Regions.

The chain can be divided into three subsections. The first, the Hawaiian archipelago (also known as the "Windward isles"), consists of the islands comprising the U.S. state of Hawaii. As it is the closest to the hotspot, this volcanically active region is the youngest part of the chain, with ages ranging from 400,000 years to 5.1 million years. The island of Hawaii is composed of five volcanoes, of which three (Kilauea, Mauna Loa, and Hualalai) are still active. Haleakalā on the island of Maui is dormant. Lōihi Seamount continues to grow offshore of Hawaii island, and is the only known volcano in the chain in the submarine pre-shield stage.  The second part of the chain is composed of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, collectively referred to as the "Leeward isles", the constituents of which are between 7.2 and 27.7 million years in age. Erosion has long since overtaken volcanic activity at these islands, and most of them are atolls, atoll islands, and extinct islands. They contain many of the most northerly atolls in the world; Kure Atoll, in this group, is the northernmost atoll on Earth. On June 15, 2006, U.S. President George W. Bush issued a proclamation creating Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument under the Antiquities Act of 1906. The national monument, meant to protect the biodiversity of the Hawaiian isles, encompasses all of the northern isles, and is one of the largest such protected areas in the world. The proclamation limits tourism to the area, and called for a phase-out of fishing by 2011.  The oldest and most heavily eroded part of the chain are the Emperor seamounts, which are 39 to 85 million years in age. The Emperor and Hawaiian chains form an angle of about 120°. This bend was long attributed to a relatively sudden change of 60° in the direction of plate motion, but research conducted in 2003 suggests that it was the movement of the hotspot itself that caused the bend. The issue is still currently under academic debate. All of the volcanoes in this part of the chain have long since subsided below sea level, becoming seamounts and guyots (see also the seamount and guyot stages of Hawaiian volcanism). Many of the volcanoes are named after former emperors of Japan. The seamount chain extends to the West Pacific, and terminates at the Kuril–Kamchatka Trench, a subduction zone at the border of Russia.

Formation.

The oldest age for the Emperor Seamounts is 81 million years, and comes from Detroit Seamount. However, Meiji Guyot, located to the north of Detroit Seamount, is likely somewhat older.  In 1963, geologist John Tuzo Wilson hypothesized the origins of the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain, explaining that they were created by a hotspot of volcanic activity that was essentially stationary as the Pacific tectonic plate drifted in a northwesterly direction, leaving a trail of increasingly eroded volcanic islands and seamounts in its wake. An otherwise inexplicable kink in the chain marks a shift in the movement of the Pacific plate some 47 million years ago, from a northward to a more northwesterly direction, and the kink has been presented in geology texts as an example of how a tectonic plate can shift direction comparatively suddenly. A look at the USGS map on the origin of the Hawaiian Islands clearly shows this "spearpoint".  In a more recent study, Sharp and Clague (2006) interpret the bend as starting at about 50 million years ago. They also conclude that the bend formed from a "traditional" cause—a change in the direction of motion of the Pacific plate.  However, recent research shows that the hotspot itself may have moved with time. Some evidence comes from analysis of the orientation of the ancient magnetic field preserved by magnetite in ancient lava flows sampled at four seamounts (Tarduno "et al.", 2003): this evidence from paleomagnetism shows a more complex history than the commonly accepted view of a stationary hotspot. If the hotspot had remained above a fixed mantle plume during the past 80 million years, the latitude as recorded by the orientation of the ancient magnetic field preserved by magnetite (paleolatitude) should be constant for each sample; this should also signify original cooling at the same latitude as the current location of the Hawaiian hotspot. Instead of remaining constant, the paleolatitudes of the Emperor Seamounts show a change from north to south, with decreasing age. The paleomagnetic data from the seamounts of the Emperor chain suggest motion of the Hawaiian hotspot in Earth's mantle. Tarduno et al. (2009) have summarized evidence that the bend in the seamount chain may be caused by circulation patterns in the flowing solid mantle (mantle "wind") rather than a change in plate motion.

Aging.

The chain has been produced by the movement of the ocean crust over the Hawaii hotspot, an upwelling of hot rock from the Earth's mantle. As the oceanic crust moves the volcanoes farther away from their source of magma, their eruptions become less frequent and less powerful until they eventually cease to erupt altogether. At that point erosion of the volcano and subsidence of the seafloor cause the volcano to gradually diminish. As the volcano sinks and erodes, it first becomes an atoll island and then an atoll. Further subsidence causes the volcano to sink below the sea surface, becoming a seamount and/or a guyot.

The Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain is a mostly undersea mountain range in the Pacific Ocean that reaches above sea level in Hawaii. It is composed of the Hawaiian ridge, consisting of the islands of the Hawaiian chain northwest to Kure Atoll, and the Emperor Seamounts: together they form a vast underwater mountain region of islands and intervening seamounts, atolls, shallows, banks and reefs along a line trending southeast to northwest beneath the northern Pacific Ocean. The seamount chain, containing over 80 identified undersea volcanoes, stretches about from the Aleutian Trench in the far northwest Pacific to the Loʻihi seamount, the youngest volcano in the chain, which lies about southeast of the Island of Hawaiʻi.

Die Hawaii-Emperor-Kette (in deutscher Literatur manchmal auch als "Hawaii-Imperator-Rücken" bezeichnet) ist eine Kette von überwiegend erloschenen Schildvulkanen im Pazifischen Ozean, von denen ein großer Teil unterhalb der Meeresoberfläche liegt. Sie besteht aus über 129 größeren Vulkanbauten, die sich über eine Länge von 6100 km perlschnurartig aneinanderreihen und bis zu 89 Millionen Jahre alt sind. Die Kette wird meist als Paradebeispiel für den sogenannten Hotspot-Vulkanismus angeführt.


Function.

Transport of the positively charged proton is typically electrogenic, i.e. it generates an electrical field across the membrane also called the membrane potential. Proton transport becomes electrogenic if not neutralized electrically by transport of either a corresponding negative charge in the same direction or a corresponding positive charge in the opposite direction. An example of a proton pump that is not electrogenic, is the proton/potassium pump of the gastric mucosa which catalyzes a balanced exchange of protons and potassium ions.  The combined transmembrane gradient of protons and charges created by proton pumps is called an electrochemical gradient. An electrochemical gradient represents a store of energy (potential energy) that can be used to drive a multitude of biological processes such as ATP synthesis, nutrient uptake and action potential formation.  In cell respiration, the proton pump uses energy to transport protons from the matrix of the mitochondrion to the inter-membrane space. It is an active pump that generates a proton concentration gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane because there are more protons outside the matrix than inside. The difference in pH and electric charge (ignoring differences in buffer capacity) creates an electrochemical potential difference that works similar to that of a battery or energy storing unit for the cell. The process could also be seen as analogous to cycling uphill or charging a battery for later use, as it produces potential energy. The proton pump does not create energy, but forms a gradient that stores energy for later use.

Diversity.

The energy required for the proton pumping reaction may come from light (light energy; bacteriorhodopsins), electron transfer (electrical energy; electron transport complexes I, III and IV) or energy-rich metabolites (chemical energy) such as pyrophosphate (PPi; proton-pumping pyrophosphatase) or adenosine triphosphate (ATP; proton ATPases).

Electron transport driven proton pumps.

Electron Transport Complex I.

Complex I (EC 1.6.5.3) (also referred to as NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase or, especially in the context of the human protein, NADH dehydrogenase) is a proton pump driven by electron transport. It belongs to the H or Na-translocating NADH Dehydrogenase (NDH) Family (TC# 3.D.1), a member of the Na transporting Mrp superfamily. It catalyzes the transfer of electrons from NADH to coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) and, in eukaryotes, it is located in the inner mitochondrial membrane. This enzyme helps to establish a transmembrane difference of proton electrochemical potential that the ATP synthase then uses to synthesize ATP.

Electron Transport Complex III.

Complex III ((EC 1.10.2.2)) (also referred to as cytochrome b1 or the coenzyme Q : cytochrome c – oxidoreductase) is a proton pump driven by electron transport. Complex III is a multisubunit transmembrane protein encoded by both the mitochondrial (cytochrome b) and the nuclear genomes (all other subunits). Complex III is present in the inner mitochondrial membrane of all aerobic eukaryotes and the inner membranes of most eubacteria. This enzyme helps to establish a transmembrane difference of proton electrochemical potential that the ATP synthase of mitochondria then uses to synthesize ATP.

The cytochrome bf complex.

The cytochrome bf complex (EC 1.10.99.1) (also called plastoquinol—plastocyanin reductase) is an enzyme related to Complex III but found in the thylakoid membrane in chloroplasts of plants, cyanobacteria, and green algae. This proton pump is driven by electron transport and catalyzes the transfer of electrons from plastoquinol to plastocyanin. The reaction is analogous to the reaction catalyzed by Complex III (cytochrome bc1) of the mitochondrial electron transport chain. This enzyme helps to establish a transmembrane difference of proton electrochemical potential that the ATP synthase of chloroplasts then uses to synthesize ATP.

Electron Transport Complex IV.

Complex IV (EC 1.9.3.1) (also referred to as cytochrome c oxidase), is a proton pump driven by electron transport. This enzyme is a large transmembrane protein complex found in bacteria and inner mitochondrial membrane of eukaryotes. It receives an electron from each of four cytochrome c molecules, and transfers them to one oxygen molecule, converting molecular oxygen to two molecules of water. In the process, it binds four protons from the inner aqueous phase to make water and in addition translocates four protons across the membrane. This enzyme helps to establish a transmembrane difference of proton electrochemical potential that the ATP synthase of mitochondria then uses to synthesize ATP.

ATP driven proton pumps.

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) driven proton pumps (also referred to as proton ATPases or -ATPases) are proton pumps driven by the hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Three classes of proton ATPases are found in nature. In a single cell (for example those of fungi and plants), representatives from all three groups of proton ATPases may be present.

P-type proton ATPase.

The plasma membrane -ATPase is a single subunit P-type ATPase found in the plasma membrane of plants, fungi, protists and many prokaryotes.  The plasma membrane -ATPase creates the electrochemical gradients in the plasma membrane of plants, fungi, protists, and many prokaryotes. Here, proton gradients are used to drive secondary transport processes. As such, it is essential for the uptake of most metabolites, and also for responses to the environment (e.g., movement of leaves in plants).  Humans (and probably other mammals) have a gastric hydrogen potassium ATPase or H/K ATPase that also belongs to the P-type ATPase family. This enzyme functions as the proton pump of the stomach, primarily responsible for the acidification of the stomach contents (see gastric acid).

V-type proton ATPase.

The V-type proton ATPase is a multisubunit enzyme of the V-type. It is found in various different membranes where it serves to acidify intracellular organelles or the cell exterior.

F-type proton ATPase.

The F-type proton ATPase is a multisubunit enzyme of the F-type (also referred to as ATP synthase or FF ATPase). It is found in the mitochondrial inner membrane where it functions as a proton transport-driven ATP synthase.  In mitochondria, reducing equivalents provided by electron transfer or photosynthesis power this translocation of protons. For example, the translocation of protons by cytochrome c oxidase is powered by reducing equivalents provided by reduced cytochrome c. ATP itself powers this transport in the plasma membrane proton ATPase and in the ATPase proton pumps of other cellular membranes.  The FF ATP synthase of mitochondria, in contrast, usually conduct protons from high to low concentration across the membrane while drawing energy from this flow to synthesize ATP. Protons translocate across the inner mitochondrial membrane via proton wire. This series of conformational changes, channeled through the a and b subunits of the F particle, drives a series of conformational changes in the stalk connecting the F to the F subunit. This process effectively couples the translocation of protons to the mechanical motion between the Loose, Tight, and Open states of F necessary to phosphorylate ADP.  In bacteria and ATP-producing organelles other than mitochondria, reducing equivalents provided by electron transfer or photosynthesis power the translocation of protons.  CF ATP ligase of chloroplasts correspond to the human FF ATP synthase in plants.

Pyrophosphate driven proton pumps.

Proton pumping pyrophosphatase (also referred to as H-PPase or vacuolar-type inorganic pyrophosphatases (V-PPase; V is for vacuolar)) is a proton pump driven by the hydrolysis of inorganic pyrophosphate (PPi). In plants, H-PPase is localized to the vacuolar membrane (the tonoplast). This membrane of plants contains two different proton pumps for acidifying the interior of the vacuole, the V-PPase and the V-ATPase.

Light driven proton pumps.

Bacteriorhodopsin is a light-driven proton pump and is used by Archaea, most notably in Halobacteria. Light is absorbed by a retinal pigment covalently linked to the protein, that result in a conformational change of the molecule that is transmitted to the pump protein associated with proton pumping.

A proton pump is an integral membrane protein pump that builds up a proton gradient across a biological membrane. Proton pumps catalyze the following reaction:

Als Protonenpumpe werden in der Biochemie und Physiologie allgemein Transmembranproteine bezeichnet, die Protonen über eine biologische Membran, gegen einen elektrochemischen Gradienten, transportieren. Es handelt sich um eine große und uneinheitliche Gruppe von Proteinen. Man unterscheidet grob zwischen dem alleinigen Transport von Protonen nach außen und dem Antiport, wo die Protonen nur eine Hälfte der transportierten Teilchen ausmachen.


Location.

The location of Reric was long disputed. Older theories suggested Oldenburg, Lübeck, Mecklenburg Castle, and Alt-Gaarz, renamed Rerik in 1938. Since the 1990s, Reric is thought to be identical with an archaeological site near Groß Strömkendorf, located on the eastern shore of the Bay of Wismar. This version is based on results presented by the University of Kiel and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern's State Department for Archaeology, who partially excavated about 20 hectares of the site between 1995 and 1999.

Archaeology.

There is a certain amount of circumstantial evidence for Groß Strömkendorf being Reric such as identical foundation and destruction dates. Groß Strömkendorf was a deep water port with a planned layout. Initially north of the present site, the earlier settlement was moved south and the original area turned into a cemetery. The new site contained buildings similar to the sunken floor buildings of West Stow in England. Pottery included, among others, tatting ware and shelly ware. The primary type of pottery found so far was the Sukow type, associated used by the West Slavs during the 8th century. Pottery of the succeeding Feldberg type was also found, though in considerably lower number. Imported pottery from western countries was only scarcely represented. Hoards of Norwegian schist whetstones were found, also evidence of textile, iron and bronze working, but no major industrial evidence, indicating that production was likely for local use only. Unfinished products and garbage pieces point at the production of items made of glass, metals including iron, amber, and horn.  The settlement stretched 500 meters along the coast. Within a 10 kilometer range around the settlement, remains of Slavic open settlements have been found. The nearby fortified strongholds of Mecklenburg and Ilow were, like Reric, founded in the late 7th or early 8th century, thus constituting some of the earliest Slavic settlements near the Baltic coast.

Decline.

As reported by the Annales regni Francorum of 808 Ain D, Danish king Gudfred (also "Godofrid", "Gøttrik") had received plenty of tribute from Reric in the years before, but in 808 "destroyed" the emporium and took with him "the merchants hereof". Gudfred resettled them in Hedeby (also "Haithabu", "Sliasthorp"), a contemporary emporium closer to Denmark. This event was part of ongoing warfare between Denmark and Charlemagne's Frankish Empire, in the course of which the Franks had allied with the Obodrites. The destruction of the site may not have been total, since an Obodrite duke, Drazko, is reported murdered at Reric the following year.  ""Reregi"", an alternative name of the Obodrites used by the medieval chroniclers Adam of Bremen and Helmold of Bosau, is probably a rendering of "Reric".

Reric or Rerik was one of the Viking Age multi-ethnic Slavic-Scandinavian emporia on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea, located near Wismar in the present-day German state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern Reric was built around 700, when Slavs of the Obodrite tribe settled the region. At the turn of the 9th century, the citizens of Reric allied with Charlemagne, who used the port as part of a strategic trade route that would avoid areas of Saxon and Danish control. It was destroyed in 808 AD by the Viking king Gudfred, whereupon the tradespeople were reportedly moved by the king to the Viking emporium of Hedeby (also "Haithabu") near modern Schleswig.

Reric war ein frühmittelalterlicher slawisch-dänischer Handelsplatz bei Groß Strömkendorf nahe Wismar an der Ostseeküste Mecklenburgs, dessen genaue Lage bis zum Ende des 20. Jahrhunderts unbekannt war.


Playing career.

Soviet First League.

Gazzaev was born 7 August 1954 in Ordzhonikidze, USSR, now Vladikavkaz, Russia. He started his playing career as a forward for his native Spartak Ordzhonikidze in the Soviet First League. In 1974, he moved to SKA Rostov-on-Don, which got promoted from the Soviet First League to the Soviet Top League after a second-place finish at the end of the season. However, Gazzaev was left behind in the first league in Spartak Ordzhonikidze, as he wasn't one of the main players of the SKA Rostov-on-Don.

Soviet Top League.

In the Soviet Top League, Gazzaev played in Lokomotiv Moscow, Dynamo Moscow, and Dinamo Tbilisi.  Gazzaev is a Soviet Cup winner with Dynamo Moscow in 1984. During his career he scored 89 goals in 283 matches in Soviet Top League, and was the top goal scorer of the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup 1984–85.

International career.

He became the under-23 European champion with USSR in 1976 and under-21 European champion in 1980. He also won the bronze medal with USSR at the Summer Olympics in Moscow.

Coaching career.

After finishing his playing career in 1986 Gazzaev coached the youth team of Dynamo Moscow before moving to work with professional clubs. His first major success as a manager was winning the Russian championship with Spartak-Alania Vladikavkaz in 1995.  More titles followed after Gazzaev moved to coach CSKA Moscow. With them he won the 2004–05 UEFA Cup, as well as the Russian Premier League in 2003, 2005 and 2006 and the Russian Cup in 2002, 2005, and 2006, on 5 December 2008 left PFC CSKA Moscow. Gazzaev's CSKA Moscow team was the first side from the Russian Federation to win a European competition since the fall of the Soviet Union.  On 26 May 2009, the former CSKA Moscow coach was named as the new head coach of Dynamo Kyiv, who signed a three years contract also until 2012.  After a spell as Dynamo Kyiv head coach he returned to Vladikavkaz and became president (2011) and then also manager (November 2012) of Alania Vladikavkaz.

Politics.

In 2016, he was elected to the State Duma as a member of A Just Russia party.

Personal life.

He is a cousin of Yuri Gazzaev and father of Vladimir Gazzayev, which also became are coaches.

Honours.

He is a member of Order of Friendship and Order of Honour.

Valery Georgiyevich Gazzaev (; ; born 7 August 1954) is a Russian politician, football manager and former footballer of Ossetian descent who was recently the president and manager of FC Alania Vladikavkaz before the club withdrew from the league. As a Soviet footballer he played the position of a striker enjoying successes with his team FC Dynamo Moscow as well as the USSR national football team in the Olympics.

Waleri Georgijewitsch Gassajew (; ; * 7. August 1954 in Ordschonikidse, UdSSR) ist ein ehemaliger erfolgreicher sowjetischer Fußballspieler (Stürmer) und Trainer des ZSKA Moskau. Von 2002 bis 2003 war er Trainer der russischen Fußballnationalmannschaft.


Concept.

Remunda and Klusák invented the "Český sen" ("Czech dream") hypermarket and created a massive advertising campaign around it. Posing as businessmen, the two film students managed to persuade an ad agency and a public relations agency to create a campaign for them. Billboards appeared on Czech highways, and 200,000 pamphlets were distributed in Prague. A jingle was recorded, and there was a series of television commercials. The advertising campaign slogans were "don't come" and "don't spend", etc.  Still, the filmmakers succeeded in attracting more than 3000 shoppers to an empty plain for their "grand opening" on May 31, 2003. What looked like a huge building from a distance was actually only a canvas facade backed by scaffolding.  As customers gathered, trinkets and small gifts were available—key chains and flags—so that everyone would leave with something. A master of ceremonies kept up a commentary as people gathered and finally asked Klusák and Remunda, the "managers", to cut a ribbon. After this, the barricades were removed, and people could walk or run towards the facade.  When the "customers" finally realized that they had been deceived, they reacted in different ways. Some understood the filmmakers' message, some tried to take it optimistically ("At least we had some fresh air"), but most were angry, and many decided to blame the government. Still, there was no violence against the authors.  The idea for the hoax came from a 2002 study by Incoma Research reporting that 30% of Czechs shop mainly at hypermarkets. There has been growing concern in the country about the growth of advertising and consumerism.

Prizes.

The film won prizes at festivals in Kraków, Jihlava, Ljubljana, Århus, and Pilsen.  On September 8, 2006, it was broadcast by ARTE, and on September 26, 2006, by Australia's Special Broadcasting Service TV. On January 30, 2007, it was broadcast by the VPRO, and on October 9, 2007, by More 4. It was also broadcast by TVR Cultural on January 20, 2009, and Link TV in the USA on June 2, 2011.

Czech Dream () is a 2004 documentary film directed by two Czech film directors, Vít Klusák and Filip Remunda. It recorded a large-scale hoax perpetrated by Klusák and Remunda on the Czech public, culminating in the opening event of a fake hypermarket in the Letňany neighborhood of Prague. The film was their graduation project for film school.

Tschechischer Traum "(Originaltitel: Český sen)" ist der Abschlussfilm der ehemaligen tschechischen Filmakademiestudenten Vít Klusák und Filip Remunda. Er dokumentiert die Geschichte rund um die Eröffnung eines fiktiven Einkaufszentrums mit dem gleichen Namen.


Life and career.

Perkins was born on March 28, 1905, in Carthage, Missouri, the youngest of three sons of Joseph Dudley Perkins and Mynta Mae (née Miller) Perkins. When he was seven years old, his mother nursed him through a serious bout of pneumonia and died of the illness herself. His grieving father sent Marlin's two older brothers to private school, and Marlin was sent to his Aunt Laura's farm in Pittsburg, Kansas. He attended public school there through eighth grade. In the fall of 1919, he entered Wentworth Military Academy. There, Perkins demonstrated his fascination with snakes by keeping blue racers in his room. One afternoon, while exercising them on a lawn at the back of the barracks, he was spotted by a faculty officer and got in trouble for handling them.  Perkins briefly attended the University of Missouri, but quit school to become a laborer at the Saint Louis Zoological Park. He rose through the ranks, becoming the reptile curator in 1928. After being hired as a curator of the Buffalo Zoological Park in Buffalo, New York, Perkins was eventually promoted to director in 1938. He then served as director at the Lincoln Park Zoo in Chicago, Illinois, from 1944 until 1962, when he returned to the St. Louis Zoo, this time as director. During his time at the Lincoln Park Zoo, Perkins joined Sir Edmund Hillary as the zoologist for Hillary's 1960 Himalayan expedition to search for the legendary Yeti.  Perkins was the host of "Zoo Parade", a television program that originated from the Lincoln Park Zoo on NBC station WNBQ-TV (now WMAQ-TV) when he was the director there. During a rehearsal of "Zoo Parade", he was bitten by a timber rattlesnake, one of several bites from venomous snakes Perkins suffered throughout his career (over the years he was also bitten by a cottonmouth and a Gaboon viper). Although the incident occurred during a pre-show rehearsal and was not filmed, it has become something of an urban legend, with many people "remembering" seeing Perkins receive the bite on television.  As a result of his work on "Zoo Parade" Perkins was offered the job in 1963 for which most North Americans remember him: host of the nature show "Wild Kingdom". The fame he gained in his television career allowed him to become an advocate for the protection of endangered species, and through "Wild Kingdom" he gave many Americans their first exposure to the conservation movement. Perkins also helped establish the Wild Canid Survival and Research Center (WCSRC) near St. Louis in 1971. This wolf sanctuary has been instrumental in breeding wolves for eventual re-placement into their natural habitats.  Perkins retired from active zookeeping in 1970 and from "Wild Kingdom" in 1985 for health reasons. Perkins remained with the Saint Louis Zoo as Director Emeritus until his death on June 14, 1986, when he died of cancer.

Commemorations.

In 1990, Marlin Perkins was inducted into the St. Louis Walk of Fame. A statue of Perkins also stands in Central Park in his hometown of Carthage, Missouri.  Perkins received an American Education Award in 1974. He was also granted honorary doctoral degrees from the University of Missouri—Columbia; Northland College in Ashland, Wisc.; Rockhurst College in Kansas City, Mo.; MacMurray College in Jacksonville, Ill.; and the College of St. Mary in Omaha, Nebr.

Personal life.

He married his first wife, Elise More, in 1933 and their daughter, Suzanne, was born in 1937. Marlin and Elise were married for 20 years and divorced in 1953. He married his wife Carol in 1960; they were married until his death from lymphatic cancer on June 14, 1986.

Richard Marlin Perkins (March 28, 1905 – June 14, 1986) was an American zoologist best known as a host of the television program "Mutual of Omaha's Wild Kingdom" from 1963 to 1985.

Marlin Perkins (* 28. März 1905 in Carthage, Missouri; † 14. Juni 1986 in Clayton, Missouri) war ein US-amerikanischer Zoologe und Zoodirektor.


History.

Prevailing consensus is that Galileo Galilei made the first attempts at developing a theory of beams, but recent studies argue that Leonardo da Vinci was the first to make the crucial observations. Da Vinci lacked Hooke's law and calculus to complete the theory, whereas Galileo was held back by an incorrect assumption he made.  The Bernoulli beam is named after Jacob Bernoulli, who made the significant discoveries. Leonhard Euler and Daniel Bernoulli were the first to put together a useful theory circa 1750. At the time, science and engineering were generally seen as very distinct fields, and there was considerable doubt that a mathematical product of academia could be trusted for practical safety applications. Bridges and buildings continued to be designed by precedent until the late 19th century, when the Eiffel Tower and Ferris wheel demonstrated the validity of the theory on large scales.

Static beam equation.

The Euler–Bernoulli equation describes the relationship between the beam's deflection and the applied load:  The curve formula_2 describes the deflection of the beam in the formula_3 direction at some position formula_4 (recall that the beam is modeled as a one-dimensional object). formula_5 is a distributed load, in other words a force per unit length (analogous to pressure being a force per area); it may be a function of formula_4, formula_7, or other variables. formula_8 is the elastic modulus and formula_9 is the second moment of area of the beam's cross-section. formula_9 must be calculated with respect to the axis which passes through the centroid of the cross-section and which is perpendicular to the applied loading. Explicitly, for a beam whose axis is oriented along "x" with a loading along "z", the beam's cross-section is in the "yz" plane, and the relevant second moment of area is where it is assumed that the centroid of the cross-section occurs at "y" = "z" = 0.  Often, the product formula_12 (known as the flexural rigidity) is a constant, so that  This equation, describing the deflection of a uniform, static beam, is used widely in engineering practice. Tabulated expressions for the deflection formula_7 for common beam configurations can be found in engineering handbooks. For more complicated situations, the deflection can be determined by solving the Euler–Bernoulli equation using techniques such as "direct integration", "Macaulay's method", "moment area method, "conjugate beam method", "the principle of virtual work", "Castigliano's method", "flexibility method", "slope deflection method", "moment distribution method", or "direct stiffness method".  Sign conventions are defined here since different conventions can be found in the literature. In this article, a right-handed coordinate system is used as shown in the figure, Bending of an Euler–Bernoulli beam.. Since formula_15 where formula_16, formula_17, and formula_18 are unit vectors in the direction of the x, y, and z axes respectively, the y axis direction is into the figure. Forces acting in the positive formula_4 and formula_3 directions are assumed positive. The sign of the bending moment formula_21 is positive when the torque vector associated with the bending moment on the right hand side of the section is in the positive y direction (i.e. so that a positive value of formula_21 leads to a compressive stress at the bottom fibers). With this choice of bending moment sign convention, in order to have formula_23, it is necessary that the shear force formula_24 acting on the right side of the section be positive in the z direction so as to achieve static equilibrium of moments. To have force equilibrium with formula_25, the loading intensity formula_5 must be positive in the negative z direction. In addition to these sign conventions for scalar quantities, we also sometimes use vectors in which the directions of the vectors is made clear through the use of the unit vectors, formula_16, formula_17, and formula_18.  Successive derivatives of the deflection formula_7 have important physical meanings: formula_31 is the slope of the beam, is the bending moment in the beam, and is the shear force in the beam.  The stresses in a beam can be calculated from the above expressions after the deflection due to a given load has been determined.

Derivation of the bending equation.

Because of the fundamental importance of the bending moment equation in engineering, we will provide a short derivation. We change to polar coordinates. The length of the neutral axis in the figure is formula_34 The length of a fiber with a radial distance formula_3 below the neutral axis is formula_36 Therefore, the strain of this fiber is  The stress of this fiber is formula_38 where formula_8 is the elastic modulus in accordance with Hooke's Law. The differential force vector, formula_40 resulting from this stress is given by,  This is the differential force vector exerted on the right hand side of the section shown in the figure. We know that it is in the formula_16 direction since the figure clearly shows that the fibers in the lower half are in tension. formula_43 is the differential element of area at the location of the fiber. The differential bending moment vector, formula_44 associated with formula_45 is given by  This expression is valid for the fibers in the lower half of the beam. The expression for the fibers in the upper half of the beam will be similar except that the moment arm vector will be in the positive z direction and the force vector will be in the -x direction since the upper fibers are in compression. But the resulting bending moment vector will still be in the -y direction since formula_47 Therefore, we integrate over the entire cross section of the beam and get for formula_48 the bending moment vector exerted on the right cross section of the beam the expression  where formula_9 is the second moment of area. From calculus, we know that when formula_51 is small as it is for an Euler–Bernoulli beam, formula_52 (formula_53 is the radius of curvature). Therefore,  This vector equation can be separated in the bending unit vector definition (M is oriented as ey), and in the bending equation:

Dynamic beam equation.

The dynamic beam equation is the Euler–Lagrange equation for the following action The first term represents the kinetic energy where formula_57 is the mass per unit length; the second one represents the potential energy due to internal forces (when considered with a negative sign) and the third term represents the potential energy due to the external load formula_58. The Euler–Lagrange equation is used to determine the function that minimizes the functional formula_59. For a dynamic Euler–Bernoulli beam, the Euler–Lagrange equation is  When the beam is homogeneous, formula_8 and formula_9 are independent of formula_4, and the beam equation is simpler:

Free vibration.

In the absence of a transverse load, formula_5, we have the free vibration equation. This equation can be solved using a Fourier decomposition of the displacement into the sum of harmonic vibrations of the form where formula_67 is the frequency of vibration. Then, for each value of frequency, we can solve an ordinary differential equation The general solution of the above equation is where formula_70 are constants. These constants are unique for a given set of boundary conditions. However, the solution for the displacement is not unique and depends on the frequency. These solutions are typically written as The quantities formula_72 are called the natural frequencies of the beam. Each of the displacement solutions is called a mode and the shape of the displacement curve is called the mode shape.

Example: Cantilevered beam.

The boundary conditions for a cantilevered beam of length formula_73 (fixed at formula_74) are If we apply these conditions, non-trivial solutions are found to exist only if formula_76 This nonlinear equation can be solved numerically. The first few roots are "β L/π" = 0.59686..., "β L/π" = 1.49418..., "β L/π" = 2.50025..., "β L/π" = 3.49999...,...  The corresponding natural frequencies of vibration are The boundary conditions can also be used to determine the mode shapes from the solution for the displacement: The unknown constant (actually constants as there is one for each formula_79), formula_80, which in general is complex, is determined by the initial conditions at formula_81 on the velocity and displacements of the beam. Typically a value of formula_82 is used when plotting mode shapes. Solutions to the undampened forced problem have unbounded displacements when the driving frequency matches a natural frequency formula_72, i.e., the beam can resonate. The natural frequencies of a beam therefore correspond to the frequencies at which resonance can occur.

Example: unsupported (free-free) beam.

A free-free beam is a beam without any supports. The boundary conditions for a free beam of length "L" extending from "x"=0 to "x"=L is given by:  If we apply these conditions, non-trivial solutions are found to exist only if formula_85  This nonlinear equation can be solved numerically. The first few roots are "β L/π" = 1.50562..., "β L/π" = 2.49975..., "β L/π" = 3.50001..., "β L/π" = 4.50000...  The corresponding natural frequencies of vibration are: The boundary conditions can also be used to determine the mode shapes from the solution for the displacement: As with the cantilevered beam, the unknown constants are determined by the initial conditions at formula_81 on the velocity and displacements of the beam. Also, solutions to the undampened forced problem have unbounded displacements when the driving frequency matches a natural frequency formula_72.

Stress.

Besides deflection, the beam equation describes forces and moments and can thus be used to describe stresses. For this reason, the Euler–Bernoulli beam equation is widely used in engineering, especially civil and mechanical, to determine the strength (as well as deflection) of beams under bending.  Both the bending moment and the shear force cause stresses in the beam. The stress due to shear force is maximum along the neutral axis of the beam (when the width of the beam, t, is constant along the cross section of the beam; otherwise an integral involving the first moment and the beam's width needs to be evaluated for the particular cross section), and the maximum tensile stress is at either the top or bottom surfaces. Thus the maximum principal stress in the beam may be neither at the surface nor at the center but in some general area. However, shear force stresses are negligible in comparison to bending moment stresses in all but the stockiest of beams as well as the fact that stress concentrations commonly occur at surfaces, meaning that the maximum stress in a beam is likely to be at the surface.

Simple or symmetrical bending.

For beam cross-sections that are symmetrical about a plane perpendicular to the neutral plane, it can be shown that the tensile stress experienced by the beam may be expressed as:  Here, formula_3 is the distance from the neutral axis to a point of interest; and formula_21 is the bending moment. Note that this equation implies that pure bending (of positive sign) will cause zero stress at the neutral axis, positive (tensile) stress at the "top" of the beam, and negative (compressive) stress at the bottom of the beam; and also implies that the maximum stress will be at the top surface and the minimum at the bottom. This bending stress may be superimposed with axially applied stresses, which will cause a shift in the neutral (zero stress) axis.

Maximum stresses at a cross-section.

The maximum tensile stress at a cross-section is at the location formula_93 and the maximum compressive stress is at the location formula_94 where the height of the cross-section is formula_95. These stresses are The quantities formula_97 are the section moduli and are defined as The section modulus combines all the important geometric information about a beam's section into one quantity. For the case where a beam is doubly symmetric, formula_99 and we have one section modulus formula_100.

Strain in an Euler–Bernoulli beam.

We need an expression for the strain in terms of the deflection of the neutral surface to relate the stresses in an Euler–Bernoulli beam to the deflection. To obtain that expression we use the assumption that normals to the neutral surface remain normal during the deformation and that deflections are small. These assumptions imply that the beam bends into an arc of a circle of radius formula_101 (see Figure 1) and that the neutral surface does not change in length during the deformation.  Let formula_102 be the length of an element of the neutral surface in the undeformed state. For small deflections, the element does not change its length after bending but deforms into an arc of a circle of radius formula_101. If formula_104 is the angle subtended by this arc, then formula_105.  Let us now consider another segment of the element at a distance formula_3 above the neutral surface. The initial length of this element is formula_102. However, after bending, the length of the element becomes formula_108. The strain in that segment of the beam is given by where formula_110 is the curvature of the beam. This gives us the axial strain in the beam as a function of distance from the neutral surface. However, we still need to find a relation between the radius of curvature and the beam deflection formula_7.

Relation between curvature and beam deflection.

Let P be a point on the neutral surface of the beam at a distance formula_4 from the origin of the formula_113 coordinate system. The slope of the beam is approximately equal to the angle made by the neutral surface with the formula_4-axis for the small angles encountered in beam theory. Therefore, with this approximation, Therefore, for an infinitesimal element formula_102, the relation formula_105 can be written as Hence the strain in the beam may be expressed as

Stress-strain relations.

For a homogeneous isotropic linear elastic material, the stress is related to the strain by formula_120, where formula_8 is the Young's modulus. Hence the stress in an Euler–Bernoulli beam is given by Note that the above relation, when compared with the relation between the axial stress and the bending moment, leads to Since the shear force is given by formula_124, we also have

Boundary considerations.

The beam equation contains a fourth-order derivative in formula_4. To find a unique solution formula_127 we need four boundary conditions. The boundary conditions usually model "supports", but they can also model point loads, distributed loads and moments. The "support" or displacement boundary conditions are used to fix values of displacement (formula_7) and rotations (formula_129) on the boundary. Such boundary conditions are also called Dirichlet boundary conditions. Load and moment boundary conditions involve higher derivatives of formula_7 and represent momentum flux. Flux boundary conditions are also called Neumann boundary conditions.  As an example consider a cantilever beam that is built-in at one end and free at the other as shown in the adjacent figure. At the built-in end of the beam there cannot be any displacement or rotation of the beam. This means that at the left end both deflection and slope are zero. Since no external bending moment is applied at the free end of the beam, the bending moment at that location is zero. In addition, if there is no external force applied to the beam, the shear force at the free end is also zero.  Taking the formula_4 coordinate of the left end as formula_132 and the right end as formula_73 (the length of the beam), these statements translate to the following set of boundary conditions (assume formula_12 is a constant):  A simple support (pin or roller) is equivalent to a point force on the beam which is adjusted in such a way as to fix the position of the beam at that point. A fixed support or clamp, is equivalent to the combination of a point force and a point torque which is adjusted in such a way as to fix both the position and slope of the beam at that point. Point forces and torques, whether from supports or directly applied, will divide a beam into a set of segments, between which the beam equation will yield a continuous solution, given four boundary conditions, two at each end of the segment. Assuming that the product "EI" is a constant, and defining formula_137 where "F" is the magnitude of a point force, and formula_138 where "M" is the magnitude of a point torque, the boundary conditions appropriate for some common cases is given in the table below. The change in a particular derivative of "w" across the boundary as "x" increases is denoted by formula_139 followed by that derivative. For example, formula_140 where formula_141 is the value of formula_142 at the lower boundary of the upper segment, while formula_143 is the value of formula_142 at the upper boundary of the lower segment. When the values of the particular derivative are not only continuous across the boundary, but fixed as well, the boundary condition is written e.g., formula_145 which actually constitutes two separate equations (e.g., formula_146 = fixed).  Note that in the first cases, in which the point forces and torques are located between two segments, there are four boundary conditions, two for the lower segment, and two for the upper. When forces and torques are applied to one end of the beam, there are two boundary conditions given which apply at that end. The sign of the point forces and torques at an end will be positive for the lower end, negative for the upper end.

Loading considerations.

Applied loads may be represented either through boundary conditions or through the function formula_147 which represents an external distributed load. Using distributed loading is often favorable for simplicity. Boundary conditions are, however, often used to model loads depending on context; this practice being especially common in vibration analysis.  By nature, the distributed load is very often represented in a piecewise manner, since in practice a load isn't typically a continuous function. Point loads can be modeled with help of the Dirac delta function. For example, consider a static uniform cantilever beam of length formula_73 with an upward point load formula_149 applied at the free end. Using boundary conditions, this may be modeled in two ways. In the first approach, the applied point load is approximated by a shear force applied at the free end. In that case the governing equation and boundary conditions are:  Alternatively we can represent the point load as a distribution using the Dirac function. In that case the equation and boundary conditions are  Note that shear force boundary condition (third derivative) is removed, otherwise there would be a contradiction. These are equivalent boundary value problems, and both yield the solution  The application of several point loads at different locations will lead to formula_2 being a piecewise function. Use of the Dirac function greatly simplifies such situations; otherwise the beam would have to be divided into sections, each with four boundary conditions solved separately. A well organized family of functions called Singularity functions are often used as a shorthand for the Dirac function, its derivative, and its antiderivatives.  Dynamic phenomena can also be modeled using the static beam equation by choosing appropriate forms of the load distribution. As an example, the free vibration of a beam can be accounted for by using the load function:  where formula_57 is the linear mass density of the beam, not necessarily a constant. With this time-dependent loading, the beam equation will be a partial differential equation:  Another interesting example describes the deflection of a beam rotating with a constant angular frequency of formula_67:  This is a centripetal force distribution. Note that in this case, formula_5 is a function of the displacement (the dependent variable), and the beam equation will be an autonomous ordinary differential equation.

Examples.

Three-point bending.

The three point bending test is a classical experiment in mechanics. It represents the case of a beam resting on two roller supports and subjected to a concentrated load applied in the middle of the beam. The shear is constant in absolute value: it is half the central load, P / 2. It changes sign in the middle of the beam. The bending moment varies linearly from one end, where it is 0, and the center where its absolute value is PL / 4, is where the risk of rupture is the most important. The deformation of the beam is described by a polynomial of third degree over a half beam (the other half being symmetrical).  The bending moments (formula_21), shear forces (formula_161), and deflections (formula_7) for a beam subjected to a central point load and an asymmetric point load are given in the table below.

Cantilever beams.

Another important class of problems involves cantilever beams. The bending moments (formula_21), shear forces (formula_161), and deflections (formula_7) for a cantilever beam subjected to a point load at the free end and a uniformly distributed load are given in the table below. Solutions for several other commonly encountered configurations are readily available in textbooks on mechanics of materials and engineering handbooks.

Statically indeterminate beams.

The bending moments and shear forces in Euler–Bernoulli beams can often be determined directly using static balance of forces and moments. However, for certain boundary conditions, the number of reactions can exceed the number of independent equilibrium equations. Such beams are called "statically indeterminate".  The built-in beams shown in the figure below are statically indeterminate. To determine the stresses and deflections of such beams, the most direct method is to solve the Euler–Bernoulli beam equation with appropriate boundary conditions. But direct analytical solutions of the beam equation are possible only for the simplest cases. Therefore, additional techniques such as linear superposition are often used to solve statically indeterminate beam problems.  The superposition method involves adding the solutions of a number of statically determinate problems which are chosen such that the boundary conditions for the sum of the individual problems add up to those of the original problem.  Another commonly encountered statically indeterminate beam problem is the cantilevered beam with the free end supported on a roller. The bending moments, shear forces, and deflections of such a beam are listed below:

Extensions.

The kinematic assumptions upon which the Euler–Bernoulli beam theory is founded allow it to be extended to more advanced analysis. Simple superposition allows for three-dimensional transverse loading. Using alternative constitutive equations can allow for viscoelastic or plastic beam deformation. Euler–Bernoulli beam theory can also be extended to the analysis of curved beams, beam buckling, composite beams, and geometrically nonlinear beam deflection.  Euler–Bernoulli beam theory does not account for the effects of transverse shear strain. As a result, it underpredicts deflections and overpredicts natural frequencies. For thin beams (beam length to thickness ratios of the order 20 or more) these effects are of minor importance. For thick beams, however, these effects can be significant. More advanced beam theories such as the Timoshenko beam theory (developed by the Russian-born scientist Stephen Timoshenko) have been developed to account for these effects.

Large deflections.

The original Euler–Bernoulli theory is valid only for infinitesimal strains and small rotations. The theory can be extended in a straightforward manner to problems involving moderately large rotations provided that the strain remains small by using the von Kármán strains.  The Euler–Bernoulli hypotheses that plane sections remain plane and normal to the axis of the beam lead to displacements of the form Using the definition of the Lagrangian Green strain from finite strain theory, we can find the "von Karman strains" for the beam that are valid for large rotations but small strains. These strains have the form From the principle of virtual work, the balance of forces and moments in the beams gives us the equilibrium equations where formula_169 is the axial load, formula_170 is the transverse load, and To close the system of equations we need the constitutive equations that relate stresses to strains (and hence stresses to displacements). For large rotations and small strains these relations are where The quantity formula_174 is the "extensional stiffness",formula_175 is the coupled "extensional-bending stiffness", and formula_176 is the "bending stiffness".  For the situation where the beam has a uniform cross-section and no axial load, the governing equation for a large-rotation Euler–Bernoulli beam is

Euler–Bernoulli beam theory (also known as engineer's beam theory or classical beam theory) is a simplification of the linear theory of elasticity which provides a means of calculating the load-carrying and deflection characteristics of beams. It covers the case for small deflections of a beam that are subjected to lateral loads only. It is thus a special case of Timoshenko beam theory. It was first enunciated circa 1750, but was not applied on a large scale until the development of the Eiffel Tower and the Ferris wheel in the late 19th century. Following these successful demonstrations, it quickly became a cornerstone of engineering and an enabler of the Second Industrial Revolution.

Die Balkentheorie beschreibt das Verhalten von Balken unter Belastung. Sie ist ein Teilgebiet der technischen Mechanik. Insbesondere wird mithilfe der Festigkeitslehre und der Elastizitätslehre die elastische Biegung eines Balkens untersucht, weshalb man auch von der Biegetheorie des Balkens spricht.


History.

There are currently five generations of the FCHV, beginning with preliminary prototypes FCHV-1 (1997) and FCHV-2 (1999). The FCHV-3 was presented at the "International Symposium on Fuel-Cell Vehicles" in March 2001 in Tokyo, and the FCHV-4 was the first production version, although Toyota did not plan a full-scale commercial hydrogen fuel cell vehicle launch until around 2015.  As of 2008 the FCHV-adv was available for lease in Japan. The use of the vehicles by government ministries and companies is intended to provide detailed development feedback on the FCHV performance under varied driving conditions.  In 2007 a FCHV was driven between Osaka and Tokyo on a single tank of hydrogen, proving that a hydrogen vehicle could compete with conventional vehicles for range. In August 2009, Toyota USA announced an estimated FCHV-adv range of from a tank of hydrogen, based on a test trip in "real-world" conditions between Torrance and San Diego, California.

FCHV system.

The FCHV designs are based on the first generation Highlander SUV, although a bus version is also in development. The powertrain consists of a 90 kW fuel cell supplied from onboard compressed hydrogen tanks, and a nickel–metal hydride battery in parallel. Battery and fuel cell can provide power to the 90 kW driving motors either singly or together. The mechanism is very similar to the Hybrid Synergy Drive in the Toyota Prius and Toyota Auris HSD but with the fuel cell replacing the petrol internal combustion engine, thus minimising greenhouse gas emissions at point of use.  At low speeds the FCHV can run on battery alone, with a range of about. For high performance, such as when accelerating from rest, the fuel cell and battery supply power in tandem. The battery can also charge by regenerative braking, improving overall efficiency.

Hydrogen storage.

The 700 Bar (10000 PSI) hydrogen tanks holds 156 liters - enough fuel for a range of on the Japanese 10-15 test cycle and on the Japanese JC08 test cycle. Test vehicles on the Japanese 10-15 test cycle average with a top speed of. Vehicles on the JC08 test cycle average and a top speed of.

Models.

FCHV-BUS.

The Toyota FCHV-BUS is a fuel cell bus based on the Hino Blue Ribbon City(KL-HU2PMEE) low-floor bus.  FCHV-BUS demonstrated at Toei Bus (August 2003 - December 2004) and Expo 2005. After Expo 2005, some were lent to bus fleet operators, and also demonstrated in fuel cell events.

FC Bus.

The Toyota FC Bus was made from 2015.

SORA.

The Toyota SORA will be made from 2018.

Project Portal trucks.

Toyota started testing two Mirai fuel cells (114 kW each) in a converted Kenworth T680 electric Class 8 semi-trailer truck in the Port of Los Angeles in April 2017 as part of 'Project Portal', doing drayage for Toyota. The truck has two motors for a combined and of torque, a 200 kW 12 kWh battery, and a fixed gear ratio of 15.5:1. It has a range of determined by the size of the hydrogen tanks. It accelerates (empty) from in 7 seconds. The motors are mainly powered by the fuel cells rather than from the small battery. Toyota added a terminal tractor to the project in 2019.

Cultural impact.

Prophets of Science Fiction.

The FCHV is featured in the Jules Verne episode of the Science Channel program Prophets of Science Fiction. Some measure of credit is given to Jules Verne in the episode, for helping to inspire the idea.

The Toyota FCHV is a current hybrid hydrogen fuel cell vehicle development programme of the Toyota Motor Corporation, which was leased to a limited number of drivers in the United States and Japan beginning in 2002. "FCHV" stands for "Fuel Cell Hybrid Vehicle". A number of prototypes have been produced, up to the latest FCHV-adv ("advanced").

Der Toyota FCHV ist eine Serie von Prototypen eines Wasserstoff-Brennstoffzellenfahrzeugs, vorgestellt 2001. Der Nachfolger der FCHV-Prototypen ist der in Großserie gebaute Toyota Mirai.


Early life and background.

Whitson grew up on a farm outside the town of Beaconsfield, Iowa with her sister, Kathy and her parents, Keith and Beth. Her parents were farmers and her decision to become an astronaut came after she watched the first moon landing on television as a child in 1969. Whitson graduated from Mount Ayr Community High School in 1978 and received a bachelor of science degree in biology and chemistry from Iowa Wesleyan College in 1981. She then went on to earn her doctorate degree in biochemistry from Rice University in 1986, and following completion of her graduate work, continued at Rice as a Robert A Welch Post-doctoral Fellow until October 1986. She is married to Clarence F. Sams.

Research career.

Following her fellowship at Rice, she began working at Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, as a National Research Council Resident Research Associate. From April 1988 until September 1989, Whitson served as the Supervisor for the Biochemistry Research Group at KRUG International, a medical sciences contractor at NASA-JSC.  From 1991 through 1997, Whitson was invited to be an adjunct assistant professor in the Department of Internal Medicine and the Department of Human Biological Chemistry and Genetics at the University of Texas Medical Branch in Galveston, Texas. In 1997, Whitson began a position as adjunct assistant professor at Rice University in the Maybee Laboratory for Biochemical and Genetic Engineering.  From 1992 to 1995, she served as project scientist for the Shuttle-Mir Program and, until her selection as an astronaut candidate in 1996, as deputy division chief for the Medical Sciences division at the Johnson Space Center.

NASA career.

From 1989 to 1993, Whitson worked as a research biochemist in the Biomedical Operations and Research Branch at NASA-JSC. From 1991 to 1993, she served as technical monitor of the Biochemistry Research Laboratories in the Biomedical Operations and Research Branch. From 1991 through 1992, she was the payload element developer for Bone Cell Research Experiment (E10) aboard SL-J (STS-47), and was a member of the US-USSR Joint Working Group in Space Medicine and Biology. In 1992, she was named the project scientist of the Shuttle-Mir Program (STS-60, STS-63, STS-71, Mir 18, Mir 19), and served in this capacity until the conclusion of the Phase 1A Program in 1995. From 1993 through 1996, Whitson held the additional responsibilities of the deputy division chief of the Medical Sciences Division at NASA-JSC. From 1995–1996, she served as co-chair of the U.S.-Russian Mission Science Working Group.  In April 1996, Whitson was selected as an astronaut candidate and started training in August 1996. Upon completing the two years of training and evaluation, she was assigned technical duties in the Astronaut Office Operations Planning Branch, and served as the lead for the Crew Test Support Team in Russia from 1998 to 1999. In June 2003, Whitson served as the commander of the mission aboard the Aquarius underwater laboratory, living and working underwater for fourteen days. From November 2003 to March 2005, she served as deputy chief of the Astronaut Office. From March 2005 to November 2005, she served as chief of the Station Operations Branch, Astronaut Office.

Chief of the Astronaut Office.

Whitson was appointed NASA Chief of the Astronaut Office in October 2009, replacing Steven W. Lindsey. Whitson was the first female, and first non-pilot to serve as Chief Astronaut. She resigned when she went back on active flight status in July 2012, replaced by Robert Behnken. Whitson has also served twice as the Commander of the International Space Station.

Spaceflight experience.

Expedition 5.

The Expedition 5 crew launched on June 5, 2002, aboard STS-111 and docked with the International Space Station on June 7, 2002. During her six-month stay aboard the Space Station, Whitson installed the Mobile Base System, the S1 truss segment, and the P1 truss segment using the space station remote manipulator system; performed a 4-hour and 25 minute spacewalk in a Russian Orlan space suit to install micrometeoroid shielding on the Zvezda Service Module; and activated and checked out the Microgravity Sciences Glovebox, a facility class payload rack.  Whitson was named the first NASA science officer during her stay, and she conducted 21 investigations in human life sciences and microgravity sciences, as well as commercial payloads. The Expedition 5 crew returned to Earth aboard STS-113 on December 7, 2002. Completing her first flight, Whitson logged 184 days, 22 hours and 14 minutes in space.

Expedition 16.

Her second mission, Expedition 16, launched October 10, 2007, on Soyuz TMA-11. Along with her Expedition 16 crew member Yuri Malenchenko and spaceflight participant Yi So-yeon, she returned to Earth in Soyuz TMA-11 on April 19, 2008. The re-entry was remarkable for the failure of the Soyuz propulsion module to separate properly, and the subsequent "ballistic reentry" which subjected the crew to forces about eight times that of Earth surface gravity. She spent 191 days, 19 hrs and 8 mins in space on this mission.  On December 18, 2007, during the fourth spacewalk of Expedition 16 to inspect the S4 starboard Solar Alpha Rotary Joint (SARJ), the ground team in Mission Control informed Whitson that she had become the female astronaut with the most cumulative EVA time in NASA history, as well as the most EVAs, with her fifth EVA. Three hours and 37 minutes into the spacewalk, Whitson surpassed NASA astronaut Sunita Williams with a total time at that point of 29 hours and 18 minutes. At the completion of Whitson's fifth EVA, the 100th in support of ISS assembly and maintenance, Whitson's cumulative EVA time became 32 hours, and 36 minutes, which placed her in 20th place for total EVA time. Her sixth spacewalk, also during Expedition 16, brought her cumulative EVA time to 39 hours, 46 minutes, which ranked her 23rd for total EVA time as of November 2009.

Expedition 50/51/52.

Peggy Whitson arrived at the International Space Station on November 19, 2016, on Expedition 50/51, which was launched on November 17, 2016, from the Baikonur cosmodrome in Kazakhstan. She became the commander of Expedition 51. With the launch of Expedition 50/51 with her on it, Whitson, at age 56, became the oldest woman to fly into space. During the mission, she broke the record for cumulative time spent in space by a U.S. astronaut, surpassing the previous record of 534 days set by Jeff Williams. In early April 2017, her mission was extended by an additional 3 months at the International Space Station. On September 3, she returned in a previously vacant seat on the Soyuz capsule accompanied by NASA's Jack Fischer and Fyodor Yurchikhin of Roscosmos.  In January 2017, Whitson performed her seventh EVA. along with Expedition 50 commander Shane Kimbrough. During the EVA, they installed three new adapter plates and hooked up electrical connectors preparing the way to replace the ISS batteries. The EVA lasted 6 hours and 32 minutes. Whitson now holds the record for the oldest female spacewalker, and is now tied with the record for total spacewalks by a woman (seven), along with Sunita Williams. After completion of the seventh EVA, Whitson's cumulative EVA time became 46 hours, 18 minutes, which placed her in 13th place for total EVA time.  On April 24, 2017, Whitson officially broke the record for longest amount of time spent in space by any NASA astronaut. As a result, she received a televised phone call from the Oval Office from US President Donald Trump, the President's daughter Ivanka, and fellow astronaut Kathleen Rubins. When interviewed on that day she declared 'It is actually a huge honor to break a record like this, but it is an honor for me back to be representing all the folks at NASA'.  On May 12, 2017, Whitson performed her ninth career EVA with Jack Fischer. After a short delay due to leaking equipment, they replaced an avionics box on the starboard truss called an ExPRESS Logistics Carrier (ELC), a storage platform. The duration was 4 hours and 13 minutes, and it was the 200th EVA to be performed on the ISS.  On May 23, 2017, Whitson performed her tenth career EVA with Fischer. They replaced a backup multiplexer-demultiplexer (MDM) unit that had failed on May 20, 2017. The duration was 2 hours and 46 minutes, making Whitson's cumulative EVA time more than 60 hours, placing her third on the list for most EVA time.  On June 1, 2017, Whitson passed over the command of the International Space Station to Fyodor Yurchikhin, who was named commander of Expedition 52 until he, Whitson and Jack Fischer returned to Earth aboard Soyuz MS-04 in September 2017.  Whitson returned to earth on September 3, 2017 after she accrued a total of 665 days in space over the course of her career. This total was more time in space than any other woman worldwide and any other American. She is ranked eighth on the list of total time spent in space. The duration of her stay in space during expeditions 50/51/52 was 289 days, 5 hours and 1 minute.In June 2020, Whitson was a guest (along with two imposters) on an ABC-TV "To Tell the Truth" episode in which none of the panelists correctly selected her as the record-holding time in space astronaut.

Peggy Annette Whitson (born February 9, 1960) is an American biochemistry researcher, retired NASA astronaut, and former NASA Chief Astronaut. Her first space mission was in 2002, with an extended stay aboard the International Space Station as a member of Expedition 5. Her second mission launched October 10, 2007, as the first female commander of the ISS with Expedition 16. She was on her third long-duration space flight and was the commander of the International Space Station for Expedition 51, before handing over command to Fyodor Yurchikhin on June 1, 2017.

Peggy Annette Whitson (* 9. Februar 1960 in Mount Ayr, Iowa, USA) ist eine ehemalige amerikanische Astronautin. Sie hält mit insgesamt 665 Tagen den Rekord als Amerikanerin und als Frau mit der längsten Gesamtaufenthaltsdauer im All. Mit insgesamt 60 Stunden und 21 Minuten hält sie außerdem den Rekord für die längste Gesamtzeit, die sich eine Frau außerhalb eines Raumfahrzeugs aufhielt. Außerdem hält sie den Rekord für die meisten Außenbordeinsätze einer Frau mit insgesamt 10 Einsätzen.


History.

The Mediterranean region contains the earliest archeological evidence of human use; the oldest known seeds date back to more than 5000 BCE in the Neolithic age with purposes such as food, anaesthetics, and ritual. Evidence from ancient Greece indicates that opium was consumed in several ways, including inhalation of vapors, suppositories, medical poultices, and as a combination with hemlock for suicide. The Sumerian, Assyrian, Egyptian, Indian, Minoan, Greek, Roman, Persian and Arab Empires all made widespread use of opium, which was the most potent form of pain relief then available, allowing ancient surgeons to perform prolonged surgical procedures. Opium is mentioned in the most important medical texts of the ancient world, including the Ebers Papyrus and the writings of Dioscorides, Galen, and Avicenna. Widespread medical use of unprocessed opium continued through the American Civil War before giving way to morphine and its successors, which could be injected at a precisely controlled dosage.

Ancient use (pre-500 CE).

Opium has been actively collected since prehistoric times, since approximately 3400 BCE. The upper Asian belt of Afghanistan, Pakistan, northern India, and Burma still account for the world's largest supply of opium.  At least 17 finds of "Papaver somniferum" from Neolithic settlements have been reported throughout Switzerland, Germany, and Spain, including the placement of large numbers of poppy seed capsules at a burial site (the "Cueva de los Murciélagos", or "Bat Cave", in Spain), which have been carbon-14 dated to 4200 BCE. Numerous finds of "P. somniferum" or "P. setigerum" from Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements have also been reported. The first known cultivation of opium poppies was in Mesopotamia, approximately 3400 BCE, by Sumerians, who called the plant "hul gil", the "joy plant". Tablets found at Nippur, a Sumerian spiritual center south of Baghdad, described the collection of poppy juice in the morning and its use in production of opium. Cultivation continued in the Middle East by the Assyrians, who also collected poppy juice in the morning after scoring the pods

Islamic societies (500–1500 CE).

As the power of the Roman Empire declined, the lands to the south and east of the Mediterranean Sea became incorporated into the Islamic Empires. Some Muslims believe "hadiths", such as in "Sahih Bukhari", prohibits every intoxicating substance, though the use of intoxicants in medicine has been widely permitted by scholars. Dioscorides' five-volume "De Materia Medica", the precursor of pharmacopoeias, remained in use (which was edited and improved in the Arabic versions) from the 1st to 16th centuries, and described opium and the wide range of its uses prevalent in the ancient world.  Between 400 and 1200 CE, Arab traders introduced opium to China, and to India by 700. The physician Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi of Persian origin ("Rhazes", 845–930 CE) maintained a laboratory and school in Baghdad, and was a student

Reintroduction to Western medicine.

Manuscripts of Pseudo-Apuleius's 5th-century work from the 10th and 11th centuries refer to the use of wild poppy "Papaver agreste" or "Papaver rhoeas" (identified as "P. silvaticum") instead of "P. somniferum" for inducing sleep and relieving pain.  The use of Paracelsus' laudanum was introduced to Western medicine in 1527, when Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, better known by the name Paracelsus, returned from his wanderings in Arabia with a famous sword, within the pommel of which he kept "Stones of Immortality" compounded from opium thebaicum, citrus juice, and "quintessence of gold". The name "Paracelsus" was a pseudonym signifying him the equal or better of Aulus Cornelius Celsus, whose text, which described the use of opium or a similar

Recreational use in Europe, the Middle East and the US (11th to 19th centuries).

Soldiers returning home from the Crusades in the 11th to 13th century brought opium with them. Opium is said to have been used for recreational purposes from the 14th century onwards in Muslim societies. Ottoman and European testimonies confirm that from the 16th to the 19th centuries Anatolian opium was eaten in Constantinople as much as it was exported to Europe. In 1573, for instance, a Venetian visitor to the Ottoman Empire observed many of the Turkish natives of Constantinople regularly drank a "certain black water made with opium" that makes them feel good, but to which they become so addicted, if they try to go without, they will "quickly die". From drinking it, dervishes claimed the drugs bestowed them with visionary glimpses of future happiness. Indeed, the Ottoman Empire supplied the West with opium long before China and India.

England.

In England, opium fulfilled a "critical" role, as it did other societies, in addressing multifactorial pain, cough, dysentery, diarrhea, as argued by Virginia Berridge. A medical panacea of the 19th century, "any respectable person" could purchase a range of hashish pastes and (later) morphine with complementary injection kit.  Thomas De Quincey's "Confessions of an English Opium-Eater" (1822), one of the first and most famous literary accounts of opium addiction written from the point of view of an addict details the pleasures and dangers

China.

Recreational use in China.

The earliest clear description of the use of opium as a recreational drug in China came from Xu Boling, who wrote in 1483 that opium was "mainly used to aid masculinity, strengthen sperm and regain vigor", and that it "enhances the art of alchemists, sex and court ladies". He also described an expedition sent by the Ming dynasty Chenghua Emperor in 1483 to procure opium for a price "equal to that of gold" in Hainan, Fujian, Zhejiang, Sichuan and Shaanxi, where it is close to the western lands of Xiyu. A century later, Li Shizhen listed standard medical uses of opium in his renowned "Compendium of Materia Medica" (1578), but also wrote that "lay people use it for the art of sex," in particular

Prohibitions in China.

Opium prohibition in China began in 1729, yet was followed by nearly two centuries of increasing opium use. A massive destruction of opium by an emissary of the Chinese Daoguang Emperor in an attempt to stop opium smuggling led to the First Opium War (18391842), in which Britain defeated China. After 1860, opium use continued to increase with widespread domestic production in China. By 1905, an estimated 25 percent of the male population were regular consumers of the drug. Recreational use of opium elsewhere in the world remained rare into late in the 19th century, as indicated by ambivalent reports of opium usage. In 1906, 41,000 tons were produced, but because 39,000 tons of that year's opium were consumed in China, overall usage in the rest of the world was much lower. These figures from 1906 have been criticized as overestimates.  Smoking of opium came on the heels of tobacco smoking and may have been encouraged by a brief ban on the smoking of tobacco by the Ming emperor. The prohibition ended in 1644 with the coming of

Prohibition and conflict in China.

A large scale opium prohibition attempt began in 1729, when the Qing Yongzheng Emperor, disturbed by "madak" smoking at court and carrying out the government's role of upholding Confucian virtues, officially prohibited the sale of opium, except for a small amount for medicinal purposes. The ban punished sellers and opium den keepers, but not users of the drug. Opium was banned completely in 1799, and this prohibition continued until 1860.  During the Qing dynasty, China opened itself to foreign trade under the Canton System through the port of Guangzhou (Canton), with traders from the East India Company visiting the port by the 1690s. Due to the growing British demand for Chinese tea and the Chinese Emperor's lack of interest in British commodities other than silver, British traders resorted to trade in opium as a high-value commodity for which China was not self-sufficient. The English traders had been purchasing small amounts of opium from India for trade since Ralph Fitch first visited in the mid-16th century. Trade in opium was standardized, with production of balls of raw opium,, 30% water content, wrapped in poppy leaves and petals, and shipped in chests of (one picul). Chests of opium were sold in auctions in Calcutta with the understanding that the independent purchasers would then smuggle it into China.  China had a positive balance sheet in trading with the British, which led to a decrease of the British silver stocks. Therefore, the British tried to encourage Chinese opium use to enhance their balance, and they delivered it from Indian provinces under British control. In India, its cultivation, as well as the manufacture and traffic to China, were subject to the British East India Company (BEIC), as a strict monopoly of the British government. Indian farmers were forced by the British East India company to grow poppy against their wishes, often using a combination of strong arm tactics and debt. There was an extensive and complicated system of BEIC agencies involved in the supervision and management of opium production and distribution in India.  After the 1757 Battle of Plassey and 1764 Battle of Buxar, the British East India Company gained the power to act as "diwan" of Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha "(See company rule in India)". This allowed the company to exercise a monopoly over opium production and export in India, to encourage ryots to cultivate the cash crops of indigo and opium with cash advances, and to prohibit the "hoarding" of rice. This strategy led to the increase of the land tax to 50 percent of the value of crops and to the doubling of East India Company profits by 1777. It is also claimed to have contributed to the starvation of 10 million people in the Bengal famine of 1770. Beginning in 1773, the British government began enacting oversight of the company's operations, and in response to the Indian Rebellion of 1857, this policy culminated in the establishment of direct rule over the presidencies and provinces of British India. Bengal opium was highly prized, commanding twice the price of the domestic Chinese product, which was regarded as inferior in quality.  Some competition came from the newly independent United States, which began to compete in Guangzhou, selling Turkish opium in the 1820s. Portuguese traders also brought opium from the independent Malwa states of western India, although by 1820, the British were able to restrict this trade by charging "pass duty" on the opium when it was forced to pass through Bombay to reach an "entrepot". Despite drastic penalties and continued prohibition of opium until 1860, opium smuggling rose steadily from 200 chests per year under the Yongzheng Emperor to 1,000 under the Qianlong Emperor, 4,000 under the Jiaqing Emperor, and 30,000 under the Daoguang Emperor. The illegal sale of opium became one of the world's most valuable single commodity trades and has been called "the most long continued and systematic international crime of modern times". Opium smuggling provided 15 to 20 percent of the British Empire's revenue and simultaneously caused scarcity of silver in China.  In response to the ever-growing number of Chinese people becoming addicted to opium, the Qing Daoguang Emperor took strong action to halt the smuggling of opium, including the seizure of cargo. In 1838, the Chinese Commissioner Lin Zexu destroyed 20,000 chests of opium in Guangzhou. Given that a chest of opium was worth nearly in 1800, this was a substantial economic loss. The British queen Victoria, not willing to replace the cheap opium with costly silver, began the First Opium War in 1840, the British winning Hong Kong and trade concessions in the first of a series of Unequal Treaties.  The opium trade incurred intense enmity from the later British Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone. As a member of Parliament, Gladstone called it "most infamous and atrocious" referring to the opium trade between China and British India in particular. Gladstone was fiercely against both of the Opium Wars Britain waged in China in the First Opium War initiated in 1840 and the Second Opium War initiated in 1857, denounced British

Prohibition outside China.

There were no legal restrictions on the importation or use of opium in the United States until the San Francisco Opium Den Ordinance, which banned dens for public smoking of opium in 1875, a measure fueled by anti-Chinese sentiment and the perception that whites were starting to frequent the dens. This was followed by an 1891 California law requiring that narcotics carry warning labels and that their sales be recorded in a registry; amendments to the California Pharmacy and Poison Act in 1907 made it a crime to sell opiates without a prescription, and bans on possession of opium or opium pipes in 1909 were enacted.  At the US federal level, the legal actions taken reflected constitutional restrictions under the enumerated powers doctrine prior to reinterpretation of the commerce clause, which did not allow the federal government to enact arbitrary prohibitions, but did permit arbitrary taxation. Beginning in 1883, opium importation was taxed at to per pound, until the Opium Exclusion Act of 1909 prohibited the importation of opium altogether. In a similar manner, the Harrison Narcotics Tax Act of 1914, passed in fulfillment of

Indochina tax.

From 1897 to 1902, Paul Doumer (later President of France) was Governor-General of French Indochina. Upon his arrival the colonies were losing millions of francs each year. Determined to put them on a paying basis he

Regulation in Britain and the United States.

Before the 1920s, regulation in Britain was controlled by pharmacists. Pharmacists who were found to have prescribed opium for illegitimate uses and anyone found to have sold opium without proper qualifications would be prosecuted. With the passing of the Rolleston Act in Britain in 1926, doctors were allowed to prescribe opiates such as morphine and heroin if they believed their patients demonstrated a medical need. Because addiction was viewed as a medical problem rather than an indulgence, doctors were permitted to allow patients to wean themselves off opiates rather than cutting off any opiate use altogether. The passing of the Rolleston Act put the control of opium use in the hands of medical doctors instead of pharmacists. Later in the 20th century, addiction to opiates, especially heroin in young people, continued to rise and so the sale and prescription of opiates was limited to doctors in treatment centers. If these doctors were found to be prescribing opiates without

20th-century use.

During the Communist era in Eastern Europe, poppy stalks sold in bundles by farmers

Obsolescence.

Globally, opium has gradually been superseded by a variety of purified, semi-synthetic, and synthetic opioids with progressively stronger effects, and by other general anesthetics. This process began in 1804, when Friedrich Wilhelm Adam Sertürner first isolated morphine from the opium poppy. The process continued until 1817, when Sertürner published the isolation of pure morphine from opium after at least thirteen years of research and a nearly disastrous trial on himself and three boys. The great advantage of purified morphine was that a patient could be treated with a known dose—whereas with raw plant material, as Gabriel Fallopius once lamented, "if soporifics are weak they do not help; if they are strong they are exceedingly dangerous." Morphine was the first pharmaceutical isolated from a natural product, and this success encouraged the isolation of other alkaloids: by 1820, isolations of noscapine, strychnine, veratrine, colchicine, caffeine, and quinine were reported. Morphine sales began in 1827, by Heinrich Emanuel Merck of Darmstadt, and helped him expand his family pharmacy into the

Modern production and use.

Opium was prohibited in many countries during the early 20th century, leading to the modern pattern of opium production as a precursor for illegal recreational drugs or tightly regulated, highly taxed, legal prescription drugs. In 1980, 2,000 tons of opium supplied all legal and illegal uses. Worldwide production in 2006 was 6610 metric tons—about one-fifth the level of production in 1906, since then, opium production has fallen.  In 2002, the price for one kilogram of opium was for the farmer, for purchasers in Afghanistan, and on the streets of Europe before conversion into heroin.  Recently, opium production has increased considerably, surpassing 5,000 tons in 2002 and reaching 8,600 tons in Afghanistan and 840 tons in the Golden Triangle in 2014. Production is expected to increase in 2015 as new, improved seeds have been brought into Afghanistan. The World Health Organization has estimated that current production of opium would need to increase fivefold to account for total global medical need.

"Papaver somniferum".

Opium poppies are popular and attractive garden plants, whose flowers vary greatly in color, size and form. A modest amount of domestic cultivation in private gardens is not usually subject to legal controls. In part, this tolerance reflects variation in addictive potency. A cultivar for opium production, "Papaver somniferum L. elite", contains 91.2 percent morphine, codeine, and thebaine in its latex alkaloids, whereas in the latex of the condiment cultivar "Marianne", these three alkaloids total only 14.0 percent. The remaining alkaloids in the latter cultivar are primarily narcotoline and noscapine.  Seed capsules can be dried and used for decorations, but they also contain morphine, codeine, and other alkaloids. These pods can be boiled in water to produce a bitter tea that induces a long-lasting intoxication "(See Poppy tea)". If allowed to mature, poppy pods (poppy straw) can be crushed and used to produce lower quantities of morphinans. In poppies subjected to mutagenesis and selection on a mass scale, researchers have been able to use poppy straw to

Harvesting and processing.

When grown for opium production, the skin of the ripening pods of these poppies is scored by a sharp blade at a time carefully chosen so that rain, wind, and dew cannot spoil the exudation of white, milky latex, usually in the afternoon. Incisions are made while the pods are still raw, with no more than a slight yellow tint, and must be shallow to avoid penetrating hollow inner chambers or "loculi" while cutting into the lactiferous vessels. In the Indian Subcontinent, Afghanistan, Central Asia and Iran, the special tool used to make the incisions

Illegal production.

Afghanistan is currently the primary producer of the drug. After regularly producing 70 percent of the world's opium, Afghanistan decreased production to 74 tons per year under a ban by the Taliban in 2000, a move which cut production by 94 percent. A year later, after American and British troops invaded Afghanistan, removed the Taliban and installed the interim government, the land under cultivation leapt back to, with Afghanistan supplanting Burma to become the world's largest opium producer once more. Opium production in that country has increased rapidly since, reaching an all-time high in 2006. According to DEA statistics, Afghanistan's production of oven-dried opium increased to 1,278 tons in 2002, more than doubled by 2003, and nearly doubled again during 2004. In late 2004, the U.S. government estimated that 206,000 hectares were under poppy cultivation, 4.5 percent of the country's total cropland, and produced 4,200 metric tons of opium, 76 percent of the world's supply, yielding 60 percent of Afghanistan's gross domestic product. In 2006, the UN Office on Drugs and Crime estimated production to

Legal production.

Legal opium production is allowed under the United Nations Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs and other international drug treaties, subject to strict supervision by the law enforcement agencies of individual countries. The leading legal production method is the Gregory process, whereby the entire poppy, excluding roots and leaves, is mashed and stewed in dilute acid solutions. The alkaloids are then recovered via acid-base extraction and purified. This process was developed in the UK during World War II, when wartime shortages of many essential drugs encouraged innovation in pharmaceutical processing.  Legal opium production in India

Cultivation in the UK.

In late 2006, the British government permitted the pharmaceutical company MacFarlan Smith (a Johnson Matthey company) to cultivate opium poppies in England for medicinal reasons, after Macfarlan Smith's primary source, India, decided to increase the price of export opium latex. This move is well received by British farmers, with a

Consumption.

In the industrialized world, the United States is the world's biggest consumer of prescription opioids, with Italy one of the lowest because of tighter regulations on prescribing narcotics for pain relief. Most opium imported into the United States is broken down into its alkaloid constituents, and whether legal or illegal, most current drug use occurs with processed derivatives such as heroin rather than with unrefined opium.  Intravenous injection of opiates is most used: by comparison with injection, "dragon chasing" (heating of heroin on a piece of foil), and madak and "ack ack" (smoking of cigarettes containing tobacco mixed with heroin powder) are only 40 percent and 20 percent efficient, respectively. One study of British heroin addicts found a 12-fold excess mortality ratio (1.8 percent of the group dying per year). Most heroin deaths result not from overdose "per se", but combination with other depressant drugs such as alcohol or benzodiazepines.  The smoking of opium does not involve the burning of the material as might be imagined. Rather, the prepared opium is indirectly heated to temperatures at which the active

Chemical and physiological properties.

Opium contains two main groups of alkaloids. Phenanthrenes such as morphine, codeine, and thebaine are the main psychoactive constituents. Isoquinolines such as papaverine and noscapine have no significant central nervous system effects. Morphine is the most prevalent and important alkaloid in opium, consisting of 10–16 percent of the total, and is responsible for most of its harmful effects such as lung edema, respiratory difficulties, coma, or cardiac or respiratory collapse. Morphine binds to and activates mu opioid receptors in the brain, spinal cord, stomach

Slang terms.

Some slang terms for opium include: "Big O", "Shanghai Sally", "dope", "hop", "midnight oil", "O.P.", and "tar". "Dope" and "tar" can also refer to heroin. The traditional opium pipe is known as a "dream stick". The term "dope" entered the English language in the early nineteenth century, originally referring to viscous liquids, particularly sauces or gravy. It has been used to refer to opiates since at least 1888, and this usage arose because opium, when prepared for smoking, is viscous.

Opium (or poppy tears, scientific name: "Lachryma papaveris") is dried latex obtained from the seed capsules of the opium poppy "Papaver somniferum". Approximately 12 percent of opium is made up of the analgesic alkaloid morphine, which is processed chemically to produce heroin and other synthetic opioids for medicinal use and for illegal drug trade. The latex also contains the closely related opiates codeine and thebaine, and non-analgesic alkaloids such as papaverine and noscapine. The traditional, labor-intensive method of obtaining the latex is to scratch ("score") the immature seed pods (fruits) by hand; the latex leaks out and dries to a sticky yellowish residue that is later scraped off and dehydrated. The word "meconium" (derived from the Greek for "opium-like", but now used to refer to newborn stools) historically referred to related, weaker preparations made from other parts of the opium poppy or different species of poppies.

Opium, (früher) auch Mohnsaft genannt, ist der durch Anritzen gewonnene getrocknete Milchsaft unreifer Samenkapseln des zu den Mohngewächsen ("Papaveraceae") gehörenden Schlafmohns ("Papaver somniferum L.") Im Verlauf des Trocknungsprozesses entsteht aus dem Milchsaft durch Autoxidation eine braune bis schwarze Masse, das Rohopium. Die wirksamen Hauptbestandteile des Opiums sind die Alkaloide Morphin, Codein und Thebain.


Early life.

Tate was born in Salisbury, England, with spina bifida, a major birth defect, and also had an associated spinal curvature, kyphosis. His family moved to Farnham, Surrey, when he was young and he attended Farnham Grammar School between 1954 and 1961, gaining a State Scholarship to Cambridge University, where he directed theatre productions. Tate initially read medicine at Christ's College, Cambridge (1961–64), specializing in eye surgery. He later worked at St Thomas's Hospital, London, before giving up his clinical career to study music at the London Opera Centre. He became a repetiteur and a coach at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, under the tutelage of Sir Georg Solti.

Career.

Tate's international conducting début was with the Metropolitan Opera in New York City in 1979. In 1985, he was appointed the first principal conductor of the English Chamber Orchestra (ECO), and held the post until 2000. His recordings with the ECO included issues with EMI of symphonies of Haydn. In September 1986, Tate became principal conductor of the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, the first person in the company's history to have that title. He held this Covent Garden post until 1991, and subsequently became principal guest conductor at Covent Garden from 1991 to 1994. He was principal conductor of the Rotterdam Philharmonic Orchestra from 1991 to 1995. In 2005, Tate was appointed music director of the San Carlo Theatre of Naples, remaining in the post until 2010.  In October 2007, the Hamburg Symphony Orchestra announced the appointment of Tate as its next chief conductor. He formally took up the post in 2009. In February 2014, the orchestra announced the extension of his contract as chief conductor until 2019. He held the Hamburg post until his death on 2 June 2017. Tate was principal guest conductor and artistic adviser of the Adelaide Symphony Orchestra, in part as a result of his association with the orchestra from a 1998 production of Wagner's "Der Ring des Nibelungen", from 2016 until his death.  Tate's recordings include a series of Mozart piano concertos with Dame Mitsuko Uchida. Tate was president of UK Spina Bifida charity ASBAH (now SHINE [Spina Bifida, Hydrocephalus, Information, Networking, Equality]) from 1989. A portrait of Jeffrey Tate is in David Blum's book "Quintet, Five Journeys toward Musical Fulfillment" (Cornell University Press, 1999). It originally appeared as an article in 30 April 1990 issue of "The New Yorker".  In private life, Tate was partners with Klaus Kuhlemann, a German geomorphologist, whom he met when conducting at Cologne from 1977. Tate has described this situation as being an outsider on two scores:  Tate and Kuhlemann eventually married. Tate was made a Knight Bachelor in the 2017 New Year Honours for services to British music overseas. He was also appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 1990 Birthday Honours. Tate conducted his last concerts on 30 and 31 May 2017, in Bolzano and Trento, with the Haydn Orchestra. He died of a heart attack in Bergamo, Lombardy, Italy, on 2 June 2017 at the age of 74. Kuhlemann, his spouse, survives him. Queen Elizabeth II praised him as the wizard of classical music of the United Kingdom.

Sir Jeffrey Philip Tate (28 April 19432 June 2017) was an English conductor of classical music. Tate was born with spina bifida and had an associated spinal curvature. After studying medicine at the University of Cambridge and beginning a medical career in London, he switched to music and worked under Georg Solti at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, before making his conducting debut in 1979 at the Metropolitan Opera, New York. He held conducting appointments with the English Chamber Orchestra, Rotterdam Philharmonic Orchestra and Hamburg Symphony Orchestra, among others, and was the first person to be appointed principal conductor of the Royal Opera House. He was knighted for his services to music in 2017.

Sir Jeffrey Tate (* 28. April 1943 in Salisbury, England; † 2. Juni 2017 in Bergamo, Italien) war ein britischer Mediziner und Dirigent.