Etymology.

The word "Erva" () first appears in the Hebrew Bible in Leviticus 18:6. The verse reads as follows, with the word "erva" being translated to nakedness.  "None of you shall approach to any that is near of kin to him, to uncover their nakedness. I am the "  The term has since been used in the Talmud as both a blanket term for all prohibited sexual acts () and to describe parts of a female considered to be immodest and sexually provocative including a woman's hair, thighs, and singing voice. The term continues to be used in many other sources of Jewish law and is still used in modern Hebrew today to mean either prohibited sexual acts or sexual organs.  In Arabic, the term " 'awrah" or " 'awrat" () derives from the root ‘a-w-r which means "defectiveness", "imperfection", "blemish" or "weakness". However, the most common English translation is "nakedness".  In Persian and Kurdish as well as Urdu, the word " 'awrat" () derived from the Arabic " 'awrah", had been used widely to mean "woman". Consulting Mohammad Moin's dictionary of Persian, " 'awrah" leads to two significations:  Other derivatives range in meaning from blind in one eye, false or artificial, among others. Traditionally the word " 'awrat", alongside the word "za'ifeh" (which derives from Arabic "ḍa'īf" (), meaning weak) has been associated with femininity and women who lived under the protection of a man. In modern-day Iran, using the two words (" 'awrah" and "za'ifah") to refer to women is uncommon and is considered sexist language. Instead, the words "zan" and "xânom" are used. In Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, the word "za'if" is still used in the Tajik dialect of Persian and its subdialects.  In Turkish, "avrat" is an often derogatory term for 'woman' or 'wife'.

In the Quran.

The term " 'awrah" as it is used in the Quran is confined neither to women nor to the body. The Quranic text reveals the use of the term in various passages Surah An-Nur and Surah Al-Ahzab.  The below verse is about privacy as the Quranic text states:  "... and let those among you who have not yet come to the age of puberty ask your permission (before they come to your presence) on three occasions; before the morning prayer, and while you put off your clothes for the noonday (rest), and after the late-night prayer. (These) three times are of privacy for you, other than these times there is no sin on you or on them to move about, attending (helping) each other."  Another passage in the Quran that uses the term " 'awrah", is in Surah Al-Ahzab where it concerns fleeing from battle.  It states: "A group of them ask the Prophet for leave, saying, "Our houses are 'awrah", even though their houses are not awrah. Their intent is to flee the battle. "  In this case, the term " 'awrah" means "vulnerable".  There is another context that relates the story of creation of Adam and Eve in the Garden. In these two instances, the term "saw’ah" is used as an equivalent to " 'awrah".  The text states:  "O ye children of Adam! We have bestowed dress upon you to cover your nakedness...".  Another word which almost has the same meaning of " 'awrah", is the word "farj" () the plural is "furuj" (). Another quote concerning covering the " 'awrah" is:  "O Prophet! Tell your wives and your daughters, and the believing women, to draw their cloaks (veils) over their bodies. That will be better that they should be known (as respectable woman) so as not to be annoyed. And Allah is Ever Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful." -Al-Ahzab:59 (Qur'an)  The Quran admonishes Muslim women to dress modestly and cover their private areas. The Quran explicitly states that "O wives of the Prophet, you are not like anyone among women" (Quran 33: 32) and as such has separate rules specifically for the wives of the Prophet. The Qur'an tells the male believers (Muslims) to talk to the wives of the Prophet Muhammad from behind a hijab (curtain or veil). This passage was as follows:  The khimār is a waist-length veil with a cutout for the face. It therefore conceals the entire shape of the upper body. Women before this time were not wearing low-cut clothes but rather clothes in which the shape of the breasts could be distinguished. Part of a woman's beauty was considered to be her face, which is why the women understood the passage to mean that Allah was ordering them to cover their faces.  In the following verse, the wives of the Prophet and believing women are asked to draw their "jilbab" (outer garments) over them (when they go out), as a measure to distinguish themselves from others (as Muslim women), so that they are not harassed. Surah 33:59 reads:

In the Hadith.

Shaykh Tabarsi in Majma' Al-Bayan has commented on this Hadith:  Some people, especially in modern times, argue that these are not rules for all Muslim women because of the ayah of Quran 33:32. However, the ahadith clearly attest that these were considered universal directions at the time and that most of the face was considered to be part of the body that was to be covered:  "After Muhammad issued the command (Quran 24:31) for women to cover themselves, the women responded by tearing up sheets [or outer garments] to cover their faces." Sahih Bukhari (60:282)  What did the jilbāb usually cover? This is also answered in a hadith:  It was narrated from ‘Aa’ishah that Safwaan ibn al-Mu’attal al-Sulami al Dhakwaani was lagging behind the army. She said, “He came to where I had stopped and saw the black shape of a person sleeping. He recognized me when he saw me, because he had seen me before Hijāb was enjoined. I woke up when I heard him saying ‘Inna Lillaahi wa inna ilayhi raaji’oon (verily to Allaah we belong and unto Him is our return),’ and I covered my face with my Jilbāb.” (Narrated by al-Bukhāri, kitāb al maghazi – bābu Hadīth ul ifk, 4141; Muslim, 2770)  The details are important, showing that Aisha was recognizable only because Safwaan knew her before the sura of the veil. If only Muhammad's wives had covered their faces, he would have known her regardless because she would have been the only woman on that journey whose face he didn't instantly recognize, as she was the only one of his wives on that trip. Therefore, when a woman left her house, she was enjoined to cover her entire body and also most of her face. Note that though the man would not have ordinarily seen a woman's face, it was not an act of indecency that Aisha's face was seen. She was not held to blame for this later.  Within the home, a head-veil alone seemed to be sufficient for a woman to be considered dressed. The most frequently cited passage was this:  "Asma, daughter of Abu Bakr, entered upon the Apostle of Allah (peace_be_upon_him) wearing thin clothes. The Apostle of Allah (peace_be_upon_him) turned his attention from her. He said: O Asma’, when a woman reaches the age of menstruation, it does not suit her that she displays her parts of body except this and this, and he pointed to her face and hands." Abu Dawud  Asma was not mahram to Muhammad, and the fact that he did not order that her face be covered indicates face veiling was not obligatory indoors, at least, and therefore uncovering the face was not obscene even in other contexts. There are other ahadith that state that Muhammad said that the 'awrah of women included everything except the face and the hands, and possibly the feet as long as they were still in shoes.  Not only was it traditionally required that everything that is 'awrah be covered, but it was also required that the 'awrah be covered in such a way that the shape beneath cannot be discerned. These requirements are usually enforced today more often concerning women's 'awrah than men's.

Differences between men and women.

Men.

In Sunni interpretations, the " 'awrah" of a man refers to the part of the body from the navel to the knees. The Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanafi and Hanbali schools of thought observe that the navel is included. In particular, these observations generally require that the cloth not be too thin, that it is not pale to the extent the color of the skin can be seen, that a man ensures extra covering if his genitals' shape is discernible, and that the modesty of adulthood applies once a boy becomes ten years old.

Women.

Women's " 'awrah" is a more complicated issue and it changes according to the situation.  Whether a woman was obligated to cover her face is more controversial. Most contemporary scholars agree that women's covering of the face was not mandated by the Quran or by the traditions of Muhammad. However, many classical jurists held that such covering was nonetheless strongly recommended, or even required in times of fitnah. Al-Razi, for example, held that by covering her face a married woman made clear that she was not available. Notably, a man is permitted and even encouraged to look at the face of a woman he is considering marrying, even in countries where he normally would not be allowed to.  In the contemporary world, some Muslims insist that a woman's awrah in front of unrelated men is her entire body including her face and hands, which must be covered at all times in front of non-mahram men. The practice of covering the face is common in several Muslim countries, such as Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Yemen, Oman. It is not common in other majority Muslim countries like Malaysia, Indonesia, present-day Iran, present-day Turkey and majority of south Asia. These differences reflect different interpretations and understanding of Sharia regarding wearing a niqab.

Relation with "hijab".

Some Muslim women, particularly those living in Europe or in South East Asia, wear the hijab headscarf. The type most commonly worn in the West is a square scarf that covers the head and neck but leaves the face clear. Other styles also cover the hair, neck and shoulders completely, but the face and the hands are not covered, as they are not considered "awrah" for those Muslims who wear it.

Female voice.

According to most scholars, the woman's voice is "not" (see quotation) "awrah" in principle, for according to the Hadith, women used to complain to the Prophet and ask him about Islamic matters. However, women are not allowed to speak in a soft or alluring voice.  Also, according to the tradition, in the ritual prayer, a woman should invite the attention of the Imam by clapping, instead of saying "Subhanallah" which is for men. There is a difference of opinion whether or not a woman can recite the Quran when in the presence of non-mahram men.  Certain scholars have concluded from the above differences that a woman's voice is also her "awrah" in some cases.

The intimate parts ( ',,') of the human body which must, according to Islam, be covered by clothing. Exposing the intimate parts of the body is unlawful in Islam as the Quran instructs the covering of male and female genitals, and for adult females the breasts. Exposing them is normally considered sinful. Exposing intimate parts when needed, such as going to the toilet or bathing, falls under a specific set of rules. Precisely which body parts must be covered varies between different schools of Islamic thought. The Quran admonishes Muslim women to dress modestly and cover their breasts and genitals. The Quran explicitly states that "O wives of the Prophet, you are not like anyone among women" (Quran 33: 32) and as such has separate rules specifically for the wives of the Prophet.

ʿAura () bezeichnet im religiösen Vokabular des Islams zum einen eine Blöße, die meist mit „Scham“ übersetzt wird und die es zu verhüllen gilt. Diese Blöße kann im konkreten Sinn nackte Haut sein, die bedeckt werden muss. Das gebotene Verhüllen der Blöße wird als "Satr al-ʿAura" () bezeichnet. Zum anderen beschreibt es im Koran noch die Schwachstellen von Häusern in Yathrib. Das Wort kann außerhalb des islamischen Vokabulars auch Fehler oder Mangelhaftigkeit bedeuten.


Development history.

In 1936 the Red Army adopted the 122 mm gun M1931, also known as A-19. Unlike earlier ordnance pieces used by the Red Army, it had split trail carriage with suspension, and consequently improved mobility and traverse. The carriage of M1931 had a number of shortcomings though. The elevation mechanism was slow and unreliable; solid-tired wheels hindered mobility to some extent; there were technological problems in carriage production.  Soon after the M1931, the Red Army received another artillery piece in form of the 152 mm howitzer-gun M1937 (ML-20), developed at the No. 172 Plant, under F. F. Petrov. This led to an upgrade of the M1931, handled also by Petrov's design bureau. The barrel of the M1931 was placed on the carriage of a ML-20. The improved gun successfully underwent trials in September–October 1938 and on 29 April 1939 was adopted as 122 mm corps gun M1931/37. Unusually, the new variant, like the old one, was referred to as A-19.

Production history.

The M1931/37 was manufactured by the "Barrikady Plant" in Stalingrad (1939–41), "No. 172 Plant" (1941–46). The number of M1931/37s manufactured can be estimated at about 2,450, not including those mounted on vehicles.

Description.

Like barrel of late production M1931, the barrel of the M1931/37 was of loose liner construction, and consisted of liner, jacket and screwed-upon breech. The breechblock was of interrupted screw type, similar in construction to that of the 152 mm howitzer M1910/37. Recoil system consisted of hydraulic recoil buffer and hydro-pneumatic recuperator, both located inside the cradle under the barrel.  The gun had split trail carriage adapted from the 152 mm howitzer-gun M1937 (ML-20). The carriage was fitted with leaf spring suspension and metal wheels with pneumatic tires. The carriage also featured an equilibrator. The shield gave the crew some protection from small arms and shell fragments.  The M1931/37 was transported as a single piece, with barrel pulled back. It was permitted to tow the gun with barrel in its normal position, but for short distances only and with speed of no more than 4–5 km/h. Several types of artillery tractors were used: S-2 Stalinets-2, Komintern and, from 1943, Ya-12.

Organization and employment.

Both variants, M1931 and M1931/37, had the same place in army organizations, were often used alongside each other and combat reports rarely differentiate between them; consequently, the data in this section is for M1931 and M1931/37 together, unless specified otherwise.

Red Army.

The A-19 was originally intended for corps artillery. Together with ML-20 it formed a so-called "corps duplex". In 1940–41 there were three types of corps artillery regiments: Soon after the outbreak of the Great Patriotic War the corps artillery was eliminated (as rifle corps themselves were eliminated) and was only reintroduced late in the war. Those new artillery regiments were issued 122 mm guns along with other pieces, mainly 107 mm guns and 152 mm howitzers, in total 16-20 pieces per regiment. On 1 June 1944, RKKA corps artillery possessed 387 A-19s (along with some 750 107 mm and 152 mm pieces), and on 1 May 1945—289 A-19s (again along with some 750 100 mm, 107 mm and 152 mm pieces).  The gun was also used by artillery units of the Reserve of the Main Command (RVGK). In mid-1941 a cannon regiment of the RVGK had 48 A-19; in autumn 1941 these regiments were reorganized, a new, smaller, regiment had 18 A-19s. From 1942 cannon brigades were introduced, with 36 A-19s each. Such brigade could be a part of an artillery division—a huge formation, with up to four brigades of A-19 or ML-20 (meaning up to 144 pieces).  The first combat use of the A-19 was in the Battle of Khalkhin Gol. It also saw combat in the Winter War. On 1 March 1940 there were 130 A-19 guns at the frontline. Three pieces were lost.  By June 1941 the RKKA possessed, according to different sources, 1257 (1236 in the Army and 21 in the Navy) or 1300 A-19s. The gun proceeded to be used throughout the Great Patriotic War.  The A-19 was primarily used for indirect fire against enemy personnel, fortifications and key objects in the near rear. It was also equipped with armour-piercing shells for direct fire against armoured targets. Although not an ideal anti-tank gun because of its large size, slow traverse and relatively slow rate of fire, in 1943 the A-19 was one of only a few Soviet guns effective against the new German tanks, such as the Tiger and Elefant. The Tank gun variant, the D-25 was even able to penetrate the upper frontal plate of the Tiger II at a range of 500-600 metres although it did require multiple rounds to be fired to do so.  An A-19 No. 501 was the first gun to open fire on 20 April 1945 at the Battle of Berlin.

Other operators.

In the early stage of the Great Patriotic War hundreds of A-19s fell into the hands of Wehrmacht. Both variants were adopted - M1931 as 12,2 cm K.390/1(r) and M1931/37 as 12,2 cm K.390/2(r). Germans used a total of 424 of these guns in field and coastal artillery and manufactured ammunition for them.  Germany sold 150 of the captured A-19s to Spain in 1943. This transaction was part of the "Bär Program", a program to complete and modernize the equipment of the Spanish Armed Forces using armament delivered by Germany. Most of these A-19 were assigned to the Corps Field Artillery Regiments of the Spanish Army, each regiment receiving 12 pieces to equip a group. The model was well liked in Spain, and 32 additional pieces were ordered by the Army and produced – with neither documentation nor licenses – by the Trubia Arms Factory. After acquisition of more modern American artillery, the Spanish A-19s were relegated to the artillery regiments of territorial defense units. 173 of the Spanish A-19s were modernized in the 1970s, and the guns remained in service with the Spanish Army until the 1990s.  The Finnish Army captured 25 pieces in 1941 and also pressed them into service. The same designation 122 K/31 was applied to both variants. Because of shortage in heavy tractors, the gun was mostly used in coastal artillery. Four pieces were lost; the rest remained in service after the war. In 1980s some pieces had their barrels replaced with 152 mm barrels of ML-20; the resulting pieces were designated 152 H 37-31. In late 1980s both 152 H 37-31 and the remaining 122 K/31 received new 152 mm L/32 barrels manufactured by Vammas, to become 152 H 88-31.  The Kingdom of Romania captured in 1941 a number of 477 various types of 122 mm howitzers and guns including M1931/37 and the modern ones were used as divisional artillery for units rebuilt after 1941 campaign. Some guns captured by the Romanians were modified and fitted on the initial prototypes of the Mareșal tank destroyer.  The A-19s were used by Polish Armed Forces in the East in 1944-45 and remained in Polish service after the war. In 1952 the Polish Army possessed 63 pieces. In 1980s, in order to improve their mobility, the Polish guns were fitted with wheels from KrAZ-255B truck, resulting in 122 mm armata wz. 1931/37/85.  78 122 mm guns were supplied to Yugoslavia. The People's Army of Vietnam also received A-19s and used them during the Vietnam War.  Other recipients of the M1931/37 were Syria (at least 100 pieces, currently in storage) and Egypt. China also purchased a number of the M1931/37 during early stages of the Second Sino-Japanese War.

Ammunition.

The gun fired separate loading, cased charge ammunition, with one of four possible propellant charges - the full, no. 1, no. 2 and no. 3 (the smallest). In addition to 122 mm gun shells, the A-19 could fire 122 mm howitzer shells; however because of lesser durability of those shells they could not be used with full charge.

Surviving pieces.

The M1931/37 can be seen, among other places:

122 mm corps gun M1931/37 (A-19) () was a Soviet field gun developed in late 1930s by combining the barrel of the 122 mm gun M1931 (A-19) and the carriage of the 152 mm howitzer-gun M1937 (ML-20). The gun was in production from 1939 until 1946. It saw action in World War II (primarily with corps and RVGK artillery of the Red Army) and remained in service for a long time after the end of the war. Vehicle-mounted variants of the gun were fitted to the IS-2 and IS-3 tanks of the Iosif Stalin series of tanks and the ISU-122 self-propelled gun.

Die 122-mm-Kanone M1931/37 (A-19) () war eine sowjetische schwere Feldkanone mit einem Kaliber von 121,92 mm, die während des Zweiten Weltkriegs verwendet wurde. Sie war eine Modernisierung der sowjetischen 122-mm-Kanone M1931 (A-19), der verantwortliche Chefkonstrukteur war F. F. Petrow. Insgesamt wurden etwa 2450 Exemplare hergestellt. "122-mm-Kanone M1931/37" war eine Bezeichnung der Roten Armee und "A-19" war eine andere gleichwertige Bezeichnung des ursprünglich Entwicklers, "Orudijno-Arsenalni Trest".


Origin.

It was created in 2003 by Iconix Entertainment Co., Ltd, a company based in Seoul, South Korea. Choi Sang-hyun, who was working at Iconix Entertainment, was given a project of creating a character that represents an animal living in the winter. Choi visited a zoo in order to see those animals and understand how children enjoyed watching them.  Several professional designers joined the project to come up with a character, but Choi's design was chosen as the winner, which then became Pororo.

Animation history.

The original Pororo was a blue and white, petite penguin sporting an aviator helmet and goggles, which became popular among children. When it was introduced, it targeted children aged 4–7. Pororo is an adventurous 5-year-old anthropomorphic penguin who dreams of flying and lives on a snowy island with six other fellow animal friends.  In the design, Pororo in most animations has a neutral background, so that the animation could be popular to children worldwide. Pororo's design inspirations include Mickey Mouse and Hello Kitty. The creators picked the colours blue, pink and white to ensure familiarity for children as well as representing both genders.  When making episodes, producers focused to details that could be biased to certain cultural codes or give a historical reference that is sensitive to viewers in certain parts of the world. For example, they ensured that the characters wave instead of bowing or nodding to each other.

Awards and honors.

In 2003, Pororo received numerous awards from the South Korean government, including the award by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism. In 2006, Pororo got the President's award for best animation characters. In 2013, Pororo got the award for Creative Brands. In 2014, Pororo was chosen as the mascot for mass transportation in Seoul.

Social impact.

Initially, Pororo was created solely for entertainment. Later, parents suggested to Choi Jung-il of Iconix Entertainment that new episodes with educational value be included. Producers have received many requests, ranging from what the characters should eat and how to play in episodes to what they can do for society.  Korean Air also provides Pororo-related merchandise for children including a doodle book, a coloring book and a plush toy of the character.  In the summer of 2016, a Pororo theme park opened at Seoul COEX Mall featuring rides and a parade of Pororo characters.

Acquisitions.

The Walt Disney Company (Disney Junior) offered 1 trillion won to acquire all the rights of Pororo, but the original author refused.

Pororo the Little Penguin () is a Korean computer-animated television series created by Iconix Entertainment, SK Broadband, OCON, EBS and Channel One Russia with the animation done by Studio Gail and rendered by Seoul Animation Center (formerly with the North Korean company Samchŏlli in Kaesong from season 1~2). Production began in 2002 and the program began airing in South Korea on EBS in 2003.

Pororo der kleine Pinguin (Hangeul:, "") ist eine computeranimierte Fernsehserie, entwickelt von den südkoreanischen Animation Studios Iconix Entertainment und hergestellt in einer Koproduktion mit der nordkoreanischen Firma Samchŏlli in Kaesŏng. Die Produktion begann im Jahr 2002, und ein Jahr später startete der koreanische Lern- und Erziehungssender EBS-TV die Ausstrahlung. Zurzeit wird die Serie auch in Frankreich, Hongkong, Indien Taiwan und Skandinavien gesendet.


Early life in Russia.

Nechayev was born in Ivanovo, then a small textile town, to poor parents—his father was a waiter and sign painter. His mother died when he was eight. His father remarried and had two more sons. They lived in a three-room house with his two sisters and grandparents. They were ex-serfs who had moved to Ivanovo. He had already developed an awareness of social inequality and a resentment of the local nobility in his youth. At the age of 10, he had learned his father's trades—waiting at banquets and painting signs. His father got him a job as an errand boy in a factory, but he refused the servant's job. His family paid for good tutors who taught him Latin, German, French, history, maths and rhetoric. Aged 18, Nechayev moved to Moscow, where he worked for the historian Mikhael Pogodin. A year later, he moved to Saint Petersburg, passed a teacher's exam and began teaching at a parish school. From September 1868, Nechayev attended lectures at the Saint Petersburg University as an auditor (he was never enrolled) and became acquainted with the subversive Russian literature of the Decembrists, the Petrashevsky Circle and Mikhail Bakunin among others as well as the growing student unrest at the university. Nechaev was even said to have slept on bare wood and lived on black bread in imitation of Rakhmetov, the ascetic revolutionary in Nikolay Chernyshevsky's novel "What Is to Be Done?".  Inspired by the failed attempt on the Tsar's life by Dmitry Karakozov, Nechayev participated in student activism in 1868–1869, leading a radical minority with Pyotr Tkachev and others. Nechayev took part in devising this student movement's "Program of revolutionary activities" which stated later a social revolution as its ultimate goal. The program also suggested ways for creating a revolutionary organization and conducting subversive activities. In particular, the program envisioned composition of the "Catechism of a Revolutionary", for which Nechayev would become famous.  In December 1868, Nechayev met Vera Zasulich (who would make an assassination attempt on General Fyodor Trepov, governor of Saint Petersburg in 1878) at a teachers' meeting. He asked her to come to his school where he held candlelit readings of revolutionary tracts. He would place pictures of Maximilien Robespierre and Louis Antoine de Saint-Just on the table while reading. At these meetings, he plotted to assassinate Tsar Alexander II on the 9th anniversary of serfdom's abolition. The last of these student meetings occurred on 28 January 1869, where Nechayev presented a petition calling for freedom of assembly for students. Two days later, he handed it to the police, intending to radicalize the students through prison and exile.

Geneva exiles.

In January 1869, Nechayev spread false rumors of his arrest in Saint Petersburg, then left for Moscow before heading abroad. He tried to get Vera Zasulich to emigrate with him by declaring love for her, but she refused. He sent her a letter claiming to have been arrested. In Geneva, Switzerland, he pretended to be a representative of a revolutionary committee who had fled from the Peter and Paul Fortress and won the confidence of revolutionary-in-exile Mikhail Bakunin (who called him "my boy") and his friend and collaborator Nikolai Ogarev. Bakunin saw in Nechayev the authentic voice of Russian youth which he regarded as "the most revolutionary in the world". He would hold onto this idealised vision long after his association with Nechayev became damaging to him.  Nechayev, Bakunin and Ogarev organized a propaganda campaign of subversive material to be sent to Russia, financed by Ogarev from the so-called Bakhmetiev Fund which had been intended for subsidizing their own revolutionary activities. Alexander Herzen disliked Nechayev's fanaticism and strongly opposed the campaign, believing Nechayev was influencing Bakunin toward more extreme rhetoric. However, Herzen relented to hand over much of the fund to Nechayev which he was to take to Russia to mobilise support for the revolution. Nechayev had a list of 387 people who were sent 560 parcels of leaflets for distribution April–August 1869. The idea was that the activists would be caught, punished and radicalized. Amongst these people was Zasulich, who got five years exile because of a crudely coded letter sent by Nechayev.

"Catechism of a Revolutionary".

In late spring 1869, Nechayev wrote the "Catechism of a Revolutionary", a program for the "merciless destruction" of society and the state. The main principle of the revolutionary catechism—the ends justify the means—became Nechayev's slogan throughout his revolutionary career. He saw ruthless immorality in the pursuit of total control by church and the state and believed that the struggle against them must therefore be carried out by any means necessary, with an unwavering focus on their destruction. The individual self is to be subsumed by a greater purpose in a kind of spiritual asceticism which for Nechayev was far more than just a theory, but the guiding principle by which he lived his life, claiming:  The book was to influence generations of radicals and was re-published by the Black Panther Party in 1969, one hundred years after its original publication. It also influenced the formation of the militant Red Brigades in Italy the same year.

Return to Russia.

Having left Russia illegally, Nechayev had to sneak back to Moscow via Romania in August 1869 with help from Bakunin's underground contacts. On the way, he met Hristo Botev, a Bulgarian revolutionary. In Moscow, he lived an austere life, spending the fund only on political activities. He pretended to be a proxy of the Russian department of the Worldwide Revolutionary Union which did not exist and created an affiliate of a secret society called People's Reprisal Society () which it issued the magazine "People's Reprisal" (). He claimed that the society had existed for quite some time in every corner of Russia. He spoke passionately to student dissidents about the need to organise. Marxist writer Vera Zasulich (whose sister Alexandra sheltered him in Moscow) recalls that when she first met Nechayev, he immediately tried to recruit her:  Many were impressed by the young proletarian and joined the group. However, the already fanatical Nechayev appeared to be becoming more distrustful of the people around him, even denouncing Bakunin as doctrinaire, "idly running off at the mouth and on paper". One "Narodnaya Rasprava" member, I. I. Ivanov, disagreed with Nechayev about the distribution of propaganda and left the group. On 21 November 1869, Nechayev and several comrades beat, strangled and shot Ivanov, hiding the body in a lake through a hole in the ice.  The body was soon found and some of his colleagues arrested, but Nechayev eluded capture and in late November left for Saint Petersburg, where he tried to continue his activities to create a clandestine society. On 15 December 1869, he fled the country, heading back to Geneva. This incident was fictionalised by writer Fyodor Dostoevsky in his anti-nihilistic novel "Demons" (published three years later) in which the character Pyotr Stepanovich Verkhovensky is based on Nechayev.

Downfall.

Bakunin and Ogarev embraced Nechayev on his return to Switzerland in January 1870, with Bakunin writing: "I so jumped for joy that I nearly smashed the ceiling with my old head!". Soon after their reunion, Herzen died (21 January 1870) and a large fund from his personal wealth became available to Nechayev to continue his political activities. Nechayev issued a number of proclamations aimed at different strata of the Russian population. Together with Ogarev, he published the "Kolokol" magazine (April–May, 1870, issues 1 to 6). In his article "The Fundamentals of the Future Social System" ("Glavnyye osnovy budushchego obshchestvennogo stroya"), published in the "People's Reprisal" (1870, no. 2), Nechayev shared his vision of a communist system which Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels would later call barracks communism.  Nechayev's suspicion of his comrades had grown even greater and began stealing letters and private papers with which to blackmail Bakunin and his fellow exiles should the need arise. He enlisted the help of Herzen's daughter Natalie. While not clearly breaking with Nechayev, Bakunin rebuked Nechayev upon discovery of his duplicity, saying: "Lies, cunning [and] entanglement [are] a necessary and marvelous means for demoralising and destroying the enemy, though "certainly not" a useful means of obtaining and attracting new friends". Bakunin then threatened Nechayev with breaking relations with him.  The General Council of the foremost left-wing organisation, the International Workingmen's Association of 1864–1876, officially dissociated themselves from Nechayev, claiming he had abused the name of the organisation. After writing a letter to a publisher on Bakunin's behalf, threatening to kill the publisher if he did not release Bakunin from a contract, Nechayev became even more isolated from his comrades. International member German Lopatin accused him of theoretical unscrupulousness and pernicious behaviour, prompting Ogarev and Bakunin to publicly claim to have severed their relations with him in 1870. However, Bakunin continued to write privately to Nechayev, proposing that they continue to work together.  In September 1870, Nechayev published an issue of the "Commune" magazine in London as the Second French Empire of Napoleon III collapsed. Hiding from the Tsarist police. he later went underground in Paris and then in Zürich. He also kept in touch with the Polish Blanquists such as Caspar Turski and others. In September 1872, Karl Marx produced the threatening letter (which Nechayev had written to the publisher) at the Hague Congress of the International at which Bakunin was also expelled from the organisation.  On 14 August 1872, Nechayev was arrested in Zürich and handed over to the Russian police. He was found guilty on 8 January 1873 and sentenced to twenty years of "katorga" (hard labor) for killing Ivanov. While locked up in a ravelin of the Peter and Paul Fortress, Nechayev managed to win over his guards with the strength of his convictions and by the late 1870s was using them to pass on correspondence with revolutionaries on the outside. In December 1880, Nechayev established contact with the Executive Committee of the People's Will (Narodnaya Volya) and proposed a plan for his own escape. However, he abandoned the plan due to his unwillingness to distract the efforts of the members of Narodnaya Volya from attempting to assassinate Tsar Alexander II, which they achieved only in March 1881.  Vera Zasulich, who ten years earlier had been among those investigated for Ivanov's murder, heard in 1877 that the head of the Saint Petersburg police, General Trepov, had ordered the flogging of Aleksei Bogolyubov, a young political prisoner. Though not a follower of Nechayev, Zasulich felt outraged at Bogolyubov's mistreatment and at the plight of other political prisoners. On 5 February, she walked into Trepov's office and shot and wounded him. In an indication of the popular political feeling of the time, a jury found her not guilty on the grounds that she had acted out of noble intent.  In 1882, Nechayev died in his cell. Despite his personal courage and fanatical dedication to the revolutionary cause, Nechayev's methods (later called Nechayevshchina) were viewed to have caused harm to the Russian revolutionary movement by endangering clandestine organizations. The historian Edvard Radzinsky suggests that many revolutionaries have successfully implemented Nechayev's methods and ideas, including Vladimir Lenin and Joseph Stalin.

Influence.

Nechayev's theories had a major influence on other Russian revolutionaries, like Pyotr Tkachev and Vladimir Lenin. He was the first to bring the theme of the professional revolutionary in Russia. Lenin's brother Aleksandr Ulyanov was part of an organization which based its program on Nechayev's. His other theories on how a socialist state would function, outlined in the "Fundamental Thesis" and "The Fundamentals of the Future Social System" among others, were identical to that of the Soviet Union and other Marxist–Leninist states. For instance, Lenin stated many times that Nechayev was a "Titan of the revolution" and that all of the communist revolutionaries must "read Nechayev". Many critics inside and out of the Soviet Union labelled his version of revolutionary socialism the one that was taking place in the Soviet Union itself, with Soviet politicians after the Stalin era admitting this themselves many times. He also influenced later generations of Russian revolutionary nihilists. He was rehabilitated during Stalin's time.

Sergey Gennadiyevich Nechayev () (2 October 1847 – 21 November or 3 December 1882) was a Russian philosopher and communist revolutionary, often associated with the nihilist movement and known for his single-minded pursuit of revolution by any means necessary, including terrorism and revolutionary terror. He was the author of the radical "Catechism of a Revolutionary."

Sergei Gennadijewitsch Netschajew (; * in Iwanowo; † in Sankt Petersburg) war ein russischer Revolutionär, der der nihilistischen Bewegung nahestand.


Geography.

It lies just west of Stratton and north of Widemouth Bay and is located along the A3073 road off the A39 road.

Coastline.

A section of Bude's coast which is located between Compass Cove to the south and Furzey Cove to the north, is a SSSI (Site of Special Scientific Interest) noted for its geological and biological interest. Carboniferous sandstone cliffs surround Bude. During the Variscan Orogeny the strata were heavily faulted and folded. As the sands and cliffs around Bude contain calcium carbonate (a natural fertiliser), farmers used to take sand from the beach, for spreading on their fields. The cliffs around Bude are the only ones in Cornwall that are made of Carboniferous sandstone, as most of the Cornish coast is formed of Devonian slate, granite and Precambrian metamorphic rocks. The stratified cliffs of Bude give their name to a sequence of rocks called the Bude Formation. Many formations can be viewed from the South West Coast Path which passes through the town.  Many ships have been wrecked on the jagged reefs which fringe the base of the cliffs. The figurehead of one of these, the "Bencoolen", a barque whose wrecking in 1862 resulted in the drowning of most of the crew, was preserved in the churchyard but was transferred to the town museum to save it from further decay. The aftermath of the wreck of the "Bencoolen" was described by Robert Stephen Hawker in letters which were published in Hawker's "Poetical Works" (1879).

Climate.

Like the rest of the British Isles and South West England, Bude experiences a maritime climate with cool summers and mild winters. Temperature extremes at the Met Office weather station at Bude range from during February 1969 to in June 1976. The Met Office recorded Bude as the sunniest place in the United Kingdom during the summer of 2013 with 783 hours of sunlight.

History and description.

Bude-Stratton is said to have been a settlement since the Bronze Age but nothing remains of it.  Efford Manor, seat of the Arundell family of Trerice, was the only building here in the Middle Ages. Bude or Porthbud was known as Bede’s Haven, the chapel on the rock, Bede being the holy man who lived there, on what is now the breakwater. The original breakwater was destroyed in 1838 by a terrible storm, while the newer version was constructed in 1839. The spectacular sandstone coast here is a Site of Specific Scientific Interest, known for jagged reefs, implicated in many past shipwrecks. Alongside the sea and by the canal runs the river Neet (or Strat). The two halves of the town are connected by a small grade two listed building, a bridge called Nanny Moore’s, named after a 19th century ‘dipper’ who lived nearby. Beyond this lay the quay, rebuilt in 1577 with funds from the Blanchminster charity.  The river divided the land owned by two Cornish families. South of the river was owned by Sir John Arundell, while land to the north was owned by Sir Richard Grenville of Stowe Barton, Kilkhampton. During the 1700-1800s, Bude was a thriving port used by smaller vessels. Over time, the land changed hands – the Grenville land passed to the Carterets/Thynnes while the Arundell land passed to the Aclands. Bude and neighbouring Stratton are relevant in the English Civil War, with Nanny Moore’s Bridge featuring as a passe over the river for the Royalists.

Victorian resort.

Bude became popular in Victorian times for sea bathing, inspired by the Romantic movement. The ladies used Crooklets Beach while the gentlemen were segregated to Summerleaze. Workers flocked to Bude for the building of the canal, but as shipping dwindled, and the railway reached dominance, Bude concentrated on the emergent tourist trade. By 1926, there were 59 boarding houses and 5 hotels: the Falcon, Grenville, Globe, Norfolk and the Commercial.

Beaches.

There are a number of good beaches in the Bude area, many of which offer good surfing conditions. Bude was the founder club in British Surf Life Saving.

Bude Harbour and Canal.

In the 18th century there was a small unprotected tidal harbour at Bude. The Bude Canal Company built a canal and improved the harbour. Around twenty small boats use the tidal moorings of the original harbour during the summer months. Most are sport fishermen, but there is also some small-scale, semi-commercial, fishing for crab and lobster.  There is a wharf on the Bude Canal about half a mile from the sea lock that links the canal to the tidal haven. This can be opened only at or near high tide, and then only when sea conditions allow. North Cornwall District Council administered the canal, harbour and lock gates until its abolition in March 2009. These gates were renewed after the originals were damaged in a storm in 2008. They are the only manually operated sea lock gates in England. The pier head by the locks is a Grade II listed structure.  The canal is one of the few of note in south-west England. Its original purpose was to take small tub boats of mineral-rich sand from the beaches at Bude and carry them inland for agricultural use on fields. A series of inclined planes carried the boats over 400 vertical feet (120 m) to Red Post, where the canal branched south along the upper Tamar Valley towards Launceston, east to Holsworthy and north to the Tamar Lakes, that fed the canal. The enterprise was always in financial difficulty, but it carried considerable volumes of sand and also coal from south Wales. The arrival of the railway at Holsworthy and the production of cheap manufactured fertiliser undermined the canal's commercial purpose, and it was closed down and sold to the district municipal water company. However the wharf area and harbour enjoyed longer success, and coastal sailing ships carried grain across to Wales and coal back to Cornwall.

Notable buildings.

Notable buildings include the parish church of St Michael and All Angels, built in 1835 and enlarged in 1876 (the architect was George Wightwick), Ebbingford Manor, and the town's oldest house, Quay Cottage in the centre of town. Bude Castle was built about 1830 for Victorian inventor Sir Goldsworthy Gurney and is now a heritage centre. Gurney’s’ castellated mansion, the Castle, was built in 1830 on sand on a concrete raft. Gurney also invented the Bude Light. Bude's The Light statue created by Carol Vincent for 2000.  To uncover the history of Bude, a visit to the Heritage Centre is essential. It is one of the participants in the wAVE (AVE = Augmented and Virtual Experiences) Immersive Experiences in Museums Project, bringing Bude’s history to life. Funded by the Coastal Communities Fund Bude has its own Coastal Community Team working to benefit the town and its community.  At the northernmost point of Efford Down Farm, overlooking Summerleaze Beach and the breakwater, a former coastguard lookout stands. Known as Compass Point and built by the Acland family in 1840 of local sandstone, it is based on the Temple of Winds in Athens. It was moved to its current position in 1880. It is so called as it has points of the compass carved in each of its octagonal sides.  In 1953, Bude became home to the first Surf Life Saving Club, in the UK, while the popular lido Bude Sea Pool opened in 1930. This was previously administered by Cornwall Council but lost public funding in 2010/11. The Friends of Bude Sea Pool was created in 2011 to secure its future.  In 2018, the "Bude Tunnel", a 70-metre Perspex walkway at the Bude Sainsbury's supermarket site was mentioned in the national press after becoming the town's top-rated attraction on TripAdvisor.  In 2020, Bude will host the Gorsedh Kernow (a festival of Cornish culture and bardic ceremony) as it did in 1961, 1975, and 1993.

Media.

Bude developed its own newspaper in 1924, The Bude and Stratton Post.  In 2013, the free Bude and Beyond hyperlocal website was created.

Railway.

From 1879 Bude's nearest railway station was at Holsworthy, ten miles away. The railway came to Bude itself in 1898. The line was built by the London and South Western Railway, but was incorporated into the Southern Railway in 1923 and British Railways in 1948.  Bude railway station was served by the Atlantic Coast Express, providing a direct service to/from London (Waterloo); the "ACE" was discontinued in 1964. Bude station and the entire Bude branch line closed on 1 October 1966 as part of the Beeching Axe.  Bude and neighbouring Stratton are more distant from the rail network than any other towns in England and Wales. Barnstaple (35 miles north east), Bodmin Parkway (32 miles south) and Gunnislake (32 miles sse) are the nearest National Rail stations with regular services. Okehampton (29 miles) has occasional summer-only trains from Exeter. A "rail link" coach runs from Exeter St Davids railway station to Bude Strand via Okehampton.

Industry.

Tourism is the main industry in the Bude area whilst some fishing is carried on. In the past, the staple trade was the export of sand, which, being highly charged with calcium carbonate, was much used as fertiliser. There are also golf links in the town.  The largest employer associated with Bude is GCHQ Bude, with over 250 civil servants and contractors, sited north of the town near Morwenstow.

Local government.

Bude is in the North Cornwall parliamentary constituency which is represented by Scott Mann MP. It developed from the much older market town of Stratton, 1 miles inland to the east. Since Cornwall became a unitary authority in 2009 there has been a two-tier structure of local government: Cornwall Council (administers, for example, schools and highways, housing, social services, canal and harbour, refuse and recycling collection, street cleanliness); and Bude-Stratton Town Council (local children's playground, Bude "castle"). There was some local argument when the town council adopted the name Bude-Stratton, as it was previously Stratton-Bude. Bude's population in 1901 was 2308; by 2001 it had risen to 4674.

Sport.

The town is home to a number of sports teams including Bude RFC – the town's rugby club, and Bude Town FC – the local football club. Bude is the host town of the North Cornwall Cup, a large youth football event held every August. Bude & North Cornwall Golf Club is ideally situated within the town centre. Bude is also home to the Bude Cricket Club and the Bude Running and Triathlon Club (Bude RATs).

Bude (; ) is a compact seaside resort town in north east Cornwall, England, in the civil parish of Bude-Stratton and at the mouth of the River Neet (also known locally as the River Strat). It was sometimes formerly known as Bude Haven. It lies southwest of Stratton, south of Flexbury and Poughill, and north of Widemouth Bay, located along the A3073 road off the A39. Bude is twinned with Ergué-Gabéric in Brittany, France. Bude's coast faces Bude Bay in the Celtic Sea, part of the Atlantic Ocean. The population of the civil parish can be found under Bude-Stratton. It has a vibrant local community, well-known for its focus on the environment and home to the Two Minute Foundation started by writer, surfer and activist, Martin Dorey, among other green initiatives.

Bude ist eine Ortschaft an der Nordküste der Grafschaft Cornwall nahe der Grenze zur Grafschaft Devon im Südwesten Englands. Der Ort ist rechts und links des Flusses Neet angesiedelt und hat sich dank der ausgedehnten Sandstrände beiderseits der Flussmündung in neuerer Zeit zu einem bevorzugten Ferienort entwickelt. Die Zersiedlung durch Ferienhäuser und Hotels hielt sich dabei jedoch in Grenzen.


Early years.

After graduation from Gymnasium (German high school), the young Grimm could not decide as to whether he should follow a navy career or become a priest. Together with his father he made a retreat with Jesuits in the Netherlands, since the order had been outlawed in Germany since the Kulturkampf (1870). In the Fall of 1907, he entered the Society of Jesus. His philosophical and theological studies were interrupted by World War I, which he spent as a nurse in military hospitals. 1920 he was ordained priest and was assigned to the German Speaking Catholic Mission in Florence, Italy. From 1922 until 1926 he studied the classical languages, Latin and Greek, and history in Vienna and Heidelberg. From 1926 on he taught at the Jesuit Gymnasium, Kolleg Stella Matutina in Feldkirch Austria and after 1934 at the Kolleg St. Blasien in Germany.

Theological research.

As patristic scholar, Grimm worked on a critical edition of the Ambrosiaster for the Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum (CSEL) in Vienna, Austria. The Ambrosiaster is a Latin commentary on Saint Paul, dating back to the fourth century. It exists in many manuscripts and was believed to have been written by Ambrose of Milan. Grimm’s research was aimed at making a critical edition of the Ambrosiaster, which would determine the original version as well as provide an accurate account of the development of variant texts.

Confrontation with National Socialism.

The rise of Nazism in Germany caused complications for the Jesuits at Sankt-Blasien, many of whom were openly opposed to the Nazi Party, its ideology, and its political program. Father Grimm was among those who became increasingly vocal in his opposition to Naziism while at Sankt Blasien, and he attracted the negative attention first of more sympathetic colleagues and then of the authorities. A layman who was teaching at Kolleg St. Blasien and a member of the NSDAP remarked, "Grimm talked in derogatory ways about our new ideology. I hope we will shut him up, for a long time, or better even, forever". Grimm was aware of this hostile attention and had some sense of its implications: It would be my greatest honour and luck, if something happens to me. Nazi hostility to the Catholic Church, and the Jesuit order in particular, led the government to expel the Jesuits from Sankt-Blasien in 1939. Father Grimm returned to Tisis, Austria, where he taught Latin in a nearby Catholic seminary and assisted in the local parish. In 1943, an SS soldier came to Grimm and asked to be admitted to the Catholic Church. Father Grimm provided the soldier with religious instruction and eventually received the soldier's wife and child into the Church as well. All these actions were illegal under German law at the time. The soldier also introduced Grimm to an acquaintance who likewise expressed interest in entering the Church. In October 1943, the Gestapo arrested Father Grimm from the parish rectory and transported him for interrogation to the Gestapo prison in Innsbruck. Father Grimm had been arrested on the basis of a denunciation by the S.S. soldier’s acquaintance, who was a Gestapo agent.

Execution by hanging.

After several weeks of interrogation and mistreatment in Innsbruck, Fr. Grimm was transferred to Berlin, where he underwent further torture and interrogation. In the summer of 1944 Father Grimm was put on trial before the so-called Volksgerichtshof, which had jurisdiction over ideological offenses against the Third Reich. Both Fr. Grimm's "converts" testified against him. Fr. Grimm suggested he had been entrapped. The notoriously hysterical chief justice of the Volksgerichtshof, Roland Freisler screamed in response, as was his wont, "Fishes are caught in different ways. I have to be very careful to catch a trout. If I want to catch a Jesuit, I have to use special methods. You swallowed it. That proved us right." His public defender, Joachim Lingenberg, wrote afterwards: "Father Grimm's defense belongs to the most frightful memories of my life. It has to do with a piece of historical truth that we must hold onto especially in a time that cheapens the memory of such events.". On 12 August 1944, Roland Freisler stripped Father Grimm of all civil rights and privileges damnatio memoriae and sentenced him to death for two counts of undermining the fighting spirit of the German Wehrmacht and for defeatism. Reflecting on his sentence, Grimm wrote: "The hour has come, I am going home into eternity. In a few hours, I will stand in front of my Judge, my Redeemer and my Father. It is God’s will, to be done everywhere. Don’t mourn over me, I am returning home, you have to wait. I give my life for the kingdom of God, which knows no end, for the society of Jesus, for the youth and religion of our home land". Father Alois Grimm was hanged at the age of 57 on 11 September 1944 in the Brandenburg-Görden Prison.

Honours.

Five years after the execution, Grimm's ashes were given a resting place at the Kolleg St. Blasien by its Superior, Otto Faller: “Dear friend, this will be our vow on your silent grave, to live for the kingdom of God, which knows no end, for the society of Jesus, for the youth and religion of our home land. Farewell, dear friend. From now on, be custodian of this house and its ever renewing youth, protect us with your spirit and pray for us, so we may keep our promises, always”.  With these words, Kolleg St. Blasien was dedicated to Alois Grimm in 1949. Afterwards, other schools, buildings, streets were named after Father Alois Grimm. Today, in his hometown Kuelsheim, there is a Father Alois Grimm school. In the Jesuit Church in Innsbruck and in Pullach near Munich, Father Grimm is honored with memorial plaques. Last year, a new building in St. Blasien was named after him. Benedicta Kempner, the wife of US attorney Robert Kempner, war crime tribunals in Nuremberg set Alois Grimm a memorial in her book on the persecution of Catholic priests during the Nazi era.

Alois Grimm (* 24 October 1886 in Külsheim, Germany, † hanged 11 September 1944 in Brandenburg-Görden) was a Jesuit priest, Patristic scholar, educator, and victim of Nazi religious hostility.

Alois Grimm SJ (* 24. Oktober 1886 in Külsheim, Deutschland; † 11. September 1944 im Zuchthaus Brandenburg-Görden) war ein Jesuit, Theologe (Patrologie), Erzieher und Widerstandskämpfer gegen den Nationalsozialismus, der denunziert und wegen Wehrkraftzersetzung zum Tod verurteilt wurde.


History.

The current name Wrzeszcz comes from the old name of the area – "Wrzost", which derives from "wrzos", a Polish and word for heather. The area of modern Wrzeszcz used to be forest and fields of heather.  Historical sources mention "Vriezst" in 1263 AD and Vriest 1283 as a place of a mill and by the end of the 13th century the Cistercian Monks of Oliwa owned four or five water mills on the Strieß (Strzyża), the creek running through Wrzeszcz. Vriest is Low German as well as Dutch language word meaning "frost".  In 1412 AD, this suburban village was granted to Danzig city councillor Gerd von der Beke, an ally of the Teutonic Knights. The place was known as Langfuhr in the German language.  Early area landowners included the Bischof family, who held the increasingly residential settlement in the late-16th century and early-17th century, and the Köhne family, which started acquiring possessions in the Langfuhr area in 1616 AD. Danzig patrician Zacharias Zappio acquired most of the land between today's "Slowackiego" and "Do Studzienki" streets and built a palace there. When King John III Sobieski visited the palace in 1677 AD, the little valley where the palace was located was renamed Königstal (Dolina Krolewska), or King's Valley, to commemorate the occasion. Strictly speaking, in the 17th century the name Langfuhr referred only to a small market square, 130 m by 35 m, on what today is known as. Between 1767 and 1770, Danzig mayor Daniel Gralath made a personal project of turning the two kilometers of old road between Langfuhr and Danzig proper into the four-lane, tree-lined Grand Avenue, as it was then renamed. Each lane of the avenue was lined by 350 trees imported from the Netherlands, and the entire cost of the project was the immense sum (for the time) of 100,000 guilders.  In the 18th century, residential construction aimed at the wealthy city folk took precedence. The erected residences were mostly classical style with beautiful gardens and the obligatory tree-lined driveways. By 1804, Langfuhr had about 900 residents, most of them working in breweries, distilleries, retailers, and factories making a kind of ash used to bleach cloth.  On 6 December 1807, under French occupation, the Danzig-Prussian convention made the town part of the Napoleonic Free City of Danzig. After the Congress of Vienna of 1814–1815, Danzig was reincorporated into Prussia.  From the mid-19th century onwards, Langfuhr grew to become a fashionable and wealthy borough with beautifully decorated city villas for wealthier residents and even spacious accommodation for local labourers. In 1872, Langfuhr was joined to Danzig by a horse-drawn tram along the Grand Avenue.  In 1904, the Königliche Technische Hochschule zu Danzig Grand Hall was built, soon followed by the city hospital, which is now the medical academy. Until 1919 Langfuhr was the garrison of the 1st Life Hussar Regiment (since 1901 Brigade) with large barracks built in the 1890s. In 1910 the first airfield of Danzig was established on the hussar's parade ground. After World War I Erhard Milch's "Danziger Luftpost GmbH" (Danzig Airmail) and the "Lloyd Ostflug" were located at Langfuhr.

Effects of World War II.

After World War II the town became part of Poland according to the Potsdam Conference and renamed to the Polish "Wrzeszcz". Its German inhabitants either fled before the advancing Red Army or were expelled. The renaming was based on medieval records but caused the protests of the arriving Polish settlers as it was regarded unpronounceable and has a similarity to the Polish term ""wrzeszczec"" (bellow).

Present.

The airport was replaced by the Gdańsk Lech Wałęsa Airport in 1974 and large housing complexes have been built on the former airport area.  The borough is now developing rapidly. A great deal of commercial activity (particularly banking and shopping) now takes place in Wrzeszcz. A number of international firms such as Citibank, ING Bank, Fortis Bank, and Shell have chosen to locate their offices there rather than in the Gdańsk city center, large shopping centers such as Galeria Bałtycka and Centrum Handlowe Manhattan are opening along Grunwaldzka Street, and extensive military properties have been sold to housing developers.

Wrzeszcz (pronounced, ; ) is one of the boroughs of the Northern Polish city of Gdańsk. With a population of more than 65,000 in an area of (population density 6,622), Wrzeszcz is the most populous part of Gdańsk.

Wrzeszcz (ausgesprochen vʒɛʃʧ, "Langfuhr", kaschubisch "Wrzészcz" bzw. "Lengforda") ist ein Stadtteil von Danzig in Polen. Er umfasst eine Fläche von knapp 10 km2 und zählt über 50.000 Einwohner mit einer Bevölkerungsdichte von etwa 5.000 Einwohnern/km2. Administrativ besteht Wrzeszcz seit 2010 aus den beiden Bezirken "Wrzeszcz Dolny" und "Wrzeszcz Górny".<ref name="Uchwała nr liii/1550/10 Rady Miasta Gdańska">"Uchwała nr liii/1550/10 Rady Miasta Gdańska" PDF-Datei, 73 KB; abgerufen am 23. Juni 2012.


History.

Karviná as a multi-ethnic city of Cieszyn Silesia was a home to many football clubs, which were established by particular ethnic groups after World War I. At that time many football clubs of Polish, German, Czech and Jewish communities were founded. Most known and strongest Polish club was Polonia Karwina founded in 1919. After World War II German and Jewish clubs were not re-established. Czech and Polish clubs still existed until the 1950s, when as a part of communist unification of sport life in Czechoslovakia Czech clubs were joined to ZSJ OKD Mír Karviná and Polish Polonia Karwina incorporated into that club.  The club played at the top national level of competition in the 1996–97 Czech First League and 1998–99 Czech First League, being relegated on each occasion.  In the 2000–01 Czech 2. Liga, Karviná were relegated to the Moravian–Silesian Football League (MSFL) after finishing 15th of 16 teams. They subsequently finished last in the MSFL in the 2001–02 season, signalling a second relegation in as many seasons. The club, playing in the Czech Fourth Division in the 2002–03 season, finished dead last and was thus relegated for a third time in succession.  The club merged with Jäkl Karviná in 2003, taking the name "MFK Karviná". The 2003–04 season saw the club play in the Regional Championship, finishing fourth but being promoted to the Czech Fourth Division due to higher-finishing teams declining the opportunity to promote. The club subsequently spent two seasons in the Czech Fourth Division, finishing fifth in their first season and third in the 2005–06 season, winning promotion to the MSFL. The club finished 8th in their first season back in the MSFL in 2006–07 and went on to finish fourth in the 2007–08 season. They then bought the license for the second division from league champions Sigma Olomouc B, and thus qualified to play in the Czech 2. Liga. Having played in the Second League since 2008, the club celebrated promotion to the First League after the 29th round of the 2015–16 Czech National Football League.

MFK Karviná is a football club located in Karviná, Czech Republic, which plays in the Czech First League. The club took part in the Czech First League on two occasions in the 1990s, never surviving for more than one season. It played in the Czech 2. Liga between 2008 and 2016, when it was promoted to the First League. The team's colours are green and white.

Der MFK Karviná ist ein tschechischer Fußballverein aus der mährisch-schlesischen Stadt Karviná. Er entstand 2003 aus einer Fusion zwischen dem "FC Karviná" und "TJ Jäkl Karviná". Der FC Karviná spielte 1996/97 und 1998/99 in der höchsten tschechischen Spielklasse. In der Saison 2015/16 gelang der MFK Karviná erstmals der Aufstieg in die 1. Liga.


History.

Spandauer Ballspielclub 1906.

"Spandauer BC" was originally formed as "SC Britannia Spandau". In 1919, following World War I, they merged with "Borussia Spandau" to play as "Hertha Spandau" until 1923 when they once again became "SBC". The team enjoyed a short turn in the top-flight Oberliga Berlin-Brandenburg in 1932–33, but did not become part of the new Gauliga Berlin (I) after the re-organization of German football under the Third Reich the following season.  After World War II occupying Allied authorities ordered the disbanding of most organizations in the country, including sports and football associations. In late 1945 the memberships of several pre-war clubs within the district were organized as a Sportgruppe (sports group) from which "SBC" emerged in 1953.  The club was promoted out of lower-league city play into the Amateurliga Berlin (IV) in 1967 and played fourth- and fifth-tier football until the late 70s, when they were elevated into the Oberliga Berlin (III) through league re-organization and signing some British players amongst them Paul McGaffney who had earlier been with Te Be Berlin in the 2nd Bundesliga. "SBC" played at that level until 1993, never managing better than a 6th-place finish. Another league re-organization pushed them down through fourth division into fifth-tier play in the Verbandsliga Berlin (V) until they were again relegated in 2002 to the Landesliga Berlin-1 (VI).

1. FC Spandau.

"1. FC Spandau" was founded in 1997 as an initiative of district mayor, Werner Salomon, who hoped to bring together the district's traditional clubs, including "SBC", "Spandauer SV", and "Spandau SC" as a single association with the goal of becoming Berlin's number three football power after "Hertha Berlin" and "1. FC Union Berlin". That ambition was never realized. By 1999 only "Ruhlebener SC" had answered the call and the new club was in financial crisis, eventually leading to "1. FC" joining "SBC" in 2003.  The newly combined side steadily improved over the next few seasons and after a Landesliga Berlin (VI) championship in 2006 played as high as the Verbandsliga Berlin (V) but have since fallen to the tier eight Bezirksliga. A runners-up finish at this level in 2015–16 took the club back up to the Landesliga.  They play their home matches in Sportplatz Ziegelhof which was built in 1951 and has a capacity of 3,000 (300 seats).

FC Spandau 06 is a German football club based in the Spandau district of Berlin. The club was formed out of the 2003 merger of the traditional side "Spandauer Ballclub 1906" and newcomer "1. FC Spandau" which was established in 1997.

Der FC Spandau 06 ist ein deutscher Fußballverein aus Berlin, der in der Saison 2014/15 in der Bezirksliga spielt. Seine Heimspiele trägt der Verein auf dem "Sportplatz Ziegelhof" aus, welcher Platz für 3.000 Zuschauer bietet.


Life.

Hamilton was born at the Palace of Holyroodhouse, the son of the 6th Duke of Hamilton and his wife, Elizabeth Gunning. He attended Eton from 1763 to 1767 and on the death of his brother in 1769, he succeeded to the title of Duke of Hamilton. He also inherited his mother's title of Baron Hamilton of Hameldon when she died in 1790.  Between 1772 and 1776, he lived in Europe with Dr. John Moore and his son the future Sir John Moore, hero of Corunna. On his return, aged 21, he married the beautiful Elizabeth Anne Burrell (b 20 April 1757), fourth daughter of Peter Burrell, in London on 5 April 1778. The new Duchess was a sister of the future 1st Baron Gwydyr, the Countess of Beverley, and the future Duchess of Northumberland.  Hamilton's mother disapproved of the match, possibly because she had hoped for a better match for her handsome son. The Duchess of Argyll was of the opinion that 'the daughter of a private gentleman, however accomplished, was not qualified to be allied to her' even though she herself had been a mere Miss Gunning and Irish at that. The couple are portrayed in an affectionate pose, but they had no children in 16 years of marriage.

Marriage breakdown.

The Duke gradually sank into dissipation. In 1794, the couple eventually divorced, by Act of Parliament after 16 years of marriage. The Duchess initiated the divorce on the grounds of his adultery with actress Mrs Esten since 1793, but also previous adultery with an unnamed lady (Frances Twysden, wife of the Earl of Eglinton and sister of the Countess of Jersey) since 1787. Lord Eglinton had divorced his wife 6 February 1788 on grounds of her adultery with the Duke, after she had borne a child, possibly Lady Susannah Montgomerie (1788-1805) supposed to be the Duke's. Thus, the Duchess could have used the Eglinton divorce to support her own case. However, she did not, and used a later dalliance with a virtually unknown actress. The 1794 divorce is thus a curious one, and apparently one agreed on beforehand, according to Lawrence Stone in his book "Alienated Affections: Divorce and Separation in Scotland 1684-1830". The Duke did not defend, and the Duchess obtained her divorce since she had left her husband a year earlier.  The Duke died without remarrying, even though he and Harriet Pye Esten had a daughter in 1796. Steptoe also credits him with another child, born circa 1788, with Lady Eglinton.  The Duchess remarried one year after his death, to the 1st Marquess of Exeter (d 1804) as his third wife. She had no children, and died 17 January 1837.  Hamilton died in 1799, aged 43 at Hamilton Palace and was buried in the family mausoleum at Hamilton, Scotland. Without legitimate issue, his ducal title passed to his uncle, Archibald and his barony passed to his half-brother, George. The Duke however left the contents of Hamilton Palace to his illegitimate daughter by Mrs Esten, Anne Douglas-Hamilton, later Lady Rossmore (born c. 1796 – died 1844 without issue). The new Duke was forced to buy them back.  The Duke is also noted for being an early patron of the future Sir John Moore, hero of Corruna, whose parliamentary and military career was sponsored by the Hamiltons from 1779. The dance "Hamilton House" is also said to be named for the 8th Duke and his duchess, with the changes of partner echoing the infidelities of both. Finally, the Duke was the first Duke of Hamilton to be seated in Parliament as Duke of Brandon (a title in the Peerage of Great Britain that entitled him to a seat in the House of Lords, not as a Scottish Representative Peer).

Douglas Hamilton, 8th Duke of Hamilton, 5th Duke of Brandon and 2nd Baron Hamilton of Hameldon, (24 July 1756 – 2 August 1799) was a Scottish peer, nobleman, and politician.

Douglas Hamilton, 8. Duke of Hamilton, 5. Duke of Brandon (* 24. Juli 1756 im Holyrood Palace; † 2. August 1799 im Hamilton Palace) war ein schottischer Adliger.


History.

The Green Mountain Railroad was formed in early 1964 when F. Nelson Blount, who also operated a museum of steam locomotives, called Steamtown, USA, in North Walpole, New Hampshire, convinced the State of Vermont to acquire of track between Bellows Falls and Rutland, which he would operate as the Green Mountain Railroad. Also in 1964, incorporation papers were filed for the "Steamtown Foundation for the Preservation of Steam and Railroad Americana". The first order of business for the non-profit charitable, educational organization was to acquire the Blount collection at North Walpole, and relocate it to property once owned by the Rutland Railroad, in Bellows Falls.  In 1966, the GMRC obtained trackage rights over Boston and Maine track between Bellows Falls and North Walpole, allowing the GMRC access to servicing and storage facilities for locomotives, which had previously been lacking. Blount was killed when his private airplane hit a tree during an emergency landing in Marlborough, New Hampshire, on August 31, 1967. He had held the controlling interest in the GMRC, owning 746 of the 750 shares of the company. In 1968, in response to Blount's death, 49% of the railroad's shares were sold to private investors, with the remainder being held by Robert Adams, president of the railroad from 1968 until 1978. By 1976, the relationship between Steamtown and GMRC was strained as the two organizations fought over maintenance of the tracks, which were owned by the state of Vermont. Steamtown relocated to Scranton, Pennsylvania, in 1983, and shortly afterward GMRC began offering its own passenger excursions on diesel-powered trains over the same stretch of track.  During the 1980s, the GMRC struggled to maintain consistent profits, relying largely on on-line traffic. Despite a position as a bridge carrier between the Delaware and Hudson Railroad, and later the Clarendon and Pittsford Railway, at Rutland, and the Boston and Maine at North Walpole, this traffic was limited, as the Boston and Maine was consistently unfriendly towards the Green Mountain. Reflecting this uncomfortable position, the GMRC's traffic during the 1980s was generally less than 2000 cars moved per year. In 1986, a strike at the Delaware & Hudson led to the evaporation of what little overhead traffic the railroad was handling. During the early 1990s, however, overhead traffic like limestone and fly ash had increased, making up for a decrease in traditional on-line traffic like talc. By the mid 1990s, traffic had increased to upwards of 4,000 annual carloads, and has increased today to upwards of 5,000 annual carloads. When the New England Central Railroad commenced operations in 1995, this allowed the GMRC to offer service southward on the NECR, which had previously been prohibitively expensive when the route was owned by the Central Vermont Railroad. In 1997, the GMRC was acquired by the Vermont Railway, forming the basis for the Vermont Rail System, which would grow to include five railroads in Vermont and one in New York.

Fleet.

As of 2017, the GMRC's fleet consisted of the following:

Former units of the Green Mountain Railroad fleet.

These units are no longer in service on the Green Mountain Railroad. They have either been sold to other railroads or have been scrapped for parts.

The Green Mountain Railroad is a class III railroad operating in Vermont. GMRC operates on tracks that had been owned by the Rutland Railroad and Boston and Maine Railroad. The railroad operates on a rail line between North Walpole, New Hampshire, and Rutland, Vermont. Corporate colors are green and yellow.

Die Green Mountain Railroad (GMRC) ist eine lokale Eisenbahngesellschaft in Vermont und New Hampshire (USA) mit Sitz in Bellows Falls.


Scientific context.

In science, definitions of anecdotal evidence include:  Anecdotal evidence can have varying degrees of formality. For instance, in medicine, published anecdotal evidence by a trained observer (a doctor) is called a case report, and is subjected to formal peer review. Although such evidence is not seen as conclusive, researchers may sometimes regard it as an invitation to more rigorous scientific study of the phenomenon in question. For instance, one study found that 35 of 47 anecdotal reports of drug side-effects were later sustained as "clearly correct."  Anecdotal evidence is considered the least certain type of scientific information. Researchers may use anecdotal evidence for suggesting new hypotheses, but never as validating evidence.  Anecdotal evidence is often unscientific or pseudoscientific because various forms of cognitive bias may affect the collection or presentation of evidence. For instance, someone who claims to have had an encounter with a supernatural being or alien may present a very vivid story, but this is not falsifiable. This phenomenon can also happen to large groups of people through subjective validation.  Anecdotal evidence is also frequently misinterpreted via the availability heuristic, which leads to an overestimation of prevalence. Where a cause can be easily linked to an effect, people overestimate the likelihood of the cause having that effect (availability). In particular, vivid, emotionally charged anecdotes seem more plausible, and are given greater weight. A related issue is that it is usually impossible to assess for every piece of anecdotal evidence, the rate of people not reporting that anecdotal evidence in the population.  A common way anecdotal evidence becomes unscientific is through fallacious reasoning such as the "Post hoc ergo propter hoc" fallacy, the human tendency to assume that if one event happens after another, then the first must be the cause of the second. Another fallacy involves inductive reasoning. For instance, if an anecdote illustrates a desired conclusion rather than a logical conclusion, it is considered a faulty or hasty generalization. For example, here is anecdotal evidence presented as proof of a desired conclusion:  Anecdotes like this do not prove anything. In any case where some factor affects the probability of an outcome, rather than uniquely determining it, selected individual cases prove nothing; e.g. "my grandfather smoked 40 a day until he died at 90" and "my sister never went near anyone who smoked but died of lung cancer". Anecdotes often refer to the exception, rather than the rule: "Anecdotes are useless precisely because they may point to idiosyncratic responses."  More generally, a statistical correlation between things does not in itself prove that one causes the other (a causal link). A study found that television viewing was strongly correlated with sugar consumption, but this does not prove that viewing causes sugar intake (or vice versa).  In medicine, anecdotal evidence is also subject to placebo effects: it is well-established that a patient's (or doctor's) expectation can genuinely change the outcome of treatment. Only double-blind randomized placebo-controlled clinical trials can confirm a hypothesis about the effectiveness of a treatment independently of expectations.  By contrast, in science and logic, the "relative strength of an explanation" is based upon its ability to be:

Law.

Witness testimony is a common form of evidence in law, and law has mechanisms to test witness evidence for reliability or credibility. Legal processes for the taking and assessment of evidence are formalized. Some witness testimony may be described as anecdotal evidence, such as individual stories of harassment as part of a class action lawsuit. However, witness testimony can be tested and assessed for reliability. Examples of approaches to testing and assessment include the use of questioning to identify possible gaps or inconsistencies, evidence of corroborating witnesses, documents, video and forensic evidence. Where a court lacks suitable means to test and assess testimony of a particular witness, such as the absence of forms of corroboration or substantiation, it may afford that testimony limited or no "weight" when making a decision on the facts.

Scientific evidence as legal evidence.

In certain situations, scientific evidence presented in court must also meet the legal requirements for evidence. For instance, in the United States, expert testimony of witnesses must meet the Daubert standard. This ruling holds that before evidence is presented to witnesses by experts, the methodology must be "generally accepted" among scientists. In some situations, anecdotal evidence may meet this threshold (such as certain case reports which corroborate or refute other evidence).  Altman and Bland argue that the case report or statistical outlier cannot be dismissed as having no weight: "With rare and uncommonly occurring diseases, a nonsignificant finding in a randomized trial does not necessarily mean that there is no causal association between the agent in question and the disease."

Anecdotal evidence is evidence from anecdotes: evidence collected in a casual or informal manner and relying heavily or entirely on personal testimony.

Anekdotische Evidenz (anekdotische Aussage, anekdotischer Beweis, Fallbericht) ist ein informeller Bericht über Evidenz in Form eines Einzelberichts oder vom Hörensagen. Der Ausdruck wird oft als Gegensatz zur empirischen Evidenz (z. B. klinischen Studien, Laborstudien, Feldstudien) und zum Analogieschluss verwendet. Anekdotische Evidenz hat eine schwache argumentative Aussagekraft.


Biography.

Jakob Streit was born in the Berner Oberland in Switzerland, the son of a watchmaker, and lived there for most of his life. He had four brothers and sisters and everyone helped to tend the family beehives, their cow and calf and their sheep.  He studied Education at the teacher training college in Bern, where his skills in Music, Education and Literature were honed. His musical education he completed with Hans Klee, the father of artist Paul Klee, then began on a career as teacher of different age groups, in the course of which the many stories he told to the children were published as children's stories in over forty books. Many of these are translated into English and other languages. His educational method, and particularly his music instruction drew heavily on the indications of Rudolf Steiner on Waldorf education.  “When one has told stories to different age groups of children for 45 years on a daily basis, one learns a great deal from them, one is carried on the wings of Poetry, of the imagination. In later years, this interest grows into everything that is truly human. For example, this is how I came to write my first book about gnomes: A girl in the third grade brought a beautiful Edelweiss to my desk one morning, saying: “My father gave it to me and told me that, if you can tell us how the Edelweiss came about, you can keep it.” Quickly the children all sat down at their desks, for in their eyes the teacher of the third grade is capable of anything at all. Forty pairs of eyes are looking expectantly at you. (...) I began thoughtfully; soon there were gnomes and elves in the picture, finding magic ways to transform the stars of the night into the Edelweiss. Carried by the astonished eyes of the children, my story must have gone on for about 20 minutes. When the Edelweiss had finally been created, a little boy stood up and proclaimed: “Tomorrow you must deal with the Gentian.” In this manner, from day to day, we found our way through the different flowers of the mountains. I was not able to prepare at all. I needed the children to be there. Afterwards I wrote down the stories that had come about. They have been published as “Bergblumen Märchen” today with the publisher Oratio Verlag in Schaffhausen.”  After producing plays with children, he broadened his interest to amateur theatre direction, in the course of which he inaugurated the William Tell festival plays in Interlaken and the Spiez Castle Plays. Having studied Piano and Organ, his work as choir conductor led him to produce a succession of operas, amongst others The Magic Flute and Orpheus and Euridice.  Questions of Art, Art History and culture occupied him all his life and after his retirement he began to lecture in most of Europe besides increasing the scope of his literary work. For many years he was editor of the AVS-Mitteilungen, the newssheet of the Anthroposophische Vereinigung in der Schweiz, continuing with this until his death at 99 years of age.

Jakob Streit (23 September 1910 in Spiez, Switzerland – 15 May 2009 in Spiez) was a Swiss author, teacher and anthroposophist. Besides this he worked as musician and choirmaster as well as conductor and dramaturg

Jakob Streit (* 23. September 1910 in Spiez; † 15. Mai 2009 ebenda) war ein Schweizer Schriftsteller, der vor allem als Autor von Kinder- und Jugendbüchern bekannt wurde.


Climate.

The governorate's climate varies based on elevation. The mountainous and elevated regions, which make up the western half of the governorate, are dominated by a moderate climate with hot summers and relatively cold winters. In the low-lying and plain regions, the climate is hot in the summers and moderate in the winters. The desert regions are characterized by a dry climate: hot in the summers, and cold and dry in the winters.  Summer rains fall on most parts of the governorate, but the amount of rainfall is usually small, especially in the eastern parts. Most parts of Ma'rib Governorate suffer from drought, given the sparse rainfall.

Agriculture and economy.

In the 1980s, after the region was hit by floods, a dam was constructed in Ma'rib, which would later be deemed to be important for the country's agriculture and economy. Its construction was financed by Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan of the United Arab Emirates, who himself was reportedly a descendant of people from this area.  The area is home to the largest gas-fired power plant in Yemen, the Ma'rib Gas Plant, whose electricity towers have been sabotaged continuously since the beginning of 2011. These sabotage operations did not stop until 2014, due to the inability of the Basindawa government to deter the saboteurs.  Agriculture is the main livelihood for the governorate's residents. Ma'rib Governorate ranks third in Yemen behind Al Hudaydah Governorate and Sana'a Governorate in terms of agricultural production, making up 7.6% of the country's total agricultural production. Its most important agricultural products are fruits, grains, and vegetables. Many types of livestock are found in the governorate, including cattle, camels, sheep, goats, donkeys, and poultry. There are also quite a number of beehives. According to statistics for the time period 2007-11, the governorate was home to approximately 1,943,564 sheep, approximately 1,669,370 goats, roughly 42,000 cattle, and about 112,782 camels, which make up 3.80% of Yemen's total livestock.

Flora and fauna.

Vegetation in the governorate is diverse, despite its sparseness and lack of density in terms of quantity and quality from place to place, depending on the nature of the surface and prevailing climate. The most important trees are the Christ's thorn jujube, qard tree, buckthorn, acacia (particularly or including the umbrella thorn acacia, as well as other thorny trees. There are also many types of grasses and small plants that grow in the rainy seasons.  Many types of wild animals are present in the governorate, and are plentiful in the western areas, including hyenas, snakes, wild rabbits, hedgehogs, and hyraxes. Birds include falcons, pigeons, eagles, and owls. The birds are numerous in areas dense with trees, as well as near wadis, especially those with water. The presence of the "nimr" (, leopard) was reported in the Sarawat Mountains.

Population.

The total number of residents living in the governorate was 238,522 according to the 2004 census, and the rate of growth was 2.72%.

Districts.

There are fourteen districts in Marib.

Ma'rib ( "") is a governorate of Yemen. It is located 173 kilometers to the northeast of Yemen's capital, Sana'a. The population of Ma'rib Governorate comprises 1.2% of the country's total population. The city of Ma'rib is the capital of the governorate, and was established after the discovery of oil deposits in 1984.

Ma'rib () ist eines der 21 Gouvernements des Jemen. Es liegt im Zentrum des Landes. Ma'rib hat eine Fläche von 20.023 km2 und ca. 291.403 Einwohner. Das ergibt eine Bevölkerungsdichte von 14,6 Einwohnern pro km2.


Variations and preparation.

The "Käsekrainer" is a variation of this sausage made with small chunks of cheese - it contains 10% to 20% cheese (e.g., Emmentaler) cut into small cubes. "Käsekrainer" were first made in Austria in the early 1980s. they are a standard offering at sausage stands (Würstelstände). "Käsekrainer" can be boiled, baked or grilled. It is essential to keep them on low to medium heat; otherwise the outside may get burned and the inside remains cold. Care should be taken when preparing them, because the cheese can become quite hot; the sausages should not be cut or poked while cooking, otherwise the melting cheese would be released.  The sausage can be served with mustard, ketchup, and a piece of dark bread; or - in the most common form in Austria - as a "Käsekrainer-Hot-Dog". (By "Hot Dog" Austrians mean the bun, not the sausage.) The bread used is very similar to a French baguette, but shorter ( long). The bun is cut open at one end and a hole is poked into it with a warm metal rod. The next step is to put sauce in the hole. Austrians usually select from the following three sauces: sharp mustard, sweet mustard, and ketchup. Often the choice is ketchup and one – or even both – of the mustards.  In the late 1940s and the 1950s post-war immigrants from Croatia and Slovenia introduced "kranjska klobasa" into Australia, where it became known as "Kransky". Cheese Kransky is very popular in Australia and in New Zealand.

The Carniolan sausage (; Australian English: "Kransky", German: "Krainer Wurst", Southern African English: "Russian", Italian dialect of Trieste: "luganighe de Cragno") is a Slovenian sausage most similar to what is known as kielbasa or Polish sausage in North America. In January 2015, Slovenia successfully entered it into the register of protected geographical indications (PGIs), despite objections by Austria, Croatia and Germany.

Die Krainer Wurst () ist eine in weiten Teilen Österreichs und in Slowenien verbreitete Wurstsorte. Der Name stammt von der historischen Region Krain im ehemaligen Altösterreich, im heutigen Slowenien.


Early life.

Smith was born in San Diego, California to parents, Lon Smith and Constance Farmer, who were vaudeville performers and encouraged his interest in music. He began studying piano at age 8, and led a jazz band in high school and became a professional musician at 19 with the Johnny Richards band.

Later life and career.

After playing with Richards in 1941 and spending 1943 to 1945 in the military, Smith worked with Les Paul (1946–1947) and Tommy Dorsey (1947–1949) before moving to Los Angeles and becoming a studio musician. Studio work took up much of his time: he worked as a staff musician for NBC and Warner Brothers, and for many years he was the musical director for Dinah Shore’s daytime talk show.  Smith recorded frequently both with his trios and as a soloist. In addition he is featured on work of artists such as Dizzy Gillespie, Anita O'Day, Buddy DeFranco, Louie Bellson, Steve Allen, Stan Kenton, Mel Tormé and others. He was the musical director on "The Steve Allen Comedy Hour" television show in the 1960s.  Between 1956 and 1978, Smith was active as a conductor and pianist for Ella Fitzgerald, although he continued to work with her until the early 1990s.  He also worked on film scores and his playing can be heard on the soundtracks of "They Shoot Horses, Don't They?" and "Nickelodeon" among some others.  Smith died on June 29, 2013, in Torrance, California of heart failure. He was 91 and performed in Southern California nightclubs, including The Velvet Turtle in Redondo Beach during the 1980s and the Terranea Resort hotel until his death. He is survived by his wife of 54 years Annette Warren; his daughter, actress Lauri Johnson; two sons, Gary and Paul; eight grandchildren; and two great-grandchildren.

Discography.

As sideman.

With Herb Alpert With Chet Baker With Buddy Bregman With June Christy With Bing Crosby With Ella Fitzgerald With Ella Fitzgerald and Louis Armstrong With Ella Fitzgerald and Count Basie With Plas Johnson With Buddy Rich With various artists With Bill Withers With Frank Zappa and his Abnuceals Emuukha Electric Symphony Orchestra With various artists

Paul Thatcher Smith (April 17, 1922 - June 29, 2013) was an American jazz pianist. He performed in various genres of jazz, most typically bebop, but is best known as an accompanist of singers, especially Ella Fitzgerald.

Paul Thatcher Smith (* 17. April 1922 in San Diego, Kalifornien; † 29. Juni 2013 in Torrance) war ein US-amerikanischer Jazzpianist.


Database and web services.

The GeoNames.org database contains over 25,000,000 geographical names corresponding to over 11,800,000 unique features. All features are categorized into one of nine feature classes and further subcategorized into one of 645 feature codes. Beyond names of places in various languages, data stored include latitude, longitude, elevation, population, administrative subdivision and postal codes. All coordinates use the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84).  Those data are accessible free of charge through a number of Web services and a daily database export.

Wiki interface.

The core of GeoNames.org database is provided by official public sources, the quality of which may vary. Through a wiki interface, users are invited to manually edit and improve the database by adding or correcting names, move existing features, add new features, etc.

Semantic Web integration.

Each GeoNames.org feature is represented as a web resource identified by a stable URI. This URI provides access, through content negotiation, either to the HTML wiki page, or to a RDF description of the feature, using elements of the GeoNames ontology. This ontology describes the GeoNames features properties using the Web Ontology Language, the feature classes and codes being described in the SKOS language. Through Wikipedia articles URL linked in the RDF descriptions, GeoNames data are linked to DBpedia data and other RDF Linked Data.

Accuracy and improvements.

As in other crowdsourcing schemes, GeoNames.org edit interface allows everyone to sign in and edit the database, hence false information can be entered and such information can remain undetected especially for places that are not accessed frequently. studies these inaccuracies and classifies them into loss in the granularity of coordinates (e.g., due to truncation and low-resolution geocoding in some cases), wrong feature codes, near-identical places, and the placement of places outside their designated countries. Manually correcting these inaccuracies is both tedious and error prone (due to the database size) and may require experts.  The literature provides very few works on automatically resolving them. Computing the boundary information can help detect inconsistencies such as near-identical places and the placement of locations such as cities under wrong parents such as provinces or countries. Singh and Rafiei show that the boundary information derived in their work can move more than 20% of locations in GeoNames to better positions in the spatial hierarchy and the accuracy of those moves is over 90%.

GeoNames.org is a geographical database available and accessible through various web services, under a Creative Commons attribution license. GeoNames.org differs from the US Government's official GeoNames website, also known as the GEOnet Names Server (GNS), maintained by the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA). GNS is the official repository of standard spellings of all foreign geographic names, sanctioned by the United States Board on Geographic Names (US BGN). The database also contains variant spellings (cross-references), which are useful for finding purposes, as well as non-Roman script spellings of many of these names. All the geographic features in the database contain information about location, administrative division, and quality. The database can be used for a variety of purposes, including establishing official spellings of foreign place names, cartography, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Geospatial-Intelligence (GEOINT), and finding places. The site is publicly available, troubleshooting issues can be resolved via the GeoNames Contacts

GeoNames ist eine freie, geographische Datenbank, lizenziert unter Creative Commons 'Namensnennung'. Die Daten sind als Download und über zahlreiche Webservices verfügbar.


Location and area.

The Großer Bärenkopf is surrounded by heavily crevassed glaciers. To the east, north and west lie the western and eastern "Bärenkopfkees", which climb up to the summit; to the south is the "Bockkarkees". Neighbouring peaks are the 3,425-metre-high Klockerin on the line of the north arête and separated by the col of "Gruberscharte" at a height of 3,080 metres; and the Hohe Dock at 3,348 metres on the line of the east arête, separated by the col of "Dockscharte" at 3,234 metres. To the south, on the far side of the Bockkarkees, lies the 3,115-metre-high "Breitkopf". Along the west arête, separated by the "Keilscharte" saddle (3,187 m), lies the "Mittlere Bärenkopf" ("Middle Bear's Head", 3,358 m) and roughly north of it the "Schwarzköpfl" with a height of 3,124 metres. The nearest significant settlements are Kaprun, about 9 kilometres as the crow flies to the north in the Pinzgau, and Fusch an der Großglocknerstraße, 11 kilometres to the northeast.

Bases and tours.

The route taken by the Alpinists in 1869 ran ""in the best possible, clear weather"" from the Kaprun side up to a mountain which they thought was the "Großer Bärenkopf". In fact, they were standing on an unknown peak which was still not shown on contemporary maps and was first named in 1891 as the "Glockerin". They route then continued along the east arête to the peak known today as the "Großer Bärenkopf". They also climbed the "Hinterer Bratschenkopf". For orientation they only had the 1859 Tauern map by Franz Keil which was very inaccurate, however, because Keil himself was not able to penetrate very far into the region. That they had been fortunate enough on 18 September to succeed in making three first ascents only became clear when the Alpine Club map was published in 1891 and, for the first time, clearly enabled the mountains to be allocated names.  Even today, the Großer Bärenkopf can only be reached as part of a serious high mountain tour with appropriate equipment and experience of glaciers. The present normal route was first used in 1871 and has proved to be the easiest climb. Possible bases for the tour include the Heinrich Schwaiger Haus at 2,802 metres, the Mooserbodens above it and to the east, or the Oberwalder Hut (2,973 m), northwest and above Franz Josefs Höhe. From the Oberwalder Hut the route runs in a northerly direction as a serious glacier trail across the "Wasserfallwinkel" and the "Bockkarkees" to the "Keilscharte" col, then heads east along the west arête to the summit of the Großer Bärenkopf. In the Gruberscharte col, in the north arête of the peak, lies a bothy at 3,100 metres with 9 emergency beds. From the hut the ascent takes about 3 hours according to the literature. The west arête requires gentle climbing at UIAA grade I. Since 1925 the south arête has also been used as an alternative route and is classified as UIAA grade II. Climbing routes used in 1925 by Hubert Peterka and Hans Majer up the southwest face are rarely used today due to the dangers involved.

The Große Bärenkopf ("Great Bear's Head") or Weißer Bärenkopf ("White Bear's Head") is a twin-topped mountain in the Glockner Group in the "Fuscher/Kapruner Kamm" of the High Tauern, a range in the Austrian Central Alps. The mountain lies exactly on the border between the states of Salzburg and Carinthia.

Der Große Bärenkopf (auch "Weißer Bärenkopf") ist ein aus zwei Gipfeln bestehender Berg der Glocknergruppe im "Fuscher/Kapruner Kamm" der Hohen Tauern, eines Gebirges der Zentralalpen. Der Berg liegt genau auf der Grenze zwischen den österreichischen Bundesländern Salzburg und Kärnten. Der "Hauptgipfel" ist Meter hoch, der "Westgipfel" weist eine Höhe von auf. Die beiden Gipfel sind etwa 300 Meter voneinander entfernt. In alle vier Himmelsrichtungen sendet der Berg ausgeprägte Grate. Von Nordosten gesehen hat der Große Bärenkopf die Form eines markanten breiten Firnbergs, aus den anderen Richtungen erscheint er als Felsberg. Zuerst bestiegen wurde er am 18. September 1869 durch den Münchner Alpinisten Karl Hofmann, den Prager Kaufmann Johann Stüdl und den Bergführern Thomas Groder und Josef Schnell aus Kals am Großglockner bei ihrer Erkundungstour, die sie am selben Tag auch auf die nördlich gelegenen Nachbarberge Hinterer Bratschenkopf und Klockerin führte. Heute wird der Große Bärenkopf oft im Rahmen des Übergangs zwischen der Oberwalder Hütte und dem Heinrich-Schwaiger-Haus bestiegen.