History.

Switch was launched in 1988 by Midland Bank, National Westminster Bank and the Royal Bank of Scotland as a multifunction cheque guarantee and cash card. The brand was merged with Maestro, an international debit card brand owned by Mastercard, at the end of 2002.  This merger was referred to as the "penguin wedding," due to its distinctive advertisements of penguins in different international settings created by Joel Veitch. Since then, Switch has been out of circulation and banks migrated customers from Switch to Maestro. The deal was announced in August 2002.  The merger was also intended to increase the acceptance of foreign Maestro cards in the United Kingdom. However, despite the "Maestro" brand name, point of sale transactions in the United Kingdom were still processed by Switch Card Services Limited, later S2 Card Services Limited.  Consequently, many retailers who advertise that they accept Maestro could only accept cards issued in the United Kingdom, i.e. former Switch cards that supported both UK Domestic Maestro (UKDM) and Maestro International functionality. In March 2011, Mastercard aligned UK Domestic Maestro with the standard international Maestro proposition, ending its status as a separate card scheme.  This change also led to the discontinuation of Solo debit cards.  Switch/Maestro cards issued by certain banks carried an issue number on the bottom of the card corresponding to the number of times a card had been issued on a particular account. This was usually because the current account number the card was linked to actually formed a large part of the card number, and therefore the card number could not be readily changed in case of loss or the card expiring.  The term "Switch" was commonly used to refer to debit cards in the United Kingdom; however, the brand is largely forgotten now.  In January 2009, First Direct and HSBC discontinued the use of Maestro card, issuing Visa Debit cards to new customers, and a gradual roll out throughout 2009 to existing customers. In September of the same year, Clydesdale Bank and Yorkshire Bank, both owned by National Australia Bank, started the process of replacing the Maestro card with a Debit Mastercard for their current accounts, except for the Readycash and Student accounts, for which the Maestro card continued to be issued.  Likewise, in the same month The Royal Bank of Scotland Group (Europe's largest debit card issuer which includes the Royal Bank of Scotland, NatWest, Coutts and Ulster Bank) switched from Maestro to Visa Debit, a process that would take two years to complete.

Switch was a debit card brand in the United Kingdom from 1988 until 2002. It was then merged with Maestro, which is owned by MasterCard.

Switch war ein nationales Debitkartensystem in Großbritannien. Das 1988 von einigen britischen Großbanken eingeführte System war, neben dem Schwesterprodukt Solo, vor der Einführung der wie eine Debitkarte funktionierenden Varianten gängiger Kreditkarten, namentlich Visa Debit in den frühen 1990ern, die einzige in Großbritannien erhältliche Debitkarte und erfreute sich somit großer Beliebtheit und nahezu flächendeckender Verbreitung.


Plot.

In Ostend, West Flanders, three physically disabled musicians are looking for a drummer for their punk rock band. They want to perform only one time at a music competition. They approach famous writer Dries to be their drummer, the idea being that he also has a "handicap" in that he cannot actually play the drums. They plan to master only one song, Devo's "Mongoloid." For Dries, this is an opportunity to get some inspiration for a new novel, so he accepts the offer. The band members decide to call the band The Feminists, since, they think four "handicapped" musicians are just as worthless as a group of feminists. Their main opponents are the band Harry Mulisch (an allusion to Harry Mulisch), also led by a writer, nicknamed Dikke Lul ("Fat Cock"). As the story goes on Dries becomes more and more obsessed by his new novel and he tries to manipulate the band members and tries to find their weak spot.

Soundtrack.

The music of The Feminists was in fact performed by Belgian band Millionaire and the Harry Mulisch song was sung by Belgian singer Flip Kowlier.

Reception.

The film received mixed reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 44% based on 18 reviews, with an average rating of 4.81/10. On Metacritic, the film has a rating of 36 out of 100 based on 4 reviews, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". In Belgium it caused some controversy due to the violence and explicit sex in the film.

Ex Drummer is a 2007 Belgian comedy and rock music film directed by Koen Mortier, whose previous work was limited to television commercials. It is based on the book by Herman Brusselmans of the same name. While receiving mixed reviews at the time, it went on to become a cult film.

Ex Drummer ist ein belgisches Drama aus dem Jahre 2007. Es ist der erste Langfilm von Koen Mortier, der Regie führte und das Drehbuch schrieb. Der Film basiert auf dem Buch des flämischen Autors Herman Brusselmans.


History.

The present-day church is probably the fourth church that was built on the site of the grave of Saint Servatius, an Armenian missionary who was bishop of Tongeren and died allegedly in 384 in Maastricht. A small memorial chapel on the saint's grave was replaced by a large stone church built by bishop Monulph around 570. This church was replaced by a larger pilgrim church in the late 7th century, which was then replaced by the present-day structure, which was built in several stages over a period of more than 100 years. The nave was built in the first half of the 11th century, the transept in the second half of the century, and the choir and westwork in the 12th century. The Romanesque church was built during a period in which the chapter of Saint Servatius kept close ties to the Holy Roman Emperors, which resulted in a building that has the characteristics of a German imperial church. The dedication of the church in 1039 was attended by the emperor Henry III and twelve bishops. Most of the church's Medieval provosts were sons of the highest ranking German noble families. Several held the office of chancellor of the German Empire; at least eight provosts went on to become archbishops.  The sculpted "Bergportaal", at the south side of the church, was begun around 1180 and can be considered late Romanesque or early Gothic. All the chapels along the side aisles are Gothic (14th and 15th centuries), and so is the vaulted ceiling of the nave and the transept. In 1556 a late Gothic spire was added onto the westwork between the two existing towers. In 1770 the entire westwork was crowned with Baroque helmet spires, designed by the Liège architect Etienne Fayen.  Over the centuries the interior of the church underwent many changes. In the 17th century, the Gothic choir rood screen with sculpted depictions of the life of Servatius was demolished. Fragments from the 14th-century screen were discovered during the 1980s restoration works and are now kept in the church's lapidarium in the East crypt. By the end of the 18th century, the entire church interior had been painted white, the colourful Medieval stained glass windows had been replaced by colourless glass, and the church looked distinctly Baroque.  The north transept holds some epitaphs, of which the one for Egidius Ruyschen in Renaissance style is probably the most original. Nearby is the impressive tomb of the Count and Countess van den Bergh (Johannes Bossier, 1685), which was transferred from the Dominican church of Maastricht. From the Dominican church were also transferred the ornate confessionals by Daniël van Vlierden (Hasselt, 1700), which are located in various parts of the church.  In 1797 the chapter was dissolved by the French revolutionaries and the church was used as a horse stable by the troops. The furnishings of the church were sold, stolen or trashed. Likewise, most of the church treasures disappeared during the first years of the French occupation. In 1804 the church was returned to the parish but the building was an empty ruin. It was during the period that followed that most of the damage was done. The 11th-century Chapel of Saint Maternus and the 15th-century "Koningskapel" (built by the French kings Charles VII and Louis XI) were considered irreparable and were demolished. For liturgical reasons, it was deemed necessary to lower the elevated choir, for which the underlying 11th-century crypt was demolished. In 1846 the four panels that belonged to the reliquary chest of Saint Servatius ("Noodkist") were sold to an antiques dealer and ended up in the Royal Museums of Art and History in Brussels.  Between 1866 and 1900 the church underwent major restorations during which some of the damage done earlier in the century was reversed. The restoration was led by famous Dutch architect Pierre Cuypers. In 1955 a fire caused Cuypers' Gothic Revival westwork spire to fall through the roof of the church, which made another thorough restoration necessary (1982–1991). During this latter restoration, Cuypers' colourful interior decoration scheme was largely removed. During this most recent restoration, extensive excavations that were carried out in the church and adjacent buildings, revealed a wealth of information about the history of the church and its predecessors.

Religious significance.

Through the ages, the presence of the grave of Saint Servatius in the church crypt and the many relics in the church treasury, have drawn large numbers of pilgrims. Starting in the 14th century (but perhaps earlier) a seven-yearly pilgrimage was organized in cooperation with nearby Aachen Cathedral and Kornelimünster Abbey, attracting tens of thousands of visitors to the region. This so-called "Heiligdomsvaart" continued until 1632 when Maastricht became affiliated with the Dutch Republic (Capture of Maastricht). The Heiligdomsvaart was revived in the 19th century and the tradition continues in our days. The next Heiligdomsvaart will take place in July 2018.  Today, the Basilica of Saint Servatius is the main church of the Deanery of Maastricht, which belongs to the Diocese of Roermond. The church continues to be a center of Catholicism in Maastricht (the other main church being the Basilica of Our Lady). The church was made a Basilica Minor by Pope John Paul II during his visit in 1985.

Art historical significance.

Although the present building conveys a rather hybrid image of architectural styles, the church of Saint Servatius is considered to be one of the most important religious buildings in the former Prince-Bishopric of Liège. Both the East choir and the Westwork of the Maastricht church have been influential in the development of Romanesque architecture in the Meuse and Rhine valleys. Several authors have pointed out the significance of the South portal's late Romanesque sculpture for the early development of Gothic sculpture in France.

Romanesque sculpture.

Both the exterior of the East choir and the interior of the westwork of Saint Servatius contain architectural sculpture that is considered amongst the most interesting in the Mosan region. The 34 elaborately carved capitals in the Westwork depict scenes from books well-known to the canons, such as Saint Augustine's "De Civitate Dei" and various bestiaries. Recurrent themes are: botanical ornaments, animals, humans fighting with animals, humans entangled in plants, and humans engaged in daily activities. A close relationship has been established by art historians between the Maastricht Westwork capitals and those of the East choir of Our Lady's in Maastricht, the Rolduc crypt, the dwarf gallery of the Doppelkirche Schwarzrheindorf (Bonn), and the Wartburg palace (near Eisenach).  Also in the Westwork of Saint Servatius is a sculpted Romanesque choir screen, also referred to as the "double relief". The lower rectangular part depicts the Virgin and Child in a mandorla held by two angels, the upper part shows Christ handing over the keys of Heaven to Saint Peter and Saint Servatius. The relief closely relates to a choir screen in Saint Peter's in Utrecht. Elsewhere in the church a 12th-century tympanum depicting the "Majestas Domini" can be found as part of a former portal. The choir ceiling shows remnants of ceiling paintings, depicting the visions of Zechariah. This may be the only surviving work by a once important group of Maastricht and Cologne based painters, who received high praise from Wolfram von Eschenbach in his Parzival.  The church's South portal ("Bergportaal") contains sculpture that marks the period of transition between late Romanesque and early Gothic sculpture. The sculpted tympanum and the two inner archivolts date from around 1180 and are Romanesque is style, the rest of the portal can be considered Gothic and dates from around 1215.

Treasury.

Since the donation of a silver reliquary in the shape of a Roman triumphal arch by Charlemagne's biographer Einhard in c. 830, the church has acquired many treasures, most of which are now kept in the Treasury. Amongst the highlights are the reliquary shrine and the reliquary bust of Saint Servatius, the key, the cup, the crozier and the pectoral cross of Saint Servatius, a large patriarchal cross, and many other reliquaries and liturgical vessels, as well as an important collection of medieval ivories and textiles.

The Basilica of Saint Servatius is a Roman Catholic church dedicated to Saint Servatius, in the city of Maastricht, the Netherlands. The architecturally hybrid but mainly Romanesque church is situated next to the Gothic church of Saint John, backing onto the town's main square, Vrijthof.

Die Servaasbasiliek () im niederländischen Maastricht ist eine romanische, dreischiffige Kreuzbasilika. Sie gilt als die älteste erhaltene Kirche der Niederlande. Die Gemeinde ist katholisch.


History.

Origins as a Ge 6/6.

A unique vehicle, the locomotive was manufactured in 1916 by the Swiss Locomotive and Machine Works (SLM) and fitted with electrical equipment by Brown Boveri & Cie (BBC). Its original operator, the Bernina Railway, had ordered it because a rapid increase in traffic on that railway had created a need for a separate locomotive for heavy trains.  After entering service in 1916, the locomotive operated under the traffic number 81 on the Bernina Railway, between St Moritz in Switzerland and Tirano in Italy, via the Bernina Pass.  With a weight of, distributed originally between six drive axles and two small additional axles discussed below, the locomotive was considered to be the most powerful metre gauge locomotive in Europe. However, the three axle bogies with their rod drive were not effective, and caused various difficulties that were untenable in the long run. In particular, the drive rods had a habit of breaking and on one occasion, a broken drive rod even penetrated the vehicle's roof.

Conversion to a Ge 4/4.

In 1929, the Bernina Railway addressed the locomotive's reliability problem by converting it from a C-C wheel arrangement into a B-B configuration, and therefore reclassified it as a Ge 4/4 type locomotive. The conversion involved removing the central axle of each bogie, lowering the traction motors, and installing new drive rods. These measures permanently eliminated the previous operational disturbances. At the same time, power output was able to be increased from to, but this involved lowering the top speed from to. As a special feature, the locomotive had been fitted with a two axle subframe supporting the brake frame for the electromagnetic rail brakes, which were supplied with current through the overhead catenary. Due to these subframes, the locomotive's wheel arrangement is correctly described as C′2′C′ in its original form, and B′2′B′ in its modified form. The two axle subframe, together with a small luggage compartment, has never been taken into account in the official classification of the locomotive. Strictly speaking, the locomotive should be classified as GDe 4/6 in its present configuration.

Later operations.

In 1943, the previously independent Bernina Railway was taken over by the Rhaetian Railway (RhB), which is the main railway network in the Canton of Graubünden, Switzerland. At the time of the takeover, the locomotive was renumbered 181. It continued to haul trains on the Bernina Railway until its withdrawal from service in 1970.  In the same year, the locomotive was transferred to the Blonay-Chamby Railway, where it was initially used on a regular basis. As a result of damage to its electrical equipment in 1990, it was taken out of the Blonay-Chamby's operational fleet. Only in 2008, thanks to a generous sponsor, was it worked up sufficiently to be able to re-enter active service.

The Bernina Railway Ge 6/6 81, later reclassified as Ge 4/4 81, and later still known as the Rhaetian Railway Ge 4/4 181, is a 1000 V DC metre gauge electrically powered heritage locomotive made in Switzerland.

Die Ge 6/6 81 war eine sechsachsige Elektrolokomotive der ehemaligen Berninabahn ("BB"), welche 1943 in der Rhätischen Bahn (RhB) aufging. Als Einzelstück wurde sie von der Schweizerischen Lokomotivfabrik in Winterthur mit elektrischer Ausrüstung von Brown, Boveri & Cie. hergestellt und 1916 abgeliefert. Als schmalspurige Elektrolokomotive mit sechs angetriebenen Achsen erhielt sie die Bauartbezeichnung Ge 6/6 und die Betriebsnummer 81. Die Lokomotive besitzt ein kleines Gepäckabteil, dieses findet aber keinen Niederschlag in der Bauartbezeichnung, da die Bahn das Fahrzeug als Lokomotive und nicht als Triebwagen klassifizieren wollte.


Playing career.

Bayda was drafted in the third round, 80th overall by the Carolina Hurricanes in the 2000 NHL Entry Draft. He joined the Hurricanes' AHL affiliate the Lowell Lock Monsters at the tailend of the 2001–02 season, scoring a goal and an assist in three regular season games and also scoring three goals in five playoff games. He made his NHL debut for Carolina during the 2002–03 NHL season.  On July 3, 2007, the Hurricanes re-signed Bayda to a one-year, $475,000 contract, a two-way contract which also paid him $100,000 at the AHL level.  On July 1, 2008, the Hurricanes re-signed Bayda to a one-year, $475,000 contract for the 2008-09 season. Bayda in his first full NHL season, played in a career-high 70 games and helped the Hurricanes reach the Eastern Conference finals. During the finals on May 22, 2009, Bayda was fined $2,500 as a result of a match penalty he was assessed for cross-checking Pittsburgh Penguins defenseman Kris Letang in the chin at the end of game 2 of the Eastern Conference Finals.  On September 3, 2009, Bayda was invited to the St. Louis Blues training camp for the 2009-10 season. Ryan, however, turned down the offer after the Blues signed forward Derek Armstrong and accepted an invitation to the Pittsburgh Penguins training camp instead.  Ryan scored his first career NHL goal against Ed Belfour and the Toronto Maple Leafs on February 18, 2003 in a 4-3 Hurricanes loss.  On July 12, 2013, after three seasons with the Nürnberg Ice Tigers of the Deutsche Eishockey Liga (DEL) in Germany, Bayda left as a free agent to join DEL rivals Augsburger Panther on a one-year deal.  In the following 2014–15 season, Bayda was limited to just 6 games, in which he produced 10 points, due to a serious elbow injury. Bayda as seasons end left as a free agent and signed a one-year contract with fellow DEL club, the Straubing Tigers on March 26, 2015.  He retired upon the conclusion of the 2015–16 season with the Straubing Tigers and returned to his home town of Saskatoon, where he opened a tattoo removal business.

Ryan G. Bayda (born December 9, 1980) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey left winger who played 179 games in the National Hockey League (NHL).

Ryan G. Bayda (* 9. Dezember 1980 in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan) ist ein ehemaliger kanadischer Eishockeyspieler, der während seiner aktiven Karriere zwischen 1998 und 2016 unter anderem 194 Spiele für die Carolina Hurricanes in der National Hockey League sowie 227 Partien für die Nürnberg Ice Tigers, Augsburger Panther und Straubing Tigers in der Deutschen Eishockey Liga absolviert hat.


History.

Established in 1973, the national park is named after Eduardo Avaroa (1838–1879), the Bolivian war hero of the 19th century. It was created by Supreme Decree (SD) of 13 December 1973 and extended on May 14, 1981. Since 2009, the entire reserve is part of the larger Los Lípez Ramsar site.

Geography.

The reserve is situated in the southern region of Andean mountains in southwestern Bolivia. The mountains rise to heights varying from. The basin features depict active volcanoes, hot springs, geysers and fumaroles, and a parallel has been drawn with the Yellowstone National Park in the US. Its water resources are limited to lakes and salt water lagoons due to very low rainfall of annually. Two communities, Quetena Chico and Quetena Grande, lie within the reserve.  Lakes include Laguna Verde, Laguna Colorada, Laguna Salada, Laguna Busch and Laguna Hedionda. Laguna Colorada lies at an altitude of and covers. It is named after the effect of wind and sun on the micro-organism that live in it. The lake is very shallow, less than deep, and supports some 40 bird species, providing pink algae to population of rare James's flamingoes who can walk across it.  An unusual natural feature of attraction (much photographed) in the reserve is an isolated rock formation projecting out of the sand dunes of Siloli at a place known as Árbol de Piedra. It is about north of Laguna Colorada. It is known as the “Stone Tree” as it is in the shape of a stunted tree, which is formed as a thin rock due to strong wind action.  The climate in winter (May to August) is dry, generally with no rain during the summer (December to April). The average temperature is. The lowest temperatures are recorded during the months of May, June and July.

Mountains.

The park contains the following mountains:

Culture.

Quetena Chico, founded in the 1920s, has a population 520, while Quetena Grande, founded shortly thereafter, is the smaller of the two and has a population of 180. Although the inhabitants are of Quechua descent, their primary language is Spanish. Health care and schooling were unavailable until the 1990s, while electricity and potable water systems were also unavailable at least until 2005. Near Quetena Chico, there are some archaeological remains, "jaranas" (stone huts), "tambos" (trail markers), rock paintings, and a ceremonial site lying in a depression between two volcanoes. Atulcha (or Chullpares), is an archeological site with mummies in a cave on Tunupa Volcano.

Economy.

The most important income generating activity for the two local communities has been camelid farming, selling llama wool and meat. With the restriction on fox hunting subsequent to the REA, community members' livelihoods have been negatively affected as the fox is the principal predator of llamas. Before establishment of the REA, flamingo egg sales provided monetary income to locals. The park visitor centre is located in Quetena Chico and tourism is growing steadily as, in 2007 there were over 67,000 visitors, six times the number reported in 1997. In addition to working in the tourist trade, locals pan for gold in the Río Quetena.  Mining is a major industry in and around the reserve, rich in natural resources of veins of lead, zinc and silver. As a result, 61 mining concessions are located in the park. Also extracted are its nonmetallic mineral resources like sulfur and ulexite the evaporating mineral. Ulexite is converted to boric acid and is exported to the United States, Europe, Asia and Australia.

Flora.

The reserve in the Andean has vegetation consisting of tropical alpine herbs with dwarf shrubs of the forests of "Polylepis". Plant and tree species are reportedly about 190 species, in the harsh terrain, which have emerged given the conditions of salinity, lack of fresh water, low temperatures, and scarcity of nutrients. Flora restricted to this and other ecoregions include the genera "Barneoudia", "Hexaptera", "Nototriche", "Pycnophyllum" and "Werneria". The vegetation is characterized by the strong presence of pasture grass (straw) such as Peruvian feather grass ("Stipa ichu") in some plains and hillsides. The important plant species on which people are dependent for fuel wood in the area is yareta, which grows in the forest of the reserve at per year amidst rocky terrain. This hardwood tree, which looks like a foamy bubble bath but is as hard as stone, grows slowly, attaining a height of about in height with girth of and can be as old as 3000 years. In places with higher humidity, Tola or Thola ("Parastrephia lepidophylla"), Quinoa and Kenua bush tree are found. The villagers use vegetation as fuel for heating and cooking.

Fauna.

The reserve is habitat for ten reptile species (including two lizards of the genus "Liolaemus"), amphibians and fish. Other domesticated animals that are raised in 500 villages inhabited by Quetena Grande and Quetena Chico communities are the llamas and alpacas; however, grazing by these animals on the native grasses and plants in the reserve has a detrimental effect on the conservation of the park.  The fauna is characterized by the presence of species that have adapted to extreme living conditions in the region, some of them endangered. The reserve is home to 80 species of birds. Out of six flamingo species in the world, three species, namely the Chilean, Andean and James flamingos are found in very large numbers in the freshwater lakes and saltwater lagoons of the reserve; of the "Phoenicopterus chilensis", "Phoenicoparrus andinus" and "Phoenicoparrus jamesi" flamingos in the reserve, their population recorded in 1994 as 26,600. In addition, the reserve is also the habitat for 80 more species of birds, which include the falcons, ducks, lesser rhea" (Pterocnemia pennata)", puna tinamou "(Tinamotis pentlandii)" and Andean goose "(Chloephaga melanoptera)". Endemic birds found in this ecoregion also include the endangered Ash-breasted tit-tyrant "(Anairetes alpinus)"; the critically threatened royal cinclodes "(Cinclodes aricomae)", the vulnerable Berlepsch's canastero "(Asthenes berlepschi)"; and species of least concern the line-fronted canastero "(Asthenes urubambensis)", scribble-tailed canastero "(Asthenes maculicauda)", short-tailed finch "(Idiopsar bracyurus)", and gray-bellied flower-piercer "(Diglosa carbonaria)".  Mammals reported in the protected reserve are 23 species, which include pumas, Andean foxes ("Pseudalopex culpaeus") and vizcacha (rabbit -like), and also Endangered species of vicuñas ("Vicugna vicugna"), suri, Andean condor, keñua, puma ("Felis concolor"), andean cat ("Felis jacobita"), and quirquincho ("Chaetophractus nationi").

Threats.

The region of Polylepis forests as a whole has been subject to heavy degradation. The overuse of "Polylepis tarapacana", and "Azorella compacta" has brought the reserve under severe stress. It is due to overgrazing by domesticated animals, use of forest trees for fuel, burning, clearance for cultivation and due to dumping of tailings or mining wastes. Tourism is also perceived as a threat to the park environment and the tourism industry has reported a visitation of a large number of people annually to the reserve; the security forces engaged for protecting the park is inadequate to meet this challenge. Human disturbance, soil erosion, wastes in lakes and lagoons, and fecal coliform runoff from waste are also identified reasons affecting the conservation of flamingos.

Conservation.

The Conservancy and the Bolivian National Protected Areas Service (SERNAP) has the onus for operating and maintaining the reserve with its trained 14 park guards who are provided with patrol vehicles and two-way radios. However, keeping in view the growing influx of tourists to the park and other threats from other sources as reported, SERNAP has prepared a Master Plan for park management plan subsuming ecotourism as an essential component to generate financial resources. According to Andy Drumm, director of the Ecotourism Program, entrance fees at the reserve amounted to about $200,000 in 2006. This necessitated a scientific study on the carrying capacity of the reserve due to large influx of tourists. However, SERNAP is associating the TROPICO (created in 1986 as a non-governmental, non-profit organization for biodiversity conservation in Bolivia.) as its conservancy partner to introduce and enforce environmental regulations in the reserve.  Parks in Peril (PiP), a program of intervention, a collaboration between "the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), and the Nature Conservancy to Preserve our Natural Heritage" provided funding for conservations works of the reserve, which is one of the most economically backward areas. This funding, provided between 1999 and 2002, enabled PiP to work in association with the SERNAP and the Nature Conservancy, and TROPICO providing the supervisory services, to evolve a self-sustaining strategy of utilizing park entrance fee for conservation related aspects. This experience gained from this pilot model for ecotourism is now replicated in other parks in Bolivia. Other strategies adopted for conservation of the reserve were: Restricting visitor access to some of the reserve's vulnerable resources; providing natural gas and solar energy as cooking fuel replacing wood cutting from the reserve; agricultural extension services to educate farmers on better methods of farming; improvement of infrastructure in the reserve including staffing for patrolling and security; and collection of scientific data.

The Eduardo Avaroa Andean Fauna National Reserve ("Reserva Nacional de Fauna Andina Eduardo Avaroa"; Spanish acronym: REA) is located in Sur Lípez Province. Situated in the far southwestern region of Bolivia, it is the country's most visited protected area. It is considered the most important protected area in terms of tourist influx in the Potosí Department.

Die Reserva Nacional de Fauna Andina Eduardo Abaroa ist mit mindestens 60.000 Besuchern pro Jahr der meistbesuchte Nationalpark in Bolivien. Er wurde 1973 gegründet und trägt den Namen von Eduardo Abaroa, einem Kriegshelden des Salpeterkrieges.


Notable conceptions of a California megalopolis.

Futurists Herman Kahn and Anthony Wiener coined the name SanSan as an allusion to San Diego and San Francisco (along with BosWash and Chipitts) in "The Year 2000" for a California megalopolis along the coast. The coastal emphasis does not conform to subsequent growth patterns extending to Metropolitan Sacramento and the Inland Empire.  Beyond Megalopolis, by Virginia Tech's Metropolitan Institute, defines two megapolitan areas which extend from California into Nevada: NorCal, which includes the Reno, Nevada area, and the Southland which encompasses Greater Los Angeles, the Inland Empire, and San Diego and includes Metropolitan Las Vegas.  America 2050, an organization sponsored by the Rockefeller and Ford Foundations, lists 11 megaregions in the United States and Canada. This includes the Southern and Northern California megaregions in which Southern California includes Greater Los Angeles, San Diego–Tijuana, the Inland Empire and Las Vegas Valley.  None of the invented terms for a California megalopolis have ever achieved popular usage, as there has been little need for the general public to distinguish a California megalopolis from California as a whole or particular metropolitan areas such as the San Francisco Bay Area ("Bay Area") or the Greater Los Angeles Area ("L.A.").

Region.

California is linked by Interstate 5, U.S. 101, State Route 99 and State Route 1 (PCH) which start in the U.S.-Mexico border, Los Angeles, near Bakersfield and southern Orange County respectively, and terminate at the Oregon border (between Yreka and Ashland), the Oregon border (between Crescent City and Brookings), Red Bluff, and in northern Mendocino County respectively. The California High-Speed Rail, the first true high-speed rail network in the Americas, is planned to connect Sacramento and the Bay Area to Los Angeles and San Diego with high-speed trains capable of 220 mph (350 km/h) linking San Francisco and Los Angeles in two and a half hours. Construction began in August 2010 with the construction of the new San Francisco Transbay Terminal. As of the 2010 Census, the combined population of all of California's metropolitan regions is nearly 28.9 million (excluding San Diego, Reno, and Las Vegas), about 9.37% of the total US population, while the entire state of California had an estimated population of 44.2 million in 2017.  The megalopolis concept encompasses the combination of the megaregions of Northern California (composed of most of the region except extreme northern California and Eastern California counties of Modoc, Lassen, Plumas, Mono and Inyo) and Southern California (composed of the entire region except the county of Imperial) and spills into Baja California and Nevada with each proposed megaregion including the Reno metropolitan area, Metropolitan Las Vegas and Tijuana metropolitan area respectively.  Northern California holds 21 counties that are part of metropolitan areas, including one in Nevada, and includes an additional 17 neighboring counties and four Nevada counties in the sphere of influence. Currently, all three of the metropolitan regions of Northern California (Bay Area, Greater Sacramento, and Metropolitan Fresno) are connected but are separated from Greater Los Angeles with Kings, Tulare and Kern Counties at the narrowest gap. However, one of metropolitan regions of each part of the state borders one of the two metropolitan regions of Nevada, Sacramento bordering Reno and Greater Los Angeles bordering Las Vegas.  Southern California holds the 8 counties and municipalities of Greater Los Angeles, Inland Empire and San Diego-Tijuana. Kern County and two Nevada counties are within the sphere of influence of Greater Los Angeles while Imperial County and Mexicali Municipality are held within San Diego-Tijuana's sphere of influence.  The California Megalopolis with both the Northern and Southern megaregions would contain 3 of the 10 biggest cities in the US all with over 1 million each and 9 of the 50 biggest US cities, both the most of any megaregion in the country. On a global scale, the megapolitan area would contain three of the fifty largest cities in the Americas. The largest cities in descending order are: Los Angeles, San Diego, Tijuana, San Jose, San Francisco, Mexicali, Las Vegas, Fresno, Sacramento, Long Beach, Oakland, Bakersfield, Anaheim, and Santa Ana.

Northern California.

California's economy as a whole is the largest of any state in the United States and is the fourth largest economy in the world. The Northern California megaregion is home to the Silicon Valley with major corporations such as: Cisco Systems, Apple Inc., Oracle, EBay, Yahoo!, Facebook, YouTube, Google, and Hewlett Packard, the San Francisco Financial District (home to headquarters of various financial and business firms such as VISA, Wells Fargo, and Union Bank of California and is the largest financial district outside New York City), Wine Country, and much of the Central Valley which is one of the world's most productive agricultural areas, producing 8% of the nation's total crops. The centers of major national government offices, such as the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco, and the U.S. Mint, as well as the California State Capitol and the California Supreme Court are all located within the region. The Bay Area also has the largest concentration of multi-millionaire households of any metropolitan area in the country and the largest concentration of billionaires of any U.S. metropolitan area, almost more than the next three metropolitan areas combined.

Southern California.

The Southern California megaregion is also a very important economic center in the U.S., and indeed also in Mexico, as it includes Tijuana, Mexico. Southern California is home to the Port of Los Angeles and Port of Long Beach (the first and second busiest container ports in the U.S. respectively) and the Port of San Diego. The global center of the entertainment business, Southern California leads the world in the motion picture, television, and recorded music industry and is the home base for Hollywood, with studios such as The Walt Disney Company, ABC, Sony Pictures, Warner Bros., Universal Studios, MGM, Paramount Pictures, and 20th Century Fox headquartered here. Corporations such as Fox Sports Net, Guess, In-n-Out Burger, ARCO, Farmers, logistics, and many financial and banking companies are also based in the region. Southern California has long been the leading region in the U.S. for aviation and aerospace, and is one of the top five regions in the U.S. for the high-technology industry.  Southern California is also one of the world's largest tourist industries thanks to its famous beaches, entertainment districts such as L.A. Live and Sunset Boulevard, and theme parks including Disneyland, Knott's Berry Farm, and Universal Studios Hollywood. San Diego is an important port city, industrial, commercial, and shipbuilding center. It has a flourishing tourism industry, many research institutions, a large biomedical/biotechnology industry, and it is home to one of the largest concentrations of U.S. military bases and personnel of any large American city. Las Vegas is the largest city in Nevada, the world's second largest gambling/gaming center after Macau, and one of the fastest growing large cities and metropolitan areas in the United States.

Coastal and Inland California.

The vast, relatively sparsely populated area of Central California weakens the proposal that California constitutes a single megalopolis. The northern and southern regions continue to grow toward one another, however, with much of this recent urbanization occurring not along the expensive and crowded coast itself – or even along the somewhat developed first tier of interior coastal valleys – but farther inland along a north–south axis through the midsection of the state in the Central Valley, Antelope Valley, Inland Empire and San Joaquin Valley regions, all comparatively more affordable areas which are becoming increasingly suburbanized as they are within commuting distance (albeit often a long commute) of the state's major coastal cities.

Population.

Area composition.

The California megalopolis contains a total of 56 counties and municipalities, 46 in California, 6 in Nevada and 4 in Baja California. Of those 56, 26 are part of combined statistical areas in California and 5 are part of metropolitan areas in Nevada, while the remaining six are part of international metropolitan area. Greater Los Angeles:  San Francisco Bay Area:  San Diego-Tijuana:  Metropolitan Vegas:  Greater Sacramento:  Mexicali-Calexico:  Metropolitan Fresno:  Area of influence (California):  Area of influence (Nevada):

California's major urban areas normally are thought of as two large megalopolises: one in Northern California and one in Southern California, separated from each other by approximately 382 miles or 615 km (the distance from Los Angeles to San Francisco), with sparsely inhabited (relatively) Central Coast, Central Valley, and Transverse Ranges in between. Other ideas conceive of a single megalopolis encompassing both North and South, or a division of Coastal California vs. Inland California. These regional concepts are usually based on geographic, cultural, political, and environmental differences, rather than transportation and infrastructure connectivity and boundaries.

Die Megalopolis Sansan ist eine Bezeichnung für ein wissenschaftliches Konstrukt einer Kette von Metropolregionen im westlichen Kalifornien entlang der Küste von San Francisco bis San Diego. Der Name ist als Kunstwort aus den Namen der beiden Städte zusammengesetzt. Im englischen Sprachgebrauch herrscht Binnengroßschreibung der Silben in den Namen der US-amerikanischen Megalopolen vor ("SanSan", "BosWash" und "Chipitts"). Im deutschsprachigen Kontext wird in der Regel jedoch nur der erste Buchstabe groß geschrieben. Sansan umfasst den größten Teil der Bevölkerung Kaliforniens einschließlich der Greater Los Angeles Area, in der etwa ein Drittel der gesamten Einwohner dieses Bundesstaates leben.


Qualifications.

Candidates for governor must be United States citizens who have resided in Virginia and been a registered voter for five years prior to the election in which they are running. The candidates must be at least 30 years of age.  Unlike other state governors, Virginia governors are not allowed to serve consecutive terms. They have been barred from immediate re-election since the adoption of Virginia's second constitution, in 1830. However, a former governor is permitted to run for a second term in a future election. Only two governors since 1830, William Smith and Mills Godwin, were elected to additional terms. Smith's second term came after Virginia seceded from the Union, while Godwin became the first ever governor in American history to be elected by both major parties when the former Democrat was elected in 1973 as a Republican. The only other governors to serve non-consecutive stints in office were Patrick Henry and James Monroe, with George William Smith serving twice as acting governor before becoming official governor.  To get on the ballot for Governor of Virginia, each candidate must file 10,000 signatures, including the signatures of at least 400 qualified voters from each of the 11 congressional districts in the Commonwealth.

Duties.

The governor is the head of government in Virginia. At the beginning of every regular session, they must report the state of the Commonwealth to the Virginia General Assembly (both the House of Delegates and the Senate). They must convene the legislature when two-thirds of each house calls for a special session. The governor must ensure that the laws of the Commonwealth are faithfully executed by either signing, or allowing it to come into law, or vetoing, not allowing it to become law. They are responsible for the safety of the state, as they serve as commander-in-chief of the Virginia Militia.

History.

Colony / Province.

The position of Governor of Virginia dates back to the 1607 first permanent English settlement in America, at Jamestown on the north shore of the James River upstream from Hampton Roads harbor at the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay. The Virginia Company of London set up a government run by a council. The president of the council basically served as a governor. The council was based in London and controlled the colony from afar. Nominally, Thomas Smith was the first president of the council, but he never left England. Edward Maria Wingfield was the first president of the council in residence in the new province, making him the first to exercise the actual authority of governing Virginia. The Virginia Company soon abandoned governance by council two years after the landing on May 23, 1609, and replacing it with a governor, the famous and dynamic leader, John Smith (1580-1631).  In 1624, the English Monarchy of King James I (1566-1625, reigned 1603-1625), in the last year of his reign, of the royal House of Stuart took control from the Virginia Company and its stockholders and made Virginia a crown colony. Governors continued to be appointed by the monarch for many years. Most often, the appointed governor would reside in England while a deputy or lieutenant governor actually exercised authority. Royal rule was interrupted during the English Civil War (1642-46 / 1648-49), after which governors were appointed by the Protectorate under Richard Cromwell (successor to Oliver Cromwell) in the interim Commonwealth of England until the English Restoration of the monarchy with King Charles II in 1660.

Commonwealth.

Virginia became an independent sovereign state and Commonwealth during the American Revolutionary War (1775-1783), with Patrick Henry (1736-1799, served 1776-79 / 1786-89) as its first governor (and also later sixth). From the Revolution until 1851, the governor was elected by the General Assembly of Virginia (commonwealth/state legislature). After 1851, in a democratic trend spreading across the Union, the state turned to popular elections for office holders.  During the American Civil War (1861-1865), Francis Harrison Pierpont was the governor of the Union-controlled parts of the state, later of which emerged the new state in the northwest of West Virginia. Pierpont also served as one of the provisional governors during the post-war Reconstruction era. These governors were appointed by the Federal government of the President and U.S. Congress, both controlled by Radical Republicans for a decade. In 1874, Virginia regained its right to self-governance and elected James L. Kemper (1823-1895), a Democrat and temporary Conservative Party member and former Confederate general as governor. After the Radical Republican appointees of the post-war Reconstruction era, Virginia would not actually elect another regular Republican as governor until A. Linwood Holton Jr. in 1969. However, in 1881 William E. Cameron was elected governor under the banner of the Readjuster Party, a coalition of Republicans and populist Democrats. Douglas Wilder became the first elected and only the second African American Governor of any U.S. state. He served as governor from 1990 to 1994.  Since 1851, Virginia's gubernatorial elections have been held in "off-years"—years in which there are no national (presidential, senatorial, or House) elections; Virginia's gubernatorial elections are held one year after U.S. presidential elections (2001, 2005, 2009, etc.) (Most states hold gubernatorial elections either on presidential-election years or midterm-election years, when there are congressional elections.) In every Virginia gubernatorial election starting with 1977, the governor elected had been from the opposite party as the president elected by the nation in the previous year, even when Virginia had voted for the president in office, as with Ronald Reagan and Barack Obama. The only exception being in 2013 with the election of Democrat Terry McAuliffe, following the re-election of President Obama in 2012.  Tim Kaine was inaugurated on January 14, 2006. Due to renovations on the Capitol in Richmond, his inauguration was held in Williamsburg, making him the first governor to be inaugurated in Williamsburg since Thomas Jefferson in 1779. The current governor of Virginia is Ralph Northam, who was inaugurated on January 13, 2018.

Style.

The Governor of Virginia is addressed as "The Honorable", but may occasionally be referred to as "Excellency" if ceremonially appropriate.

The Governor of the Commonwealth of Virginia serves as the chief executive of the Commonwealth of Virginia for a four-year term. The current holder of the office is Democrat Ralph Northam, who was sworn in on January 13, 2018. His term of office will end in 2022.

Der Gouverneur von Virginia ("Governor of Virginia") ist der Regierungschef des US-Bundesstaates Virginia. Amtsinhaber ist seit Januar 2018 der Demokrat Ralph Northam.


Geography.

Tovuz covers 412 km2. The rayon is mountainous in the south, where it is crossed by the Lesser Caucasus mountains.  The region includes rich deposits of ores and precious metals, notably gold.  The region is located in the north-west of the Republic, bordering the Republic of Georgia to the north, Armenia to the west, Gadabay to the south and south-west, Shamkir to the east, Samukh from north-east to the north.  The southern part of the district is located in the lowlands, the northern part lies in low mountainous and foothill zone, where positive and negative relief forms are shifted. There are three climate areas in the district:  1. Dry subtropical climate. Characterized by soft summers and hot springs.  2. Mild hot dry climate. This is a climate up to place less than 1000 meters high. The winter is mild and the spring is warmer.  3. Mild cold, forest climate. This climatic hill covers the area from 1,000 to 2,000 meters. The spring is cool, and the winter is a bit frosty.  The river network:  The Kur River divides the region into two parts. The left coast is used as the main pasture for cattle breeding. The right bank of the river is used for agriculture, occupies the forest fund of the region and the meadow grassland. The annual rainfall is 40–70 mm.

Villages.

There about 20 main villages in the district. They are Quşçu, Öysüzlü, Ayıblı, Alakol, Yuxarı Öysüzlü, Abulbəyli, Düz Qırıqlı, Düz Cırdaxan, Yanıqlı, Qəribli, Azaplı, Bozalqanlı, Dönük Qırıqlı, İbrahimhacılı, Dondar Quşçu, Kirən, Əlibəyli villages and Qovlar settlement. Qovlar settlement is more populated area among them.

Population.

According to the statistics urbanization is low in the district. 26968 people live in the city and 130907 people live in the village. According to census of 2019, Tovuz has over 175.5 thousand people, out of which 1531 are war veterans.  Over 25536 are students and currently are in process of education.  According to census of 2012 quantity of people from different nations were divided in this way:

Cultural centers.

In Tovuz district, there are 4 museums, 13 cultural centers, 6 libraries and a Photo Gallery.. Museums include Heydar Aliyev Center, History and Local Lore Museum, Ozan Ashug Museum and State Symbols Museum.

Economy.

The region is dominated by agriculture. Wine, fruit, vegetables and grain crops are all produced along with cattle.  Stock raising is one of the main revenue source of this region:  There are 24 entities which operate in industrial and agricultural sphere:  Where the sown areas for agricultural plants are:

Tovuz is a rayon of Azerbaijan. It is situated between Shemkir and Agstafa, 360 km from Baku and 107 km from Tbilisi city. A major train line runs through the center, stopping at Tovuz Stansiya. Tovuz also borders Armenia near the village of Alibeyli.

Tovuz ist ein Rayon im Westen Aserbaidschans. Die Hauptstadt des Bezirks ist die Stadt Tovuz. Der Bezirk grenzt im Norden an Georgien, im Süden an Armenien.


Overview.

TECHNIP is primarily in the energy business and is active in three business segments, namely Subsea, Offshore & Onshore. It has around 38,000 employees and operates in 48 countries. It owns a fleet of 21 vessels in operation with 6 more under construction. As of the end of 2014, while the operating income of Technip Group from recurring activities stood at ~ Euros 825 million, the total revenues stood at more than Euros 10.7 billion.

History.

Technip was established in 1958 by IFP, Institut français du pétrole, as Compagnie française d'études et de construction Technip.  In the 1960s, the company completed its first international projects in Africa and Asia. In the 1970s Technip became an international group with the acquisition of an office in Rome and the creation of Technip Geoproduction, a subsidiary specialized in hydrocarbon field equipment. During this period, Coflexip – a firm specialized in the design, manufacture and supply of flexible subsea flowlines – was created by the IFP (French Petroleum Institute) and opened a flexible flowline manufacturing plant in Le Trait, France, as well as offices in Houston, Aberdeen and Rio de Janeiro.  In the 1980s Technip opened operating centers in Kuala Lumpur and Abu Dhabi. Coflexip opened a second flowline manufacturing plant in Brazil and branched out into the manufacture of umbilicals with the establishment of the Duco plant in Newcastle, UK.  Coflexip acquired Stena Offshore while Technip acquired several companies with strong technological expertise: "Speichim", "Krebs" and "KTI". Already established in the United States, KTI enabled Technip to set up in North America. Coflexip established a presence in Australia and acquired the Norwegian company Stena Offshore.  In the 2000s, Technip merged with Coflexip, which had just acquired Aker Maritime's Deepwater Division. The unified group is now one of the top five companies worldwide in engineering, technology and services for the energy industry. Many major contracts are signed, notably in the Middle East in the liquefied natural gas (LNG), ethylene and refining sectors.  In 2010 three major assets came into operation: the Technip fleet expanded to 17 vessels with the addition of the Apache II, one of the most advanced pipelay vessels in the industry, and the Skandi Vitoria, a Brazilian-flagged vessel dedicated to the pre-salt market. Asiaflex Products, the Group’s third flexible pipe production plant, located in Tanjung Langsat, Malaysia was inaugurated.  In 2011, Technip acquired Global Industries, substantially expanding its addressable market in subsea.  In 2012 Technip acquired Stone & Webster Process Technologies and associated oil and gas engineering capabilities from The Shaw Group.

Merger with FMC.

In 2017, FMC Technologies Inc. and Technip agreed to merge, forming a significant new player in an energy industry racked by a nearly two-year slump in crude prices.  The all-share deal would result in a new company named TechnipFMC with a market value of about $13 billion.  TechnipFMC has three headquarters in Houston, Paris and London under new Houston-based CEO Doug Pferdehirt, who worked as FMC’s chief operating officer. Former Technip chairman and CEO Thierry Pilenko is the new executive chairman.  In August 2019, Doug Pferdehirt announces that TechnipFMC will be split into two independent engineering companies. The separation is expected to be completed by the end of the first semester 2020. The former Technip entity, without the subsea business, will be renamed Technip Energies.

Listings.

In the 1990s Technip was listed on the Paris Stock Exchange and Coflexip on the New York Stock Exchange. Technip was included in the CAC40 French benchmark index in September 2009.

Controversies.

In June 2010 Technip S.A. agreed to pay a $338 million criminal penalty to resolve charges related to the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA) for its participation in a decade-long scheme to bribe Nigerian government officials to obtain engineering, procurement and construction (EPC) contracts.  In 2011, the US Securities & Exchange Commission (SEC) filed a lawsuit in the federal Southern District of New York alleging insider trading.

Organization.

Technip was certified as one of the first five companies in the world as a Global Top Employer 2015 which recognizes first-class employee offerings globally and equally. This independent certification delivered by the Top Employers Institute demonstrates the quality and consistency of the company’s human resources policies and practices all around the globe.  Technip has also been certified as a top employer in 24 countries (Australia, Brazil, China, Colombia, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Malaysia, Mexico, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Qatar, Russia, Singapore, Spain, Thailand, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, United States, Venezuela and Vietnam) as well as in three regions (Asia-Pacific, Europe and Latin America).  In July 2015, it was announced that the company would lay off 6,000 employees due to the industry downturn.

Financial and stock market information.

The Technip share is listed on Euronext Paris and on the American over-the-counter market.  The Technip share is included in the Dow Jones Sustainability Index and the Low Carbon 100 index and the ASPI Eurozone.  (a) Does not include the exercise of options arising from the current share purchase or share subscription option plans.

Technip S.A. was a company that carried out project management, engineering and construction for the energy industry; in 2017 it completed a merger with FMC Technologies to form TechnipFMC. Its headquarters were in the 16th arrondissement of Paris. It has about 38,000 employees and operates in 48 countries.

Technip S.A. war ein französisches Anlagenbau-Unternehmen mit Firmensitz in Paris. Gegründet wurde die Firma 1958 in Paris. Technip arbeitete vor allem für die Erdöl- und Erdgaswirtschaft. Im Jahr 2017 fusionierte Technip mit FMC Technologies und ging somit in der TechnipFMC auf.


Biography.

Early life and education.

Born in Turin, Agostino Richelmy received his Confirmation on 13 August 1857 and later joined the Garibaldian Volunteers in the War of 1866, wearing his red shirt under his cassock for years afterwards. He attended Liceo classico Cavour and studied at the seminary in Turin, from where he obtained his doctorate in theology on 18 May 1876. He was ordained to the priesthood on 25 April 1873 and finished his studies three years later. Within the Archdiocese of Turin, Richelmy taught at its seminary, served as a prosynodal examiner, and was a canon of the cathedral chapter.

Episcopate.

On 7 June 1886 he was appointed Bishop of Ivrea by Pope Leo XIII. Richelmy received his episcopal consecration on the following 28 October from Cardinal Gaetano Alimonda, with Bishops Davide Riccardi and Giovanni Bertagna serving as co-consecrators. He was later named Archbishop of Turin on 18 September 1897.

Cardinalate.

Pope Leo created him Cardinal Priest of "Sant'Eusebio" in the consistory of 18 June 1899. After participating in the 1903 papal conclave, Richelmy's cardinalatial church was transferred to "Santa Maria in Via" on 27 November 1911. He was one of the cardinal electors in the conclave of 1914, and also in that of 1922, which selected Pope Benedict XV and Pope Pius XI respectively. In 1915, when Italy entered World War I, Richelmy organized priests for duty as army chaplains in the mountains of Trentino, where they carved altars out of snow and said Mass in below-zero temperatures.  The Cardinal died in Turin, at age 72. He was initially buried at the chapel for the clergy in the Turin cemetery, but his remains were transferred in 1927 to the Santuario della Consolata, where they lie in a pink marble sarcophagus.  Richelmy succeeded Davide Riccardi, who assisted in the former's episcopal consecration, as both Bishop of Ivrea and Archbishop of Turin.

Agostino Richelmy (29 November 1850 – 10 August 1923) was an Italian Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church who served as Archbishop of Turin from 1897 until his death, and was elevated to the rank of cardinal in 1899.

Agostino Kardinal Richelmy (* 29. November 1850 in Turin; † 10. August 1923 ebenda) war ein Kardinal der Römischen Kirche. Von 1897 bis zu seinem Tod war er Erzbischof von Turin


Summary.

Nozick's entitlement theory, which sees humans as ends in themselves and justifies redistribution of goods only on condition of consent, is a key aspect of "Anarchy, State, and Utopia". It is influenced by John Locke, Immanuel Kant, and Friedrich Hayek.  The book also contains a vigorous defense of minarchist libertarianism against more extreme views, such as anarcho-capitalism (in which there is "no" state and individuals must contract with private companies for "all" social services). Nozick argues that anarcho-capitalism would inevitably transform into a minarchist state, even without violating any of its own non-aggression principles, through the eventual emergence of a single locally dominant private defense and judicial agency that it is in everyone's interests to align with, because other agencies are unable to effectively compete against the advantages of the agency with majority coverage. Therefore, even to the extent that the anarcho-capitalist theory is correct, it results in a single, private, protective agency which is itself a de facto "state". Thus anarcho-capitalism may only exist for a limited period before a minimalist state emerges.

Philosophical activity.

The preface of "Anarchy, State, and Utopia" contains a passage about "the usual manner of presenting philosophical work"—i.e., its presentation as though it were the absolutely final word on its subject. Nozick believes that philosophers are really more modest than that and aware of their works' weaknesses. Yet a form of philosophical activity persists which "feels like pushing and shoving things to fit into some fixed perimeter of specified shape." The bulges are masked or the cause of

Why state-of-nature theory?

In this chapter Nozick tries to explain why investigating a Lockean state of nature is useful in order to understand whether there should be a state in the first place. If one can show that an anarchic society is worse than one that has a state we should choose the second as the less bad alternative. To convincingly compare the two, he argues, one should focus not on an extremely pessimistic nor on an extremely optimistic view of that society. Instead, one should:  Nozick's plan is to first describe the morally permissible and impermissible actions in such a non-political society and how violations of those constraints by some individuals would lead to the

The state of nature.

Nozick starts this chapter by summarizing some of the features of the Lockean state of nature. An important one is that every individual has a right to exact compensation by himself whenever another individual violates his rights. Punishing the offender is also acceptable, but only inasmuch as he (or others) will be prevented from doing that again. As Locke himself acknowledges, this raises several problems, and Nozick is going to try to see to what extent can they be solved by voluntary arrangements. A rational response to the "troubles" of a Lockean state of nature is the establishment of mutual-protection associations, in which all will answer the call of any member. It is inconvenient that everyone is always on call, and that the associates can be called out by members who may be "cantankerous or paranoid". Another important inconvenience takes place when two members of the same association have a dispute. Although there are simple rules that could solve this problem (for instance, a policy of non intervention) most people will prefer associations that try to build systems to decide whose claims are correct.  In any case, the problem of everybody being on call dictates that some entrepreneurs will

Moral constraints and the state.

Nozick arrives at the night-watchman state of classical liberalism theory by showing that there are non-redistributive reasons for the apparently redistributive procedure of making its clients pay for the protection of others. He defines what he calls an ultraminimal state, which would not have this seemingly redistributive feature but would be the only one allowed to enforce rights. Proponents of this ultraminimal state don't defend it on the grounds of trying to minimize the total of (weighted) violations of rights (what he calls utilitarianism of rights). That idea would mean, for example, that someone could punish another person he or she knows to be innocent in order to calm down a mob that would otherwise violate even more rights. This is not the philosophy behind the ultraminimal state. Instead, its proponents hold its members' rights are a side-constraint on what can be done to them. This side-constraint view reflects the underlying Kantian principle that individuals are ends and not merely means, so the rights of "one" individual cannot be violated to avoid violations of the rights of "other" people. Which principle should we choose, then? Nozick won't try to prove which one is better. Instead, he gives some reasons to

Prohibition, compensation, and risk.

The procedure that leads to a night-watchman state involves compensation to non-members who are prevented from enforcing their rights, an enforcement mechanism that it deems risky by comparison with its own. Compensation addresses any disadvantages non-members suffer as a result of being unable to enforce their rights. Assuming that non-members take reasonable precautions and adjusting activities to the association's prohibition of their enforcing their own rights, the association is required to raise the non-member above his actual position by an amount equal to the difference between his position on an indifference curve he would occupy were it not for the prohibition, and his original position.  The purpose of this comparatively dense chapter is to deduce what Nozick calls the Compensation Principle. That idea is going to be key for the next chapter, where he shows how (without any violation of rights) an ultraminimal state (one that has a monopoly of enforcement of rights) can become a "minimal" state (which also provides protection to all individuals). Since this would involve some people paying for the protection of others, or some people being forced to pay for protection, the main element of the discussion is whether these kinds of actions can be justified from a

The state.

An independent might be prohibited from using his methods of privately enforcing justice if: Nevertheless, an independent may be using a method that doesn’t impose a high risk on others but, if similar procedures are used by many others the total risk may go beyond an acceptable threshold. In that case it is impossible to decide who should stop doing it, since nobody is personally responsible and therefore nobody has a right to stop him. Independents may get together to decide these questions, but even if they agree to a mechanism to keep the total risk below the threshold, each individual will have an incentive to get out of the deal. This procedure fails because of the rationality of being a free rider on such grouping, taking advantage of everyone else's restraint and going ahead with one's own risky activities. In a famous discussion he rejects H. L. A. Hart's "principle of fairness" for dealing with free riders, which would morally bind them to cooperative practices

Further considerations on the argument for the state.

A discussion of pre-emptive attack leads Nozick to a principle that excludes prohibiting actions not wrong in themselves, even if those actions make more likely the commission of wrongs later on.

Distributive justice.

Nozick's discussion of Rawls's theory of justice raised a prominent dialogue between libertarianism and liberalism. He sketches an entitlement theory, which states, "From each as they choose, to each as they are chosen". It comprises a theory of (1) justice in acquisition; (2) justice in rectification if (1) is violated (rectification which might require apparently redistributive measures); (3) justice in holdings, and (4) justice in transfer. Assuming justice in acquisition, entitlement to holdings is a function of repeated applications of (3) and (4). Nozick's entitlement theory is a non-patterned historical principle. Almost all other principles of distributive justice (egalitarianism, utilitarianism) are

The Difference Principle.

Nozick attacks John Rawls's Difference Principle on the ground that the well-off could threaten a lack of social cooperation to the worse-off, just as Rawls implies that the worse-off will be assisted by the well-off for the sake of social cooperation. Nozick asks why the well-off would be obliged, due to their

Original position.

Nozick's opinions on "historical entitlement" ensures that he naturally rejects the "Original Position" since he argues that in the "Original Position"

Equality, envy, and exploitation.

Nozick presses "the major objection" to theories that bestow and enforce positive rights to various things such as equality of opportunity, life, and so on. "These

Demoktesis.

Demoktesis is a thought-experiment designed to show the incompatibility of democracy with libertarianism in general and the entitlement theory specifically. People desirous of more money might "hit upon the idea of incorporating themselves, raising money by selling shares in themselves." They would partition such rights as which occupation one would have. Though perhaps no one sells himself into utter slavery, there arises through voluntary exchanges a "very extensive domination" of some person by others. This intolerable situation is avoided by writing new terms of incorporation that for any stock no one already owning more than a certain number of shares may purchase it. As the process goes on, everyone sells off rights in themselves, "keeping one share in each right as their own, so

A framework for Utopia.

The utopia mentioned in the title of Nozick's first book is a meta-utopia, a framework for voluntary migration between utopias tending towards worlds in which everybody benefits from everybody else's presence. This is meant to be the Lockean "night-watchman state" writ large. The state protects individual rights and makes sure that contracts and other market transactions are voluntary. The meta-utopian framework reveals what is inspiring and noble in this night-watchman function. They both contain the only form of social union that is possible for the atomistic rational agents of "Anarchy, State, and Utopia", fully voluntary associations of mutual benefit. The influence of this idea on Nozick's thinking is profound. Even in his last book, "Invariances", he is still concerned to give priority to the mutual-benefit aspect of ethics. This coercively enforceable aspect ideally has an "empty core" in the game theorists' sense: the core of a game is all of those payoff vectors to the group wherein no subgroup can do better for itself acting

Other topics covered in the book.

Retributive and deterrence theories of punishment.

In chapter 4 Nozick discusses two theories of punishment: the deterrence and the retributive ones. To compare them, we have to take into account what is the decision that a potential infractor is facing. His decision may be determined by:  formula_2  Where G are the gains from violating the victim's rights, p is the probability of getting caught and (C + D + E) are the costs that the infractor would face if caught. Specifically, C is full compensation to the

Animal rights and utilitarianism.

Nozick discusses in chapter 3 whether animals have rights too or whether they can be used, and if

Reception.

"Anarchy, State, and Utopia" came out of a semester-long course that Nozick taught with Michael Walzer at Harvard in 1971, called "Capitalism and Socialism". The course was a debate between the two; Nozick's side is in "Anarchy, State, and Utopia," and Walzer's side is in his "Spheres of Justice" (1983), in which he argues for "complex equality".  Murray Rothbard, an anarcho-capitalist, criticizes "Anarchy, State, and Utopia" in his essay "Robert Nozick and the Immaculate Conception of the State" on the basis that:  The American legal scholar Arthur Allen Leff criticized Nozick in his 1979 article "Unspeakable Ethics, Unnatural Law". Leff stated that Nozick built his entire book on the bald assertion that "individuals have rights which may not be violated by other individuals", for which no justification is offered. According to Leff, no such justification is possible either. Any desired ethical statement, including a negation of Nozick's position, can easily be "proved" with apparent rigor as long as one takes the licence to simply establish a grounding principle by assertion. Leff further calls "ostentatiously unconvincing" Nozick's proposal that differences among individuals will not be a problem if like-minded people form geographically isolated communities.  Philosopher Jan Narveson described Nozick's book as "brilliant".  Cato Institute fellow Tom G. Palmer writes that "Anarchy, State, and Utopia" is "witty and dazzling", and offers a strong criticism of John Rawls's "A Theory of Justice". Palmer adds that, "Largely because of his remarks on Rawls and the extraordinary power of his intellect, Nozick's book was taken quite seriously by academic philosophers and political theorists, many of whom had not read contemporary libertarian (or classical liberal) material and considered this to be the only articulation of libertarianism available. Since Nozick was writing to defend the limited state and did not justify his starting assumption that individuals have rights, this led some academics to dismiss libertarianism as 'without foundations,' in the words of the philosopher Thomas Nagel. When read in light of the explicit statement of the book's purpose, however, this criticism is misdirected".  Libertarian author David Boaz writes that "Anarchy, State, and Utopia", together with Rothbard's "For a New Liberty" (1973) and Ayn Rand's essays on political philosophy, "defined the 'hard-core' version of modern libertarianism, which essentially restated Spencer's law of equal freedom: Individuals have the right to do whatever they want to do, so long as they respect the equal rights of others."  In the article "Social Unity and Primary Goods", republished in his "Collected Papers" (1999), Rawls notes that Nozick handles Sen's liberal paradox in a manner that is similar to his own. However, the rights that Nozick takes to be fundamental and the basis for regarding them to be such are different from the equal basic liberties included in justice as fairness and Rawls conjectures that they are thus not inalienable.  In "Lectures on the History of Political Philosophy" (2007), Rawls notes that Nozick assumes that just transactions are "justice preserving" in much the same way that logical operations are "truth preserving". Thus, as explained in Distributive justice above, Nozick holds that repetitive applications of "justice in holdings" and "justice in transfer" preserve an initial state of justice obtained through "justice in acquisition or rectification". Rawls points out that this is simply an assumption or presupposition and requires substantiation. In reality, he maintains, small inequalities established by just transactions accumulate over time and eventually result in large inequalities and an unjust situation.

Anarchy, State, and Utopia is a 1974 book by the American political philosopher Robert Nozick. It won the 1975 US National Book Award in category Philosophy and Religion, has been translated into 11 languages, and was named one of the "100 most influential books since the war" (1945–1995) by the UK "Times Literary Supplement".

Das im Jahr 1974 erschienene Werk Anarchy, State, and Utopia (deutsch: Anarchie, Staat und Utopia, 1976) ist ein libertärer Gegenentwurf von Robert Nozick zu der egalitaristischen "Theorie der Gerechtigkeit" von John Rawls. Beide Werke zusammen gelten als entscheidender Impuls zur Neubelebung der politischen Philosophie im 20. Jahrhundert.


Biography.

Leith was born in Trempealeau, Wisconsin. He was hired by Charles R. Van Hise as a stenographer in 1892 to work on his publications, and was so taken by the work that he completed a bachelor's degree in geology at the University of Wisconsin in 1897 and a Ph.D. in 1901. In 1903, when Van Hise became president of the University of Wisconsin, he hired Leith as head of the geology department at the age of 28. Leith served as chair until 1934 (31 years), and remained with the department until he retired in 1945. He also lectured on structural and metamorphic geology at the University of Chicago beginning in 1905.  During a 1909 expedition in the Hudson Bay area, Leith and his brother Arthur were feared lost after departing from Moose Factory. However, Leith later telegraphed his safe arrival in Cochrane, Ontario. Leith's early research focused on the geology of the Lake Superior region, including the ore deposits of the Mesabi range. He served as a consultant for the location and valuation of ore deposits for several mining companies and served as mineral adviser to the U.S. Shipping Board and the War Industries Board during World War I. He organized studies of world mineral supplies in the 1920s and served on many government agencies, including the Atomic Energy Commission, through the 1950s.  Leith served as president of the Geological Society of America in 1933.  Leith won the Penrose Gold Medal of the Society of Economic Geologists in 1935. In June 1956 he received an honorary doctor of laws degree from the University of Wisconsin.  Leith died at his home in Madison in 1956.

Charles Kenneth Leith (January 20, 1875 – September 13, 1956) was an American geologist. He was head of the University of Wisconsin geology department for 30 years. In 1942, he was awarded the Penrose Medal by the Geological Society of America, the highest award given in the geosciences.

Charles Kenneth Leith (* 20. Januar 1875 in Trempealeau, Wisconsin; † 13. September 1956) war ein US-amerikanischer Geologe. 1892 wurde Leith von Charles R. Van Hise von der University of Wisconsin–Madison als Stenograf angestellt, damit er an Van Hises Publikationen arbeitete. Er war so von dem Thema seiner täglichen Arbeit fasziniert, dass er 1897 den Bachelor in Geologie ablegte, und den Ph.D. im Jahr 1901. Als Van Hise 1903 zum Präsidenten der University of Wisconsin gewählt wurde, bestimmte er den 28-jährigen Leith zum Direktor der geologischen Fakultät. Er bekleidete diese Stelle bis 1934, also 31 Jahre, und blieb auch danach dort, bis er im Jahr 1945 seinen Ruhestand antrat.


Biography.

Her father was the painter and engraver,. She presumably took her first art lessons from her father, then studied at the "School for Painting and Decorative Art" in Munich with Hans Eduard von Berlepsch-Valendas, at a time when actual art in advertising was still a new idea.  In 1909, she designed the lobster trademark for the food company, which, in a slightly modernized form, is still in use today. A Year later, she opened her own studio in Hannover. In 1911, she became a member of the artistic advisory board of Bahlsen and designed a poster depicting their historic headquarters on the. Over the next few years, she helped the company establish its image. She worked for them until her death. After 1912, she designed clothing, hats, and textile pieces that appeared in the magazine "Neue Frauenkleidung und Frauenkultur" (New Women's Clothing and Culture), which was published until the 1930s.  In 1913, a major article about her in "", a magazine devoted to poster art. By 1914, her works were being shown in exhibitions of more conventional art, including that of the Deutscher Werkbund. She was also elected a board member at the Museum August Kestner. In 1918, she participated in the first exhibition of the. As a member of the "Vereins für Deutsche Frauenkleidung und Kultur" (Association for German Women's Clothing and Culture), she campaigned for women's rights.  In 1919, she died of pneumonia; two weeks after giving birth to her daughter.

Änne Koken (28 May 1885, Hannover - 19 April 1919, Hannover) was a German artist. In addition to landscapes and still-lifes, she designed stained glass, clothing and decorative book covers. She also worked as a commercial artist, notably for the firms Bahlsen and Günther Wagner (a pharmaceutical company, now a division of Pelikan AG).

Änne Koken (* 28. Mai 1885 in Hannover; † 19. April 1919 ebenda) war eine deutsche Malerin und Universalkünstlerin. Sie war das zweite Kind des angesehenen Hannoveraner Kunstmalers Gustav Koken und seiner Ehefrau Bertha Marie Pauline Koken, geb. Voges (1858–1944). Neben Landschaftsbildern und Stillleben entwarf Änne Koken Glasfenster, Kleidung, Buchschmuck und diverse Gebrauchsgrafiken. Durch ihre Werke im Bereich der Gebrauchsgrafik und Reklamekunst, insbesondere für die Firmen Bahlsen, Günther Wagner und Appel Feinkost, erlangte Änne Koken eine große Bekanntheit.