Creation and political representation.

Elisa Carrió, a former Radical Civic Union (UCR) politician, created the ARI after the breakup of the government alliance that brought Fernando de la Rúa to the presidency in 1999.  The 2001 elections gave ARI 17 of the 257 seats in the Argentine Chamber of Deputies, and one senator. Carrió got a 14.1% share of the vote in the 2003 presidential elections. In the 2005 elections, ARI won eight seats. In the 2007 elections, ARI won the governorship of the deep-south Province of Tierra del Fuego, when Fabiana Rios, an ARI deputy, defeated the pro-government candidate Hugo Cóccaro, on June 24, 2007. Tierra del Fuego is currently (as of 2008) the first and only province ruled by ARI.  The party has established itself as a major force in the City of Buenos Aires, in Buenos Aires Province, and in the aforementioned Province of Tierra del Fuego.  In the presidential elections of 2007, Carrió came second, heading the Civic Coalition with Rubén Giustiniani. She obtained about 23% of the vote, coming in a second behind Cristina Fernández de Kirchner. She won the majority vote in two of the three largest cities of Argentina: Buenos Aires and Rosario, but she suffered a larger defeat in Buenos Aires Province, the most populated district, and could not force a run-off election. ARI did however win four Senate seats (2 of the City of Buenos Aires and 2 of Tierra del Fuego) and a considerable number of seats in the Argentine Chamber of Deputies, with further Congress seats for other members of the Coalition.

2007 split.

As part of building a broader coalition ahead of the 2007 elections, Carrió reached out to centre-right figures such as Patricia Bullrich and María Eugenia Estenssoro, who was elected Senator for Buenos Aires. This proved controversial in ARI ranks and some national legislators formed a separate block called the Autonomous ARI in Congress. In May 2008, the block, led by Eduardo Macaluse, announced that they were forming a new party, Solidarity and Equality ("Solidaridad e Igualdad – SI"). Others who left ARI were Carlos Raimundi, Leonardo Gorbacz, Delia Bisutti, Nélida Belous, Verónica Venas, Emilio García Méndez, Lidia Naim and María América González. Senator María Rosa Díaz also appeared at the launch of SI. Several of the legislators that created the new party had won their seats in the 2007 election as part of the Civic Coalition, which they later opposed. The ARI deputies from Tierra del Fuego sit with the SI members in a separate block in the Chamber of Deputies. Subsequently Senators María Rosa Díaz and José Carlos Martínez left ARI altogether in March 2009.  In October 2009, the official name was changed into "Partido Coalición Cívica para la Afirmación de una República Igualitaria" (Civic Coalition Party for the Support of an Egalitarian Republic). Usually it is shortened to "Coalición Cívica ARI" (Civic Coalition ARI).

Civic Coalition ARI (, CC-ARI), until October 2009 known as Support for an Egalitarian Republic (, ARI), is an Argentine political party, founded in 2002 by Elisa Carrió. It is a member of Cambiemos with centrist and centre-right parties.

Die Coalición Cívica ARI (offiziell "Partido Coalición Cívica para la Afirmación de una República Igualitaria", kurz CC-ARI, bis Oktober 2009 unter dem Namen "Afirmación para una República Igualitaria", ARI) ist eine linksliberale Partei in Argentinien, die 2002 gegründet wurde.


Works.

His first play, "Primera parte de las Comedias y Tragedias", was published in 1579. This was an unusual step in itself; few of his contemporaries bothered publishing their works, which are consequently only partially known. Although he wrote in part on the classical themes that were typical of Spanish theatre at the time, he innovated in a number of regards. He consciously disregarded the conventional classical unities, reduced the traditional number of acts from five to four and introduced new metrical forms. His use of such polimetric verse forms was intended to indicate the mood and tone of scene. He also sought to maximise the theatrical effect of his works by playing up sensational themes of violent death and supernatural events.  Cueva's plays draw on a mixture of classical, historical and fictional themes, often adapting stories from ballads and medieval chronicles. This step is considered to be a significant advance in Spanish theatre and proved highly influential on later playwrights such as Lope de Vega. For modern audiences, however, his plays are seen as off-putting due to their sensationalistic nature and the perverse, violent and grotesque characters that inhabit them.  Despite his innovations, Cueva's works lack much literary merit as they were often hastily composed. His shortcomings were particularly visible in his poetic works. Some of his earliest published poetry was composed during his stay in Mexico and was published in an anthology of poets then resident in New Spain. Later works of poetry included the "Obras" (1582), a collection of erotic lyrics in the style of Petrarch, "Caro Febeo de romances historiales" (1587), which Bartolomé José Gallardo called "the worst [thing] that I have read in Castilian", and the epic poem "Conquista de la Bética", which Philip Ward describes as "tedious". Cueva also produced a treatise in verse titled "Ejemplar poético, o Arte poética española", in which he discusses poetry and historical drama. His works were rediscovered after 1917, when Francisco A. de Icaza published all fourteen of his plays, based on the 1588 second edition of Cueva's works. The last surviving copy of the 1583 first edition was found shortly afterwards. Further works were republished in 1924.

Juan de la Cueva de Garoza (1543–1612) was a Spanish dramatist and poet. He was born in Seville to an aristocratic family; his younger brother Claudio, with whom he spent some time in Guadalajara, Mexico, went on to become an archdeacon and inquisitor. He was acquainted with a number of major contemporary intellectual figures, including Fernando de Herrera and Juan de Mal Lara, and took part in the Casa de Pilatos literary academy in Seville. After his return to Spain in 1577, he began writing for the stage and produced a total of ten comedies and four tragedies. He appears never to have married, though some of his poetical works are dedicated to a Felipa de la Paz. After apparently spending some time in Cuenca after 1610, he died in Granada in 1612.

Juan de la Cueva de Garoza (* 1543 in Sevilla; † 1612) war ein spanischer Dichter und Dramenautor des Siglo de Oro.


Toponymy.

translates to "Ifan's village"from "pentref""pen" head, and "tref" town.

The Monument.

As it now stands, the Pentre Ifan Dolmen is a collection of seven principal stones. The largest is the huge capstone, long, wide and thick. It is estimated to weigh 16 tonnes and rests on the tips of three other stones, some off the ground. There are six upright stones, three of which support the capstone. Of the remaining three, two portal stones form an entrance and the third, at an angle, appears to block the doorway.

Original use.

The dolmen dates from around 3500 BC, and has traditionally been identified as a communal burial. Under this theory the existing stones formed the portal and main chamber of the tomb, which would originally have been covered by a large mound of stones about long and 17 m wide. Some of the kerbstones, marking the edge of the mound, have been identified during excavations. The stone chamber was at the southern end of the long mound, which stretched off to the north. Very little of the material that formed the mound remains. Some of the stones have been scattered, but at least seven are in their original position. An elaborate entrance façade surrounding the portal, which may have been a later addition, was built with carefully constructed dry stone walling. Individual burials are thought to have been made within the stone chamber, which would be re-used many times. No traces of bones were found in the tomb, raising the possibility that they were subsequently transferred elsewhere.

Alternative theory.

A major study by Cummings and Richards in 2014 has produced a different explanation for the monument. They identify several distinctive attributes shared by the class of monument known as dolmens, all of which are particularly well exemplified at Pentre Ifan. First, such monuments typically have a large capstone derived from a glacial erratic: far bigger than is required or sensible if the aim was to roof a chamber. Furthermore, the capstone has a flat underside. Sometimes, as here, this has been arrived at by splitting the rock; at other sites, such as Garn Turne, some 12 km to the south-west, it has been laboriously 'pecked' off using stone tools. The capstone is supported on the tapering tips of slender uprights. As at Pentre Ifan, there are often other stones within the group, but they play no part in holding up the capstone, and the resulting effect of the enormous stone appearing to float above the other stones would seem to be deliberate and desired. If these are the key elements of the monument then, it is argued, the stones were never designed to be buried within a mound, and they never formed a chamber to contain bones. What we see today is the monument as it was intended to be seen. It might therefore represent a more elaborate version of a standing stone. Its purpose could be simply to demonstrate the status and skill of the builders, or to add significance and gravitas to an already significant place.

Construction technique.

The sheer size of the huge capstone that is supported by the larger dolmens makes it overwhelmingly likely that the stone was not brought in from elsewhere, but already stood as an independent glacial erratic on the same spot it now occupies. Evidence from the 1948 excavation is compatible with the idea of a large pit being dug at Pentre Ifan, to expose and work on the stone, perhaps splitting it to create a flat underside, It could then be levered vertically upwards a little at a time, using poles, ropes, and large numbers of people, and packed into place using a growing heap of boulders. Once at the required height, the supporting uprights could be introduced, and the boulders removed to leave only the uprights, and such other surrounding stones as were wanted.

Archaeology.

Pentre Ifan was studied by early travellers and antiquarians, and rapidly became famous as an image of ancient Wales, from engravings of the romantic stones. George Owen wrote of it in enthusiastic terms in 1603, and Richard Tongue painted it in 1835.  The first United Kingdom legislation to protect ancient monuments was passed in 1882, and 'The Pentre Evan Cromlech' (as it was styled) was on the initial list of 68 protected sites - one of only three in Wales. On 8 June 1884, two years after the passing of the first Ancient Monuments Act, Augustus Pitt Rivers, Britain's first Inspector of Ancient Monuments, made a visit and produced sketch plans of the monument. The legal protection the Act gave was limited. It became an offence to remove stones or items from the site, but the owner of a monument was exempt from any prosecution. The Act however provided for the Commissioner of Works to become 'guardian' of a scheduled monument - in effect to own the monument, even though the land on which it stood remained in private ownership. Perhaps as result of Pitt Rivers' visit, this protection was put in place, and the Commissioner of Works and his various successor bodies have been guardians of Pentre Ifan ever since.  Archaeological excavations took place in 1936-37 and 1958–59, both led by William Francis Grimes. This identified rows of ritual pits which lay under the mound, and therefore must predate it. Kerbstones for the mound were also found, but not in a complete sequence, and aligned more to the pits than to the stone chamber. Very few items were found in the excavations, other than some flint flakes, and a small amount of Welsh (Western) pottery.  The dolmen is maintained and cared for by Cadw, the Welsh Historic Monuments Agency. The site is well kept, and entrance is free. It is about from Cardigan, and east of Newport, Pembrokeshire.

Pentre Ifan (literally "John's Village") is the name of an ancient manor in the community and parish of Nevern, Pembrokeshire, Wales. It contains and gives its name to the largest and best preserved neolithic dolmen in Wales. The Pentre Ifan monument is a Scheduled Ancient Monument and was one of three Welsh monuments to receive legal protection under the Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1882.

Pentre Ifan ist das wegen seiner Höhe bekannteste megalithische Monument in Wales in den Preseli Hills. Es sind die Überreste eines Cotswold Severn Tombs oder eines Portal Tombs oder Quoits, aus der Jungsteinzeit um 3500 v. Chr. für die gemeinschaftliche Bestattung der Toten. Es könnte eine Zeit lang benutzt und dann versiegelt worden sein. Ursprünglich war die Kammer von einem Steinhügel bedeckt. Diese Steine sind jedoch vor Langem entfernt worden, so dass die originale Bedeckung fehlt.


Early life and development of playing style.

Bundy was born in Austin, Minnesota and later moved to the small town of Buena Vista, Colorado. As a boy Bundy and his brother bought a guitar together, and Bundy began learning songs from guitar magazines.  Bundy is right-handed. During his teenage years he began experimenting with his playing style. He gave up using a guitar pick, and instead grew his fingernails long to develop his fingerpicking style. He also introduced a harmonic slapping technique, the use of various effects pedals, and capos.  Bundy met Jonah Werner (now an acclaimed acoustic folk songwriter) in high school and started playing with him at a local coffee shop in Buena Vista. The duo played mostly Jackopierce and other various folk songs. Bundy then met Tim Thornton from Newcomers Home and started playing old Dylan and Cat Stevens tunes. They all attended the University of Colorado at Boulder and still continue to play together from time to time.  Bundy moved to Boulder, Colorado and attended the University of Colorado where he earned his undergraduate and master's degrees in civil engineering, and then taught at the university for a further two years. During this period his concert bookings increased steadily, and eventually he decided to become a full-time musician.

Career.

Bundy's first musical release was in 1999 with "O Night Divine", a collection of traditional Christmas songs. His next recording, containing all original songs, was 2000's "Solomon's Splendor".  In October 2004 he released a CD/DVD titled "Adapt". The DVD is of a live concert filmed in Boulder in the summer of 2004.  Many clips from this DVD have circulated on YouTube and have received well over twenty-one million views. Some of the more popular clips are Bundy covering the Backstreet Boys song "I Want It That Way", and Pachelbel's Canon performed on an acoustic guitar using the fingertapping technique. Bundy acquired the nickname "Acoustic Ninja" after a review of one of his shows in a Colorado newspaper was titled "Attack of the Acoustic Ninja".  Following this album was "A Few Songs for Christmas", an EP of more Christmas songs released in December 2007. In 2008, Bundy released "Missile Bell", a two-part project consisting of a studio CD, a live CD, and a DVD filmed live at the Boulder Theater in November 2007. The album was inspired by a trip Bundy and his wife Becca made to Central America, accompanying a humanitarian group. At the end of 2008, Bundy was named "Most Promising New Talent of the Year" by "Acoustic Guitar" magazine, and came in third in the same magazine's "Best Fingerstyle Guitarist of the Year" category.  Touring with Sungha Jung In 2005 Bundy discovered a finger-picking guitar prodigy when he saw a YouTube video of a 9 year old Korean boy Sungha Jung playing Bundy's version of (Pachelbel's) Canon. Bundy twice toured South Korea and he would get in touch with Jung and have him open Bundy's shows. Then Bundy would call Jung up on the stage with him to play Cannon in unison. In 2009 Bundy flew Jung to the United States and the two did a U.S. West Coast tour. Since that time the two have played together often.  Bundy's most recent album, "Elephant King", was released on May 1, 2012.  “In 2014 Bundy was announced as the winner of the ESPN "SportsCenter" Fan Jam contest while he performed the program's theme tune live on the show on March 4, 2014 at ESPN's studios in Bristol, Connecticut.”  In 2016 he was the subject of a short documentary film made by Florida State University student Robert Bevis, titled "Acoustic Ninja". The film was included in the official selection of six film festivals, and was a finalist at the Emerging Filmmaker Showcase at the Cannes Film Festival in 2017.

Reviews.

"Possessing a staggering acoustic technique, on both right and left sides, Bundy has made his reputation as a next generation solo guitarist of serious repute. Furious, marksman-like fretboard tapping, blizzards of bouncing harmonics, tricky in-song capo-sliding (or removal/addition), freehand guitar body tapping — Bundy combines a dizzying range of offbeat technical calisthenics and inverted melodic sense to create what can safely be characterized as performance art." Dave Kirby of the "Boulder Weekly".

Personal life.

Trace Bundy married Rebecca on September 3, 2002. Together they have two sons.

Discography.

Releases on the Honest Ninja Music label:

Trace Bundy is an acoustic guitar player who lives and performs in Boulder, Colorado. He is known to fans as "The Acoustic Ninja" for his legato and finger tapping skills. Bundy's guitar playing style is percussive and harmonic: he plays with both hands on the fretboard, intricate finger picking arpeggios and inventive use of multiple capos. He was showcased and eventually discovered on websites such as YouTube and Facebook.

Trace Bundy (* 1977 in Austin, Minnesota) ist ein US-amerikanischer Akustik-Gitarrist, der hauptsächlich in Boulder, Colorado auftritt und dort auch lebt. Bevor er Vollzeit-Profimusiker wurde, lehrte er an der Universität Boulder, wo er von 2000 bis 2003 Maschinenbau studierte und mit einem Master in Civil Engineering abschloss.


Biography.

De Gheyn was born in Antwerp and received his first training from his father, Jacob de Gheyn I, a glass painter, engraver, and draftsman. In 1585, he moved to Haarlem, where he studied under Hendrik Goltzius for the next five years. He moved again, to Leiden, in the middle of the 1590s. His work attracted the attention of wealthy sponsors, and his first commission was for an engraving of the Siege of Geertruidenberg from Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange. This event, from 27 March to 24 June 1593, had been more of a demonstration of power by Prince Maurits, than an actual war, and had even attracted tourists. As a publicity stunt, the siege and its subsequent engraving were successful in propagating an image of Prince Maurits as an able general.  Around 1600, de Gheyn abandoned engraving, and focused on painting and etching. Moving to The Hague in 1605, he was employed often by Dutch royalty, designing a garden in the Buitenhof for Prince Maurice of Orange which featured the two first grottoes in the Netherlands. After Prince Maurice's death in 1625, de Gheyn worked for his brother, Prince Frederick Henry. De Gheyn painted some of the earliest female nudes, vanitas, and floral still lifes in Dutch art. He is credited with creating over 1,500 drawings, including landscapes and natural history illustrations. He produced 117 engravings for the military manual "The Exercise of Armes" while living in Amsterdam.  De Gheyn married Eva Stalpaert van der Wiele of Mechelen in 1595. His son, Jacob de Gheyn III, was born in 1596, and grew to become an engraver in his own right, as well as the subject of a portrait by Rembrandt. De Gheyn died in The Hague.

Jacob de Gheyn II (also Jacques de Gheyn II) (c. 1565 – 29 March 1629) was a Dutch painter and engraver, whose work shows the transition from Northern Mannerism to Dutch realism over the course of his career.

Jacob de Gheyn II. oder auch Jacques de Gheyn II. genannt (* um 1565 in Antwerpen; † 29. März 1629 in Den Haag) war ein niederländischer Maler und Graveur.


Life.

Björn was born at Tannstaðir, a remote farm on the Hrútafjörður in Húnavatnssýsla in north-western Iceland. Although the family was poor, they sent him to school to the local priests, who recognized his intellectual abilities. In 1808, Björn passed an exam in Reykjavík, obtaining a recommendation by the bishop for studying at the university of Copenhagen. But these plans were delayed by the Gunboat War between Denmark-Norway and the United Kingdom. Only after the end of the Napoleonic Wars could Björn travel to Denmark and enrolled in 1817 at the University of Copenhagen, where he studied theology and mathematics. During his studies, he won the university's gold medal for mathematics twice.  In 1822, a new post for a school teacher in Danish, mathematics, and history opened at the school of Bessastaðir in Iceland and was offered to Björn. He abandoned his theologic studies and accepted the post, returning to Iceland and taking up his duties as a school teacher on 14 May 1822. When the school was moved to Reykjavík in 1846, Björn followed. Five years later he was appointed chief assistant ("Yfirkennari") to the rector. He retired in 1862.  Björn Gunnlaugsson was married twice; first to Ragnheiður Bjarnadóttir (died 1834), after her death he married in 1844 Guðlaug Aradóttir (died 1873).

Work.

Björn was an exceptional figure in early 19th-century Iceland. The abstract thoughts of this gentle learned man were beyond the grasp of most of his compatriots, who regarded him as an eccentric with few of the practical skills they so highly valued. Yet the simple folk also felt a certain kind of respectful awe towards this scholar.  Björn knew the inclination towards the practical of his fellow countrymen well. When he returned to Iceland as a school teacher for mathematics, the curriculum at the grammar school at Bessastaðir covered barely more than the four basic operations addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. In his inauguration speech at the school, he emphasized the practical applications of mathematics. He tried to take mathematics education to a higher level, but failed ultimately as his treatment of the subject was often too abstract for his pupils and he was, according to Benedikz, "not capable of handling a class of mathematical ignoramuses".  The only studied mathematician in Iceland in the 19th century, Björn was isolated from the academic community in Europe, and the intellectual environment made him turn to the didactics and the applications of mathematics, and also to philosophy.

Uppdráttr Íslands – Map of Iceland.

In August 1829, Björn, who had done in the early 1820s cartographic work under the direction of Heinrich Christian Schumacher at Altona, proposed to the Danish government to undertake a land survey of Iceland, and asked for the instruments used by the Danish Navy in their earlier coastal surveys to be sent to Iceland. His request was ignored at first. In 1831, the Literary Society of Iceland decided to sponsor him and helped him obtain the necessary instruments. From 1831 to 1843, Björn spent the summers surveying the country together with one assistant, and in the winters he would draw the maps. He did not lay a new baseline but started from the earlier coastal surveys the Danish Navy had undertaken in the period of 1774 to 1818, extending the triangulation inland. The Literary Society supported him with a yearly grant, and so did the Danish government from 1836 to 1846.  Björn's hand-drawn maps were sent to Copenhagen for preparing the publication. Olaf Nikolas Olsen had been appointed as the director of publication; he proposed to publish the map on four sheets, and he probably also defined the scale of 1:480,000 and the conical projection used. The map was published under Olsen's name, with the Literary Society of Iceland as the publisher, and paid by the Danish treasury. The title page was in Danish and French. Although dated 1844, it was probably not completed until 1848. In 1849, a smaller version of the map on one sheet at a scale of 1:960,000 was published. Björn's survey formed the basis of many subsequent maps of Iceland for the next hundred years; new maps based on new surveys appeared only after World War II. It was an immense work, and Björn realized soon enough that one man alone would not be able to triangulate the whole island in his lifetime, and focussed his attention on the inhabited areas. Yet he managed to survey a good part of the wilderness, too, even if he had to rely on the accounts of the local population in some remote areas. Björn was well aware of the inaccuracies in some regions; already in 1834 he wrote that one "should neither have too high or too low expectations of the map, nor trust too greatly nor too little in its usefulness or accuracy". The central highlands were sketchy on his map; they were mapped properly for the first time by Þorvaldur Thoroddsen, whose map was printed in 1901. Still Björn's survey is considered a great advancement, especially given the limited resources he had at his disposition. In recognition of his outstanding survey work Björn Gunnlaugsson was awarded the Knight's cross of the Order of the Dannebrog in 1846 and also received the Knight's cross of the French Légion d'honneur. The map was also exhibited at the World's fair at Paris in 1878, where it was awarded a prize.

"Njóla" – "Night".

"Njóla" is a long didactic theological-philosophical poem Björn wrote mostly during his survey travels when the weather did not permit to work or in the evenings. It was published originally in the annual report of 1842 of the Bessastaðir school, and then in 1853 with some minor revisions and again in 1884 in Reykjavík. The poem begins by describing a night view of the skies, and then introduces the reader to astronomic distances, explaining how long a cannonball shot from the sun would take to reach each of the planets—and then the next star. In later stanzas, he describes the birth of the universe, covers Newton's laws and explains gravity. He interweaves such physics and mathematics framed as poetry with theological and philosophical musings about the purpose of the universe, the nature of good and evil, and God's intent.

"Tölvísi": A mathematical textbook.

Towards the end of his teaching career, Björn wrote down the mathematics he would have liked to teach in the "Tölvísi", a mathematical textbook unprecedented in Iceland, both in its breadth and depth, but also in the rigor of its proofs. Moreover, it was written in Icelandic; in an attempt to make mathematics more accessible to his fellow countrymen, Björn even tried to find Icelandic names for mathematical concepts that hitherto had only been named using Danish or Latin words. But the work was largely ignored, and Björn's Icelandic terms never caught on. Begun in 1856, volume 1 was published in Reykjavík in 1865 by E. Þórðarson, but its second part was still unpublished in 2003 and existed only as an unpublished manuscript at the National and University Library of Iceland. Gunnlaugsson's first biographers, Melsteð and Jensson, wrote that it was "a book praised by all but read by extremely few".

Björn Gunnlaugsson (25 September 1788 – 17 March 1876) was an Icelandic mathematician and cartographer. For the Icelandic Literary Society, he surveyed the country from 1831 to 1843. The results of his work were published in a topographic map of Iceland at a scale of 1:480,000 on four sheets. It was the first complete map of Iceland and, although generally dated to 1844, was not completed until 1848. It was published under the direction of Olaf Nikolas Olsen in Copenhagen. In 1849, a smaller edition on one sheet at a scale of 1:960,000 appeared. For his survey work, Björn received the Order of the Dannebrog in 1846 and the French Légion d'honneur in 1859.

Björn Gunnlaugsson (* 25. September 1788 auf dem Hof Tannstaðir; † 17. März 1876) war ein isländischer Kartograf, der die erste vollständige Karte seiner Heimatinsel anfertigte.


History.

When Flanders and North Brabant were reconquered by the Spanish army during the Eighty Years' War, their Protestant inhabitants were required to either convert to Catholicism or leave. Many emigrated north of the border, particularly during the Twelve Years' Truce of 1609–21. Many of them later became staunch supporters of the pietist movement known as the "nadere reformatie" (further reformation). Following the 1832 schism, known as the "Afscheiding" ("Secession"), and the 1886 schism, "Doleantie" ("Sorrow"), which was led by Abraham Kuyper, they left the mainstream Dutch Reformed Church and founded their own, more conservative congregations, the most notable of which are the Christian Reformed Churches and the Reformed Congregations ("Gereformeerde Gemeenten"), known colloquially as "zwarte-kousenkerken" ("black stockings churches").  The Bible Belt differs in many aspects (amongst them a regular Sunday church attendance – often twice on a Sunday) from the traditionally Catholic provinces of North Brabant and Limburg to the south (where Sunday church attendance averages between 2% to 3% of the population) and northern parts of the Netherlands, which are traditionally mainline Protestant (dominated by the Protestant Church in the Netherlands) and increasingly secular, with similarly low church attendance figures.

Life and tradition.

The church plays a central role in the life of Bible Belt communities and they typically oppose the liberal practices of mainstream Dutch society, such as euthanasia, gay rights, abortion, prostitution, pornography, etc. In Staphorst, for instance, swearing is outlawed and women only wear skirts or dresses. In Bible Belt communities, strong religious tone in public life is accompanied by conservative outlook, preference for large families (the region has relatively high fertility rates), and an emphasis on traditional values. An aspect of Bible Belt society that has drawn the attention of the Dutch general public in recent years (when concerns of a measles epidemic emerged) is the suspicion of parents towards state-run vaccination programmes.  The Bible Belt provides a base of support for the small Christian parties SGP and ChristenUnie.

The Bible Belt () is a strip of land in the Netherlands with the highest concentration of conservative orthodox Calvinist Protestants in the country. It was named after the Bible Belt of the United States.

__notoc__ Der Bibelgürtel () in den Niederlanden ist eine Bezeichnung für bestimmte Gegenden in den Niederlanden, in denen relativ viele strenggläubige Anhänger reformierter Kirchen wohnen. Diese werden auch (abwertend) als den „Schwarzestrümpfekirchen“ zugehörig bezeichnet.


Biography.

He was born in Csetnek, and descended from an impoverished noble family originating in Gömör és Kis-Hont County. His father,, was an iron manufacturer and craftsman. Originally, he was destined for a career in law and went to study in Pozsony.  When the Hungarian Revolution began, he and his brother (also named András) left school to join the struggle. He was a participant in numerous actions, became a Second Lieutenant and was present during the surrender at Világos. After hiding out briefly, he returned home on foot and joined his family in Pécs. He continued with his legal studies, but also began taking lessons from a local artist.  In 1853, he enrolled for preparatory work at the Academy of Fine Arts, Vienna. Two years later, he entered the history painting class of Ferdinand Georg Waldmüller. His first historical painting, "Kuruc and Labanc" (depicting brothers fighting on opposite sides), was warmly received. In 1856, he went to Paris, where he studied in the studios of Léon Cogniet and at the École des Beaux Arts. He was also influenced by the style of Paul Delaroche. His painting "The Mourning of László Hunyadi" won a medal at the 1861 Salon.  He returned to Hungary in 1870, but his style was heavily criticized for being too French, and revolutionary fervor had lessened considerably. In 1873, after especially harsh criticism of his work "Gábor Bethlen Among the Scholars", he retired from painting and took over his father's business. He was so discouraged that many of his best works were virtually given away.  In 1902, his business went bankrupt and was sold at auction. The following year, he attempted to restart his artistic career by painting portraits, but they were not up to his previous standards. He died in Budapest, totally forgotten, during the First World War.

Viktor Madarász (14 December 1830 – 10 January 1917) was a Hungarian painter in the Romantic style. He is best known for historical scenes and portraits.

Viktor Madarász (* 14. Dezember 1830 in Csetnek; † 10. Januar 1917 in Budapest) war ein ungarischer romantischer Maler. Er war Soldat und Leutnant in der Ungarischen Revolution 1848/1849. Später lebte er im Exil und studierte von 1853 bis 1856 Malerei in Wien und zusammen mit Léon Cogniet in Paris. Die Jahre von 1856 bis 1870 in Paris waren seine produktivsten und erfolgreichsten. Er malte vor allem Motive aus der ungarischen Geschichte.


History.

Early Firearms.

Firearms were recognized by Goryeo military leaders as being of utmost importance in national defense. Constituting a particular threat were Japanese raiders who frequently plundered coastal towns in increasing numbers from 1350 onward. Gunpowder and firearms explicitly for combating them on the sea were imported from China in 1374 but the necessary expertise for production was still restricted by Chinese government policy.  Numerous ancient Chinese documents relating to gunpowder based weapons such as the Huolongjing were acquired by the Koreans in addition to small samples of Chinese gunpowder which the Koreans reverse engineered.  Local production did not begin until Choe Mu-seon, having acquired the methods for purifying potassium nitrate from visiting Chinese merchants, accomplished it between 1374-1376. A government office for the development of gunpowder and firearms was established in 1377 with Choe appointed its head. A number of weapons were developed here, based on Chinese designs, including hand-cannon and a series of rockets, in particular the "juhwa".

Hwacha.

The hwacha was a further development from the juhwa and the singijeon. The first hwacha was developed in Korea in 1409 during the Joseon Dynasty by several Korean scientists, including Yi Do (이도, not to be mistaken for Sejong the Great, even though their names sound similar) and Choi Hae-san (최해산, son of Choe Museon). Stronger and more effective hwachas were made in 1451 under the decree of King Munjong, by the king himself and his younger brother Pe. ImYung (Yi Gu, 임영대군 이구). This "Munjong Hwacha" is a well-known type that nowadays could fire 100 rocket arrows or 200 small Chongtong bullets at one time with changeable modules. At the time, 50 units were deployed in Hanseong (present-day Seoul), and another 80 on the northern border. By the end of 1451, hundreds of hwachas were deployed throughout the peninsula.

Imjin wars (1592–1598).

Hwachas saw action most extensively against the Japanese during their invasions of Korea. The hwachas were mostly placed in fortresses or citadels, and used defensively. They proved to be powerful in many battles, and were most prominent in the Battle of Haengju, in which 3,400 Koreans repelled 30,000 Japanese with the help of 40 hwachas. The Japanese samurai infantry, especially in the Battle of Haengju, typically advanced in dense formations, presenting ideal targets for the hwacha.  Hwachas were also used on panokseons under the navy of Admiral Yi Sun-sin to attack Japanese ships from a distance.

Components.

The hwacha's structure was very similar to a handcart, with a mobile wooden launchpad on the top containing 100 to 200 cylindrical holes, into which igniters like those of the sajeonchongtong (사전총통) were placed.  The ammunition, similar to the ancient Chinese fire arrows, consisted of a 1.1 m long arrow with the addition of a gunpowder-filled paper tube attached to the shaft just below the head. Approximately 100 projectiles were loaded and launched in one volley, and had a range of up to 2000 m.  One variant had 5 rows of 10 gun barrels in the launchpad, each of which could fire a bundle of four arrow-like projectiles.  The back side of the hwacha featured two parallel arms that allowed the operator to push and pull the machine, and a vertical strip designed for in-line attacks or stand ground-sentry positions.  The wagon-like wheels were usually fastened by wood pivots and iron axles. In order to reduce friction between the wheels and the axles, tar oil was used.  Hwachas were usually made of pine wood, although there are some versions made of oak. The ropes used were usually made of hemp.  The Korean army included siege engineers and blacksmiths in order to make repairs to the hwacha in case of damage due to poor road conditions, bad weather, or battle.

Projectiles.

Unlike the cannons or mortars used in Western warfare during Middle Ages and the 16th century, which required heavy iron balls, hwachas fired arrows which were thin and light, making it an easy-to-maneuver siege weapon.  The holes in the hwacha's launching array ranged in diameter from 2.5 to 4 cm, which allowed thin Gungdo bow-like arrows to be fired and also admitted "sajeonchongtong" class igniters placed in the back side of the shooting board.  Singijeon-class projectiles were small arrows designed by Korean siege engineers specifically to be used in hwachas. Called "so" (소), or "small", they possessed a pouch of black powder attached in the bottom near to the fletching section. Besides the singijeon-class projectiles, hwacha could also fire 100 steel-tipped rockets.  Because of the large numbers of arrows fired from hwachas and the widespread damage of its attack, a dense formation presented an ideal target for hwachas.

Ballistics and range.

The trajectory of the "so" projectiles was fairly flat and – like other spinning projectiles – affected by the Magnus effect. Operators used to fire the weapon at an elevation of nearly 45° to maximise range. Adverse weather conditions (wind, humidity, rain) during a battle generally limited their striking distance to about 100 m.  Hwachas' range could be extended if the siege weapon was situated on a hill or other elevated place. Singijeon arrows from that position had a range of about 500 yards (≈450 meters).  A 15th-century account from the Annals of Joseon Dynasty tells us of an experiment in which the singijeon fired from a hwacha completely pierced a scarecrow armed with a suit of armour and shield, at the range of 80 paces (about 100 m).

Usage.

Hwachas were mostly used in a defensive manner; however, some Western and East Asian historians have concluded that in some cases they were used offensively in sea-to-land attacks and in naval warfare as well, particularly in the Battle of Noryang Point, during the Imjin wars in 1598.  Hwachas were usually carried to battle highly escorted. Once the army settled down in trenches or base camps, the operators would disassemble the siege weapon by placing the launching array on the top. Hwachas were similar to European trebuchets to transport, and required assembling before usage. All the pieces featured similar characteristics and the mobile launching array could be unpacked and easily placed on the wood frame on the top of cart.  Once a hwacha was set up for combat, the operators would use the gunpowder stored in a boot-like bag tied on each igniter to be used for each hole on the machine. After that, the operators were able to load the hwacha with arrows or iron spikes and be ready to shoot. To do so, they stepped back, covered their ears, and pulled the rope for each igniter.  At sea, manoeuvres were slightly different and more complex because the operator would need to find a proper and stable place to fire. Some Hwacha operators preferred to be on the rowers' deck where they were able to shoot from the windows, while others preferred to be on the main deck so they could shoot at the sails of the enemy ships. These kind of manoeuvres were particularly seen on Korean Panokseon warships.

The term hwacha or hwach'a (화차; 火車) (fire cart) referred to a multiple rocket launcher and an organ gun of similar design which were developed in fifteenth century Korea. The former variant fired one or two hundred rocket-powered arrows while the latter fired several dozen iron-headed arrows or bolts out of gun barrels. The term was used to refer to other war wagons or other cart-based artillery in later periods, such as that developed by Byeon Yijung in the 1590s.

Eine Hwacha oder Hwach'a war eine Antipersonen- und Schwarzpulverwaffe, die im 15. Jahrhundert in Korea entwickelt und auch dort eingesetzt wurde. Sie bestand aus einem Karren, auf dem eine Startrampe für kleine Raketen montiert war. Auf den Raketen wurden Projektile montiert, die bei Detonation scharfe Eisenstücke verstreuten. Zusammen mit dem Schildkrötenschiff soll diese technologische Errungenschaft laut einiger Historiker entscheidend zum Sieg Koreas über Japan im Imjin-Krieg zwischen 1592 und 1598 beigetragen haben.


Youth and collegiate career.

Nagurski was born in Rainy River, Ontario, Canada, in a family of Ukrainian and Polish descent. His family moved to International Falls, Minnesota, when he was five years old. His parents, "Mike" and Michelina Nagurski, were immigrants, from the Western Ukraine of Kresy where many ethnicities lived together (Galicia). Nagurski grew up working on his parents' farm and sawmill, delivering groceries for his father's grocery store and in his teens laboring at nearby timbering operations, growing into a powerfully muscular six-footer.  Nagurski was discovered and signed by University of Minnesota head coach Clarence Spears, who drove to International Falls to meet another player. On the outside of town, he watched Nagurski out plowing a field without assistance. According to legend, Spears asked directions and Bronko lifted his plow and used it to point. He was signed on the spot to play for the Golden Gophers. Spears admitted he concocted the story on his long drive back to the university in Minneapolis.  Legends aside, on his first day of practice Spears decided to test Nagurski in the "Nutcracker" drill, where a defensive player had to take on two blockers and try to tackle a following ball carrier. On the first drill two All-Big Ten linemen and Herb Joesting charged at Bronko, who promptly split the blockers and drove the big fullback into a blocking dummy. Spears sent in three more players, blew his whistle and watched Bronko produce the same explosive results and after a third try with the same conclusion realized what a super player he had recruited.  Nagurski became a standout playing both tackle on defense and fullback on offense at Minnesota from 1927 to 1929. In 1929, after posting 737 rushing yards, he was a consensus All-American at fullback, and despite playing fewer games at the position also made some All-American teams at tackle. The pre-eminent sportswriter of the day, Grantland Rice, listed him at the two positions in picking his 1929 All-America team. Rice later wrote, "Who would you pick to win a football game - 11 Jim Thorpes - 11 Glen Davises - 11 Red Granges - or 11 Bronko Nagurskis? The 11 Nagurskis would be a mop-up. It would be something close to murder and massacre. For the Bronk could star at any position on the field, with of authority to back him up."  His greatest collegiate game was against Wisconsin in the season finale in 1928. Wearing a corset to protect cracked vertebrae, he recovered a Badger fumble deep in their territory, then ran the ball six straight times to score the go-ahead touchdown. Later in the same game, he intercepted a pass to seal the victory.  During his three varsity seasons at Minnesota, the Gophers went and won the Big Ten Conference championship in 1927. Nagurski was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1951.  While at the University of Minnesota, Nagurski was a member of Sigma Chi fraternity, at the same time as another All-American, Herb Joesting.

Professional career.

Football.

Nagurski turned professional to play for the Chicago Bears from 1930 to 1937. At and, he was a formidable presence, and in his day he was a dominant force, helping the Bears win several division titles and two NFL championships. He ended his eight-year stint with 3,947 rushing yards on 856 attempts, completed 36 of 80 passes, and scored a total of 236 points.  Nagurski had the largest recorded NFL Championship ring size at and wore a size-8 helmet. He was probably the largest running back of his time, bigger than most linemen of the day, often dragging multiple tacklers with him. In a time when players were expected to play on both sides of the ball, he was a standout defensive lineman as well playing a ranging tackle or "The Monster." After an injury, instead of sitting on the bench, he would sometimes be put in as an offensive tackle. In a 1984 interview with "Sports Illustrated" writer Paul "Dr. Z" Zimmerman, when asked what position he would play if he were coming up in the present day, he said, "I would probably be a linebacker today. I wouldn't be carrying the ball 30 or 35 times a game."  A time-honored and perhaps apocryphal story about Nagurski is a scoring gallop that he made against the Washington Redskins, knocking two linebackers in opposite directions, stomping a defensive back and crushing a safety, then bouncing off the goalposts and cracking Wrigley Field's brick wall. On returning to the huddle for the extra point try, he reportedly said: "That last guy hit me awfully hard."  Once in a game against the Packers, the Bears prepared to punt, and Green Bay's Cal Hubbard went to Red Grange and said: "I promise not to try to block the kick, Red, but get out of the way so I can get a shot at that Polack." Grange, glad not to try to block Hubbard for once, obliged. Cal tore through the line, slammed into Nagurski and bounced off. Rising slowly, he turned to Grange and said: "Hey, Red, don't do me any more favors."  At the end of the 1932 season, the Chicago Bears and the Portsmouth Spartans were tied with the best regular-season records. To determine the champion, the league voted to hold its first playoff game. Because of cold weather, the game was held indoors at Chicago Stadium, which forced some temporary rule changes. Chicago won, 9–0. In the fourth quarter of the 1932 game, the Bears scored on a controversial touchdown: Carl Brumbaugh handed the ball off to fullback Nagurski, who pulled up and threw to Red Grange in the end zone for the score. The Spartans argued that Nagurski did not drop back five yards before passing to Grange, but the touchdown stood. The playoff proved so popular that the league reorganized into two divisions for the 1933 season, with the winners advancing to a scheduled championship game. A number of new rule changes were also instituted: the goal posts were moved forward to the goal line, every play started from between the hash marks, and forward passes could originate from anywhere behind the line of scrimmage (instead of the previous five yards behind).  In 1943, with the Bears losing so many players to World War II, Nagurski came out of retirement to play tackle. He remained at the position until he returned to fullback against the Chicago Cardinals, whom the Bears needed to defeat to advance to the 1943 NFL Championship Game; Nagurski scored a touchdown in the game as the Bears won 35–24. Chicago went on to win the 1943 title after beating the Washington Redskins 41–21, while Nagurski scored on a three-yard touchdown run in the second quarter.  He retired again after the 1943 season and became the backfield coach for the UCLA Bruins. After one year, he resigned from his position with the Bruins to return to farming. Two years later he returned to football for a brief time as general manager of the Sylvan Park Dead Cherokees, a semi-pro team in Tennessee.

Wrestling.

During his football career, he built a second athletic career as a professional wrestler and became a major box-office attraction. Tony Stecher, brother of former world champion Joe Stecher, introduced Nagurski to wrestling in 1933 and became his manager. Nagurski defeated Tag Tagerson in his ring debut. Hitting his peak in the late 1930s, Nagurski won a limited version of the world championship by defeating Dean Detton on June 29, 1937. But he finally achieved full recognition with his first National Wrestling Association world title by defeating Lou Thesz on June 23, 1939. Losing the title to Ray Steele on March 7, 1940, he regained it from Steele one year later on March 11, 1941, but lost it three months later to Sandor Szabo on June 5, 1941. Nagurski continued to wrestle until 1960.

Personal life.

Nagurski married his childhood sweetheart Eileen Kane on December 28, 1936. The couple had six children: sons Bronko Jr., Tony, Ronald and Kevin, and daughters Genie and Janice. Bronko Jr. was born on Christmas Day 1937, played football at the University of Notre Dame, and became an all-star with the Hamilton Tiger-Cats of the Canadian Football League.

Later life and legacy.

Later life.

After Nagurski's retirement from wrestling, he returned home to International Falls and opened a service station. A local legend claims that Nagurski had the best repeat business in town because he would screw customers' gas caps on so tightly after filling their tanks that no one else in town could unscrew them. He retired from that in 1978, at the age of seventy, and lived out a quiet life on the shores of Rainy Lake on the Canada–U.S. border.  In January 1984, Nagurski performed the coin toss at Super Bowl XVIII in Tampa, Florida, with Washington Redskins quarterback and co-captain Joe Theismann calling the toss on behalf of his team's co-captains and the captains of the opposing Los Angeles Raiders.  On January 7, 1990, Nagurski died of cardiac arrest in International Falls, Minnesota, and is buried at its Forest Hill Cemetery.

Legacy.

Nagurski was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame as a charter member on September 7, 1963. At the University of Minnesota-Twin Cities house of his fraternity, Sigma Chi, Nagurski's jersey and Significant Sig recognition certificate are on display. After his death, the town of International Falls honored him by opening the Bronko Nagurski Museum in Smokey Bear Park.  "Sports Illustrated" named Nagurski one of the four greatest athletes in Minnesota state history; the other three were Dave Winfield, Kevin McHale, and Joe Mauer. In 1993, the Football Writers Association of America created the Bronko Nagurski Trophy, awarded annually to the best defensive player in college football. Notable winners include Warren Sapp, Charles Woodson, Terrell Suggs, Champ Bailey and Derrick Johnson. In 1999 Nagurski was selected by "Sports Illustrated" as a starting defensive tackle for their "NCAA Football All-Century Team". The other starting defensive tackle on that list was Rich Glover. In 2007, Nagurski was ranked No. 17 on ESPN's Top 25 Players In College Football History list.  In 1999, he was ranked No. 35 on "The Sporting News"' list of the 100 Greatest Football Players, the highest-ranking foreign-born player. In 2000, he was voted the second-greatest Minnesotan sportsman of the 20th century by the sportswriters of the "Star Tribune", coming in behind only Minnesota Twins Hall of Famer Kirby Puckett.  A fictionalized eyewitness account of Nagurski's 1943 comeback is the subject of a dramatic monologue in the 2001 film version of "Hearts in Atlantis." The film's screenwriter, William Goldman, repeated much of this rendition from his earlier account of the same story in his novel "Magic."  In 2009, Nagurski was an honorary team captain, represented by his son, Bronko Nagurski Jr., at the opening game of TCF Bank Stadium. His home town International Falls high school nickname is the Broncos in his honor.

Bronislau "Bronko" Nagurski (November 3, 1908 – January 7, 1990) was a Canadian-American professional American football player in the National Football League (NFL), renowned for his strength and size. Nagurski was also a successful professional wrestler, recognized as a multiple-time World Heavyweight Champion.

Bronko Nagurski (* 3. November 1908 in Rainy River, Ontario, Kanada; † 7. Januar 1990 in International Falls, Minnesota, USA; eigentlich "Bronislau Nagurski"), Spitzname: ""Monster of the Midway"", war ein kanadischer American-Football-Spieler. Er gilt als einer der besten Spieler in der Geschichte der National Football League (NFL).


Plot.

At a bus stop in a rough part of town, a carrot-eating drifter named Smith sees a pregnant woman on the verge of giving birth while fleeing a hitman. Following them into a warehouse, Smith kills the hitman by stabbing him in the face with a carrot and retrieves the woman's pistol. As more thugs arrive the woman goes into labor, and Smith delivers her baby boy during a shootout. Pursued by head assassin Hertz, the woman is shot dead; Smith narrowly escapes with the newborn.  Leaving the baby in a park, Smith hopes someone will adopt the child but a passing woman is killed with a shot from Hertz's sniper rifle. Realizing that Hertz is trying to kill the baby, Smith saves him and tries unsuccessfully to leave him with a prostitute named Donna Quintano. Hertz soon arrives at the brothel and tortures Donna for information; Smith returns and kills Hertz's henchmen. After a brief confrontation, Smith shoots Hertz and leaves with Donna and the baby. Having secretly worn a bulletproof vest, however, Hertz is alive albeit wounded.  Taking Donna to his hideout, Smith realizes that the baby (whom he names Oliver) stops crying when he hears heavy-metal music; he concludes that Oliver's mother lived near a heavy-metal club. Pursued by Hertz, Smith shoots his way out of the hideout and he and Donna head to a nearby club. Above the club they discover an apartment with medical equipment and two dead, pregnant women; Smith concludes that the women were all impregnated with one man's sperm in order to give birth to matching bone marrow donors.  While they are having sex in a motel room, Smith and Donna are attacked by masked men; Smith notices that his assailants' weapons are Hammerson models, unavailable to the public. He brings Donna and Oliver to a war museum and hides them in a M24 Chaffee tank for safekeeping. Smith infiltrates the Hammerson factory, and hears Hertz and Hammerson saying that they do not want the next president to repeal the right to bear arms. He also notices that Hammerson owns a German Shepherd dog named Duchess. Smith booby-traps the facility with an array of firearms, allowing him to kill the thugs and escape.  Smith sees an article about Senator Rutledge, a Democratic presidential candidate who favors stricter gun laws. He deduces that Rutledge has cancer and requires a bone-marrow transplant, which is why he had surrogates impregnated with his sperm (and why Hertz and Hammerson want Oliver dead). If the infants die, the senator would not receive a transplant and would be unable to run for president. Smith tells Donna to leave town and contacts one of Rutledge's henchmen to request an appointment.  Meeting on an airplane, the senator confirms Smith's suspicions and Smith notices dog hair on Rutledge's trousers. Deducing that the hair belongs to Duchess and that the senator made a deal with Hammerson, Smith takes Rutledge hostage. Hertz appears and reveals that he agreed to help Rutledge find a bone-marrow donor, on the condition that Rutledge protects Hertz's constitutional right to bear arms when elected president. Smith kills the senator, whose assassination he explains "will cause public outrage and trigger immense support" for his gun control proposals. Smith parachutes from the airplane and kills several pursuing henchmen, but is himself shot and collapses after he lands. He awakens in Hammerson's mansion; Hertz tortures him, breaking his fingers in an attempt to learn where Smith sent Donna and Oliver. As Hertz prepares to cut Smith's eyes, Smith breaks free and kills Hammerson and several thugs. Cornered and struggling to use his gun, Smith places live bullets between his broken fingers and detonates them with a fireplace, critically wounding Hertz. As they grab pistols and struggle, Smith fires first and kills Hertz.  Smith boards a bus with Duchess, and stops at an ice-cream parlor where Donna works as a waitress while watching Oliver. Surprised to see each other alive, he and Donna kiss passionately. A group of amateur armed robbers suddenly enters the parlor; his hands in bandages, Smith shoots them by using a carrot to pull the trigger.

Cast.

The protagonist, known only as Smith, is an homage to the Man with No Name of Sergio Leone's Spaghetti Westerns. Smith's misanthropy derived from writer-director Michael Davis's frustration when his 1989 script about Alfred Kinsey failed to materialize as a feature film. His research about Kinsey and human sexuality in general inspired the character of Donna Quintano, a prostitute and Smith's eventual love interest. Hertz, a former FBI profiler who lives a double life as an assassin and a family patriarch, pursues Smith. According to co-producer Susan Montford, the antagonist was modeled after the BTK Killer. Hertz's feud with Smith has been compared to that of Bugs Bunny and Elmer Fudd in "Looney Tunes" because Smith (like Bugs) spends considerable time eating carrots in the film. Davis acknowledged that the "Looney Tunes" reference was deliberate.

Production.

Davis had wanted to make an action film which focused on guns and was devoid of explosions. He conceived the film after seeing a scene from John Woo's critically acclaimed action film "Hard Boiled" (1992), in which star Chow Yun-fat rescues newborn babies from gangsters while engaged in a gunfight. Davis felt that the scene could be expanded into a feature-length film, a "gun-like" version of "Run Lola Run" (1998). By 2000, Davis had begun writing the screenplay; when the script was finished, however, studios refused to get it made after the Columbine High School massacre happened, causing him to shelve the project and return to making low-budget independent films.  During his subsequent years as an independent filmmaker, Davis started putting together an animatic of the script's action scenes using a Wacom tablet and the iMovie app. The animatic, which he made originally as a hobby, became his pitch animation in finding a producer for the project. He sent the script to Don Murphy, a producer he went to film school with at the USC School of Cinematic Arts, and Murphy as well as co-producers Susan Montford and Rick Benattar enjoyed it. Murphy, Montford and Benattar also saw the film's potential as a big-budget production, so they sent the animatic to major film studio New Line Cinema. New Line executives Jeff Katz and Cale Boyter liked it and they passed it on to Toby Emmerich, who greenlit the project at the behest of New Line founder Bob Shaye.  Davis's first choice to play Smith was Clive Owen, who signed as the lead because the script impressed him. The role of Donna went to Monica Bellucci, who liked the script and the character: an independent woman who "does dangerous, dark dirty things in a playful way". The multilingual Bellucci dubbed herself in the film's French and Italian versions. Davis cast Paul Giamatti, who usually played "nice guy" roles, against type to avoid the stereotype of a physically imposing villain, and because he believed Giamatti could deliver the duality of the role.  "Shoot 'Em Up" was produced on a budget of $39 million. Principal photography took place in Toronto and lasted fifty-five days, with Hong Kong's Peter Pau serving as cinematographer. Before filming, Owen and Giamatti were trained in firearms. Although he found the stunts physically demanding, Owen resolved to perform most of them himself. In the skydiving scene, he was aided by a Cirque du Soleil safety harness. Eighty firearms were used during production, and $70,000 of the film's budget was allocated for 6,000 squibs.

Music.

The score for "Shoot 'Em Up" was composed by Paul Haslinger and recorded at NRG Recording Studios in North Hollywood, California. It was released on CD and as a digital download on August 28, 2007, by Varèse Sarabande. A soundtrack album of nu metal and rock songs by various artists was made available on February 12, 2008.

Marketing.

In July 2007, "Shoot 'Em Up" was publicized with a guerrilla marketing campaign by the London-based agency New Media Maze. The campaign included a viral video and a website selling bogus items ranging from bulletproof strollers to riot helmets for infants. A video was released on YouTube in which the company claimed to test the bulletproof stroller by shooting at it with a submachine gun while a baby was in it. The baby was then removed from the stroller unharmed. The hoax campaign was taken seriously by global media and the blogging community; "Aftonbladet", Sweden's largest evening tabloid, carried the story on its online edition for some time.  In November 2007, two ads that showed Owen and Giamatti holding guns were banned in the United Kingdom by the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) on the grounds that they had "glamorized and glorified gun crime" and "were offensive and insensitive toward families directly affected by gun crime". At the time of the ruling, it was also reported that gun violence in the UK was on the rise.

Release.

Although "Variety" reported a planned release during the 2006 holiday season, "Shoot 'Em Up" was previewed in September of that year. The film was released in American theaters on September 7, 2007. It was released on the same day in Canada, opening on 235 screens against "". Audience response to a screening at the 2007 San Diego Comic-Con was positive.  "Shoot 'Em Up" opened in fourth place on its first weekend, earning $5,716,139 at 2,108 locations. Overall, the film grossed $12,807,139 over six weeks in North American theaters and $26,820,641 worldwide. It was regarded as a box-office failure, recouping less than its budget.  The film's DVD and Blu-ray versions were released in January 2008 by New Line Home Entertainment with a behind-the-scenes featurette titled "Ballet of Bullets", 17 minutes of animatics and audio commentary from director Michael Davis, trailers and deleted scenes. New Line released another DVD and Blu-ray of the film in a two-disc version in August 2011.

Critical reception.

Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 67%, with an average rating of 6.15 out of 10, based on reviews from 161 critics. The website's "Critics Consensus" for the film reads, "As preposterous and over-the-top as "Shoot 'Em Up" may be, its humor and non-stop action make for a very enjoyable film." Metacritic reported that the film received "Mixed or average reviews", with an overall weighted average of 49 out of 100, based on 23 critics. Audiences polled by CinemaScore during its opening weekend gave the film an average grade of "B−" on a scale ranging from A+ to F.  Peter Travers, who scored the film 3 out of 4 stars for "Rolling Stone", called it "eighty-two minutes of hardcore pow. [...] You'll be exhilarated – also exhausted." Roger Ebert for the "Chicago Sun-Times" scored the film 3 out of 4 stars, comparing it favorably with "Sin City" as "the most audacious, implausible, cheerfully offensive, hyperactive action picture [he had] seen". Frank Scheck in "The Hollywood Reporter" called the film a "ramped-up action movie on steroids" that "makes "Hard Boiled" look restrained". Ebert extended his praise toward the film's acting, calling Owen's character sympathetic and Giamatti's "surprisingly, teeth-gnashingly evil". Scheck said Owen played his character "like a low-rent James Bond", and was delighted to see Giamatti cast against his usual "nerdy" on-screen persona.  Conversely, a scathing review from "The New York Times" A. O. Scott called the film "a worthless piece of garbage" and said that it was one of several "witless, soulless, heartless movies that mistake noise for bravura and tastelessness for wit". Stephen Hunter in the "Washington Post" said the film "is just gunfights strung together, without a whisper of coherence or meaning. The fights are staged so that they all look the same, and the principle is always the same: The gunman's multiple antagonists never hit, and he never misses." Web-based critic James Berardinelli gave the film a mixed review, saying that while it delivered gunfights as advertised, he complained that it "pretty much consists of shoot-outs and chases overtaking each other like waves rolling onto a beach, each more over-the-top than its predecessor". Berardinelli scored the film 2 out of 4 stars, writing that he "like[d] the audacity and its willingness to push the envelope beyond the limits of good taste. In the end, it's a little too long and uneven to recommend outright, but [he] won't deny having enjoyed aspects of what Davis is offering."  In 2016, "Shoot 'Em Up" made the list of "25 great action films that are 90 minutes or under" compiled by Nick Horton of Den of Geek. Rotten Tomatoes ranked "Shoot 'Em Up" at 111 on its list of the "140 Essential Actions Movies To Watch".

Shoot 'Em Up is a 2007 American action film written and directed by Michael Davis. It stars Clive Owen, Paul Giamatti, Monica Bellucci, and Stephen McHattie. The film follows Smith (Owen), a drifter who rescues a newborn from being killed by assassin Hertz (Giamatti) and his henchmen. Smith flees from the gang, enlisting the help of prostitute Donna Quintano (Bellucci) to keep the baby safe as he unravels the conspiracy.

Shoot ’Em Up ist ein US-amerikanischer Actionfilm aus dem Jahr 2007. Regie führte Michael Davis, der auch das Drehbuch schrieb. Der englische Filmtitel bedeutet in Anlehnung an das Computerspiel-Genre Shoot ’em up wörtlich übersetzt „Zerschieß sie“.


Early years.

Tunnell was born in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania, though sources conflict as to his year of birth. His tombstone as well as the Social Security Death Index and Tunnell's Department of Veterans Affairs BIRLS Death File reflect a birth date of March 29, 1924. Official NFL records and multiple sources in the early 1960s reported his date of birth as March 29, 1922. Tunnell listed his birth date as March 29, 1923, on his 1942 draft card and on his 1950 application for World War II benefits. Other sources record his birth year as 1925. In 1961, Tunnell joked about his age: "I'm not really 41, as everyone says. I'm closer to 42."  Tunnell grew up in the Garrett Hill neighborhood of Radnor Township, approximately eight miles northwest of Philadelphia. His parents were divorced when Tunnell was young, and he and three siblings were raised by his mother, Catherine, who worked as a housekeeper in the homes of wealthy families in the Philadelphia Main Line area. His sister, Vivian, recalled Garrett Hill as a multi-ethnic neighborhood where "everybody mingled", and her brother "learned from his environment – be yourself, but adapt to others who might be different in the group."  Tunnell attended Radnor High School where he was a star halfback in 1940 and 1941.  Tunnell was included in the inaugural class of inductees to the Radnor High School Hall of Fame in 2003.

College and military service.

Toledo.

Tunnell enrolled at the University of Toledo in the fall of 1942 and played college football as a halfback for Toledo Rockets football team. He was described as the "main spring" of Toledo's offense in the first part of the 1942 season. However, on October 26, 1942, he sustained a broken neck in a game when he was blocked while attempting to make a tackle against Marshall. He recuperated sufficiently to help lead the Toledo Rockets men's basketball team to the finals of the 1943 National Invitation Tournament.

Coast Guard.

Tunnell's neck injury in 1942 resulted in his being rejected in efforts to enlist in both the United States Army and Navy during World War II. In May 1943, Tunnell enlisted in the United States Coast Guard. From August 1943 to July 1944, he served on the USS "Etamin", a cargo ship that was manned by Coast Guard personnel and stationed in the South West Pacific Area. In April 1944, while unloading explosives and gasoline at Aitape in Papua New Guinea, the "Etamin" was struck by a torpedo dropped from a Japanese airplane; Tunnell saved a fellow crew member who was set afire in the blast, beat out the flames with his hands, sustained burns to his own hands, and carried the shipmate to safety. He was next stationed at San Francisco and Alameda from August 1944 to October 1945.  In the fall of 1944, Tunnell played at the halfback position for the San Francisco Coast Guard Pilots football team. On November 11, 1944, he led the Pilots to a 13–0 victory over Amos Alonzo Stagg's Pacific Tigers football team, throwing 22 yards for a touchdowns and returning an interception 75 yards for another touchdown. At the end of the 1944 season, he was named to the All-Pacific Coast service football team. He also played basketball for the San Francisco Coast Guard, scoring 13 points in a December 1944 game against the California Golden Bears.  In March 1946, while stationed at Naval Station Argentia in Newfoundland, Tunnell rescued a shipmate who fell from the USS "Tampa". Tunnell jumped into the 32-degree water and saved his drowning shipmate. In 2011, Tunnell was posthumously awarded the Silver Lifesaving Medal for his heroism in rescuing his shipmates on the "Etamin" and "Tampa".  On December 12, 2017, the Coast Guard announced that it planned to name its 45th Sentinel class cutter the USCGC "Emlen Tunnell".

Iowa.

Tunnell was discharged from the Coast Guard in April 1946. He enrolled at the University of Iowa in the fall of 1946. Playing for the 1946 Iowa football team, Tunnell led the team with 541 yards of total offense and 28 pass completions and ranked second on the team with 333 rushing yards.  On October 11, 1947, he set an Iowa single-game record with 155 receiving yards and three touchdowns on six receptions. Three weeks later, Tunnell quit the team after an argument with backfield coach Frank Carideo. He apologized and was reinstated two days later, but he played "sparingly" in the final two games of the 1947 season.  Tunnell left Iowa in January 1948 in order to make some money to enable him to return and play football in the fall. He was told by school officials that, in order to be eligible to play football again in the fall, he would need to return for summer school and make up for a class he failed in the fall. Tunnell later explained: "I got a telegram on Sunday saying I had to be back in school on Monday and didn't have any money or nothing."

Professional football player.

New York Giants.

On July 24, 1948, Tunnell signed with the New York Giants. He was the first African American signed by, and the first to play for, the Giants. He later wrote that he hitchhiked from his family home in Garrett Hill to New York City to meet Jack Mara, son of Giants founder Tim Mara, and ask for a try out. In his Hall of Fame induction speech, Tunnell thanked a West Indian banana-truck driver who dropped him off near this Polo Grounds "appointment".  As a rookie in 1948, Tunnell appeared in 10 games and intercepted seven passes, including one returned 43 yards for a touchdown. Between 1949 and 1952, he was known as one of the best pass defenders and punt returners in the NFL. He was a key element in the Giants' famed "umbrella defense" that shut down the passing game of opponents in the early 1950s, and he was referred to as the Giants' "offense on defense". His accomplishments during those prime years include the following:  Tunnell remained with the Giants for a total of 11 years from 1948 to 1958. During that time, he was selected as a first-team All-Pro six times, played in eight Pro Bowls, and set franchise records that still stand with 74 intercepted passes for 1,240 interception return yards and four touchdowns (tied with Dick Lynch and Jason Sehorn). He also recovered 15 fumbles and still holds franchise records with 257 punt returns for 2,206 yards and five touchdowns, which was good for an average of 8.6 yards per return. His total of 3,421 return yards is also a franchise record.

Green Bay Packers.

After the 1958 season, the Giants' offensive coordinator Vince Lombardi left New York to become head coach and general manager of the Green Bay Packers. In June 1959, the Packers, in one of their first major personnel moves under Lombardi, purchased Tunnell from the Giants. In three years with the Packers, Tunnell saw reduced playing time, but helped to bolster the defense with his experience, worked to develop the team's young players, and became known as "an unofficial pastor" for the team. He appeared in 13 games for the 1961 Packers team that won the NFL championship. He saw playing time in red zone defensive situations. Defensive backs coach Norb Hecker said of Tunnell: "He was still a vicious tackler. When the opposition got inside our 15, we put him in and he responded with the fury of a linebacker. He could fall back on experience and by watching an offensive player's move was seldom beat."

Career accomplishments and honors.

In March 1962, Tunnell announced his retirement as a player. At that time, he held several NFL records, including the following:  During his 14-year NFL career, Tunnell also totaled 16 fumble recoveries, 8.6 yards per punt return, and 1,215 yards on 46 kickoff returns (26.4 yards per return).  Tunnell has received numerous honors for his contributions to the sport, including the following:  On June 2, 2018, a statue of Tunnell was installed in Delaware County, Pennsylvania.

Coaching and family.

Tunnell was married in 1962 to Patricia Dawkins. They had no children.  In the fall of 1962, Tunnell worked as a scout for the Giants and Packers, observing college players on Saturdays and watching the Giants' upcoming opponents on Sundays. In May 1963, he was hired by the Giants as a special assistant coach under head coach Allie Sherman. In addition to his scouting duties, he was responsible for "special assignments" during the Giants' training camp.  In February 1965, Tunnell was promoted to assistant coach responsible for the Giants' defensive backs. While some sources credit Tunnell as the first African American to work as an assistant coach in the NFL, and even as the first black coach in the NFL, Fritz Pollard was a head coach in the NFL in the 1920s, and Lowell Perry was an assistant coach for the Pittsburgh Steelers in 1957.  Tunnell suffered a minor heart attack in October 1974 and thereafter assumed a new position as the Giants' assistant personnel director. In July 1975, Tunnell died from a heart attack during a Giants practice session at Pace University in Pleasantville, New York. He was buried at Gulph United Church of Christ Cemetery in West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania.

Emlen Lewis Tunnell (March 29, 1924 – July 23, 1975), sometimes known by the nickname "The Gremlin", was an American professional football player and coach. He was the first African American to play for the New York Giants and also the first to be inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame.

Emlen Lewis Tunnell (* 29. März 1925 in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania; † 22. Juli 1975 in Pleasantville, NY) war ein US-amerikanischer American-Football-Spieler. Er spielte unter anderem Defensive Back bei den New York Giants und den Green Bay Packers in der National Football League (NFL).


History.

The event was first held in 2004, added as part of the 2004 NASCAR Realignment, and was partially featured in the film, "". From its inception until 2008 the race was run on Labor Day weekend, which was previously the traditional date of the Southern 500 at Darlington, and in the Inland Empire in the 1970s, the former California 500 United States Auto Club Marlboro Championship Trail race. The 2005 race was famous for Kyle Busch becoming the youngest NASCAR Sprint Cup Series winner ever (then known as the Nextel Cup Series).  As part of the 2009 realignment in NASCAR Auto Club Speedway, Talladega Superspeedway, and Atlanta Motor Speedway agreed to switch dates, with the Atlanta race moving from its traditional fall date to Labor Day weekend and becoming known as the Labor Day Classic 500. The realignment returned the Labor Day weekend race to the southern United States and gave California its first late season race since the final running of the Winston Western 500 at Riverside International Raceway in 1987. The AMP Energy 500 at Talladega moved into the race date vacated by Atlanta, with the Pepsi 500 moving into Talladega's former October date.  The Pepsi 500 name was used in August 2008, with Pepsi taking title sponsorship from Sharp. This announcement was made by the speedway's website, Pepsi has been the official soft drink sponsor of the speedway since 1997, before Auto Club Speedway became part of International Speedway Corporation, owner of several circuits on the NASCAR schedule. This was done despite ISC signing a contract with Coca-Cola to replace Pepsi as the official soft drink sponsor of its racetracks in 2008 (the contract is slowly being phased in).  NASCAR announced on January 13, 2010 that they would be shortened 100 miles. NASCAR then announced that, due largely to poor attendance, the 2010 running of this race would be the last as Auto Club Speedway returned to a single date on the Sprint Cup schedule as that race was exchanged to Kansas Speedway in 2011 marking a 2nd race date on June 5, 2011.

The Pepsi Max 400 was a NASCAR Sprint Cup Series stock car race held annually at the Auto Club Speedway in Fontana, California. It was the second of two Sprint Cup Series races held at the Auto Club Speedway (the other being the Auto Club 500) and in 2009 and 2010 it was run in October as part of the Chase for the Sprint Cup.

Das Pepsi Max 400 ist ein Rennen im NASCAR Sprint Cup. Das Rennen ist noch sehr jung, wurde im Jahre 2004 erstmals ausgetragen und fand seit dem immer auf dem Auto Club Speedway in Fontana, Kalifornien statt. Es findet traditionell am Labor Day-Wochenende statt, was zuvor der Renntermin des Southern 500 war. In der Saison 2010 wird es zum vorerst letztem mal ausgetragen. Während das Rennen bis 2009 über 500 Meilen ging, wurde die Renndistanz der letzten Ausgabe auf 400 Meilen reduziert. Ab 2011 wird stattdessen der Kentucky Speedway zum ersten Mal ein Sprint Cup Rennen veranstalten.


History.

Rozas means clearings in Spanish. Various theories exist, for example: The clearing by Romans for military exercises, the collection of firewood or the creation of farmland. According to some historians Las Rozas could be the old Miacum, the name associated with the city of Madrid, dating from about the third century.  Las Rozas is situated near the river Guadarrama (which flows all year round) and along the ancient road between Segovia and Titulcia (two of the most ancient settlements in the area). The part of this ancient road near Las Rozas is now approximately the A6/M505 route.  During the Spanish civil war it became the site of major battles, a reminder of this time are the concrete forms of bunkers that remain in the Dehesa of Navalcarbón and along the valley of the river Guadarrama.  In the winter of 1936 the pro-Franco troops advanced for the west of Madrid from their bases at Brunete, Villaviciosa de Odón and Campamento. In the middle of a dense fog with freezing temperature, Franco's rebels, supported by the air force, engaged the republican forces in one of the bloodiest battles of the civil War. The inhabitants of Las Rozas took refuge in other places of the nearby Sierra (mountains) such as the caves in Hoyo de Manzanares. These "roceños" (inhabitants of Las Rozas) who fled were nicknamed "cucos", (the sly ones).  When the war was over, the Church of San Miguel and of the 270 houses of the (pre-war) settlement, 92 were severely damaged and only 13 were intact. The "Ministerio de la Gobernación" created the "Dirección General de Regiones Devastadas" for the reconstruction of towns destroyed by the war and Las Rozas was included among them.

Transportation.

Las Rozas can be reached from the Autopista del Noroeste (North-west Freeway) (Freeway that goes from Las Rozas to Adanero(Ávila)), from N-VI National Road from Madrid to A Coruña M-50 (third ring road around Madrid) and M-505 (County Road to El Escorial). This freeway is one of the first in Spain, put on service in early 1967. Then, 22 km from Las Rozas, to Northwest, in Collado Villalba, this freeway, become to Tollway.  There are 7 bus lines that connect the town with Moncloa (Madrid) 621, 624 (Burgo of Las Rozas), 622 (Las Matas), 623 (VillaFranca del Castillo), 626, 628, 629 (new zones like the Business Park, La Dehesa and El Cantizal). There is also another bus line (561) that connects Las Rozas with Aluche (Madrid), passing through Majadahonda and Pozuelo.  Las Rozas has three main train stations: Las Rozas, near the Old Town in the south of the municipality, Las Matas in the North, and El Pinar. The (dark green) Lines 8 + 9 run from Atocha in the south of Madrid and Chamartín in the north of Madrid via El Tejar, El Pinar and Las Matas to end-stations El Escorial, Cercedilla and Cotos Ski station. Line 10 runs also runs from Atocha, but via a long circular route to Principe Pio in the west of Madrid via Las Rozas, Pinar and Las Matas to Villalba. A circular line runs around Madrid serving Las Rozas. El Tejar is merely an occasional interchange halt between lines 8, 9, and 10 (there are no facilities or habitation nearby). A fifth stop, the halt at Los Peñascales (near Las Matas) was suppressed entirely.  There is a project proposal to encourage ecologically sustainable transport, especially of electrical scooters, entitled "Las Rozas: la Capital Verde del Noroeste de Madrid" which suggests either El Pinar or Las Matas should have a park and Ride facility providing access to major retailers in the municipality as well as commuter links to Madrid city. The nearby autovía A-6 is regularly congested at an accident blackspot about "Km 16" (near Majadahonda) some 5 km south of Las Rozas (which is at "Km 22" from Madrid).

Cinema.

During the 1960s, Las Rozas was used as a film set, with one studio that Samuel Bronston built being a luxurious mansion near Las Matas. It was one of the most important film studios in Europe and aimed to be the largest in the world, but commercial failures such as "55 Days at Peking" prevented Las Rozas from becoming a famous film making location. For the filming of "55 Days at Peking" many locals (called "roceños") were employed as extras and as the bricklayers that built the sets decorated them in tribute to the beauty of Ava Gardner. It is believed an artificial river was constructed and filled by tankers.  A road across the Dehesa of Navalcarbón is named in Samuel Bronston's honour. He wished to be buried in Las Rozas, his remains were finally put to rest in the graveyard of Las Rozas.

Culture.

There are many cultural activities mainly based around the Joaquín Rodrigo Auditorium, which includes a school of music and dance, four cultural centres, three libraries and five exhibition facilities.  Listed on the official web-site of the municipality there is: an annual Carnival, Concierts of Sacred Music, Coral Music and Folk Winter Festival as well as The Compositores de España International Piano Competition which has been held here since about 2000.  There are also various themed street-markets, fairs celebrating horsemanship in April, various seafood and tapas exhibitions in the summer and Festibike international cycling event in the autumn.

Sports.

Sporting events have always been very important in Las Rozas and it is the only municipality that won two national sports prizes, in part due to the excellent training facilities available.  Las Rozas has a football team (Las Rozas CF) which competes in the Spanish Tercera División (level four of the Spanish football league system). Additionally the town has a futsal team that was recently relegated to the silver division.  Las Rozas has also a Basketball team which competes in Spanish third level called "LIGA LEB Plata". CB Las Rozas is growing year before year and now have more than 31 teams in their rows. During the 1990s, this team also performed well and narrowly missed out on promotion to the Premier division, today known as Liga ACB.  For the last 15 years Las Rozas has also had a significant Rugby team called A.D Ingenieros Industriales who have competed in the National First Division (the third level in Spanish Rugby). The club uses an artificial pitch in the Cantizal zone. Also playing at the el Cantizal field are the Las Rozas Black Demons, an American Football team competing in the LNFA.  Another noticeable facility in the municipality is the "Ciudad del fútbol de la Real Federación Española de Fútbol" (Royal Spanish Football Federation's Football City), build on lands donated by the Town Council. On two occasions the TSJM has failed to secure the return of these municipal plots.  Other popular sports are the Toad in the hole, Hammer throw, Calva, a sort of Horseshoes and chito, a pastime in which a diskus is aimed at a target upon which a coin is balanced.  Democratically elected Mayors (since the Spanish Constitution of 1978

Demographics.

Fuente: Instituto de estadítica de la Comunidad de Madrid The first column is the value of the data in the municipality, the second is of the Metropolitan Western zone, the third is that of the community and the last one the year.

Las Rozas de Madrid (or simply, Las Rozas; ) is one of the largest townships and municipalities in the autonomous community of Madrid, Spain, with an area of between 58.8 and 59.14 km2. It is located some 17 – 20 km northwest of the city of Madrid itself, on the A-6 freeway to A Coruña. Las Rozas is the beginning of this freeway, near the fork road M-505 to El Escorial, which marks the southern boundary of this 'comarca' or rural district (although it is no longer rural).

Las Rozas ist eine der flächenmäßig größten Gemeinden der Autonomen Gemeinschaft Madrid und liegt etwa 18 km von Madrid entfernt im Nordwesten der Stadt. Seit 1991 hat sich die Einwohnerzahl von 35.000 auf am mehr als verdoppelt.


History.

Savanna-la-Mar was originally established as a settlement in Spanish Jamaica.  In 1780, the town was completely destroyed by a powerful hurricane known as Savanna-la-Mar hurricane. It was rebuilt, as the port was an important part of the Atlantic trade in sugar, slaves and other goods.  After Great Britain abolished slavery in 1833 and before the abolition of slavery in the United States in 1865, its officials in the Caribbean colonies at times ordered the examination of slaves on American ships that happened to come to its Caribbean ports, to see if they wanted to stay in the colony and gain freedom, or return with the ship to the United States and slavery. In the cases of the "Enterprise" at Bermuda in 1835 and the "Creole" at Nassau in 1841–1842, a total of more than 200 slaves gained freedom.  In at least one case, residents intervened to help others gain freedom. On 20 July 1855, Jamaicans boarded the United States brig "Young America," which had put into Savann-la-Mar. They had learned that the cook, a man named Anderson (alias Nettles), was a fugitive slave, and took him to shore, where he gained freedom. (He had boarded the ship with free papers in the name of Nettles.) The Jamaican magistrates did not interfere. The United States consul, R. Monroe Harrison (1768–1858), complained to the British colonial government about the incident. He also published a letter in "The New York Times" a few days later warning shipmasters against having blacks as part of their crew on ships putting into Jamaica, at the risk of losing them.

Savanna-la-Mar (commonly known as Sav-la-Mar, or simply Sav) is the chief town and capital of Westmoreland Parish, Jamaica. A coastal town, it contains an 18th-century fort constructed for colonial defence against pirates in the Caribbean.

Savanna-la-Mar (auch Sav-la-Mar genannt) ist eine Hafenstadt an der Südwestküste Jamaikas. Sie ist Hauptstadt und Verwaltungssitz des Parish Westmoreland Parish, im County Cornwall. Bei der Volkszählung 1991 lebten hier 16.553 Menschen, für 2010 wird die Zahl der Einwohner auf 19.523 geschätzt.