aircraft. In February 1924, the first winter aircraft flight in Alaska had been conducted between Fairbanks and McGrath by Carl Eielson, who flew a reliable De Havilland DH-4 issued by the U.S. Post Office on eight experimental trips. The longest flight was only, the worst conditions were which required so much winter clothing that the plane was almost unflyable, and the plane made several crash landings.  The only planes operating in Alaska in 1925 were three vintage Standard J biplanes belonging to Bennet Rodebaugh's Fairbanks Airplane company (later Wien Air Alaska) The aircraft were dismantled for the winter, had open cockpits, and had water-cooled engines that were unreliable in cold weather. Since both pilots were in the contiguous United States, Alaska Delegate Dan Sutherland attempted to get the authorization to use an inexperienced pilot, Roy Darling.  While potentially quicker, the board of health rejected the option and voted unanimously for the dogsled relay. Seppala was notified that evening and immediately started preparations for the trip.  The U.S. Public Health Service had located 1.1 million units of serum in West Coast hospitals which could be shipped to Seattle, and then transported to Alaska. The "Alameda" would be the next ship north, and would not arrive in Seattle until January 31, and then would take another 6 to 7 days to arrive in Seward. On January 26, the Anchorage Railroad Hospital found 300,000 forgotten units, after the chief of surgery, John Beeson, heard of the need. The supply was wrapped in glass vials, then padded quilts, and finally a metallic cylinder weighing a little more than 20 pounds. At Governor Scott Bone's order, it was packed and handed to conductor Frank Knight, who arrived in Nenana on January 27. While not sufficient to defeat the epidemic, the 300,000 units could hold it at bay until the larger shipment arrived.  The temperatures across the Interior were at 20 year lows due to a high pressure system from the Arctic, and in Fairbanks the temperature was. A second system was burying the Panhandle, as winds swept snow into drifts. Travel by sea was hazardous, and across the Interior most forms of transportation shut down. In addition, there were limited hours of daylight to fly, due to the polar night.  While the first batch of serum was traveling to Nenana, Governor Bone gave final authorization to the dog relay, but ordered Edward Wetzler, the U.S. Post Office inspector, to arrange a relay of the best drivers and dogs across the Interior. The teams would travel day and night until they handed off the package to Seppala at Nulato.  The decision outraged William Fentress "Wrong Font" Thompson, publisher of the "Fairbanks Daily News-Miner" and aircraft advocate, who helped line up the pilot and plane. He used his paper to write scathing editorials.

Relay.

The mail route from Nenana to Nome spanned in total. It crossed the barren Alaska Interior, following the Tanana River for to the village Tanana at the junction with the Yukon River, and then following the Yukon for to Kaltag. The route then passed west over the Kaltag Portage to Unalakleet on the shore of Norton Sound. The route then continued for northwest around the southern shore of the Seward Peninsula with no protection from gales and blizzards, including a stretch across the shifting ice of the Bering Sea.  Wetzler contacted Tom Parson, an agent of the Northern Commercial Company, which contracted to deliver mail between Fairbanks and Unalakleet. Telephones and telegraphs turned the drivers back to their assigned roadhouses. The mail carriers held a revered position in the territory, and were the best dog mushers in Alaska. The majority of relay drivers across the Interior were native Athabaskans, direct descendants of the original dog mushers.  The first musher in the relay was "Wild Bill" Shannon, who was handed the package at the train station in Nenana on January 27 at 9:00 pm AKST by night. Despite a temperature of, Shannon left immediately with his team of 11 inexperienced dogs, led by Blackie. The temperature began to drop, and the team was forced onto the colder ice of the river because the trail had been destroyed by horses.  Despite jogging alongside the sled to keep warm, Shannon developed hypothermia. He reached Minto at 3 am, with parts of his face black from frostbite. The temperature was. After warming the serum by the fire and resting for four hours, Shannon dropped three dogs and left with the remaining 8. The three dogs died shortly after Shannon returned for them, and a fourth may have perished as well.

Arrival in Minto.

Half-Athabaskan Edgar Kalland arrived in Minto the night before, and was sent back to Tolovana, traveling the day before the relay. Shannon and his team arrived in bad shape at 11 am, and handed over the serum. After warming the serum in the roadhouse, Kalland headed into the forest. The temperature had risen to, and according to at least one report the owner of the roadhouse at Manley Hot Springs had to pour water over Kallands' hands to get them off the sled's handlebar when he arrived at 4 pm.  No new cases of diphtheria were diagnosed on January 28, but two new cases were diagnosed on January 29. The quarantine had been obeyed but lack of diagnostic tools and the contagiousness of the strain rendered it ineffective. More units of serum were discovered around Juneau the same day. While no count exists, the estimate based on weight is roughly 125,000 units, enough to treat 4 to 6 patients. The crisis had become headline news in newspapers, including San Francisco, Cleveland, Washington D.C., and New York, and spread to the radio sets which were just becoming common. The storm system from Alaska hit the contiguous United States, bringing record lows to New York, and freezing the Hudson River.  A fifth death occurred on January 30. Maynard and Sutherland renewed their campaign for flying the remaining serum by plane. Different proposals included flying a large aircraft from Seattle to Nome, carrying a plane to the edge of the pack ice via Navy ship and launching it, and the original plan of flying the serum from Fairbanks. Despite receiving headline coverage across the country, the support of several cabinet departments, and from Arctic explorer Roald Amundsen, the plans were rejected by experienced pilots, the Navy, and Governor Bone. Thompson's editorials waxed virulent against those opposing using airplanes.  In response, Bone decided to speed up the relay and authorized additional drivers for Seppala's leg of the relay, so they could travel without rest. Seppala was still scheduled to cover the most dangerous leg, the shortcut across Norton Sound, but the telephone and telegraph systems bypassed the small villages he was passing through, and there was no way to tell him to wait at Shaktoolik. The plan relied on the driver from the north catching Seppala on the trail. Summers arranged for drivers along the last leg, including Seppala's colleague Gunnar Kaasen.  From Manley Hot Springs, the serum passed through largely Athabascan hands before George Nollner delivered it to Charlie Evans at Bishop Mountain on January 30 at 3 am. The temperature had warmed slightly, but at, was dropping again. Evans relied on his lead dogs when he passed through ice fog where the Koyukuk River had broken through and surged over the ice, but forgot to protect the groins of his two short-haired mixed breed lead dogs with rabbit skins. Both dogs collapsed with frostbite, with Evans having to take their place himself pulling the sled. He arrived at 10 am; both dogs were dead. Tommy Patsy departed within half an hour.  The serum then crossed the Kaltag Portage in the hands of Jack Nicolai aka "Jackscrew" and the Alaska Native Victor Anagick, who handed it to his fellow Alaska Native Myles Gonangnan on the shores of the Sound, at Unalakleet on January 31 at 5 am. Gonangnan saw the signs of a storm brewing, and decided not to take the shortcut across the dangerous ice of the Sound. He departed at 5:30 am, and as he crossed the hills, "the eddies of drifting, swirling snow passing between the dog's legs and under the bellies made them appear to be fording a fast running river." The whiteout conditions cleared as he reached the shore, and the gale-force winds drove the wind chill to. At 3 pm he arrived at Shaktoolik. Seppala was not there, but Henry Ivanoff was waiting just in case.  On January 30, the number of cases in Nome had reached 27 and the antitoxin was depleted. According to a reporter living in Nome, "All hope is in the dogs and their heroic drivers... Nome appears to be a deserted city." With the report of Gonangnan's progress on January 31, Welch believed the serum would arrive there in February.

Connection on Norton Sound.

Leonhard Seppala and his dog sled team, with his lead dog Togo, traveled from Nome from January 27 to January 31 into the oncoming storm. They took the shortcut across the Norton Sound, and headed toward Shaktoolik. The temperature in Nome was a relatively warm, but in Shaktoolik the temperature was estimated at, and the gale force winds causing a wind chill of. Togo ran 350 miles for his part of the run.  Henry Ivanoff's team ran into a reindeer and got tangled up just outside Shaktoolik. Seppala still believed he had more than to go and was racing to get off the Norton Sound before the storm hit. He was passing the team when Ivanoff shouted, "The serum! The serum! I have it here!"  With the news of the worsening epidemic, Seppala decided to brave the storm and once again set out across the exposed open ice of the Norton Sound when he reached Ungalik, after dark. The temperature was estimated at, but the wind chill with the gale force winds was. Togo led the team in a straight line through the dark, and they arrived at the roadhouse in Isaac's Point on the other side at 8 pm. In one day, they had traveled, averaging. The team rested, and departed at 2 am into the full power of the storm.  During the night the temperature dropped to, and the wind increased to storm force (at least 65 mph []). The team ran across the ice while following the shoreline. They returned to shore to cross Little McKinley Mountain, climbing. After descending to the next roadhouse in Golovin, Seppala passed the serum to Charlie Olsen on February 1 at 3 pm.  On February 1, the number of cases in Nome rose to 28. The serum en route was sufficient to treat 30 people. With the powerful blizzard raging and winds of, Welch ordered a stop to the relay until the storm passed, reasoning that a delay was better than the risk of losing it all. Messages were left at Solomon and Point Safety before the lines went dead.  Olsen was blown off the trail, and suffered severe frostbite in his hands while putting blankets on his dogs. The wind chill was. He arrived at Bluff on February 1 at 7 pm in poor shape. Gunnar Kaasen waited until 10 pm for the storm to break, but it only got worse and the drifts would soon block the trail so he departed into a headwind. Kaasen traveled through the night, through drifts, and river overflow over the Topkok Mountain. Balto led the team through visibility so poor that Kaasen could not always see the dogs harnessed closest to the sled. He was two miles (3 km) past Solomon before he realized it, and kept going. The winds after Solomon were so severe that his sled flipped over and he almost lost the cylinder containing the serum when it fell off and became buried in the snow. He also suffered frostbite when he had to use his bare hands to feel for the cylinder.  Kaasen reached Point Safety ahead of schedule on February 2, at 3 am. Ed Rohn believed that Kaasen and the relay was halted at Solomon, so he was sleeping. Since the weather was improving, it would take time to prepare Rohn's team, and Balto and the other dogs were moving well, Kaasen pressed on the remaining to Nome, reaching Front Street at 5:30 am. Not a single ampule was broken, and the antitoxin was thawed and ready by noon.  Together, the teams covered the in 127 1⁄2 hours, which was considered a world record, done in extreme subzero temperatures in near-blizzard conditions and hurricane-force winds. A number of dogs died during the trip.

Second relay.

Margaret Curran from the Solomon roadhouse was infected, which raised fears that the disease might spread from patrons of the roadhouse to other communities. The 1.1 million units had left Seattle on January 31, and were not due by dog sled until February 8. Welch asked for half the serum to be delivered by aircraft from Fairbanks. He contacted Thompson and Sutherland, and Darling made a test flight the next morning. With his health advisor, Governor Bone concluded the cases in Nome were actually going down, and withheld permission, but preparations went ahead. The U.S. Navy moved a minesweeper north from Seattle, and the Signal Corps were ordered to light fires to guide the planes.  By February 3, the original 300,000 units had proved to be still effective, and the epidemic was under control. A sixth death, probably unrelated to diphtheria, was widely reported as a new outbreak of the disease. The batch from Seattle arrived on board the "Admiral Watson" on February 7. Acceding to pressure, Governor Bone authorized half to be delivered by plane. On February 8 the first half of the second shipment began its trip by dog sled, while the plane failed to start when a broken radiator shutter caused the engine to overheat. The plane failed the next day as well, and the mission was scrapped. Thompson was gracious in his editorials.  The second relay included many of the same drivers, and also faced harsh conditions. The serum arrived on February 15.

Aftermath.

The death toll from diphtheria in Nome is officially listed as either 5, 6, or 7, but Welch later estimated there were probably at least 100 additional cases among "the Eskimo camps outside the city. The Natives have a habit of burying their children without reporting the death." Forty-three new cases were diagnosed in 1926, but they were easily managed with the fresh supply of serum.  All participants in the dogsleds received letters of commendation from President Calvin Coolidge, and the Senate stopped work to recognize the event. Each musher during the first relay received a gold medal from the H. K. Mulford Company. The mayor of Los Angeles presented a bone-shaped key to the city to Balto in front of City Hall; silent-film actress Mary Pickford put a wreath around the canine's neck. Poems and letters from children poured in, and spontaneous fundraising campaigns sprang up around the country.  Gunnar Kaasen and his team became celebrities and toured the West Coast from February 1925 to February 1926, and even starred in a 30 minute film entitled "Balto's Race to Nome". A statue of Balto by sculptor Frederick Roth was unveiled in New York City's Central Park during a visit on December 15, 1925. Balto and the other dogs later became part of a sideshow and lived in horrible conditions until they were rescued by George Kimble, who organized a fundraising campaign by the children of Cleveland, Ohio. On March 19, 1927, the dogs received a hero's welcome as they arrived at their permanent home at the Cleveland Zoo. Because of his age, Balto was euthanised on March 14, 1933, at the age of 14. He was mounted and placed on display in the Cleveland Museum of Natural History.  Despite the attention lavished on Kaasen and Balto, many mushers today consider Seppala and Togo to be the true heroes of the run, as they covered the longest and most hazardous leg. They made a round trip of from Nome to Shaktoolik and back to Golovin, and delivered the serum a total of, almost double the distance covered by any other team. After Kaasen's return, he was accused of being a glory hog. Seppala became upset when the media attributed Togo's achievements to Balto, and commented, "it was almost more than I could bear when the 'newspaper dog' Balto received a statue for his 'glorious achievements'."  In October 1926, Seppala took Togo and his team on a tour from Seattle to California, and then across the Midwest to New England, and consistently drew huge crowds. They were featured at Madison Square Garden in New York City for 10 days, and Togo received a gold medal from Roald Amundsen. In New England Seppala's team of Siberian huskies ran in many races, easily defeating the local Chinooks. Seppala sold most of his team to a kennel in Poland Spring, Maine. Seppala visited Togo, until he was euthanised on December 5, 1929. After his death, Seppala had Togo preserved and mounted, and today the dog is on display in a glass case at the Iditarod museum in Wasilla, Alaska.  None of the other mushers received the same degree of attention, though Wild Bill Shannon briefly toured with Blackie. The media largely ignored the Athabaskan and Alaska Native mushers, who covered two-thirds of the distance to Nome. According to Edgar Kalland, "it was just an everyday occurrence as far as we were concerned."

Air mail.

The serum race helped spur the Kelly Act, which was signed into law on February 2. The bill allowed private aviation companies to bid on mail delivery contracts. Technology improved and within a decade, air mail routes were established in Alaska. The last mail delivery by private dog sled under contract took place in 1938, and the last U.S. Post Office dog sled route closed in 1963. Dog sledding remained popular in the rural interior but became nearly extinct when snowmobiles spread in the 1960s. Mushing was revitalized as a recreational sport in the 1970s with the immense popularity of the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race.  While the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race, which runs more than from Anchorage to Nome is actually based on the All-Alaska Sweepstakes, it has many traditions that commemorate the race to deliver the serum to Nome, especially Seppala and Togo. The honorary musher for the first seven races was Leonhard Seppala. Other serum run participants, including "Wild Bill" Shannon, Edgar Kalland, Bill McCarty, Charlie Evans, Edgar Nollner, Harry Pitka, and Henry Ivanoff have also been honored. The 2005 Iditarod honored Jirdes Winther Baxter, the last known survivor of the epidemic. The position is now known as Leonhard Seppala's Honorary Musher, the Leonhard Seppala Humanitarian Award is given to the musher who provides the best dog care while still remaining competitive, and the Leonhard Seppala Heritage Grant is an Iditarod scholarship. The two races follow the same route from Ruby to Nome.  A reenactment of the serum run was held in 1975, which took 6 days longer than the 1925 serum run, or more than twice the total time. Many of the participants were descendants of the original 20. In 1985, President Ronald Reagan sent a letter of recognition to Charlie Evans, Edgar Nollner, and Bill McCarty, the only remaining survivors. Nollner was the last to die, on January 18, 1999, of a heart attack.

Popular media.

The relay has been immortalized in various media. In 1976, the story was retold in "Race against Death: A True Story of the Far North", by noted children's author Seymour Reit, which was featured in a 1978 episode of "The Book Bird", a long-running anthology of children's literature on PBS. The 1995 animated film "Balto" was loosely based on the events of the final leg of the serum run, although all of the characters besides Balto, and subplots, are fictional. A detailed recounting of the people and events involved in the serum run, including the story of the native mushers and the local nurses who attended to the sick and dying, is given in the 2003 book, "The Cruelest Miles: The Heroic Story of Dogs and Men in a Race Against an Epidemic", by Gay and Laney Salisbury. In 2013, a documentary titled "Icebound — The Greatest Dog Story Ever Told", focused on the aftermath of the events. The Great Alaskan Race, a 2019 film,produced by Rebel Road Entertainment, is based on the serum run. "Togo", produced by Walt Disney Pictures, debuted on December 20, 2019 on Disney+.

Sled dog credit.

There is much controversy surrounding Balto's role in this race and the statue in Central Park. A premier musher, Seppala was sent to run across some of the most dangerous and treacherous parts of the run. He met the serum runner (to his surprise, since he had anticipated having to make the entire run alone), took the handoff, and returned another, having run over in total. He then handed the serum off to Charlie Olson. Olson carried it to Bluff where he turned it over to Gunnar Kaasen. Kaasen was supposed to hand off the serum to Rohn at Port Safety, but Rohn had gone to sleep and Kaasen decided to keep going to Nome. In all, Kaasen and Balto ran a total of. Kaasen maintained that he decided to continue since there were no lights on in the cabin where Rohn was sleeping and he didn't want to waste time, but many thought his decision to not wake Rohn was motivated by a desire to grab the glory for himself and Balto.  According to Togo's musher, Leonhard Seppala, Balto was a scrub freight dog that he left behind when he set out on the trip. He also asserted that Kaasen's lead dog was actually a dog named Fox, but that news agents of the time thought that Balto was a more newsworthy name.  The Central Park statue of Balto was modeled after Balto, but shows him wearing Togo's colors (awards). The inscription reads, "Dedicated to the indomitable spirit of the sled dogs that relayed antitoxin 600 miles over rough ice, across treacherous waters, through arctic blizzards, from Nenana to the relief of stricken Nome." In the last years of his life Seppala was heartbroken by the way the credit had gone to Balto; in his mind, Togo was the real hero of the serum race. According to the National Park Service, in 1960 Seppala said: Katy Steinmetz, writing in "Time" magazine, also thought that Togo was the greatest sled dog of all time. In the serum run, she wrote, Togo was the real hero:

Relay participants and distances.

Mushers (in order) and the distances they covered. Most legs were planned to be about the 25 miles long, generally accepted as an "extreme day's mush".

The 1925 serum run to Nome, also known as the Great Race of Mercy and The Serum Run, was a transport of diphtheria antitoxin by dog sled relay across the U.S. territory of Alaska by 20 mushers and about 150 sled dogs across in 5 1⁄2 days, saving the small town of Nome and the surrounding communities from a developing epidemic.

Im Winter 1925 brach in der kleinen Stadt Nome im entlegenen Nordwesten Alaskas eine Diphtherieepidemie aus. Die einzige Möglichkeit, Medikamente in die eingeschneite, von zugefrorenem Meer umgebene Stadt zu bringen, waren Hundeschlitten. Der Staffellauf von 20 Mushern und ihren Schlittenhunden über 1085 km von Nenana nach Nome innerhalb von fünfeinhalb Tagen ging als Serum Run to Nome oder auch Great Race of Mercy in die Geschichte ein.


Early life.

Bonner was the son of Elizabeth Frodsham, who was married to Edmund Bonner, a sawyer of Hanley, Worcestershire. John Strype printed an account, with many circumstantial details, stating that Bonner was the natural son of George Savage, rector of Davenham, Cheshire, and that his mother married Bonner only after the future bishop's birth. This account was disputed by Strype's contemporary, Sir Edmund Lechmere, who asserted that Bonner was of legitimate birth.  He was educated at Broadgates Hall, now Pembroke College, Oxford, graduating bachelor of civil and canon law in June 1519. He was ordained about the same time and admitted doctor of civil law (DCL) in 1525.

An agent of royal supremacy.

In 1529 he was Cardinal Thomas Wolsey's chaplain, which brought him to the notice of the king and Thomas Cromwell. After the fall of Wolsey he remained faithful to him and was with him at the time of his arrest at Cawood and death at Leicester in 1530. Subsequently, he was transferred, perhaps through Cromwell's influence, to the service of the king, and in January 1532 he was sent to Rome as the king's agent when the question of the king's divorce was raised. There he sought to obstruct the judicial proceedings against Henry in the papal curia.  In October 1533 he was entrusted with the task of suggesting to Clement VII (while he was the guest of Francis I at Marseille) Henry's appeal from the pope to a general council; but there seems to be no good authority for Gilbert Burnet's story that Clement threatened to have him burnt alive. For these and other services Bonner had been rewarded by successive grants of the livings of Cherry Burton (Yorks), Ripple (Worcester), Blaydon (Durham), and East Dereham (Norfolk). In 1535, he was made Archdeacon of Leicester.  During the following years he was much employed on important embassies in the king's interests, first to the pope to appeal against the excommunication pronounced in July 1533, afterwards to the Emperor to dissuade him from attending the general council which the pope wished to summon at Vicenza. Towards the end of 1535 he was sent to further what he called "the cause of the Gospel" ("Letters and Papers", 1536, No. 469) in North Germany; and in 1536 he wrote a preface to Stephen Gardiner's "De vera Obedientia", which asserted the royal and denied the papal supremacy, and was received with delight by the Lutherans. After a brief embassy to the Emperor in the spring of 1538, Bonner succeeded Gardiner as ambassador to the French Court in Paris. In this capacity he proved capable and successful, though irritation was frequently caused by his overbearing and dictatorial manner. He began his mission by sending Cromwell a long list of accusations against his predecessor. He was almost as bitter against Wyatt and Mason, whom he denounced as a "papist", and the violence of his conduct led Francis I to threaten him with a hundred strokes of the halberd. He seems, however, to have pleased his patron, Cromwell, and perhaps Henry, by his energy in seeing the king's "Great" Bible in English through the press in Paris. He was already king's chaplain; his appointment at Paris had been accompanied by promotion to the See of Hereford (27 November 1538) but owing to his absence he could neither be consecrated nor take possession of his see, and he was still abroad when he was translated to the Bishopric of London (October 1539). Bonner returned to England and was consecrated 4 April 1540.  Hitherto Bonner had had a reputation as a somewhat coarse and unscrupulous tool of Cromwell – a sort of ecclesiastical Wriothesley, he is not known to have protested against any of the changes effected by his masters; he professed to be no theologian, and was in the habit, when asked technical questions, to refer his interrogators to the theologians. He had graduated in law, and not in theology. There was nothing in the Reformation to appeal to him, except the repudiation of papal control; and he was one of those numerous Englishmen whose views were faithfully reflected in Henry's Act of the Six Articles. Indeed, almost his first duty as Bishop of London was to try heretics under these articles; accusations of excessive cruelty and bias against the accused were spread broadcast by his enemies, and from the first he seems to have been unpopular in London. He became a staunch conservative. During the years 1542-43 he was again abroad in Spain and Germany as ambassador to the emperor, at the end of which time he returned to London.  The death of the king on 28 January 1547, proved the turning point in Bonner's career. Hitherto he had shown himself entirely subservient to the sovereign, supporting him in the matter of the divorce, approving of the suppression of the religious houses, taking the oath of Supremacy which Fisher and More refused at the cost of their lives. But while accepting the schism from Rome, he had always resisted the innovations of the Reformers, and held to the doctrines of the old religion.  Therefore, from the first he put himself in opposition to the religious changes introduced by Protector Somerset and Archbishop Cranmer. Bonner began to doubt that supremacy when he saw to what uses it could be put by a Protestant council, and either he or Gardiner evolved the theory that the royal supremacy was in abeyance during a royal minority. The ground was skillfully chosen, but it was not legally nor constitutionally tenable. Both he and Gardiner had in fact sought fresh licences to exercise their ecclesiastical jurisdiction from the young king Edward VI; and, if he was supreme enough to confer jurisdiction, he was supreme enough to issue the injunctions and order the visitation to which Bonner objected. It was on this question that he came into conflict with Edward's government.

Realignment with Catholicism.

Under Edward VI.

Bonner resisted the visitation of August 1547, and was committed to the Fleet Prison; but he withdrew his opposition, and was released in time to take an active part against the government in the parliament of November 1547. In the next session, November 1548-March 1549, he was a leading opponent of the first Act of Uniformity and Book of Common Prayer. When these became law, he neglected to enforce them, and on 1 September 1549 he was required by the council to maintain at St Paul's Cross that the royal authority was as great as if the king were forty years of age.  He did so, but with such significant omissions in the matter which had been prescribed touching the king's authority, that after a seven days' trial he was deprived of his bishopric by an ecclesiastical court over which Cranmer presided, and sent as a prisoner to the Marshalsea. The fall of Somerset in the following month raised Bonner's hopes, and he appealed from Cranmer to the council. After a struggle the Protestant faction gained the upper hand, and on 7 February 1550 Bonner's deprivation was confirmed by the council sitting in the Star Chamber, and he was further condemned to perpetual imprisonment, where he remained until the accession of Mary in 1553.

Under Mary I.

Bonner was at once restored to his see, his deprivation being regarded as invalid and Ridley as an intruder. He vigorously restored Roman Catholicism in his diocese, made no difficulty about submitting to the papal jurisdiction which he had foresworn. During 1554 Bonner carried out a visitation of his diocese, restoring the Mass and the manifold practices and emblems of Catholic life, but the work was carried out slowly and with difficulty. To help in the work, Bonner published a list of thirty-seven "Articles to be enquired of", but these led to such disturbances that they were temporarily withdrawn.  Mary's administration thought that religious dissidents would best be dealt with by ecclesiastical tribunals rather than by the civil power. As Bonner was Bishop of London, the chief burden of stamping out religious dissent fell to him. Therefore, in 1555, he began the persecution to which he owes his notoriety among his detractors as "Bloody Bonner." He was appointed to degrade Cranmer at Oxford in February 1556. The part he took in these affairs gave rise to intense hatred on the part of the rebels. Foxe in his "Book of Martyrs" summed up this view in two lines:  His apologists, including defenders of Catholicism in England, claim his actions were merely "official", and that "he had no control" over the fate of the accused "once they were declared to be irreclaimable heretics and handed over to the secular power; but he always strove by gentle suasion first to reconcile them to the Church"; the "Catholic Encyclopedia" estimates the number of persons executed as heretics in his jurisdiction as about 120, rather than 300. Many of his victims were forced upon him by the king and queen in Council, which at one point addressed a letter to Bonner on the express ground that he was not proceeding with sufficient severity. So completely had the state dominated the church that religious persecutions had become state persecutions, and Bonner was acting as an ecclesiastical sheriff in the most refractory district of the realm. Even John Foxe records instances in which Bonner failed to persecute those authorised for persecution.  Bonner's detractors, beginning with his Protestant contemporaries John Foxe and John Bale and continuing through most English historiography of the period, paint a different picture. Bonner, they point out, was one of those who brought it to pass that the condemnation of heretics to the fire should be part of his ordinary official duties, and he was represented as hounding men and women to death with merciless vindictiveness. Bale, formerly a friar and ex-Bishop of Ossory, published from his place of exile at Basle in 1554 an attack on the bishop, in which he speaks of him as among other things, "the bloody sheep-bite of London" and "bloody Bonner".  Bonner's most important writings date from this time. They include "Responsum et Exhortatio in laudem Sacerdotii" (1553); "Articles to be enquired of in the General Visitation of Edmund Bishop of London" (1554); and "" (1555), as well as a catechism, probably written by his chaplains, Nicholas Harpsfield and Henry Pendleton, entitled "A profitable and necessary doctrine" (1554, 2d ed. 1555).

Under Elizabeth.

After the death of Mary, Elizabeth succeeded to the throne. The Council ordered him to resign the bishopric, which he refused to do, adding that he preferred death. He was sent again to the Marshalsea prison on 20 April 1560. During the next two years representatives of the Protestant party frequently clamored for the execution of Bonner and the other imprisoned bishops. When the Parliament of 1563 met, a new Act was passed by which the first refusal of the oath of royal supremacy was "praemunire", the second, high treason. The bishops had refused the oath once, so that by this Act, which became law on 10 April 1563, their next refusal of the oath might be followed by their death. Thanks to the intervention of the Spanish ambassador, action against the bishops was delayed; but a year later, on 29 April 1564, Bonner was indicted on a charge of "praemunire" on refusing the oath when tendered him by his diocesan, Bishop Horne of Winchester. He challenged the legality of Horne's consecration, and a special act of parliament was passed to meet the point, while the charge against Bonner was withdrawn. Four times a year for three years he was forced to appear in the courts at Westminster only to be further remanded. The last of these appearances took place in the Michaelmas term of 1568, so the last year of the bishop's life was spent in prison. His demeanor during his long imprisonment was remarkable for his cheerfulness, and even John Jewel, the Bishop of Salisbury, describes him in a letter as "a most courteous man and gentlemanly both in his manners and appearance" ("Zurich Letters", I, 34).  Bonner never tired of trying to convert others to Catholicism, and never expressed regret over his actions under Queen Mary. Bishop Jewel, in a letter to Peter Martyr Vermigli, related that "."  Upon this, one of them is said to have answered, "Go beast, into hell, and find your friends there, for we are none of them. I killed but one man upon a provocation, and do truly repent of it; but you have killed many persons of all sorts, without any provocation from them, and are hardened in your impenitence." Bonner died in the Marshalsea on 5 September 1569, and was buried in St George's, Southwark, secretly at midnight to avoid the risk of a hostile demonstration.

Bonner in historical memory.

Contemporary Catholic writers attributed to Bonner and the other bishops who died in prison the honour of martyrdom: "in vinculis obierunt martyres". On the walls of the English College, Rome, an inscription recording the deaths of eleven bishops, but without naming them, found a place among the paintings of the martyrs. Bonner was attacked during life with a rare hatred which has followed him into the grave, so that in English history few names have been so execrated and vilified as his.  A more charitable assessment of Bonner's character was made by an Anglican historian, S. R. Maitland, who considers him,""...."" This verdict was generally followed by later historians. Lord Acton in the "Cambridge Modern History" (1904) argued: "The number of those put to death in his diocese of London was undoubtedly disproportionately large, but this would seem to have been more the result of the strength of the reforming element in the capital and in Essex than of the employment of exceptional rigour; while the evidence also shows that he himself patiently dealt with many of the Protestants, and did his best to induce them to renounce what he conscientiously believed to be their errors." Twelve of Bonner's "" (1555; nine of these were by John Harpsfield) were translated into the Cornish language by John Tregear, and are now the largest single work of traditional Cornish prose.

Edmund Bonner (also Boner; c. 15005 September 1569) was Bishop of London from 1539–49 and again from 1553-59. Initially an instrumental figure in the schism of Henry VIII from Rome, he was antagonized by the Protestant reforms introduced by 1st Duke of Somerset, Edward Seymour and reconciled himself to Roman Catholicism. He became notorious as "Bloody Bonner" for his role in the persecution of heretics under the Catholic government of Mary I of England, and ended his life as a prisoner under Queen Elizabeth.

Edmund Bonner (* um 1500 in Hanley (Worcestershire); † 5. September 1569 in The Marshalsea) war von 1539 bis 1549 und von 1553 bis 1559 Bischof von London.


Early life and education.

Ivan Šaško was born in a small village of Ðivan near Vrbovec on 1 August 1966 to Stjepan and Ljubica Šaško. He attended first two classes of the elementary school in Banovo, and finished it at Vrbovec in the year 1981. After graduation, he attended minor seminary in Zagreb. He graduated from "Interdiocese Preparatory Seminary" in 1985 after which he went to serve conscription in the army. In autumn of 1986, Šaško entered major seminary and started the study of theology and philosophy at the Catholic Theological Faculty of the University of Zagreb. Upon completion of the second year of study in 1988, Šaško went to Rome to the Pontifical Atheneum of St. Anselm where he stayed until 1994 and continued his studies at the Pontifical Gregorian University from which he graduated in 1991. In the same year, he was ordained a deacon for the Archdiocese of Zagreb and began postgraduate studies and specialization in the liturgy at the Pontifical Atheneum of St. Anselm. On 28 June 1992, Šaško was ordained a priest for the Archdiocese of Zagreb by Cardinal Franjo Kuharić. He gained his Master's degree on 10 June 1994. That same year he became a member of the Pontifical Croatian College of St. Jerome and continued writing a doctoral dissertation. Šaško successfully defended a dissertation on 28 November 1997, with the thesis "Dona, munera, sancta sacrifício - and omnibus... facere digneris: dinamismo pneumatologici part Canone Romano. Ricerca e proposta per una rilettura teologico-liturgica".

Career.

In 1996 Šaško came back to Croatia and started working as an assistant in the Department of the liturgy of the Zagreb Catholic Theological Faculty. From the year 2000 he worked as docent in the same department. From 2002 to 2007, he was head of the Department of the liturgy. From 2001 he is a member of the Assembly of prebendaries of the Zagreb cathedral. In 2008 he was appointed canon of the Cathedral Kaptol of Zagreb. In January 2005 he was appointed President of the Commission for the establishment of the Catholic University of Croatia, and still today, after the University opening in 2006, continues as the President of the Commission of the University. In April 2005 he was elected associate professor in the Department of the liturgy of Zagreb Catholic Theological Faculty. He is member of the editorial board of the scientific journal "Bogoslovska smotra". In October 2005, Šaško participated in the IX Regular General Synod of Bishops in the Vatican, in a group of Assistants to the Special Secretary of the Synod. During three pastoral visits of Pope John Paul II to Croatia, he was one of those responsible for the preparation of liturgical celebrations.  On 11 February 2008, Pope Benedict XVI appointed Šaško auxiliary bishop of Zagreb and titular Bishop of Rotary. Cardinal Josip Bozanić ordained him on 29 March 2008.

Ivan Šaško (born in Ðivan near Vrbovec, 1 August 1966) is a Croatian prelate of the Roman Catholic Church who serves as Auxiliary bishop of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Zagreb since March 29, 2008.

Ivan Šaško (* 1. August 1966 in Ðivan, Kroatien, ehemals Jugoslawien) ist ein kroatischer Geistlicher und römisch-katholischer Weihbischof im Erzbistum Zagreb.


Playing career.

As a youth, Stafford played in the 1993 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament with the California Junior Kings minor ice hockey team.  Stafford played four years of junior hockey for the Des Moines Buccaneers of the United States Hockey League where he led the team to both league and national championships as a captain. Then he earned a full athletic scholarship to the University of New Hampshire. He played for UNH for four years. He was an assistant captain his junior and senior year. During his four years he was voted to one second team Hockey East and one first team all Hockey East. In all the wildcats won the Hockey East Championship twice and made it to the Frozen Four three times. He ended his college career with a national championship game, which UNH lost 5-1 to Minnesota.  On December 9, 2003, he was signed as a free agent by the San Jose Sharks. His rookie season he was voted to All Rookie Team for the AHL and coppered in the All-Star game. He spent three seasons with the Sharks' American Hockey League affiliate, the Cleveland Barons (later the Worcester Sharks.)  His first pro season ended with an ugly incident. On April 30, 2004, Stafford was playing for the Cleveland Barons against the Hamilton Bulldogs in the Calder Cup playoffs when he got into an altercation with Hamilton's winger Alexander Perezhogin. Stafford and Perezhogin were battling resulting in them both falling to the ice. Perezhogin swung his stick into Stafford's face as he was getting up. The slash knocked Stafford unconscious resulting in a concussion and sending him into convulsions on the ice as well as causing severe facial wounds which required 20 stitches to repair.  Perezhogin was charged with assault causing bodily harm and was given a one-year probation as well as being ordered to cover Stafford's medical expenses and donate a further $5000 to charity. Perezhogin was also suspended for the rest of the playoffs and the whole of the 2004–05 season (a total of 89 games), the longest suspension in AHL history, and one of the longest ever in professional hockey. Stafford was also suspended for six games for his part in the incident. He made a full recovery in time for the next season.  On July 16, 2007, he was signed as a free agent by the Detroit Red Wings. Stafford played his first NHL game on February 23, 2008, against the Vancouver Canucks. He was recalled by the Wings earlier that day after injuries to Nicklas Lidstrom, Brian Rafalski and Chris Chelios.  Stafford was released by the Red Wings after the 2008 Stanley Cup run and on July 3, 2008, he was signed as a free agent by the Dallas Stars. On October 4, 2008, the Stars loaned him back to Grand Rapids. The Stars recalled him on March 29, 2009. In the 2009–10 season he was assigned to Dallas' AHL affiliate, the Texas Stars, and helped Texas reach the Calder Cup finals in its inaugural year.  On July 3, 2010, Stafford was signed as a free agent by the Phoenix Coyotes to a one-year contract. Again he competed in the AHL All-Star game and was voted to the starting line up. Later that year, he was again called up by the Coyotes.  On October 23, 2011, the Montreal Canadiens acquired Stafford and forward Petteri Nokelainen from the Phoenix Coyotes in exchange for forward Brock Trotter and a seventh-round pick in the 2012 NHL Entry Draft.  Stafford was signed as a free agent to a one-year contract with the Washington Capitals on July 2, 2012. Due to the impending 2012 NHL lockout, he was directly assigned to AHL affiliate, the Hershey Bears, to begin the 2012–13 season. On April 2, 2013, Stafford was traded by the Capitals to the Edmonton Oilers in exchange for Dane Byers.  On December 23, 2013, Stafford ended his tenure with Swedish club, Färjestad BK and signed a contract for the remainder of the 2013–14 season with Swiss club, Genève-Servette HC of the National League A. They shortly after competed in the Spengler Cup where he was intricate in helping the Eagles claim the championship through victory over KHL team CSKA Moscow.  In June 2014, Stafford signed a contract for the 2014–15 season with Finnish club, Ässät of the Liiga. In 36 games from the blueline with Ässät, Stafford contributed 2 goals and 12 points.

Garrett Stafford (born January 28, 1980) is an American former professional ice hockey defenseman. He played in the National Hockey League (NHL) with the Detroit Red Wings, Dallas Stars and Phoenix Coyotes.

Garrett Stafford (* 28. Januar 1980 in Los Angeles, Kalifornien) ist ein US-amerikanischer Eishockeyverteidiger, der zuletzt bei Ässät Pori in der Liiga unter Vertrag stand.


History.

2000–2006: Formation and debut.

Prior to the group's debut, a few of the members were already exposed to the entertainment industry. G-Dragon and Taeyang were the first ones to receive training under YG Entertainment at the age of eleven. After G-Dragon was approached by YG Entertainment for possible candidates to start a boy group, G-Dragon contacted T.O.P, his childhood friend, leading to the latter to audition. At the time, T.O.P was an underground rapper under the stage name "Tempo". One of his most popular tracks was "Buckwild" with NBK Gray. Seungri first appeared on the reality television series "Let's Cokeplay: Mnet Battle Shinhwa", a show in which idol group Shinhwa search for members to make up the "second-generation Shinhwa". The original lineup consisted of six members: the aforementioned ones along with Daesung and Hyun-seung, who were both auditioned

2007–2008: Breakthrough success and Japanese debut.

On February 8, 2007, Big Bang released their live concert album, "The First / Real Live Concert", which sold 30,000 copies by the end of the year. They also began the Want You Tour in support of "Since 2007", visiting five cities: Incheon, Daegu, Changwon, Jeonju and Busan. Their first extended play, "Always" (2007), marked several changes for the group. Though members had previously involved themselves with writing and composing, the group took more creative control over their music, moving away from their hip-hop roots. G-Dragon composed and wrote most of the tracks, including the lead single "Lies".<ref name="ALWAYS/RELEASE"></ref> The EP also saw the introduction of electronic music for Big Bang. Receptions were fairly positive,

2009–2011: Solo endeavors, Japanese activities, and commercial success.

While the group was on a break in early 2009, members pursued solo activities. They reunited to collaborate with 2NE1, their label's new girl group who had been dubbed as "The Female Big Bang" at the time, for "Lollipop", a song used to promote a cell phone by LG Cyon. A music video was also filmed for promotion. Big Bang also released their third endorsement digital single "So Fresh, So Cool" to promote the beer brand "Hite", although Seungri was not in the commercial due to the fact he was not of drinking age. Their second self-titled Japanese studio album was released under Universal Music in August 2009 and was promoted with two singles: "My Heaven" and "". "My Heaven",

2012–2014: International recognition, first world tour, and hiatus.

In January 2012, YG Entertainment began releasing teasers for Big Bang's fifth Korean EP "Alive", which was released in both digital and physical formats in February. Preorders for "Alive" amounted to 260,000 copies in two weeks. Three singles were released to promote the album: "Blue", the lead single, was released a week prior to the album and reached the number one position on all major domestic charts; the second single "Bad Boy" peaked at number two and was the only K-Pop song to be included in Fuse's best songs of 2012 list; while the last, "Fantastic Baby", rounded at number three. The music video for the latter is currently the band's most popular, having received more than 310 million views on YouTube, the most watched video by a

2015–2016: Critical acclaim, second world tour and 10th anniversary.

Big Bang was on hiatus for two years while G-Dragon experienced a "career slump" and was unable to find inspiration to write new music for the band, explaining that "In the past, even after coming back from a long, tiring day, I would write at least two songs at the dorm before I slept as if it were my duty. [In 2014], however, things just weren't working out for me so the album kept getting delayed." In 2015, Big Bang made their comeback by releasing special project singles for their album "Made": "M", "A", "D", and "E". The first single, "M", released in May, included the two songs "Loser" and "Bae Bae", which debuted at number one and number two, respectively, on "Billboard"'s World Digital Songs, making the quintet the first K-pop boy band to top the chart and the second Korean artist to occupy

2017–2019: Touring, military service, and Seungri's retirement.

As per South Korea's mandatory military service requirement, T.O.P. enlisted for his two-year service on February 9, 2017 as a conscripted policeman. The remaining members continued promotions without him, holding their fifth annual Japanese dome tour, the Last Dance Tour, in November with 14 concerts in four cities with an attendance of 696,000 fans. The two final shows of the tour were also held at Gocheok Sky Dome in Seoul on December 30 and 31.  In 2017, YG Entertainment released a reality program starring the group named "Run, Big Bang Scout!" through YouTube Red, which was the service's first original content to be produced

2019-present: Return.

On July 6, 2019, T.O.P was the first member to be discharged from the military. He was followed by G-Dragon on October 25, 2019. Taeyang and Daesung were discharged on November 10.  On January 3, 2020, it was announced that Big Bang would be performing at the Coachella Valley Music

Artistry.

Music.

Big Bang have been praised for their individuality and ability to fuse a pop sound with rap, R&B and dance elements. The quintet is known for experimentalism and for a "dominating style of music that surpasses genre boundaries". During the early days of their career, Big Bang's music was predominantly hip hop and pop rap, although they incorporated R&B songs into their albums as well. A writer for Yahoo! Japan once compared their early materials to that of American hip-hop artists such as The Black Eyed Peas, stating that their songs included "catchy vocals, [...] rap and characters". The song "Ma Girl", Taeyang's first solo from the group's first album, was described as "[s]mooth, sexy and

Songwriting and themes.

The group is known for maintaining tight control over their career, heavily involving themselves since their debut in the production of their music and songwriting, as opposed to many Korean idol groups. G-Dragon is known as the member that is most heavily involved in the production of the group's materials, having a role in producing almost their entire discography spanning ten years, and credited as the main songwriter for the group's earlier hits such as "Lies", "Last Farewell", and "Day by Day". G-Dragon, T.O.P, and Taeyang also collaboratively wrote "Last Dance", with G-Dragon co-producing the song.  Recurring themes in their lyrics deal with love and relationships. In "Bingle Bingle", a protagonist is pleading to his lover to take the next step in the relationship. In contrast, "Let's

Stage.

Big Bang has received praise for their stage presence and choreographies during live performances. Early in their career, the quintet was choreographed by Seungri and frequent collaborator Shaun Evaristo. While they once relied heavily on street dancing for their moves, they have made a transition towards other styles of choreography. One of the moves from their debut single "La La La", involving the group lifting their shirts to expose their abdomens, quickly gained popularity online and became one of the top searches on the internet. The choreography for "Last Farewell", in which the group incorporates the idea of "jump roping" as a dance move,

Legacy.

Big Bang is YG's most successful artist and was responsible for more than half of YG's albums sold in Korea from 2014 to 2017 before their hiatus due to military enlistment. They were the first Korean mainstream hip hop idols, being credited for the genre spreading throughout Asia as a representative of the Hallyu Wave. "The Korea Times" have called them "the icons of Korean pop [music]", and cited how G-Dragon's rise to one of the most accomplished songwriters in K-pop "has inspired many young idol-wannabes to become singer-songwriters." "Yonhap News Agency" stated that the quintet has helped “spread K-pop as a cultural brand spanning the U.S., Europe, Latin America and the Middle East." In 2011, "BBC" declared that "K-pop bands, including Big Bang, are making their mark around the world", citing the group's contribution to YG Entertainment's economic growth. After the group won the 2011 MTV Europe Music Award for Best Worldwide Act, Google announced that its subsidiary YouTube would launch its own K-pop channel in recognition of the popularity and success of K-pop. The British daily newspaper "The Guardian" also published an article discussing the importance of how the win had "shed light on the rise of Korean music across Europe". Jacques Peterson from "The Sydney Morning Herald" credited their success for giving a “idiosyncratic twist” on their genre that breaks the mould of the idol group formula. Suk Park, the president of DramaFever, has hailed them as the vanguard of K-pop. "The Michigan Daily" have described Big Bang as a rare group that "both innovates and defines the direction a genre takes", affirming that the group and its solo acts "have left a musical imprint that has affected the global music market." Mark James Russell, an entertainment journalist based in Seoul, praised the group for defying categorization, stating how "[o]f all the mainstream acts, they’re doing the most to push boundaries of what is considered K-pop." Anna Fifield from "The Washington Post" claimed that they "have defined and redefined South Korean pop music. They've defied the idea that so-called K-Pop is inevitably sugarcoated and factory-produced, and that boy bands are all about pretty faces and lip-synching." "Los Angeles Times" praised their constant re-imagination of sound and image, calling Big Bang as "one of the most inventive, aesthetically visionary acts in its genre." In an article published for the quintet's tenth anniversary, "Billboard" stated that "no act has enthralled the Korean music world in the past decade quite like Big Bang" later adding that they have "shaped the Korean music industry" and were enabled to "surpass international boundaries and shirk off the limitations of K-pop's youth-focused industry."  In recognition of their global popularity, Big Bang is a prominent face of South Korea when it comes to tourism. Their Big Show concerts were promoted by the South Korean Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism's Visit Korea Committee from 2010 to 2012, crediting the group's "big economic

Achievements.

The quintet is known for their multiple hit songs, with the Gaon Chart reporting that music consumers have learned to trust the group's quality, calling them a "phenomenon" because their material is "consumed evenly by a variety of age groups." This allowed them to win several Song of the Year awards from numerous award shows, including in the 13th Korean Music Awards, for "Bae Bae" and the 30th Golden Disc Awards for "Loser". They were crowned Artist of the Year at the 17th Seoul Music Awards in 2008 and at the 7th Melon Music Awards in 2015. The group was the first artist to win more than one Artist of the Year Award from the Mnet Asian Music Awards, having won in 2008, 2012, and 2015. The group won multiple Best New Artist awards during the early days of their career in Japan. They have won three World Music Awards, including Video of the Year for "Fantastic Baby". Big Bang became the first and only Korean act to win an award at the MTV Italian Music Awards when they took home the Best Artist from the World award in 2016. The quintet has been honored with the award for Most Influential Group in Asia at the 5th Gaon Chart K-Pop Awards and with a Special Achievement award at the 58th Japan Record Awards.  In 2014, the tenth anniversary of the digital music market release in South Korea, Big Bang was revealed to be the second act with the most digital hit songs in history. With the release of the "Made" singles in 2015, they became the first. Their albums "Hot Issue" (2007), "Stand Up" (2008), "Remember" (2008), "Tonight" (2011) and "Alive" (2012) were also cited as some of the most successful digital albums in history. Their breakthrough hit was the 2007 "Lies", which would stay on Melon Chart's Top 100 for over 54 weeks, the first song to spend

Discography.

Studio

Tours.

Concert tours Fan meeting tours YG Family tours

Big Bang (; stylized as BIGBANG) is a South Korean boy band formed by YG Entertainment. The group consists of four members: G-Dragon, T.O.P, Taeyang, and Daesung. Member Seungri retired from the industry on March 11, 2019. They are often cited as one of the most influential acts to shape the K-pop industry by helping spread the Korean Wave internationally and are often dubbed the "Kings of K-pop" by the media. Their experimental and diverse use of music genres, personal involvement in producing their own records, and stage performances have received a positive critical reception.

Big Bang (Eigenschreibweise: BIG BANG und BIGBANG, : ) ist eine südkoreanische Boygroup, bestehend aus vier Mitgliedern, welche 2006 vom Label YG Entertainment gegründet wurde. Die Gruppe besteht aus G-Dragon, T.O.P, Taeyang, Daesung. Seungri verließ die Gruppe im März 2019 infolge eines Skandals.


Biography.

Born in the Williamsburg section of Brooklyn, New York City, Katz was classically trained. He studied under Pablo Casals and performed with several symphony orchestras. He was a member of the National Symphony Orchestra. He was a child prodigy on both the cello and piano and performed in public as a teenager, and was drawn to the music of Manhattan nightclubs and to folk music. In his youth Katz was a Communist.  During World War II he conducted concerts and wrote musical revues for the U.S. Seventh Army.  Katz is best known as a member of drummer Chico Hamilton's quintet, one of the most important West Coast jazz groups of the 1950s. Katz's arco cello defined the "chamber jazz" focus of Chico Hamilton's Quintet and the group quickly gained popularity. The Chico Hamilton Quintet, including Katz, appeared in the "film noir" "The Sweet Smell of Success" (1957), starring Burt Lancaster and Tony Curtis, where Katz was described in passing as the Quintet's primary composer. Katz and Hamilton wrote a score for the film which was ultimately rejected in favor of one by Elmer Bernstein.  Katz also recorded several albums as a leader. Another high point in Katz's career was writing and conducting the arrangements for singer Carmen McRae's album "Carmen For Cool Ones", which was released in 1958.  One of his most recognizable pieces of music was his score for the film "A Bucket of Blood" (1959), directed by Roger Corman, as the music appeared in a total of seven Corman films, including "The Wasp Woman" (1959) and "Creature from the Haunted Sea" (1961). According to Mark Thomas McGee, author of "Roger Corman: The Best of the Cheap Acts", each time Katz was called upon to write music for Corman, Katz sold the same score as if it were new music. Katz explained that his music for Corman's "The Little Shop of Horrors" was created by a music editor piecing together selections from other soundtracks that he had produced for Corman.  Later in his career, Katz became a professor of ethnic music in the Anthropology Department at California State University, Fullerton and California State University, Northridge, where he taught world music, anthropology and religion for over 30 years. He was a longtime Fullerton resident. One of his students was John Densmore, drummer of The Doors.  Katz died on September 7, 2013, in Santa Monica, California.

Discography.

As sideman.

With Dorothy Ashby With Chico Hamilton With Paul Horn With Carmen McRae With Ken Nordine With Pete Rugolo With Various Artists

Frederick Katz (February 25, 1919 – September 7, 2013) was an American cellist and composer. He was among the earliest jazz musicians to establish the cello as a viable improvising solo instrument. Katz has been described in "CODA" magazine as "the first real jazz cellist." Cellist Fred Lonberg-Holm (b. 1962), who recorded a 2002 tribute album to the older musician ("A Valentine For Fred Katz", Atavistic Records), praises Katz for introducing his instrument to jazz: "[Katz] managed to find a way to make it swing."

Frederick Katz (25. Februar 1919 in Brooklyn, N.Y. – 7. September 2013) war ein amerikanischer Kulturanthropologe, Komponist und Cellist, der besonders im Kontext des Jazz bekannt wurde.


Regional description.

Eungella National Park is located on an isolated massif about 80 km west of Mackay in North–central Queensland. The Eungella Plateau rises to 1259m at Mt Dalrymple and to similar elevation at Mt William, forming part of the Clarke Range. The park preserves about half (30,000 ha) the area of rainforest present at the time of European settlement, which has been much reduced by logging. Rainforest in the National Park ranges from high elevation, notophyll vine forest to low elevation mesophyll forests at the base of the ranges. Notophyll vine forest with tall eucalypts such as red stringybark ("Eucalyptus resinifera") is found on the ridges of eastern facing slopes and drier western slopes often contain hoop pine ("Araucaria cunninghamii"). The rainforests of the Eungella massif represent one of the most isolated patches of this vegetation type in Australia. The rainforest is bordered by eucalypt forests and woodlands across much of its extent.

History and climate.

Eungella National Park was declared over 49,610 hectares in 1941. In 1986 the National Park was extended to include land at Mt Beatrice and a small area of former State Forest near Finch Hatton, so that today the park encompasses 52,900 ha.  The word Eungella is an aboriginal name meaning ‘land of the cloud’ and with an average annual rainfall of 2240mm, it often seems perched in a cloud. The temperature is generally around five degrees cooler than the surrounding lowlands.

Endemic species.

Eungella National Park is recognised as a centre of endemism for Australian rainforest species. There were three key refuge areas in mid-east Queensland during past periods of rainforest contraction. The most important is thought to have been in the Clarke Range and Eungella National Park area, which support many endemic species, including a spiny crayfish, "Euastacus eungella" (Eungella spiny crayfish); a leaf-tailed gecko, "Phyllurus nepthys" (Eungella leaf-tailed gecko); a skink, "Tumbunascincus luteilateralis" (orange-spotted forest-skink); a honeyeater, "Bolemoreus hindwoodi" (Eungella honeyeater); and three frogs, "Taudactylus liemi" (Eungella tinker frog), "Taudactylus eungellensis" (Eungella torrent frog or Eungella dayfrog) and "Rheobatrachus vitellinus" (northern gastric-brooding frog).

Flora.

A total of 16 species of fungi, 19 mosses, 4 conifers, 92 ferns, 299 dicots and 54 monocots are recorded as occurring in the National Park. Much of the rainforest in the National Park is complex mesophyll vine forest with pockets of simple and complex notophyll vine forests on poorer soils. Many of the vegetation communities including rainforests, vine thickets and vine forests are considered fire sensitive.

Dicots.

"Elaeocarpus largiflorens" is a rainforest tree reaching 30 m in height which occurs in the wet tropics from sea level to 1200 m elevation and is at the southern limit of its natural range at Eungella. It produces 20 mm long fruits that are eaten and dispersed by a range of frugivorous vertebrates. The Eungella hairy daisy ("Ozothamnus eriocephalus") is a shrub species with very limited range, currently listed as vulnerable at both state and federal levels. "Omphalea celata" is a small tree currently listed as vulnerable at a state and federal level, which was first described in 1994 and is found at Hazlewood Gorge within the park. It is a host plant for the zodiac moth ("Alcides metaurus").

Ferns.

In the southern half of Queensland, the giant fern ("Angiopteris evecta") is found in only four widely spaced sites, including Eungella, which may indicate a past wider distribution when Queensland was much wetter. This species needs a highly-reliable water supply and high humidity to sustain its enormous fronds. The vulnerable "Dryopteris sparsa" is also found in the park.

Fauna.

Over 175 species of mammals, reptiles, birds and amphibians have been recorded in the park.

Birds.

111 species of birds have been recorded in Eungella National Park. The Eungella honeyeater ("Lichenostomus hindwoodi") is endemic to the highland rainforest of the Clarke Range, including the park. It can be distinguished from it is close relative and sister species the bridled honeyeater ("Lichenostomus frenata") by its plumage colour and markings, size, bill colour and calls. It was first collected in 1975 and described in 1983, making it the most recently described Australian bird species. It occurs in the park, and also feeds in adjacent eucalypt woodlands.  The red-necked crake ("Rallina tricolor"), previously thought to only occur as far south as Townsville, was first observed in the park in 1981. The buff-breasted paradise kingfisher ("Tanysiptera sylvia") and the white-browed robin ("Poecilodryas superciliosa") are at the southern extent of their distribution at Eungella. The regent bowerbird ("Sericulus chrysocephalus") occurs at its northern limit in the park and surrounding area, as do the brown thornbill ("Acanthiza pusilla") and the glossy black cockatoo ("Calyptorhynchus lathami"). Australian swiftlets ("Aerodramus terraereginae") breed in caves in the Finch Hatton Creek area, and one of the few Australian records of glossy swiftlet ("Collocalia esculenta") was in the park.

Amphibians.

A total of 16 amphibian species have been recorded in the park. Globally, amphibians have undergone rapid and extensive decline in recent decades, due in part to habitat loss and pollution, but unknown factors threaten almost half the species in decline. Amphibians are more threatened and are declining more rapidly than either birds or mammals. An exotic and highly-virulent pathogen may be contributing to the decline of rainforest frog species in eastern Australia. The causative agent may be the chytrid fungus "Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis", although this has not as yet been detected in stream-dwelling frogs in the park.  Eungella National Park is recognised as one of eleven areas with high levels of frog endemism. Of the three endemic frog species endemic, two are still believed to exist today, the Eungella dayfrog and the Eungella tinker frog, while one species, the northern gastric brooding frog, is believed extinct. All three species are ground dwelling and their distribution is restricted to streams or areas close to streams in mid to high elevation rainforests.  The Eungella dayfrog was previously more common, but has declined in number and distribution in recent decades, and is now considered endangered at a state and federal level. The peak breeding period for this species is between January and May, but tadpoles at all sizes and developmental stages can be found throughout the year. This frog is one of only two species known to use body language, including small hops and movements of the arms and legs, to attract the attention of other frogs; a behaviour which may have evolved due to the noise of mountain streams rushing over rocks in its habitat making calling a less effective means of communication.  The Eungella tinkerfrog is considered near threatened in Queensland. It occurs between 180 and 1250m elevation, but is sparsely distributed and rarely seen. Potential threats to this species include forest grazing, trampling by livestock, introduced species such as the cane toad ("Rhinella marina") and the chytrid fungus.  The northern gastric brooding frog ("Rheobatrachus vitellinus") was discovered in January 1984, but has not been seen since March 1985 and is believed to be extinct. It is one of only two species in the world known to brood its young in its stomach, with the mother swallowing fertilised eggs or early larval stages, before ‘giving birth’ through the mouth. Its distribution was exclusively undisturbed rainforest within Eungella National Park at altitudes of 400-1000m, before it underwent a sudden range contraction and disappeared.

Mammals.

28 species of mammals have been recorded in the park. This includes several bat species including the little bent-wing bat ("Miniopterus australis"), eastern horseshoe bat ("Rhinolophus megaphyllus"), common blossom bat ("Syconycteris australis"), eastern forest bat ("Vespadelus pumilus"), eastern long-eared bat ("Nyctophilus bifax") and grey-headed flying-fox ("Pteropus poliocephalus").  Platypus ("Ornithorhynchus anatinus") are often seen at the viewing platform at Broken River which is the most visited location in the park. They have an unusual foraging behaviour and are the only mammal known to use electrolocation for detecting prey. Platypus are generally found in slow-moving rivers and small pools and are highly adapted to a semi-aquatic life. They have extremely dense fur, large webs on their feet extending well beyond the toenails, a broad, flat tail and excellent swimming ability, paddling with their forelegs in alternating strokes, with their hindlegs and tail trailing behind. When foraging, captured prey is stored in two cheek pouches and later masticated and swallowed when the platypus surfaces. An apparent feeding association has been noted between the azure kingfisher ("Ceyx azureus") and the platypus at Eungella National Park, where the birds have been observed watching for fish disturbed by the platypus, before diving into the water in search of prey.

Reptiles.

20 species of reptiles occur in the park. Three species of leaf-tailed geckos ("Phyllurus ossa, P. isis" and "P. nepthys") occur in small rainforest patches in and around the park. "P. nepthys" is endemic to the Clarke Range. Two species of snake "Cacophis scanloni" and "C. sheai" were recently described and are believed to be endemic to the Eungella area. The recently discovered orange-sided rainforest skink ("Tumbunascincus luteilateralis") is endemic to the area, and is restricted to upland rainforest above 900m in moist areas which contain rotting logs and palm fronds. The skink species "Lampropholis basiliscus" reaches its southern limit at Eungella.

Insects.

There are several endemic or range-restricted insect species found in Eungella National Park. A study of the order Diptera (flies) in seven rainforest locations found that the long-isolated, high elevation, rain-forested massif at Eungella were a unique entity in the analyses, characterized by high numbers of Chironomidae, Psychodidae, Tipulidae and Empididae. Flies in the genus "Cyamops" including; "C. pectinatus, C. dayi, C. delta" and "C. pectiatus" have been collected in damp areas in the park including near streams, waterfalls and marshes. The fly species Drosphila birchii is restricted to patches of warm, wet tropical rainforest between New Guinea and Eungella.  The katydid "Phricta zwicka" has been collected from Eungella National Park. The Megalopteran "Protochauliodes eungella" is known only from the Eungella area. Two new species from the order Odonata were collected in the Eungella area; "Austroaeschna christine" and "A. eungella". A survey of butterflies in the park undertaken in 1993 recorded 37 species with an additional 15 species known from museum and private records.

Crustaceans.

The Eungella spiny crayfish is unique to the creeks on the Clarke Range. It is listed as critically endangered due to its limited range, fragmented distribution, habitat decline due to exotic species, such as feral pigs ("Sus scrofa"), red foxes ("Vulpes vulpes"), feral cats ("Felis catus") and cane toads, and its vulnerability to climate change.

Environmental threats.

Threats to the biodiversity of Eungella National Park include habitat fragmentation, the effects of introduced species, fire and human impacts.

Pest plants and animals.

Many introduced animals have been recorded in the park including the cane toad, red fox, feral cat, rabbit ("Oryctolagus cuniculus"), black rat ("Rattus rattus"), house mouse ("Mus musculus"), and feral pig. Pigs disturb the ground, promoting the spread of weeds, remove natural recruitment of flora and fauna and can be vectors for pathogens such as cinnamon fungus ("Phytopthera cinnamomi"). Cinnamon fungus has been found on the Clarke Range, including in one area of Dalrymple Heights, where approximately 20% of the rainforest has died.  Cats, foxes and feral dogs ("Canis familiaris") can threaten native fauna through predation, competition for resources and transmission of disease. In Australia, cats are known to prey on 186 native bird species, 64 mammal species, 87 species of reptile, 10 species of amphibians and numerous invertebrates. Foxes prey on possums, small dasyurids, native rats, and other mammals, birds and insects. Feral dogs hunt alone or in packs and can prey on larger mammals such as wallabies. Road construction and fragmentation of habitat can expose local populations of native animals to predation by exotic predators that may otherwise have difficulties penetrating dense forest environments. Much of Eungella National Park is accessible only by walking tracks, which may limit feral animal spread, but may make control more difficult.  Weeds including lantana ("Lantana camara"), blue morning glory ("Ipomoea indica") and red Natal grass ("Melinis repens") are common on the disturbed edges of the park and roadsides. Lantana is a Class 3 Pest in the state of Queensland, and is recognised as a weed of national significance (Mackay Regional Pest Management Group 2013). Other highly-flammable weeds common in the park include guinea grass ("Megathyrsus maximus"), rat’s tail grasses ("Sporobolus" spp.), para grass ("Urochloa mutica") and molasses grass ("Melinis minutiflora").

Fire.

Fire is a key disturbing pressure on the rainforests of Eungella National Park, and can result in fragmentation of the rainforest into smaller areas less capable of maintaining the present complexity of plants and animals and increasing edge effects. The rainforest, vine thicket, vine forest and riparian communities found in the park do not require fire for regeneration, and it may irreversibly alter the species composition and community structure, simplifying ecosystems and reducing floristic and structural diversity. Fire can also reduce litter, fallen logs and hollow-bearing trees which provide critical habitat for some species.

Management.

Eungella National Park is managed by the Queensland Department of National Parks, Sport and Racing. There is currently no management plan for the park. National Parks are managed to provide for the permanent preservation of the area’s natural condition and the protection of the area’s cultural resources and values. Other management principles for National Parks are to present the park’s cultural and natural resources and their values and to ensure that park use is nature based and ecologically sustainable.

Economic benefits.

National parks and other protected areas have traditionally been created and funded primarily to provide conservation benefits, but they can also provide economic benefits, particularly in rural and regional areas, through job creation and visitor spending. A visitor survey conducted in 2001 estimated that visitors to Eungella National Park spend $10.9 million in the local region annually.

Facilities.

Camping is permitted at Fern Flat campground, which is accessible by walking only. The Broken River picnic area has facilities for day visitors.  There are more than 20 km of bushwalking tracks, some with scenic lookouts. A platform on the Broken River provides good viewing of platypus, eels and turtles.

Eungella ( ; meaning "Land of the clouds") is an Australian township nestled on the edge of the Clarke Range at the end of the Pioneer Valley 80 km west of Mackay, and 858 km northwest of Brisbane. Eungella is noted for the national park which surrounds it. It is considered to be the longest continual stretch of sub-tropical rainforest in Australia. The original inhabitants are the Wirri people. The park is covered by dense rainforest and is known for its platypuses. Also, it has a dam that supplies water for Collinsville, Mackay and Moranbah.

Der Eungella-Nationalpark ist ein Nationalpark in Queensland, 83 km westlich von Mackay. Der Park hat eine Größe von über 599 km2. Gegründet wurde der Park im Jahr 1936. Er liegt in der Clarke Range und erreicht auf dem Gipfel des Mt. Dalrymple eine Höhe von 1.280 m. An diesen Bergen stauen sich oft die Wolken, was ihnen in der Sprache der Aborigines die Bezeichnung "Heimat der Wolken" eingetragen hat. Hier sind Niederschlagsmengen von 2.000 Millimeter im Jahr zu verzeichnen.


Encyclical Summary.

"Praedecessores nostros" discussed several major points that involve the various factors that address the Great Irish Famine. The first point made by Pope Pius IX in the encyclical is the importance of recognizing the legacies of papal predecessors and their assistance of Christian nations in the past. He then reflected on an earlier appeal to the Roman people and clergy for prayerful consideration of the plight of the Irish. He also reflected on the request he made for money to be collected in Rome to be sent to the archbishops of Ireland so that it may be distributed amongst the poor and needy. Pius IX continued by saying that the crisis was not yet over and that the Vatican was still receiving letters daily telling that the famine has worsened and more aid is necessary. This led to the main reason for the encyclical, a request from the clergy for greater assistance. Pope Pius IX asked every diocese and district to proclaim three days of public prayer in churches and other holy sites. The specific purpose of this prayer was to request that God end the Great Irish Famine and prevent it from happening elsewhere in Europe. To encourage these prayers, an indulgence of seven years was to be granted to anyone present during the proceedings. Also, a plenary indulgence was to be bestowed on anyone who attended the entire three days of prayer and received the sacraments (Catholic Church) of penance and Holy Communion within a week of doing so. Pope Pius IX encouraged the people of the church to give alms because it was more important to look after Christ’s goods than those of man. In addition to the recommended public prayers for Ireland, he requested that the clergy ask their congregations to beseech God for the whole church against the evils that plague its existence. Pope Pius IX delivered his address of "Praedecessores nostros" in Rome at St. Mary Major Basilica on March 25, 1847.

Implications of "Praedecessores nostros".

The implications of "Praedecessores nostros" are minimal relative to the massive amount of attention that was given to the Great Irish Famine during the time. It is notable that relief was given in the form of money, but this did little to solve the various problems in Ireland and the United Kingdom in general. The most important implications of this papal encyclical are the knowledge it provided the world, and the greater connection it created between the Irish and the Catholic Church.

Praedecessores nostros was a papal encyclical written by Pope Pius IX on March 25, 1847, to address the crisis of the Great Irish Famine that occurred approximately between 1845 and 1850. This event is known by many as the 19th century’s greatest natural disaster. Pope Pius IX was born Giovanni Maria Mastai-Ferretti on May 13, 1792, in Senigallia, Italy. He studied at the College of Volterra in Tuscany and was ordained as a priest in 1819. Throughout the span of his life, Pope Pius IX served as the director of the Roman hospice of San Michele, Bishop of Imola, and Archbishop of Spoleto. He was made a Cardinal in 1840 and elected Pope in 1846. Several important events that occurred during the papacy of Pius IX are the unification of Italy, the First Vatican Council, the defining of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception, and 38 papal encyclicals. "Praedecessores nostros" is one of the more significant papal decrees of the time because it addresses one of the most well known events in history. The Great Irish Famine was caused by the mysterious fungus, Phytophthora infestans. The fact that the potato was the staple food of over half the population of Ireland caused approximately one million people to die as a consequence.

Praedecessores Nostros ist eine Enzyklika (Untertitel: Über die Hilfe für Irland) von Papst Pius IX., mit der er am 25. März 1847 einen Aufruf an alle Bischöfe der Welt richtete, er erflehte für Rom und die Heiligen Stätten ein dreitägiges Gebet und forderte den römischen Klerus zu Spenden auf, damit die Hungersnot in Irland gemildert werden könne. Dabei verwies er auf die Pflichten der Katholischen Kirche und erinnerte die Bischöfe daran, dass sie Väter und Lehrer aller Christen seien, auch sei es von großer Güte, den Brüdern in Irland die Hilfe zu überbringen, damit sie an die Bedürftigen verteilt werden könne.


Early life and education.

Leon was born in Tarnów, Poland, the son of Jewish grocers Rafael and Lea Kellner. He began to learn the Hebrew alphabet at the age of three, and by five he entered a cheder to study the Torah and the Mishnah.  In 1876 Kellner entered the Jewish Theological Seminary of Breslau, and in 1880 he enrolled at the University of Vienna to study Germanic languages with emphasis in English language and English literature.  Kellner was awarded a D.Phil. degree in 1883, and the title of his dissertation, published in 1885, was "Zur Syntax des englischen Verbums, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung Shakespeares" ("The syntax of the English verb, with special consideration in Shakespeare"). Kellner traveled to London in 1887 where the Early English Text Society invited him to translate William Caxton's "Blanchardyn and Eglantine". Then in 1890 Kellner received his habilitation after publishing a thesis based on original research titled "Caxton’s Syntax and Style". Kellner dedicated his translation of Caxton and his habilitation thesis to Frederick James Furnivall, founder of the Early English Text Society.

Academic career.

After receiving his degree, Kellner taught in various schools until a scholarship sent him to London in 1887 to study at the British Museum. He returned to the University of Vienna in 1890 to lecture in English literature. In 1904 he became a professor of English at the University of Czernowitz, a post he held until 1914 when he fled Czernowitz at the beginning of World War I. After the war, Kellner served as a translator in the office of the President of the Austrian Republic and lectured at the Technical University of Vienna. During Kellner's lifetime, his work met with mixed sentiments among native English speakers. When "Geschichte der Nordamerikanischen Literatur " ("American Literature") was translated into English by Julia Franklin in 1915, reviewer Ellen Fitz Gerald found many flaws in Kellner's judgments, notably his statement, "We look in vain...for an epic that glorifies...great [American] deeds." In reviewing "Restoring Shakespeare", John W. Draper wrote in 1926 that although Kellner's emendations were novel and ingenious, they were unnecessary.  When philologist Jakob Schipper retired from the University of Vienna in 1913, Kellner was considered to be his successor, but the university left the post vacant rather than accept Kellner, an active proponent of Zionism.

Zionism.

In 1896 Kellner became a friend and assistant to Theodore Herzl, a political activist and founder of the World Zionist Organization. Kellner also became active in the Jüdischnationale Partei or Jewish National Party. He contributed to Herzl's weekly publication, "Die Welt", under the name, Leo Rafael.  Kellner published a two-volume collection of Herzl's writings in 1908, "Theodor Herzl's Zionistische Schriften", and in 1920 he published "Theodor Herzl's Lehrjahre".

Leon Kellner (Hebrew ליאון קלנר) (17 April 18595 December 1928) was an English lexicographer, grammarian, and Shakespearian scholar. He was also a political activist and a promoter of Zionism.

Leon Kellner (* 17. April 1859 in Tarnów, Galizien; † 5. Dezember 1928 in Wien; Pseudonym: "Leo Rafaels") war ein österreichischer Anglist, Zionist, Literaturhistoriker und Volksbildner.


Administration divisions.

Cangnan is part of the greater Municipal region of Wenzhou, It comprises 10 towns and two Ethnic towns, which covers 1,261.08 square kilometres, 28 square kilometres of which are urban area of 1,184,600 people (2010 estimate).

Population.

The sixth national census in 2010 concluded that Cangnan County has a resident population of 1,184,600 people as compared to the result of 1,167,600 people that was calculated by the fifth national census on November 1, 2000. A total population increase of 17,000 people with an increase rate of 1.46% was reached during the period of 2000 to 2010 with an average annual growth rate of 0.15%.[1]

Economy.

The overall industrial economy of Cangnan County maintained a smooth operation in 2013. The annual total industrial output value of 67,976,000,000 RMB was achieved in 2013, of which more than 24,938,000,000 RMB of industrial output value was reached. This was following by the completion of a planned industrial investment of 7,741,000,000 RMB. As the traditional-manufacturing industry has not yet fully regained its vitality in 2013 after it experienced its declining, a new force of 37 high-tech enterprises suddenly rose in Cangnan County, which gave Cangnan County a strong boost in its development of industrial economy in 2013. As the result, the annual total industrial output value of 3,751,000,000 RMB with an increase rate of 26.55% were achieved by the year of 2013. As compared to the year of 2012, there were six more companies were found in 2013. Cangnan County had one company achieved an industrial output value over 500,000 RMB, two companies over 300,000 RMB, and four companies over their first billion RMB.[2]

County New Area.

The County New Area is located in the east of Lingxi New Area, close to the 104 National Highway, the entrance of the Ningbo-Taizhou- Wenzhou Expressway and Cangnan Railway Station. It is the main area of urbanisation in the county, planned to be about 6.56 square kilometres. The infrastructure of the new area has recently been greatly improved. Based on the planning pattern of “one centre, two shafts and two blocks”, the new area is being constructed with administration, trade, finance, culture, sports and living areas all integrated as a whole. Project proposals for investment include a County New Area complex, five-star hotel and economic headquarters building in the near future.

Cangnan Industrial Park.

Cangnan Industrial Park is a provincial-level development zone authorised by the Zhejiang Provincial People's Government in March 2006. It is also the plot of provincial-level co-operation granted by that same government. It is located between the entrances of Hushan and Xiaojiang on the Ningbo-Taizhou-Wenzhou Expressway, with the 104 National Highway passing through it. The regulated planning area is 12.5 square kilometres and the reserved expansion space is 30 square kilometres. In recent years, 55 enterprises have been brought in, with a total investment of US$814.4m, and are now in production, with an annual GDP of more than US$977.2m.  A series of specialised industrial parks has been established, including home furnishings, electromechanical, clothing and a new energy industrial park. The industrial parks will play an important role as the “main battlefield” of industry transformation in the county, focusing on export-oriented, scientific and technological and efficiency projects. Electromechanical products, clothing, auto and motorbike parts, instruments, solar photovoltaic and other hi-tech industries will be the key to future development.

Zhejiang-Taiwan (Cangnan) Economic and Trade Co-operation Zone.

The Zhejiang-Taiwan (Cangnan) Economic and Trade Co-operation Zone is the first provincial-level economic and trade co-operation zone with Taiwan, authorised by the Zhejiang Provincial People's Government in May 2011. With the territory of Cangnan as the strategic planning base for co-operation, it integrates the Cangnan Port (and its surrounding area) Industrial Base, Cangnan Industry Park, Taiwan Farmer's Innovation Park and other blocks to form an area of “one zone with various parks”. The planned area of construction is up to 260 square kilometres.  With integration into Haixi, connecting with Taiwan and taking the lead in Zhejiang as its core responsibilities, the co-operation zone demonstrates the unique advantage that Cangnan and Taiwan have in their relationship with each other, allowing them to actively participate in the construction of “double-sea, double-district”. With more flexible and open strategic policies, it is trying to forge Zhejiang marine economic development and the Zhejiang Haixi Zone economic development, through communication about economy, trade, culture and personnel.  People in Cangnan are diligent and intelligent, good managers and always innovative. The annual outputs of the packaging-printing and plastic-plating industries are 15 per cent and 20 per cent of national outputs respectively

Transportation.

Cangnan has an advantageous location and convenient transportation links. It is located at the intersection of the Yangtze River Delta and Haixi district, in the middle of the mainland's “golden coastline”. Transportation and communication are convenient here because the infrastructure is complete, with the 104 National Highway, Shenhai (Ningbo-Taizhou-Wenzhou) Highway and Wenzhou-Fuzhou railway passing through Xiaguan, Bacao and Yanting, with four ports also connecting the area. Also in use are the Provincial 78 Highway, Longjin Avenue, Century Avenue and Huanhai Road. Cangnan is only 60 kilometres away from Wenzhou Airport, and just 120 nautical miles from the port of Keelung, Taiwan.

Airport.

Cangnan is served by the Wenzhou Longwan International Airport, which provides direct service to many destinations such as Italy, South Korea, Thailand, and Vietnam. Regional routes reach Hong Kong and Taipei. It has an extensive domestic route network within the PRC and is consistently ranked top 30 in passenger traffic among Chinese airports. The airport is located just outside the city in the Longwan District with direct bus service linking the airport with Downtown Lingxi and Longgang. A new elevated express highway is under construction between the airport and Cangnan.

Train.

Cangnan sits on the one of the busiest rail corridors (Yanhai High speed Railway) in China. The main rail way station is Cangnan Railway Station. It is one of the busiest of the county-level rail station in Zhejiang Province, consisting of two platforms that house the High Speed CRH service to Shanghai, Nanjing, Hangzhou, Beijing, Xuzhou, Lu'an and beyond.

Public Transportation.

Central, north and west long-distance bus stations offer frequent coach service to nearby cities/towns within Zhejiang province, as well as surrounding provinces. Cangnan has an efficient public transportation network, consisting of a modern fleet of regular diesel bus, electric bus, taxi and disability scooters. The public bus service network expanding from downtown to many suburban areas. Bicycles and electric scooters are very popular. Cangnan has an extensive free public bike rental system.

Tourism.

Cangnan has both mountains and sea, and is rich in resources. The coastline of the county is 252 kilometres and the usable mud flat area is more than 95 square kilometres. In particular, marine resources and the tourist economy have great development potential. Within its borders it has the acclaimed “Puzhuang Castle”, “Yucang Mountain” forest park and “Binhai-Yucang Mountain” scenic spot. It has numerous islands and sandy beaches, among which Yuliao is one of the largest sand beaches in Asia.

References.

苍南县常住人口118.46万 流出人口明显多于流入人口. (n.d.). Retrieved September 7, 2016, from http://www.cnxw.com.cn/system/2011/05/24/010787839.shtml  苍南县人民政府网 综合实力. (n.d.). Retrieved September 7, 2016, from http://www.cncn.gov.cn/col/col416/index.html  1.http://www.cnxw.com.cn/system/2011/05/24/010787839.shtml(chinese) 2.http://www.cncn.gov.cn/col/col416/index.html(chinese)

Cangnan County ( ) is a county in the prefecture-level city of Wenzhou in southern Zhejiang. The county government is in Lingxi. Cangnan has 20 towns, 14 townships, and two nationality townships. The predominant Chinese dialect spoken in Cangnan is Zhenan Min, but other dialects, such as Wenzhou dialect and Jinxiang dialect, are also spoken.

Cangnan () ist ein Kreis der bezirksfreien Stadt Wenzhou in der chinesischen Provinz Zhejiang. Er hat eine Fläche von 1.272 Quadratkilometern und zählt 1.243.800 Einwohner (Stand 2009). Sein Hauptort ist die Großgemeinde Lingxi (灵溪镇).