Identity.

In his preface, the compiler calls himself a knight, and states that he was born and bred in England, in the town of St Albans. Although the book is real, it is widely believed that "Sir John Mandeville" himself was not. Common theories point to a Frenchman by the name of Jehan a la Barbe (or other possibilities discussed below).  Some recent scholars have suggested that "The Travels of Sir John Mandeville" was most likely written by "Jan de Langhe, a Fleming who wrote in Latin under the name Johannes Longus and in French as ". Jan de Langhe was born in Ypres early in the 1300s and by 1334 had become a Benedictine monk at the abbey of Saint-Bertin in Saint-Omer which was about 20 miles from Calais. After studying law at the University of Paris, Langhe returned to the abbey and was elected abbot in 1365. He was a prolific writer and avid collector of travelogues, right up to his death in 1383.

Travel.

John de Mandeville crossed the sea in 1322; had traversed by way of Turkey (Asia Minor and Cilicia), Tartary, Persia, Syria, Arabia, Egypt upper and lower, Libya, the great part of Ethiopia, Chaldea, Amazonia, India the Less, the Greater and the Middle, and many countries about India; had often been to Jerusalem, and had written in Romance languages as more generally understood than Latin.

Contemporary corroboration.

At least part of the personal history of Mandeville is mere invention. No contemporary corroboration of the existence of such a Jehan de Mandeville is known. Some French manuscripts, not contemporary, give a Latin letter of presentation from him to Edward III, but so vague that it might have been penned by any writer on any subject. It is in fact beyond reasonable doubt that the travels were in large part compiled by a Liège physician, known as Johains à le Barbe or Jehan à la Barbe, otherwise Jehan de Bourgogne.  The evidence of this is in a modernized extract quoted by the Liège herald, Louis Abry (1643–1720), from the lost fourth book of the "Myreur des Hystors" of Johans des Preis, styled d'Oultremouse. In this, "Jean de Bourgogne, dit a la Barbe" is said to have revealed himself on his deathbed to d'Oultremouse, whom he made his executor, and to have described himself in his will as "messire Jean de Mandeville, chevalier, comte de Montfort en Angleterre et seigneur de l'isle de Campdi et du château Pérouse (Lord Jean de Mandeville, knight, Count de Montfort in England and lord of the Isle of Campdi and the castle Pérouse)".  It is added that, having had the misfortune to kill an unnamed count in his own country, he engaged himself to travel through the three parts of the world, arrived at Liège in 1343, was a great naturalist, profound philosopher and astrologer, and had a remarkable knowledge of physics. The identification is confirmed by the fact that in the now destroyed church of the Guillemins was a tombstone of Mandeville, with a Latin inscription stating that he was otherwise named "ad Barbam", was a professor of medicine, and died at Liège on 17 November 1372: this inscription is quoted as far back as 1462.  Even before his death, the Liège physician seems to have confessed to a share in the circulation of, and additions to, the work. In the common Latin abridged version of it, at the end of c. vii., the author says that when stopping in the sultan's court at Cairo he met a venerable and expert physician of "our" parts, but that they rarely came into conversation because their duties were of a different kind, but that long afterwards at Liège he composed this treatise at the exhortation and with the help ("Jiortatu et adiutorio") of the same venerable man, as he will narrate at the end of it.  And in the last chapter, he says that in 1355, on returning home, he came to Liège, and being laid up with old age and arthritic gout in the street called Bassesavenyr, i.e. Basse-Sauvenière, consulted the physicians. That one came in who was more venerable than the others by reason of his age and white hairs, was evidently expert in his art, and was commonly called Magister Iohannes ad Barbam. That a chance remark of the latter caused the renewal of their old Cairo acquaintance, and that Ad Barbam, after showing his medical skill on Mandeville, urgently begged him to write his travels; "and so at length, by his advice and help, "monitu et adiutorio", was composed this treatise, of which I had certainly proposed to write nothing until at least I had reached my own parts in England". He goes on to speak of himself as being now lodged in Liège, "which is only two days distant from the sea of England"; and it is stated in the colophon (and in the manuscripts) that the book was first published in French by Mandeville, its author, in 1355, at Liège, and soon after in the same city translated into "said" Latin form. Moreover, a manuscript of the French text extant at Liège about 1860 contained a similar statement, and added that the author lodged at a hostel called "al hoste Henkin Levo": this manuscript gave the physician's name as "Johains de Bourgogne dit ale barbe", which doubtless conveys its local form.

Contemporary mention.

There is no contemporary English mention of any English knight named Jehan de Mandeville, nor are the arms said to have been on the Liège tomb like any known Mandeville arms. However George F. Warner has suggested that de Bourgogne may be a certain Johan de Bourgoyne, who was pardoned by parliament on 20 August 1321 for having taken part in the attack on the Despensers (Hugh the younger and Hugh the elder), but whose pardon was revoked in May 1322, the year in which "Mandeville" professes to have left England. Among the persons similarly pardoned on the recommendation of the same nobleman was a Johan Mangevilayn, whose name appears related to that of "de Mandeville", which is a later form of "de Magneville".  The name Mangevilain occurs in Yorkshire as early as the 16th year of the reign of Henry I (England), but is very rare, and (failing evidence of any place named Mangeville) seems to be merely a variant spelling of Magnevillain. The meaning may be simply "of Magneville", de Magneville; but the family of a 14th-century bishop of Nevers were called both "Mandevilain" and "de Mandevilain", where Mandevilain seems a derivative place-name, meaning the Magneville or Mandeville district. The name "de Mandeville "might be suggested to de Bourgogne by that of his fellow-culprit Mangevilayn, and it is even possible that the two fled to England together, were in Egypt together, met again at Liège, and shared in the compilation of the "Travels".  Whether after the appearance of the "Travels" either de Bourgogne or "Mangevilayn" visited England is very doubtful. St Albans Abbey had a sapphire ring, and Canterbury a crystal orb, said to have been given by Mandeville; but these might have been sent from Liège, and it will appear later that the Liège physician possessed and wrote about precious stones. St Albans also had a legend, recorded in John Norden's "Speculum Britanniae" (1596) that a ruined marble tomb of Mandeville (represented cross-legged and in armour, with sword and shield) once stood in the abbey; this may be true of "Mangevilayn" or it may be apocryphal. There is also an inscription near the entrance of St Albans Abbey, which reads as follows:

Analyzing the work.

The book may contain facts and knowledge acquired by actual travels and residents in the East, at least in the sections focused on the Holy Land, Egypt, the Levant, and the means of getting there. The prologue points almost exclusively to the Holy Land as the subject of the work. The mention of more distant regions comes in only towards the end of this prologue, and (in a manner) as an afterthought. However, this is commensurate with Mandeville's emphasis on 'curiositas'—wandering—rather than Christian'scientia' (knowledge).

Odoric of Pordenone.

The greater part of these more distant travels, extending from Trebizond to Hormuz, India, the Malay Archipelago, and China, and back to western Asia, has been appropriated from the narrative of Friar Odoric (1330). These passages are almost always swollen with interpolated particulars, usually of an extravagant kind. However, in a number of cases the writer has failed to understand those passages which he adopts from Odoric and professes to give as his own experiences. Thus, where Odoric has given a most curious and veracious account of the Chinese custom of employing tame cormorants to catch fish, the cormorants are converted by Mandeville into "little beasts called loyres which are taught to go into the water" (the word "loyre" being apparently used here for "otter", "lutra", for which the Provençal is "luria" or "loiria").  At a very early date the coincidence of Mandeville's stories with those of Odoric was recognized, insomuch that a manuscript of Odoric which is or was in the chapter library at Mainz begins with the words: ""Incipit Itinerarius fidelis fratris Odorici socii Militis Mendavil per Indian; licet hic ille prius et alter posterius peregrinationem suam descripsit"". At a later day Sir Thomas Herbert calls Odoric "travelling companion of our Sir John" Mandeville anticipates criticism, in at least one passage, by suggesting the probability of his having travelled with Odoric.

Hetoum.

Much of Mandeville's matter, particularly in Asiatic geography and history, is taken from the "La Flor des Estoires d'Orient" of Hetoum, an Armenian of princely family, who became a monk of the Praemonstrant or Premonstratensian order, and in 1307 dictated this work on the East, in the French tongue at Poitiers, out of his own extraordinary acquaintance with Asia and its history in his own time. A story of the fortress at Corycus, or the Castle Sparrowhawk, appears in Mandeville's Book.

Marco Polo.

No passage in Mandeville can be plausibly traced to Marco Polo, with one exception. This is where he states that at Hormuz the people during the great heat lie in water – a circumstance mentioned by Polo, though not by Odoric. It is most likely that this fact had been interpolated in the copy of Odoric used by Mandeville, for if he had borrowed it directly from Polo he could have borrowed more.

Giovanni da Pian del Carpine and Vincent de Beauvais.

A good deal about the manners and customs of the Tatars is demonstrably derived from the work of the Franciscan Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, who went as the pope's ambassador to the Tatars in 1245–1247; but Dr. Warner considers that the immediate source for Mandeville was the "Speculum historiale" of Vincent de Beauvais. Though the passages in question are all to be found in Carpine more or less exactly, the expression is condensed and the order changed. For examples compare Mandeville, p. 250, on the tasks done by Tatar women, with Carpine, p. 643; Mandeville. p. 250, on Tatar habits of eating, with Carpine, pp. 639–640; Mandeville, p. 231, on the titles borne on the seals of the Great Khan, with Carpine, p. 715, etc.  The account of Prester John is taken from the famous "Epistle" of that imaginary potentate, which was widely diffused in the 13th century. Many fabulous stories, again, of monsters, such as Cyclopes, sciapodes, hippopodes, anthropophagi, monoscelides, and men whose heads did grow beneath their shoulders; of the phoenix and the weeping crocodile, such as Pliny has collected, are introduced here and there, derived no doubt from him, Solinus, the bestiaries, or the "Speculum naturale" of Vincent de Beauvais. And interspersed, especially in the chapters about the Levant, are the stories and legends that were retailed to every pilgrim, such as the legend of Seth and the grains of paradise from which grew the wood of the cross, that of the shooting of old Cain by Lamech, that of the castle of the sparrow-hawk (which appears in the tale of Melusine), those of the origin of the balsam plants at Masariya, of the dragon of Cos, of the river Sambation, etc.

Representation of some genuine experience.

Even in that part of the book which might be supposed to represent some genuine experience, there are the plainest traces that another work has been made use of, more or less—we might almost say as a framework to fill up. This is the itinerary of the German knight Wilhelm von Boldensele, written in 1336 at the desire of Cardinal Hélie de Talleyrand-Périgord. A cursory comparison of this with Mandeville leaves no doubt that the latter has followed its thread, though digressing on every side, and too often eliminating the singular good sense of the German traveler. We may indicate as examples Boidensele's account of Cyprus, of Tyre and the coast of Palestine, of the journey from Gaza to Egypt, passages about Babylon of Egypt, about Mecca, the general account of Egypt, the pyramids, some of the wonders of Cairo, such as the slave-market, the chicken-hatching stoves, and the apples of paradise, i.e. plantains, the Red Sea, the convent on Sinai, the account of the church of the Holy Sepulchre, etc.  As an example, when discussing the pyramids, Boldensele wrote that "the people of the country call them Pharaoh's Granaries. But this cannot be true at all, for no place for putting in the wheat can be found there". Mandeville then completely reverses it in favor of the received medieval opinion: "Some say that they are tombs of the great lords of antiquity, but that is not true, for the common word through the whole country near and far is that they are Joseph's Granaries... [for] if they were tombs, they would not be empty inside".  There is, indeed, only a small residuum of the book to which genuine character, as containing the experiences of the author, can possibly be attributed. Yet, as has been intimated, the borrowed stories are frequently claimed as such experiences. In addition to those already mentioned, he alleges that he had witnessed the curious exhibition of the garden of transmigrated souls (described by Odoric) at Cansay, i.e. Hangchow. He and his fellows with their valets had remained fifteen months in service with the emperor of Cathay in his wars against the king of Manzi – Manzi, or Southern China, having ceased to be a separate kingdom some seventy years before the time referred to. But the most notable of these false statements occurs in his adoption from Odoric of the story of the "Valley Perilous". This is, in its original form, apparently founded on real experiences of Odoric viewed through a haze of excitement and superstition. Mandeville, whilst swelling the wonders of the tale with a variety of extravagant touches, appears to safeguard himself from the reader's possible discovery that it was stolen by the interpolation: "And some of our fellows accorded to enter, and some not. So there were with us two worthy men, Friars Minor, that were of Lombardy, who said that if any man would enter they would go in with us. And when they had said so, upon the gracious trust of God and of them, we caused mass to be sung, and made every man to be shriven and houselled; and then we entered fourteen persons; but at our going out we were but nine", etc.  In referring to this passage, it is only fair to recognize that the description (though the suggestion of the greatest part exists in Odoric) displays a good deal of imaginative power; and there is much in the account of Christian's passage through the Valley of the Shadow of Death, in John Bunyan's famous allegory, which indicates a possibility that Bunyan may have read and remembered this episode either in Mandeville or in Hakluyt's "Odoric".  Nor does it follow that the whole work is borrowed or fictitious. Even the great Moorish traveller Ibn Battuta, accurate and veracious in the main, seems—in one part at least of his narrative—to invent experiences; and, in such works as those of Jan van Hees and Arnold von Harff, we have examples of pilgrims to the Holy Land whose narratives begin apparently in sober truth, and gradually pass into flourishes of fiction and extravagance. So in Mandeville also we find particulars not yet traced to other writers, and which may therefore be provisionally assigned either to the writer's own experience or to knowledge acquired by colloquial intercourse in the East.  Whether Mandeville actually traveled or not, he would not necessarily be intentionally making the story up. All travel narratives from this time used the same sources, taken from each other or from the earlier traditions of the Greeks. This tradition was an integral part of such narratives to make them believable (or at least acceptable) to the readers. Columbus was to make use of some of the same monsters in "India" that Mandeville did with the intention of winning the support of the king.

On Egypt.

It is difficult to decide on the character of his statements as to recent Egyptian history. In his account of that country, though the series of the Comanian (of the Bahri dynasty) sultans is borrowed from Hetoum down to the accession of Mel echnasser (Al-Nasir Muhammad), who came first to the throne in 1293, Mandeville appears to speak from his own knowledge when he adds that this "Melechnasser reigned long and governed wisely". In fact, though twice displaced in the early part of his life, Al-Nasir Muhammad reigned till 1341, a duration unparalleled in Muslim Egypt, whilst we are told that during the last thirty years of his reign, Egypt rose to a high pitch of wealth and prosperity.  Mandeville, however, then goes on to say that his eldest son, Melechemader, was chosen to succeed; but this prince was caused privily to be slain by his brother, who took the kingdom under the name of Meleclimadabron. "And he was Soldan when I departed from those countries". Now Al-Nasir Muhammad was followed in succession by no less than eight of his sons in thirteen years, the first three of whom reigned in aggregate only a few months. The names mentioned by Mandeville appear to represent those of the fourth and sixth of the eight, viz. al-Salih Ismail, and al-Muzzafar Hajji]; and these the statements of Mandeville do not fit.

Words.

On several occasions, Arabic words are given, but are not always recognizable, owing perhaps to the carelessness of copyists in such matters. Thus, we find the names (not satisfactorily identified) of the wood, fruit and sap of the Himalayan Balsam; of bitumen, "alkatran" ("al-Kāṭrān"); of the three different kinds of pepper (long pepper, black pepper and white pepper) as "sorbotin, fulful" and "bano" or "bauo" ("fulful" is the common Arabic word for pepper; the others have not been satisfactorily explained). But these, and the particulars of his narrative for which no literary sources have yet been found, are too few to constitute a proof of personal experience.

Geographic.

Mandeville, again, in some passages shows a correct idea of the form of the earth, and of position in latitude ascertained by observation of the pole star; he knows that there are antipodes, and that if ships were sent on voyages of discovery they might sail round the world. And he tells a curious story, which he had heard in his youth, how a worthy man did travel ever eastward until he came to his own country again. But he repeatedly asserts the old belief that Jerusalem was in the centre of the world, and maintains in proof of this that at the equinox a spear planted erect in Jerusalem casts no shadow at noon, which, if true, would equally consist with the sphericity of the earth, provided that the city were on the equator.

Manuscripts.

The sources of the book, which include various authors besides those included in this article specified, have been laboriously investigated by Albert Bovenschen and George F. Warner. The oldest known manuscript of the original—once Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Barrois's, afterwards Bertram Ashburnham, 4th Earl of Ashburnham's, now "Nouv. Acq. Franc. 1515" in the Bibliothèque nationale de France—is dated 1371, but is nevertheless very inaccurate in proper names. An early printed Latin translation made from the French has been already quoted, but four others, unprinted, have been discovered by Dr Johann Vogels. They exist in eight manuscripts, of which seven are in Great Britain, while the eighth was copied by a monk of Abingdon; probably, therefore, all these unprinted translations were executed in Great Britain.  From one of them, according to Dr Vogels, an English version was made which has never been printed and is now extant only in free abbreviations, contained in two 15th-century manuscripts in the Bodleian Library—manuscript "e Museo 116", and manuscript "Rawlinson D.99": the former, which is the better, is in East Midlands English, and may possibly have belonged to the Augustinian priory of St Osyth in Essex, while the latter is in Southern Middle English.  The first English translation direct from the French was made (at least as early as the beginning of the 15th century) from a manuscript of which many pages were lost. Writing of the name 'Califfes', the author says that it is "taut a dire come rol (s). II y soleit auoir V. soudans" "as much as to say king. There used to be 5 sultans". In the defective French manuscript a page ended with "Il y so"; then came a gap, and the next page went on with part of the description of Mount Sinai, "Et est celle vallee mult froide". Consequently, the corresponding English version has "That ys to say amonge hem "Roys Ils" and this vale ys ful colde"! All English printed texts before 1725, and Ashton's 1887 edition, follow these defective copies, and in only two known manuscripts has the lacuna been detected and filled up.  One of them is the British Museum manuscript "Egerton 1982" (Northern dialect, about 1410–1420?), in which, according to Vogels, the corresponding portion has been borrowed from that English version which had already been made from the Latin. The other is in the British Museum manuscript "Cotton Titus xvi." (Midland dialect, about 1410–1420?), representing a text completed, and revised throughout, from the French, though not by a competent hand. The "Egerton text", edited by George Warner, has been printed by the Roxburghe Club, while the Cotton text, first printed in 1725–27, is in modern reprints the current English version.  That none of the forms of the English version can be from the same hand which wrote the original is made patent by their glaring errors of translation, but the Cotton text asserts in the preface that it was made by Mandeville himself, and this assertion was till lately taken on trust by almost all modern historians of English literature. The words of the original "je eusse cest livret mis en latin... mais... je l'ay mis en rōmant" were mistranslated as if "je eusse" meant "I had" instead of "I should have", and then (whether of fraudulent intent or by the error of a copyist thinking to supply an accidental omission) the words were added "and translated it aȝen out of Frensche into Englyssche." Mätzner seems to have been the first to show that the current English text cannot possibly have been made by Mandeville himself. Of the original French there is no satisfactory edition, but Vogels has undertaken a critical text, and Warner has added to his Egerton English text the French of a British Museum MS. with variants from three others.  An illuminated Middle English copy c. 1440, possibly from Bersted, Kent, fetched £289,250 at a London auction in June 2011.  Mandeville's work was translated into Early Modern Irish around 1475.

Further information.

It remains to mention certain other works bearing the name of Mandeville or de Bourgogne.  MS. Add. C. 280 in the Bodleian appends to the "Travels" a short French life of St Alban of Germany, the author of which calls himself Johan Mandivill[e], knight, formerly of the town of St Alban, and says he writes to correct an impression prevalent among his countrymen that there was no other saint of the name: this life is followed by part of a French herbal.  To Mandeville (by whom de Bourgogne is clearly meant) Jean d'Outremeuse ascribes a Latin "lappidaire selon l'oppinion des Indois", from which he quotes twelve passages, stating that the author (whom he calls knight, lord of Montfort, of Castelperouse, and of the isle of Campdi) had been "baillez en Alexandrie" seven years, and had been presented by a Saracen friend with some fine jewels which had passed into d'Outremeuse's own possession: of this Lapidaire, a French version, which seems to have been completed after 1479, has been several times printed. A manuscript of Mandeville's travels offered for sale in 1862 is said to have been divided into five books: while the cataloguer supposed Mandeville to have been the author of a concluding piece entitled "La Venianche de nostre Signeur Jhesu-Crist fayle par Vespasian fit del empereur de Romme et commeet lozeph daramathye fu deliures de la prizon". From the treatise on herbs a passage is quoted asserting it to have been composed in 1357 in honour of the author's natural lord, Edward III, king of England. This date is corroborated by the title of king of Scotland given to Edward, who had received from Baliol the surrender of the crown and kingly dignity on 20 January 1356, but on 3 October 1357 released King David and made peace with Scotland: unfortunately it is not recorded whether the treatise contains the author's name, and, if so, what name.  Tanner ("Bibliotheca") alleges that Mandeville wrote several books on medicine, and among the "Ashmolean manuscripts" in the Bodleian Library are a medical receipt by John de Magna Villa (No. 2479), an aichemical receipt by him (No. 1407), and another alchemical receipt by johannes de Villa Magna (No. 1441).  Finally, de Bourgogne wrote under his own name a treatise on the plague, extant in Latin, French and English texts, and in Latin and English abridgments. Herein he describes himself as Johannes de Burgundia, otherwise called cum Barba, citizen of Liège and professor of the art of medicine; says that he had practised forty years and had been in Liège in the plague of 1365; and adds that he had previously written a treatise on the cause of the plague, according to the indications of astrology (beginning "Deus deorum"), and another on distinguishing pestilential diseases (beginning "Cum nimium propter instans tempus epidimiate"). "Burgundia" is sometimes corrupted into "Burdegalia", and in English translations of the abridgment almost always appears as "Burdews" (Bordeaux, France) or the like manuscript "Rawlinson D. 251" (15th century) in the Bodleian Library also contains a large number of English medical receipts, headed "Practica phisicalia Magistri Johannis de Burgundia".

References.

Attribution

Sir John Mandeville is the supposed author of "The Travels of Sir John Mandeville", a travel memoir which first circulated between 1357 and 1371. The earliest surviving text is in French.

Jean de Mandeville (auch "Jehan de Mandeville", "Johannes von Mandeville" oder "John (of) Mandeville", in englischen Übersetzungen auch "John Maundevylle") nennt sich der unbekannte Verfasser einer zwischen 1357 und 1371 aus verschiedenen Quellen zusammengestellten französischsprachigen Schilderung einer Reise ins „Heilige Land“, den Fernen Osten und das Königreich des Priesterkönigs Johannes.


Early life.

Varga was born in Győr, Hungary, in the same region that witnessed the birth of Joseph Joachim, Leopold Auer, Carl Flesch as well as of the famous conductor Hans Richter. Young Varga took his first lessons at the age of two and a half with his father Lajos Varga, who was also a violinist. Due to an injury during the War, Lajos Varga had to abandon his projects to be a concert artist and became a violin maker.

Studies.

Coming to the attention of Jenő Hubay, Varga was enrolled at the Budapest Franz Liszt Academy when only ten years old. There he studied with Franz Gabriel, with members of the Waldbauer Quartet, with Zoltán Kodály and notably with Leó Weiner. After Hubay's death (1937), Varga was chosen to be the soloist in the memorial concert, playing the 3rd Violin Concerto op. 99 by Hubay under the direction of Ernő Dohnányi, who in 1934 had become Hubay's successor as the Rector of the Liszt Academy. On completion of his musical studies at the Liszt Music Academy, Varga devoted himself throughout the war years to studying philosophy at the Budapest University.

Career.

Varga was six years old when he made his first public appearance. At ten, he took on his first solo role with an orchestra, performing the Mendelssohn Violin Concerto op. 64. At the age of 13, he made his first recordings. At 14, he took on his first concert tours abroad, until his career had abruptly been interrupted by World War II. After the War he continued his concert activities, becoming one of the most prominent soloists. Varga collaborated with eminent conductors such as Ernest Ansermet, Leonard Bernstein, Pierre Boulez, Ferenc Fricsay, Wilhelm Furtwängler, Igor Markevitch, Hans Rosbaud, Georg Solti and others. He performed with the greatest orchestras such as the Philharmonia Orchestra London and the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra and recorded for labels such as Deutsche Grammophon and EMI. A recording of the Bartok Violin Concerto no. 2 with the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra under Ferenc Fricsay as well as his versions of the Violin Concertos by Max Bruch, Mozart, Carl Nielsen, Paganini, Tchaikovsky etc. have become major references of musical interpretation.  Varga's classical repertory included the great Violin Concertos as well as the important Violin Sonatas and Concert Pieces. In addition, from the beginning of his career, Tibor Varga devoted himself to contemporary music, of which he became a pioneer. In particular, his interpretations (premières) and recordings of the Violin Concertos and other compositions by Béla Bartók, Alban Berg and Arnold Schönberg have raised these works to the status of "classics" of the repertoire and given them a prime position in international musical life. Among others, Varga played the Australian Première of Alban Berg's Violin Concerto and in 1949, the Violin Concerto by Arnold Schönberg. The composer himself paid tribute to his enthusiasm by a letter which has become famous: "I wished to be younger to write more music of this kind for you." (Schönberg, "Letters"). The Schönberg Violin Concerto, like the Violin Concertos by Berg, Shostakovich and other works, were also interpreted by Tibor Varga at the BBC Promenade Concerts in the London Royal Albert Hall. Furthermore, he gave the Austrian Première of the Violin Concerto by Strawinsky as well as the World Premières of numerous compositions partly also dedicated to him, such as the Violin Concertos by Boris Blacher, Ernst Krenek, Gösta Nyström, Almeida Prado, Matyas Seiber and Winfried Zillig.  From the beginning of the 1950s, Varga enjoyed equal success as a conductor. His conducting career led to the establishment, in 1954, of a chamber orchestra bearing his name ("Kammerorchester Tibor Varga") at Detmold, Germany, as well as to that of the "Tibor Varga Festival Orchestra" (1964-2001) at Sion. He was chief conductor and artistic director of these ensembles as well as - from 1989 to 1993 - of the "Orchestre des Pays de Savoie" (France). In addition, Tibor Varga had regularly been invited as a guest conductor to orchestras of international renown.

Pedagogic activities.

After World War II, Varga in his home town Győr was co-founder and first professor of a Music Academy associated to the Budapest Franz Liszt Academy. In 1947, he established himself in London. In 1949, he became professor at the newly founded Detmold High School of Music (Hochschule für Musik Detmold). Charged to establish the String Department, for which he was asked to become the Head, Varga, with cellist André Navarra and violists Bruno Giuranna and Nobuko Imai, created a string school of world renown. Since the 1950s, Varga has equally been jury member or president in the leading international Violin and Chamber Music Competitions. Regularly he also directed master classes at Darmstadt (Internationale Ferienkurse für Neue Musik), London, Paris, Salzburg (Mozarteum), Siena (Accademia Chigiana) and other musical centres in Europe and the USA, giving furthermore public lectures on musical themes.  In 1956, Tibor Varga settled in Switzerland, though maintaining his position in Detmold. In 1963, at Sion, the capital of the Canton of Valais in Switzerland, he created an International Academy of Music ("Académie de Musique Tibor Varga"), specializing in interpretation (or "master") classes for accomplished young players conducted by leading soloists during the summer. In a typical year, the International Academy draws around 400 students to attend about 25 master classes. In 1964, he founded the "Festival Tibor Varga" (1964-2001), which during nearly four decades was one of the leading international music festivals with concerts broadcast all over the world. In addition, in 1967, he added the annual "International Tibor Varga Violin Competition", one of the most prestigious competitions of its genre, including prize-winners like Jean-Jacques Kantorow, Nam Yun Kim, Mirijam Contzen and Vadim Repin.  In 1988, the High School of Music ("Ecole Supérieure de Musique") exclusively dedicated to the training of professional string players was born at Sion, with the founder Varga responsible as both artistic and teaching director. Within one year of the founding of the school, a leading music educator proclaimed the Varga school as "one of the three best professional violin academies in Europe", with highly gifted students of all continents. In 2002, the "École Supérieure de Musique" became the "Conservatoire Supérieur et Académie de Musique Tibor Varga". Today, it is part of the Lausanne High School of Music (HEMU Lausanne-Fribourg-Sion). In addition, Varga was an artistic and pedagogic adviser in the services of the ministries of culture in France and Portugal. Since October 2002, he held a chair for violin at the University of Music and Performing Arts, Graz (Universität für Musik und Darstellende Kunst, Graz, Austria).  Graduates of Varga's school are soloists, concertmasters, professors and members of leading orchestras all over the world, including the Berlin Philharmonic, Orchestra del Teatro alla Scala, Symphonieorchester des Bayerischen Rundfunks, Staatskapelle Dresden, Deutsches Symphonie-Orchester Berlin, New Japan Philharmonic and others. Madeleine Carruzzo, Varga's student for many years, was the first female member to be admitted to the Berlin Philharmonic.

Distinctions.

Varga was an honorary citizen of different towns in France and in Switzerland. France, Germany, Hungary and Switzerland have awarded him high honours, among others the National Prize for Culture (Switzerland), the Cross of Merit (Germany), the Cross of Merit (Hungary), the medals of the Arts et Lettres and of the Légion d'Honneur (Legion of Honour, France). The Budapest University respectively the Budapest Franz Liszt Academy appointed him honorary professor, a rare distinction awarded, for example, to Edward Elgar, Emil Gilels, Richard Strauss and Arturo Toscanini. Varga's "Etude-Caprice" for 4 violins composed on the occasion of the European Rector's Conference in Graz, Cultural Capital of Europe, in 2003 has been designated after his death to be the official hymn of the European University Association.

Death.

Varga died at his home in Grimisuat, near Sion, Switzerland, on 4 September 2003. With his first wife Judith, he had a son, Gilbert Varga, a noted conductor. His daughter Susan Rybicki-Varga is a cellist and teacher. His second wife Dr. Angelika Varga-Behrer is a musicologist and musician.

Tibor Varga (4 July 1921 – 4 September 2003) was a violinist, conductor, and world renowned music teacher who developed pedagogic methods for teaching string music. He was a founding member of the string department in the Detmold music conservatory.

Tibor Varga (* 4. Juli 1921 in Győr, Ungarn; † 4. September 2003 in Grimisuat, Schweiz) war ein aus Ungarn stammender Violinist, Violinpädagoge und Dirigent.


History.

DiC Enterprises.

Diffusion, Information Communications (DiC) was formed in France in 1971 by Jean Chalopin as the production division of Radio Television Luxembourg, a long existing media company. in 1981, DIC established a partnership with the japanese animation studio Tokyo Movie Shinsha, as one of the overseas animation subcontractors, where they would help animate many of their programs, starting with Ulysses 31, they would also produce the unaired pilot; Lupin VIII, this partnership would last until 1985.  DiC's American arm was founded in April 1982 in Burbank, California by Andy Heyward, a former story writer at Hanna-Barbera, to translate DiC productions into English. The company produced television animation for both network broadcast and syndication, outsourced its non-creative work overseas, enforced anti-union policies and hired staff on a per-program basis to cut costs. For some in the industry, DiC stood for "Do It Cheap". With directors Bruno Bianchi and Bernard Deyriès, Chalopin and Heyward were able to make DiC an effective but restrained animation company.  Soon after joining DiC, Heyward developed "Inspector Gadget", which became a successful production out of the American office. DiC partnered with toy makers and greeting card companies for character based product lines that could be made into animated series. Thus DiC productions came with built in advertisers and some time financiers. Between "Inspector Gadget" and "The Littles" (the latter produced for ABC), the company became profitable.  As the only non-union animation firm, in 1984 DiC faced a unionization effort which failed. In 1985, DiC opened its own Japan-based animation facility for animation production on their shows in order to bypass overseas animation subcontractors, thus ending their relationship with TMS. In April 1986, DiC launched a syndicated block called Kideo TV with LBS Communications and Mattel.  From late 1986 to 1987, Heyward, along with investors Bear Stearns & Co. and Prudential Insurance Co, bought Chalopin and Radio Television Luxembourg's 52% stake in DiC in a $70 million leveraged buyout and made the US headquarters the company's main base of operations. After the buyout, Chalopin, Bianchi, Deyriès and producer Tetsuo Katayama left the company to be replaced by Robby London and Michael Maliani as key employees. After selling his shares in DiC, Chalopin retained DIC's original offices in France and formed the company C&D (Creativity & Development) in 1987 to continue producing animated shows.  After the buyout, DiC was heavily in debt and the foreign rights to the DiC library were sold in 1987 to Saban Productions, who then sold the rights to Chalopin's C&D. At the time, Heyward considered Chalopin an enemy because of the purchase and the situation permanently poisoned DiC and Saban's relationship. DIC sued Saban for damages; in 1991, both companies reached a settlement.  By 1987, DiC Enterprises' parent company was known as DiC Animation City, Inc. DiC also entered the toy industry with the development of the "Old MacDonald" talking toyline. In December, DiC arranged a deal to merge with Computer Memories Inc., a former computer component manufacturer and then public shell company. A dissident Computer Memories shareholder scuttled the deal in February 1988.  With the buyout debt still a burden, the animation market beginning to soften with the rise of video tape viewing and a glut of new shows & new kids cable channels, Japanese contract animation companies rates increased 40% from 1986 to 1988 due to the yen exchange rate. In 1987, DiC moved production of "Dennis the Menace" to a Canadian animation firm for grants and tax breaks from the Canadian government. The company started moving some work to Korea and Taiwan. By the 1987–1988 season, DiC had shows on all three major networks Saturday mornings: six half-hours of shows and 50 half-hours per week in syndication.  Prudential Insurance Co. purchased additional equity of DiC Animation City in August 1989 while increasing DiC's debt capacity. For the 1989–1990 season, DiC provided 30% of the networks' Saturday morning schedule with a total 60 hours per week on networks, local stations and cable channels. Four new programs debuted that season on cable and syndication.  On September 11, 1989, DiC launched the 26-hours-a-week Funtown programming block on CBN Family Channel. DIC was also to produce four specials, with the first launching on Funtown with the others, mostly holiday specials, for the fourth quarter of 1989. A special based on "The New Archies" was slated for the first quarter of 1990.  Throughout the Early 1990s, DIC entered into partnerships with the Italian studio Reteitalia, S.p.A. and the Spanish network Telecinco, both owned by the Fininvest group, and co-produced shows with them both.  In 1993, DIC started up an educational unit as well as a multimedia/game unit called DIC Interactive, with this, the company moved their headquarters to a larger building in the Berbank area.

ABC/Disney subsidiary.

In 1993, DIC Animation City and Capital Cities/ABC formed a joint venture called DiC Entertainment L.P. with Heyward retaining a small ownership stake. DIC Animation City was supposed to remain independent, but was folded into the Limited Partnership a year later.  In 1994, DIC launched a live-action television unit. In the same year, DIC and Capital Cities/ABC launched two children's blocks, Dragon Club and Panda Club, in China.  In October 1995, DIC Productions L.P. announced they would be opening an animation office in France in partnership with Hampster Productions (which at the time, was 33% minority owned by DIC's majority owner Capital Cities/ABC). In March 1997, the studio was opened up and was named Les Studios Tex, which DIC was a shareholder in.  In January 1996, DIC became part of The Walt Disney Company conglomerate following Disney's acquisition of Capital Cities/ABC. In the same year, the company launched a feature-film unit and signed a first-look deal with Walt Disney Pictures, which was later extended in 1998.  DiC launched a direct to video division in April 1998 with Riley Katherine Ellis, a Caravan Pictures producer, hired as division head. The first release planned was "" in spring 1999, with all the division's DVDs to be released by Buena Vista Home Entertainment. In May 1998, DiC signed a deal to provide a children's programming block, Freddy's Firehouse, for the Pax Net television network.

Independent.

In 2000, with an investment by Bain Capital and Chase Capital Partners, Heyward purchased back Disney's majority stake in DIC Entertainment L.P.  In February 2001, DIC announced their return to the home video market, forming a new division titled DIC Home Entertainment and begin releasing products starting in May 2001. However, this was delayed due to DIC's problems in finding a distributor partner which would happen in July 2001, when DIC signed a deal with Lions Gate Home Entertainment for North American distribution of DIC Home Entertainment products. In June 2001, DIC announced they would purchase Golden Books Family Entertainment for $170 Million. However, DIC eventually backed up of the deal due to the high costs of the purchase and the company was instead co-purchased by Random House for the book rights and Classic Media for the entertainment rights.  In July 2002, DIC purchased the Mommy & Me pre-school label.  In January 2003, DIC announced three syndicated children's programming E/I blocks called DIC Kids Network. In April, DIC sued Speed Racer Enterprises, alleging that SRE had sub-licensed the worldwide exploitation rights for Speed Racer to DIC the previous year and then end the agreement without DIC knowing. Later in July, DiC Entertainment signed a television production deal with POW! Entertainment for "Stan Lee's Secret Super Six", a series about teens with alien superpowers who are taught about humanity by Lee.  In 2004, Heyward purchased Bain Capital's interest in DIC and took DIC public the following year under the United Kingdom Alternative Investment Market under the symbol "DEKEq.L".  In 2005, Mexico City-based Ánima Estudios considered forming a partnership with DIC, but decided against in order to focus on its own projects.  In March 2006, DIC re-acquired the international rights to 20 of their shows from The Walt Disney Company and Jetix Europe, who had owned them since Disney bought the previous owners Saban Entertainment in 2001. In June 2006, the company acquired the Copyright Promotions Licensing Group.  In June 2006, Jeffrey Edell joined DIC as President and COO.  DIC Entertainment, KOL (AOL's kids online) and CBS Corporation agreed to a new three hour long programming block for Saturday mornings on CBS called KOL Secret Slumber Party, which was launched on September 15, 2006. On September 15, 2007, a new programming block KEWLopolis premiered, a joint venture between DiC, CBS, and American Greetings.  In April 2007, DIC Entertainment, Nelvana and NBC Universal Global Networks announced plans to launch KidsCo, a new international children's entertainment network.  In October 2007, DIC sued the Dam Company, claiming they alleged claims of fraud in the inducement and negligent misrepresentation in connection with Dam's Troll doll, and DIC's "Trollz", which was created after DIC licensed the brand from Dam. Dam counter-sued DIC, claiming that the company financially misrepresented its ability to create and market a modern troll doll toy campaign and destroyed the image and goodwill of the doll.

Cookie Jar Group/DHX Media.

On June 20, 2008, DiC Entertainment and Cookie Jar Group announced an agreement to merge. President Jeffrey Edell was instrumental in closing the deal and led the merger with Cookie Jar. The merger was completed on July 23, 2008 and the company became a subsidiary of Cookie Jar Entertainment. Shortly after the purchase, Cookie Jar would fold DIC into their own operations. Cookie Jar was in turn acquired by DHX Media on October 22, 2012.

Programming blocks.

Freddy's Firehouse.

Freddy's Firehouse (FFH) was a children's educational programming block produced by DIC Entertainment and distributed by Buena Vista International, both Disney affiliates in May 1998. At the block's start, most of the programming would be from DiC's library and was planned to air on Pax Net for two years with it running on weekends with three hours on Saturday and two hours on Sunday. Buena Vista would be free to sell to other outlets international. However, Pax went with its own Cloud 9 block.

Funtown.

Funtown was a programming block on CBN Family Channel. The block was launched on September 11, 1989 with 26-hours-a-week programming. DiC was tasked with the advertising sales while the Family Channel handled distribution and marketing. Funtown ran from 7 to 9 a.m. on weekdays and from 4 to 6 p.m and 8 a.m. to 11 a.m. on weekends. The line up of shows was a mix of formats, from live action-animated hybrids to live action, and programs ranging from original to off-network shows, whether produced by DiC or other companies. In addition, a companion club program was supposed to be developed. DiC was also going to produce four specials each quarter with the launching of Funtown, combined with the others, mostly holiday specials, for the fourth quarter of 1989.

Kideo TV.

"Kideo TV" was a programming block by DiC with LBS Communications and Mattel. Metromedia stations agreed to carry the block by January 1986. "Kideo TV" was launched in April 1986. Series in the block included "Rainbow Brite", "Popples" and "Ulysses 31" plus "The Get Along Gang" reruns.

In addition to animated and live-action television shows, while under Disney, DiC produced live-action feature films, including "Meet the Deedles" (1998) and "Inspector Gadget" (1999), and licensed various anime series such as "Sailor Moon", "Saint Seiya" and "Speed Racer X".

DiC Entertainment war ein Filmstudio, das 1971 von Jean Chalopin in Luxemburg als eine Unterabteilung von Radiotélévision Luxembourg (RTL) gegründet wurde. Der Name DiC steht für "Diffusion, Information et Communication". Die Firma besaß ebenfalls ein Hauptquartier in den Vereinigten Staaten, welches 1982 gegründet wurde, und von Andy Heyward und Robby London geführt wurde. Das Hauptquartier befand sich in Burbank, Kalifornien. DiC war ein unabhängiges Unternehmen. In der Vergangenheit wurde es aber auch von der Walt Disney Company, Capitol Cities/ABC und Bain Capital besessen.


Biography.

Greenberg was born to Max and Mae Greenberg in South Miami Beach, Florida. He received a bachelor's degree from the University of Miami, a doctorate in political science from the University of Connecticut in 1969, and taught at the University of Wisconsin–Green Bay from 1975 until 1996. Early in his career he was sometimes confused with Martin Greenberg, publisher of Gnome Press; they were not related. Isaac Asimov suggested that he call himself "Martin H. Greenberg" or "Martin Harry Greenberg" to distinguish him from the other Martin Greenberg "if he expected to deal fruitfully with the science-fiction world".  Greenberg's first anthology (and first speculative fiction publication) was "" (Prentice-Hall, 1974), edited with Patricia S. Warrick and intended for use as a teaching guide. Warrick was a colleague at one of the UW two-year colleges, University of Wisconsin–Fox Valley, who recruited Greenberg to give one lecture on the future of politics. He learned that her course used one science fiction text; she learned of his interest and made a "career-changing comment". Ten educational anthologies under the series name "Through Science Fiction" followed through 1978, mainly from Rand McNally. In the late 1970s Greenberg began partnering with Joseph D. Olander on more conventional science fiction anthologies. They also created the critical series "Writers of the 21st Century" (Taplinger, 1977 to 1983) and produced six of its seven volumes, each titled for its featured author.  Greenberg typically teamed up with another editor, splitting the duties of story selection, editing, copyright searches, and handling royalties to authors. Major partners include Isaac Asimov (127 anthologies, most notably "The Great SF Stories" series), Charles G. Waugh (193 anthologies), Jane Yolen, and Robert Silverberg. He and Mark Tier shared two Prometheus Special Awards in 2005 for jointly creating the anthologies "Give Me Liberty" and "Visions of Liberty" (Baen Books, 2004). He also shared one Bram Stoker Award from the horror writers for the 1998 anthology "Horrors! 365 Scary Stories".  The Horror Writers Association gave Greenberg its highest honor in 2003, the Bram Stoker Award for Lifetime Achievement recognizing superior work that "substantially influenced the horror genre". He also received the Ellery Queen Award, which honors "outstanding people in the mystery-publishing industry", from the Mystery Writers of America in 1995 and one of three inaugural Solstice Awards in 2009, from the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America for his lifetime contributions to their field.  Greenberg died in Green Bay, Wisconsin on June 25, 2011 from complications of cancer. He was survived by two stepdaughters from his first wife, by his second wife, and by their daughter. He is buried at the Cnesses Israel Hebrew Cemetery in Green Bay.

Martin Harry Greenberg (March 1, 1941 – June 25, 2011) was an American academic and speculative fiction anthologist. In all, he compiled 1,298 anthologies and commissioned over 8,200 original short stories. He founded Tekno Books, a packager of more than 2000 published books. As well, he was a co-founder of the Sci-Fi Channel. Greenberg was also an expert in terrorism and the Middle East. He was a longtime friend, colleague and business partner of Isaac Asimov.

Martin Harry Greenberg (* 1. März 1941 in Miami Beach, Florida; † 25. Juni 2011 in Green Bay, Wisconsin) war ein US-amerikanischer Anthologe und Schriftsteller, der vorwiegend Anthologien zum Thema Science-Fiction und Fantasy erstellte.


Origin.

The modern petty officer dates back to the Age of Sail. Petty officers rank between naval officers (both commissioned and warrant) and most enlisted sailors. These were men with some claim to officer rank, sufficient to distinguish them from ordinary ratings, without raising them so high as the sea officers. Several were warrant officers, in the literal sense of being appointed by warrant, and like the warrant sea officers, their superiors, they were usually among the specialists of the ship's company. The "Oxford English Dictionary" suggests that the title derives from the Anglo-Norman and Middle French "petit", meaning "of small size, small, little".  Two of the petty officer's rates, midshipman and master's mate, were a superior petty officer with a more general authority, but they remained no more than ratings. However, it was quite possible for a warrant officer (such as the armourer), in his role as a superior officer, to be court-martialed for striking a midshipman. This is because both were regarded as future sea officers, with the all-important social distinction of having the right to walk the quarterdeck. Midshipmen wore distinctive uniforms, master's mates dressed respectably, and both behaved like officers. The master's mate rating evolved into the rank of sub-lieutenant, and midshipman evolved into naval cadet.

Usage in navies.

Canada.

There are two petty officer ranks in the Royal Canadian Navy. Petty officer, 2nd class (PO2) ("maître de deuxième classe" or "m2" in French) is equivalent to a sergeant and petty officer, 1st class (PO1) ("maître de première classe" or "m1") is equivalent to a warrant officer.  Petty officers are normally addressed as "Petty Officer Bloggins" or "PO Bloggins", thereafter as "PO". The "1st class" and "2nd class" designations are normally only used when such a distinction needs to be made, such as on a promotion parade or to distinguish two petty officers with similar names but different ranks. The NATO rank denotion for "petty officer, 2nd class" is OR-6 (petty officers, 2nd class with less than 3 years seniority are considered OR-5). The NATO rank denotion for "petty officer, 1st class" is OR-7.

India.

A petty officer is a non-commissioned officer in the Indian Navy, equivalent to the NATO rank enlisted grade of OR-5. They are equal in rank to a sub inspector of police in the Indian Police Services, or sergeant in the Indian Army and Indian Air Force. A petty officer is superior in rank to a leading rate and subordinate to a chief petty officer, as is the case in the majority of Commonwealth navies.  A petty officer has the ability to work as a leader, capable of taking charge of a group of personnel, and taking roles in the training and recruitment of new members of the Indian Navy.

United Kingdom.

In the Royal Navy, the rate of petty officer comes above that of leading rating and below that of chief petty officer. It is the equivalent of sergeant in the Royal Marines, British Army and Royal Air Force. Petty officer is the lowest of the senior rating grades. Petty officers, like all senior rates, wear "fore and aft" rig.

United States.

The title of petty officer in the United States Navy and United States Coast Guard has three separate "classes" (3rd class through 1st class) and three senior grades (chief petty officer, senior chief petty officer, master chief petty officer). Petty officer, first class is equivalent in paygrade to staff sergeant in the United States Army and Marine Corps, and technical sergeant in the United States Air Force. Petty officer, second class is equivalent in paygrade to sergeant in the United States Army and Marine Corps, and staff sergeant in the United States Air Force. Petty officer, third class is equivalent in paygrade to corporal in the United States Army, corporal in the United States Marine Corps, and senior airman in the United States Air Force.  Enlisted rank has two components: rate (pay grade) and rating (job specialty). Both components are reflected in the title. A sailor in the rate of petty officer first class with a rating of yeoman, would be a Yeoman 1st Class (abbreviated "YN1"). In the Navy, it is acceptable to refer to Petty Officer as such, while in the Coast Guard, rating is always used.

Non-English-speaking countries.

In some countries the same term is used as for a non-commissioned officer (NCO) in land forces, e.g. "suboficial" in some Spanish-speaking countries. The Russian equivalent is "Glavny Starshina".

A petty officer (PO) is a non-commissioned officer in many navies and is given the NATO rank denotion OR-5 or OR-6. In many nations, they are typically equal to a corporal or sergeant in comparison to other military branches. Often they may be superior to a seaman, generally the (or one of the) lowest ranks in a navy, and subordinate to a more senior non-commissioned officer, such as a chief petty officer.

Ein Petty Officer oder PO (, ‚gering‘) ist ein Dienstgrad in der Dienstgradgruppe der Unteroffiziere in den Seestreitkräften von englischsprachigen Ländern, am bekanntesten der US Navy.


Early life.

Colin Archer was born in Larvik as the 12th of 13 children to parents who immigrated to Norway from Scotland in 1825. Before his career in naval architecture, he spent time as a farmer and administrator in Queensland, Australia with several of his brothers, including David who first arrived in Sydney in 1834. During his time as an administrator he was contracted to produce a map of the Fitzroy River.  In 1861, Archer returned to Larvik and undertook the study of practical and theoretical shipbuilding. He married Karen Sophie Wiborg in 1869 with whom he had five children.

Career.

Archer designed his vessels in the workroom of his residence at Tollerodden. Before he started building sailboats, he studied the work of Fredrik Henrik af Chapman and especially his displacement curve. He also studied John Scott Russell's theories. His first boats were designed with a combination of Chapman's displacement parabola curve and Scott Russell's positioning of midship section (defined as section with widest beam) that was well aft of amidships and with sharp bow waterlines. Based on this, Archer started to reform the pilot boat design in 1872.  In 1892 several of his pilot-boats rescued fishing boats in a severe off shore gale on the southeast coast of Norway, and after a design competition, he received an order to design a rescue boat for the Norwegian Society for Sea Rescue (Norsk Selskab til Skibbrudnes Redning). This 47-foot boat proved so seaworthy that 33 were built, giving Archer and his shipyard a reputation for durable and safe ships.  After the pilot boat had shown its seaworthiness, all other boat builders started to copy Archer's lines and building method. The boats became referred to as a "Colin Archer" or "Colin Archer-type" no matter who designed or built them.  Colin Archer built about 200 boats, 120 with ballast keels. His designs were also built at other yards, totaling about 50 in his lifetime.  Today, 35 of his boats are still sailing.  Archer also became famous for his ships, especially the polar ship FRAM.  Archer closed his business in 1909 at the age of 78.  Archer built about 120 double-enders, but thousands have since been built worldwide. Boats are still (2017) being built and labelled "Colin Archer-type".

Naval architect with ship yard.

In 1872 Archer wanted to share his knowledge on ship and boat design. He published a 29-page design lecture that included Fredrik Henrik af Chapman's and John Scott Russell's theories. This was also good advertising for him that soon gave him orders.  Fueled by his belief in 1873 that shipbuilding is more lucrative than building boats, in 1874, Archer and investors founded the shipyard "Laurvig Strandværft" in Rekkevik in the Larvik fjord. At its start, Archer was a 30% owner in his shipyard. Rekkevik lies 3 km from the inner harbour of Larvik where his boatyard was situated at Tollerodden. One of the part owners of the shipyard was a ship owner and ordered the first ship. In 1886 Archer became sole owner of the shipyard.

Sailing ships.

Laurvig Strandværft built four ships to Archer's designs:  Archer also designed several three-masted barks 135–155 feet that were used for building seven sailing ships in Arendal 1875-1886 and one in Grimstad in 1887, both towns on the south coast. Archer's shipyard also performed repair work and especially conversion and outfitting for polar expeditions.

The brigantine "Leon;" ship and model boat.

"Leon" was built 1878–1880 for Herlofson brothers in Arendal. The Herlofsons were a sailing and ship owning family, and "Leon" remained in the family's ownership until 1894. "Leon" then changed hands several times among various Norwegian owners. "Leon" was always rigged as Brigantine, but in Norway this rig is called "Skonnertbrigg" and most often shorted to schooner, which has led authors to believe she was re-rigged, but she was not. In late autumn 1915 she developed a serious leak while on a voyage in the North Sea from Granton to Porsgrunn with coal, and was abandoned.  The plans for "Leon" were reproduced by Harold A. Underhill in 1958 in his book "Plank-On-Frame Models and Scale Masting and Rigging, vol. I." Many "Leon" models exist around the world, including one at Royal Museums Greenwich.

Polar ships.

The most notable single ship built by Colin Archer was the "Fram", used by Fridtjof Nansen in his expedition attempt to the North Pole 1893-96 and by Roald Amundsen's 1911 historic expedition as the first to the South Pole. "Fram" is now preserved in the Fram Museum on Bygdøy, Oslo, Norway.  In 1886 the 3-masted bark "Pollux" seal and whaling ship was built to Colin Archer's design in Arendal. In 1897 she was bought by Carsten Borchgrevink, taken to Archer's yard, and fitted out for polar expeditions. Renamed Southern Cross she sailed to Antarctica 1898-1900, where Borchrevivk made important discoveries and was the first man to step on land on Antarctica. Information from this expedition was later used by Roald Amundsen for his expedition to the south pole.  In 1898 the Italian prince and explorer Prince Luigi Amedeo, Duke of the Abruzzi wanted to do polar expeditions. He travelled to Norway and consulted the famous polar explorer Fridtjof Nansen. In 1899 Amedo bought "Jason," renamed her "Stella Polare" and took her to Colin Archer's shipyard. The interior was stripped out and new beams, diagonals and knees heavily strengthened the ship. Amedo set off in June 1899 and "Stella Polare" had hard time but survived thanks to Archer's work.  In 1899, Archer also fitted "Zarya" for the Russian polar expedition of 1900–02. Zarya was strengthened with internal frames and beams, and deckhouses were added. The rig was changed to barkentine (square sail on foremast only). In October 1899 the ship was certified by Norwegian authorities for a three-year expedition in the Arctic.

Pilot boat reformator.

Archer's first pilot-boat, 33 feet in length, was built in 1872. Influenced by Scott Russell's theories, it had the midship section 58% from the forward perpendicular as opposed to the traditional position of 44%. The traditional boats were thus of the old blunt "Cod's Head-Mackerel Tail"-type. They were also beamy and shallow with poor windward abilities.  Archer also made his boats deeper with more ballast, strongly built in oak and they soon became known for seaworthiness and speed. Thus he started revolutionizing the Norwegian double-ended pilot-boats from his first boat.  The next and biggest pilot-boat improvement came in 1882, when he introduced the ballast keel and carvel building as before used on his yachts. With the improved stability generated by the ballast keel, Archer reduced the beam to 33% as opposed to the traditional 38-40%. The 36-foot boats were outstanding in performance and resisted capsizing.  In 1886 his pilot-boats outclassed all others in a pilot race with 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 6th, and 7th place of 12 participants. After that, he was made a Knight of the Order of St. Olav.

Rescue boats.

After an off shore gale in 1892 when several of Archer's pilot boats rescued fishermen, it was thought that pilots should do the rescue operations. Three cutter-rigged Archer pilot boats were built; 38-, 41- and 42-foot length, fitted out as rescue boats and put into service in 1893 manned by pilots.  To try a bigger boat more specialised rescue boat, a design competition was held in 1892 and Archer got the order. He based his design on his newest pilot-boat and scaled the lines to 46 feet and reduced the beam ratio to 33.5%. Freeboard height was increased with about 20 cm. The keel was widened so the ballast keel became considerably heavier at 6.5 tons. The inside ballast remained the same, 6-7 tons. Ceiling, 45 mm planking fitted inside the frames, were made watertight and thus the boat would float and be maneuverable in case of a leak or damage. The boat was rigged as ketch and launched July 1893 as the RS 1 COLIN ARCHER.In service, it was soon realised, that the rescue boats had to sail out with fishing fleets every day. As there were no weather forecasts and no distress signals, the rescue boats had to be at the scene if a storm arrived. As the wind increased, the smallest boats were towed to safety and returned to tow larger boats. The pilots could not be with the fishermen all day so the design chosen for new boats was the large ketch.  33 ketch-rigged rescue boats were built from 1893 to 1924. 28 of the ketches were Archer’s design and 13 were built by Archer. From 1909 – 1924 the last 13 ketches were built in the Risør area (35 n.m. SW of Larvik). Only one rescue boat was lost at sea with no traces.  Archer made two new plans for rescue boats. The Mk II was built in 1897 has more overhang in the bow profile and thus more flare in the bow sections and a slightly fuller waterline in the bow. Length over deck became 47 feet and the boat had more stability for towing. Mk. III was built in 1908 with 20 cm more beam (34.4%) and a considerably fuller bow, but a finer stern. All versions have the midship section approx. 53% from the forward perpendicular. Mk. III’s lines are more symmetrically shaped than Archer normally used. The Mk. III rescue boat was considered the best boat in strong winds and most towing abilities.  Framing is kept relatively light with frame spacing 60–66 cm c-c with a thin stem bent oak rib in between. Planking was 38 mm oak and the inside of the frames was also planked (ceiling) with 50 mm pine. This was caulked watertight to the watertight cabin sole (floor) and thus, and floated when the planking got a leak.  To minimize pitching to give the boats an easier motion and keep the deck dry, the ballast was concentrated midships, and anchor windlass and chain placed aft of the mast.  The rig was ketch (two mast) with a relatively short mast and very small mizzen. In a strong wind, they normally sailed with main and staysail only, often reefed. With boats in tow, the mizzen was used to point higher to the wind and help to tack. The rig was basically the same for all boats, but the spars became heavier for each upgrade.  The last sailing rescue boat was built in 1924. Next generation boats, the Bjarne Aas design with an engine but also full rig was built in 1932. A dozen of Archer's design served without an engine until 1940. With engine installed, they served until 1960.

Yachts.

Colin Archer built about 60 yachts, each to a unique drawing, half being double-enders and the other half with counter sterns. Many of both double-enders and the counter stern yachts have plum stems. All yachts have more undercut forefoot than the workboats, especially after 1897.  The beam is 22-30% of the length over the deck. (As opposed to 33-36% for the pilot-boats and the rescue boats).  All yachts, except the "Asgard", and all pilot-boats, are cutter rigged (one mast). The yachts have their main boom extending the stern for several feet that with a relatively tall mast enhanced performance. (The pilot-boats' boom normally extends the sternpost by one foot. Only the rescue boats and a few fishing boats, are ketch-rigged (two masts)). The sail area for the yachts is in the range 100-125% of waterline length squared.  On almost all boats, Archer spaced grown pine frames 2 feet c-c with a thin steam-bent oak rib between. This, together with thin, canvassed decks, made the yachts fairly light. The yachts have large ballast keels and normally no inside ballast, except a little for trim.

Archer's Wave Form Theory.

Archer spent much time calculating how an efficient hull should be designed. He started with Chapman's displacement parabola curve, but with Scott Russell's positioning of the midship section well aft of amidships and thus with sharp bow waterlines.  In 1876 he changed Chapman's parabola for the displacement curve, with Scott Russell's wave curves; the sine curve forward and the trochoid curve aft. The change gave designers more freedom in shaping the hull than Scott Russell's theory.  Archer's theory did not change Colin Archer's early lines much, more confirmed them. Archer's theory gave fuller bow lines than Scott Russell's, but unless the forefoot was well undercut, Archer's bow lines also became too sharp with a tendency to make the boats "pitchy" and wet. With more undercut forefoot and the displacement curve extending the designed waterline, the lines became fuller and Archer's boats became the seaworthy boats he is known for.  We know now that none of these theories are correct, but they did away with the excessively blunt bow of the old "Cod's Head-Mackerel Tail"-type.

Legacy.

Colin Archer sold several boats to Sweden in the early 1880s and Swedish designers soon adapted the Archer type for pilot-boats and yachts. Norwegian pilot- and fishing boat builders converted to the Archer type after the rescue boat had shown its seaworthiness in 1894.  Archer also had customers in Denmark, Germany, Holland and England. In 1904, he built a boat for the writer Robert Erskine Childers named the "Asgard".  Outside Scandinavia, the rescue boat lines have been the most popular design. The "Archer-type" outside of Norway has more beam and smaller rig than Archer's actual yachts.  In 1908 the 47 feet OEGER was designed by Archer but built in Porsgrunn. The customer was the English sailor Haig that had already sailed in north Norway and wanted to have a more seaworthy boat to go to Spitsbergen. The lines were narrower version (32% beam) of the Mk. III rescue boat. The rig, however, was cutter with large sail area. The boat was sold to Ralph Stock in 1919 who undertook a cruise around the world with her. In 1921 the popular book "The Cruise of the Dream Ship" based on Stock's voyage was published.  In the early 1920s, a 47 feet yacht was built in China. The lines were based on Colin Archer’s 1908 Mk. III rescue boat plans. The boat was named SHANGHAI and sailed to Denmark in 1923/24 by the Danish owners and sold to an American judge F. DeWitt Wells to undertake a voyage similar to the Vikings to America. In June 1923, plans for SHANGHAI were published in the American magazine "MotorBoat".  In 1924 William Atkin was contacted by W.W. Nutting, editor of the American magazine "MotorBoat" and earlier Atkin customer. He wanted a yacht based on Colin Archer’s rescue boats. Atkin designed a 32 feet yacht with lines basically a scaled-down version of Colin Archer’s Mk. III rescue boat, slightly sharper bow lines and with a cutter rig. The design was called "ERIC" and was published in the "Motorboat". Nutting, however, heard that boats were cheaper in Norway and cancelled the order. In Norway he bought a 40 feet second-hand double ender. Although built as yacht, the lines were basically of a fishing boat design with a great beam (by 14,5 feet – 36%) and without a ballast keel. It had high bulwarks and the large cockpit that was not self-draining to give access to the engine beneath. Nutting wanted to sail the northerly route to America, and in the boat LEIV ERIKSSON, left Norway at same time as SHANGHAI. Unfortunately, Nutting and his crew were lost without a trace off Greenland in September. SHANGHAI also had problems as their sails parted, they blew ashore on an island on Nova Scotia, but one crew managed to swim ashore in the breakers and pull the others ashore with lines. He thereafter managed to swim to the mainland so a boat could rescue the others.  William Atkins plans for ERIC, published in "MotorBoat" arose immediate interest. Plans were modified with a new interior, ketch rig and three boats were built and launched in 1925. Atkin received more orders and more Archer-type yachts were designed. The INGRID in 1934 is 37.5 feet and a stretched version (beam 30%) with well-undercut forefoot and hollow waterlines. The lines resemble Archer’s yachts except Archer had greatest beam further aft. Archer, on his later yachts, used fuller lines, especially aft.  The "Eric" went on to become very influential in ocean sailing, with boats such as Vito Dumas's "Lehg II" and Robin Knox-Johnston's "Suhaili" making notable circumnavigations. The latter was the first boat to sail single-handed and non-stop around the world in 1968 Golden Globe Race. "Suhaili" was very under canvassed and definitely the slowest boat in the race, but as the only one of nine boats to complete the race, she took both first prizes; the first and fastest boat!  Another Colin Archer type boat to become very famous in the 1968 Golden Globe Race, was the French sailor and author Bernard Moitessier in his custom-built 39-foot steel ketch "Joshua." She had a tall rig and was catching up on "Suhaili", but instead of passing the finishing line, Moitessier continued around the world to Tahiti, thus sailing 1.5 times around the globe, non-stop, single-handed.  In the 1970s, Atkin's ERIC design was adapted to glass-reinforced plastic by William Crealock, and became the Westsail 32 and has inspired many imitations, so that the "Archer double-ender" style of boat continues to be popular to the present day.  The Argentinian naval architect Manuel M. Campos based his designs on Archer/Atkin and built Vito Dumas's "Lehg II" in 1934 in Argentina. Other of Campos designs have less draught that the typical Archer-type.  The Tahiti ketch is derived from the Archer-type. The Tahiti ketch is characterized by a straight sternpost, less draught and its small rig. The straight sternpost and hull shape make it easier to build.

Colin Archer (22 July 1832 – 8 February 1921) was a Norwegian naval architect and shipbuilder known for his seaworthy pilot and rescue boats and the larger sailing and polar ships. His most famous ship is the "Fram", used on both in Fridtjof Nansen's and Roald Amundsen's polar expeditions.

Colin Archer (* 22. Juli 1832 in Larvik; † 3. Februar 1921 ebenda) war einer der bedeutendsten Yacht- und Schiffskonstrukteure. Er ist besonders für die Seetüchtigkeit seiner meist als Rettungs- oder Lotsenboote verwendeten Segelschiffe bekannt.


History.

The city was built by Lysimachus in 309 BC, when he was preparing for war with his rivals; for the new city, being situated on the isthmus, commanded the road from Sestos to the north and the mainland of Thrace. In order to obtain inhabitants for his new city, Lysimachus destroyed the neighbouring town of Cardia, the birthplace of the historian Hieronymus, and settled the inhabitants of it and other Chersonesean cities here. Lysimachus no doubt made Lysimachia the capital of his kingdom, and it must have rapidly risen to great splendour and prosperity.  After his death the city fell under Seleucid dominion, and during the wars between Seleucus Callinicus and Ptolemy Euergetes it passed from the hands of the Seleucids into those of the Ptolemies. Whether these latter set the town free, or whether it emancipated itself, is uncertain; at any rate it entered into the relation of sympolity with the Aetolian League. In 287 BC, the city was severely damaged by an earthquake, as reported by the Roman historian Justin (17.1.1-3). In 277 BC, near Lysimachia the Macedonian king Antigonus II Gonatas defeated the Gauls. As the Aetolians were not able to afford the town the necessary protection, it was destroyed again in 197 BC by the Thracians during the war of the Romans against Philip of Macedonia. Antiochus the Great restored the place, collected the scattered and enslaved inhabitants, and attracted colonists from all parts by generous promises. This restoration, however, appears to have been unsuccessful, and under the dominion of Rome it decayed more and more.  The last time the place is mentioned under its ancient name, is in a passage of Ammianus Marcellinus. The emperor Justinian (527–565) restored it and surrounded it with strong fortifications, and after that time it is spoken of only under the name of Hexamilion. The place now occupying the site of Lysimachia, Eksemil, derives its name from the Justinianian fortress, though the ruins of the ancient city are more numerous in the neighbouring village of Ortaköy.

Lysimachia () was an important Hellenistic Greek town on the north-western extremity of the Thracian Chersonese (the modern Gallipoli peninsula) in the neck where the peninsula joins the mainland in what is now the European part of Turkey, not far from the bay of Melas (the modern Gulf of Saros).

Lysimacheia (, auch "Lysimachia", früher "Kardia") war eine bedeutende hellenistische Stadt im griechischen Thrakien am Nordende der Halbinsel Chersoneses (heute: Gallipoli). Ihre Überreste sind bei dem heutigen Dorf Bolayır in der türkischen Provinz Çanakkale zu lokalisieren.