History.

The Seattle Lusty Lady, known originally as the Amusement Center, was opened in the 1970s by two business associates, who soon after opened the other location in San Francisco. Originally, both Lusty Ladys showed 16mm peep show films only; in 1983 live nude dancers were added and became the main focus of the businesses. Until 2003 they were both owned by the same company; in that year the San Francisco franchise was bought by the strippers working there and began to be managed as a worker cooperative. The San Francisco branch had already entered the news in 1997 when it became the first (and only) successfully unionized sex business in the U.S. (The San Diego strip club "Pacer's" had seen a unionization effort in the early 1990s, but it was short-lived.)  The Seattle branch closed in June 2010. The San Francisco branch closed at 3 a.m. on September 2, 2013 on Labor Day.

Operation.

The Lusty Lady featured exotic dancers in a peep show setting on a main stage and in one-on-one booths.  The main stage featured several nude women dancing, separated by glass windows from the customers who each stood in their own booth, paying by the minute. The dancers were also available for more explicit private shows in the VIP and Private Pleasures booths. These were also glass-separated private booths where customers could give direction to the show and tipping was possible. Rates for shows varied by dancer. The Private Pleasures booth also occasionally featured "Double Trouble" shows, with two dancers who might have performed a lesbian sex show. In addition, booths showing adult videos 24/7 were available.  Once a year, The Lusty Lady SF organized a "Play Day": the dancers came out from behind the glass, explained the operation of the club to customers, and allowed behind-the-scenes peeks.  Lusty Lady occasionally featured "art days", exhibiting erotic photographs and paintings in the hallways. In February 2002, both peep shows featured a video art exhibition called "Peepshow 28", with one channel in all video booths devoted to showing a sequence of 64 short videos exploring voyeurism, exhibitionism and sexuality.  Dancers were paid an hourly wage. (The top wage for dancers in Seattle in 2001 was $27 per hour, the top wage in San Francisco in 2003 was $26 per hour.)

Seattle.

The Seattle Lusty Lady opened in the 1970s and moved to its final location at 1315 First Avenue in downtown Seattle near Pike Place Market in 1985. The club was well known for its frequently changing and often amusing marquee announcements. The Lusty Lady is immediately across the street from the Seattle Art Museum and the marquee often commented on current exhibits or the Hammering Man statue. Mimi Gates, stepmother of Bill Gates and director of the Seattle Art Museum, said "The Lusty Lady's marquee is a Seattle landmark." Nirvana’s logo was also inspired by the happy face logo there which said Have An Erotic Day!  In 2006, the Seattle Lusty Lady survived a threatened wrecking ball when the building's owner, a Seattle family, refused a multimillion-dollar tear-down offer from developers of a new Four Seasons Hotel next door. The owners instead received $850,000 "for air rights to the views over their property". Employees celebrated by posting on their reader board: "We're Open, Not Clothed!"  In January 2010, police arrested a peeping tom in the Lusty Lady who had climbed up from a viewing booth into the ceiling crawl space overhead, then partly crashed through the glass ceiling above the stage.  On Sunday April 11, 2010, the Lusty Lady in Seattle announced that it would close its doors for business in June. The economic climate and the rise of Internet pornography were cited as reasons for closing. On June 28, 2010, the Lusty Lady marquee was removed from the Seattle location. It was acquired by the Museum of History & Industry and is now on display at their museum in the South Lake Union neighborhood.  In the wake of the Lusty Lady announcing its shutdown, the NPR program All Things Considered did a story focusing on the peep show's history and relationship to the broader downtown Seattle community.

Books.

The 1997 book "The Lusty Lady" by photographer Erika Langley documents the work in the Seattle branch of Lusty Lady. It includes photos by Langley (who had worked there as a dancer since 1992) as well as essays by a number of Lusty Lady dancers, who vary considerably in their attitudes toward their customers and toward their work. In 2000, some of the photos were exhibited in the Seattle Art Museum, across the street from the Lusty Lady.  Elisabeth Eaves, who had stripped at the Lusty Lady in 1997, completed graduate school and returned in 2000 to write a book about stripping in general and her experiences in particular, "Bare: On Women, Dancing, Sex, and Power", published in 2002.

Popular culture references.

The Seattle Lusty Lady was featured in the 1992 film "American Heart". The first murder in the 1996 pilot of the TV series "Millennium" takes place in a Seattle peep show modeled on the Lusty Lady. Episode 18 (first aired 1997) of HBO's "Real Sex" series featured a visit to the Seattle Lusty Lady.  The theater show "My Time With the Lady" is a first-person account about working at the Lusty Lady by a long-time janitor and bouncer. It opened in Seattle in August 2010.

San Francisco.

The San Francisco Lusty Lady was located at 1033 Kearny Street, in the Broadway strip club district of North Beach. It was open 24 hours a day, though the live stage was closed between 3 and 11 AM.

Unionization.

Several grievances led to the unionizing effort in 1997. African American feminist sociologist Siobhan Brooks while working at the club had noticed that African American dancers were discriminated against and filed a complaint. The precipitating event was the installation of one-way mirrors in a number of booths (which also exist in the Seattle branch), resulting in some customers taking photos and videos of the show.  Among the leaders of the organizing drive was the stripper Julia Query who documented the efforts on video, resulting in the documentary "Live Nude Girls Unite!", written and directed by Vicky Funari and Julia Query.  After a vote of the employees, the business was organized by the Exotic Dancers Union, an affiliate of Service Employees International Union, then a member of AFL-CIO, Local 790. The Bay Area Sex Worker Advocacy Network (BAYSWAN) provided website support for the workers' unionization effort, which helped to garner public support for the workers as well as inquiries from other exotic dancers and sex workers throughout the country.  Former Lusty Lady employee Siobhan Brooks commented in a 1997 article that "In some cases the media misquoted us as being the first strip club to unionize. But the first strip club to unionize was Pacer's in San Diego. However, Pacer's union, Hotel Management, Employee Management, Local 30, negotiated an open clause in its contract. Open shop means there's no requirement that employees join the union, so the club recruited workers and discouraged them from joining the union and were able to decertify the union."

Worker cooperative.

After management cut hourly compensation at the San Francisco Lusty Lady in 2003, the workers struck and won, but the closure of the peep show was announced soon after. The subsequent efforts to turn the club into a worker cooperative were led by Donna Delinqua (stage name), a stripper and graduate student in English. Other cooperatives provided input, among them the worker-owned San Francisco sex-toy business Good Vibrations.  The workers bought the club for $400,000, with money borrowed from the old owners. In 1996, the club had had a revenue of almost $3 million; by 2003 this had fallen by 40%. The monthly rent was $13,442 in 2003 and had doubled over the preceding three years. The club had a revenue of about $27,000 per week in the first half of 2006.  After the change in ownership, the union was retained, but some changes in management were instituted. While dancers had been regularly evaluated by managers before, now a peer review process was established wherein dancers evaluate each other. The team leaders are elected from among the dancers for six month terms.  A dispute began in the summer of 2006 when a male employee wrote a confidential email to the co-op board, complaining that hiring of too many heavy women drove customers away, thus lowering every employee's income. One member of the board posted the message on a message board, causing considerable consternation among dancers. The board member was dismissed. Two of the male employees have argued that the union should be abandoned as not useful in a worker-owned cooperative. On its website, the Lusty Lady describes a worker-owned business as "a rare and ideal situation" but "not without its challenges" and discusses how the workers address these challenges.  On Tuesday August 20, 2013, the Lusty Lady in San Francisco announced that it would close its doors for business in just two weeks, on Monday at 3:00 a.m. September 2, 2013. The landlord, Roger Forbes (part of Deja Vu Consulting Inc. which by that time owned almost every strip club in San Francisco with the exception of Crazy Horse, Mitchell Brothers O’Farrell Theatre, and Nob Hill) refused to renew the lease after attempts to re-negotiate the rent failed.

Books.

Lily Burana, who stripped for a time at the San Francisco Lusty Lady, wrote about her experiences there and in other strip clubs in her 2001 book "Strip City: A Stripper's Farewell Journey Across America". Carol Queen also wrote about her time dancing at the Lusty Lady, in her 2003 book "Real Live Nude Girl: Chronicles of a Sex-Positive Culture". Bernadette Barton interviewed dancers at the Lusty Lady in her 2006 book "Stripped: Inside the Lives of Exotic Dancers."

The Lusty Lady is a pair of defunct peep show establishments, one in downtown Seattle and one in the North Beach district of San Francisco. The Lusty Lady was made famous by the labor activism of its San Francisco workers and the publication of several books about working there.

The Lusty Lady war der Name von zwei Peepshowlokalen in Seattle und San Francisco. "The Lusty Lady San Francisco" erreichte internationale Bekanntheit durch Arbeitskämpfe und die Umwandlung des Lokals in die erste selbstverwaltete Genossenschaft in diesem Geschäftsbereich. "The Lusty Lady" ist zudem Thema verschiedener Bücher von Lily Burana, Carol Queen, Erika Langley und Elisabeth Eaves.


Plot.

Film footage from a news crew shows a story about an immigrant man killing his wife and son before committing suicide. The son and wife turn into zombies and kill several medical personnel and police officers, but leave one medic and a reporter bitten before being killed. The narrator, Debra, explains that most of the footage, which was recorded by the cameraman, was never broadcast.  A group of young film studies students from the University of Pittsburgh are in the woods making a horror film along with their faculty adviser, Andrew Maxwell, when they hear news of an apparent mass-rioting and mass murder. Two of the students, Ridley and Francine, decide to leave the group, while the project director Jason goes to visit his girlfriend Debra (the narrator). When she cannot contact her family, they travel to Debra's parents' house in Scranton, Pennsylvania. "En route" Mary runs over a reanimated Pennsylvania State Trooper and three other zombies. The group stops and Mary attempts to kill herself. Her friends take her to a hospital, where they find the dead becoming zombies, and thereafter fight to survive while traveling to Debra's parents.  Mary becomes a zombie and is slain by Maxwell. Later Gordo is bitten by a zombie and soon afterward dies from it. His girlfriend Tracy begs the others not to shoot him immediately but later is forced to shoot him herself. Soon they are stranded when their vehicle's fuel line breaks. They are attacked by zombies while Tracy repairs the vehicle with the assistance of a deaf Amish man named Samuel. Before escaping, Samuel is bitten and kills himself and his attacker with a scythe.  Passing a city, they are stopped by an armed group of survivors, the leader being a member of the National Guard. There, Debra receives a message from her younger brother, who informs her that he and their parents were camping in West Virginia at the time of the initial attacks and are now on their way home. The students then leave for Debra's house.  Their only reliable source of information is now the Internet, aided by bloggers. When they arrive at Debra's house, they find her reanimated mother and brother feeding on her father. They escape from the house and are stopped by different National Guardsmen, who rob them, leaving them only their weapons and their two cameras. They arrive at Ridley's mansion, where Ridley explains that his parents, the staff, and Francine were killed and he buried them out back. Ridley shows Debra and Tony that he "buried" his parents, the staff and Francine by dumping their bodies into his family's swimming pool.  Ridley then abandons Debra and Tony and is revealed to have been bitten by a zombie himself, explaining his odd behavior. Ridley soon dies, comes back as a zombie, kills Eliot, and attacks Tracy and Jason. Jason is able to distract Ridley long enough for Tracy to escape at last minute. Mad at Jason for not leaving the camera to help her, Tracy leaves the group in the group's RV. The remaining survivors hide in an enclosed shelter within the house, with the exception of Jason, who left the group to continue filming and is subsequently attacked and infected by Ridley. Maxwell kills Ridley with an antique sword and Debra euthanizes Jason, while continuing to film. Later, a large number of zombies begin to attack the mansion, forcing the survivors to take shelter in the mansion's panic room.  Debra watches Jason's recording of a hunting party shooting people who were left to die and be reanimated as shooting targets, and wonders if the human race is worth saving.  Quentin Tarantino, Wes Craven, Guillermo del Toro, Simon Pegg, and Stephen King lend their voices as newsreaders in the film.

Production.

Even before releasing "Land of the Dead", Romero wanted to do a film about "emerging media". After releasing "Land", which he felt was "big" in scope, he wanted to go back to make a relatively low budget film and felt that his "Emerging Media" idea could easily fulfill it. Even though the film is shot in a cinema verite style, Romero still chose to use a cinematographer, as opposed to letting the cast film the movie themselves. In his decision he cited what he saw as the failings of "The Blair Witch Project", which he found "dizzying", also noting that "it didn’t quite make sense." Romero stated that the movie overall was more difficult to shoot than a traditional one as "It really needed to be choreographed down to the shoelaces".  Romero also made an extensive use of computer-generated imagery because it allowed him to shoot the film quickly and add the effects later. Also, the film's style, as if shot with hand-held cameras, necessitated a shift from his usual method of working, which involves filming multiple camera angles and assembling scenes in the editing room. Instead, Romero filmed much of the action in long, continuous takes: "The camera was 360, so everybody was an acrobat, ducking under the lens when the camera came past you," said Romero. "The cast was great. They had a lot of theater experience. I think they could have gone from scene one all the way to the end of the movie, all in a single shot."  The film is the fifth film in Romero's "Dead" series and there are some notable references to earlier Romero films, as when the news track from 1968's "Night of the Living Dead" is used in the scene where the cast is in Ben's garage; but the film is not a direct sequel to any of Romero's films: the film is "a rejigging of the myth" according to Romero. The film takes place concurrently with the events depicted in "Night of the Living Dead". This was partially based on a practical concern as Romero thought that if the film took place too far into the zombie apocalypse, schools would have been closed and thus it would not make sense to have student filmmakers as a focal point. He was also inspired partially by the "Book of the Dead" anthology series which depicts other events that happened during the same time frame. Even though the fourth film, "Land of the Dead", was studio-produced through Universal Studios, "Diary of the Dead" was produced by Romero-Grunwald Productions, formed by Romero and his producer friend Peter Grunwald, with Artfire Films.

DVD and Blu-ray releases.

The DVD was released by The Weinstein Company and Genius Entertainment on May 20, 2008. Special features include a feature-length documentary, an audio commentary, deleted scenes, a behind the scenes featurette, and five short films that came about via a MySpace contest. It was released the same day as a new authorized edition of "Night of the Living Dead" on DVD was released by The Weinstein Company.  The film was released on Region 2 on June 29, 2008, in single disc, double disc and Blu-ray editions. The double-disc and Blu-ray both contained a UK exclusive interview from Frightfest 08, and a feature-length documentary entitled "One for the Fire - The Legacy of Night of the Living Dead". The double-disc edition was released in limited, numbered steelbook packaging, and online retailer Play.com sold an exclusive edition in a slipcase. On October 21, 2008, a Blu-ray version was released in the US.

Reception.

George Romero won a 2008 Critics Award for "Diary of the Dead". The film currently has a "fresh" rating of 62% on Rotten Tomatoes.

Diary of the Dead is a 2007 American found footage horror film written and directed by George A. Romero. Although independently produced, it was distributed theatrically by Dimension Films and was released in cinemas on February 15, 2008 and on DVD by The Weinstein Company and Genius Entertainment on May 20, 2008.

Diary of the Dead ist ein apokalyptischer Horrorfilm des US-amerikanischen Regisseurs George A. Romero aus dem Jahr 2007. Es ist sein fünfter Film, der sich mit der Zombie-Thematik befasst.


Historical context.

Early in the Great Northern War, Charles XII of Sweden campaigned in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, where Augustus the Strong, Elector of Saxony, was king since 1697. Aimed at dethroning his adversary, Charles XII managed to have his candidate Stanisław Leszczyński elected king of Poland on 12 July 1704. Augustus' ally Peter the Great, tsar of Russia, was reluctant to engage Charles XII in a major battle as a consequence of the decisive defeat his army had suffered at Narva in 1700. A faction of the Polish and Lithuanian nobles did not accept Leszczyński's election, which had been imposed in neglect of the commonwealth's customs, and organized in the Sandomir or Sandomierz Confederation in support of Augustus. They declared the election illegal, outlawed Leszczyński's supporters who were organized in the Warsaw Confederation, declared war on Sweden and allied with Russia in the Treaty of Narva.  A Russo-Saxo-Polish-Lithuanian army was then assembled at Polotsk (Polatsk, Połock, Polockas), another allied army in Saxony, and a third allied force commanded by General Otto Arnold von Paykull (Pajkul) advanced towards Warsaw, where Charles XII and Leszczyński sojourned. Pajkul's Saxo-Polish-Lithuanian horse reached the outskirts of Warsaw on 31 July 1705, where they were defeated. The army at Polotsk was denied westward advance by Swedish forces under Adam Ludwig Lewenhaupt. Thus, Leszczyński was crowned king of Poland in Warsaw on 4 October 1705, and Sweden and the faction of the commonwealth represented by Leszczyński signed the treaty of Warsaw on 28 November.

Terms.

Sweden was allowed to occupy the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth's towns and fortresses and recruit soldiers in its territory without restriction. Anti-Swedish alliances concluded by the commonwealth were declared void, Poland was to conclude treaties only with Charles XII's approval.  The commonwealth's regions Courland, Lithuania, Royal Prussia and Ruthenia were to export goods only through the Swedish port of Riga, the Polish port Połąga (Palanga, Palonga) in Courland was to be abandoned. In the territory of the commonwealth, Swedish merchants were granted substantial tax exemption and the right to settle and trade.  The treaty further divided the commonwealth's territories then under Russian occupation among the parties: The areas of Smolensk and Kiev were to be re-integrated into Poland-Lithuania, while Polish Livonia and Courland were to be ceded to Sweden upon their reconquest.  For future candidates to the Polish throne, the treaty was made part of the pacta conventa, meaning it had to be supported for any candidacy to become valid.

Aftermath.

As intended, the treaty made an inner-Polish-Lithuanian reconciliation of the Warsaw and Sandomir confederations impossible. In early 1706, Augustus the Strong approached Warsaw with a cavalry force and ordered Johann Matthias von der Schulenburg to move the army assembled in Saxony into Poland-Lithuania. Schulenburg was intercepted and defeated by Carl Gustav Rehnskiöld in the Battle of Fraustadt. The army assembled in Polotsk had been moved to Grodno (Hrodna, Gardinas, Garten), where it was tactically defeated and forced to withdraw eastwards. Charles XII then occupied Saxony, forcing Augustus to abandon both the Polish crown and his allies in the Treaty of Altranstädt (1706).

The Treaty of Warsaw was concluded on 18 November (O.S.) / 28 November 1705 during the Great Northern War. It was a peace treaty and an alliance between the Swedish Empire and the faction of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth loyal to Stanisław Leszczyński.

Der Warschauer Friede von 1705 wurde am 18. November während des Großen Nordischen Krieges in der von den Schweden kontrollierten Hauptstadt Polen-Litauens geschlossen.


Crimes.

Lemke, who had been convicted for arson, assault, volksverhetzung (incitement to hatred) and illegal possession of firearms, on July 18, 1995 drove together with his girlfriend Bianka W. and mutual friend Dagmar K. to Altena, where kidnapped one of his girlfriend's acquaintances, gagged her, brought her to a forest and began strangling her with a rope. As the victim gasped, Lemke hit her several times with a folding spade, burying the dead woman in a hole in the ground. The prosecution suspected that he forced his girlfriend to act in order to "have her in hand", because he feared she would report him, and began acting more violently towards her.  On February 2, 1996, Lemke went to Oberhausen and visited his friend Marcel M. Together they drove to Bergisch Gladbach to the apartment of Patricia W. Lemke had met her at the station in Hagen and because she had a sticker saying "Nazis out" on her clothes, he wanted to kill her. The woman opened the door, whereupon she was immediately handcuffed, undressed, raped by Lemke, throttled with a shoelace, hit with a plaster cast on the head and finally killed by 91 stab wounds.  On March 15, 1996, Lemke shot dead 26-year-old Martin K. at a staircase in Rhade. He was a traitor in Lemke's eyes, because he had announced that he was dropping out of the far-right scene and was going to testify against Lemke.

Condemnation.

He was sentenced in March 1997 by the Essen Circuit Court for three murders and one rape to life imprisonment, with subsequent placement in psychiatry and preventative detention. By determining the particular gravity of the guilt, the court imposed the maximum penalty. Bianka W. was sentenced to six years for murder and Marcel M. was sentenced to five years in prison for aiding and abetting.

Thomas Lemke (born 1969) is a far-right German serial killer, who was convicted of three murders. He was a member of various far-right organizations, including the Wiking-Jugend and the Free German Workers' Party. Lemke was also a mercenary in the HOS militia during the Croatian War. In his apartment, the police also found so-called Anti-Antifa lists of enemies with names and addresses of political opponents.

Thomas Lemke (* 1969) ist ein rechtsextremer deutscher Serienmörder, der wegen dreifachen Mordes verurteilt wurde. Er war Mitglied verschiedener rechtsextremer Organisationen, unter anderem der Wiking-Jugend und der Freiheitlichen Deutschen Arbeiterpartei (FAP). Er war außerdem Söldner bei der HOS-Miliz im Kroatienkrieg. In seiner Wohnung fand die Polizei auch sogenannte Anti-Antifa-Feindlisten mit Namen und Adressen politischer Gegner.


Biography.

He was born at Augsburg, the son of a knight, but was educated by his uncle, the canon of the city. he was later a chancellor of emperor Charles IV at Avignon. He was appointed as prince-bishop of Augsburg in 1348. Six years later, he accompanied the emperor in his visit to Rome. The following year, Marquard was sent to Pisa to suppress an anti-imperial revolt, and was wounded in the fray. he anyway remained for a period at Pisa as imperial captain and governor in Italy. In 1356 he was captured by the condottiero Lodrisio Visconti at Casorate Primo. In 1365 the emperor made him as lieutenant general in Friuli. In the same year, pope Urban VI gave him the vacant title of Patriarch of Aquileia, and Marquard (who had to renounce Augsburg) entered at Cividale in June 1366.  Marquard received a state with numerous rebellions, such as those of Gualtiero Bertoldo IV of Spilimbergo and of the lords of Duino, and in war with Albert III and Leopold III of Austria. Marquard was able to recover all the lost lands and to force his enemies, including also the counts of Gorizia, to peace. He then devoted himself to the traditional war against the Republic of Venice, in alliance with Louis I of Hungary, the Republic of Genoa, the dukes of Austria, the counts of Gorizia and Francesco I da Carrara, lord of Padua. The Venetians besieged Trieste: Lepold III arrived with 10,000 men, supported by a Genoese contingent, but they were crushed (5 September 1369) and the city surrendered. The Austrians left the alliance, and the remaining members were again defeated on the Piave (1372) and near Treviso (1373) by the Venetian doge Andrea Contarini, who had even hired Turkish mercenaries. The two parties signed a treaty of peace on 12 September 1373.  During the War of Chioggia, the patriarch took advantage of the initial difficulties of the Venetians to invade Istria, capturing Koper and Pula. After a series of changes of possessions, Trieste was confirmed to the patriarchate at the Treaty of Turin (1381), although some territories in Istria were returned to Venice.  Marquard was a prominent jurist, and during his reign he published the "Constitutiones Patriae Foriiulii ", also known as "Codex Marquardianus", containing the rules which regulated law in Friuli until the 18th century. He also restored the Basilica of Aquileia, damaged by an earthquake in 1348 and rebuilt in Gothic style.  Marquard died at Trieste in January 1381.

Marquard of Randeck (or of Randelle; Italian: "Marquardo di Randeck"; 1296 - 3 January 1381) was Patriarch of Aquileia from 1365 until his death.

Marquard von Randeck (* um 1300; † 3. Januar 1381) war von 1348 bis 1365 Bischof von Augsburg und anschließend von 1365 bis zu seinem Tode Patriarch von Aquileja. Er war außerdem als kaiserlicher Diplomat eingesetzt.


Objective.

The ACS is a scientific and educational association of surgeons that was founded in 1912 to improve the quality of care for the surgical patient by setting high standards for surgical education and practice.

Membership.

Members of the ACS are referred to as "Fellows." Members abbreviate their membership status in the ACS by using the letters "FACS" (Fellow, American College of Surgeons). Those letters after a surgeon's name mean that the surgeon's education and training, professional qualifications, surgical competence, and ethical conduct have passed a rigorous evaluation, and have been found to be consistent with the high standards established and demanded by the College.  The College recognizes fourteen surgical specialties: cardiothoracic surgery, colon and rectal surgery, general surgery, gynecology and obstetrics, gynecologic oncology, neurological surgery, ophthalmic surgery, oral and maxillofacial surgery, orthopaedic surgery, otorhinolaryngology, pediatric surgery, plastic and maxillofacial surgery, urology, and vascular surgery.  "Associate Fellow" is another category of ACS membership. Associate Fellowship provides an opportunity for surgeons who are beginning surgical practice and who meet specific requirements to assume an active role in the ACS at an early stage in their careers. In order to provide education and other benefits for allied professionals who deal with surgical patients, but who are not surgeons, the "Affiliate Member" category was created.  Currently, there are more than 82,000 members, including more than 70,000 Fellows in the U.S. and Canada and more than 6,600 Fellows in other countries, which makes the ACS the largest organization of surgeons in the world. There are presently more than 3,200 Associate Fellows.  Patricia L. Turner, MD, FACS, became the director of the Division of Member Services in 2011.

Administration.

Twenty-two members make up a board of regents that governs the ACS. The board of regents is selected by an elected board of governors representing different specialties and geographical locations (the number of governors is based on the amount of Fellows in a region). While the board of regents is an administrative body, the board of regents serve as the representative body of the ACS between Fellows and the board of regents.  Within the ACS are numerous committees and advisory councils, studying and serving as a liaison for different specialties and aspects of the surgical profession. Examples include the Committee on Trauma, the Patient Education Committee, and the Advisory Council on General Surgery.  As of 2019 there are 113 chapters into which ACS Fellows are organized: 65 chapters in the United States, 2 in Canada, and 46 in other countries around the world.

Major activities.

Through its Inspiring Quality initiative, the ACS drives awareness of its quality improvement programs such as the ACS National Surgical Quality Improvement Program (ACS NSQIP®) and ACS NSQIP Pediatric. The initiative is intended to enable the College to have a dialogue and work together with health care leaders around the nation, to continue to have a tremendous impact on improving surgical care, and to lead our health care system in the right direction.  By administering myriad continuing medical education offerings, reflecting technology advancements and distance-learning options; accrediting simulation institutes that offer surgeons and surgical residents opportunities to learn new procedures and emerging technology; and providing surgeons with opportunities to record and obtain information they need for American surgical specialty board Maintenance of Certification requirements, the College "promotes high quality educational programs designed to educate surgeons and directly improve the health and safety of surgical patients."  By means of standard setting and rigorous review processes through its Commission on Cancer, National Accreditation Program for Breast Centers, National Accreditation Program for Rectal Cancer, Committee on Trauma, and Metabolic and Bariatric Surgery Accreditation and Quality Improvement Program, the American College of Surgeons accredits and verifies facilities to help ensure that surgical patients get high-quality care.  In an effort to provide surgeons with the best scientific evidence available through evidence-based data, ACS works to improve the quality of surgical care through the ACS National Surgical Quality Improvement Program, National Cancer Data Base, National Trauma Data Bank, and Trauma Quality Improvement Program.  ACS monitors and analyzes socioeconomic, legislative, and regulatory issues affecting the practice of surgery through its Division of Advocacy and Health Policy based in Washington, DC, and the ACS Professional Association. The College participates in health policy development on these issues, prepares responses to Congress and federal agencies, and serves as a liaison between the ACS and Congress and federal agencies, as well as the offices of other surgical and medical associations regarding health policy matters of importance to surgeons and surgical patients.

The Murphy Auditorium.

In 1919, the headquarters of the ACS were a former private residence at 40 East Erie Street near downtown Chicago, the Samuel M. Nickerson House. In 1923, on property adjacent to the Nickerson House, the ACS commissioned the creation of the John B. Murphy Memorial Auditorium from the architectural firm of Marshall and Fox. By 2003, the organization grew larger than the space provided by these two buildings and moved to the present location at 633 N. Saint Clair. The Nickerson House was sold and later served as a museum, while the Murphy Auditorium was renovated and in June 2006 reopened as a venue for public events. The ACS maintains ownership of the building.

Commission on Cancer.

The American College of Surgeons established the Commission on Cancer (CoC) in 1922 to develop standards for treating cancer. In 2016, the CoC began working to ensure a patient-centered standard of care across programs. Another of its recent actions was to help form the National Accreditation Program for Rectal Cancer.

Publications.

The American College of Surgeons distributes numerous publications, including peer-reviewed journals. They include:

The American College of Surgeons (ACS) is an educational association of surgeons founded in 1912. Headquartered in Chicago, Illinois, the ACS provides membership for doctors worldwide specializing in surgery who pass a set of rigorous qualifications.

Das American College of Surgeons (ACS) ist eine US-amerikanische chirurgische Fachgesellschaft mit Sitz in Chicago, die 1913 gegründet wurde. Die Mitglieder dürfen hinter ihrem Namen den Zusatz FACS ("Fellow, American College of Surgeons") führen. Mit rund 78.000 Mitgliedern, darunter 4000 in anderen Ländern, ist das ACS laut eigenen Angaben die größte chirurgische Fachgesellschaft der Welt.


Layout and service.

Two high-level island platforms serve three of the four Northeast Corridor passenger tracks; there is a center passing track, as well as a fifth track on the south side that is only used by CSX and Norfolk Southern freights. Most SEPTA Trenton Line trains and five daily weekday-only Amtrak trains (two northbound and three southbound) stop at these platforms. Two low-level platforms, a short distance to the west, serve the diverging SEPTA-owned Chestnut Hill West Line. North Philadelphia has been a flag stop on the line since 1993. The station has relatively low inbound boardings; however, it is used by riders from the Chestnut Hill West Line transferring to SEPTA and Amtrak trains to reach jobs in New Jersey and New York.  The station is within a few blocks of the North Broad station on SEPTA's Main Line (formerly belonging to the Reading Company), and the North Philadelphia subway station on SEPTA's Broad Street Line.

History and architecture.

Germantown Junction.

The Pennsylvania Railroad (PRR) built the Connecting Railway in 1867 to connect its main line to the Philadelphia and Trenton Railroad. By the early 1870s, New York Junction station was established where the Connecting Railway crossed over the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad mainline in North Philadelphia. A signal tower, still extant, was constructed around this time.  By the early 1880s, the PRR station was known as Germantown Junction, while the Reading had its 16th Street station a block to the northwest (and after 1890, Huntingdon Street station to the southeast). Germantown Junction station was a two-story Queen Anne style building located between the diverging lines; its large gables acted as shelters for passengers.

A new station needed.

By the mid 1890s, the station was frequently overcrowded and North Philadelphia and the northern suburbs grew in population. The completion of the Delair Bridge in 1896 allowed passengers to ride trains directly to the summer resorts of southern New Jersey (rather than taking a ferry to Camden) further increased traffic on the line. George B. Roberts, president of the railroad, used his social connections to hire Theophilus Parsons Chandler, Jr. to construct a new station. The new station was constructed on a former freight yard on the south side of the tracks (across from the previous station), where there was more space for the station. The site also provided better connections for passengers using newly electrified streetcars on Glenwood Avenue and North Broad Street to reach the station.  Foundation construction began in May 1896. However, work was stopped when Roberts took ill in August; he died the next January. The Panic of 1896 led Roberts' successor, Frank Thomson, not to continue work. When Thomson died in 1899, Alexander Cassatt was recalled to the PRR to serve as president. Cassatt immediately began a major capital improvement program, which included both adding capacity to mainlines and constructing large stations including Washington Union Station and New York Penn Station. Work resumed in 1900 with an enlarged floor plan, and the new station was complete in April 1901.

Architecture.

Previous PRR stations were generally in the picturesque eclectic style common among 19th century railroads stations, like the Victorian eclectic Overbrook station and the Furness-style Broad Street Station. Germantown Junction was the first station along the Northeast Corridor to be constructed in the Châteauesque style, and it ushered in the Beaux Arts style used by the Pennsylvania and other railroads during the early 20th century.  As constructed, the main facade of the station faced Glenwood Avenue. The two-story entrance loggia consisted of seven arched bays, with a three-bay wing to the northeast and a two-bay wing to the southwest, and acted as a transition point between the street and the station interior. The first floor (at track level) featured a large waiting room occupying the entire center block, with vault lights providing natural illumination and a fountain set into the western wall. Restrooms, a kitchen, and a cafe occupied the wings.  The basement housed the boiler room, a smaller waiting room, kitchen storerooms, and baggage rooms. The station appears to have had two side platforms serving four tracks, accessed through a basement-level tunnel that was reached from the main waiting room by a staircase. The steep roof over the center block had several dormers, some of which were later removed. A covered ramp from the west wing, which had direct access from the south platform, led to a small trolley station on Glenwood Avenue.

North Philadelphia.

After construction, the station served as the PRR's sole Philadelphia stop for most long-distance east-west Main Line traffic to avoid a reverse move into Broad Street Station (and later 30th Street Station). It also served local trains from Fort Washington, Chestnut Hill, Bustleton, and Trenton, as well as a variety of services from the PRR-owned West Jersey and Seashore Railroad system. Within a decade of completion, the station was already overcrowded. On June 22, 1912, the PRR signed a million-dollar contract for massive renovations to the station. Designed by PRR architect William H. Cookman, the modifications reflected the latest in passenger station design.  The ground was lowered by a full story on the south and east sides of the station, exposing what had formerly been the basement to improve access for taxis and private automobiles. A marquee to shelter arriving and departing passengers spanned the seven central bays of the lower level, with a more ornate version on the north end of the pedestrian tunnel. The lower waiting room was expanded, a ticket office constructed, and a larger staircase to the main waiting room was built. The floor was covered with terrazzo and green marble, with white marble wainscoting on the walls. Three bays were added to the west wing for additional functional space, removing direct track access from the ramp. Cast iron streetlights with the PRR Keystone motif in their base were located around the driveway and grounds.  The original side platforms were replaced with high-level island platforms, long enough to permit level boarding for twelve-car trains. The platforms and platform supports were constructed of cast-in-place concrete. The line was widened to eight tracks through the station, with the platforms between the 2nd and 3rd tracks and the 6th and 7th tracks. The center non-platform tracks were reserved for through freights, with the outside non-platform tracks used by local freights. Each platform had a -wide waiting room, long on the eastbound (south) platform and long on the westbound platform. The waiting rooms were covered in copper sheathing and had large skylights. The railroad constructed full-length steel platform canopies in their own shops. A separate baggage tunnel, west of the main passenger tunnel, connected with freight elevators to the platforms. When the renovations were complete in 1915, the station was renamed as North Philadelphia.

Decline.

North Philadelphia continued to grow during the early 20th century as a popular residential area for the nouveau riche rejected by old money society. Two ballparks (the Baker Bowl and Shibe Park) were located nearby, as were new cultural institutions and automotive industry buildings. In 1928, the Broad Street Subway was opened with a station at North Philadelphia, offering more frequent service to Center City. Its northern entrances were located at the intersection of Glenwood Avenue and North Broad Street, with an underground passage offering an easy connection to the PRR station. The Reading Company replaced Huntingdon Avenue station with North Broad Street station, a massive Classical Revival structure rivaling the PRR station in grandeur. 30th Street Station opened in 1933, reducing North Philadelphia's importance for north-south services. However, North Philadelphia continued to serve heavy commuter traffic and east-west long-distance trains.  An interior rearrangement was completed around 1942. The women's room for the main waiting room was moved from the east side to the west side, with one bay added to the west wing. A new dining area was constructed, occupying one-third of the waiting room, with its kitchen occupying the former bathroom space. The lunch cafe and staircases were also modified.  After World War II, North Philadelphia suffered from the failure of its industries, and the PRR reduced both local and long-distance service due to competition from private autos, further reducing the importance of the station. Escalators and a new drop ceiling were added around 1955, the former due to the insistence of the city council. The surrounding parking lots and ground were rearranged in 1968.  In 1977, after a fire in March 1976, Amtrak undertook a $314,000 rehabilitation of the station. The roof and portico were rebuilt, two of the three dormers removed, new restrooms added, and the platform and waiting room repaired. The loggia, windows, and other openings were covered with cinderblocks and brick.

New station and reuse.

In the 1980s, the city and Amtrak attempted to fund a second renovation with a private partner, but plans fell through. In 1991, Amtrak constructed a rectangular concrete and glass station building on the north side of the tracks, in front of the passenger tunnel. Access from the south was blocked off. In 1999, the original station building was renovated at a cost of $7 million for use as commercial space. The front parking lot was expanded on a slope to the west; it covered much of the ground level (similar to the station before 1915). The mechanical building and the covered ramp to the trolley station were removed. A strip mall was built just to the east, with balustrades and archways referencing the historic station. The passageway from the subway station, long closed, was likely buried at this time. The 1901-built station building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on July 8, 1999.  The Amtrak ticket office was closed in April 2001 as part of austerity measures. Vandalism also forced the closure of elevators. The same year, SEPTA proposed closing the station because it served few inbound commuters. However, advocacy from the Delaware Valley Association of Rail Passengers, which showed that the station was more heavily used by commuters from the Chestnut Hill West Line changing to SEPTA Trenton Line trains and Amtrak "Clockers" to Trenton and New York, succeeded in persuading SEPTA to keep the station open for the time being. By 2005, no official decision had been made to permanently keep the station, but SEPTA planned repairs to the deteriorated platforms.  In 2010, a renovation of North Philadelphia subway station was completed. This included restoring the Glenwood Avenue headhouses, closed for decades before, which improved connections to the mainline station.

North Philadelphia station is an intercity rail and regional rail station on the Northeast Corridor, located on North Broad Street in the North Philadelphia neighborhood of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. The Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority's (SEPTA) Regional Rail Trenton Line and Chestnut Hill West Line account for most of the station's service. Five Amtrak trains - three southbound and two northbound - stop on weekdays only.

Die North Philadelphia Station (deutsch: "Bahnhof Philadelphia-Nord") ist ein Keilbahnhof im Norden der Stadt Philadelphia im US-Bundesstaat Pennsylvania. Er befindet sich an der Broad Street in Höhe 2900 North an der Abzweigung der Chestnut Hill West Line vom Nordost-Korridor. Er gehörte ursprünglich zum Streckennetz Pennsylvania Railroad (PRR) und wird heute (2008) von zwei Regionalbahnlinien der Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority (SEPTA) bedient sowie von einigen wenigen Amtrak-Zügen, die entlang des Korridors verkehren. Die Abkürzung lautet PHN. Der Bahnhof ist seit Juli 1999 als Bauwerk unter der Bezeichnung "Germantown Junction Station" im National Register of Historic Places eingetragen.


Origins.

In 1150 the future University of Paris was a student-teacher corporation operating as an annex of the Notre-Dame cathedral school. The earliest historical reference to it is found in Matthew Paris' reference to the studies of his own teacher (an abbot of St. Albans) and his acceptance into "the fellowship of the elect Masters" there in about 1170, and it is known that Pope Innocent III completed his studies there in 1182 at the age of 21.  The corporation was formally recognised as an ""Universitas"" in an edict by King Philippe-Auguste in 1200: in it, among other accommodations granted to future students, he allowed the corporation to operate under ecclesiastic law which would be governed by the elders of the Notre-Dame Cathedral school, and assured all those completing courses there that they would be granted a diploma.  The university had four faculties: Arts, Medicine, Law, and Theology. The Faculty of Arts was the lowest in rank, but also the largest, as students had to graduate there in order to be admitted to one of the higher faculties. The students were divided into four "nationes" according to language or regional origin: France, Normandy, Picardy, and England. The last came to be known as the "Alemannian" (German) nation. Recruitment to each nation was wider than the names might imply: the English-German nation included students from Scandinavia and Eastern Europe.  The faculty and nation system of the University of Paris (along with that of the University of Bologna) became the model for all later medieval universities. Under the governance of the Church, students wore robes and shaved the tops of their heads in tonsure, to signify they were under the protection of the church. Students followed the rules and laws of the Church and were not subject to the king's laws or courts. This presented problems for the city of Paris, as students ran wild, and its official had to appeal to Church courts for justice. Students were often very young, entering the school at 13 or 14 years of age and staying for six to 12 years.

12th century: Organisation.

Three schools were especially famous in Paris: the "palatine or palace school", the "school of Notre-Dame", and that of Sainte-Geneviève Abbey. The decline of royalty brought about the decline of the first. The other two were ancient but did not have much visibility in the early centuries. The glory of the palatine school doubtless eclipsed theirs, until it completely gave way to them. These two centres were much frequented and many of their masters were esteemed for their learning. The first renowned professor at the school of Ste-Geneviève was Hubold, who lived in the tenth century. Not content with the courses at Liège, he continued his studies at Paris, entered or allied himself with the chapter of Ste-Geneviève, and attracted many pupils via his teaching. Distinguished professors from the school of Notre-Dame in the eleventh century include Lambert, disciple of Fulbert of Chartres; Drogo of Paris; Manegold of Germany; and Anselm of Laon. These two schools attracted scholars from every country and produced many illustrious men, among whom were: St. Stanislaus of Szczepanów, Bishop of Kraków; Gebbard, Archbishop of Salzburg; St. Stephen, third Abbot of Cîteaux; Robert d'Arbrissel, founder of the Abbey of Fontevrault etc. Three other men who added prestige to the schools of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève were William of Champeaux, Abélard, and Peter Lombard.  Humanistic instruction comprised grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy (trivium and quadrivium). To the higher instruction belonged dogmatic and moral theology, whose source was the Scriptures and the Patristic Fathers. It was completed by the study of Canon law. The School of Saint-Victor arose to rival those of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève. It was founded by William of Champeaux when he withdrew to the Abbey of Saint-Victor. Its most famous professors are Hugh of St. Victor and Richard of St. Victor.  The plan of studies expanded in the schools of Paris, as it did elsewhere. A Bolognese compendium of canon law called the "Decretum Gratiani" brought about a division of the theology department. Hitherto the discipline of the Church had not been separate from so-called theology; they were studied together under the same professor. But this vast collection necessitated a special course, which was undertaken first at Bologna, where Roman law was taught. In France, first Orléans and then Paris erected chairs of canon law. Before the end of the twelfth century, the Decretals of Gerard La Pucelle, Mathieu d'Angers, and Anselm (or Anselle) of Paris, were added to the Decretum Gratiani. However, civil law was not included at Paris. In the twelfth century, medicine began to be publicly taught at Paris: the first professor of medicine in Paris records is Hugo, "physicus excellens qui quadrivium docuit".  Professors were required to have measurable knowledge and be appointed by the university. Applicants had to be assessed by examination; if successful, the examiner, who was the head of the school, and known as "scholasticus", "capiscol", and "chancellor," appointed an individual to teach. This was called the licence or faculty to teach. The licence had to be granted freely. No one could teach without it; on the other hand, the examiner could not refuse to award it when the applicant deserved it. The school of Saint-Victor, under the abbey, conferred the licence in its own right; the school of Notre-Dame depended on the diocese, that of Ste-Geneviève on the abbey or chapter. The diocese and the abbey or chapter, through their chancellor, gave professorial investiture in their respective territories where they had jurisdiction. Besides Notre-Dame, Ste-Geneviève, and Saint-Victor, there were several schools on the "Island" and on the "Mount". "Whoever", says Crevier "had the right to teach might open a school where he pleased, provided it was not in the vicinity of a principal school." Thus a certain Adam, who was of English origin, kept his "near the Petit Pont"; another Adam, Parisian by birth, "taught at the Grand Pont which is called the Pont-au-Change" ("Hist. de l'Univers. de Paris," I, 272).  The number of students in the school of the capital grew constantly, so that lodgings were insufficient. French students included princes of the blood, sons of the nobility, and ranking gentry. The courses at Paris were considered so necessary as a completion of studies that many foreigners flocked to them. Popes Celestine II, Adrian IV and Innocent III studied at Paris, and Alexander III sent his nephews there. Noted German and English students included Otto of Freisingen, Cardinal Conrad, Archbishop of Mainz, St. Thomas of Canterbury, and John of Salisbury; while Ste-Geneviève became practically the seminary for Denmark. The chroniclers of the time called Paris the city of letters par excellence, placing it above Athens, Alexandria, Rome, and other cities: "At that time, there flourished at Paris philosophy and all branches of learning, and there the seven arts were studied and held in such esteem as they never were at Athens, Egypt, Rome, or elsewhere in the world." ("Les gestes de Philippe-Auguste"). Poets extolled the university in their verses, comparing it to all that was greatest, noblest, and most valuable in the world. As the university developed, it became more institutionalized. First, the professors formed an association, for according to Matthew Paris, John of Celles, twenty-first Abbot of St Albans, England, was admitted as a member of the teaching corps of Paris after he had followed the courses ("Vita Joannis I, XXI, abbat. S. Alban"). The masters, as well as the students, were divided according to national origin. Alban wrote that Henry II, King of England, in his difficulties with St. Thomas of Canterbury, wanted to submit his cause to a tribunal composed of professors of Paris, chosen from various provinces (Hist. major, Henry II, to end of 1169). This was likely the start of the division according to "nations," which was later to play an important part in the university. Celestine III ruled that both professors and students had the privilege of being subject only to the ecclesiastical courts, not to civil courts.  The three schools: Notre-Dame, Sainte-Geneviève, and Saint-Victor, may be regarded as the triple cradle of the "Universitas scholarium", which included masters and students; hence the name "University". Henry Denifle and some others hold that this honour is exclusive to the school of Notre-Dame (Chartularium Universitatis Parisiensis), but the reasons do not seem convincing. He excludes Saint-Victor because, at the request of the abbot and the religious of Saint-Victor, Gregory IX in 1237 authorized them to resume the interrupted teaching of theology. But the university was largely founded about 1208, as is shown by a Bull of Innocent III. Consequently, the schools of Saint-Victor might well have contributed to its formation. Secondly, Denifle excludes the schools of Ste-Geneviève because there had been no interruption in the teaching of the liberal arts. This is debatable and through the period, theology was taught. The chancellor of Ste-Geneviève continued to give degrees in arts, something he would have ceased if his abbey had no part in the university organization.

13th–14th century: Expansion.

In 1200, King Philip II issued a diploma "for the security of the scholars of Paris," which affirmed that students were subject only to ecclesiastical jurisdiction. The provost and other officers were forbidden to arrest a student for any offence, unless to transfer him to ecclesiastical authority. The king's officers could not intervene with any member unless having a mandate from an ecclesiastical authority. His action followed a violent incident between students and officers outside the city walls at a pub.  In 1215, the Apostolic legate, Robert de Courçon, issued new rules governing who could become a professor. To teach the arts, a candidate had to be at least twenty-one, to have studied these arts at least six years, and to take an engagement as professor for at least two years. For a chair in theology, the candidate had to be thirty years of age, with eight years of theological studies, of which the last three years were devoted to special courses of lectures in preparation for the mastership. These studies had to be made in the local schools under the direction of a master. In Paris, one was regarded as a scholar only by studies with particular masters. Lastly, purity of morals was as important as reading. The licence was granted, according to custom, gratuitously, without oath or condition. Masters and students were permitted to unite, even by oath, in defence of their rights, when they could not otherwise obtain justice in serious matters. No mention is made either of law or of medicine, probably because these sciences were less prominent. In 1229, a denial of justice by the queen led to suspension of the courses. The pope intervened with a Bull that began with lavish praise of the university: "Paris", said Gregory IX, "mother of the sciences, is another Cariath-Sepher, city of letters". He commissioned the Bishops of Le Mans and Senlis and the Archdeacon of Châlons to negotiate with the French Court for the restoration of the university, but by the end of 1230 they had accomplished nothing. Gregory IX then addressed a Bull of 1231 to the masters and scholars of Paris. Not only did he settle the dispute, he empowered the university to frame statutes concerning the discipline of the schools, the method of instruction, the defence of theses, the costume of the professors, and the obsequies of masters and students (expanding upon Robert de Courçon's statutes). Most importantly, the pope granted the university the right to suspend its courses, if justice were denied it, until it should receive full satisfaction.  The pope authorized Pierre Le Mangeur to collect a moderate fee for the conferring of the license of professorship. Also, for the first time, the scholars had to pay tuition fees for their education: two sous weekly, to be deposited in the common fund.

Rector.

The university was organized as follows: at the head of the teaching body was a rector. The office was elective and of short duration; at first it was limited to four or six weeks. Simon de Brion, legate of the Holy See in France, realizing that such frequent changes caused serious inconvenience, decided that the rectorate should last three months, and this rule was observed for three years. Then the term was lengthened to one, two, and sometimes three years. The right of election belonged to the procurators of the four nations.

Four "nations".

The "nations" appeared in the second half of the twelfth century. They were mentioned in the Bull of Honorius III in 1222. Later, they formed a distinct body. By 1249, the four nations existed with their procurators, their rights (more or less well-defined), and their keen rivalries: the nations were the French, English, Normans, and Picards. After the Hundred Years' War, the English nation was replaced by the Germanic. The four nations constituted the faculty of arts or letters.  The territories covered by the four nations were:

Faculties.

To classify professors' knowledge, the schools of Paris gradually divided into faculties. Professors of the same science were brought into closer contact until the community of rights and interests cemented the union and made them distinct groups. The faculty of medicine seems to have been the last to form. But the four faculties were already formally established by 1254, when the university described in a letter "theology, jurisprudence, medicine, and rational, natural, and moral philosophy". The masters of theology often set the example for the other faculties—e.g., they were the first to adopt an official seal.  The faculties of theology, canon law, and medicine, were called "superior faculties". The title of "Dean" as designating the head of a faculty, came into use by 1268 in the faculties of law and medicine, and by 1296 in the faculty of theology. It seems that at first the deans were the oldest masters. The faculty of arts continued to have four procurators of its four nations and its head was the rector. As the faculties became more fully organized, the division into four nations partially disappeared for theology, law and medicine, though it continued in arts. Eventually the superior faculties included only doctors, leaving the bachelors to the faculty of arts. At this period, therefore, the university had two principal degrees, the baccalaureate and the doctorate. It was not until much later that the licentiate and the DEA became intermediate degrees.

Colleges.

The scattered condition of the scholars in Paris often made lodging difficult. Some students rented rooms from townspeople, who often exacted high rates while the students demanded lower. This tension between scholars and citizens would have developed into a sort of civil war if Robert de Courçon had not found the remedy of taxation. It was upheld in the Bull of Gregory IX of 1231, but with an important modification: its exercise was to be shared with the citizens. The aim was to offer the students a shelter where they would fear neither annoyance from the owners nor the dangers of the world. Thus were founded the colleges (colligere, to assemble); meaning not centers of instruction, but simple student boarding-houses. Each had a special goal, being established for students of the same nationality or the same science. Often, masters lived in each college and oversaw its activities.  Four colleges appeared in the 12th century; they became more numerous in the 13th, including Collège d'Harcourt (1280) and the Collège de Sorbonne (1257). Thus the University of Paris assumed its basic form. It was composed of seven groups, the four nations of the faculty of arts, and the three superior faculties of theology, law, and medicine. Men who had studied at Paris became an increasing presence in the high ranks of the Church hierarchy; eventually, students at the University of Paris saw it as a right that they would be eligible to benefices. Church officials such as St. Louis and Clement IV lavishly praised the university.  Besides the famous Collège de Sorbonne, other "collegia" provided housing and meals to students, sometimes for those of the same geographical origin in a more restricted sense than that represented by the nations. There were 8 or 9 "collegia" for foreign students: the oldest one was the Danish college, the "Collegium danicum" or "dacicum", founded in 1257. Swedish students could, during the 13th and 14th centuries, live in one of three Swedish colleges, the "Collegium Upsaliense", the "Collegium Scarense" or the "Collegium Lincopense", named after the Swedish dioceses of Uppsala, Skara and Linköping.  The " Collège de Navarre" was founded in 1305, originally aimed at students from Navarre, but due to its size, wealth, and the links between the crowns of France and Navarre, it quickly accepted students from other nations. The establishment of the College of Navarre was a turning point in the University's history: Navarra was the first college to offer teaching to its students, which at the time set it apart from all previous colleges, founded as charitable institutions that provided lodging, but no tuition. Navarre's model combining lodging and tuition would be reproduced by other colleges, both in Paris and other universities. The German College, "Collegium alemanicum" is mentioned as early as 1345, the Scots college or "Collegium scoticum" was founded in 1325. The Lombard college or "Collegium lombardicum" was founded in the 1330s. The "Collegium constantinopolitanum" was, according to a tradition, founded in the 13th century to facilitate a merging of the eastern and western churches. It was later reorganized as a French institution, the "Collège de la Marche-Winville". The Collège de Montaigu was founded by the Archbishop of Rouen in the 14th century, and reformed in the 15th century by the humanist Jan Standonck, when it attracted reformers from within the Roman Catholic Church (such as Erasmus and Ignatius of Loyola) and those who subsequently became Protestants (John Calvin and John Knox).  At this time, the university also went the controversy of the condemnations of 1210–1277.

15th–18th century: Influence in France and Europe.

In the fifteenth century, Guillaume d'Estouteville, a cardinal and Apostolic legate, reformed the university, correcting its perceived abuses and introducing various modifications. This reform was less an innovation than a recall to observance of the old rules, as was the reform of 1600, undertaken by the royal government with regard to the three higher faculties. Nonetheless, and as to the faculty of arts, the reform of 1600 introduced the study of Greek, of French poets and orators, and of additional classical figures like Hesiod, Plato, Demosthenes, Cicero, Virgil, and Sallust. The prohibition from teaching civil law was never well observed at Paris, but in 1679 Louis XIV officially authorized the teaching of civil law in the faculty of decretals. The "faculty of law" hence replaced the "faculty of decretals". The colleges meantime had multiplied; those of Cardinal Le-Moine and Navarre were founded in the fourteenth century. The Hundred Years' War was fatal to these establishments, but the university set about remedying the injury.  Besides its teaching, the University of Paris played an important part in several disputes: in the Church, during the Great Schism; in the councils, in dealing with heresies and divisions; in the State, during national crises. Under the domination of England it played a role in the trial of Joan of Arc.  Proud of its rights and privileges, the University of Paris fought energetically to maintain them, hence the long struggle against the mendicant orders on academic as well as on religious grounds. Hence also the shorter conflict against the Jesuits, who claimed by word and action a share in its teaching. It made extensive use of its right to decide administratively according to occasion and necessity. In some instances it openly endorsed the censures of the faculty of theology and pronounced condemnation in its own name, as in the case of the Flagellants.  Its patriotism was especially manifested on two occasions. During the captivity of King John, when Paris was given over to factions, the university sought to restore peace; and under Louis XIV, when the Spaniards crossed the Somme and threatened the capital, it placed two hundred men at the king's disposal and offered the Master of Arts degree gratuitously to scholars who should present certificates of service in the army (Jourdain, "Hist. de l'Univers. de Paris au XVIIe et XVIIIe siècle", 132-34; "Archiv. du ministère de l'instruction publique").

1793: Abolition by the French Revolution.

The ancient university disappeared with the ancien régime in the French Revolution. On 15 September 1793, petitioned by the Department of Paris and several departmental groups, the National Convention decided that independently of the primary schools, "there should be established in the Republic three progressive degrees of instruction; the first for the knowledge indispensable to artisans and workmen of all kinds; the second for further knowledge necessary to those intending to embrace the other professions of society; and the third for those branches of instruction the study of which is not within the reach of all men".  Measures were to be taken immediately: "For means of execution the department and the municipality of Paris are authorized to consult with the Committee of Public Instruction of the National Convention, in order that these establishments shall be put in action by 1 November next, and consequently colleges now in operation and the faculties of theology, medicine, arts, and law are suppressed throughout the Republic". This was the death-sentence of the university. It was not to be restored after the Revolution had subsided, no more than those of the provinces.

1806–1968: Re-establishment.

The university was re-established by Napoleon on 1 May 1806. All the faculties were replaced by a single centre, the University of France. The decree of 17 March 1808 created five distinct faculties: Law, Medicine, Letters/Humanities, Sciences, and Theology; traditionally, Letters and Sciences had been grouped together into one faculty, that of "Arts". After a century, people recognized that the new system was less favourable to study. The defeat of 1870 at the hands of Prussia was partially blamed on the growth of the superiority of the German university system of the 19th century, and led to another serious reform of the French university. In the 1880s, the "licence" (bachelor) degree is divided into, for the Faculty of Letters: Letters, Philosophy, History, Modern Languages, with French, Latin and Greek being requirements for all of them; and for the Faculty of Science, into: Mathematics, Physical Sciences and Natural Sciences; the Faculty of Theology is abolished by the Republic. At this time, the building of the Sorbonne was fully renovated.

May 1968–1970: Shutdown.

In 1966, after a student revolt in Paris, Christian Fouchet, minister of education, had proposed "the reorganisation of university studies into separate two- and four-year degrees, alongside the introduction of selective admission criteria" as a response to overcrowding in lecture halls. Dissatisfied with these educational reforms, students began protesting in November 1967, at the campus of the University of Paris in Nanterre; indeed, according to James Marshall, these reforms were seen "as the manifestations of the technocratic-capitalist state by some, and by others as attempts to destroy the liberal university". After student activists protested the Vietnam War, the campus was closed by authorities on 22 March and again on 2 May 1968. Agitation spread to the Sorbonne the next day, and many students were arrested in the following week. Barricades were erected throughout the Latin Quarter, and a massive demonstration took place on 13 May, gathering students and workers on strike. The number of workers on strike reached about nine million by 22 May. As explained by Bill Readings:  [President Charles de Gaulle] responded on May 24 by calling for a referendum, and [...] the revolutionaries, led by informal action committees, attacked and burned the Paris Stock Exchange in response. The Gaullist government then held talks with union leaders, who agreed to a package of wage-rises and increases in union rights. The strikers, however, simply refused the plan. With the French state tottering, de Gaulle fled France on May 29 for a French military base in Germany. He later returned and, with the assurance of military support, announced [general] elections [within] forty days. [...] Over the next two months, the strikes were broken (or broke up) while the election was won by the Gaullists with an increased majority.

1970: Division.

Following the disruption, de Gaulle appointed Edgar Faure as minister of education; Faure was assigned to draft reforms about the French university system, with the help of academics. Their proposal was adopted on 12 November 1968; in accordance with the new law, the faculties of the University of Paris were to reorganize themselves.  Some of the new universities took over the old faculties and the majority of their professors: social sciences by Panthéon-Sorbonne University; law by Panthéon-Assas University; humanities by Sorbonne Nouvelle and Paris-Sorbonne University; natural sciences by Paris Descartes University and Pierre and Marie Curie University.  The thirteen successor universities to the University of Paris are now split over the three academies of the Île-de-France region.  Most of these successor universities have the joined the six groups of universities and (higher education) institutions in the Paris region, created in the 2010s.  In 2017, Paris IV and Paris VI merged to form the Sorbonne University and in 2019 Paris V and Paris VII merged to form the University of Paris, leaving the number of successor universities at 11.

Notable people.

Nobel prizes.

Alumni.

As of October 2019, the university counts 50 Nobel Prize winners, placing it in 14th position globally, and 2nd outside of the English-speaking world. The Sorbonne has taught 11 French presidents, almost 50 French heads of government, 2 Popes, as well as many other political and social figures. The Sorbonne has also educated leaders of Albania, Canada, the Dominican Republic, Gabon, Guinea, Iraq, Jordan, Kosovo, Tunisia and Niger among others. List of Nobel Prize winners that had attended the University of Paris or one of its thirteen successors.

Faculty.

List of Nobel Prize winners that were affiliated with the University of Paris or one of its thirteen successors.

The University of Paris (), metonymically known as the Sorbonne (), was a university in Paris, France, active 1150–1793, and 1806–1970.

Die Universität von Paris war die Gesamtheit der wichtigsten akademischen Lehreinrichtungen in Paris, nicht zuletzt der Sorbonne, deren Name im allgemeinen Sprachgebrauch zur synonymen Bezeichnung der Universität wurde. Sie hat Monarchie, Revolution und Restauration überstanden, die Studentenunruhen von 1968 aber nicht. Seit 1970 erfolgte eine so gründliche Dezentralisierung und Neugründungswelle, dass ein Erkennen der Traditionsnachfolge schwer möglich ist. Die Paris Universitas (2005–2010) entsprach organisatorisch der alten Universität von Paris noch am ehesten.


History.

The name of Yangshao Culture was related with a scholar of Swedish, which was a geologist, archaeologist and explorer, named Johan Gunnar Andersson (1874.7.3–1960.10.29), he discovered some pieces of pottery in the north of Mianchi County, and the site occupies a total area of nearly 300,000sq.m, with culture layer thickness 2 m. The pottery had existed in the New Stone Age. That was a revolutionary time for China, and also it took a new step in academic research in Chinese history. He made the name of village in Yangshao Culture. He built up Östasiatiska museet (Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities) in Stockholm, which depended on his discover in China. At present, it is include more than 400 pieces of Yangshao pottery in. Thanks for the good cooperation between Östasiatiskamuseet and China archaeologist, the culture relics could be keep well in the progress of Chinese Culture development. Yangshao cultures are extremely important in the history of Chinese prehistoric. It is Andersson's contribution that make China's traditional historian realize that archeology, especially field archeology, is the essential way to understand the ancient history, He helps to strengthen the relationship of culture exchange between Sweden and China in the future. Over 5,000 places have found Yangshao Culture Site in China, while Henan has discovered 1,000 Sites; take up 12% of the country. it mainly distribute in the mid-up of HuangHe, which is the core of Qin, Jin and Yu province, east to the central of Hebei, south to the mid-and-upper Han River, west to the Taohe River valley of Gansu, north to Hetao area of Nei Monggol.  Yangshao Culture connected the history of Neolithic Age, Paleolithic Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age; it is created a trend of archaeological excavation. Yangshao Culture attracts worldwide historical experts, archaeological experts and scholar's attention. It unveiled the culture of Yangshao over 2000 years' history.

Economy.

Mianchi is wealthy in resources and full of energy. The survey shows there is raw coal more than 30 species, include bauxite, quartz sand, limestone, iron, barite etc. The total reserves up to over 3 billion. The coal resource is up to 1.19 billion tons that richly in the whole country of coal production, the quality is high and made of high heat use for industry and power generation. The bauxite resource is obvious advantages and has good quality. It has proved reserves 11.5 million tons, and maintains 14.7 million tons, the average ratio of aluminum to silicon up to 9.3, is the number of 1.69 times for the whole province, ranking the first in Asia. The reserves of quartz sand have 77.8 million tons, the content of SiO is 98.65–99.26%, and all of these materials are easy to be opened, to support plenty of glass and architecture industry.

Industry.

Mianchi with abundant economic bases, persist in industry to be in the strategic position as the most important thing, making structural readjustments and furthering reform, strength management to promote the economy developed fast. The county of Mianchi makes their best to develop and innovate with the spirit of work hard, depend on their plenty of resource and opening up and reform, four industrial zones, Tiantan industrial park, Yingzhang industrial park, Guangfu industrial park of Ren village and orchard yard have been built by carrying out the strategy of reinforcing the county with industry steadily, depends on the advantage of resources, location, industry and culture to strengthen the construction of project, opening up and reform, attracting business and investment, formed series of production 3 million tons of alumina, 125,000 tons of electrolytic aluminum, 150, 000, 00 tons of raw coal mining, 2 million tons of cement, 5 million tons of boxes of float glass and more than 7000 crystalline silicon. Set up with brewery, electronic, building material and durable material, smelting, chemical, medicine and food as the pillar industrial system, research on the Scientific and Technological Innovation ability has been improving gradually, The industry is turning from resource-oriented industry to processing manufacturing and high and new technology projects ones. Mianchi has become an important basis on energy, metallurgy, building and durable material. The great-leap-forward development of industry promotes the rapid development of local economy. In 2010, the whole county product reached 15.34 billion yuan, an increase of 15.7% over the previous year. The general budgetary revenue of local governments totaled 1.016 billion yuan, and breakthrough 1 billion yuan in history, increase 19.4%, total quantity rank first in Sanmen Xia city, the twelfth in Henan province. The investment in fixed assets reaches 13.56 billion yuan, an increase of 26.7%. The per capita disposable income of urban residents is 15,664 yuan, an increase of 12%. While the per-capita income of farmers' averaged 6406 yuan, an increase of 15%. The comprehensive economic strength keeps in the top 20 in the whole province. County economy competitive occupies the 171 nationwide. There is the most potential region of investment and demonstration in the central plains and China. Mianchi has an advantage of good economy environment and unlimited development space. It is also one of the first batch to get greater power on the management of economy, to be opening up to the outside, processing trade grads transfer. The industrial district of Mianchi county is an important industry area of Henan. Located on the west of Zhengzhou-Luoyang industry corridor, Mianchi has obvious advantages. The government adopts a series of preferential policies, such as supporting open economy, promoting foreign investment in order of priority. Here forms a good atmosphere of love business, attracts more and more businessmen to come to invest. Tiantan industrial park and Yingzhang industrial park have been authorized by the government, with the area of 18.77 km. Yangshao Culture and the circle line of north tourist industry are scheming with high standard. The act of taking occupancy to Mianchi invest company like East Hope Group, Chalco, Tianrui Group and China Luoyang Float Glass Group Co., Ltd., etc. are receive big reward from here. With the strong strength of the big Groups are developing by Mianchi economy come on the neck of another. A bright pearl in Henan are showing a great potential and infinite grace.

Tourism.

Mianchi owns colorful and various kinds of scenery, such as Yangshao Grand Canyon, pool, mountains and so on. When you come to the Danxia scenic area and Shifenggu scenic area, you will be surprised by the unique, beautiful, also precipitous landscape. It's a renowned resort and lots of people would spend their vacation here every year. In addition, Mianchi is home to many kinds of local products. This place is a drying farming area and has longer frost-free days. The fine weather makes it feasible that plenty kinds of crops can grow well here. The total crop area is 645 million square meters. The main crop include wheat, corn, chilies, tobacco and peanut, of which chili is about 23 million square meters, tobacco production 40 million square meters, traditional Chinese medicine production 36 million square meters. Mianchi is famous for three Yangshao treasures: Yangshao Apricot, Yangshao dried persimmon and Yangshao millet, all these three enjoy high reputation across China. With unsophisticated folk atmosphere, beautiful hills and water, unlimited business space and opportunities, the people in Mianchi are striving to build their home a bright pearl in the Golden Triangle of Yu, Jin, Shan three provinces.

Mianchi County falls under the jurisdiction of the prefecture-level city of Sanmenxia, in the northwest of Henan province, bordering Shanxi province to the north and northwest.

Mianchi () ist ein Kreis, der zum Verwaltungsgebiet der bezirksfreien Stadt Sanmenxia in der zentralchinesischen Provinz Henan gehört. Mianchi hat eine Fläche von 1.421 km2 und zählt 330.000 Einwohner. Sein Hauptort ist die Großgemeinde Chengguan (城关镇).


History.

The Spanish Army has existed continuously since the reign of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella (late 15th century). The oldest and largest of the three services, its mission was the defense of Peninsular Spain, the Balearic Islands, the Canary Islands, Melilla, Ceuta and the Spanish islands and rocks off the northern coast of Africa.

Under the Habsburgs.

During the 16th century, Habsburg Spain saw steady growth in its military power. The Italian Wars (1494–1559) resulted in an ultimate Spanish victory and hegemony in northern Italy by expelling the French. During the war, the Spanish Army transformed its organization and tactics, evolving from a primarily pike and halberd wielding force into the first pike and shot formation of arquebusiers and pikemen, known as the "columella". During the 16th century, this formation evolved into the tercio infantry formation.  Backed by the financial resources drawn from the Americas, Spain fought wars against its enemies, such as the long-running Dutch Revolt (1568–1609), defending Christian Europe from Ottoman raids and invasions, supporting the Catholic cause in the French civil wars and fighting England during the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604). The Spanish Army grew in size from around 20,000 in the 1470s to around 300,000 by the 1630s during the Thirty Years' War that tore Europe apart, requiring the recruitment of soldiers from across Europe. With such numbers involved, Spain had trouble funding the war effort on so many fronts. The non-payment of troops led to many mutinies and events such as the Sack of Antwerp (1576), in which 17,000 people died.  The Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) drew in Spain alongside most other European states. Spain entered the conflict with a strong position, but the ongoing fighting gradually eroded her advantages; first Dutch, then Swedish innovations had made the tercio more vulnerable, having less flexibility and firepower than its more modern equivalents. Nevertheless, Spanish armies continued to win major battles and sieges throughout this period across large swathes of Europe. French entry into the war in 1635 put additional pressure on Spain, with the French victory at the Battle of Rocroi in 1643 being a major boost for the French. By the signing of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, Spain was forced to accept the independence of the Dutch Republic.

18th century.

Spain remained an important naval and military power, depending on critical sea lanes stretching from Spain through the Caribbean and South America, and westwards towards Manila and the Far East.  The Army was reorganized on the French model and in 1704 the old Tercios were transformed into Regiments. The first modern military school (the Artillery School) was created in Segovia in 1764. Finally, in 1768 King Charles III sanctioned the "Royal Ordinances for the Regime, Discipline, Subordination, and Service in His Armies", which were in force until 1978.

Napoleonic era and Restoration.

In the late 18th century, Bourbon-ruled Spain had an alliance with Bourbon-ruled France and therefore did not have to fear a land war. Its only serious enemy was Britain, which had a powerful Royal Navy; Spain, therefore, concentrated its resources on its Navy. When the French Revolution overthrew the Bourbons, a land war with France became a danger which the king tried to avoid.  In Spanish Army the officer corps was selected primarily on the basis of royal patronage, rather than merit. About a third of the junior officers had been promoted from the ranks, and they did have talent, but they had few opportunities for promotion or leadership. The rank-and-file were poorly trained peasants. Elite units included foreign regiments of Irishmen, Italians, Swiss, and Walloons, in addition to elite artillery and engineering units.The army lacked its own horses, oxen, and mules for transportation, so these auxiliaries were operated by civilians, who might run away if conditions looked bad. In combat, small units fought well, but their old-fashioned tactics were hard of use against the French "Grande Armée", despite repeated desperate efforts at last-minute reform.

Nineteenth-century wars.

Spain entered the 19th century with a reduction of territory and recognition of power in Europe following the Congress of Vienna in 1814 and faced renewed problems in the international arena. The Spanish military was devastated as a consequence of its former alliance with France, costing it its main fleets and many war damages in its military arsenals and weapons factories, much of which was inflicted by the British or Portuguese allies during the Peninsular campaign to prevent the French or Spanish to resume their services after the war. In the immediate aftermath of the war, while its administration was facing local rebellions against a renewed absolutist monarchy, the overseas colonies inspired by France and the United States of America sought to wrestle control from the debilitated European government that demanded more taxes to rebuild itself after the Napoleonic period disasters. Many continental armies were sent to Central America and South America which proved to be futile and too late. The former Empire lost an important artery of its power and with it the wealth in revenues which it had become dependent on over the centuries. In response, attempts were made to reform the military into a modern and standing national force, with conscription being adopted.  Spain faced a series of internal dynastic conflicts, collectively known as the Carlist Wars, requiring Spain to undergo a series of reforms directed at its military, administrative, and social structures. As consequence of these internal conflicts, and the weakness of the central structures of government under the monarchy, many generals with political ambitions would interrupt public life in multiple Coup d'états, known as Pronunciamientos, for the rest of the century until the Second Restoration of the Bourbons in Spain under Alfonso XII. These series of military interruptions in civil government eventually shaped a permissive cultural and political mentality, with a tacit expectation of "special emergency interventions" from the military that would pervade well into the first third of the 20th century. In the year 1920 the Spanish army was composed of about 500,000 men. ultimately ending up in the Spanish Civil War.

Second Republic (1931–36).

During the Second Spanish Republic, the Spanish government enlisted over ten million men to the army.

Civil War (1936–39).

Some US citizens came to Spain to fight in their civil war for two main reasons. The first being to promote their ideals and the other being to escape the trials of living in America during the great depression.  The Americans totaled 2,800 and suffered heavy casualties: 900 killed and 1,500 wounded.

The Spanish Army under the Francoist Regime (1939–1975).

This period can be divided in four phases:

Second World War.

At the end of the Civil War, the Spanish (Francoist) Army counted with 1,020,500 men, in 60 Divisions. During the first year of peace, Franco dramatically reduced the size of the Spanish Army to 250,000 in early 1940, with most soldiers two-year conscripts. A few weeks after the end of the war, the eight traditional Military Regions (Madrid, Sevilla, Valencia, Barcelona, Zaragoza, Burgos, Valladolid, La Coruña) were reestablished. In 1944 a ninth Military Region, with HQ in Granada, was created. The Air Force became an independent service, under its own Air Ministry.  Concerns about the international situation, Spain's possible entry into World War II, and threats of invasion led him to undo some of these reductions. In November 1942, with the Allied landings in North Africa and the German occupation of Vichy France bringing hostilities closer than ever to Spain's border, Franco ordered a partial mobilization, bringing the army to over 750,000 men. The Air Force and Navy also grew in numbers and in budgets, to 35,000 airmen and 25,000 sailors by 1945, although for fiscal reasons Franco had to restrain attempts by both services to undertake dramatic expansions.  During the Second World War, the Spanish Army had eight Army Corps, with two or three Infantry Division each. Additionally, there were two Army Corps in Northern Africa, the Canary Islands General Command and the Balearic Islands General Command, one Cavalry Division and the Artillery's General Reserve. In 1940 a Reserve Group, with three Divisions, was created.

The Blue Division.

Although Spanish caudillo Francisco Franco was neutral and did not bring Spain into World War II on the side of Nazi Germany, he permitted volunteers to join the German Army (Wehrmacht) on the condition they would only fight against the Soviet Union on the Eastern Front, and not against the Western Allies or any Western European occupied populations. In this manner, he could keep Spain at peace with the Western Allies, while repaying German support during the Spanish Civil War and providing an outlet for the strong anti-Communist sentiments of many Spanish nationalists. Officially designated as División Española de Voluntarios by the Spanish Army and as 250 Infanterie-Division in the German Army,The Blue Division was the only component of the German Army to be awarded a medal of their own, commissioned by Hitler in January 1944 after the Division had demonstrated its effectiveness in impeding the advance of the Red Army, on the Volkhov front (October 1941 – August 1942) and in the siege of Leningrad (August 1942 – October 1943), mainly at the battle of Krasny Bor.

International Isolation.

At the end of the Second World War, the Spanish Army counted 22,000 officers, 3,000 NCO and almost 300,000 soldiers. The equipment dated from the Civil War, with some systems produced in Germany during the World War. Doctrine and Training were obsolete, as they had not incorporated the teachings of the Second World War. This situation lasted until the agreements with the United States in September 1953.

Agreement with the United States (Barroso Reform, 1957).

After the signature of the military agreement with the United States in 1953, the assistance received from Washington allowed Spain to procure more modern equipment and to improve the country's defence capabilities. More than 200 Spanish officers and NCOs received specialised training in the United States each year under a parallel program. With the Barroso Reform (1957), the Spanish Army abandoned the organisation inherited from the Civil War to adopt the United States' pentomic structure. In 1958 three experimental pentomic Infantry Divisions were created (Madrid, Algeciras, Valencia). In 1960, five more pentomic Infantry Divisions (Gerona, Málaga, Oviedo, Vigo, Vitoria) and four mountain Divisions were created. All in all, after the Barroso Reform, the Spanish Army had 8 pentomic Infantry Divisions, four Mountain Divisions, one Armoured Division, one Cavalry Division, three independent Armoured Brigades and three Field Artillery Brigades.

Years of Economic Development (Menéndez Tolosa Reform, 1965).

The 1965 Reforms were inspired by contemporary French organisation and Doctrine of the era. The Army was grouped into two basic categories: the Immediate Intervention Forces (Field Army) and the Operational Defence Forces (Territorial Army) and were divided into the following:  During the last years of the Francoist regime, contemporary weapons were ordered for the Spanish Army. In 1973, the military education system was reformed in depth, in order to make its structure and objectives similar to those existing in the civilian universities. It was during this time that the Spanish Army fought in the campaigns in what is now Western Sahara against Arab forces in the area who agitated for the end of Spanish colonial rule.

The Spanish Army under King Juan Carlos I and beyond.

Initial years (1975–1989).

Three main events characterise this period: creation of a single Ministry of Defence (1977) to replace the three existing military ministries (Army, Navy and Air Ministries), the failed coup d'état in February 1981 and the accession to NATO in 1982.  The Army modernisation program (META plan) was done between 1982 and 1988 in order for Spain to achieve full compliance with NATO standards. When the plan was completed the following results were achieved:

After the end of the Cold War (1989–present).

The end of the Cold War came with the reduction of the term of military service for conscripts until its complete abolition in 2001 and the increasing participation of Spanish forces in multinational peacekeeping operations abroad are the main drivers for changes in the Spanish Army after 1989. Three reorganisation plans were implemented since: the RETO plan (1990), the NORTE plan (1994) and the Instruction for Organisation and Operation of the Army (IOFET) 2005.

Today.

Personnel.

In 2001, when compulsory military service was still in effect, the army was about 135,000 troops (50,000 officers and 86,000 soldiers). Following the suspension of conscription the Spanish Army became a fully professionalised volunteer force and by 2008 had a personnel strength of 75,000. In case of a war or national emergency, an additional force of 80,000 "Civil Guards" comes under the Ministry of Defence command.

Commanders in Chief of the Spanish Army.

Army Ministers.

"Source: "

Ranks and insignia.

The military ranks of the Spanish army are as follows below. For a comparison with other NATO ranks see Ranks and Insignia of NATO. Ranks are wore on the cuff, sleeves and shoulders of all army uniforms, but differ by the type of the uniform being used.

The Spanish Army (; "Army of the Land/Ground") is the terrestrial army of the Spanish Armed Forces responsible for land-based military operations. It is one of the oldest active armies — dating back to the late 15th century, but we could consider a greater antiquity if we take into account that during the in the sixth century with Reccared I, the territorial unity of the Kingdom was achieved, which included the entire Iberian Peninsula, thus finishing the work already begun by his father Liuvigild being the Spanish Visigoth Army in charge of defending the borders of the kingdom especially against the Franks.

Das Ejército de Tierra umfasst das Gros der Landstreitkräfte der spanischen Militärs. Einzige Landstreitkräfte, die nicht zum Heer gehören, sind die Guardia Civil und die Guardia Real. Es bildet mit der Armada Española (Marine) und dem Ejército del Aire (Luftstreitkräfte) die spanischen Streitkräfte. Im spanischen Heer, der größten Teilstreitkraft, dienen knapp 76.000 Berufssoldaten. Seit 2001 bestehen die spanischen Streitkräfte nur noch aus Freiwilligen.


Music career.

Claude Gabriel Williams was born in Muskogee, Oklahoma. At the age of 10 he played guitar, mandolin, banjo, and cello. After hearing Joe Venuti on the violin, he decided he wanted to play violin. He went to Kansas City, Missouri, in 1927 and became part of the Twelve Clouds of Joy, led by trumpeter Terrence Holder and then Andy Kirk, with Mary Lou Williams on piano. He recorded with them for Brunswick Records the following year. After leaving Kirk, he played in Chicago in a band with Nat King Cole and his brother Eddie Cole and then became the first guitarist to record with Count Basie.  He spent most of his life in Kansas City. In the 1950s, he played with Eddie Vinson, Hank Jones, and another musician from Muskogee, pianist Jay McShann. For the next twenty years he led his own groups but did not record. Nearly thirty years since his last recording, he reunited with McShann in the 1970s to record McShann's album "Man from Muskogee". Williams performed at Bill's Le Gourmet in Wichita, Kansas from 1972-1977.  In the 1990s, Williams performed at Carnegie Hall, Lincoln Center, and at the inauguration of President Bill Clinton. He was profiled on the TV program "CBS News Sunday Morning" and became the first person to be inducted into the Oklahoma Jazz Hall of Fame. He was a recipient of a 1998 National Heritage Fellowship awarded by the National Endowment for the Arts, which is the highest honor in the folk and traditional arts in the United States. His last album, "Swingin' the Blues", was recorded in 2000. He was 96 when he died in 2004.  He was the last surviving jazz musician to have recorded before 1930. His memorabilia was donated to the University of Missouri–Kansas City.

Discography.

With Count Basie

Claude "Fiddler" Williams (February 22, 1908 – April 26, 2004) was an American jazz violinist and guitarist who recorded and performed into his 90s. He was the first guitarist to record with Count Basie and the first musician to be inducted into the Oklahoma Jazz Hall of Fame.

Claude Gabriel „Fiddler“ Williams (* 22. Februar 1908 in Muskogee, Oklahoma; † 25. April 2004 in Kansas City) war ein amerikanischer Jazz-Violinist, Gitarrist (und gelegentlicher Sänger) des Swing.