History.

Barbiturates were first discovered to have medical use in 1903, when a research at Bayer showed barbital to be an effective sedative for dogs. It was not until the mid 20th century that the habit forming nature of barbiturates and behavioral side effects were first noted  Benzodiazepines are more commonly administered today for their similar sedative and hypnotic properties, and reduced risk of physical dependence. Barbiturate drugs such as butabarbital sodium are used now for short-term and acute treatment under strict doctor supervision only

Treatment & Clinical Uses.

Barbiturates are non-selective depressants of the central nervous system, inducing drowsiness and mild sedative effects. Barbiturate hypnotics are used in the treatment of sleep and anxiety disorders for their calming and sedative properties, however are usually restricted to short term use due to risk of dependency.  Butabarbital, most commonly known as Butisol commercially, is an approved Schedule III drug in the US and Canada used in the short term treatment of anxiety disorders and as a pre-surgical sedative aid. Approved commercial forms are available in tablet or elixir forms. Recently, butabarbital was approved for medical use in 2007 under the brand name Butisol Sodium. Butisol sodium is manufactured by Meda Pharmaceuticals as a Schedule III controlled substance due to its high risk for abuse and dependence.

Administration.

It is most often administered orally as either sodium solution or tablet, however can also be given by intravenous injection. Tablets contain either 30 mg or 50 mg of butabarbital sodium, or 30 mg/5mL with 7% alcohol/vol in solution. For preoperative sedation, adults are administered 50–100 mg 60-90min prior to surgery, with varying doses for pediatric and geriatric patients.

Clinical Effects & Elimination.

Effects from oral doses often are felt within an hour of administration, lasting somewhere from six to eight hours in effect. A non-selective depressant of the CNS, Butabarbital sodium is used as a sedative hypnotic, depending on dose, to induce drowsiness or sleep, or reduce anxiety and tension. Butabarbital sodium can be used as a pre-surgical anesthetic aid or in the short-term treatment of sleep and anxiety disorders. For short term sleep maintenance and induction butabarbital sodium treatment is recommended to be limited to two weeks, after which it begins to lose efficacy. The half life is approximately 100hrs, eliminated primarily by hepatic microsomal enzymes and excreted in the urine.

Overdose & Abuse.

Butabarbital sodium is a Schedule III controlled substance in the US and Canada due to risk of abuse and dependence. A psychoactive substance, butabarbital drugs are often abused with risk of acute intoxication and addiction. Barbiturates such as butabarbital are thought to be habit-forming and addictive, and have severe risks from withdrawal including death. Due the high risk of dependence and overdose, use of butabarbital is highly regulated and has become less common in clinical application.

Side Effects.

Those taking Butabarbital are asked to watch out for signs of severe allergic reaction, such as swelling or difficulty breathing. Less serious side effects include dizziness or drowsiness, excitation, headache, nausea, vomiting, or constipation. Psychiatric disturbances (hallucinations, agitation, confusion, depression, or memory problems), ataxia, difficulty breathing, or slow heartbeat could be signs of serious adverse effects and should be brought to the attention of a doctor immediately.

Adverse Effects.

1-10%  <1%

Contradictions.

Those with a hypersensitivity to barbiturates or a history of porphyria should discuss with a doctor before using butisol sodium treatment. Butabarbital has also been shown to interact with some medicines; Talk to your doctor if taking Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), beta-blockers, oral-contraceptives, or other medications, as their efficacy may be affected. At low doses Butabarbital has been shown clinically to induce drowsiness, depressing the sensory cortex and motor activity. In some rare cases Butabarbital has been shown to produce small bursts of excitement or euphoria prior to the sedative effects. Butabarbital is a highly potent drug however, with addictive properties, and small variations in dose can result in significant escalation of effects.

Pharmacology.

Butabarbital is a sedative hypnotic member of the barbiturate family. It is relatively fast acting, with a short duration, producing a range of effects from mild sedation to hypnosis as a function of dosage. An overdose of butabarbital can result in deep coma or even death.

Absorption, Distribution and Excretion.

Butabarbituates are rapidly distributed and absorbed in the brain, liver and kidneys. One of the more lipophilic barbiturates, butabarbital crosses the blood brain barrier with relative ease, and is slightly more potent then other less lipophilic barbiturates such as phenobarbital. Butabarbital, a weak acid, is most commonly administered orally in its sodium salt form. 3–4 hours after oral administration butabarbital sodium reaches peak plama concentrations of 203 ug/mL for sedation, or 25 ug/mL to induce sleep, absorbed via the GI tract.  Once absorbed, butabarbital’s effects have a duration of 6–8 hours if orally administered, or 3–6 hours following intravaneous administration. General consensus has it with a half-life of approximately 100hr, however it has also been reported in one study to have a half life of 34-42 hr.  The primary way the body terminates activity is by oxidation of radicals at C5, with other biotransformations contributing to a lesser extent. Butabarbital is metabolized almost entirely by the liver, products including polar alcohols, ketones, phenols, or carboxylic acids, before it is renally excreted in the urine.  Half-Life: ~100 hr Duration: 6-8 hr Onset: 45-60 min Enzymes induced: CYP1A2, CYP2C9/10, CYP3A4 Excretion: Urine

Mechanism of Action.

The mechanism of action by which barbiturates exert their effect is not yet completely understood, however they are believed to be involved in the enhancement of GABA inhibitory neurotransmitter activity in the CNS via GABA receptors. Butabarbital, as a member of this drug class, acutely potentiates inhibitory GABAergic tone by binding with a specific site associated with a Cl ionopore at the GABA receptor. Butabarbital's binding causes the channel to remain open longer and thus prolongs post-synaptic inhibition by GABA. Less well characterized effects of barbiturates include direct inhibition of AMPA-type glutamate receptors, suppressing excitatory glutamatergic neurotransmission.

Butabarbital (brand name Butisol) is a prescription barbiturate sleep aid and anxiety medication. Butabarbital has a particularly fast onset of effects and short duration of action compared to other barbiturates, which makes it useful for certain applications such as treating severe insomnia, relieving general anxiety and relieving anxiety before surgical procedures; however it is also relatively dangerous particularly when combined with alcohol, and so is now rarely used, although it is still prescribed in some Eastern European and South American countries. Its intermediate duration of action gives butabarbital an abuse potential slightly lower than secobarbital. Butabarbital can be hydrolyzed to Valnoctamide.

Secbutabarbital (INN), auch Butabarbital (USAN), ist ein Barbiturat. Chemisch betrachtet ist es ein Barbitursäure-Derivat. Secbutabarbital wurde 1932 für Eli Lilly and Company patentiert.


Diplomatic and political career.

Oyono was born near Ebolowa in the South Province of Cameroon. After obtaining his secondary education in Yaoundé, Oyono studied in Paris. Following Cameroon's independence, Oyono was a member of the Cameroonian delegation to the United Nations in 1960, when the country was admitted to the UN. Oyono subsequently served as Cameroon's ambassador to various countries from 1965 to 1974. He was briefly the Ambassador to Liberia in 1965, then served as ambassador to the Benelux countries and the European Communities from 1965 to 1968 and as ambassador to France, with additional accreditation for Spain, Italy, Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia, from 1969 to 1974. From 1974 to 1982 he was Cameroon's Permanent Representative to the United Nations; he acted as President of the United Nations Security Council in place of the United Kingdom's Ivor Richard at the 1,866th meeting of the Security Council on 16 December 1975, and was Chairman of UNICEF from 1977 to 1978. From 1982 to 1985 he again served as ambassador to various countries: first as ambassador to Algeria and Libya, then as ambassador to the United Kingdom and the Scandinavian countries.  In 1985, President Paul Biya recalled Oyono from London and appointed him as Secretary-General of the Presidency of Cameroon. Oyono remained in the post for about a year before Biya instead appointed him as Minister of Town Planning and Housing in 1986. The post of Secretary-General of the Presidency was historically very powerful, but Oyono's stint in the office was associated with a weakening of it under President Biya; significantly, Oyono was moved from the Secretariat-General to an ordinary ministry—effectively a demotion. Although Oyono was dismissed from the government in 1990, he was subsequently appointed as Minister of Foreign Relations on 27 November 1992, serving in that position until he was instead named Minister of State for Culture on 8 December 1997. Oyono was a member of the National Commission for the co-ordination of President Biya's re-election campaign in the October 2004 presidential election and was the president of the campaign's support and follow-up committee in the South Province.  After nearly ten years as Minister of State for Culture, Oyono was dismissed from the government on 7 September 2007. Oyono was thought to be a close friend of Paul Biya, and observers attributed his departure from the government to his advanced age and poor health. He had been criticised for reportedly not working at his ministry for months at a time. After leaving the government, Oyono was thought to retain a great deal of influence as "an unofficial adviser" to Biya. Biya appointed him as a roving ambassador on 30 June 2009.  As the representative of President Biya, Oyono attended a play commemorating Cameroon's independence struggle and the country's subsequent reunification on 14 May 2010; the play was part of festivities marking Cameroon's 50th year of independence from France.  During a visit to Cameroon by Ban Ki-moon, the Secretary-General of the United Nations, the 80-year-old Oyono died suddenly in Yaoundé on 10 June 2010. Reportedly Oyono fell ill at the presidential palace after a reception for the Secretary-General; he received immediate medical attention and an ambulance was called, but he quickly died. Later in the day, President Biya released a statement expressing sadness regarding Oyono's death, although the statement gave no details. Secretary-General Ban, meanwhile, expressed sadness during a speech to the National Assembly of Cameroon.  An official funeral was held for Oyono with a series of events beginning on 24 June 2010 and concluding with his burial at Ngoazip, near Ebolowa, on 26 June.

Novels.

Oyono's novels were written in French in the late 1950s and were only translated into English a decade or two afterward.  Among his works are:

Ferdinand Léopold Oyono (14 September 1929 – 10 June 2010) was a diplomat, politician and author from Cameroon. His literary work is recognised for a sense of irony that reveals how easily people can be fooled. Writing in French in the 1950s, Oyono had only a brief literary career, but his anti-colonialist novels are considered classics of 20th century African literature; his first novel, "Une vie de boy"—published in 1956 and later translated as "Houseboy"—is considered particularly important.

Ferdinand Léopold Oyono (* 14. September 1929 in Ebolowa; † 10. Juni 2010 in Yaoundé) war ein kamerunischer Schriftsteller und Politiker.


Education and career.

Ali was born in November 1897 into a Gujjar Muslim family, in the town of Balachaur in the Hoshiarpur District of Punjab, Punjab, British India.His relatives migrated to Faisalabad from India. After graduating from Islamia College Lahore in 1918, he taught at Aitchison College Lahore before joining the Punjab University to study law. However, in 1930 he moved to England to join Emmanuel College Cambridge, in 1931. Subsequently, he obtained a BA degree in 1933 and MA in 1940 from the University of Cambridge. In 1933, he published a pamphlet, "", coining the word "Pakistan" for the first time. In 1943, he was called to the Bar, from Middle Temple, London. Rahmat Ali finished education in England, obtaining MA and LLB with honours from the universities of Cambridge and Dublin. In 1946, he founded the Pakistan National Movement in England. Until 1947, he continued publishing various booklets about his vision for South Asia. The final Partition of India disillusioned him due to the mass killings and mass migrations it ended up producing. He was also dissatisfied with the distribution of areas among the two countries and considered it a major reason for the disturbances.

Philosophy.

As such, Ali's writings, in addition to those of Muhammad Iqbal and others were major catalysts for the formation of Pakistan. He offered the name "Bangistan" for a Muslim homeland in the Bengal region, and "Osmanistan" for a Muslim homeland in the Deccan. He also suggested "Dinia" as a name for a South Asia of various religions.

Conception of 'Pakistan'.

In 1932, Ali moved to a house in Cambridge, on 3 Humberstone Road. It was in one of the rooms of this house that he is said to have written the word 'Pakstan' for the first time. There are several accounts of the creation of the name. According to a friend, Abdul Kareem Jabbar, the name came up when Ali was walking along the banks of the Thames in 1932 with his friends Pir Ahsan-ud-din and Khwaja Abdul Rahim. According to Ali's secretary Miss Frost, he came up with the idea while riding on the top of a London bus.  However, Sir Mohammad Iqbal said that Rahmat Ali visited him in London when he was there for the First Round Table Conference in 1930 and asked him what he would call the government of the Muslim state he had proposed in Allahabad. Iqbal told him that he would call it "Pakistan" as an acronym based on the provinces' names.  On 28 January 1933, Ali voiced the idea in a pamphlet titled "". The word 'Pakstan' referred to "the five Northern units of India, viz., Punjab, North-West Frontier Province (Afghan Province), Kashmir, Sind and Baluchistan". By the end of 1933, 'Pakistan' had become common vocabulary, and an i was added to ease pronunciation (as in Afghan-i-stan). Ali also wrote that this would be followed by "reintegration with the three Muslim 'Asian' homelands of Afghanistan, Iran and Tukharistan", a reference to Northwest India's political, historical and cultural affiliations with West Asia.  In a subsequent book, Ali discussed the etymology in further detail: 'Pakistan' is both a Persian and an Urdu word. It is composed of letters taken from the names of all our South Asia homelands; that is, Punjab, Afghania, Kashmir, Sindh and Balochistan. It means the land of the Paks – the spiritually pure and clean.  Ali's pamphlet had a clear and succinct description of the Muslims of his proposed 'Pakstan' as a 'nation', which later formed the foundation for the two-nation theory of the All-India Muslim League:  Ali believed that the delegates of the first and second Round Table Conferences committed 'an inexcusable blunder and an incredible betrayal' by accepting the principle of an All-India Federation. He demanded that the national status of the 30 million Muslims of the northwestern units be recognized and a separate Federal Constitution be granted to them.  Ali's biographer, K. K. Aziz writes, "Rahmat Ali alone drafted this declaration" (in which the word Pakistan was used for the first time), but in order to make it "representative" he began to look around for people who would sign it along with him. This search did not prove easy, "for so firm was the grip of 'Muslim Indian Nationalism' on our young intellectuals at English universities that it took me (Rahmat Ali) more than a month to find three young men in London who offered to support and sign it." Later on, his political opponents used the name of these signatories and other friends of Ali, as creator of the word 'Pakistan'.

Iqbal and Jinnah.

On 29 December 1930, Muhammad Iqbal delivered his presidential address, wherein he said:  According to some scholars, Iqbal had not presented the idea of an autonomous Muslim State; rather he wanted a large Muslim province by amalgamating Punjab, Sindh, NWFP and Baluchistan into a big North-Western province within India. They argue that Iqbal never called for any kind of partition of the country.  On 28 January 1933, Choudhry Rehmat Ali voiced his ideas on 'Pakistan'. By the end of 1933, the word "Pakistan" became common vocabulary where an "I" was added to ease pronunciation (as in Afghan-i-stan). In a subsequent book Rehmat Ali discussed the etymology in further detail: "'Pakistan' is both a Persian and an Urdu word. It is composed of letters taken from the names of all our South Asia homelands; that is, Punjab, Afghania, Kashmir, Sindh and Balochistan. It means the land of the Pure".  Jawaharlal Nehru had written in his book on the scheme: "Iqbal was one of the early advocates of Pakistan and yet he appears to have realised its inherent danger and absurdity. Edward Thompson has written that in the course of conversation, Iqbal told him that he had advocated Pakistan because of his position as President of Muslim League session, but he felt sure that it would be injurious to India as a whole and to Muslims especially."  In 1934, Choudhry Rahmat Ali and his friends met Muhammad Ali Jinnah and appealed for his support of the Pakistan idea. He replied, "My dear boys, don't be in a hurry; let the waters flow and they will find their own level."

Proposed maps and names.

Ali had published several pamphlets where he listed himself as the ""Founder of the Pakistan National Movement"", In these pamphlets Ali had added various maps of the subcontinent with potential names that the new proposed nation might have according to him. Haideristan, Siddiqistan, Faruqistan, Muinistan, Maplistan, Safiistan and Nasaristan were some of these names. Safiistan and Nasaristan nations were proposed on the map of Sri Lanka  In his maps he had renamed the Indian subcontinent as 'Pakasia' and more often as 'Dinia', (an anagram of "India" with position of 'd' changed). Dinia was represented with dependencies Pakistan, Osmanistan (representing Hyderabad Deccan and neighbouring areas) and Bangistan (representing Bengal). He proposed the former Muslim provinces of Eastern Bengal and Assam in East India to become Bangistan, an independent Muslim state for Bengali, Assamese and Bihari speaking Muslims. He proposed the princely Hyderabad State, to become an Islamic monarchy called Osmanistan. Ali also renamed the seas around the Indian subcontinent, and referred the seas around landmass of Dinia as the Bangian, Pakian and Osmanian seas that were his proposed names for the Bay of Bengal, Arabian Sea, and the Indian Ocean respectively.  These alternate geographical maps of the subcontinent were followed by the mention of Chaudhry Rehmat Ali’s position as the "founder of the Siddiqistan, Nasaristan and Safiistan National Movements".  Mian Abdul Haq, a contemporary of Rahmat Ali at the University of Cambridge, stated that, after 1935, Rahmat Ali's mental makeup changed resulting from a study of "major Nazi works, of which he knew many passages by heart".

After the creation of Pakistan.

While Choudhry Rahmat Ali was a leading figure for the conception of Pakistan, he lived most of his adult life in England.  After the partition and creation of Pakistan in 1947, Ali returned to Lahore, Pakistan on 6 April 1948. He had been voicing his dissatisfaction with the creation of Pakistan ever since his arrival in Lahore. He was unhappy over a smaller Pakistan than the one he had conceived in his 1933 pamphlet. He condemned Jinnah for accepting a smaller Pakistan, calling him "Quisling-e-Azam".  Ali had planned to stay in the country, but he was expelled out of Pakistan by the then Prime Minister Liaqat Ali Khan. His belongings were confiscated, and he left empty-handed for England in October 1948.

Death.

Ali died on 3 February 1951 in Cambridge. According to Thelma Frost, he was "destitute, forlorn and lonely" at the time of his death. Fearing (correctly) that he may have died insolvent, the Master of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, Edward Welbourne, instructed that the College would cover the funeral expenses. He was buried on 20 February at Cambridge City Cemetery in Cambridge, England. The funeral expenses and other medical expenses were repaid by the High Commissioner for Pakistan in November 1953, after what was described as a “protracted correspondence” between the London office and the relevant authorities in Pakistan.

Legacy.

Rahmat Ali is credited by Pakistanis for having coined the term "Pakistan" and envisioning a separate state for Muslims. Beyond that, his ideas are not explored in any detail. The undergraduate Pakistan Studies textbooks give him a mere one line mention. He is all but forgotten in the "country he coined".

Choudhry Rahmat Ali (; ; 16 November 1897 – 3 February 1951) was a Pakistani nationalist who was one of the earliest proponents of the creation of the state of Pakistan. He is credited with creating the name "Pakistan" for a separate Muslim homeland in South Asia and is generally known as the originator of the Pakistan Movement.

Choudhary Rahmat Ali (* 16. November 1897 in Balachaur, Indien; † 3. Februar 1951 in Cambridge, Großbritannien) gilt als einer der Begründer der "Pakistan National Movement", die sich für die Teilung Britisch-Indiens und die Gründung eines unabhängigen, muslimischen Staates namens Pakistan einsetzte. Er gilt auch als Schöpfer des Landesnamens „Pakistan“.


Description and construction.

"Hero" displaced at standard load and at deep load. The ship had an overall length of, a beam of and a draught of. She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines, driving two shafts, which developed a total of and gave a maximum speed of. Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3-drum water-tube boilers. "Hero" carried a maximum of of fuel oil that gave her a range of at. The ship's complement was 137 officers and men in peacetime, but this increased to 146 in wartime. In Canadian service, the crew numbered 10 officers and 171 men.  The ship mounted four 4.7-inch Mk IX guns in single mounts, designated 'A', 'B', 'X', and 'Y' from front to rear. For anti-aircraft (AA) defence, "Hero" had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0.5 inch Vickers Mk III machine gun. She was fitted with two above-water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21-inch torpedoes. One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted; 20 depth charges were originally carried, but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began. By mid-1940, this had increased to 44 depth charges.  Ordered on 13 December 1934 from Parsons Marine Steam Turbine Company, "Hero" was subcontracted to Vickers-Armstrongs and laid down by their High Walker Yard at Newcastle-on-Tyne, England, on 28 February 1935. She was launched on 10 March 1936 and completed on 21 October 1936. Excluding government-furnished equipment like the armament, the ship cost £249,858.

Wartime modifications.

Most ships of "Hero"s class had the rear torpedo tubes replaced by a 12-pounder AA gun after the evacuation of Dunkirk in 1940, but it is not clear if she underwent this refurbishment as she was deployed in the Mediterranean until 1943. Other changes made before her conversion to an escort destroyer in 1943 probably included exchanging her two quadruple.50-calibre Vickers machine guns mounted between her funnels for two Oerlikon 20 mm AA guns, the addition of two Oerlikon guns to her searchlight platform and another pair on the wings of the ship's bridge. The ship's director-control tower and rangefinder above the bridge were most likely removed in exchange for a Type 271 target indication radar during the conversion, as was the replacement of 'B' gun by a Hedgehog anti-submarine spigot mortar, and the addition of a Type 286 short-range surface search radar. Two QF 6-pounder Hotchkiss guns were fitted on the wings of her bridge to deal with U-boats at short ranges. The ship also received a HF/DF radio direction finder mounted on a pole mainmast. 'Y' gun was also removed to allow her depth charge stowage to be increased. Late in the war, her Type 286 was replaced by a Type 291 radar.

Career.

"Hero" was assigned to the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla of the Mediterranean Fleet upon commissioning. She patrolled Spanish waters during the Spanish Civil War enforcing the policies of the Non-Intervention Committee. "Hero" received a refit in June–July 1939 in the UK and rejoined the Mediterranean Fleet upon its completion. The ship remained in the Mediterranean until 5 October when she was transferred to Freetown, Sierra Leone to search for German commerce raiders. "Hero" returned to the UK in January 1940 and received a refit at Portsmouth from 15 February to 16 March. In the meantime, the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla had been assigned to Home Fleet and the ship rejoined them when her refit was finished. On 5 April "Hero" escorted the battlecruiser as she covered the minelayers preparing to implement Operation Wilfred, an operation to lay mines in the Vestfjord to prevent the transport of Swedish iron ore from Narvik to Germany. The ship and her sister pretended to lay a minefield off Bud, Norway on 8 April and reported its location to the Norwegians. "Hero" and the destroyer streamed their TSDS minesweeping gear in advance of the battleship and her escort as they steamed up the Vestfjord to engage the remaining German destroyers at Narvik on 13 April. The ship and four other British destroyers pursued the remaining German ships into the Rombaksfjorden (the easternmost branch of the Ofotfjord), east of Narvik, where the lack of ammunition had forced the German ships to retreat. Most of the German destroyers had scuttled and beached themselves at the head of the fjord, but the scuttling charges on had failed to detonate properly and she was boarded by a small party from "Hero". They found nothing of any significance as she'd been abandoned by her crew and the destroyer put a torpedo into her to prevent any salvage.  "Hero" was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet on 17 May as part of the reconstituted 2nd Destroyer Flotilla. During the Battle of Cape Spada on 19 July, the ship escorted Australian light cruiser and rescued some of the 525 survivors from the together with the other escorting destroyers. "Hero", together with her sister,, and the destroyers and, were ordered to Gibraltar on 22 August where they were to join Force H. "Hostile" struck a mine en route on the early morning of 23 August off Cap Bon that broke her back. The explosion killed five men and wounded three others. "Mohawk" took off the survivors while "Hero" fired two torpedoes to scuttle her. The ship participated in Operation Hats in September, before refitting in Malta during November. She sortied into the North Atlantic when Convoy WS-5A reported that it had been attacked by the on 25 December to round up the scattered ships.  On 1 January 1941, "Hero" was one of the ships that intercepted a Vichy French convoy off Mellila and seized all four merchant ships of the convoy. The ship participated in Operation Excess in early January 1941 and was transferred back to the Mediterranean Fleet. On 27 February, she evacuated a few surviving commandos from the island of Kastelorizo who had attacked the island in Operation Abstention. In mid-April she escorted the fast transport and three battleships from Alexandria to Malta before going on to escort the battleships as they bombarded Tripoli on 20 April. After refueling in Alexandria on 23 April, "Hero" sailed for Greece to begin evacuating British and Australian troops from the beaches. During the evacuation of Crete, "Hero" and the destroyer evacuated the King of Greece and his entourage on the night of 22/23 May.  "Hero" escorted the LSI(L) as she conducted an amphibious landing in early June 1941 on the Lebanese coast during the opening stages of the Operation Exporter. She spent most of the rest of the year escorting convoys to Tobruk. Together with her sister and the destroyer, the ship escorted on 25 October whilst en route to Tobruk. They were attacked by Junkers Ju 87 "Stuka" dive bombers of I./StG 1 that hit "Latona" and set her afire. "Hero" and "Encounter" came alongside and rescued the crew and passengers before "Latona"s magazine exploded, but "Hero" was damaged by three near misses whilst alongside. The ship returned to Alexandria for repairs and escorted a convoy to Malta in January 1942. She participated in the 2nd Battle of Sirte on 22 March whilst escorting a convoy to Malta. Together with the s and on 29 May, she sank the north-east of Tobruk, at, and rescued 42 survivors.  During Operation Vigorous in June, "Hero" formed part of the escort for the covering force of the Mediterranean Fleet for the Malta-bound convoy. At time the ship still had not been fitted for radar. After Panzer Army Africa occupied Mersa Matruh in late June, the Admiralty ordered the submarine tenders and the Greek transferred to Haifa, but "Medway" was torpedoed and sunk en route despite the strong escort. "Hero" and the destroyer rescued 1105 survivors between them. On 17 August, the ship rescued some 1,100 survivors of the torpedoed troopship. In conjunction with four other destroyers and a Wellesley light bomber of the Royal Air Force, "Hero" sank north-east of Port Said on 30 October. The ship was ordered back to the United Kingdom, via the Cape of Good Hope, to be converted to an escort destroyer late in the year.

Transfer to the Royal Canadian Navy.

Her conversion at Portsmouth lasted from April to November 1943 and "Hero" was transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy as a gift on 15 November 1943 and renamed HMCS "Chaudière". After working up, the ship was assigned to the Escort Group C2 in February 1944, based in Derry. On 6 March 1944, whilst defending Convoy HX 228 west of Ireland, the escorts forced to the surface where she surrendered after a 32-hour hunt. The submarine could not be towed to port and was torpedoed by the British destroyer. The ship was reassigned to the 11th Escort Group in May 1944 in preparation for Operation Overlord. The group was tasked to protect Allied shipping in the English Channel and the Bay of Biscay and, together with the destroyers and, the ship sank in the Bay of Biscay near La Rochelle on 18 August. Two days later, the same ships sank in the Bay of Biscay west of Brest. In November, "Chaudière" was sent to Sydney, Nova Scotia for a refit.  The refit did not begin until late January 1945 and was still in progress when the war ended in May. She was found to be in the worst shape of any Canadian destroyer when inspected and was declared surplus to requirements on 13 June. She was paid off on 17 August 1945 and later sold for scrap to the Dominion Steel Company. Her demolition, however, was not completed until 1950.

Poetry.

The ship's completion on Tyneside in 1936 inspired the poet Michael Roberts to write a poem entitled ""H.M.S. Hero"". The poem of twelve lines in three stanzas, begins; ""Pale grey, her guns hooded, decks clear of all impediment, / Easily, between the swart tugs, she glides in the pale October sunshine..."".

HMS "Hero" was an H-class destroyer built for the Royal Navy in the mid-1930s. During the Spanish Civil War of 1936–1939 the ship enforced the arms blockade imposed by Britain and France on both sides as part of the Mediterranean Fleet. During the first few months of World War II, "Hero" searched for German commerce raiders in the Atlantic Ocean and participated in the Second Battle of Narvik during the Norwegian Campaign of April–June 1940 before she was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet in May where she escorted a number of convoys to Malta. The ship took part in the Battle of Cape Spada in July 1940, Operation Abstention in February 1941, and the evacuations of Greece and Crete in April–May 1941. The ship covered an amphibious landing during the Syria–Lebanon Campaign of June 1941 and began escorting supply convoys in June to Tobruk, Libya shortly afterwards. She was damaged by German dive bombers while rescuing survivors from the minelayer in October 1941 and resumed escorting convoys to Malta. "Hero" participated in the Second Battle of Sirte in March 1942 and in Operation Vigorous in June. She sank two German submarines whilst stationed in the Mediterranean in 1942, and was transferred back home late in the year to begin converting to an escort destroyer. The ship was transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy (RCN) in 1943 and renamed HMCS "Chaudière". She became part of the Mid-Ocean Escort Force in early 1944 until her transfer back to British coastal waters in May to protect the build-up for Operation Overlord. Together with other ships, she sank three more German submarines during the year. "Chaudière" was refitting when the war ended in May 1945 and was in poor shape. The ship was paid off in August and later sold for scrap. The process of breaking her up, however, was not completed until 1950.

HMS "Hero" (H99) war ein Zerstörer der acht Zerstörer und einen Leader umfassenden H-Klasse der britischen Royal Navy im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Nach dem Kriegsbeginn übernahm die Royal Navy noch sechs sehr ähnliche Zerstörer, die auf britischen Werften für die brasilianische Marine in Bau waren. Die "Hero" wurde bis Ende 1942 mit acht Battle Honours ausgezeichnet. Im Herbst 1943 wurde sie mit weiteren fünf älteren Zerstörern an die Royal Canadian Navy abgegeben, um als HMCS "Chaudiere" (H99) vorrangig in der Konvoi-Sicherung auf dem Nordatlantik eingesetzt zu werden. Der weitgehend verbrauchte Zerstörer wurde nach schweren Seeschäden Ende 1944 nicht mehr instandgesetzt und schließlich 1950 verschrottet.


Geography.

Monaco City is one of the four traditional quarters () of Monaco; the others are La Condamine, Monte Carlo, and Fontvieille. It is located at and has an estimated population of 975.

History.

Monaco Ville was originally called in Greek Monoikos, after the temple of "Hercules Monoikos", located in a Phocaean colony of the 6th century BCE. During its history, Monoikos changed hands numerous times. It became "Monaco" in the Middle Ages. Some of the city walls and original structures still remain.  It was here that the Phocaeans of Massalia (now Marseille) founded the colony of Monoïkos in the 6th century BC. Monoikos was associated with Hercules, who was worshipped as Hercules Monoecus. According to the works of Hercules, but also according to Diodorus of Sicily and Strabo, the Greeks and the Ligurians reported that Hercules had passed through the region.  On 10 June 1215, a detachment of Ghibellines led by Fulco del Cassello began the construction of a fortress on the rock of Monaco in order to make it a strategic military position and a means of controlling the area.  They also established dwellings at the base of the Rock to support the garrisons. To attract the inhabitants of Genoa and the surrounding towns, they offered land and exempted newcomers from taxes.  On January 8, 1297, François Grimaldi, descendant of Otto Canella, consul of Genoa in 1133, took over the fortress. Although he had a small army, he disguised himself as a Franciscan monk to enter, before opening the gates to his soldiers. This episode gave rise to his nickname, Malizia ("malice"). This is why today the arms of Monaco bear two Franciscans armed with a sword.

Landmarks.

Despite being located in the middle of the City of Monaco, the world's most densely populated urban center, Monaco City remains a medieval village at heart, made up almost entirely of quiet pedestrian streets and marked by virtual silence after sundown. Though innumerable people visit Monaco City and the palace square, only local vehicles are allowed up to the Rock, and gasoline-powered motorcycles are prohibited after 10 pm.

Monaco City () is the southcentral ward in the Principality of Monaco. Located on a headland that extends into the Mediterranean Sea, it is nicknamed The Rock (). The name "Monaco City" is misleading: it is not itself a city, but a historical and statistical district. It holds most of the country's political and judicial institutions: the Prince's Palace, the town hall, the government, the National Council (parliament of Monaco), the Municipal Council, the courts and a prison (hanging on The Rock).

Monaco-Ville (monegassisch "Munegu-Vila") ist der älteste und mit 975 Bewohnern (2008) der nach Einwohnern kleinste Stadtbezirk (frz. "Quartier") im Fürstentum Monaco. Er weist eine Fläche von 0,2 Quadratkilometern (19,65 Hektar) auf und grenzt an die monegassischen Stadtbezirke Fontvieille und La Condamine.


Mechanism of sensation.

In somatosensory transduction, the afferent neurons transmit messages through synapses in the dorsal column nuclei, where second-order neurons send the signal to the thalamus and synapse with third-order neurons in the ventrobasal complex. The third-order neurons then send the signal to the somatosensory cortex.

Feedback.

More recent work has expanded the role of the cutaneous mechanoreceptors for feedback in fine motor control. Single action potentials from Meissner's corpuscle, Pacinian corpuscle and Ruffini ending afferents are directly linked to muscle activation, whereas Merkel cell-neurite complex activation does not trigger muscle activity.

Types.

In glabrous (hairless) skin, there are four principal types of mechanoreceptors, each shaped according to its function. The tactile corpuscles (also known as Meissner corpuscles) respond to light touch, and adapt rapidly to changes in texture (vibrations around 50 Hz). The bulbous corpuscles (also known as Ruffini endings) detect tension deep in the skin and fascia. The Merkel nerve endings (also known as Merkel discs) detect sustained pressure. The lamellar corpuscles (also known as Pacinian corpuscles) in the skin and fascia detect rapid vibrations (of about 200–300 Hz).  Receptors in hair follicles called hair root plexuses sense when a hair changes position. Indeed, the most sensitive mechanoreceptors in humans are the hair cells in the cochlea of the inner ear (no relation to the follicular receptors – they are named for the hair-like mechanosensory stereocilia they possess); these receptors transduce sound for the brain.  Mechanosensory free nerve endings detect touch, pressure, stretching, as well as the tickle and itch sensations. Itch sensations are caused by stimulation of free nerve ending from chemicals.  Baroreceptors are a type of mechanoreceptor sensory neuron that is excited by stretch of the blood vessel.

Cutaneous.

Cutaneous mechanoreceptors respond to mechanical stimuli that result from physical interaction, including pressure and vibration. They are located in the skin, like other cutaneous receptors. They are all innervated by Aβ fibers, except the mechanorecepting free nerve endings, which are innervated by Aδ fibers. Cutaneous mechanoreceptors can be categorized by morphology, by what kind of sensation they perceive, and by the rate of adaptation. Furthermore, each has a different receptive field.

By rate of adaptation.

Cutaneous mechanoreceptors can also be separated into categories based on their rates of adaptation. When a mechanoreceptor receives a stimulus, it begins to fire impulses or action potentials at an elevated frequency (the stronger the stimulus, the higher the frequency). The cell, however, will soon "adapt" to a constant or static stimulus, and the pulses will subside to a normal rate. Receptors that adapt quickly (i.e. quickly return to a normal pulse rate) are referred to as "phasic". Those receptors that are slow to return to their normal firing rate are called tonic. Phasic mechanoreceptors are useful in sensing such things as texture or vibrations, whereas tonic receptors are useful for temperature and proprioception among others.

Receptive field.

Cutaneous mechanoreceptors with small, accurate receptive fields are found in areas needing accurate taction (e.g. the fingertips). In the fingertips and lips, innervation density of slowly adapting type I and rapidly adapting type I mechanoreceptors are greatly increased. These two types of mechanoreceptors have small discrete receptive fields and are thought to underlie most low-threshold use of the fingers in assessing texture, surface slip, and flutter. Mechanoreceptors found in areas of the body with less tactile acuity tend to have larger receptive fields.

Others.

Other mechanoreceptors than cutaneous ones include the hair cells, which are sensory receptors in the vestibular system of the inner ear, where they contribute to the auditory system and equilibrioception. In addition to this, mechanoreceptors aid "Dionaea muscipula Ellis" (Venus Fly Trap) in capturing sizable prey effectively.  There are also Juxtacapillary (J) receptors, which respond to events such as pulmonary edema, pulmonary emboli, pneumonia, and barotrauma.

Ligamentous.

There are four types of mechanoreceptors embedded in ligaments. As all these types of mechanoreceptors are myelinated, they can rapidly transmit sensory information regarding joint positions to the central nervous system. Type II and Type III mechanoreceptors in particular are believed to be linked to one's sense of proprioception.

Lamellar corpuscle.

Lamellar corpuscles, or Pacinian corpuscles, are pressure receptors located in the skin and also in various internal organs. Each is connected to a sensory neuron. Because of its relatively large size, a single lamellar corpuscle can be isolated and its properties studied. Mechanical pressure of varying strength and frequency can be applied to the corpuscle by stylus, and the resulting electrical activity detected by electrodes attached to the preparation.  Deforming the corpuscle creates a generator potential in the sensory neuron arising within it. This is a graded response: the greater the deformation, the greater the generator potential. If the generator potential reaches threshold, a volley of action potentials (nerve impulses) are triggered at the first node of Ranvier of the sensory neuron.  Once threshold is reached, the magnitude of the stimulus is encoded in the frequency of impulses generated in the neuron. So the more massive or rapid the deformation of a single corpuscle, the higher the frequency of nerve impulses generated in its neuron.  The optimal sensitivity of a lamellar corpuscle is 250 Hz, the frequency range generated upon finger tips by textures made of features smaller than 200 micrometres.

Muscle spindles and the stretch reflex.

The knee jerk is the popularly known stretch reflex (involuntary kick of the lower leg) induced by tapping the knee with a rubber-headed hammer. The hammer strikes a tendon that inserts an extensor muscle in the front of the thigh into the lower leg. Tapping the tendon stretches the thigh muscle, which activates stretch receptors within the muscle called muscle spindles. Each muscle spindle consists of sensory nerve endings wrapped around special muscle fibers called spindle fibers (also called intrafusal fibers). Stretching a spindle fiber initiates a volley of impulses in the sensory neuron (a I-a neuron) attached to it. The impulses travel along the sensory axon to the spinal cord where they form several kinds of synapses:

A mechanoreceptor is a sensory cell that responds to mechanical pressure or distortion. There are four main types of mechanoreceptors in glabrous, or hairless, mammalian skin: lamellar corpuscles (Pacinian corpuscles), tactile corpuscles (Meissner's corpuscles), Merkel nerve endings, and bulbous corpuscles (Ruffini corpuscle). There are also mechanoreceptors in hairy skin, and the hair cells in the receptors of primates like rhesus monkeys and other mammals are similar to those of humans and also studied even in early 20th century anatomically and neurophysiologically.

Mechanorezeptoren sind Sinneszellen, die mechanische Kräfte in Nervenerregung umwandeln. Sie sind in so verschiedenen Sinnesorganen wie den Ohren, der Haut oder den Arterien zu finden. Dementsprechend gibt es eine große Vielfalt an Mechanorezeptoren, die in Bau und Funktion sehr stark variieren.


Plot.

Film historian Ina Bertrand suggests that the tone of "The Story of the Kelly Gang" is "one of sorrow, depicting Ned Kelly and his gang as the last of the bushrangers." Bertrand identifies several scenes that suggest considerable film making sophistication on the part of the Taits. One is the composition of a scene of police shooting parrots in the bush. The second is the capture of Ned, shot from the viewpoint of the police, as he advances. A copy of the programme booklet has survived, containing a synopsis of the film, in six'scenes'. The latter provided audiences with the sort of information later provided by intertitles, and can help historians imagine what the entire film may have been like.  According to the synopsis given in the surviving programme, the film originally comprised six sequences. These provided a loose narrative based on the Kelly gang story.  Some confusion regarding the plot has emerged as a result of a variant poster dating from the time the film was re-released in 1910. The similar (but different) photos suggest that either the film was being added to for its re-release, or an entirely new version was made by Johnson and Gibson, as the poster proclaims. In addition, a film fragment (" the Perth fragment ") exists, showing Aaron Sherritt being shot in front of an obviously painted canvas flat. This is now thought to be from a different film altogether, perhaps a cheap imitation of "The Story of the Kelly Gang" made by a theatrical company, keen to cash in on the success of the original, or an earlier bushranger short.

Origins.

Australian bushranger Ned Kelly had been executed only twenty-six years before "The Story of the Kelly Gang" was made, and Ned's mother Ellen and younger brother Jim were still alive at the time of its release. The film was made during an era when plays about bushrangers were extremely popular, and there were, by one estimate, six contemporaneous theatre companies giving performances of the Kelly gang story. Historian Ian Jones suggests bushranger stories still had an "indefinable appeal" for Australians in the early 20th century. Stephen Vagg wrote that "bushranger films are their own, uniquely Australian genre, deriving from local history and literary tradition rather than simply copying American tropes... "Kelly Gang"..., was adapted from an Australian stage play, based on an Australian historical event, and featured many traditions and tropes that are grounded more in Australian than American literary traditions – miscarriage of justice, Protestant-Catholic sectarianism, class warfare, feisty “squatter’s daughters”, etc."

Cast.

There is considerable uncertainty over who appeared in the film and a number of unsubstantiated claims have been made regarding participation. According to the Australian National Film and Sound Archive, the only actors positively identified are; Others thought to be in the film include In her memoirs, Viola Tait claimed the part of Ned was played by a Canadian stunt actor, who deserted the project part way through.  A 1944 article said the actors came from Cole's Dramatic Company. This article claims the Taits were not in the film.

Production.

Shooting of the film reportedly involved a budget variously estimated between £400 (Gibson) and £1,000 (Tait) and took six months. While it is now commonly accepted that the Tait's experienced older brother Charles directed the film, only ten years after it was made, pioneer Australian director W. J. Lincoln claimed it was actually "directed by Mr Sam Crews [sic], who... worked without a scenario, and pieced the story together as he went along." Lincoln also claimed that "the principal characters were played by the promoters and their relatives, who certainly made no pretensions to any great histrionic talent."  Viola Tait's memoirs, published in the early 1970s, identifies Charles as being chosen as director because of his theatrical experience. Her account confirmed that many of the extended Tait family and their friends appeared in scenes.  Much of the film was shot on the property of Elizabeth Tait's family (Charles' wife) at Heidelberg, now a suburb of Melbourne. Other scenes in the film may have been shot in the suburbs of St Kilda (indoor scenes), and possibly Eltham, Greensborough, Mitcham, and Rosanna. The Victoria Railways Department assisted by providing a train.  Costumes were possibly borrowed from E. I. Cole's Bohemian Company, and members of the troupe may have also performed in the film. According to Viola Tait, Sir Rupert Clarke loaned the suit of Kelly armour his family then owned for use in the film.  "The Story of the Kelly Gang" was made by a consortium of two partnerships involved in theatre—entrepreneurs John Tait and Nevin Tait, and pioneering film exhibitors Millard Johnson and William Gibson. The Tait family owned the Melbourne Athenaeum Hall and part of their concert program often included short films. Melbourne film exhibitors Johnson and Gibson also had technical experience, including developing film stock. Credit for writing the film scenario is generally given to brothers Frank, John and sometimes Charles Tait. At a time when films were usually shorts of five to ten minutes duration, their inspiration for making a film of at least sixty minutes in length, and intended as a stand-alone feature, was undoubtedly based on the proven success of stage versions of the Kelly story.  Film historians Andrew Pike and Ross Cooper have noted that at the time, the filmmakers were unaware of the historical importance of the film they were making, and only much later "poured forth their memories." Unfortunately, "with the passage of time and the desire to make a good story of it" they "created a maze of contradictory information."  For example, in later years, William Gibson claimed that while touring through New Zealand showing the bio-pic "Living London", he noticed the large audiences attracted to Charles McMahon's stage play "The Kelly Gang". Film historian Eric Reade claimed the Taits themselves owned the stage rights to a Kelly play, while actors Sam Crewes and John Forde later also claimed to have thought of the idea of a making a film of the Kelly Gang's exploits, inspired by the success of stage plays.  There is evidence that at least one other bushranging film had been made before 1906. This was Joseph Perry's 1904 short "Bushranging in North Queensland", made by the Salvation Army's Limelight Department in Melbourne, one of the world's first film studios.

Release and reception.

The film was given a week of trial screenings in country towns in late 1906. This proved enormously successful and the movie recouped its budget for these screenings alone.  Its Melbourne debut was made at the Athenaeum Hall on 26 December 1906. It ran for five weeks to full houses, local papers noting the extraordinary popularity of the film. Although the country screenings had been silent, when the film was screened in Melbourne it was accompanied by live sound effects, including blank cartridges as gunshots and coconut shells beaten together to simulate hoofbeats. At later screenings a lecturer would also narrate the action. These additions were well-received by the theatre critic for "Melbourne Punch", who stated that they greatly enhance the film's realism. He went on to say: Comparing the film to other artistic depictions of the Kelly saga, one Adelaide critic wrote that it conveys "a far more vivid impression of the actual life and deeds of the Kellys than letterpress and stagecraft combined."  Many groups at the time, including some politicians and the police, interpreted the film as a glorification of criminality. The film was banned in "Kelly Country"—regional centres such as Benalla and Wangaratta—in April 1907, and in 1912 bushranger films were banned across New South Wales and Victoria.  Despite the bans, the film toured Australia for over 20 years and was also shown in New Zealand, Ireland and Britain. When Queen's Royal Theatre was rebuilt in Dublin in 1909, it opened with a program headed by "The Story of the Kelly Gang". The backers and exhibitors made "a fortune" from the film, perhaps in excess of £25,000.

Restoration.

The film was considered lost until 1976, when five short segments totalling a few seconds of running time were found. In 1978 another of the film was discovered in a collection belonging to a former film exhibitor. In 1980, further footage was found at a rubbish dump. The longest surviving single sequence, the scene at Younghusband's station, was found in the UK in 2006. In November 2006, the National Film and Sound Archive released a new digital restoration which incorporated the new material and recreated some scenes based on existing still photographs.  The restoration is now 17 minutes long and includes the key scene of Kelly's last stand.

In popular culture.

In director Warwick Thornton's 2017 film "Sweet Country", a "travelling picture show" in 1920s Northern Territory shows "The Story of the Kelly Gang" to residents of an outback town, who cheer for the bushranger. The film's protagonist, an Aboriginal outlaw, is also named Kelly, but vilified and hunted by the same townspeople. According to "The Australian", Thornton, an Aboriginal, "has little time" for depictions of Ned Kelly as a larrikin folk hero and Irish victim of British colonisation. "When there was a raiding party," said Thornton, "and a massacre happened, the Scottish, the Irish and the British were all shooting us. It doesn’t equate for me.”

The Story of the Kelly Gang is a 1906 Australian bushranger film that traces the exploits of 19th-century bushranger and outlaw Ned Kelly and his gang. It was directed by Charles Tait and shot in and around the city of Melbourne. The original cut of this silent film ran for more than an hour with a reel length of about, making it the longest narrative film yet seen in the world. It premiered at Melbourne's Athenaeum Hall on 26 December 1906 and was first shown in the United Kingdom in January 1908. A commercial and critical success, it is regarded as the origin point of the bushranging drama, a genre that dominated the early years of Australian film production. Since its release, many other films have been made about the Kelly legend.

Die Geschichte der Kelly-Bande ist ein australischer Western aus dem Jahr 1906, der von der Figur des legendären australischen Gesetzlosen Ned Kelly handelt. Er gilt mit seiner ursprünglichen Spielzeit von ca. 70 Minuten als der weltweit erste Langfilm. Heute existieren nur noch wenige Minuten des Filmes.


Early life.

Pakula was born in The Bronx, New York, to, Jeanette (née Goldstein) and Paul Pakula. He was educated at The Hill School in Pottstown, Pennsylvania, and Yale University, where he majored in drama.

Career.

Pakula started his Hollywood career as an assistant in the cartoon department at Warner Brothers. In 1957, he undertook his first production role for Paramount Pictures. In 1962, he produced "To Kill a Mockingbird", for which he was nominated for a Best Picture Academy Award. Pakula had a successful professional relationship as the producer of movies directed by Robert Mulligan from 1957 to 1968. In 1969, he directed his first feature, "The Sterile Cuckoo", starring Liza Minnelli.  In 1971, Pakula released the first installment of what would informally come to be known as his "paranoia trilogy". "Klute", the story of a relationship between a private eye (played by Donald Sutherland) and a call girl (played by Jane Fonda, who won an Oscar for her performance), was a commercial and critical success. This was followed in 1974 by "The Parallax View" starring Warren Beatty, a labyrinthine post-Watergate thriller involving political assassinations. The film has been noted for its experimental use of hypnotic imagery in a celebrated film-within-a-film sequence in which the protagonist is inducted into the Parallax Corporation, whose main, although secret, enterprise is domestic terrorism.  Finally, in 1976, Pakula rounded out the "trilogy" with "All the President's Men", based on the bestselling account of the Watergate scandal written by Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein, who were played in the movie by Robert Redford and Dustin Hoffman, respectively. It was another commercial hit, considered by many critics and fans to be one of the best thrillers of the 1970s.  Pakula scored another hit in 1982 with "Sophie's Choice", starring Meryl Streep. His screenplay, based on the novel by William Styron, was nominated for an Academy Award. Later commercial successes included "Presumed Innocent", based on the bestselling novel by Scott Turow, and another political thriller, "The Pelican Brief", an adaptation of John Grisham's bestseller. His final film was the crime drama thriller film "The Devil's Own", where he reunited with Harrison Ford.

Personal life.

From October 19, 1963, until 1971, Pakula was married to actress Hope Lange. He was married to his second wife, Hannah Pakula (formerly Hannah Cohn Boorstin) from 1973 until his death in 1998.  He had two stepchildren from his marriage with Hope Lange, Christopher and Patricia Murray and three stepchildren from his second marriage. They are Louis, Robert and Anna Boorstin. He also spoke very openly about his stepson's battle with depression before his death.

Death.

Pakula died on November 19, 1998, in a car accident on the Long Island Expressway in Melville, New York. He was 70 years old. A driver in front of him struck a metal pipe, which went through Pakula's windshield, struck him in the head, and caused him to swerve off the road and into a fence. He was killed instantly.

Alan Jay Pakula (; April 7, 1928 – November 19, 1998) was an American film director, writer and producer. He was nominated for three Academy Awards: Best Picture for "To Kill a Mockingbird" (1962), Best Director for "All the President's Men" (1976) and Best Adapted Screenplay for "Sophie's Choice" (1982).

Alan J. Pakula (* 7. April 1928 in New York; † 19. November 1998 auf Long Island, New York) war ein US-amerikanischer Regisseur, Filmproduzent und Drehbuchautor.


United States.

"Hash" of many forms was part of the American diet since at least the 18th century, as is attested by the availability of numerous recipes and the existence of many "hash houses" named after the dish. In the United States, September 27 is "National Corned Beef Hash Day."  Classic American corned beef hash originated in the New England region of the United States as a way to use up the leftovers from a traditional boiled dinner of beef, cabbage, potatoes, and onions. A red flannel hash is made with beets instead of potatoes. You can also find salt cod hash or fish hash in New England.  Corned beef and cabbage dinners is an Irish-American tradition from the 1800s that is now commonly observed across the United States on St. Patrick's Day. Corned beef hash is also commonly served on St. Patrick's Day, as well as around American Thanksgiving and Christmas.  In the Midwest it was common to bind a hash together with a white sauce thickened with flour.  Alternatively, in the southern United States, the term "hash" may refer to two dishes:  Some areas in the South also use the term "hash" to refer to meat, such as wild game, that is served as barbecue or pulled meat that is boiled first.

UK.

As early as the 14th century, English people were making hache or hachy. According to cookbook author Steven Raichlen, "The English diarist Samuel Pepys waxed grandiloquent about a rabbit hash he savored in 1662", and during World War I, American GIs consumed a steady diet of corned beef hash, which they christened “corned Willie.”

Other countries.

In Denmark, hash is known in Danish as "biksemad" (roughly translated, "tossed together food"), and it is a traditional leftover dish usually served with a fried egg, worcestershire sauce, pickled red beet slices and ketchup or Bearnaise sauce. The meat is usually pork, and the mixture is not mashed together into a paste, but rather the ingredients are coarsely diced and readily discernible in their cooked form.  In Sweden, there is a version of hash called pyttipanna and in Finland, pyttipannu and Norway, pyttipanne. It is similar to the Danish version. The Swedish variety Pytt Bellman calls specifically for beef instead of other meats and adding cream to the hash. It is named after Sweden's 18th century national poet Carl Michael Bellman.  In Austria and perhaps more specifically Tyrol, there exists a similar dish called "Gröstl", usually consisting of chopped leftover meats (often being pork sausage), potato and onions fried with herbs (typically marjoram and parsley) and then served topped with a fried egg.  In Slovenia it is called <nowiki>"haše"</nowiki> and very often used as a spaghetti sauce. It is made out of minced pork and veal meat, potato sauce, onion, garlic, flour and spices.  In Spanish, Portuguese and Latin American cuisines, there is a similar dish called picadillo (Spanish) or "carne moída" (Portuguese). It is made with ground meat (usually beef), tomatoes (tomato sauce may be used as a substitute), vegetables and spices that vary by region (the Portuguese and Brazilian version is generally "carne moída refogada", very heavy on garlic, in the form of an aioli sofrito called refogado, and often also heavy on onion and bell peppers). It is often served with rice (it can be fried in aioli sofrito if those who will eat have a strong fondness for garlic), as well as okra, in the form of "quiabo refogado"—okra fried in an aioli sofrito, just as the hash itself and the collard greens used in feijoada—, in Brazil, there constituting a staple) or used as a filling in dishes such as tacos, tostadas, or as a regular breakfast hash with eggs and tortillas (not in Brazil and Portugal). In Brazil and Portugal, it is used as bolognese sauce for pasta, and also used as a filling for pancake rolls, pastel (Brazilian pastry empanada), "empadão" and others (not with okra as it is far too perishable to be used in a fill for fast food and its consumption together with wheat flour-based foods often does not fit cultural tastes). The name comes from the West Iberian (Spanish, Leonese and Portuguese) infinitive verb "picar", which means "to mince" or "to chop".  In Germany, "Labskaus" is made with beef or corned beef minced with onions and boiled potatoes and fried in lard. Beetroot and herring may be added, or served as a side dish.

Hash is a culinary dish consisting of chopped up meat, potatoes, and onions fried. The name is derived from, meaning "to chop". It originated as a way to use up leftovers. By the 1860s, a cheap restaurant was called a “hash house” or “hashery.”

Als Haschee (aus französisch "hachée" oder "Hachis", von "hacher" „hacken“ entlehnt) werden warme Gerichte aus gekochtem oder gebratenem Hackfleisch oder klein geschnittenem Fleisch oder Fisch in passender Sauce bezeichnet. Ebenso sind Haschees aus rohem oder gekochtem Gemüse üblich. Haschees aus Fleisch werden unter anderem für die Zubereitung von Farcen verwendet.


International Association of Agricultural Students

Aims.

Students that take an active role as leaders in their society, enter professional life with innovative ideas and contribute to a sustainable development in their field of activity.  IAAS’s Vision: “To promote the exchange of experience, knowledge and ideas, and to improve the mutual understanding between students in the field of agriculture and related sciences all over the world.” (Tunis 1957)  IAAS’s Mission:

Activities.

The principal aim of IAAS is to promote the exchange of knowledge, information and ideas among students, and to improve the mutual understanding between countries and cultures. To do this it organizes activities like seminars, working camps, international meetings, exchange weeks, an international exchange program, small-scale development projects.  Every year in July, a member country organizes the Annual Congress, which consists of sessions of the General Assembly and a seminar. During the General Assembly all decisions affecting the association are discussed during working groups, and subsequently voted upon. Furthermore, the participants take the chance of having such an international group to discuss in forums about (agricultural) hot topics together with their fellow students from all over the world. The seminar usually deals with a specific (agricultural) topic and includes excursions, visits, lectures, social activities and a round tour of an area in the organizing country.

Leadership.

The main element of IAAS are the National Committees (NC) and Local Committees (LC), groups and/or associations of students in universities all over the world working for the association. They organise and run activities like Seminars, Working Camps, Village Concept Projects.  The General Assembly (GA) is the supreme governing authority of the association. It gathers once a year during the Annual Congress, and consists of delegates from all the member countries, which are appointed by the National Committees (a). Decisions are taken by voting, with each member country having one vote.  The task of the President is to represent the Association to its external partners and to ensure that the whole EB functions properly.  The VP of Finances takes care of the finances, grant application and bookkeeping.  The VP of Communication keeps in contact with the members and takes care of communication matters within the association.  The VP of Partnership is the one to keep in contact with our sponsors and to search for new partnership opportunities. VP of Finances and VP of External Relations work closely together.  The VP of Exchange is responsible for the coordination of the IAAS Exchange Program. Since 2006 the Exchange Quality Board helps with the task of improving this important activity.

Membership.

There are currently members of IAAS in the following countries: Argentina, Austria, Bangladesh, Belgium, Benin, Bulgaria, Chile, China, Costa Rica, Cote d' Ivoire, Croatia, DRC, Ecuador, Finland, France, Germany, Ghana, Greece, Guatemala, Indonesia, Italy, Indonesia, Japan, Kenya, Liberia, Mali, Mexico, Montenegro, Morocco, Nepal, Netherlands, Niger,Nigeria, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Rwanda, Serbia, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, Togo, Tunisia, Uganda, Ukraine, Uruguay, United States, Zimbabwe.

Partner organizations.

Student organization partners.

In the frame of the Informal Forum of International Student Organisations (IFISO), IAAS cooperates with other students organizations in the field of project development, fundraising, strategic planning etc.

History.

IAAS was established in a decade in which nations all over the world were still recovering from the harsh devastation and suffering resulting from the Second World War. However, young people strongly fostered hope for progress, peace and stability. Students in the field of agriculture decided to come together and create a new international student platform by establishing IAAS more than half a century ago 1957 in Tunis, the same year when the Treaty of Rome has been signed to establish the European Community.  In this decade, students from all disciplines started to acknowledge their role as agents of change in society, and decided to come together to share values. They realised that only by sharing diversity, they could really cooperate to build a better world, a world in peace, harmony and freedom. Thus AIESEC, IAESTE, IFMSA, IVSA and IAAS have been established in less than one decade.

Year of establishment.

1957 was the real beginning of the IAAS, which was then called AIEA (Association Internationale des Etudiants en Agriculture) and had French as the working language.  Independent from the decisions made during the international meeting in Paris, the Students council from the Netherlands (NSR) also planned to organise an international seminar on agriculture from 22 till 29 June 1957. Around December 1956, NSR (Netherlands) and UGET (Tunis) got to know about each other's plans and this caused a conflict. UGET didn’t like the idea of having two international seminars so close to each other. However, several careful and diplomatic dialogues per mail, and a meeting in Leiden (the Netherlands) on 15–16 March 1957, resulted in a cooperation and a tight friendship between Tahar Belkhodja (president of UGET) and R. van den Berg (president of NSR). The NSR decided to cancel its congress in Wageningen in favour of the one in Tunis and to cooperate intensively with UGET. It seems to be just an anecdote, but there are reasons to believe that this cooperation between The Netherlands and Tunisia was crucial for the continuity of IAAS in the first years. When the Dutch cancelled their seminar, they asked all participants to come to the seminar in Tunis instead. This seminar turned out to be the "founding World Congress" of IAAS and Germany, Finland, The Netherlands, Norway, Romania, Switzerland, Czechoslovakia and of course Tunisia were the participating countries. A few other countries attended the congress as observers. Mr. Tahar Belkhodge (Tunisia) was elected as President and Mr. Fehr (France) was elected as Secretary General.  Also, the Dutch students were well prepared to organise a seminar in the Netherlands in 1958, which became the second world congress of IAAS.  New members: Belgium, Denmark, France and Sweden

Chronology of the annual World Congresses.

Special event: The exchange did exist in two parts: The exchange weeks and trainings that were organised by IAESTE. New member country: Israel New member countries: Austria, Great Britain, Nigeria, Portugal New member country: Yugoslavia  Special event: Executive committee of the association formed by the president, vice president and secretary general, working in headquarters in Leuven (Belgium), also Control Committee formed by four members and national representatives elected  New member countries: Italy and Spain  Special event: first issue of the JOINT, an IAAS Magazine edited by the Secretary General and a board; few issues every year New member country: Ireland Special Event: first time a "Responsible Meeting" held at half term in Wageningen  New members: Hungary and Poland New country: India Special event: Development fund created to assist member with fewer opportunities to attend our meetings, originally with support of the FAO New member: Uganda New member: Sudan New members: Kenya and Togo New member countries: Liberia New member country: Zambia New members: Ghana and Tanzania New member country: Egypt Special event: First time to mention the formation of permanent working groups New member: Benin New Member: Thailand Special event: WOCAs created as Working Camps aiming at linking the theoretical aspect of our academic education with more practical experience New member: Indonesia(Candidate Member). Special event: first WOCAs took place in Hungary and Portugal New member: Indonesia (Full member) New members: Guatemala, Armenia, Latvia, Croatia, Sri Lanka New Members: Angola and Sierra Leone (Candidate Members) New Members: Uruguay, Benin, United States, Ukraine, Belarus (Candidate members), Bulgaria, Paraguay, Yugoslavia (Full Members) New Members: Zimbabwe, Senegal (Candidate members), Benin, Liberia, Mexico, Zambia (full members) New members: Belarus, Zimbabwe, Senegal (full members) New members: Russia, Algeria, South Africa, Sri Lanka (Candidate Members)

The International Association of students in Agricultural and related Sciences (IAAS) is an international non-profit and non-governmental student society headquartered in Leuven, Belgium. It was founded in 1957 in Tunis by 8 countries. At the moment it is one of the world's biggest student organizations and one of the leading agricultural student associations. IAAS gathers students studying, majoring or researching in agriculture and related areas like environmental sciences, forestry, food science, landscape architecture etc. Its committees are spread in universities in over 50 countries worldwide.

Die International Association of Students in Agricultural and Related Sciences (IAAS) hat sich seit ihrer Gründung 1957 in Tunesien mit acht Mitgliedsländern zu einer der größten Studentenorganisationen der Welt entwickelt und ist gleichzeitig eine der wichtigsten agrarwissenschaftlichen Studentenvereinigungen. Die IAAS versammelt Studenten und junge Wissenschaftler im Bereich der Agrarwissenschaften und verwandter Bereiche wie Umweltwissenschaften, Forstwirtschaft, Ernährungs- und Lebensmittelwissenschaften, Landschaftsarchitektur usw. Die einzelnen IAAS Komitees sind verteilt auf Universitäten in über 40 Ländern.


Fußballnationalmannschaft der Demokratischen Republik Kongo (Frauen)

History.

Congo DR was scheduled to debut against Namibia on the 1998 African Women's Championship qualifiers, to be held in Nigeria, but it withdrew. They debuted against Egypt on October 17, 1998 in Kaduna, Nigeria, and won 4–1. At the second encounter against the hosts, Nigeria, they lost by 6–0 and in the last match of the Group Stage, they drew with Morocco 0–0 and advanced to the semi-finals by scoring 7 goals and receiving 7. In the semi-finals Ghana beat them by 4–1 after extra time, to play the third place match in which they drew 3–3 to Cameroon, winning the 3rd place by scoring 3–1 on the penalty shootout, but did not qualify to the 1999 FIFA Women's World Cup, to be held in the United States.  The team did not enter the 2000 African Women's Championship. In the 2002 African Women's Championship qualifiers they faced Angola. The first leg was a 1–0 loss and the second was a 1–0 win, but a 5–4 penalty shootout loss, leaving Congo DR out of the tournament and the World Cup, held again in the USA.  They played on the 2003 All-Africa Games in Nigeria, all the encounters in Kaduna, against Algeria (4 October, won 5–2), Mali (7 October, draw 0–0) and South Africa (10 October, lost 4–0). Congo DR also played against Ghana and lost 2–0 (26 October in Kumasi) and 2–1 (9 November in Kinshasa). The team did withdrew of the 2004 African Women's Championship who was scheduled to play against Gabon on the qualifiers.  Congo DR faced Zambia in the 2006 African Women's Championship qualifiers and won 3–0 and 3–2, having a score of 6–2 in aggregate and advancing to the next round. In the Second Round they played against Senegal, winning 3–0 in the First Leg and losing 2–0 in the Second, qualifying for the 2006 African Women's Championship who was held in Nigeria from 28 October to 11 November 2006. Congo DR was in the Group B along with Ghana, Cameroon and Mali. The opening encounter was against Cameroon and ended in a 1–1 draw with goal of Milandu at the 57 minutes. The second rival was Mali and lost 3–2 with goals of Zuma and Matufa at the 28 and 85 minutes respectively. Closing match was versus Ghana and ended in a 3–1 loss with goal of Vumongo at the 51 minutes. Congo DR was again eliminated from the tournament and from the World Cup held in China PR.  After two months, the team faced Cameroon on 22 January 2007 and lost 3–0. After that encounter they faced Namibia on 17 February and 10 March, drawing 3–3 and winning 5–2 respectively. On 3 and 17 June Congo DR played against Ghana in Sunyani and Kinshasa, losing both 3–1 and 1–0. For the 2008 African Women's Championship, held in Equatorial Guinea from 15 November to 29 November 2008. They played the qualifiers against Congo, losing 4–1 and drawing 1–1, leaving an aggregate score of 5–2. After these results, Congo DR did not qualify up for the Tournament.  On 7 March 2010 in Gaborone, after 2 years of no matches played, Congo DR faced Botswana, for the 2010 African Women's Football Championship qualification, winning over them 2–0 with goals of Malembo and Dianteso at the 11 and 17 minutes. At the Second Leg, on 19 March 2010, they won again, this time by 5–2 with two goals of Malembo (20 and 27 minutes), two of Nzuzi (24 and 28 minutes) and Mafutu at the 88 minutes. Second Round was against Cameroon, and they lost both matches by 2–0 and 3–0, leaving them again eliminated from both the 2010 African Women's Championship and the World Cup held in Germany.  Congo DR played two matches against Ethiopia on 15 and 30 January 2011, drawing in the first match 0–0 and losing the second by 3–0. In February of the same year, they withdrew from the All-Africa Games qualifiers, in where the team was scheduled to play against Gabon.  In 14 and 28 February 2012, the team faced Uganda, in the 2012 African Women's Football Championship qualification, in where they draw 1–1 and win 4–0. In May and June 2012, they were scheduled to play against Equatorial Guinea, but matches were cancelled, because Equatorial Guinea was selected hosts of the tournament, Congo DR also qualified, by the virtue of a "walkover". Two matches against their supposed rival, Equatorial Guinea were played on June 24 and 26, 4 months before the Championship, both losing by 3–0 and 2–1. Another match before the Cup was played, it was against Cameroon and was a 0–0 draw. Final Tournament was held between 28 October and 11 November 2012, the team was placed in Group A, along with hosts Equatorial Guinea, South Africa and Senegal. The first match against Senegal was won 1–0 by a penalty of Nona at the 74 minutes. The Second encounter against Equatorial Guinea was lost 6–0. They faced South Africa at the last match of the Group and lose 4–1 with a goal of Tutzolana at the 88 minutes. Again Congo DR were eliminated in the Group Stage.  After a long hiatus from competitive play, Congo DR returned to compete in the CAF qualifiers for the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo. Previous attempts at qualifying for the Olympics in 2004, 2008, and 2012 had been unsuccessful, with the team's deepest run taking them only as far as the second round. Congo DR opened the 2020 qualifying campaign with a 2–2 draw away to Tanzania, then advanced to the second round with a 1–0 win in the second leg of the fixture. Their second round opponent, Equatorial Guinea withdrew, seeing Congo DR through to the third round to face Cameroon. After suffering a 0–2 loss in the first leg at Yaoundé, Congo DR built a 2–0 lead at home only to see a late goal by Ajara Nchout knock them out of the tournament with a 2–3 loss on aggregate.

The DR Congo women's national football team is the national women's football team of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and is overseen by the Congolese Association Football Federation. As of September 2019, they are ranked 118th in the world by FIFA, and 15th among African (CAF) nations.

Die Frauenfußballnationalmannschaft der Demokratischen Republik Kongo repräsentiert die Demokratische Republik Kongo im internationalen Frauenfußball. Die Nationalmannschaft ist dem kongolesischen Fußballverband unterstellt und wird von Poly Bonganya trainiert. Die kongolesische Auswahl nahm bisher zweimal an der Afrikameisterschaft teil und erreichte 1998 mit dem dritten Platz die beste Platzierung. An einer Weltmeisterschaft bzw. den Olympischen Spielen nahm man bisher nicht teil. Zuletzt scheiterte die Mannschaft in der ersten Runde der Qualifikation für die Olympischen Spiele in London mit 0:0 und 0:3 an Äthiopien.


Gameplay.

All three games in the series have gameplay elements in common, such as hang gliders and jet packs. They also have mission modes. "Pilotwings Resort", unlike the previous two games in the series, is set on Wuhu Island and is in Autostereoscopy 3D.

Games.

"Pilotwings".

is a video game for the Super NES. It was developed by Nintendo's Entertainment Analysis and Development (EAD) division, led by producer Shigeru Miyamoto. The game was originally released in Japan on December 21, 1990, shortly after the launch of the Super Famicom. It was released as a launch title for the Super NES console on August 23, 1991 in North America, with a European release following in 1992.  "Pilotwings" is an amateur flight simulator game in which the player attempts to earn pilot licenses through lessons in light plane flight, hang gliding, skydiving, and the use of a rocket belt. Bonus stages and levels involving an attack helicopter are also available. Each event offers unique controls and gameplay mechanics. To increase the realism of the game's flight simulation, the developers extensively utilized the Super NES's Mode 7 capability, which mimics 3D graphics by rotating and scaling flat objects.  The game was well received upon its release, largely thanks to its graphical presentation. The game has since been re-released on the Virtual Console service for both the Wii, Wii U and the New Nintendo 3DS consoles in PAL regions, North America, and Japan. A sequel, "Pilotwings 64", was released for the Nintendo 64 in 1996. After many years of announcements and cancellations, Nintendo unveiled a second sequel, "Pilotwings Resort", for the Nintendo 3DS handheld at the Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3) 2010 which released in 2011.

"Pilotwings 64".

is a video game for the Nintendo 64, originally released in 1996 along with the debut of the console. The game was co-developed by Nintendo EAD (who developed the original game) and the American visual technology group Paradigm Simulation. It was one of three launch titles for the Nintendo 64 in Japan as well as Europe and one of two launch titles in North America. "Pilotwings 64" is a follow-up to "Pilotwings" for the Super NES, which was a North American launch game for its respective console in 1991. Also like that game, "Pilotwings 64" received production input from Nintendo producer and EAD General Manager Shigeru Miyamoto.  "Pilotwings 64" is a 3D amateur flight simulator that puts the player in control of one of six pilots as they try to earn pilot licenses through various forms of aviation. The events are flying an autogyro, using a jet pack, and hang gliding. Several bonus tasks are offered, such as skydiving and a human cannonball test. The game also puts focus on allowing the player to freely explore its detailed 3D environments, most notably a miniature representation of the United States.  The game received positive review scores and praise from gaming publications and news sources alike for its visual presentation and flying controls. Similar to its Super NES predecessor, "Pilotwings 64" serves to demonstrate the graphical capabilities of its gaming hardware. Although the flight simulator did not enjoy the same commercial success as its fellow launch game "Super Mario 64", "Pilotwings 64" nonetheless went on to sell over one million copies worldwide.

"Pilotwings Resort".

is an amateur flight simulation video game for the Nintendo 3DS handheld game console, developed by Monster Games and published by Nintendo. It is a sequel to the 1990 Super NES game "Pilotwings" and the 1996 Nintendo 64 game "Pilotwings 64", and takes inspiration from the 2009 Wii game Wii Sports Resort. Similarly to its predecessors, it was confirmed as a launch title in North America and Europe. In Japan, Australia, and New Zealand it was released on April 14, 2011.  Nintendo re-released the game, along with some of their earlier, published games for the Nintendo 3DS, as a downloadable title via Nintendo eShop. The downloadable version became available on November 1, 2012 in Japan, November 22, 2012 in the PAL region, and December 20, 2012 in North America.

Pilotwings is a series of flight simulation video games beginning with the 1990 video game "Pilotwings" and most recently "Pilotwings Resort" in 2011. One of Nintendo's franchises, the series was released on the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (Super NES), Nintendo 64, and Nintendo 3DS.

Pilotwings ist eine Videospiel-Reihe von Nintendo, in der bisher die Spiele "Pilotwings" für SNES, "Pilotwings 64" für Nintendo 64 und "Pilotwings Resort" für Nintendo 3DS erschienen. Zudem wurde die SNES-Version für die Virtual Console der Wii veröffentlicht.