Definition.

Oxford Dictionaries defines "Chinatown" as "...a district of any non-Asian town, especially a city or seaport, in which the population is predominantly of Chinese origin". However, some Chinatowns may have little to do with China. Some "Vietnamese" enclaves are in fact a city's "second Chinatown", and some Chinatowns are in fact pan-Asian, meaning they could also be counted as a Koreatown or Little India. One example includes Asiatown in Cleveland, Ohio. It was initially referred to as a Chinatown but was subsequently renamed due to the influx of non-Chinese Asian Americans who opened businesses there. Today the district acts as a unifying factor for the Chinese, Taiwanese, Korean, Japanese, Filipino, Indian, Vietnamese, Cambodian, Laotian, Nepalese and Thai communities of Cleveland.  Further ambiguities with the term can include Chinese ethnoburbs which by definition are "...suburban ethnic clusters of residential areas and business districts in large metropolitan areas where the intended purpose is to be "...as isolated from the white population as Hispanics". An article in "The New York Times" blurs the line further by categorizing very different Chinatowns such as Chinatown, Manhattan, which exists in an urban setting as "traditional"; Monterey Park's Chinatown, which exists in a "suburban" setting (and labeled as such); and Austin, Texas's Chinatown, which is in essence a "fabricated" Chinese-themed mall. This contrasts with narrower definitions, where the term only described Chinatown in a city setting.  In some cities in Spain, the term "barrio chino" ('Chinese quarter') denotes an area, neighborhood or district where prostitution or other businesses related to the sex industry are concentrated; i.e. a red-light district. Some examples of this are the Chinatown of Salamanca and Barri Xinès, the Chinatown of Barcelona a part of El Raval, although in Barcelona there was a small Chinese community in the 1930s.

History.

Trading centres populated predominantly by Chinese men and their native spouses have long existed throughout Southeast Asia. Emigration to other parts of the world from China accelerated in the 1860s with the signing of the Treaty of Peking (1860), which opened the border for free movement. Early emigrants came primarily from the coastal provinces of Guangdong (Canton, Kwangtung) and Fujian (Fukien, Hokkien) in southeastern China – where the people generally speak Toishanese, Cantonese, Hakka, Teochew (Chiuchow) and Hokkien. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, a significant amount of Chinese emigration to North America originated from four counties called Sze Yup, located west of the Pearl River Delta in Guangdong province, making Toishanese a dominant variety of the Chinese language spoken in Chinatowns in Canada and the United States.  As conditions in China have improved in recent decades, many Chinatowns have lost their initial mission, which was to provide a transitional place into a new culture. As net migration has slowed into them, the smaller Chinatowns have slowly decayed, often to the point of becoming purely historical and no longer serving as ethnic enclaves.

In Asia.

Along the coastal area of Southeast Asia of the 16th century, quite many Chinese settlements existed in according to Zheng He's and Tome Pires' travel accounts. Melaka in Portuguese colonial period, for instance, had a large number of Chinese population in Campo China. They settled down at port towns under authority's approval for trading. After the European colonial powers seized and ruled the port towns in the 16th century, Chinese supported European traders and colonists, and created autonomic settlements.  Several Asian Chinatowns, although not yet called by that name, have a long history. Those in Nagasaki, Kobe and Yokohama, Japan, Binondo in Manila, Hoi An and Bao Vinh in central Vietnam all existed in 1600. Glodok, the Chinese quarter of Jakarta, Indonesia, dates to 1740.  Chinese presence in India dates back to the 5th century AD, with the first recorded Chinese settler in Calcutta named Young Atchew around 1780. Chinatowns first appeared in the Indian cities of Calcutta (now renamed Kolkata), Mumbai and Chennai.  The Chinatown centered on Yaowarat Road in Bangkok, Thailand, was founded at the same time as the city itself, in 1782.

In the West.

An early enclave of Chinese people emerged in the 1830s in Liverpool, England, when the first direct trading vessel from China arrived in Liverpool's docks to trade in goods, including silk and cotton wool. Many Chinese immigrants arrived in Liverpool in the late 1850s in the employ of the Blue Funnel Shipping Line, a cargo transport company established by Alfred Holt. The commercial shipping line created strong trade links between the cities of Shanghai, Hong Kong and Liverpool, mainly in the importation of silk, cotton and tea. They settled near the docks, but the area was heavily bombed during World War II, with the Chinese community moving a few blocks to the current Liverpool Chinatown in Nelson Street.  The Chinatown in San Francisco is one of the largest in North America and the oldest north of Mexico. It served as a port of entry for early Chinese immigrants from the 1850s to the 1900s. The area was the one geographical region deeded by the city government and private property owners which allowed Chinese persons to inherit and inhabit dwellings within the city. Many Chinese found jobs working for large companies seeking a source of labor, most famously as part of the Central Pacific on the Transcontinental Railroad. Since it started in Omaha, that city had a notable Chinatown for almost a century. Other cities in North America where Chinatowns were founded in the mid-nineteenth century include almost every major settlement along the West Coast from San Diego to Victoria. Other early immigrants worked as mine workers or independent prospectors hoping to strike it rich during the 1849 Gold Rush.  Economic opportunity drove the building of further Chinatowns in the United States. The initial Chinatowns were built in the Western United States in states such as California, Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Utah, Colorado, and Arizona. As the transcontinental railroad was built, more Chinatowns started to appear in railroad towns such as St. Louis, Chicago, Cincinnati, Pittsburgh, Butte Montana, and many east coast cities such as New York City, Boston, Philadelphia, Providence, and Baltimore. With the passage of the Emancipation Proclamation, many southern states such as Arkansas, Louisiana, and Georgia began to hire Chinese for work in place of slave labor.  The history of Chinatowns was not always peaceful, especially when labor disputes arose. Racial tensions flared when lower-paid Chinese workers replaced white miners in many mountain-area Chinatowns, such as in Wyoming with the Rock Springs Massacre. Many of these frontier Chinatowns became extinct as American racism surged and the Chinese Exclusion Act was passed.  In Australia, the Victorian gold rush which began in 1851 attracted Chinese prospectors from the Guangdong area, and a community began to form in the eastern end of Little Bourke Street, Melbourne by the mid 1850s; the area is still the centre of the Melbourne chinatown, making it the oldest continuously occupied Chinatown in a western city (since the San Francisco one was destroyed and rebuilt). Gradually expanding, it reached a peak in the early 20th century, with Chinese business, mainly furniture workshops, occupying a block wide swath of the city, overlapping into the adjacent 'Little Lon' red light district. With restricted immigration it shrunk again, becoming a strip of Chinese restaurants by the late 1970s, when it was celebrated with decorative arches, and with recent huge influx of students from mainland China is now the centre of a much larger area of noodle shops, travel agents, restaurants, and groceries. The Australian gold rushes also saw the development of a Chinatown in Sydney, at first around the Rocks, near the docks, but it has moved twice, first in the 1890s to the east side of the Haymarket area, near the new markets, then in the 1920s concentrating on the west side, and Chinatown, Sydney is now centred on Dixon Street.  Other Chinatowns in European capitals, including Paris and London, were established at the turn of the 20th century. The first Chinatown in London was located in the Limehouse area of the East End of London at the start of the 20th century. The Chinese population engaged in business which catered to the Chinese sailors who frequented the Docklands. The area acquired a bad reputation from exaggerated reports of opium dens and slum housing.  France received a large settlement of Chinese immigrant laborers, mostly from the city of Wenzhou, in the Zhejiang province of China. Significant Chinatowns sprung up in Belleville and the 13th arrondissement of Paris.

1970s to the present.

By the late 1970s, refugees and exiles from the Vietnam War played a significant part in the redevelopment of Chinatowns in developed Western countries. As a result, many existing Chinatowns have become pan-Asian business districts and residential neighborhoods. By contrast, most Chinatowns in the past had been largely inhabited by Chinese from southeastern China.  In 2001, the events of September 11 have resulted in a mass migration of about 14,000 Chinese workers from Manhattan's Chinatown to Montville, Connecticut, due to the fall of the garment industry and workers transitioning to casino jobs fueled by the development of the Mohegan Sun casino.  In 2012, Tijuana's Chinatown formed as a result of availability of direct flights to China. The La Mesa District of Tijuana was formerly a small enclave, but has tripled in size as a result of direct flights to Shanghai, with an ethnic Chinese population rise from 5,000 in 2009 to roughly 15,000 in 2012, overtaking Mexicali's Chinatown as the largest Chinese enclave in Mexico.  The New York metropolitan area, consisting of New York City, Long Island, and nearby areas within the states of New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania, is home to the largest Chinese American population of any metropolitan area within the United States and the largest Chinese population outside of China, enumerating an estimated 893,697 in 2017 and including at least 12 Chinatowns. Continuing significant immigration from Mainland China, both legal and illegal in origin, has spurred the ongoing rise of the Chinese American population in the New York metropolitan area; this immigration continues to be fueled by New York's status as an alpha global city, its high population density, its extensive mass transit system, and the New York metropolitan area's enormous economic marketplace. The Manhattan Chinatown contains the largest concentration of ethnic Chinese in the Western hemisphere; while the Flushing Chinatown in Queens has become the world's largest Chinatown, but conversely, has also emerged as the epicenter of organized prostitution in the United States.  Today, Chinatown, Chicago is one of the few Chinatown neighborhoods in the United States that has shielded gentrification and has seen a continued growth of Chinese residents.

Characteristics.

The features described below are characteristic of many modern Chinatowns.

Demographics.

The early Chinatowns such as those in San Francisco and Los Angeles in the United States were naturally destinations for people of Chinese descent as migration were the result of opportunities such as the California Gold Rush and the Transcontinental Railroad drawing the population in, creating natural Chinese enclaves that were almost always 100% exclusively Han Chinese, which included both people born in China and in the enclave, in this case American-born Chinese. In some free countries such as the United States and Canada, housing laws that prevent discrimination also allows neighborhoods that may have been characterized as "All Chinese" to also allow non-Chinese to reside in these communities. For example, the Chinatown in Philadelphia has a sizeable non-Chinese population residing within the community. A recent study also suggests that the demographic change is also driven by gentrification of what were previously Chinatown neighborhoods. The influx of luxury housing is speeding up the gentrification of such neighborhoods. The trend for emergence of these types of natural enclaves is on the decline (with the exceptions being the continued growth and emergence of newer Chinatowns in Queens and Brooklyn in New York City), only to be replaced by newer "Disneyland-like" attractions, such as a new Chinatown that will be built in the Catskills region of New York. This includes the endangerment of existing historical Chinatowns that will eventually stop serving the needs of Chinese immigrants. Newer developments like those in Norwich, Connecticut, and the San Gabriel Valley, which are not necessarily considered "Chinatowns" in the sense that they do not necessarily contain the Chinese architectures or Chinese language signs as signatures of an officially sanctioned area that was designated either in law or signage stating so, differentiate areas that are called "Chinatowns" versus locations that have "significant" populations of people of Chinese descent. For example, San Jose, California in the United States has 63,434 people (2010 U.S. Census) of Chinese descent, and yet "does not have a Chinatown". Some "official" Chinatowns have Chinese populations much lower than that.

Town-Scape.

Many tourist-destination metropolitan Chinatowns can be distinguished by large red arch entrance structures known in Mandarin Chinese as "Paifang" (sometimes accompanied by imperial guardian lion statues on either side of the structure, to greet visitors). Other Chinese architectural styles such as the Chinese Garden of Friendship in Sydney Chinatown and the Chinese stone lions at the gate to the Victoria, British Columbia Chinatown are present in some Chinatowns. Mahale Chiniha, the Chinatown in Iran, contains many buildings that were constructed in the Chinese architectural style.  Paifangs usually have special inscriptions in Chinese. Historically, these gateways were donated to a particular city as a gift from the Republic of China and People's Republic of China, or local governments (such as Chinatown, San Francisco), and business organizations. The long-neglected Chinatown in Havana, Cuba, received materials for its paifang from the People's Republic of China as part of the Chinatown's gradual renaissance. Construction of these red arches is often financed by local financial contributions from the Chinatown community. Some of these structures span an entire intersection, and some are smaller in height and width. Some paifang can be made of wood, masonry, or steel and may incorporate an elaborate or simple design.

Benevolent and business associations.

A major component of many Chinatowns is the family benevolent association, which provides some degree of aid to immigrants. These associations generally provide social support, religious services, death benefits (members' names in Chinese are generally enshrined on tablets and posted on walls), meals, and recreational activities for ethnic Chinese, especially for older Chinese migrants. Membership in these associations can be based on members sharing a common Chinese surname or belonging to a common clan, spoken Chinese dialect, specific village, region or country of origin, and so on. Many have their own facilities.  Some examples include San Francisco's prominent Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association (中華總會館 "Zhōnghuá Zǒng Huìguǎn"), aka Chinese Six Companies, and Los Angeles' Southern California Teochew Association. The Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association is among the largest umbrella groups of benevolent associations in the North America, which branches in several Chinatowns. Politically, the CCBA has traditionally been aligned with the Kuomintang and the Republic of China.  The London Chinatown Chinese Association is active in Chinatown, London. Chinatown, Paris has an institution in the "Association des Résidents en France d'origine indochinoise" and it servicing overseas Chinese immigrants in Paris who were born in the former French Indochina.  Traditionally, Chinatown-based associations have also been aligned with ethnic Chinese business interests, such as restaurant, grocery, and laundry (antiquated) associations in Chinatowns in North America. In Chicago's Chinatown, the On Leong Merchants Association was active.

Names.

English.

Although the term "Chinatown" was first used in Asia, it does not come from a Chinese language. Its earliest appearance seems to have been in connection with the Chinese quarter of Singapore, which by 1844 was already being called "China Town" or "Chinatown" by the British colonial government. This may have been a word-for-word translation into English of the Malay name for that quarter, which in those days was probably "Kampong China" or possibly "Kota China" or "Kampong Tionghua/Chunghwa/Zhonghua".  The first appearance of a Chinatown outside Singapore may have been in 1852, in a book by the Rev. Hatfield, who applied the term to the Chinese part of the main settlement on the remote South Atlantic island of St. Helena. The island was a regular way-station on the voyage to Europe and North America from Indian Ocean ports, including Singapore. One of the earliest American usages dates to 1855, when San Francisco newspaper "The Daily Alta California" described a "pitched battle on the streets of [SF's] Chinatown". Other "Alta" articles from the late 1850s make it clear that areas called "Chinatown" existed at that time in several other California cities, including Oroville and San Andres. By 1869, "Chinatown had acquired its full modern meaning all over the U.S. and Canada. For instance, an Ohio newspaper wrote: "From San Diego to Sitka..., every town and hamlet has its 'Chinatown'."  In British publications before the 1890s, "Chinatown" appeared mainly in connection with California. At first, Australian and New Zealand journalists also regarded Chinatowns as Californian phenomena. However, they began using the term to denote local Chinese communities as early as 1861 in Australia and 1873 in New Zealand. In most other countries, the custom of calling local Chinese communities "Chinatowns" is not older than the twentieth century.  Several alternate English names for Chinatown include China Town (generally used in British and Australian English), The Chinese District, Chinese Quarter, and China Alley (an antiquated term used primarily in several rural towns in the western United States for a Chinese community; some of these are now historical sites). In the case of Lillooet, British Columbia, Canada, China Alley was a parallel commercial street adjacent to the town's Main Street, enjoying a view over the river valley adjacent and also over the main residential part of Chinatown, which was largely of adobe construction. All traces of Chinatown and China Alley there have disappeared, despite a once large and prosperous community.

In Chinese.

In Chinese, Chinatown is usually called, in Cantonese "Tong jan gai", in Mandarin "Tángrénjiē", in Hakka "Tong ngin gai", and in Toisan "Hong ngin gai", literally meaning "Tang people's street(s)". The Tang Dynasty was a zenith of the Chinese civilization, after which some Chinese call themselves. Some Chinatowns are indeed just one single street, such as the relatively short Fisgard Street in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada.  A more modern Chinese name is (Cantonese: Waa Fau, Mandarin: Huábù) meaning "Chinese City", used in the semi-official Chinese translations of some cities' documents and signs. "Bù", pronounced sometimes in Mandarin as "fù", usually means "seaport"; but in this sense, it means "city" or "town". "Tong jan fau" ( "Tang people's town") is also used in Cantonese nowadays. The literal word-for-word translation of "Chinatown"—"Zhōngguó Chéng" () is also used, but more frequently by visiting Chinese nationals rather than immigrants of Chinese descent who live in various Chinatowns.  Chinatowns in Southeast Asia have unique Chinese names used by the local Chinese, as there are large populations of people who are Overseas Chinese, living within the various major cities of Southeast Asia. As the population of Overseas Chinese, is widely dispersed in various enclaves, across each major Southeast Asian city, specific Chinese names are used instead.  For example, in Singapore, where 2.8 million ethnic Chinese constitute a majority 74% of the resident population, the Chinese name for Chinatown is "Niúchēshǔi" (, Hokkien POJ: "Gû-chia-chúi"), which literally means "ox-cart water" from the Malay 'Kreta Ayer' in reference to the water carts that used to ply the area. The Chinatown in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, (where 2 million ethnic Chinese comprise 30% of the population of Greater Kuala Lumpur ) while officially known as Petaling Street (Malay: "Jalan Petaling"), is referred to by Malaysian Chinese by its Cantonese name "ci cong gaai" (, pinyin: "Cíchǎng Jiē"), literally "tapioca factory street", after a tapioca starch factory that once stood in the area. In Manila, Philippines, the area is called Mínlúnluò Qū, literally meaning the "Mín and Luò Rivers confluence district" but is actually a transliteration of the local term "Binondo" and an allusion to its proximity to the Pasig River.

Other languages.

In Francophone regions (such as France and Quebec), Chinatown is often referred to as le quartier chinois ("the Chinese Quarter"; plural: "les quartiers chinois"). The most prominent Francophone Chinatowns are located in Paris and Montreal.  The Spanish-language term is usually barrio chino ("Chinese neighborhood"; plural: "barrios chinos"), used in Spain and Latin America. (However, "barrio chino" or its Catalan cognate "barri xinès" do not always refer to a Chinese neighborhood: these are also common terms for a disreputable district with drugs and prostitution, and often no connection to the Chinese.).  The Vietnamese term for Chinatown is "Khu người Hoa" (Chinese district) or "phố Tàu" (Chinese street). Vietnamese language is prevalent in Chinatowns of Paris, Los Angeles, Boston, Philadelphia, Toronto, and Montreal as ethnic Chinese from Vietnam have set up shop in them.  In Japanese, the term "chūkagai" (中華街, literally "Chinese Street") is the translation used for Yokohama and Nagasaki Chinatown.  In Indonesia, chinatown is known as Pecinan, a shortened term of "pe-cina-an", means everything related to the Chinese people. Most of these pecinans usually located in Java.  Some languages have adopted the English-language term, such as Dutch and German.

Locations.

Africa.

There are three noteworthy Chinatowns in Africa located in the coastal African nations of Madagascar, Mauritius, and South Africa. South Africa has the largest Chinatown and the largest Chinese population of any African country and remains a popular destination for Chinese immigrants coming to Africa. Derrick Avenue in Cyrildene, Johannesburg, hosts South Africa's largest Chinatown.

Americas.

In the Americas, which includes North America, Central America and South America, Chinatowns have been around since the 1800s. The most prominent ones exist in the United States and Canada in Toronto, New York City, San Francisco, and Vancouver. The New York City metropolitan area is home to the largest ethnic Chinese population outside of Asia, comprising an estimated 893,697 uniracial individuals as of 2017, including at least 12 Chinatowns – six (or nine, including the emerging Chinatowns in Corona and Whitestone, Queens, and East Harlem, Manhattan) in New York City proper, and one each in Nassau County, Long Island; Edison, New Jersey; and Parsippany-Troy Hills, New Jersey, not to mention fledgling ethnic Chinese enclaves emerging throughout the New York City metropolitan area. San Francisco, a Pacific port city, has the oldest and longest continuous running Chinatown in the Western Hemisphere. In Canada, Vancouver's Chinatown is the country's largest.  The oldest Chinatown in the Americas is in Mexico City and dates back to at least the early 17th century. Since the 1970s, new arrivals have typically hailed from Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. Latin American Chinatowns may include the descendants of original migrants – often of mixed Chinese and Latin parentage – and more recent immigrants from East Asia. Most Asian Latin Americans are of Cantonese and Hakka origin. Estimates widely vary on the number of Chinese descendants in Latin America. Notable Chinatowns also exist in Lima, Peru.

Asia.

Chinatowns in Asia are widespread with a large concentration of overseas Chinese in East Asia and Southeast Asia and ethnic Chinese whose ancestors came from southern China – particularly the provinces of Guangdong, Fujian, and Hainan – and settled in countries such as Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam centuries ago—starting as early as the Tang Dynasty, but mostly notably in the 17th through the 19th centuries (during the reign of the Qing Dynasty), and well into the 20th century. Today the Chinese diaspora in Asia is largely concentrated in Southeast Asia however the legacy of the once widespread overseas Chinese communities in Asia is evident in the many Chinatowns that are found across East Asia, South Asia, and Southeast Asia.

Australia and Oceania.

The Chinatown of Melbourne lies within the Melbourne Central Business District and centers on the eastern end of Little Bourke Street. It extends between the corners of Swanston and Exhibition Streets. Melbourne's Chinatown originated during the Victorian gold rush in 1851, and is notable as the oldest Chinatown in Australia. It has also been claimed to be the longest continuously running Chinese community outside of Asia, but only because the 1906 San Francisco earthquake all but destroyed the Chinatown in San Francisco in California.  Sydney's main Chinatown centers on Sussex Street in the Sydney downtown. It stretches from Central Station in the east to Darling Harbour in the west, and is Australia's largest Chinatown.  The Chinatown of Adelaide was originally built in the 1960s and was renovated in the 1980s. It is located near Adelaide Central Market and the Adelaide Bus Station.  Chinatown Gold Coast is a precinct in the Central Business District of Southport, Queensland, that runs through Davenport Street and Young Street. The precinct extends between Nerang Street in the north and Garden Street/Scarborough Street east-west. Redevelopment of the precinct was established in 2013 and completed in 2015 in time for Chinese New Year celebrations.  There are additional Chinatowns in Brisbane, Perth and Broome in Australia.

Europe.

Several urban Chinatowns exist in major European capital cities. There is Chinatown, London, England as well as major Chinatowns in Birmingham, Liverpool, Newcastle, and Manchester. Berlin, Germany has one established Chinatown in the area around Kantstrasse of Charlottenburg in the West. Antwerp, Belgium has also seen an upstart Chinese community, that has been recognized by the local authorities since 2011. The city council of Cardiff has plans to recognize the Chinese Diaspora in the city.  The Chinatown in Paris, located in the 13th arrondissement, is the largest in Europe, where many Vietnamese – specifically ethnic Chinese refugees from Vietnam – have settled and in Belleville in the northeast of Paris as well as in Lyon. In Italy, there is a Chinatown in Milan between Via Luigi Canonica and Via Paolo Sarpi and others in Rome and Prato. In the Netherlands, Chinatowns exist in Amsterdam, Rotterdam and the Hague.  In the United Kingdom, several exist in Birmingham, Liverpool, London, Manchester and Newcastle Upon Tyne. The Chinatown in Liverpool is the oldest Chinese community in Europe. The Chinatown in London was established in the Limehouse district in the late 19th century. The Chinatown in Manchester is located in central Manchester.

In popular culture.

Chinatowns have been referenced in various films including "The Joy Luck Club", "Big Trouble in Little China", "Year of the Dragon" and "Chinatown". Also, many films in which Jackie Chan appears reference locations in Chinatown, particularly the "Rush Hour" series with Chris Tucker.  Chinatowns have also been mentioned in the song "Kung Fu Fighting" by Carl Douglas whose song lyrics says "...There was funky China men from funky Chinatown..."  The martial arts actor Bruce Lee is well known as a person who was born in the Chinatown of San Francisco. Other notable Chinese Americans such as politician Gary Locke and NBA player Jeremy Lin grew up in suburbs with lesser connections to traditional Chinatowns. Neighborhood activists and politicians have increased in prominence in some cities, and some are starting to attract support from non-Chinese voters.

A Chinatown () is an ethnic enclave of Chinese people located outside mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau or Taiwan, most often in an urban setting. Areas known as "Chinatown" exist throughout the world, including Europe, North America, South America, Asia, Africa, Australasia and the Middle East.

Chinatown () bezeichnet Stadtviertel außerhalb von China, in denen überwiegend Menschen chinesischer Abstammung wohnen und arbeiten. Chinesen wählen meistens den Begriff „Tangren Jie“ (), regional auch „Huaren Jie“ () oder „Zhonghua Jie“ ().


Analysis.

The first dance, which uses no chorus and is sometimes omitted in concerts, is No. 8, entitled "Dance of the Polovtsian Maidens" ["Пляска половецких девушек"]: presto, 6/8, F major; it is placed directly after the "Chorus of the Polovtsian Maidens" which opens the act and is followed by "Konchakovna's Cavatina".  "Theme from No. 8" <score vorbis>\relative c{\key f \major \time 6/8 c4\p( bes8 a bes c bes a bes g a bes) a( g f g f e f e d d4) r8 \bar "||"}</score>  The dances proper appear at the end of the act as an uninterrupted single number in several contrasting sections, as in the following list. Basic themes are identified by letters in brackets (e.g. [a]) and illustrated in the notation below the list.  "Themes from No. 17" <score vorbis>\relative c{\key a \major \time 4/4 b8^"[a]"\p( cis d4) \times 2/3{fis8( e d} cis4) d8( cis16 b a4) r2 fis8( gis a4) \times 2/3{cis8( b a} gis4) a2 r2 \bar "||"}</score>  <score vorbis>\relative c{\key a \major \time 4/4 b,8-.\p^"[b]" b( fis'4)~fis8 e16( fis) \appoggiatura {d16[e]} d8( cis16 b) cis( d e8~)e4 e8( fis) \appoggiatura{cis16[d]} cis8( b16 a) fis8-. fis( b4~) b8( cis) \appoggiatura{b16[cis]} b8( a16 gis) a( gis fis8~)fis4 fis8 (gis a cis) \bar "||"}\layout{\context{\Score \override NonMusicalPaperColumn.line-break-permission = ##f \override NonMusicalPaperColumn.page-break-permission = ##f}}</score>  <score vorbis>\relative c{\key f \major \time 4/4 g8-.\p^"[c]" g8->~g16( a bes8) bes16( c bes a) a( bes a g) f8-. f->~f16( g f e) e( f e ees) d( ees e f) \break g8-. g->~g16( a bes8) bes16( c bes a) a( bes a g) f8-. f->~f16( g f ees) des( ees des c) bes( c des f) \bar "||"}\layout{\context{\Score \override NonMusicalPaperColumn.line-break-permission = ##f \override NonMusicalPaperColumn.page-break-permission = ##f}}</score>  <score vorbis>\relative c{\key d \major \time 3/4 r4\ff^"[d]" a,->( b8) r r4 b->( cis8) r r4 cis->( d8) r r4 d->( e8) r r4 fis4.->( g8) g( fis) fis( eis) eis( e) e( dis) dis( d) d( cis) cis\trill( b) b4-. b-. \bar "||"}</score>  <score vorbis>\relative c"{\key f \major \time 6/8 «{r8^"[e]" r a(\p e'4.->)~ e2.~e8 r e( g4->) e8( g4->) e8( g4->) e8( a,->)}\\{\hideNotes r2. \unHideNotes r8 c (e d c bes a) r r d,-> r r c-> r r bes-> r4 a8->}» \bar "||"}</score>  Notable instrumental solos include those for clarinet (in No. 8 and the Men's Dance [c]) and the oboe and English horn (in the Women's Dance [b]).

Translation.

The text of the first stanza of this particular section in the opera is given below. <poem lang="ru" style="float:left;"> Улетай на крыльях ветра Ты в край родной, родная песня наша, Туда, где мы тебя свободно пели, Где было так привольно нам с тобою. Там, под знойным небом, Негой воздух полон, Там под говор моря Дремлют горы в облаках; Там так ярко солнце светит, Родные горы светом заливая, В долинах пышно розы расцветают, И соловьи поют в лесах зеленых, И сладкий виноград растет. Там тебе привольней, песня, Ты туда и улетай. Пойте песни славы хану! Пой! Славьте силу, дочесть хана! Славь! Славен хан! Хан! Славен он, хан наш! Блеском славы Солнцу равен хан! Нету равных славой хану! Нет! Чаги хана славят хана. Хана своего.</poem> <poem style="margin-left:2em; float:left;"> Uletay na krylyakh vetra Ty v kraj rodnoy, rodnaya pesnya nasha, Tuda, gde my tebya svobodno peli, Gde bylo tak privolno nam s tobyu. Tam, pod znoynym nebom, Negoy vozdukh polon, Tam pod govor morya Dremlut gory v oblakakh; Tam tak yarko solntse svetit, Rodnyye gory svetom zalivaya, V dolinakh pyshno rozy rastsvetayut, I solovyi poyut v lesakh zelyonykh, I sladkiy vinograd rastyot. Tam tebe privolney, pesnya, Ty tuda i uletay. Poyte pesni slavy khanu! Poy! Slav'te silu, dochest' khana! Slav'! Slaven khan! Khan! Slaven on, khan nash! Bleskom slavy Solntsu raven khan! Nyetu ravnykh slavoy khanu! Nyet! Chagi khana slavyat khana. Khana svoyego.</poem> <poem style="margin-left:2em; float:left;"> Fly on the wings of the wind To our native land, dear song of ours, There, where we have sung you at liberty, Where we felt so free in singing you. There, under the hot sky, The air is full of bliss, There to the sound of the sea The mountains doze in the clouds; There the sun shines so brightly, Bathing the native mountains in light, Splendid roses blossom in the valleys, And nightingales sing in the green forests. And sweet grapes grow. You are free there, song, Fly home, Sing songs of praise to the Khan! Sing! Praise the power and valor of the Khan! Praise the glorious Khan! He is glorious, our Khan! In the brilliance of his glory, The Khan is equal to the sun! There is none equal to the Khan in glory, none! The Khan female slaves praise the Khan, Their Khan!</poem>  The English translation of the remaining is: <poem>:"Konchak" [the Khan] Do you see the captives From the distant sea; Do you see my beauties, From beyond the Caspian Sea? Oh, tell me, friend, Tell me just one word: If you want to, I will give you anyone of them.  Sing songs of praise to the Khan! Sing! Praised be his generosity, praised be his mercy! Praise him! To his enemies the Khan is merciless He, our Khan! Who may equal the Khan in glory, who? In the brilliance of his glory, He is equal to the sun! Our Khan, Khan Konchak, is equal In glory to his forefathers! The terrible Khan Konchak is equal In glory to his forefathers! Glorious is our Khan Konchak! Glory, glory!  Our Khan, Khan Konchak, is equal In glory to his forefathers! The grim Khan Konchak is equal In glory to his forefathers! Glory, glory to Khan Konchak! Khan Konchak! With your dancing entertain the Khan, Dance to entertain the Khan, slaves! Your Khan! Dance to entertain the Khan, slaves! Your Khan! With your dancing entertain the Khan! Entertain with dancing! Our Khan Konchak!</poem>

Ballets Russes performances.

As part of his first at the Théâtre du Châtelet in Paris, Sergei Diaghilev presented "Polovtsian Scenes and Dances", consisting of act 2 of "Prince Igor", with full orchestra and singers. The premiere took place on 18 May 1909. The choreography was by Michel Fokine and the sets and costumes were designed by Nicholas Roerich. In later seasons, without singers, the work was given as "The Polovtsian Dances". For the 1923 season, it was partly re-choreographed by Bronislava Nijinska.

In popular culture.

Themes from the "Polovtsian Dances" have been used widely in popular culture. The 1953 musical "Kismet" is mostly adapted from Borodin's music, including these dances. For instance, the "Gliding Dance of the Maidens" from Polovtsian Dances is adapted to Stranger in Paradise (song), which has been performed and referenced extensively (see the corresponding article). Themes have been adapted into various genres of popular music and performed by many singers and groups.

The Polovtsian Dances, or Polovetsian Dances ( from the Russian "Polovtsy"—the name given to the Kipchaks and Cumans by the Rus' people) form an exotic scene at the end of act 2 of Alexander Borodin's opera "Prince Igor".

Die Polowetzer Tänze sind vier Tänze aus der Oper "Fürst Igor" von Alexander Borodin. In der Oper selbst werden sie mit Chören ausgeführt; jedoch gibt es auch eine Bearbeitung nur für Orchester. In dieser Fassung erklingen die Tänze sowohl im Konzertsaal als auch im Theater, wenn das gleichnamige Ballett auf dem Spielplan steht. Die Musik ist durch Orientalismen geprägt: Bei den Polowetzern handelt es sich um das Turkvolk der Kyptschaken. Die Aufführungsdauer beträgt etwa zwölf Minuten.


Description.

The Gallery consists of 105 paintings by artists from all over the world, painted in 1990 on the east side of the Berlin Wall. The actual border at this point had been the river Spree. The gallery is located on the so-called "hinterland mauer", which closed the border to West Berlin.  It is possibly the largest and longest-lasting open air gallery in the world. Paintings from Jürgen Grosse alias INDIANO, Dimitri Vrubel, Siegfrid Santoni, Bodo Sperling, Kasra Alavi, Kani Alavi, Jim Avignon, Thierry Noir, Ingeborg Blumenthal, Ignasi Blanch i Gisbert, Kim Prisu, Hervé Morlay VR and others have followed.  The paintings at the East Side Gallery document a time of change and express the euphoria and great hopes for a better, more free future for all people of the world.  The East Side Gallery was founded following the successful merger of the two German artists' associations VBK and BBK. The founding members were the speche of the Federal Association of Artists BBK Bodo Sperling, Barbara Greul Aschanta, Jörg Kubitzki and David Monti.  In July 2006, to facilitate access to the River Spree from O2 World, a section was moved somewhat west, parallel to the original position.  A 23-meter section was scheduled to be removed on March 1, 2013, to make way for luxury apartments. None of the artists whose work will be destroyed were informed of these plans. The demolition work actually started on March 1, 2013. According to German news FOCUS, authorities were not aware of the start of the demolition. Due to the involvement of protesters, demolition was postponed until at least March 18, 2013.

Remediation.

Two-thirds of the paintings are badly damaged by erosion, graffiti, and vandalism. One-third have been restored by a non-profit organization which started work in 2000. The objective of this organization is the eventual restoration and preservation of all the paintings. Full restoration, particularly of the central sections, was projected for 2008. Remediation began in May 2009.  The restoration process has been marked by major conflict. Eight of the artists of 1990 refused to paint their own images again after they were completely destroyed by the renovation. In order to defend the copyright, they founded "Founder Initiative East Side" with other artists whose images were copied without permission. Bodo Sperling launched a test case in the Berlin State Court in May 2011, represented by the Munich art lawyer Hannes Hartung and with the support of the German VG Bild-Kunst. The Court will address the question of whether art should be listed as destroyed and then re-copied without the respective artists' permission. The outcome of the trial will be a landmark declaration for European art law.

The East Side Gallery is an open-air gallery in Berlin. It consists of a series of murals painted directly on a long remnant of the Berlin Wall, located near the centre of Berlin, on Mühlenstraße in Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg. The gallery has official status as a "", or heritage-protected landmark. According to the "Künstlerinitiative East Side Gallery e.V.", an association of the artists involved in the project, "The East Side Gallery is understood as a monument to the fall of the Berlin Wall and the peaceful negotiation of borders and conventions between societies and people", and has more than three million visitors per year.

Das Denkmal East Side Gallery in Berlin-Friedrichshain ist eine dauerhafte Open-Air-Galerie auf dem längsten noch erhaltenen Teilstück der Berliner Mauer in der Mühlenstraße zwischen dem Berliner Ostbahnhof und der Oberbaumbrücke entlang der Spree.


Data exchange.

CSV is a common data exchange format that is widely supported by consumer, business, and scientific applications. Among its most common uses is moving tabular data between programs that natively operate on incompatible (often proprietary or undocumented) formats. This works despite lack of adherence to RFC 4180 (or any other standard), because so many programs support variations on the CSV format for data import.  For example, a user may need to transfer information from a database program that stores data in a proprietary format, to a spreadsheet that uses a completely different format. The database program most likely can export its data as "CSV"; the exported CSV file can then be imported by the spreadsheet program.

Specification.

proposes a specification for the CSV format; however, actual practice often does not follow the RFC and the term "CSV" might refer to any file that:  Within these general constraints, many variations are in use. Therefore, without additional information (such as whether RFC 4180 is honored), a file claimed simply to be in "CSV" format is not fully specified. As a result, many applications supporting CSV files allow users to preview the first few lines of the file and then specify the delimiter character(s), quoting rules, etc. If a particular CSV file's variations fall outside what a particular receiving program supports, it is often feasible to examine and edit the file by hand (i.e., with a text editor) or write a script or program to produce a conforming format.

History.

Comma-separated values is a data format that pre-dates personal computers by more than a decade: the IBM Fortran (level H extended) compiler under OS/360 supported them in 1972. List-directed ("free form") input/output was defined in FORTRAN 77, approved in 1978. List-directed input used commas or spaces for delimiters, so unquoted character strings could not contain commas or spaces.  The "comma-separated value" name and "CSV" abbreviation were in use by 1983. The manual for the Osborne Executive computer, which bundled the SuperCalc spreadsheet, documents the CSV quoting convention that allows strings to contain embedded commas, but the manual does not specify a convention for embedding quotation marks within quoted strings.  Comma-separated value lists are easier to type (for example into punched cards) than fixed-column-aligned data, and were less prone to producing incorrect results if a value was punched one column off from its intended location.  Comma separated files are used for the interchange of database information between machines of two different architectures. The plain-text character of CSV files largely avoids incompatibilities such as byte-order and word size. The files are largely human-readable, so it is easier to deal with them in the absence of perfect documentation or communication.  The main standardization initiative—transforming ""de facto" fuzzy definition" into a more precise and "de jure" one—was in 2005, with RFC4180, defining CSV as a MIME Content Type. Later, in 2013, some of RFC4180's deficiencies were tackled by a W3C recommendation.  In 2014 IETF published RFC7111 describing application of URI fragments to CSV documents. RFC7111 specifies how row, column, and cell ranges can be selected from a CSV document using position indexes.  In 2015 W3C, in an attempt to enhance CSV with formal semantics, publicized the first "drafts of recommendations" for CSV-metadata standards, that began as "recommendations" in December of the same year.

General functionality.

CSV formats are best used to represent sets or sequences of records in which each record has an identical list of fields. This corresponds to a single relation in a relational database, or to data (though not calculations) in a typical spreadsheet.  The format dates back to the early days of business computing and is widely used to pass data between computers with different internal word sizes, data formatting needs, and so forth. For this reason, CSV files are common on all computer platforms.  CSV is a delimited text file that uses a comma to separate values (many implementations of CSV import/export tools allow other separators to be used; for example, the use of a "Sep=^" row as the first row in the *.csv file will cause Excel to open the file expecting caret "^" to be the separator instead of comma ","). Simple CSV implementations may prohibit field values that contain a comma or other special characters such as newlines. More sophisticated CSV implementations permit them, often by requiring " (double quote) characters around values that contain reserved characters (such as commas, double quotes, or less commonly, newlines). Embedded double quote characters may then be represented by a pair of consecutive double quotes, or by prefixing a double quote with an escape character such as a backslash (for example in Sybase Central).  CSV formats are not limited to a particular character set. They work just as well with Unicode character sets (such as UTF-8 or UTF-16) as with ASCII (although particular programs that support CSV may have their own limitations). CSV files normally will even survive naive translation from one character set to another (unlike nearly all proprietary data formats). CSV does not, however, provide any way to indicate what character set is in use, so that must be communicated separately, or determined at the receiving end (if possible).  Databases that include multiple relations cannot be exported as a single CSV file. Similarly, CSV cannot naturally represent hierarchical or object-oriented data. This is because every CSV record is expected to have the same structure. CSV is therefore rarely appropriate for documents created with HTML, XML, or other markup or word-processing technologies.  Statistical databases in various fields often have a generally relation-like structure, but with some repeatable groups of fields. For example, health databases such as the Demographic and Health Survey typically repeat some questions for each child of a given parent (perhaps up to a fixed maximum number of children). Statistical analysis systems often include utilities that can "rotate" such data; for example, a "parent" record that includes information about five children can be split into five separate records, each containing (a) the information on one child, and (b) a copy of all the non-child-specific information. CSV can represent either the "vertical" or "horizontal" form of such data.  In a relational database, similar issues are readily handled by creating a separate relation for each such group, and connecting "child" records to the related "parent" records using a foreign key (such as an ID number or name for the parent). In markup languages such as XML, such groups are typically enclosed within a parent element and repeated as necessary (for example, multiple codice_1 nodes within a single codice_2 node). With CSV there is no widely accepted single-file solution.

Standardization.

The name "CSV" indicates the use of the comma to separate data fields. Nevertheless, the term "CSV" is widely used to refer a large family of formats, which differ in many ways. Some implementations allow or require single or double quotation marks around some or all fields; and some reserve the very first record as a header containing a list of field names. The character set being used is undefined: some applications require a Unicode byte order mark (BOM) to enforce Unicode interpretation (sometimes even a UTF-8 BOM). Files that use the tab character instead of comma can be more precisely referred to as "TSV" for tab-separated values.  Other implementation differences include handling of more commonplace field separators (such as space or semicolon) and newline characters inside text fields. One more subtlety is the interpretation of a blank line: it can equally be the result of writing a record of zero fields, or a record of one field of zero length; thus decoding it is ambiguous.

OKI frictionless tabular data package.

In 2011 Open Knowledge International (OKI) and various partners created a data protocols working group, which later evolved into the Frictionless Data initiative. One of the main formats they released was the Tabular Data Package. Tabular Data package was heavily based on CSV, using it as the main data transport format and adding basic type and schema metadata (CSV lacks any type information to distinguish the string "1" from the number 1).  The Frictionless Data Initiative has also provided a standard CSV Dialect Description Format for describing different dialects of CSV, for example specifying the field separator or quoting rules.

Internet W3C tabular data standard.

In 2013 the W3C "CSV on the Web" working group began to specify technologies providing a higher interoperability for web applications using CSV or similar formats. The working group completed its work in February 2016, and is officially closed in March 2016 with the release of a set documents and W3C recommendations for modeling "Tabular Data", and enhancing CSV with metadata and semantics.

RFC 4180 standard.

The 2005 technical standard RFC 4180 formalizes the CSV file format and defines the MIME type "text/csv" for handling of text-based fields. However, interpretation of the text of each field is still application-specific. Files that follow the RFC 4180 standard can simplify CSV exchange and should be widely portable. Among its requirements:  The format can be processed by most programs that claim to read CSV files. The exceptions are "(a)" programs may not support line-breaks within quoted fields, "(b)" programs may confuse the optional header with data or interpret the first data line as an optional header and "(c)" double quotes in a field may not be parsed correctly automatically.

Basic rules.

Many informal documents exist that describe "CSV" formats. IETF RFC 4180 (summarized above) defines the format for the "text/csv" MIME type registered with the IANA.  Rules typical of these and other "CSV" specifications and implementations are as follows:

Example.

The above table of data may be represented in CSV format as follows:  Example of a USA/UK CSV file (where the decimal separator is a period/full stop and the value separator is a comma):  Example of an analogous European CSV/DSV file (where the decimal separator is a comma and the value separator is a semicolon):  The latter format is not RFC 4180 compliant. Compliance could be achieved by the use of a comma instead of a semicolon as a separator and either the international notation for the representation of the decimal mark or the practice of quoting all numbers that have a decimal mark.

Application support.

The CSV file format is supported by almost all spreadsheets and database management systems, including Apple Numbers, LibreOffice Calc, and Apache OpenOffice Calc. Microsoft Excel also supports CSV, but with restrictions in comparison to other spreadsheet software (e.g., Excel still cannot export CSV files in the commonly used UTF-8 character encoding).  CSV format is supported by libraries available for many programming languages. Most provide some way to specify the field delimiter, decimal separator, character encoding, quoting conventions, date format, etc.  The emacs editor can operate on CSV files using csv-nav mode.  Many utility programs on Unix-style systems (such as cut, paste, join, sort, uniq, awk) can split files on a comma delimiter, and can therefore process simple CSV files. However, this method does not correctly handle commas within quoted strings.

A comma-separated values (CSV) file is a delimited text file that uses a comma to separate values. Each line of the file is a data record. Each record consists of one or more fields, separated by commas. The use of the comma as a field separator is the source of the name for this file format. A CSV file typically stores tabular data (numbers and text) in plain text, in which case each line will have the same number of fields.

Das Dateiformat CSV steht für (seltener "Character-separated values") und beschreibt den Aufbau einer Textdatei zur Speicherung oder zum Austausch einfach strukturierter Daten. Die Dateinamenserweiterung lautet ".csv".


Etymology.

The origin and meaning of the islet's name "Rockall" is uncertain. The Scottish Gaelic name for the islet,, may derive from an Old Norse name that may contain the element, meaning "mountain". It has also been suggested that the name is from the Norse, meaning "foaming sea", and, meaning "bald head"—a word which appears in other placenames in Scandinavian-speaking areas. Another idea is that it derives from the Gaelic, meaning "skerry of roaring" or "sea rock of roaring" (although can also be translated as "tearing" or "ripping").  The Dutch mapmakers P. Plancius and, show an island called "Rookol" northwest of Ireland on their "Map of New France and the Northern Atlantic Ocean" (Amsterdam, c. 1594). The first literary reference to the island, where it is called "Rokol", is found in Martin Martin's "A Description of the Western Isles of Scotland" published in 1703. This book gives an account of a voyage to the archipelago of St. Kilda, and Martin states: "... and from it lies Rokol, a small rock sixty leagues to the westward of St. Kilda; the inhabitants of this place call it "Rokabarra"."  The name "Rocabarraigh," is also used in Scottish Gaelic folklore for a mythical rock which is supposed to appear three times, its last appearance being at the end of the world: "." (When Rocabarra returns, the world will likely come to be destroyed.)

History.

Since the late 16th century, the rock has been noted in written records. In the 20th century, its location became relevant due to potential oil and fishing rights.  Lord Kennet said of Rockall in 1971, "There can be no place more desolate, despairing and awful." It gives its name to one of the sea areas named in the shipping forecast provided by the British Meteorological Office.  Rockall has been a point of interest for adventurers and amateur radio operators, who have variously landed on or briefly occupied the islet. Fewer than 20 individuals have ever been confirmed to have landed on Rockall, and the longest continuous stay by an individual was 45 days in 2014. In a House of Commons debate in 1971, William Ross, MP for Kilmarnock, said: "More people have landed on the moon than have landed on Rockall."

Geography.

Rockall is one of the few pinnacles of the surrounding Helen's Reef; it is located west of the island of Soay, St Kilda, Scotland, and northwest of Tory Island, County Donegal, Ireland. Its location was precisely determined by Nick Hancock during his 2014 expedition. The surrounding elevated seabed is called the Rockall Bank, lying directly south from an area known as the Rockall Plateau. It is separated from the Outer Hebrides by the Rockall Trough, itself located within the Rockall Basin (also known as the "Hatton Rockall Basin").  In 1956 the British scientist James Fisher referred to the island as "the most isolated small rock in the oceans of the world". The neighbouring Hasselwood Rock and several other pinnacles of the surrounding Helen's Reef are smaller, at half the size of Rockall or less, and equally remote, but those formations are legally not islands or points on land, as they are often submerged completely, only revealed momentarily above certain types of ocean surface waves.  Rockall is about wide and long at its base and rises sheer to a height of. It is often washed over by large storm waves, particularly in winter. There is a small ledge of, known as Hall's Ledge, from the summit on the rock's western face. It is the only named geographical location on the rock. The nearest point on land from Rockall is, east at the uninhabited Scottish island of Soay in the St Kilda archipelago. The nearest inhabited area lies east at Hirta, the largest island in the St. Kilda group, which is populated intermittently at a single military base. The nearest permanently inhabited settlement is west of the headland of Aird an Rùnair, near the crofting township of Hogha Gearraidh on the island of North Uist at. North Uist is part of "Na h-Eileanan Siar" council area of Scotland.  The exact position of Rockall and the size and shape of the Rockall Bank was first charted in 1831 by Captain A. T. E. Vidal, a Royal Navy surveyor. The first scientific expedition to Rockall was led by Miller Christie in 1896 when the Royal Irish Academy sponsored a study of the flora and fauna. They chartered the "Granuaile".  A detailed underwater mapping of the area around Rockall undertaken in 2011–2012 by Marine Scotland showed that Rockall itself is a minor pinnacle, whilst Helen's Reef extends in a sweeping arc of fissures and ridges to the north-west of the islet. Between the islet and Helen's Reef is a deeper trench much used by squid fishermen.  Rockall is located in the pathway of the warming and moderating Gulf Stream. Although the rock does not sustain any weather station, the isolated nature of the setting dictates an extremely maritime climate without heat or cold extremes.

Geology.

Rockall is made of a type of peralkaline granite that is relatively rich in sodium and potassium. Within this granite are darker bands richer in iron because they contain two iron-sodium silicate minerals called aegirine and riebeckite. The darker bands are a type of granite that geologists have named "rockallite", although use of this term is now discouraged.  In 1975, a mineral new to science was discovered in a rock sample from Rockall. The mineral is called bazirite, named after the chemical elements barium and zirconium. Bazirite has the chemical composition BaZrSiO.  Rockall forms part of the deeply eroded Rockall Igneous Centre that was formed as part of the North Atlantic Igneous Province, approximately 55 million years ago, when the ancient continent of Laurasia was split apart by plate tectonics. Greenland and Europe separated and the northeast Atlantic Ocean was formed between them, eventually leaving Rockall as an isolated islet.  The RV "Celtic Explorer" surveyed the Rockall Bank in 2003. The Irish Light Vessel "Granuaile" (the same name as the steamer on the RIA 1896 botany survey) was chartered by the Geological Survey of Ireland, on behalf of the Department of Communications, Marine and Natural Resources, to conduct a seismic survey of the Rockall Bank and the Hatton Bank in July 2004, as part of the Irish National Seabed Survey.

Ecology.

The island's only permanent macro-organism inhabitants are common periwinkles and other marine molluscs. Small numbers of seabirds, mainly fulmars, northern gannets, black-legged kittiwakes, and common guillemots, use the rock for resting in summer, and gannets and guillemots occasionally breed successfully if the summer is calm with no storm waves washing over the rock. In total there have been just over twenty species of seabird and six other animal species observed (including the aforementioned molluscs) on or near the islet.  Cold-water coral biogenic reefs have been identified on the wider Rockall Bank, which are contributing features for the East Rockall Bank and North-West Rockall Bank SACs.

Discovery of new species.

In December 2013 surveys by Marine Scotland discovered four new species of animals in the sea around Rockall. These are believed to live in an area where hydrocarbons are released from the sea bed, known as a cold seep. The discovery has raised the issue of restricting some forms of fishery to protect the sea bed. The species are:

Visits to Rockall.

The earliest recorded date of landing on the island is often given as 8 July 1810, when a Royal Navy officer named Basil Hall led a small landing party from the frigate to the summit. However, research by James Fisher (see below), in the log of "Endymion" and elsewhere, indicates that the actual date for this first landing was on Sunday 8 September 1811.  The landing party left "Endymion" for the rock by boat. Whilst there, "Endymion", which was taking depth measurements around Rockall, lost visual contact with the rock as a haze descended. The ship drifted away, leaving the landing party stranded. The expedition made a brief attempt to return to the ship, but could not find the frigate in the haze, and soon gave up and returned to Rockall. After the haze became a fog, the lookout sent to the top of Rockall spotted the ship again, but it turned away from Rockall before the expedition in their boats reached it. Finally, just before sunset, the frigate was again spotted from the top of Rockall, and the expedition was able to get back on board. The crew of "Endymion" reported that they had been searching for five or six hours, firing their cannon every ten minutes. Hall related this experience and other adventures in a book entitled "Fragment of Voyages and Travels Including Anecdotes of a Naval Life".  The next landing was by a Mr Johns of HMS "Porcupine" whilst the ship was on a mission, (between June and August 1862), to make a survey of the sea bed prior to the laying of a transatlantic telegraph cable. Johns managed to gain foothold on the island, but failed to reach the summit. On 18 September 1955, Rockall was annexed by the British Crown when Lieutenant-Commander Desmond Scott RN, Sergeant Brian Peel RM, Corporal AA Fraser RM, and James Fisher (a civilian naturalist and former Royal Marine), were winched onto the island by a Royal Navy helicopter from (coincidentally named after the man who first charted the island). The annexation of Rockall was announced by the Admiralty on 21 September 1955.  The expedition team cemented in a brass plaque on Hall's Ledge and hoisted the Union Flag to stake the UK's claim. The inscription on the plaque read:  The initial incentive for the annexation was the test-firing of the UK's first guided nuclear weapon, the American-made Corporal missile. The missile was to be launched from South Uist and sent over the North Atlantic. The Ministry of Defence was concerned that the unclaimed island would provide an opportunity for the Soviet Union to spy on the test. Consequently, in April 1955 an order was issued to the Admiralty to seize the island and declare UK sovereignty, lest it become an outpost for foreign observers.  On 7 November 1955, J. Abrach Mackay, a member of the Clan Mackay, made a protest about the annexation; the 84-year-old local councillor declared: "My old father, God rest his soul, claimed that island for the Clan of Mackay in 1846 and I now demand that the Admiralty hand it back. It's no' theirs'." The British Government ignored the protests, which were soon forgotten.  In 1971, Captain T R Kirkpatrick RE led the landing party on a government expedition named "Operation Top Hat" that was mounted from "RFA Engadine" to establish that the rock was part of the United Kingdom and to prepare the islet for the installation of a light beacon. The landing party included Royal Engineers, Royal Marines and civilian members from the Institute of Geological Sciences in London. The party was landed by winch line from the Wessex 5 helicopters of the Royal Naval Air Services Commando Headquarters Squadron, commanded by Lt Cmdr Neil Foster RN. As well as collecting samples of the aegerine granite, rockallite, for later analysis in London, the top of the rock was blown off using a newly developed blasting technique, Precision Pre-Splitting. This created a level area that was drilled to take the anchorages for the light beacon that was installed the following year. Two phosphor bronze plates were chased into the wall above Hall's Ledge, each secured by four 80-tonne rock-anchor bolts; there was no evidence of the brass plate installed in 1955.  Establishing that the rock is part of the United Kingdom and its development as a light beacon facilitated the incorporation of the island into the District of Harris in the County of Inverness in the Island of Rockall Act 1972 and reinforced the UK Government's position with regard to seabed rights in the area.  In 1978, eight members of the Dangerous Sports Club, including David Kirke, one of its founders, held a cocktail party on the island, allegedly leaving with the plaque.  Former SAS member and survival expert Tom McClean lived on the island from 26 May 1985 to 4 July 1985 to affirm the UK's claim to the islet.  In 1997, the environmentalist organisation Greenpeace occupied the islet for a short time, calling it Waveland, to protest against oil exploration. Greenpeace declared the island to be a "new Global State" (as a spoof micronation) and offered citizenship to anyone willing to take their pledge of allegiance. The British Government's response was to state that "Rockall is British territory. It is part of Scotland and anyone is free to go there and can stay as long as they please" and otherwise ignore them. During his one night on Rockall, Greenpeace protester and "Guardian" journalist John Vidal unscrewed the 1955 plaque and re-fixed it back-to-front.  In 2010, it was revealed that the plaque had gone missing. An Englishman, Andy Strangeway, announced his intention to land on the island and affix a replacement plaque in June 2010. The Western Isles Council have approved planning permission for the plaque. The 2010 expedition was cancelled, but Strangeway still intends to replace the plaque.  In October 2011 a group of Amateur radio (HAM radio) operators from Belgium travelled by ship to Rockall. Several HAMs climbed up the rocks and set up a radio station for some hours. They stayed overnight on top of the island. Radio contacts to all over the world were made using HF frequencies under the call sign "MM0RAI/P".  In 2013 an occupation of the island by explorer Nick Hancock to raise money for the charity Help for Heroes was planned. The challenge was to land on Rockall and survive solo for 60 days. On 31 May 2013, Hancock, and a TV crew from BBC's "The One Show", sailed to the islet aboard "Orca III", and he made his first unsuccessful attempt to land on the islet. The weather conditions at the time "were not favourable" according to a Maritime and Coastguard Agency official. Subsequently, Hancock postponed his challenge until 2014. On 5 June 2014 Hancock landed on Rockall to begin his 60-day survival. Despite being forced to cut his 60-day goal short after losing supplies in a storm, Hancock did remain on the island for 45 days, beating McClean's occupancy record by five days.  The "Round Rockall" sailing race, sponsored by Galway Bay Sailing Club, runs from Galway, Ireland, around Rockall and back. It was held in 2012 to coincide with the finish of the 2011–12 Volvo Ocean Race around the world.  The 2015–2016 Clipper Round the World Yacht Race race 12 from New York to Derry was extended around Rockall despite previous promises to crew from Sir Robin Knox-Johnston that this would not happen again after the race to Danang.  In 2017, the Safehaven Marine team led by Frank Kowalski set a world record for the Long Way Round Circumnavigation of Ireland via Rockall island. The Baracuda-style naval patrol, search and rescue vessel, "Thunder Child", completed the route in 34 hours, 1 minute, and 47 seconds. Set on an anti-clockwise direction, the new record – the first of its kind – is now subject to ratification by Irish Sailing and the Union Internationale Motonautique, the world governing board for all powerboat activity.

Ownership.

Ireland.

Potential Irish claims to Rockall are based on its proximity to the Irish mainland; however, the country has never formally claimed sovereignty over the rock. Although Rockall is closer to the UK coast than to the Irish coast, Ireland does not recognise the UK's territorial claim to Rockall, "which would be the basis for a claim to a 12-mile territorial sea".  Ireland regards Rockall as irrelevant when determining the boundaries of the Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) as the rock is uninhabitable and in signing the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) in 1997, the UK has agreed that "Rocks which cannot sustain human habitation or economic life of their own shall have no exclusive economic zone or continental shelf".  In 1988, Ireland and the United Kingdom signed an EEZ boundary agreement, ignoring the rock per UNCLOS. With effect from 31 March 2014, the UK and Ireland published EEZ limits which include Rockall within the UK's EEZ.  In October 2012, the "Irish Independent" published a picture of the Irish Navy ship "LÉ Róisín" sailing past Rockall conducting routine maritime security patrols, and claimed that it was exercising Ireland's sovereign rights over the rock.

United Kingdom.

The UK claims Rockall along with a territorial sea around the islet inside the country's exclusive economic zone (EEZ). The UK also claims "a circle of UK sovereign airspace over the islet of Rockall".  The UK claimed Rockall on 18 September 1955 when "Two Royal Marines and a civilian naturalist, led by Royal Navy officer Lieutenant Commander Desmond Scott, raised a Union flag on the islet and cemented a plaque into the rock". Prior to this Rockall was legally "terra nullius". In 1972, the British Island of Rockall Act formally annexed Rockall to the United Kingdom.  The UK considers the rock administratively part of the Isle of Harris and, under the Scottish Adjacent Waters Boundaries Order 1999 a large sea area around it was declared to be under the jurisdiction of Scots law. A navigational beacon was installed on the island in 1982 and the UK declared that no ship would be allowed within a radius of the rock. However, in 1997, the UK ratified the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), limiting territorial sea claims to a 12 nautical mile radius, and therefore allowing free passage in waters beyond this.  In 1988, the United Kingdom and Ireland signed an EEZ boundary agreement for which "the location of Rockall was irrelevant to the determination of the boundary". In 1997, the UK ratified UNCLOS, which states that "Rocks which cannot sustain human habitation or economic life of their own shall have no exclusive economic zone or continental shelf".  As the rock lies within the United Kingdom's EEZ, the UK has sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring and exploiting, conserving and managing the natural resources of the area, including jurisdiction over the protection and preservation of the marine environment.  In May 2017, declassified documents revealed that the 1955 decision to claim the rock as UK territory was motivated by worries that it could otherwise be used by "hostile agents" to spy on the future South Uist missile testing range.

Shipping disasters.

There have been various disasters on the neighbouring Hasselwood Rock and Helen's Reef (the latter was named in 1830).

References.

Notes Bibliography

Rockall () is an uninhabitable granite islet in the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of the United Kingdom, situated in the North Atlantic Ocean. It is claimed by the United Kingdom as its territory. This claim is not recognised by its neighbours.

Rockall ist eine Felsinsel im Nordost-Atlantik mit einem Durchmesser von 25 bis 31 m und einer Grundrissfläche von 784,3 Quadratmetern. Sie besteht aus Granit und repräsentiert eine relativ kleine Scholle ausgedünnter kontinentaler Erdkruste zwischen dem Westrand des europäischen Kontinentalblocks und dem Nordatlantikbecken. Als höchster Punkt dieser Scholle überragt sie den Meeresspiegel im Schnitt um 21,4 m. Wegen ihrer Lage 407 km westlich der Hebriden kommt Rockall vor allem seerechtliche Bedeutung zu. Rund 200 m nördlich befindet sich Hasselwood Rock.


Early life.

A Kanuri from Borno, Abacha was born and educated in Kano, Nigeria.

Military career.

Abacha was commissioned in 1963 after he had attended the Mons Officer Cadet School in Aldershot, England. Before then, he had attended the Nigerian Military Training College in Kaduna. In 1969, he fought during the Nigerian Civil War as a platoon and battalion commander. And later became, commander of the 2nd Infantry Division in 1975. In 1983, Abacha was general officer commanding of the 2nd Mechanised Division, and was appointed a member of the Supreme Military Council.

Coup d'état's.

The military career of Abacha was marked by involvement in all the military coups in Nigeria. When he was still a second lieutenant with the 3rd Battalion in Kaduna, he took part in the July 1966 Nigerian counter-coup from the conceptual stage. He could well have been a participant in the Lagos or Abeokuta phases of the coup the previous January as well.  In addition, Abacha played a prominent role in the 1983 Nigerian coup d'état which brought General Muhammadu Buhari to power; and the 1985 Nigerian coup d'etat which removed Buhari and brought General Ibrahim Babangida to power. When General Ibrahim Babangida was named President and Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Federal Republic of Nigeria in 1985, Abacha was named Chief of Army Staff. He was later appointed Minister of Defence in 1990.

Seizure of power.

On 17 November 1993, Abacha, being the Minister of Defence and most senior official within the military hierarchy, forced interim president Ernest Shonekan to resign. In his nationwide broadcast, Abacha citied the socio-political uncertainties under the Interim National Government as a cause of for his resignation.

Presidency.

Consolidation of power.

In September 1994, he issued a decree that placed his government above the jurisdiction of the courts. effectively giving him absolute power. Another decree gave him the right to detain anyone for up to three months without trial. He further abrogated Decree 691 of 1993.  Moshood Abiola proclaimed himself president, he was jailed for treason, tortured and subsequently died in custody. Also, former military ruler Olusegun Obasanjo was jailed for treason and accused of plotting a coup together with General Oladipo Diya. In 1997, General Shehu Yar'Adua who was also jailed died in custody.

Security.

Abacha imposed an authoritarian police state controlled by his chief security officer Hamza al-Mustapha. The state cracked down ruthlessly on criminals and dissidents, the National Democratic Coalition was attributed with several bombings across the country, and several members were arrested. Abacha assembled a personal security force of 3,000 men trained in North Korea; and the Nigeria Police Force underwent a large scale retraining.

Economy.

Abacha's administration oversaw an increase in the country's foreign exchange reserves from $494 million in 1993 to $9.6 billion by the middle of 1997, and reduced the external debt of Nigeria from $36 billion in 1993 to $27 billion by 1997. Abacha also constructed between 25–100 km of urban road in major cities such as Kano, Gusau, Benin, Funtua, Zaria, Enugu, Kaduna, Aba, Lagos, Lokoja and Port Harcourt. Abacha brought the privatisation programs of the Ibrahim Babangida administration to a halt, reduced an inflation rate of 54% inherited from Ernest Shonekan to 8.5% between 1993 and 1998, all while the nation's primary commodity, oil was at an average of $15 per barrel. GDP growth, despite being estimated to be higher than the 2.2% growth in 1995, was largely limited to the petroleum sector.

Corruption.

The unprecedented economic achievements coincided with the rapid expansion of corruption. Abacha's national security adviser, Alhaji Ismaila Gwarzo, was accused by the government of President Olusegun Obasanjo to have played a central role in the looting and transfer of money to overseas accounts. Abacha's son, Mohammed Abacha and best friend Alhaji Mohammed M. Sada were also involved. A preliminary report published by the Abdulsalam Abubakar transitional government in November 1998 described the process. The report mentioned that Sani Abacha told Ismaila Gwarzo to provide fake national security funding requests, which Abacha approved. The funds were usually sent in cash or travellers' cheques by the Central Bank of Nigeria to Gwarzo, who took them to Abacha's house. Mohammed Sada then arranged to launder the money to offshore accounts. An estimated $1.4 billion in cash was delivered in this way.  In 2004, a list of the ten most self-enriching leaders in the previous two decades was released; in order of amount allegedly stolen, the fourth-ranked of these was Abacha and his family who are alleged to have embezzled $1 billion – $5 billion. In 2002, false rumours circulated that Abacha's family purportedly agreed to return $1.2 billion. Sources in the Obasanjo administration disclosed that the whole Abacha loot was a politicised by the administration for his re-election bid. On 7 August 2014, the United States Department of Justice announced the forfeiture of US$480 million, the largest in its history, to the Nigerian government. Jersey discovered more than $267 million dollars in funds that were allegedly laundered through the U.S. banking system and deposited in a Jersey account (£210m in British pounds). The U.S. Justice Department, Jersey courts and the government of Nigeria completed a civil asset forfeiture against the funds and they will be divided between those countries.

National politics.

<mapframe latitude="9.058702" longitude="8.525391" zoom="4" width="200" height="145" align="right"> </mapframe>  Abacha oversaw the reorganisation of Nigeria into six geopolitical zones, in order to reflect cultural, economic, and political realities of the regions;  Abacha held a constitutional conference between 1994 to 1995. Early in 1998, Abacha announced that elections would be held on 1 August, with a view toward handing power to a civilian government on 1 October. It later became apparent that Abacha had no intention of relinquishing power. By April 1998, Abacha had coerced the country's five political parties into endorsing him as the sole presidential candidate.

Human rights.

Abacha's regime was accused of human rights abuses, especially after the hanging of Ogoni activist Ken Saro-Wiwa (only one of several executions of Ogoni activists opposed to the exploitation of Nigerian resources by the multinational petroleum company, Royal Dutch Shell). Wole Soyinka was charged in absentia with treason. Abacha's regime suffered opposition externally by pro-democracy activists.

Foreign policy.

Following the execution of Ken Saro-Wiwa, Nigeria was suspended from the Commonwealth of Nations. While hosting Nelson Mandela, Abacha admitted he was advised against interfering with the Saro-Wiwa's trial—but made assurances that he would use his rank in government to commute the sentence if death sentence was pronounced. Justice Ibrahim Auta was the judge presiding over the proceedings, and sentenced Saro-Wiwa to death by hanging. Abacha did not commute the sentence.  Directly infringing UN Sanctions on Libya, Muammar Gaddafi's West African Tour in 1997 to Sani Abacha to mark the new islamic year was greeted by thousands of Abacha's supporters whom came out to demonstrate their loyalty to Abacha and the Libyan leader in Kano. The Libyan leader made no commitments to Nigeria but merely sought to strengthen relations with the country, many saw the visit as a way to strengthen his agenda of Pan-Africanism.  Abacha intervened in the Liberian Civil War. Through the Economic Community of West African States Monitoring Group, Abacha sent troops to Liberia to fight against the rising insurgency in the country and political tensions. The Civil War, which began in 1989, saw an influx of Nigerian troops from 1990 when Abacha was defence minister.  Despite being repeatedly condemned by the US State Department, Abacha did have a few ties to American politics. In 1997, Senator James Inhofe (R-Oklahoma) travelled to Nigeria to meet with Abacha as a representative of the "Family", a group of evangelical Christian politicians and civic leaders. Abacha and the Family had a business and political relationship from that point until his death. Abacha also developed ties with other American political figures such as Senator Carol Moseley Braun, Rev. Jesse Jackson and Minister Louis Farrakhan. Several African American political leaders visited Nigeria during his reign and Farrakhan supported his administration.

Death.

On 8 June 1998, Abacha died in the Aso Rock Presidential Villa in Abuja. He was buried on the same day, according to Muslim tradition, without an autopsy. This fuelled speculation that he may have been assassinated. The government identified the cause of death as a sudden heart attack. It is believed by foreign diplomats, including United States Intelligence analysts, that he may have been poisoned. His chief security officer, Hamza al-Mustapha, believed he was poisoned by Israeli operatives in the company of Yasser Arafat.  After Abacha's death, General Abdulsalami Abubakar became head of state. General Abubakar's short tenure ushered the Fourth Nigerian Republic into existence.

Personal life.

Abacha was married to Maryam Abacha and had seven sons and three daughters, he became a grandfather posthumously; as of 2018 he had thirty-three grandchildren.

General Sani Abacha GCFR (; 20 September 1943 – 8 June 1998) was a Nigerian military general, kleptocrat, and dictator who served as the military head of state of Nigeria from 1993 until his death in 1998.

Sani Abacha (* 20. September 1943 in Kano; † 8. Juni 1998 in Abuja) war General und Militärdiktator von Nigeria (1993–1998).


Professional career.

In 1963, he began working as an assistant director at the German television station, WDR, and in 1971, he became one of the founders of "Die Sendung mit der Maus" ("The Program with the Mouse"), which has been called "the school of the nation" and one of the most successful children's programs ever produced.  From decades of narrating the program's educational film shorts ("Sachgeschichten"), Maiwald's voice is widely recognized even when he merely orders a cup of coffee or a beer. He was first seen onscreen in the late 1970s. Today, he is an integral part of the broadcast, along with fellow presenters Christoph Biemann and Ralph Caspers. Maiwald was previously the director of other children's programs, "Der Spatz vom Wallrafplatz" and "Robbi, Tobbi und das Fliewatüüt" as well as the first episodes of the puppet series, "Hallo Spencer". He has also created the "Bibliothek der Sachgeschichten" (library of educational film shorts) from his productions for "The Mouse". Maiwald produces some 20 film shorts a year for the program.  A number of "The Mouse" educational shorts are used at universities, and other institutions as educational tools and Maiwald has received numerous media and journalism awards for his work. In 1988, he received the Adolf Grimme Award. In 1995, he was awarded the prestigious Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany. In addition, there is a special education school in Radevormwald named after him. In October 2010, it was announced that an elementary school in Monheim am Rhein would also be named after him.  An outspoken critic of the decline of television programming, including at the station that broadcasts his own program, Maiwald has complained about the quality of programs available for children and the bottom-line mentality that rules decision-making in scheduling and content.

Postwar years explained to children.

In 1989, Maiwald produced the "Nachkriegs-Maus" ("Postwar Mouse"), a short film in two parts. This award-winning special was produced after Maiwald found himself in Uffing, where he was evacuated after World War II and was flooded with memories of his experiences as a child after the war. Maiwald wanted to tell his then 6-year-old daughter and his young viewers what it was like to be a child in Germany in the aftermath of the war. They found black-and-white photos from the past and located the sites, shooting them in color as they looked years later. For the series, they super-imposed the black-and-white images of ruins over the contemporary images, so the children could see how Germany looked after the war and compare it to their own era.  Using a mix of postwar-era footage and still photographs, he shows the devastated cities, the millions who lost their lives, the return of concentration camp survivors and the desperate circumstances of average Germans, many of whom had lost everything. Maiwald described in depth how the children had to live. He showed how they dressed in whatever they were able to scrounge and how many lived in the bombed out buildings, how others, like himself, lived in apartments with several other families. He also told of the rampant hunger and showed graphically the amount of food he was rationed per day.  Maiwald said the "Postwar Mouse" was the hardest film he ever produced and that when he had finished it, he never wanted to see it again.

Personal life.

Maiwald experienced the Second World War as a small child. Before he was three, he had been bombed out of three homes in Cologne and fled with his mother and infant sister to Silesia. They stayed there from 1942 to 1945, when the Russians came, then fled to Dresden and were there when it was bombed, shortly after Maiwald's fifth birthday. He escaped on the last train out and says he will never forget looking out the window at the conflagration that Dresden had become. By the age of five, he had seen more burning buildings and dead bodies than most Germans see in their entire lives, Maiwald says.  After that, they went to Munich, till the city was evacuated. Then they went to Weilheim in Oberbayern and from there, were evacuated to Uffing, where the family lived until 1951. Although they finally had a roof over their heads, it was not an easy life because the owners of the house were forced to empty rooms to take in refugees, different families in different rooms. At school, the local children occasionally picked fights with the refugee children. At one point, his mother was nearly shot—with Maiwald and his sister standing right there—when American soldiers found her with a photo of her husband, in Nazi uniform. Maiwald says his mother survived because the soldiers were called away in that moment. Maiwald's father was killed in the war but was first reported as missing in action. It was years before it was learned that he had been killed by a bomb in 1945.  In the aftermath of the war, life was a daily struggle for survival, of finding food, shelter, clothing, water and fuel. Many schools were destroyed, so it was not uncommon for children to have to travel very far to go to school and when they got there, there were no books and no paper. Books were banned because of denazification, so the teacher wrote everything on a board in front of the room and the children used erasable tablets to copy everything down.  To this day, he always goes to bed with a set of clothing within reach, because it was so ingrained in him as a child, the necessity of being prepared to leave home at a moment's notice. He also cannot bring himself to throw food away. Maiwald was 13 when he, his mother and sister moved back to Cologne and "normal life". For a child who had only known rubble, scavenging, evacuations and life as a refugee, it was "unbelievable luxury". For Maiwald and other German children born during the 1940s, "normal life" was forced evacuations hundreds of kilometers from home, makeshift clothing and furniture, and food from CARE Packages.  Maiwald had to start working at the age of 14, nonetheless, he finished school and was able to go to university. At university, he majored in "Theaterwissenschaften" (theater studies), German studies and philosophy. However, he did not get a degree because at the time, there was no master's or bachelor's degree, only a doctorate. He was in the middle of his research when he realized that he didn't want to become a theoretician, but rather wanted to be doing things, so he quit and went to work.  Maiwald was a chain smoker for years and quit after a lung infection. Appearing on WDR's program, "Streitfall", during which the discussion was on European Union laws to protect non-smokers, he stated that it was better to smoke than to be fat. His arguments were seen as shocking and unseemly for someone "in his position", held as a hero by many children. Even the fact that he was once a chain smoker was hard to believe.  Maiwald is married and has two grown children. He lives in Cologne.

Awards.

Maiwald has received over 50 awards, including the following:

Armin Maiwald, born 23 January 1940 in Cologne, is a German author, television director and producer. Maiwald is one of the founders of the award-winning German children's television program, "Die Sendung mit der Maus". Often just called "Die Maus" ("The Mouse"), the program has been on the air since March 1971 and is one of the most successful children's television programs ever produced. Maiwald has won over 50 awards for his work.

Armin Eckhard Maiwald (* 23. Januar 1940 in Köln) ist ein deutscher Autor, Regisseur und Fernsehproduzent. Er ist Mitinhaber der Firma FLASH Filmproduktion & Filmstudio Köln, die unter anderem Filmbeiträge für "Die Sendung mit der Maus" produziert.


Style.

The comic strips do not make use of speech balloons but rather captions, whose humour, as well as the affectionately drawn pictures, contributed greatly to the popularity of the series. It can be classified as a text comic, although there is a parallel humor strip version of the series, where speech balloons are used frequently.

History.

"Rasmus Klump" began as a newspaper strip in "Berlingske Aftenavis" /now "Weekendavisen") on 17 November 1951 and was successfully published in translation worldwide, with total sales running over 30 million. When fans appealed for more, the Hansens began publishing storylines in book form. A television series was recorded in Danish between 1997 and 2000.  In 1998, Carla Hansen created the Rasmus Klump Prisen (Rasmus Klump Award) for Danish people that had followed the virtues exhibited by the comic series. The winner receives an original comic strip, and 25,000 Danish kroner. Winners include Michael Laudrup and Frederik, Crown Prince of Denmark.  On 17 November 2001, the comic reached its fiftieth anniversary and the occasion was marked in Denmark by the issue of a commemorative stamp.  "Rasmus Klump" appeared in English as "Bruin" in the Evening Times, where he had his own club.  The comic has also, on several occasions, been turned into animation. The first time was allegedly a low-budget Danish production on 13 episodes in the 60's, known from a contract between Statens Filmcentral and Illustrationsforlaget, although not much is known about this production. In 1984, a new series on 13 episodes was produced, as a deal between PIB Copenhagen and Casterman in Belgium, and was animated by an American living in Japan. It was still low-budget, but was a reasonable commercial success being shown on several television channels worldwide. In the 1990s, yet another series materialised as 26 5-minute episodes for two periods, 1996 and 1998. This was a European co-production involving Danish animation veterans A. Film.  An iPad application has also been created featuring Rasmus Klump (2011).

Name.

Rasmus Klump is a proper name; "Rasmus" comes from the older strip "Strudsen Rasmus" (Rasmus the Ostrich), which Rasmus Klump replaced; "Klump" was added to give him a family name, and comes from a dog the Hansens knew; the name "Bjørnen Rasmus" (Rasmus the Bear) was originally suggested.  Rasmus Klump is not to be confused with Bamse, a well-known swedish cartoon figure.

Rasmus Klump (translates to "Rasmus Lump" or "Erasmus Lump") is a Danish comic strip series for children created in 1951 by the Danish wife-and-husband team Carla and Vilhelm Hansen. The series was translated into a number of foreign languages, in some of which the title character Rasmus was renamed Petzi, Pol, Rasmus Nalle or other variations.

Die Comic-Reihe Petzi wurde 1951 von Carla und Vilhelm Hansen erfunden und trägt den dänischen Originaltitel "Rasmus Klump". Die Reihe erschien zunächst weltweit in vielen Tageszeitungen, wurde ab 1953 in Deutschland auch in Form von farbigen Bilderbüchern durch den für die Veröffentlichung dieser Reihe gegründeten Carlsen Verlag vertrieben.


Life.

Ivo of Chartres was born in or near Chartres circa 1040 to a family of relatively low social status. He is claimed to have studied first in Paris, then in Abbey of Bec in Normandy where, according to the often unreliable Robert of Torigni, he studied under Lanfranc along with Anselm of Canterbury.  Not much is known of him until some time after he was admitted to the Roman Catholic clergy. His first benefice was at Nesle in Picardy. In 1067 Bishop Gui asked him to become the abbot of the new Augustinian house of St. Quentin at Beauvais. Ivo was skeptical of religious excess and always stressed moderation in practice. He remained at St. Quentin for twenty years and established himself as one of the best teachers in France. St. Quentin came to be known as a great school of theology.  His knowledge of canon law, both as a lawyer and cleric, most probably earned him in 1090 the office of Bishop of Chartres, France. His predecessor, Geoffrey, had been removed from office by Pope Urban II. Geoffrey's relatives and supporters initially opposed Ivo's appointment, but with the backing of Pope Urban, King Philip, and the influential Stephen, Count of Blois, Ivo was eventually grudgingly accepted. In light of the events preceding his appointment to the office, his strong opposition to the practice of simony may have been the impetus to his episcopal elevation.  His strong faith, piety, and principles led to some troubles for him during his twenty-five year episcopacy at Chartres. Circa 1092, King Philip I of France was married to Bertha of Holland, but wished to be rid of her so he could marry Bertrade of Anjou. Upholding the sanctity of marriage, relations between Ivo and the king became strained. Local baron Hugh Le Puiset took advantage of the situation to seize episcopal lands and imprison the bishop for a short time.  The Gregorian reforms were not well realized until Ivo's episcopacy. He was an acquaintance of Countess Adele of Blois, who helped him reform the Abbey of St. Jean-en-Vallée. In addition, on several occasions he defended her decisions, most notably during the events regarding Rotrou III of Perche, when he refused to assert ecclesiastical sanctions against him.  During his episcopacy he wrote the majority of his extant works, for which he later became famous and considered among the greatest scholars of the mediaeval era. Salutati recognized him as an eloquent writer despite his affirmation that all the literature outside of Italy lacked eloquence.

Works.

Ivo was a prolific writer but is most known for his canonical works: the "Decretum" of seventeen books; the "Tripartita", of very substantial material, divided in three parts, and attributed to him; and the "Panormia" of eight books attributed to him. All three are primarily works of canon law and center on the principle of "caritas", that is, the Catholic theological virtue of charity, as taught by Paul of Tarsus. His works are replete with treatments of charity and dispensation in a pastoral manner regarding the Holy See. He thought that "caritas" was the solution for sin, and not harsh punishment without contrition. This theme is most evident in his Prologus, which is most often compared to the teachings of the Church Fathers than those of the scholars of his day. Paul's message of loving one's fellow man as one would himself is particularly prevalent in Ivo's works: "He was called to teach. His lesson was love. It was all that mattered.".  However, Ivo is also famous for his 288 letters of correspondence. These letters often dealt with liturgical, canonical, and dogmatic questions and, much like his major works, are from the perspective of "caritas". Several of his extant sermons, totaling 25, treat of the same topics as his other writings and letters.  It has also been suggested that his doctrines influenced the final agreement of the Concordat of Worms in 1122.

Subsequent influence and veneration.

Ivo's influence on the religious scholars following him was great. Most notably among them were Hugh of St. Victor, Landolfo Colonna, and Alger of Liège, who often quoted or cited the Prologus of his works. Many continued his emphasis of "caritas" and canonical thought. His influence on Peter Abelard’s "Sic et Non" and Gratian’s "Concordia Discordantium Canonum" (commonly denominated "Decretum Gratiani") is obvious.  Although it is not known when he was canonized, 23 May is his present liturgical memorial. Before 1570 it was observed on 20 May.

Ivo of Chartres (also Ives, Yves, or Yvo; ; 1040 – 23 December 1115), also known as Saint Ivo in the Roman Catholic Church, was the Bishop of Chartres, France from 1090 until his death, and an important canonist during the Investiture Crisis.

Ivo von Chartres, (* um 1040 vermutlich in Chartres; † 23. Dezember 1115 oder 1116 in Chartres) war ein französischer Kirchenreformer und Bischof von Chartres. Er wird als Heiliger verehrt.