Background.

Emma Sulkowicz attended Dalton School on the Upper East Side, and in 2011 began a visual arts degree at Columbia University. Sulkowicz alleges that she was slapped, choked, and anally raped by Nungesser in Sulkowicz's dorm room, on the first day of her second year in August 2012, during what began as a consensual sexual encounter. Nungesser denies the allegation, insisting that the encounter was entirely consensual. In April 2013, 8 months after the encounter, Sulkowicz filed a complaint with the university. Sulkowicz says she filed a complaint after encountering two female students who said they had also been victimized by Nungesser. One was a former girlfriend who said she was emotionally abused during their long-term relationship, and stated that she later recognized their sexual relations as having been non-consensual. The other said that on one occasion Nungesser had moved toward her aggressively, grabbed her arms, and attempted to kiss her. Shortly after Sulkowicz filed a complaint, the two other students with whom she was acquainted also filed complaints with the university against the same student. Columbia ultimately cleared him of responsibility in all three cases.  The case attracted wider attention when the three female students who filed complaints gave interviews to the "New York Post", which broke the story on December 11, 2013, without naming those involved. In April 2014 Sulkowicz appeared with Senator Kirsten Gillibrand at a press conference about campus sexual assault.  On April 24, 2014, 23 students filed a federal complaint against Columbia and Barnard College, alleging violations of Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, a law upholding gender equality in federally-funded institutions. Among other issues, the complaint alleged that the institutions discourage students from reporting sexual assault, that alleged perpetrators are not removed from campus, and that sanctions are too lenient. The Department of Education's Office for Civil Rights opened an investigation in January 2015.  On May 14, 2014, Sulkowicz filed a complaint with the New York Police Department. The district attorney's office interviewed Sulkowicz and Nungesser in August, but did not pursue charges, citing lack of reasonable suspicion.

Creation and performance.

Sulkowicz devised "Mattress Performance (Carry That Weight)" in the summer of 2014 as a senior thesis while at Yale University Summer School of Art and Music. Her first effort was a video of herself moving a bed out of a room, accompanied by the audio of her filing the police report, which she had recorded on a cellphone. The mattress later became the focus of the piece. Sulkowicz's thesis was supervised by artist Jon Kessler, a professor at Columbia. As the idea for "Mattress Performance" developed, Kessler and Sulkowicz discussed the nature of endurance art and the work of Tehching Hsieh, Marina Abramović, Ulay and Chris Burden. Sulkowicz described the work as "an endurance performance art piece". Sulkowicz told the "Columbia Daily Spectator": "I do think that nowadays art pieces can include whatever the artist desires and in this performance art piece it utilizes the elements of protest..."  Purchased online from Tall Paul's Tall Mall, the 50-lb (23-kg), dark-blue, extra-long twin mattress is of the kind Columbia places in its dorms, similar to the one on which Sulkowicz said that she was raped. Sulkowicz spent the summer of 2014 creating the rules of engagement, which defined the parameters of the project. Written on the walls of her studio in the university's Watson Hall, these included that Sulkowicz had to carry the mattress when on university property; that it had to remain on campus when she was not there; and that she was not allowed to ask for help in carrying it, but could accept if help was offered.  In early September 2014 Sulkowicz began carrying the mattress on campus. A homeless man was one of the first to help. Sulkowicz told "New York" magazine: "He was the first person who helped without some sort of preconstructed belief for why they were going to help. He was like, 'Oh, look, a struggling girl—let me help her and be a nice human being.' That was probably the most honest interaction I had." Sulkowicz kept a diary throughout, amounting to 59,000 words at the end of the work, recording the artist's experiences as well as the misunderstandings of commentators.  Sulkowicz said the work would end when Nungesser was expelled from or otherwise left Columbia, and that she would take the mattress to her graduation ceremony if necessary. In the end Sulkowicz carried it to the graduation ceremony on May 19, 2015, despite a request from the school that students should not bring "large objects which could interfere with the proceedings". Several women helped carry the mattress on stage. As Sulkowicz approached, university president Lee Bollinger, who had been shaking other graduates' hands, turned away as if to pick something up, and did not shake her hand; the university said this happened because the mattress was in the way. The next day posters appeared in Morningside Heights near the university calling Sulkowicz a "pretty little liar".  After graduation Sulkowicz said she had known the university would not expel Nungesser, and had expected to carry the mattress for nine months, the length of a pregnancy, which was an important part of the work: "To me, the piece has very much represented [the fact that] a guy did a horrible thing to me and I tried to make something beautiful out of it."

Reception.

Reaction by the accused.

Paul Nungesser said in a December 2014 interview with "The New York Times" that the mattress performance is not an act of artistic expression, but instead one orchestrated to bully him and force him to leave Columbia. He said that on the National Day of Action, protesters followed him around, carrying mattresses to one of his classes and taking his picture. He also said that he was not permitted to use written communications between himself and the alleged victim as evidence, and expressed disbelief that anyone could believe he was guilty even after his accusers failed to meet what he deemed the low burden of proof in the university hearing process. He also stated that since Sulkowicz's protest serves as her senior thesis, it is being supervised and implicitly endorsed by a Columbia faculty member.  Nungesser's parents criticized the university, including its decision to let Sulkowicz take the mattress to the graduation ceremony: "This has been a deeply humiliating experience.... A university that bows to a public witch-hunt no longer deserves to be called a place of enlightenment, of intellectual and academic freedom." Asked by German "Süddeutsche Zeitung Magazin" about her feelings on the treatment of her son at Columbia, Nungesser's mother said, "This is a feeling of lawlessness." His father said that he sometimes fears his son will leave the school as a "cynic" and a "suspicious man".  In April 2015 Nungesser filed a Title IX lawsuit against Columbia University, its trustees, university president Lee Bollinger, and Sulkowicz's senior-thesis supervisor, Jon Kessler, alleging they exposed him to gender-based harassment and a hostile educational environment in allowing the project to go forward. Nungesser said that in so doing they damaged his college experience, emotional well-being, reputation and career prospects. His lawyers argued that Columbia allowed Sulkowicz to create and propose "performances depicting [the plaintiff] as a rapist" even though the university cleared him of any wrongdoing. Among examples of what they described as "public harassment", they cited Sulkowicz's public display of drawings which the lawyers said depicted Nungesser's genitals as part of the project (Sulkowicz left open the question of whether these drawings were of him or stories about him), as well as depictions of the alleged sexual assault, as violations of Columbia's gender-based misconduct policy, which prohibits "unwelcome remarks about the private parts of a person's body" and "graffiti concerning the sexual activity of another person". The lawsuit alleged that Columbia was responsible because the university sponsored and supervised the project. The university's lawyers say the university is "not responsible or liable" for Sulkowicz's conduct  On August 28, 2015, Columbia's lawyers asked that the case be dismissed, citing First Amendment protections and arguing that Nungesser's lawsuit suggests Columbia was obligated to prevent Sulkowicz from speaking publicly on an important issue. The case was heard by Judge Gregory H. Woods of the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, who dismissed the suit on March 12, 2016. Nungesser filed an amended complaint on April 25, 2016. In July 2017, the university announced that it reached a settlement with him; terms of the settlement were not disclosed. The university said in a statement: "Columbia recognizes that after the conclusion of the investigation, Paul's remaining time at Columbia became very difficult for him and not what Columbia would want any of its students to experience. Columbia will continue to review and update its policies toward ensuring that every student — accuser and accused, including those like Paul who are found not responsible — is treated respectfully and as a full member of the Columbia community."

Other responses.

Praise.

Numerous art critics responded positively to "Mattress Performance". Artnet cited it as "almost certainly... one of the most important artworks of the year", comparing it to Ana Mendieta's "Untitled (Rape Scene)" (1973) and Suzanne Lacy and Leslie Labowitz-Starus's "Three Weeks in May" (1977). Performance artist Marina Abramović praised it. "The New York Times" art critic Roberta Smith described it as "strict and lean, yet inclusive and open ended, symbolically laden yet drastically physical", writing that comparisons to the Stations of the Cross and Hester Prynne's scarlet letter were apparent. Jerry Saltz, art critic for "New York" magazine, included it in his list of the best 19 art shows of 2014, calling "clear, to the point, insistent, adamant... pure radical vulnerability".  The political response was marked too. Nato Thompson, chief curator of Creative Time, said he could not think of another case where art had triggered a movement in the way "Mattress Performance" had. Hillary Clinton told the DNC Women's Leadership Forum in September 2014: "That image should haunt all of us..." In October 2014, Columbia students carried 28 mattresses on campus, one for each student who joined the federal Title IX complaint, then left them outside the home of university president Lee Bollinger; they were fined $471 for the clean-up. A group called "Carry That Weight" organized a "National Day of Action to Carry That Weight" on October 29, 2014, during which students carried mattresses on 130 US campuses and several elsewhere. Sulkowicz received the National Organization for Women's Susan B. Anthony Award and the Feminist Majority Foundation's Ms. Wonder Award.  In January 2015, New York's U.S. senator Kirsten Gillibrand invited Sulkowicz to attend the 2015 State of the Union Address. Families Advocating for Campus Equality said the invitation was "undeserved and violates the principles of confidentiality and gender equality of Title IX", and that Sulkowicz had "failed to establish any wrongdoing" on the part of Nungesser.  In 2015, Sulkowicz was included in "The Forward"s Forward 50 as one of the year's fifty most influential Jewish-Americans.

Criticism.

A number of commentators questioned Sulkowicz's account of the assault and argued that the performance was unfair to Nungesser.  Social critic Camille Paglia described "Mattress Performance" as "a parody of the worst aspects of that kind of grievance-oriented feminism", adding that a feminist work "should empower women, not cripple them".  In an editorial in the "New York Post", Naomi Schaefer Riley criticized Sulkowicz's work as "shaming without proof" and accused Sulkowicz and her supporters of "saving themselves from having to answer any questions and destroying men's lives with lies and innuendo". In his article "If anything's art, art's nothing", "National Post" columnist Robert Fulford compared Sulkowicz's work to that of Megumi Igarashi and concluded, "if everything is art, then art can be used for anything. And in the process meaning and value dissolve and art becomes hopelessly debased."  In an editorial for the Federalist, columnist Mona Charen stated that she believed Sulkowicz was likely "shading the truth" and argued that, while campus rape was a real problem, advocates did not pay enough attention to the possibility of false allegations.

Mattress Performance (Carry That Weight) (2014–2015) was a work of endurance/performance art which Emma Sulkowicz conducted as a senior thesis during the final year of a visual arts degree at Columbia University in New York City.

Mattress Performance (Carry That Weight) war die Abschlussarbeit von Emma Sulkowicz (* 1992), einer US-amerikanischen Kunststudentin, an der Columbia University in New York City. Die Performance, bei der Sulkowicz eine blaue Matratze ständig mit sich trug, um gegen sexuelle Gewalt, die ihr persönlich widerfahren sein soll, zu demonstrieren, erregte ab September 2014 bis Mai 2015 weltweite Aufmerksamkeit. Sulkowicz behauptet, im August 2012 von einem deutschen Mitstudenten auf einer ähnlichen Matratze vergewaltigt worden zu sein. Bereits vor Beginn der Performance hatte eine mehrmonatige Prüfung der Universität eine Anzeige Sulkowicz' gegen den Mitstudenten als unbegründet abgewiesen; staatsanwaltliche Ermittlungen kamen später zum gleichen Ergebnis.


Concept.

The book chronicles the life of Oscar de León, an overweight Dominican boy growing up in Paterson, New Jersey, who is obsessed with science fiction and fantasy novels and with falling in love, as well as with the curse that has plagued his family for generations.  The middle sections of the novel center on the lives of Oscar's runaway sister,

Plot.

Main narrative.

Oscar de León (nicknamed Oscar Wao, a bastardization of Oscar Wilde) is an overweight Dominican growing up in Paterson, New Jersey. Oscar desperately wants to be successful with women but, from a young age, is unable to find love, largely because he is a nerd obsessed with science fiction and comic books. His great fear is that he will die a virgin.  After high school, Oscar attends Rutgers University. His sister's boyfriend Yunior (the narrator of much of the novel) moves in with Oscar and tries to help him get in shape and become more "normal". After "getting dissed by a girl", he attempts to kill himself by drinking two bottles

Flashbacks and secondary narratives.

The novel contains significant exposition on Oscar's family history. One section is a first person narrative from the perspective of Oscar's sister, Lola, explaining her struggles to get along with their headstrong mother, Beli. Subsequent sections detail Beli's backstory growing up

Style.

Narration.

Instead of Díaz directly telling the story to the reader, he creates an aesthetic distance by speaking through the novel's narrator Yunior. Yunior provides analysis and commentary for the events he is relaying in the novel. His speech often exemplifies code switching, switching rapidly from a lively, Caribbean-inflected vernacular, replete with frequent usage of profanity to wordy, eloquent, and academic prose. This runs in parallel to several central themes of the novel regarding identity, as Yunior's code switching alludes to a struggle between his Dominican identity and his identity

Footnotes.

"The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao" makes extensive use of footnotes to the point that many of the characters are developed in the footnotes in addition to the story. Rather than just provide factual background, Yunior's narrative continues in the footnotes just as it does in the body of the novel. When describing Oscar's deep love of science fiction and fantasy literature, Yunior continues in the footnotes: "Where this outsized love of genre jumped off from no one quite seems to know. It might have been a consequence being Antillean (who more sci-fi than us?)..." The presence of Yunior's footnotes, therefore, remind the reader that there is always more to one's story.  Yunior even makes reference in the footnotes to his present life earlier in the novel than when he describes it in Chapter Eight. "In my first draft, Samaná was actually Jarabacoa, but then my girl Leonie, resident expert in all things Domo, pointed out that there are no beaches in Jarabacoa." Yunior thus builds the writing of the novel and his relationship with Oscar into the greater history of the Dominican Republic. The many science fiction references throughout the novel and footnotes emphasize

Slang.

Díaz moves between several styles in the novel as the narrative shifts to each of the characters. Oscar's speech reflects an autodidactic language based on his knowledge of fantasy, 'nerd' literature and his speech is filled with phrases such as "I think she's orchidaceous" and "I do not move so precipitously", whereas Yunior "affects a bilingual b-boy flow" and intersperses it with literary language. The story of the De Léon family is told and collected by the fictional narrator Yunior and the "New York Times" critic Michiko Kakutani has described the voice of the book as "a streetwise brand of Spanglish". He often gives his own commentary and analysis on the events he is relating in the story and sometimes reveals failings in his own life, both as a narrator and a person: "Players: never never never fuck

Magical realism.

The Brief and Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao contains several of the hallmarks of Latin American Magical Realism. The novel’s plot is intricately bound up with the notion of Fukú Americanus, which is “generally a curse of doom of some kind; specifically, the Curse or Doom of the New World”. The reliance on Fukú, and its counterpart Zafa gives the novel a fantastical element which show magical realisms part in the plot, as the narrative follows the impact of the supernatural curse. This is coupled with other supernatural elements such as the man with no face and

Speculative fiction.

The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao can be used as an example of speculative fiction. "Speculative fiction" is a sub-category of fiction that deals with ideas that are not directly real, but rather imaginative or futuristic. The plot of this novel skips from past to present and focuses on different characters’ stories at various times in order to convey the long-lasting impression that Rafael Trujillo’s dictatorship in the Dominican Republic from 1930 to 1961 left. In order to emphasize the brutality of the past, the novel blends aspects of sci-fi and fantasy with horror as well as popular culture. By combining all of these elements, Diaz creates a work of speculative fiction that holds various social critiques.

Using Trujillo as a minor character.

The novel uses history to set the scene and create its social and political commentary. The basis of all of the problems that arise in this novel is the US-sponsored dictatorship of Rafael Trujillo that lasted for over thirty years. Junot Diaz surely includes Trujillo as a character in the story, but limits his representation to descriptions that come from Yunior’s perspective. Because of this, Trujillo has an important role in the story, but is ultimately weakened due to the given perspective. Diaz creates irony using this strong dictator as a minor character and focusing on the characters that

Lola's Daughter.

Throughout the novel, Diaz uses metaphors and symbols to present Dominican history as well as the fuku curse. Lola is Oscar’s older sister, and her daughter serves as a symbol of the potential to break the fuku curse. Lola’s daughter is a character that holds the future for the De Leon family and symbolically the entire Dominican culture. She symbolizes the Dominican identity struggle of growing up with two cultural ties, that of the Dominican Republic and that of the United States. Although in the

Yunior as the narrator.

Although Yunior is the narrator of the story, and everything that is said comes from his perspective, the story revolves around the unlikely hero, Oscar. Oscar is a shy, overweight teenager who loves to read and write science fiction and fantasy and is searching for love. He is constantly deemed not masculine enough by those around him, and he does not follow the norms of his Dominican culture. He too is affected by the fuku curse that stems from a long history of oppression, and the only way for him to break free is to acknowledge his own culture while also adapting to his new surroundings in the United States. Oscar’s character’s love for science fiction allows Diaz to intertwine metaphors from the science fiction realm such as that of “Watchmen”. This reference allows Diaz to propose the question of whether or not it is just to ‘save humanity’ by killing a human and make parallels to Oscar’s decision running away with Ybon as well as the future of Dominican culture and history. By referencing “nothing ever ends” on page 331 in the novel, Diaz proposes that the past cannot be

Themes and motifs.

The mongoose.

Mongooses appear throughout "The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao" as guardians of the family. Historically, the mongoose was imported from Asia during the 18th century. Mongooses were imported to tropical islands such as the Dominican Republic, Jamaica, and Hawaii. Used to protect sugar cane fields from rat infestations, mongooses were pivotal in the DR's growing sugar economy. While the mongoose is transplanted from Asia, it retroactively becomes a "norm" within the DR's plantation system. While the mongoose guides Beli, its presence is necessary for sugar production. The mongoose is known

Canefields.

The re/appearances of canefields in Oscar Wao are symbolic. The scenes of physical violence against Beli and Oscar are set in this specific, geographical space of the sugar canefields. Sugar was introduced to the Dominican Republic and Haiti, then Hispaniola, through colonialism. Sugar and canefields were so important to the Spanish as they fueled their wealth and the creation of a white elite, and thus plantation economy, in Hispaniola.  They first appear when Beli is kidnapped and taken to be beaten in a canefield. Here, the canefields are surrounded by the context of the Trujillato. After (unknowingly) becoming involved with Trujillo's sister's husband, The Gangster's men assault Beli there. The canefields

Power of appearance.

Beli understood how advantageous appearance is in the social situations of the Dominican Republic, but not until she had undergone major physical and psychological changes. Beli desired the same romantic experience as Oscar, despising school in her early years from being "completely alone" (83). Her loneliness derived from her "defensive and aggressive and mad overactive" personality that pushed people miles away from her. Unlike Oscar, however, her predicament reversed, becoming not one of a lack of power, but an abundance. She had to choose whether or not to take advantage of her new curvaceous body which puberty

Reexamining masculinity through Yunior and Oscar.

Yunior and Oscar are character foils that illustrate two different types of masculinity: if Oscar's nerdiness, fatness and awkwardness make him the antithesis of Dominican hypermasculinity, then Yunior, as a Don Juan and a state school player who can "bench 340 pounds" (170), is the embodiment of that identity. They also have completely opposite values: while Yunior cheats habitually and can't appreciate even the most beautiful and loving women, Oscar is faithful and sees beauty in a middle-aged prostitute; while Yunior doesn't value sex for anything other than physical pleasure (at least not at first), Oscar refuses to go to brothels (279). Yunior's masculinity echoes that of Trujillo, who in his violent actions and lust for women, also embodies Dominican hypermasculinity.  Despite their differences, Yunior and Oscar become important to each other and develop an unusual friendship. As Oscar has no father or brothers, Yunior is the only male with whom he can discuss his romantic yearnings;

Filling the blank pages – stories as "zafa" for the fukú of violence.

Throughout the novel, violence is transmitted from the system of colonialism and dictators to the domestic sphere and perpetuated through the generations. Virtually all the relationships in the book – Trujillo and Abelard, Beli and the Gangster, Beli and Lola, Oscar and Ybón – are marked with physical or emotional abuse. Violence is an aspect of the "fukú" or curse that haunts the Cabrals and de Leons.  At the very beginning of the novel, it is explained that zafa is the "one way to prevent

Literary allusions.

Comic books, science-fiction, and fantasy literature all play an important role in Oscar's upbringing and identity, and each is incorporated into the novel to reflect the world he lives in. Díaz has said that to dismiss the novel's reflexivity with fiction and fantasy is to do to the novel "exactly what Oscar suffered from, which is that...Oscar's interests, his views of the world, were dismissed as illegitimate, as unimportant, as make-believe", and that the novel asks the reader "to take not only Oscar seriously but his interests seriously."

Comic books.

The novel opens with the epigraph: "Of what import are brief, nameless lives...to Galactus?" Díaz has said that this question can be read as being directed at the reader, "because in some ways, depending on how you answer that question, it really decides whether you're Galactus or not." In the Fantastic Four comic book however, Galactus is asking the question of Uatu the Watcher, whose role is played out in Díaz's novel by the narrator Yunior, indicating to Díaz that the question is both a "question to the reader but also a question to writers in general."  Early in the novel, Díaz aligns Oscar with comic book superheroes: "You want to know what being an X-man feels like? Just be a smart bookish boy of color in a contemporary U.S. ghetto...Like having bat wings or a pair of tentacles growing out of your chest." Díaz hints at possible latent abilities or qualities Oscar may possess that will reveal themselves or develop later in the novel.  The novel describes the history of relationships between dictators and journalists in terms of comic book rivalries as well:

Fantasy and science-fiction.

Díaz frequently uses references to works of science-fiction and fantasy. These references serve both to illuminate the world that Oscar lives in and create a parallel between the supernatural events in fantasy literature and the history of the Dominican Republic. In the opening pages of the novel, the narrator quotes Oscar as having said "What more sci-fi than Santo Domingo? What more fantasy than the Antilles?" One of Díaz's frequent references to J. R. R. Tolkien comes when he describes Trujillo: "Homeboy dominated Santo Domingo like it was his very own private Mordor." In another section, Felix Wenceslao Bernardino,

Critical reception.

"The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao" was widely praised and appeared in a number of "best of the year" book lists. The book won the John Sargent, Sr. First Novel Prize, the Dayton Peace Prize in Fiction, the National Book Critics Circle Award, and the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 2008. "New York" magazine named it the Best Novel of the Year and

Adaptations.

A staged version of the novel, called Fukú Americanus, was adapted by Sean San Jose and co-directed by San Jose and Marc Bamuthi Joseph through San Jose's Campo Santo theatre company in 2009. The production received mixed reviews, with critic Robert Hurwitt stating that "'Fukú' doesn't show us how that works or what the curse has to do with anything... for that, you have to read the book."

Feature film.

The novel's film rights were optioned by Miramax Films and producer Scott Rudin in 2007. Director Walter

The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao is a novel written by Dominican American author Junot Díaz and published in 2007. Although a work of fiction, the novel is set in New Jersey in the United States, where Díaz was raised, and it deals with the Dominican Republic experience under dictator Rafael Trujillo. The book chronicles both the life of Oscar de León, an overweight Dominican boy growing up in Paterson, New Jersey, who is obsessed with science fiction and fantasy novels and with falling in love, as well as a curse that has plagued his family for generations.

Das kurze wundersame Leben des Oscar Wao, Originaltitel The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao, ist der 2007 erschienene erste Roman des US-amerikanischen Autors Junot Díaz, der sich mit seinen Kurzgeschichten bereits einen Ruf als herausragender Autor erworben hatte. Der Roman ist eine drei Generationen umspannende Familiensaga über Immigranten aus der Dominikanischen Republik, die sich im US-Bundesstaat New Jersey ein neues Leben aufbauen. Im Mittelpunkt steht Oscar De León, ein übergewichtiger junger Mann mit einer Vorliebe für Science-Fiction und Fantasy, dessen größte Sorge es ist, als erster dominikanischer Mann ohne sexuelle Erfahrung zu sterben.


Effectiveness.

Acellular pertussis vaccine (aP) with three or more antigens prevents around 85% of typical whooping cough cases in children. It has higher or similar efficacy to the previously-used whole cell pertussis vaccine, however the efficacy of the acellular vaccine declines faster. Acellular vaccines also cause fewer side effects than whole cell vaccines.  Despite widespread vaccination, pertussis has persisted in vaccinated populations and is one of the most common vaccine-preventable diseases. The recent resurgence in pertussis infections is attributed to a combination of waning immunity and new mutations in the pathogen that existing vaccines are unable to effectively control.  Some studies have suggested that while acellular pertussis vaccines are effective at preventing the disease, they have a limited impact on infection and transmission, meaning that vaccinated people could spread the disease even though they may have only mild symptoms or none at all.

Children.

For children, immunizations are commonly given in combination with immunizations against tetanus, diphtheria, polio, and haemophilus influenzae type B at two, four, six, and 15–18 months of age. A single later booster is given at four to six years of age (US schedule). In the UK, pertussis vaccinations are given at 2, 3, and 4 months, with a pre-school booster at 3 years 4 months.

Adults.

In 2006 the CDC recommended adults receive pertussis vaccination along with the tetanus and diphtheria toxoid booster. In 2011 they began recommended boosters during each pregnancy. In the UK vaccination of pregnant women (between 28 and 38 weeks of pregnancy) is also recommended.  The pertussis booster for adults is combined with a tetanus vaccine and diphtheria vaccine booster; this combination is abbreviated "Tdap" (Tetanus, diphtheria, acellular pertussis). It is similar to the childhood vaccine called "DTaP" (Diphtheria, Tetanus, acellular Pertussis), with the main difference that the adult version contains smaller amounts of the diphtheria and pertussis components—this is indicated in the name by the use of lower-case "d" and "p" for the adult vaccine. The lower-case "a" in each vaccine indicates that the pertussis component is acellular, or cell-free, which reduces the incidence of side effects. The pertussis component of the original DPT vaccine accounted for most of the minor local and systemic side effects in many vaccinated infants (such as mild fever or soreness at the injection site). The newer acellular vaccine, known as DTaP, has greatly reduced the incidence of adverse effects compared to the earlier "whole-cell" pertussis vaccine, however immunity wanes faster after the acellular vaccine than the whole-cell vaccine.

Side effects.

Between 10% and 50% of people given the whole-cell vaccines develop redness, swelling, soreness or tenderness at the injection site and/or fever, less than 1% experience febrile seizures or long periods of crying, and less than 1 out of every 1,000 to 2,000 people vaccinated have a hypotonic-hyporesponsive episode. The same reactions may occur after acellular vaccines, but are less common. Side effects with both types of vaccines, but especially the whole-cell vaccine, are more likely the older the child. The whole-cell vaccines should not be used after seven years of age. According to the WHO serious long term neurological problems are not associated with either type. The WHO says that the only contraindication to either whole cell or acellular pertussis vaccines is an anaphylactic reaction to a previous dose of pertussis vaccine, while the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) lists encephalopathy not due to another identifiable cause occurring within seven days after a previous dose of pertussis vaccine as a contraindication and recommends those who have had seizures, have a known or suspected neurological disorder, or have had a neurologic event after a previous dose not be vaccinated until after treatment is initiated and the condition stabilized. Only the acellular vaccine is used in the US.

Modern formulations.

, there are four acellular DTaP/Tdap vaccines licensed for use in USA: Infanrix and Daptacel – for children, Boostrix and Adacel – for adolescents and adults.

History.

Pertussis vaccine is usually administered as a component of the diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis (DTP/DTwP, DTaP and Tdap) vaccines. There are several types of diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis vaccines. The first vaccine against pertussis was developed in the 1930s by pediatrician Leila Denmark. It included whole-cell killed "Bordetella pertussis" bacteria. Until the beginning of the 1990s it was used as a part of the DTwP vaccine for the immunization of children. It, however, contained pertussis endotoxin (surface lipooligosaccharide) and produced side effects.  New acellular pertussis vaccines were developed in the 1980s, which included only a few selected pertussis antigens (toxins and adhesins). Acellular vaccines are less likely to provoke side effects. They became a part of DTaP vaccines for children. In 2005, two new vaccine products were licensed for use in adolescents and adults that combine the tetanus and diphtheria toxoids with acellular pertussis vaccine. These (Tdap) vaccines contain reduced amounts of pertussis antigens compared to DTaP vaccines.  Pearl Kendrick and Grace Eldering studied pertussis in the 1930s. They developed and ran the first large scale study of a successful vaccine for the disease.

Controversy in the 1970s-1980s.

During the 1970s and 1980s, a controversy erupted related to the question of whether the whole-cell pertussis component caused permanent brain injury in rare cases, called pertussis vaccine encephalopathy. Despite this allegation, doctors recommended the vaccine due to the overwhelming public health benefit, because the claimed rate was very low (one case per 310,000 immunizations, or about 50 cases out of the 15 million immunizations each year in the United States), and the risk of death from the disease was high (pertussis killed thousands of Americans each year before the vaccine was introduced). No studies showed a causal connection, and later studies showed no connection of any type between the DPT vaccine and permanent brain injury. The alleged vaccine-induced brain damage proved to be an unrelated condition, infantile epilepsy. In 1990, the "Journal of the American Medical Association" called the connection a "myth" and "nonsense".  However, negative publicity and fear-mongering caused the immunization rate to fall in several countries, including the UK, Sweden, and Japan. A dramatic increase in the incidence of pertussis followed.  In the United States, low profit margins and an increase in vaccine-related lawsuits led many manufacturers to stop producing the DPT vaccine by the early 1980s. In 1982, the television documentary "DPT: Vaccine Roulette" by reporter Lea Thompson depicted the lives of children whose severe disabilities were incorrectly blamed on the DPT vaccine. The ensuing negative publicity led to many lawsuits against vaccine manufacturers. By 1985, vaccine manufacturers had difficulty obtaining liability insurance. The price of DPT vaccine skyrocketed, leading providers to curtail purchases, limiting availability. Only one manufacturer remained in the US by the end of 1985. In response, Congress passed the National Childhood Vaccine Injury Act (NCVIA) in 1986, establishing a federal no-fault system to compensate victims of injury caused by recommended vaccines.  Concerns about side effects led Sato to introduce an even safer acellular vaccine for Japan in 1981, that was approved in the U.S. in 1992, for use in the combination DTaP vaccine. The acellular vaccine has a rate of adverse events similar to that of a Td vaccine (a tetanus-diphtheria vaccine containing no pertussis vaccine).

Pertussis vaccine is a vaccine that protects against whooping cough (pertussis). There are two main types: whole-cell vaccines and acellular vaccines. The whole-cell vaccine is about 78% effective while the acellular vaccine is 71–85% effective. The effectiveness of the vaccines appears to decrease by between 2 and 10% per year after vaccination with a more rapid decrease with the acellular vaccines. Vaccinating the mother during pregnancy may protect the baby. The vaccine is estimated to have saved over 500,000 lives in 2002. The World Health Organization and Center for Disease Control and Prevention recommend all children be vaccinated for pertussis and that it be included in routine vaccinations. This includes for people who have HIV/AIDS. Three doses starting at six weeks of age are typically recommended in young children. Additional doses may be given to older children and adults. The vaccine is only available in combination with tetanus and diphtheria vaccines. The acellular vaccines are more commonly used in the developed world due to fewer adverse effects. Between 10 and 50% of people given the whole-cell vaccines develop redness at the injection site or fever. Febrile seizures and long periods of crying occur in less than 1% of people. With the acellular vaccines a brief period of non-serious swelling of the arm may occur. Side effects with both types of vaccines, but especially the whole-cell vaccine, are less common the younger the child. The whole-cell vaccines should not be used after seven years of age. Serious long term neurological problems are not associated with either type. The pertussis vaccine was developed in 1926. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the safest and most effective medicines needed in a health system. A version that also includes tetanus, diphtheria, polio, and Hib vaccine is available wholesale in the developing world at a cost of 15.41 USD per dose as of 2014.

Ein Pertussisimpfstoff (Synonym: "Keuchhustenimpfstoff") ist ein Impfstoff gegen eine Keuchhusten-Erkrankung (Pertussis). Der Pertussisimpfstoff befindet sich auf der Liste der unentbehrlichen Arzneimittel der Weltgesundheitsorganisation. Die Weltgesundheitsorganisation empfiehlt eine Verwendung von Pertussisimpfstoffen in einem Fünffachimpfstoff mit Impfstoffen gegen Diphtherie, Tetanus, Hepatitis B und Haemophilus influenzae b.


Format.

All the games are played according to the International Rugby Board Laws of the Game – 7s Variations.

Pool phase.

Originally, the twelve Premiership clubs were split into three pools, each playing on three consecutive Friday nights, on one of the teams grounds. Following expansion, the four Welsh regions compete in their own pool.  Teams play on a round-robin format and are awarded points based on the results of the matches. Teams are awarded: Following the completion of all the matches in a pool, both the winner and runner-up progress to the final.

Final.

2010 – 2013.

For the final, the final six teams were split into two pools. The teams again play each other on a round-robin basis, receiving points in the same manner as in the pool stage. After the pool stage of the final, the respective winners of the pools play each other in the grand final, the winner of that game being declared the winner of the competition.

2014 – 2016.

Following the expansion to include the Welsh regions, the format of the finals was changed.  Eight teams contested the quarter-finals, and the format resembled a traditional sevens final day, with the losers of the quarter-finals contesting a plate competition, and the winners a cup competition. The winner of the cup competition is the series winner.

2017 – present.

For 2017 a new format was introduced with the four Welsh regions no longer taking part and all matches taking place in one venue over two days. The 12 Premiership Rugby teams were split into four pools of three with all group matches taking place on the first day and the competition splitting into bowl, plate and cup tournaments on the second day. Franklin's Gardens was selected as the venue for the inaugural edition of the new format.  In 2018 and 2019 the venue and format remained similar, however the bowl tournament was not contested.

Broadcast.

Initially, each event in the competition was broadcast live on ESPN. Highlights were shown on ITV4 the following Sunday.  On 25 February 2013, BT announced that it had acquired ESPN's UK channels and their sports broadcasting rights. The 2013 edition of the competition, including the final, was broadcast live on the new BT Sport channel. The channel was launched on Thursday 1 August, the first day of the competition. Highlights of the 2013 competition were shown on STV in Scotland. In 2014, Welsh language channel S4C broadcast the first round of the tournament (containing the four regions) live.  Since 2017, highlights have been broadcast on Channel 5.

History.

2010.

The 2010 Premiership Rugby Sevens Series was the inaugural edition of the competition. It began on Friday 16 July and lasted four weeks, with the final at the Recreation Ground on Friday 6 August.  Saracens 7s and Harlequins 7s qualified from group A, played at The Stoop on Friday 16 July; Newcastle Falcons 7s and Sale Sharks 7s qualified from group B, played at Welford Road on Friday 23 July; and Northampton Saints 7s and Exeter Chiefs 7s qualified from group C, played at Franklin's Gardens on Friday 30 July.  The finals were played at the Recreation Ground on Friday 6 August. The six teams were split into two pools of three teams. The winner of pool B, Newcastle Falcons 7s, were defeated 17 – 5 by the pool A winner, Saracens 7s in the final.

2011.

The 2011 Premiership Rugby Sevens Series was the second edition of the competition. It began on Friday 15 July and lasted four weeks, with the final at The Stoop on Friday 5 August.  Harlequins 7s and Bath 7s qualified from group A, played at Recreation Ground on Friday 15 July; Saracens 7s and London Wasps 7s qualified from group B, played at Franklin's Gardens on Friday 22 July; and Newcastle Falcons 7s and Sale Sharks 7s qualified from group C, played at Edgeley Park on Friday 29 July.  The finals were played at The Stoop on Friday 5 August. The six teams were split into two pools of three teams The winner of pool B, Saracens 7s, were defeated 21 – 31 by the pool A winner, Newcastle Falcons 7s in the final.

2012.

The 2012 Premiership Rugby Sevens Series was the third edition of the competition. It began on Friday 13 July and lasted four weeks, with the final at The Recreation Ground on Friday 3 August.  Saracens 7s and London Irish 7s qualified from group A, played at The Stoop on Friday 13 July; London Welsh 7s and Sale Sharks 7s qualified from group B, played at Edgeley Park on Friday 20 July; and Gloucester 7s and Bath 7s qualified from group C, played at Kingsholm on Thursday 26 July.  The finals were played at The Recreation Ground on Friday 3 August. The six teams were split into two pools of three teams The winner of pool A, Gloucester 7s, were defeated 28 – 31 by the pool B winner, London Irish 7s in the final.

2013.

The 2013 Premiership Rugby Sevens Series was the fourth edition of the competition. The group stages ran on 1–3 August 2013 and the final at The Recreation Ground on 9 August 2013.  Worcester Warriors 7s and Gloucester 7s qualified from group A, played at Kingsholm on Thursday 1 August; Newcastle Falcons 7s and Leicester Tigers 7s qualified from group B, played at Franklin's Gardens on Friday 2 August; and Harlequins 7s and Saracens 7s qualified from group C, played at Allianz Park on Saturday 3 August.  The finals were played at The Recreation Ground on Friday 9 August. The six teams were split into two pools of three teams. The winner of pool A, Leicester Tigers 7s, were defeated 24 – 17 by the pool B winner, Gloucester 7s in the final.

2014.

The 2014 Premiership Rugby Sevens Series was the fifth edition of the competition, and the first to include the Welsh regions. The group stages ran on 26 July 31 July – 2 August 2014 and the final at The Stoop, Twickenham on 8 August 2014.  Cardiff Blues 7s and Newport Gwent Dragons 7s qualified from group A, played at Cardiff Arms Park on Friday 26 July. Gloucester 7s and London Irish 7s qualified from group B, played at Kingsholm on Thursday 31 July. Harlequins 7s and Northampton Saints 7s qualified from group C, played at Franklin's Gardens on Friday 1 August; and Newcastle Falcons 7s and Leicester Tigers 7s qualified from group D, played at The Darlington Arena on Saturday 2 August.  The finals were played at The Stoop on Friday 8 August. The eight teams contested a more traditional sevens style finals competition, consisting of quarter-finals, followed by a plate and cup competition. Newport Gwent Dragons 7s were defeated 12 – 5 by Gloucester 7s in the cup final. This was the first time a team has won successive series finals.

2015.

The 2015 Premiership Rugby Sevens Series was the sixth edition of the competition. The group stages ran on 15 August 20 – 22 August 2015 and the final at The Stoop, Twickenham on 28 August 2015.  Newport Gwent Dragons 7s and Scarlets 7s qualified from group A, played at Cardiff Arms Park on Saturday 15 August. Gloucester 7s and Exeter Chiefs 7s qualified from group B, played at Kingsholm on Thursday 20 August. Wasps 7s and Harlequins 7s qualified from group C, played at the Ricoh Arena, Coventry on Friday 21 August; and Newcastle Falcons 7s and Sale Sharks 7s qualified from group D, played at Kingston Park, Newcastle on Saturday 22 August.  The finals were played at The Stoop on Friday 28 August. The eight teams contested a finals competition consisting of quarter-finals, followed by a plate and cup competition. Wasps 7s were defeated 17 – 14 by Newport Gwent Dragons 7s in the cup final. This was the first time the tournament was won by a Welsh team.

The Premiership Rugby Sevens Series is a friendly Rugby Sevens competition for the twelve Premiership Rugby clubs that will play the following season (i.e. the 2010 competition features the teams playing in the Aviva Premiership in the 2010–11 season). It was started in 2010, as an off-season competition, held during the months of July and August. Between 2014 and 2016 the competition included the four Welsh regions which compete in the Pro14.

Die Premiership Rugby Sevens Series (aus Sponsoringgründen auch als Singha Premiership Rugby 7s Series bezeichnet) sind ein 7er-Rugby-Wettbewerb, an dem ursprünglich nur die Premiership-Mannschaften teilnehmen, seit 2014 nehmen auch die walisischen Mannschaften aus der Pro12 teil. Die erste Austragung fand 2010 statt.


International career.

Yallop made her senior international debut in a 0–6 loss to the United States on 10 October 2004.  Yallop captained the U-20 side at the 2006 FIFA U-20 Women's World Championship finals in Russia, where they lost to Australia (0–3) and Russia (2–3), before holding Brazil to a goalless draw,  Yallop was included in the New Zealand squad for the 2008 Summer Olympics, playing the full 90 minutes in each of New Zealand's group games, scoring one of New Zealand's goals in the 2–2 draw with Japan.  Attending her first Women's World Cup at Germany 2011, Yallop earned her 50th cap in her only appearance at the finals in a 1–1 draw with Mexico as New Zealand won their first ever point at a Senior Women's World Cup.  She played in all of New Zealand's games at the 2012 Summer Olympics.  She featured in one of New Zealand's three matches at the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup in Canada.  On 20 September after playing two games against United States Yallop announced her retirement from international football.

Club career.

At club level she played for Lynn-Avon United before moving to Kristianstads DFF in Sweden's Damallsvenskan in 2010. For the 2011 season she moved to second tier side Vittsjö GIK. In her first year at Vittsjö the team attained promotion to Damallsvenskan.  On 31 October 2015, Yallop joined Australian club Brisbane Roar.  On 9 December 2016, Yallop joined Melbourne Victory as an injury replacement for Bianca Henninger. In October 2017, it was confirmed that she didn't re-sign with Melbourne Victory for a further season. In 2017 Yallop joined Norwegian side Klepp.

Personal life.

In December 2017, Yallop's engagement to Klepp IL teammate and Australian international Tameka Butt was announced on Butt's Twitter account. The two were married in Mangawhai, New Zealand on 9 February 2019.

Kirsty Lee Yallop (born 4 November 1986), is an association football player who represented New Zealand at the international level and last played for Melbourne Victory in Australia's W-League.

Kirsty Lee Yallop (* 4. November 1986 in Auckland) ist eine neuseeländische ehemalige Fußballspielerin, die von 2004 bis 2017 für die neuseeländische Nationalmannschaft spielte.


Origins.

This geological era designation was proposed by scientists at the Ames Research Center in 2010 to formalize terminology in the earliest stages of Earth's history. This proposal divides the Chaotian into the Eochaotian (4.7–4.65 Gya) and Neochaotian (4,650–4,600 Mya) eras. The Eochaotian is proposed to be divided into the Nephelean (4.7–4.68 Gya) and Erebrean (4,680–4,650 Mya) periods, and the Neochaotian into the Hyperitian (4,650–4,620 Mya) and Titanomachean (4,620–4,600 Mya)., this has not been adopted by the IUGS.

Age of the Earth.

Zircon is the oldest conservation-capable mineral found, with the oldest from the Yilgarn Craton dating to 4,404 Mya (± 8 Mya). This gives the oldest age possible for the Earth's solid crust.  However, the exact age of our solar system—and thus the age of the Earth—is still an ongoing question. Outgassing and differentiation of the earth in an iron-rich core and mantle may have been completed 4,450 Mya. The giant impact hypothesis' proposed collision with Theia, leading to the formation of the Moon, is estimated to have occurred 4,527 Mya. Calcium-aluminium-rich inclusions (CAI), the first condensate from the planetary orbit, were dated to 4,567.30 Mya (± 0.16 Mya) by the uranium-lead method. In 1979, dating of the Mundrabilla iron meteorite of Western Australia using the argon method determined an age of 4,570 Mya (± 60 Mya). Manganese-chromium dating of chondrules revealed an age of 4,571 Mya.  Due to the uncertainty of the lower limit of Earth's age, 4,600 Mya is used as the estimated lowest limit of geological time.

The Chaotian is an unofficial eon or era on the Geologic time scale, first proposed in 2010, and named after Chaos, the primeval void, in Greek mythology. This proposed geological time period was defined to begin at the point when the nebula from which the solar system formed became a closed system, and to end at the time of the hypothetical impact of Theia with the early Earth. An alternative proposal treats it, instead, as the earliest era within the Hadean eon, in which case it is instead considered to end at the date of the oldest preserved rocks on Earth (approximately 4.4 Ga).

Das Chaotikum ist die im Zuge der Neugliederung des Präkambriums vorgeschlagene erste Ära des Hadaikums. Es dauerte 163 Millionen Jahre, von 4567 Millionen bis 4404 Millionen Jahre vor heute.


Geography.

Chipley is located at.  According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of, all land.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2010, there were 3,605 people, 1,442 households, and 908 families residing in the city. The population density was 872.5 inhabitants per square mile (336.6/km). There were 1,694 housing units at an average density of 411.5 per square mile (158.8/km). The racial makeup of the city was 68.24% White, 26.85% African American, 0.80% Native American, 1.14% Asian, 0.08% Pacific Islander, 0.47% from other races, and 2.41% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.94% of the population.  There were 1,442 households, out of which 28.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.2% were married couples living together, 19.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.0% were non-families. Of all households 33.2% were made up of individuals, and 18.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.33 and the average family size was 2.97.  In the city, the population was spread out, with 27.15% under the age of 18, 7.2% from 18 to 24, 24.5% from 25 to 44, 21.4% from 45 to 64, and 15.09% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 82.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 77.4 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $21,686, and the median income for a family was $28,792. Males had a median income of $23,715 versus $19,662 for females. The per capita income for the city was $12,842. About 25.1% of families and 27.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 42.4% of those under age 18 and 22.3% of those age 65 or over.

Chipley is a city in Washington County, Florida, United States. It is located between Tallahassee and Pensacola. Its population was 3,605 in the 2010 U.S. Census. Chipley is the county seat of Washington County. The area is served by Chipley High School.

Chipley ist eine Stadt und zudem der "County Seat" des Washington County im US-Bundesstaat Florida mit 3605 Einwohnern (Stand: 2010).


Early life.

Born in Colorado, Beckie lived in Saskatchewan until age three before moving back to Colorado where she attended Valor Christian High School in Highlands Ranch, Colorado. At Valor Christian, she played for the varsity team for four years and was named 2012 Gatorade Colorado Player of the Year.  Beckie attended Texas Tech University where she played for the Red Raiders from 2012 to 2015 and became the all-time leading scorer for the women's team with 57 career goals. In December 2015, Beckie was named Player of the Year by Dallas Soccer News.

Club career.

In 2013, Beckie signed with the Seattle Sounders Women in the USL W-League.

Houston Dash, 2016–2017.

Beckie was selected eighth overall in the 2016 NWSL College Draft by the Houston Dash. On February 8, 2016, it was announced that Beckie would be allocated to the team as part of the NWSL Player Allocation On April 16, 2016, Beckie scored in her professional debut against the Chicago Red Stars

Sky Blue FC, 2018.

On January 18, 2018, Beckie was traded to the Sky Blue FC along with Carli Lloyd by the Dash in a three-team trade with the Chicago Red Stars and Sky Blue FC. After making 15 appearances for Sky Blue, Beckie announced her departure from the club on August 9, 2018.

Manchester City W.F.C., 2018–present.

Beckie's transfer from Sky Blue FC to Manchester City was made official on August 9, 2018. Beckie concludes her first season with 8 goals in 15 games, and two trophies (FA League Cup, FA Cup). In the 2019/20 season, Beckie earned her first start in a UWCL game, and score her first hat-trick in the competition.  On April 14, 2020, Janine Beckie signed a new contract with Manchester City that would last until 2022.

International career.

Beckie has represented Canada on the under-20 and senior national teams. In August 2014, she scored the game-winning goal against North Korea to advance the under-20 team to the knockout stage of the FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup. Beckie also scored three goals in the Rio 2016 Olympics – helping the national team to defend their bronze medal effort in the 2012 London Olympics.  On May 25, 2019 she was named to the roster for the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup.

Personal life.

Her brother Drew Beckie is also a soccer player.

Honours.

Canada  Manchester City

Janine Elizabeth Beckie (born August 20, 1994) is a Canadian soccer player who plays for Manchester City and the Canada women's national soccer team. She previously played for Sky Blue FC and the Houston Dash in the National Women's Soccer League (NWSL). She is a dual citizen of Canada and the United States.

Janine Elizabeth Beckie (* 20. August 1994 in Littleton, Colorado, Vereinigte Staaten) ist eine US-amerikanisch-kanadische Fußballspielerin auf der Position eines Stürmers. Die kanadische Fußballnationalspielerin spielt seit 2018 für Manchester City.


History.

Remnants of a small tower house have been found in the village, perhaps from the 13th century. The name "Kowale" (lit. "blacksmiths") probably hints on the profession of its inhabitants serving this tower house. The village was but first mentioned in 1592 as "Kowalie". Politically it belonged then to the Duchy of Teschen, a fee of the Kingdom of Bohemia, which after 1526 became part of the Habsburg Monarchy. In years 1573/1577–1594 it belonged to Skoczów-Strumień state country that was split from the Duchy of Teschen but was later purchased back.  After Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire a modern municipal division was introduced in the re-established Austrian Silesia. The village as a municipality was subscribed to the political district of Bielsko and the legal district of Skoczów. According to the censuses conducted in 1880, 1890, 1900 and 1910 the population of the municipality grew from 347 in 1880 to 362 in 1910, with a majority of the inhabitants being native Polish-speakers (93.6–99%) and a small minority of German-speaking (most 23 or 6.4% in 1910), in terms of religion the majority were Roman Catholics (66% in 1910), followed by Protestants (31% in 1910) and Jews (11 or 3% in 1910). The village was also traditionally inhabited by Cieszyn Vlachs, speaking Cieszyn Silesian dialect.  After World War I, fall of Austria-Hungary, Polish–Czechoslovak War and the division of Cieszyn Silesia in 1920, it became a part of Poland. It was then annexed by Nazi Germany at the beginning of World War II. After the war it was restored to Poland.

Kowale is a village in Gmina Skoczów, Cieszyn County, Silesian Voivodeship, southern Poland. It has a population of about 610 and lies in the historical region of Cieszyn Silesia.

Kowale ( "Kowali") ist eine Ortschaft mit einem Schulzenamt der Gemeinde Skoczów im Powiat Cieszyński der Woiwodschaft Schlesien in Polen.


Life.

Garo Paylan was born in Istanbul, Turkey in 1972 to an Armenian family originally from Malatya. He graduated from Istanbul University's School of Business. He then became a director of various Armenian schools in Istanbul. Thereafter, he became a director for a project that promoted multilingual education.

Political career.

Garo Paylan first joined the Peace and Democracy Party (BDP) in 2011 and was one of its campaign supports. He then represented the interests of Armenians within the party and soon joined other activists starting the People's Democratic Congress, becoming a member of its Central committee.

Peoples' Democratic Party.

Garo Paylan became one of the founding members of the Peoples' Democratic Party (HDP) and was part of its central committee.

Member of Parliament.

On June 7, 2015, he was elected into the Grand National Assembly as a representative of Istanbul's 3rd electoral district. He became among the first Armenian members of the Assembly in decades alongside Selina Özuzun Doğan (CHP) and Markar Esayan (AKP). He was re-elected in the snap elections of November 2015.  Upon getting elected Paylan vowed to fight against Armenian Genocide denial and demands that the Armenian Genocide be acknowledged in Turkey. In April 2016, during a speech in parliament he made concerning the 101st anniversary of the Armenian Genocide, Paylan counted the names of Ottoman Armenian politicians who were deported and killed during the Armenian Genocide.  He got re-elected to the Grand National Assembly of Turkey in the General Elections on the 24 June 2018. He is currently a member of the Turkish parliament's Planning and Budget Committee.

Brawl in parliament.

Several days after his speech concerning the Armenian Genocide, Paylan was involved in a fight with members of the AKP which forced the parliament to be suspended. Paylan blamed the AKP party for instigating the violence against opposition party members so as to "rule the parliament using brute force instead of diplomacy and politics." Paylan also expressed his fears that the violence would intensify. A week after, on 2 May 2016, another fight occurred during a meeting for constitutional reform in which the Minister of Justice, Bekir Bozdag, blamed Garo Paylan for starting the fight the previous week. Paylan responded by saying Bozdag's remarks were slanderous. Following the incident, Paylan said that many racist remarks were made about his Armenian identity and that the attack against him was planned. He concluded that he was attacked because of his ethnic Armenian identity.  The Human Rights Association of Turkey released a statement condemning the violence against Paylan. The condemnation, released by its Committee Against Racism and Discrimination, stated that the attacks against him were due to his Armenian origin. The statement also condemned various racial slurs that were said to him such as "the Armenian bastard".

Garo Paylan (, born 1972) is a Turkish politician of Armenian descent. He is a Member of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey for the Peoples' Democratic Party (HDP) representing Diyarbakır. He became one of the first Armenian members of Turkey's parliament in decades alongside Markar Esayan (AKP) and Selina Özuzun Doğan (CHP).

Garo (Garabed) Paylan (, * 1972 in Istanbul) ist ein türkischer Lehrer und Parlamentsabgeordneter armenischer Abstammung. Er ist gewählter Abgeordneter der Großen Nationalversammlung.


Biography.

Edward Henry Powell was born in Richford, Vermont on September 3, 1839. He was educated in Richford and at Potsdam Academy in New York and New Hampton Institute in Fairfax, Vermont. Powell worked as a teacher for several terms while he was attending school.  In 1860, Powell began studies at the University of Vermont, where he remained until withdrawing to enlist for the Civil War. He enlisted as a Private in the 10th Vermont Infantry Regiment on July 17, 1862, and was soon promoted to First Sergeant.  In 1863, he passed a competitive examination and a promotion board to receive an officer's appointment in the United States Colored Troops. He was commissioned as a Lieutenant Colonel in the 10th United States Colored Troops and served with this unit until the end of the war. After the Civil War ended in 1865 the 10th U.S.C.T. performed duty in Texas as part of a separate brigade, and Powell often acted as brigade commander.  After being mustered out Powell returned to Vermont, studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1866.  A Republican, Powell served as a federal customs inspector for Franklin County from 1866 to 1869. From 1872 to 1874, he was Franklin County State's Attorney. He served in the Vermont House of Representatives from 1874 to 1876, and in the Vermont Senate from 1878 to 1880.  In 1878, Powell was elected State Auditor, and he served until 1892.  In 1874, Powell was an original incorporator of the Richford Savings Bank & Trust Company, and was named its President.  Powell moved to Burlington in 1892 to accept the position of Treasurer at the University of Vermont. In 1892, he was also elected to the Board of Directors of the Burlington Trust Company.  Powell died in Burlington on May 4, 1911. He was buried in Burlington's Lakeview Cemetery.

Family.

In 1865, Powell married Ellen Grace Rowell, a music teacher. The couple had two children, Max L. Powell and Blanche Powell Spring. Ellen Powell died of "pulmonary trouble" in 1876. Powell later married Georgiana Reed Bailey, the widow of George W. Bailey Jr., who served as Secretary of State of Vermont. With his second wife Powell also had two children, Thomas Reed Powell and Gertrude Powell Morris.  E. Henry Powell's son Max L. Powell served as President pro tempore of the Vermont State Senate. His younger son, Thomas Reed Powell (1880-1955), was a professor at Columbia and Harvard Law Schools, a consultant and mediator in legal cases involving tax, insurance, and railroad matters, and president of the American Political Science Association.

E. Henry Powell (September 3, 1839 – May 4, 1911) was a Vermont veteran of the Civil War and politician who served as State Auditor.

E. Henry Powell (* 3. September 1839 in Richford, Vermont; † 4. Mai 1911 in Burlington, Vermont) war ein US-amerikanischer Veteran des Sezessionskriegs, Anwalt und Politiker, der von 1878 bis 1892 State Auditor von Vermont war.


Early life, family, and education.

Dolezal was born in Lincoln County, Montana, on November 12, 1977, to Caucasian parents Ruthanne (née Schertel) and Lawrence "Larry" Dolezal, who are white and primarily of German, Czech and Swedish origin; she was born as a blue-eyed blonde. Ruthanne and Larry Dolezal were married in 1974. Dolezal has an older biological brother, Joshua Dolezal, who authored a book about their upbringing in Montana. As of 2015, Joshua Dolezal is a full Professor of English at Central College in Iowa. When Dolezal was a teenager, her parents adopted three African-American children and one Haitian child.  Dolezal has said she was born and lived in a teepee and that the family had hunted for their food with bow and arrow. Her mother stated that she and Dolezal's father briefly lived in a teepee in 1974, three years before their daughter was born, and that Dolezal's claims were "totally false". From 2002 to 2006, her parents and adopted siblings lived in South Africa as Christian missionaries. Dolezal said she lived in South Africa as a child, but her family disputes the claim.  Dolezal was raised as a Pentecostal. She has contended that her parents frequently abused her; in a 2017 interview, she claimed she was taught to believe that "everything that came naturally, instinctively was wrong"—a point that was "literally beaten into us". In a 2015 interview, Dolezal said she was "punished by skin complexion" by her mother and "white stepfather", and compared this alleged punishment to the punishment suffered by black slaves.  Dolezal was homeschooled via the Christian Liberty Academy CLASS program, achieving a 4.0 grade point average (GPA). She was one of several co-valedictorians upon graduation in 1996. She won a $2,000 scholarship for college awarded by Tandy Leather for her entry in their 1996 Leather Art contest. In 1998 she entered art works at Spokane's annual Juneteenth celebration; she expressed African-American themes through collages and mixed-media works.  Following the completion of high school, Dolezal attended Belhaven University in Jackson, Mississippi, receiving her bachelor's degree in 2000. She then attended Howard University, a historically black college in Washington, D.C.; she received a Master of Fine Arts, "summa cum laude", from Howard in 2002. Her thesis at Howard was a series of paintings presented from the perspective of a black man. Dolezal later said that she was drugged and sexually assaulted by a "trusted mentor" when attending Howard University, and that "suing was nearly impossible".  Dolezal married Kevin Moore, a black man, in 2000. Moore, a medical student at Howard University at the time of their marriage, divorced Dolezal in 2004. Dolezal and Moore have a son, Franklin Moore.  In 2010, with the consent of her parents, Dolezal obtained legal guardianship of her 16-year-old adopted brother, Izaiah Dolezal. Izaiah sought to be emancipated after claiming that Larry and Ruthanne not only beat him and his siblings, but also threatened to send them to group homes if they did not obey. Her adoptive brother Ezra Dolezal later denied Izaiah's accusations in an interview with CNN; however, in an interview with BuzzFeed, he acknowledged that his adoptive parents were strict and sometimes used corporal punishment.  Dolezal gave birth to another son, Langston Attickus, in February 2016.

Lawsuit against Howard University.

In 2002, Dolezal unsuccessfully sued Howard University for discrimination based on "race, pregnancy, family responsibilities and gender, as well as retaliation". Her lawsuit alleged that she was denied scholarship funds, a teaching assistant position, and other opportunities because she was a white woman. She also alleged that the removal of her artwork from a student exhibition at Howard in 2001 "was motivated by a discriminatory purpose to favor African-American students" over her.

Career.

Art.

Dolezal created a fountain sculpture titled "Triumph of the Human Spirit" that consisted of a tall column with troubled, sad figures at its base and dancing, celebrating figures further up the column. It was installed in downtown Spokane in June 2005 and was later auctioned off to benefit the Human Rights Education Institute.  In 2007, while working as an art teacher at School Indigo in Coeur d'Alene, Idaho, Dolezal collaborated with children to make five works for a "Rights of the Child" exhibit by the Human Rights Education Institute.

Plagiarism accusations.

In June 2015, Priscilla Frank at "The Huffington Post" and Sarah Cascone at artnet made accusations of plagiarism against Dolezal. A Dolezal painting titled "The Shape of Our Kind" was alleged to be nearly identical to J. M. W. Turner's 1840 work, "The Slave Ship". Frank accused Dolezal of plagiarism for not crediting Turner. Cascone obliquely accused Dolezal of plagiarism for declining to mention Turner's painting while offering her own painting for sale.

Civil rights activism.

Human Rights Institute.

A July 2010 newspaper article indicated that Dolezal had stepped down as education director of the Human Rights Institute in Coeur d'Alene, Idaho, after having served in that capacity for two years. Dolezal indicated that she was, "for all intents and purposes", forced to resign from the organization after its board declined to hire her as its executive director.

NAACP.

Dolezal was elected president of the Spokane chapter of the NAACP in 2014, replacing James Wilburn. She was noted during her brief tenure for revitalizing the chapter. Her resignation from the civil rights organization was announced on June 15, 2015, after the controversy surrounding her racial identity became public.

Police Ombudsman Commission.

Dolezal applied for the position of chair of the Office of the Police Ombudsman Commission in Spokane in May 2014, and was subsequently appointed by Mayor David Condon. In her application, she identified herself as having several ethnicities, including black. In June 2015, City Council President Ben Stuckart said the city had opened an investigation of the truthfulness of her application. On June 17, 2015, the investigation concluded that she had acted improperly, violated government rules and abused her authority, and the report said the evidence and interviews confirmed workplace harassment allegations and "a pattern of misconduct" by Dolezal. Dolezal was asked to resign by Condon and Stuckart due to "intimidating and harassing" behavior. On June 18, 2015, the Spokane City Council voted unanimously to remove Dolezal from her position as chair of the Police Ombudsman Commission.

Teaching and writing.

In 2015, Eastern Washington University stated that "since 2010, Rachel Dolezal has been hired at Eastern Washington University on a quarter by quarter basis as an instructor in the Africana Education program. This is a part-time position to address program needs. Dolezal is not a professor." She taught "The Black Woman's Struggle", "African and African American Art History", "African History", "African American Culture", and "Intro to Africana Studies". A statement by university officials on June 15, 2015, indicated that Dolezal was "no longer an employee of Eastern Washington University". Despite not being a professor, she used the title "professor" on several websites.  Dolezal was a frequent contributor to "The Inlander", an alternative weekly newspaper in Spokane.  Dolezal released a memoir on her racial identity titled "In Full Color: Finding My Place in a Black and White World" in March 2017. The "New York Post" states that "she compares her travails to slavery" in her book.

Racial identity.

General.

Dolezal is a person of Northern and Central European ancestry; genealogical researches of her ancestry have found no non-European ancestry. She self-identifies as black.  According to her brother, Ezra, Dolezal began changing her appearance as early as 2009, when she began using hair products that she had seen Ezra's biological sister use. She began darkening her skin and perming her hair sometime around 2011. When Ezra moved in with Rachel in 2012, she told him that Spokane-area residents knew her as black and said, "Don't blow my cover."  Dolezal has claimed to be a victim of race-related harassment. Dolezal stated on September 29, 2009, to KXLY that a noose had been left on her porch. In July 2010, Dolezal resigned from Human Rights Education Institute in Kootenai County and stated to KREM 2 News that "she had been the target of discrimination". Dolezal's biography on Eastern Washington University's website stated that while she was living in Idaho, "at least eight documented hate crimes targeted (Rachel) Dolezal and her children". Dolezal reportedly made several reports of harassment and other crimes to police in Idaho and Washington, including that she had received a hate mail package at her NAACP post office box and that a swastika was placed on the door of the Human Rights Education Institute, where she had previously worked. Regarding the hate mail package, detectives said the envelope that contained the alleged threats had no postage stamps, barcodes or any other indication of having been handled by the postal service. The postal inspector said, "The only way this letter could have ended up in this P.O. box would be if it was placed there by someone with a key to that box or a USPS employee." According to the "Spokesman Review", as of 2015, none of Dolezal's allegations had resulted in an arrest or in the filing of criminal charges.  Dolezal's uncle, Dan Dolezal, has stated that his niece first claimed that a black friend named Albert Wilkerson was her real father in 2012 or 2013. In another 2015 interview, Dolezal made reference to her "stepfather". Dolezal's mother has said she has never met Albert Wilkerson and that Dolezal does not have a stepfather. Following the public controversy surrounding her identity, Dolezal later acknowledged that she had met Wilkerson while living in Idaho and that she considered him her "dad".  In her 2014 application for the position of chair of the Office of the Police Ombudsman Commission in Spokane, Dolezal identified herself as having several ethnicities, including black. She has said that she is of "African American, Native American, German, Czech, Swedish, Jewish and Arabic" heritage. In an article she wrote for "The Inlander" in March 2015, Dolezal included herself when discussing black women through use of the "we" and "our" pronouns.

Controversy.

Dolezal's self-identification as black became the subject of public controversy in June 2015.  In a June 10, 2015, interview about various alleged hate crimes that Dolezal had reported, KXLY-TV reporter Jeff Humphrey asked Dolezal about a Facebook post in which Dolezal identified Albert Wilkerson as her dad. The following is a partial transcript of the exchange:Reporter: Is that your dad?Dolezal: Yeah. That's... that's my dad.Reporter: This man right here is your father? Right there?Dolezal: Do you have a question about that?Reporter: Yes, ma'am. I was wondering if, uh, your dad really is an African American man?Dolezal: That's a very—I mean, I don't know what you're implying.Reporter: Are you African American?Dolezal: I don't... I don't understand the question of—I did tell you that yes that's my dad. And he was unable to come in January.Reporter: Are your parents—are they white?Dolezal: [Walking away] I refuse...  On June 11, Jeff Selle and Maureen Dolan of the "Coeur d'Alene Press" published an article entitled "Black Like Me?" The article reported that Dolezal had "made claims in the media and elsewhere about her ethnicity, race and background that are contradicted by her biological parents", and went on to outline Dolezal's past hate crimes allegations, allegations of being abused with a baboon whip by her parents, misrepresentations about her race, and misrepresentations about the identity of her father. The article further stated that Dolezal, in a recent interview, "maintained that she is African-American. 'They can DNA test me if they want to', she said. 'I would caution you on all of this. This is ridiculous'." Ruthanne Dolezal was quoted in the article, stating that her daughter's allegation of being abused with a baboon whip was "a very false and malicious lie" and adding that it was "disturbing that she has become so dishonest".  "People" later reported on the circumstances leading up to the publication of "Black Like Me?" Selle had learned of Dolezal's allegation that a package containing racist threats against her was delivered to the post office box of the Spokane, Washington, NAACP. Selle recalled that Dolezal had made similar allegations when she was living in Coeur d'Alene, and that the allegations were not substantiated. Sensing a potential story, Selle discovered that Dolezal had identified Wilkerson as her father; when contacted, Wilkerson contradicted this assertion. Dolan then discovered a photo of Dolezal's actual parents on the internet, and Selle made contact with them. Larry and Ruthanne Dolezal gave Selle pictures of "their naturally blond, fair-skinned daughter" and a copy of her birth certificate.  The controversy surrounding Dolezal's ancestry and identity became national news.

Reactions to the controversy.

After the controversy regarding Dolezal's racial identity became public, the NAACP released a statement in support of her leadership. However, a petition calling for her to resign her position as President of the Spokane chapter of the NAACP was launched. Dolezal stepped down from her position at the NAACP on June 15, 2015.  An investigation into Dolezal's behavior as chair of the Office of the Police Ombudsman Commission in Spokane concluded that she had engaged in "a pattern of misconduct". On June 18, 2015, the Spokane City Council voted unanimously to remove Dolezal from her position as chair.  On June 15, 2015, "The Inlander" (a publication to which Dolezal had contributed) announced that it had cut ties with Dolezal, saying that they felt "manipulated and deceived".  The revelations about Dolezal's ancestry and her other claims provoked a range of reactions. Dolezal's critics argued that she committed cultural appropriation and fraud. However, others said that Dolezal's asserted identity should be respected. Angela Schwendiman, a colleague of Dolezal's at Eastern Washington University, expressed her belief that Dolezal perceived herself as black internally, and that "she was only trying to match how she felt on the inside with her outside". Similarly Cedric Bradley, a colleague of hers at Spokane's NAACP, suggested it mattered little to him whether Dolezal was actually black or not. What did matter to him was her proven track record in social justice work. "It's not about black and white", Bradley stated, "it's about what we can do for the community".  In June 2015, psychologist Halford Fairchild said, "Rachel Dolezal is black because she identifies as black. Her identity was authentic, as far as I could tell." Sociologist Ann Morning also defended Dolezal, saying: "We're getting more and more used to the idea that people's racial affiliation and identity and sense of belonging can change, or can vary, with different circumstances." "Washington Post" journalist Krissah Thompson described her behavior as "white guilt played to its end". Thompson discussed the issue with psychologist Derald Wing Sue, an expert on racial identity, who suggested that Dolezal had become so fascinated by racism and racial justice issues that she "over-identified" with black people.  Gender studies scholar Samantha Allen said, "Rachel Dolezal seems determined to appropriate not just blackness but the rhetoric of transgender identity as well" and called the analogy "spurious". "Washington Post" journalist Jonathan Capehart suggested, "blackface remains highly racist, no matter how down with the cause a white person is." Her adopted brother Ezra Dolezal also compared his sister's behavior to blackface and said "she's basically creating more racism".  In December 2017, Shawn Vestal of "The Spokesman-Review" called Dolezal "Spokane's undisputed heavyweight champion of racial appropriation".  The Dolezal case led to a debate in scholarship as to whether transracial identity can be compared to transgender identity.

Responses from Dolezal.

Dolezal has asserted that her self-identification is genuine, even though it is not based on ancestry.  Dolezal issued a statement on June 15, 2015, asserting that "challenging the construct of race is at the core of evolving human consciousness". The following day, Dolezal told "Today Show" host Matt Lauer she was first described as "transracial" and "biracial" in articles about her human rights work, and chose not to correct them. In the same interview, she defended herself against allegations of having put on blackface by saying the way she presented herself was "not some freak, "Birth of a Nation", mockery blackface performance". Dolezal later clarified that she has never claimed to be "transracial", a term associated mainly with transracial adoption.  Dolezal alleged that the Spokane police chief had tired of dealing with her and had asked a private investigator to find out more information on her; while the private investigator in question (Ted Pulver) acknowledged having investigated Dolezal, both he and the attorney for the police chief denied that the police chief had hired Pulver.  In subsequent interviews, Dolezal stated that she considered herself to be black. In a November 2 2015 interview on "The Real", Dolezal publicly acknowledged for the first time since the controversy began that she was "biologically born white to white parents", but maintained that she identified as black.  In a February 2017 interview with "The Guardian", Dolezal said that she sees race as a social construct.

In popular culture.

In June 2015, Maya Rudolph did an impression of Dolezal on "Late Night with Seth Meyers". In 2016, Deborah Theaker played a parody of Dolezal on "Lady Dynamite".  In 2018, a documentary entitled "The Rachel Divide" aired. The film was directed by Laura Brownson and distributed by Netflix. The documentary explored Dolezal's 2015 racial identity controversy, the circumstances surrounding it, and its aftermath. The documentary received mixed reviews. "Vogue" gave the filmmaker credit for "balanced treatment of her deeply problematic subject matter". "The New Yorker" noted the film's portrait of family dynamics. "Eventually, Brownson locates the real story: a primitive power game between mother and child, one that forecasts calamity. And it is in this mode that "The Rachel Divide" becomes a disturbing and enthralling drama of the American family, the pain of its truths and its fictions."

Personal life.

According to a February 2015 article in "The Easterner", Dolezal said she had suffered from cervical cancer in 2006, but had recovered by 2008. Dolezal's brother, Ezra Dolezal, has stated that he does not believe this claim to be true.  In 2015, Dolezal stated that she is bisexual. She has also stated that she has been diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).  In October 2016, Dolezal legally changed her name to Nkechi Amare Diallo. She later clarified that she still intends to use the name Rachel Dolezal "as her public persona", but that she changed her name to have a better chance of landing work.

Welfare fraud charges.

In February 2017, Dolezal was receiving food stamps. She claimed that she was on the brink of homelessness and was unable to find employment.  In May 2018, Dolezal was charged with second-degree perjury and felony theft by welfare fraud by the Washington State Department of Social and Health Services. The charges were filed after it was revealed that she had received $8,847 in food and childcare assistance between August 2015 and December 2017. During that time period, she had been receiving tens of thousands of dollars in unreported income, but had told the state that her income was less than $500 per month. State investigators discovered that after her book was published, approximately $83,924 had been deposited into her bank account in monthly installments between August 2015 and September 2017. According to the Spokane County prosecutor's office, Dolezal could have received a sentence of up to 15 years in prison if she was found guilty. She entered into a diversion agreement on March 25, 2019, agreeing to repay her assistance benefits and complete 120 hours of community service to avoid a trial.

Rachel Anne Dolezal (born November 12, 1977), also known as Nkechi Amare Diallo, is an American woman known for identifying and passing as a black woman while being of European ancestry and having no verifiable African ancestry. She is a former college instructor and National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) chapter president.

Rachel Dolezal (auch "Doležal" geschrieben; * 1977) ist eine amerikanische Kulturwissenschaftlerin und Bürgerrechtsaktivistin. Sie war bis Juni 2015 Lehrbeauftragte ("Instructor") für afrikanische und afroamerikanische Studien an der Eastern Washington University, Präsidentin der lokalen Abteilung der National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in Spokane, Washington und Vorsitzende der Ombudsmann-Kommission der Polizei in Spokane.