Description.

In the wild, the species of "Schlumbergera" grow either on trees (epiphytic) or on rocks (epilithic) and can form sizeable shrubs with woody bases; a height of up to has been reported for one species ("S. opuntioides"). They are leafless, the green stems acting as photosynthetic organs. The stems are composed of segments, which take one of two forms. In most species the segments are strongly flattened (cladodes), being made up of a central core with two (or more rarely three) "wings". Special structures characteristic of cacti, called "areoles", then occur at the ends of the segments of the stem. In two species the stems are less flattened, more cylinder-shaped, and the areoles are arranged in a more or less spiral pattern all over the segments. In both cases, the areoles, which may have wool and bristles, are where the flower buds appear.  The flowers either hang downwards and are almost regular (radially symmetrical or actinomorphic) or, as in most species, are held more or less horizontally with the higher side of the flower different from the lower side (radially asymmetrical or zygomorphic). In those species whose flowers are held up, their angle with the horizontal is relatively constant and is characteristic of the species. Each flower has 20–30 tepals. The outer tepals – those closer to the base of the flower – are short and unconnected, and spread out or curve backwards. The inner tepals – those towards the tip of the flower – are longer and in most species become progressively more fused together at the base to form a floral tube. In some species the difference between the outer and inner tepals creates the appearance of a "flower within a flower". The flowers produce nectar in a chamber at the base of the floral tube.  In most species, the many stamens are arranged in two series, with the inner stamens being fused at the base to form a short tubular structure and the outer stamens arising from along the floral tube. The style is usually dark red and has a stigma with 6–8 lobes; the style plus stigma is roughly the same length as the stamens. If the flower is fertilized, a fleshy fruit forms, either smooth or with ribs. The brown or black seeds are about 1 mm in diameter.

Taxonomy.

The genus is one of a small number belonging to a group of cacti classified as the tribe Rhipsalideae. Species of cacti belonging to this group are quite distinct in appearance and habit from most other cacti since they grow on trees or rocks as epiphytes or lithophytes. Although the species are easy to identify as members of the Rhipsalideae, for many years there was confusion as to how they should be divided into genera. This confusion extended to "Schlumbergera", whose complicated taxonomic history has been detailed by McMillan and Horobin. The modern genus "Schlumbergera" was created by Charles Lemaire in 1858. The name commemorates Frédéric Schlumberger, who had a collection of cacti at his chateau near Rouen. Lemaire placed only one species in his new genus – a plant discovered in Brazil in 1837 which had been named "Epiphyllum russellianum" by William J. Hooker. Lemaire renamed it "Schlumbergera epiphylloides" (under the current rules of botanical nomenclature it should have been called "Schlumbergera russelliana", which is its current name).  Lemaire noted the similarity of his "Schlumbergera epiphylloides" to a species first described as "Epiphyllum truncatum" by Adrian Hardy Haworth in 1819, but did not accept that the two species should be included in the same genus. In 1890, Karl Moritz Schumann created the new genus "Zygocactus", transferring "Epiphyllum truncatum" to "Zygocactus truncatus". Although he later placed it back in "Epiphyllum", abandoning "Zygocactus", the generic name "Zygocactus" continued to be widely used.  In 1913, Nathaniel Britton and Joseph Rose followed Lemaire in keeping "Schlumbergera russelliana" and "Zygocactus truncatus" in separate genera. They also transferred the Easter cactus to "Schlumbergera" as "S. gaertneri", initiating a lasting confusion between these two genera.  In 1953, Reid Venable Moran placed both "Schlumbergera russelliana" and "Zygocactus truncatus" in the genus "Schlumbergera". Other species were added later by David Hunt, including those formerly placed in "Epiphyllanthus", to form the modern total of six full species and a number of hybrids.  "Schlumbergera" and "Hatiora" have long been confused. Species in the former genus generally have flowers that are zygomorphic with a distinct floral tube, while those in the latter have actinomorphic flowers with inconspicuous tubes. DNA data shows that as previously circumscribed the two genera are not monophyletic and the three species in "Hatiora" subgenus "Rhipsalidopsis" have been transferred into "Schlumbergera", although this change has not been universally adopted.

Synonymy.

The following genera are now synonyms of "Schlumbergera" (i.e. they have no species not moved into "Schlumbergera"):  The case of "Epiphyllum" is complex. In 1753 Carl Linnaeus created the genus "Cactus". As more species were discovered this proved too broad, and new genera were set up to subdivide the cacti. The genus "Epiphyllum" was created in 1812 by Haworth, based on Linnaeus's "Cactus phyllanthus". In 1831 Johann Link created the genus "Phyllocactus" based on the same species. Following Ludwig Pfeiffer in 1837, the European tradition was to use "Phyllocactus" for epiphytic cacti with large regular flowers and "Epiphyllum" for the irregular-flowered species now called "Schlumbergera truncata". Under modern rules, "Phyllocactus" is an illegitimate name, as is "Epiphyllum" in the sense of Pfeiffer; thus "Epiphyllum" is a synonym of "Schlumbergera". The true genus "Epiphyllum" now has around 19 species.

Species.

Between six and nine species are currently recognized. In the narrowest circumscription, "Schlumbergera" sensu stricto, six species are accepted. Only synonyms which have been widely used (and their basionyms) are given in the list below.  In the widest circumscription, "Schlumbergera" sensu lato, three species formerly placed in "Hatiora" are transferred into "Schlumbergera".  Four hybrids of "Schlumbergera" s.s. have been named, all made in cultivation (although the first may possibly occur in the wild). The "International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants" recommends that cultivated plants should be named under its rules, not those appropriate for natural species and hybrids. The Group names given below were provided by McMillan and Horobin.  A further hybrid of "Schlumbergera" s.l. is cultivated.

Distribution, habitat and ecology.

"Schlumbergera" occurs only in the coastal mountains of south-east Brazil, in the states of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo. Sites where it has been found range from close to the Tropic of Capricorn northwards to 20°S, i.e. in the southernmost part of the tropics. Plants grow at altitudes from in the case of "S. truncata" to in the case of "S. microsphaerica", either in the coastal moist forests or in rocky areas. The natural distribution of "Schlumbergera" species has become confused because European cultivars were deliberately introduced into some areas, including the Serra dos Órgãos National Park, by the Brazilian Agricultural Department, to compensate for over-collecting of wild plants.  Because of their height and proximity to the Atlantic Ocean, the coastal mountains produce high altitude moist forests – warm moist air is forced upwards into higher, colder locations where it condenses. "Schlumbergera" species grow in habitats which are generally relatively cool, shaded and of high humidity. David Hunt describes collecting specimens in conditions of cloud, drizzle and overnight temperatures down to. Plants are epiphytic or lithophytic, growing on moss-covered tree branches or in rock crevices, often in small pockets of substrate formed from decayed leaves and other vegetation. "S. microsphaerica" is found at higher altitudes, above, in barren rocky habitats, and tolerates higher light levels.  The flowers of "Schlumbergera" have adaptations for pollination by hummingbirds: tubular flowers with abundant nectar, and colours towards the red end of the spectrum. Most species require cross-pollination to set seed. The exceptions are "S. kautskyi" and "S. microsphaerica"; as noted above, the latter is found at higher altitudes where hummingbirds may be absent or less common.  The fruits of "Schlumbergera" do not open spontaneously when ripe, and appear to be adapted for distribution by birds, which eat the seeds and pulp contained in the fruit. Birds have been observed removing seeds which had stuck to their beaks by rubbing them on tree branches, where the seeds might be able to germinate. Segments may also break off from the stems and take root, thus enabling plants to propagate vegetatively.

Cultivation of Christmas cacti.

History.

"Schlumbergera truncata" was in cultivation in Europe by 1818, and "S. russelliana" was introduced in 1839. The two species were deliberately crossed in England by W. Buckley resulting in the hybrid now called "S." × "buckleyi", first recorded in 1852. By the 1860s, a substantial number of cultivars (cultivated varieties) were available in a range of colours and habits, and were used as ornamental plants in "stoves" (heated greenhouses) and in houses, where they were popular for their autumn and winter flowering. Many cultivars were selected seedlings of "S. truncata", but at least three "S." × "buckleyi" hybrids were available, of which one, now called "S." 'Buckleyi', is thought to be the original Christmas cactus. By the early part of the 20th century, the genus had become less popular, and many of the early cultivars were lost.  From around the 1950s onwards, breeding resumed in Europe, North America, Australia and New Zealand. New plants were produced by crossing among the species and existing cultivars of "S. truncata", "S. russelliana" and the hybrid "S." × "buckleyi". Treatments which induced mutations were also used. The result was a wide range of flower colours which had not been available before, including the first true yellow to be sold commercially, "S." 'Gold Charm' (which was a sterile triploid). Breeders aimed for plants which grew strongly, were upright at the point of sale rather than pendulous, had many flowers or buds, and were adapted to living as house plants.  In the 1980s the species "S. orssichiana" was also used in crosses. The hybrid of "S. truncata" and "S. orssichiana" has been named "S." × "reginae" or "S." Reginae Group; one of the first cultivars was "S." 'Bristol Queen'. "S. opuntioides" crosses have also been made, but have not resulted in commercially available cultivars.

Modern cultivars.

McMillan and Horobin have listed hundreds of modern European, North American and Australian cultivars of the Christmas cactus, which they put into a number of cultivar groups:  Attempts have also been made to classify cultivars by colour. A difficulty is that the flowers of many cultivars exhibit different colours depending on the temperature during bud formation and growth. In particular, temperatures below produce pink tones in otherwise white and yellow cultivars, and deepen the colour in pink and red cultivars. The availability of iron to the plant has also been suggested to affect flower colour.  In the United States, cultivars are propagated in large numbers for sale before Thanksgiving Day (the fourth Thursday in November). In Europe, plants are mainly sold later in the year, in the period before Christmas. A single Dutch grower (de Vries of Aalsmeer, the Netherlands) was reported in 1989 as producing 2,000,000 plants per year.

Common names.

Plants are offered for sale under a variety of common names. The earliest English common name was "Christmas cactus". In Europe, where plants are largely produced for sale in the period before Christmas, this remains the most widely used common name in many languages for cultivars of all groups (e.g. in German, in French, and in Spanish). This is also the name used in Canada. In the United States, where plants are produced for the Thanksgiving holiday in November, the name "Thanksgiving cactus" is used; "Christmas cactus" may then be restricted to cultivars of the Buckleyi Group, particularly the very old cultivars such as 'Buckleyi'. The name "crab cactus" (referring to the clawed ends of the stems) is also used for the Truncata Group. "Link cactus" is another common name, describing the way that the stems of the genus as a whole are made up of linked segments. The name "chain cactus" is common in New Zealand, and may also refer to "Hatiora" species.  The Easter cactus or Whitsun cactus is now placed in the genus "Hatiora", but was at one time included in "Schlumbergera" (or one of its synonyms). The name "holiday cactus" has been used to include both "Schlumbergera" and "Hatiora" cultivars.

Care of cultivars.

When grown as house plants, "Schlumbergera" cultivars are said to be relatively easy to care for. McMillan and Horobin describe in detail their cultivation in both commercial and domestic conditions. Their specific recommendations include:

Pests and diseases.

In cultivation, these plants have been described as "remarkably free from pests and diseases". Two significant insect pests are aphids on young shoots, buds and flowers, and root mealybugs which attack below soil level. Stems and roots can be rotted by diseases caused by fungi and similar organisms; these include infections by species of "Fusarium" (a fungus), and "Phytophthora" and "Pythium" (both water moulds). Approved chemical treatments can be used in the case of insect attack or these diseases.  Aphids, mealybugs and other invertebrate pests can spread viruses. Symptoms vary with the species, but a loss of vigour is usual. Cactus virus X has been isolated from "S. truncata". There is no treatment for virus diseases; it is recommended that infected plants be destroyed.

Schlumbergera is a small genus of cacti with six to nine species found in the coastal mountains of south-eastern Brazil. Plants grow on trees or rocks in habitats that are generally shady with high humidity, and can be quite different in appearance from their desert-dwelling cousins. Most species of "Schlumbergera" have stems which resemble leaf-like pads joined one to the other and flowers which appear from areoles at the joints and tips of the stems. Two species have cylindrical stems more similar to other cacti. Recent phylogenetic studies using DNA have led to three species of the related genus "Hatiora" being transferred into "Schlumbergera," though this change is not universally accepted.

Schlumbergera ist eine Pflanzengattung aus der Familie der Kakteengewächse (Cactaceae). Der botanische Name der Gattung ehrt den französischen Kakteensammler und -züchter Frédéric Schlumberger (1823–1893). Der deutsche Trivialname "Weihnachtskakteen" einiger Arten verweist auf die übliche Blütezeit der Pflanzen in Mitteleuropa.


Development.

In 1982 the Far Infrared and Sub-millimetre Telescope (FIRST) was proposed to ESA. The ESA long-term policy-plan "Horizon 2000", produced in 1984, called for a "High Throughput Heterodyne Spectroscopy" mission as one of its cornerstone missions. In 1986, FIRST was adopted as this cornerstone mission. It was selected for implementation in 1993, following an industrial study in 1992–1993. The mission concept was redesigned from Earth-orbit to the Lagrangian point L2, in light of experience gained from the Infrared Space Observatory [(2.5–240 μm) 1995–1998]. In 2000, FIRST was renamed "Herschel". After being put out to tender in 2000, industrial activities began in 2001. "Herschel" was launched in 2009. , the "Herschel" mission is estimated to cost. This figure includes spacecraft and payload, launch and mission expenses, and science operations.

Science.

"Herschel" specialised in collecting light from objects in the Solar System as well as the Milky Way and even extragalactic objects billions of light-years away, such as newborn galaxies, and was charged with four primary areas of investigation:  During the mission, "Herschel" "made over 35,000 scientific observations" and "amass[ed] more than 25,000 hours' worth of science data from about 600 different observing programs".

Instrumentation.

The mission involved the first space observatory to cover the full far infrared and submillimetre waveband. At, Herschel carried the largest optical telescope ever deployed in space. It was made not from glass but from sintered silicon carbide. The mirror's blank was manufactured by Boostec in Tarbes, France; ground and polished by Opteon Ltd. in Tuorla Observatory, Finland; and coated by vacuum deposition at the Calar Alto Observatory in Spain.  The light reflected by the mirror was focused onto three instruments, whose detectors were kept at temperatures below. The instruments were cooled with over of liquid helium, boiling away in a near vacuum at a temperature of approximately. The supply of helium on board the spacecraft was a fundamental limit to the operational lifetime of the space observatory; it was originally expected to be operational for at least three years.  "Herschel" carried three detectors:  NASA developed and built the mixers, local oscillator chains and power amplifiers for this instrument. The "NASA Herschel Science Center", part of the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center at the California Institute of Technology, also in Pasadena, has contributed science planning and data analysis software.

Service module.

A common service module (SVM) was designed and built by Thales Alenia Space in its Turin plant for the "Herschel" and "Planck" missions, as they were combined into one single program.  Structurally, the "Herschel" and "Planck" SVMs are very similar. Both SVMs are of octagonal shape and, for both, each panel is dedicated to accommodate a designated set of warm units, while taking into account the heat dissipation requirements of the different warm units, of the instruments, as well as the spacecraft.  Furthermore, on both spacecraft a common design has been achieved for the avionics systems, attitude control and measurement systems (ACMS), command and data management systems (CDMS), power subsystems and the tracking, telemetry, and command subsystem (TT&C).  All spacecraft units on the SVM are redundant.

Power subsystem.

On each spacecraft, the power subsystem consists of the solar array, employing triple-junction solar cells, a battery and the power control unit (PCU). It is designed to interface with the 30 sections of each solar array, provide a regulated 28 V bus, distribute this power via protected outputs and to handle the battery charging and discharging.  For "Herschel", the solar array is fixed on the bottom part of the baffle designed to protect the cryostat from the Sun. The three-axis attitude control system maintains this baffle in direction of the Sun. The top part of this baffle is covered with optical solar reflector (OSR) mirrors reflecting 98% of the Sun's energy, avoiding heating of the cryostat.

Attitude and orbit control.

This function is performed by the attitude control computer (ACC) which is the platform for the ACMS. It is designed to fulfil the pointing and slewing requirements of the "Herschel" and "Planck" payload.  The "Herschel" spacecraft is three-axis stabilized. The absolute pointing error needs to be less than 3.7 arc seconds.  The main sensor of the line of sight in both spacecraft is the star tracker.

Launch and orbit.

The spacecraft, built in the Cannes Mandelieu Space Center, under Thales Alenia Space Contractorship, was successfully launched from the Guiana Space Centre in French Guiana at 13:12:02 UTC on 14 May 2009, aboard an Ariane 5 rocket, along with the Planck spacecraft, and placed on a very elliptical orbit on its way towards the second Lagrangian point. The orbit's perigee was 270.0 km (intended ), apogee 1,197,080 km (intended ), inclination 5.99 deg (intended ).  On 14 June 2009, ESA successfully sent the command for the cryocover to open which allowed the PACS system to see the sky and transmit images in a few weeks. The lid had to remain closed until the telescope was well into space to prevent contamination.  Five days later the first set of test photos, depicting M51 Group, was published by ESA.  In mid-July 2009, approximately sixty days after launch, it entered a Halo orbit of 800,000 km average radius around the second Lagrangian point (L2) of the Earth-Sun system, 1.5 million kilometres from the Earth.

Discoveries.

On 21 July 2009, "Herschel" commissioning was declared successful, allowing the start of the operational phase. A formal handover of the overall responsibility of "Herschel" was declared from the programme manager Thomas Passvogel to the mission manager Johannes Riedinger.  "Herschel" was instrumental in the discovery of an unknown and unexpected step in the star forming process. The initial confirmation and later verification via help from ground-based telescopes of a vast hole of empty space, previously believed to be a dark nebula, in the area of NGC 1999 shed new light in the way newly forming star regions discard the material which surround them.  In July 2010 a special issue of "Astronomy and Astrophysics" was published with 152 papers on initial results from the observatory.  A second special issue of "Astronomy and Astrophysics" was published in October 2010 concerning the sole HIFI instrument, due its technical failure which took it down over 6 months between August 2009 and February 2010.  It was reported on 1 August 2011, that molecular oxygen had been definitively confirmed in space with the "Herschel Space Telescope", the second time scientists have found the molecule in space. It had been previously reported by the Odin team.  An October 2011 report published in "Nature" states that "Herschel" measurements of deuterium levels in the comet Hartley 2 suggests that much of Earth's water could have initially come from cometary impacts. On 20 October 2011, it was reported that oceans-worth of cold water vapor had been discovered in the accretion disc of a young star. Unlike warm water vapor, previously detected near forming stars, cold water vapor would be capable of forming comets which then could bring water to inner planets, as is theorized for the origin of water on Earth.  On 18 April 2013, the "Herschel" team announced in another "Nature" paper that it had located an exceptional starburst galaxy which produced over 2,000 solar masses of stars a year. The galaxy, termed HFLS3, is located at "z =" 6.34, originating only 880 million years after the Big Bang.  Just days before the end of its mission, ESA announced that "Herschel" observations had led to the conclusion that water on Jupiter had been delivered as a result of the collision of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 in 1994.  On 22 January 2014, ESA scientists reported the detection, for the first definitive time, of water vapor on the dwarf planet, Ceres, largest object in the asteroid belt. The detection was made by using the far-infrared abilities of the "Herschel Space Observatory". The finding is unexpected because comets, not asteroids, are typically considered to "sprout jets and plumes". According to one of the scientists, "The lines are becoming more and more blurred between comets and asteroids."

End of mission.

On 29 April 2013, ESA announced that "Herschel" supply of liquid helium, used to cool the instruments and detectors on board, had been depleted, thus ending its mission. At the time of the announcement, "Herschel" was approximately 1.5 million km from Earth. Because "Herschel" orbit at the L2 point is unstable, ESA wanted to guide the craft on a known trajectory. ESA managers considered two options:  The managers chose the first option because it was less costly.  On 17 June 2013, "Herschel" was fully deactivated, with its fuel tanks forcibly depleted and the onboard computer programmed to cease communications with Earth. The final command, which severed communications, was sent from European Space Operations Centre (ESOC) at 12:25 UTC.  The mission's post-operations phase will continue until 2017. The main tasks are consolidation and refinement of instrument calibration, to improve data quality, and data processing, to create a body of scientifically validated data.  Following "Herschel" demise, some European astronomers have pushed for the joint European-Japanese SPICA far-infrared observatory project, as well as ESA's continued partnership in NASA's James Webb Space Telescope. James Webb will cover the near-infrared spectrum from 0.6 to 28.5 μm, and SPICA covers the mid-to-far-infared spectral range between 12–230 μm. While "Herschel" dependence on liquid helium coolant limited the design life to around three years, the mechanical Joule-Thomson coolers on board SPICA would rely on the 'coldness' of deep space, enabling the sustenance of cryogenic temperatures for a longer period of time. SPICA's sensitivity is two orders of magnitude higher than "Herschel".  NASA's proposed Origins Space Telescope (OST) would also observe in the far-infrared band of light. Europe is leading the study for one of OST's five instruments, the Heterodyne Receiver for OST (HERO).

The Herschel Space Observatory was a space observatory built and operated by the European Space Agency (ESA). It was active from 2009 to 2013, and was the largest infrared telescope ever launched, carrying a mirror and instruments sensitive to the far infrared and submillimetre wavebands (55–672 μm). "Herschel" was the fourth and final cornerstone mission in the Horizon 2000 programme, following "SOHO"/"Cluster II", "XMM-Newton" and "Rosetta". NASA is a partner in the "Herschel" mission, with US participants contributing to the mission; providing mission-enabling instrument technology and sponsoring the NASA Herschel Science Center (NHSC) at the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center and the Herschel Data Search at the Infrared Science Archive.

Herschel Space Observatory, kurz Herschel, ist der Name eines von der ESA entwickelten 3,4 t schweren Infrarotweltraumteleskops, das zusammen mit dem Planck-Weltraumteleskop mit einer Ariane-Rakete des Typs Ariane 5 ECA am 14. Mai 2009 gestartet wurde. Das Teleskop war während seines Betriebs in einer Umlaufbahn um den Lagrangepunkt L2 des Erde-Sonne-Systems positioniert und wurde nach dem Entdecker der Infrarotstrahlung Wilhelm Herschel benannt. Ende April 2013 wurde das Ende der Mission erklärt, da das zur Kühlung benötigte Helium aufgebraucht war. Nach einer Reihe von Tests wurde der Satellit auf einen heliozentrischen Orbit gebracht und schließlich am 17. Juni 2013 endgültig abgeschaltet.


History.

Etymology.

"Tadrart" is the feminine form of "mountain" in the Berber languages (masculine: "adrar").

Rock art.

The area is known for its rock art and was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1985 because of the importance of these paintings and carvings. The paintings date from 12,000 BCE to 100 CE and reflect cultural and natural changes in the area.  There are paintings and carvings of animals such as giraffes, elephants, ostriches and camels, but also of men and horses. People are depicted in various daily life situations, for example while making music and dancing.

Milk lipids.

Tadrart Acacus is also the site of the earliest appearance of processed milk lipids on ceramics, which have been radiocarbon-dated to 7,500 BP.

Vandalism and destruction since 1969.

During Muammar Gaddafi’s rule from 1969 through 2011, the Department of Antiquities was badly neglected. Since 2005, the search for petroleum hidden underground has placed the rock art itself in danger. Seismic hammers are used to send shock waves underneath to locate oil deposits, and have noticeable effects on nearby rocks, including the ones that house the Tadrart Acacus rock art.  Looting of ancient artifacts reached a level of crisis. In response UNESCO called for a major awareness campaign, to heighten awareness of Libya's archaeological and cultural heritage and to alert Libyans that their heritage is "being looted by thieves and destroyed by developers."  In 2012 following his departure, efforts were made to train staff through a $2.26 million UNESCO project, with the Libyan and Italian governments. The project included conservation, protection and education. Along with Tadrart Acacus, Libya has four other UNESCO World Heritage sites: Cyrene, Leptis Magna, Sabratha and Ghadames. UNESCO advised that "a centre should be established at Ghat or Uweynat to train the staff in charge of the protection and management of the property and to host a museum which is expected to play an important [role] in terms of awareness raising."  UNESCO State of Conservation (SOC) reports from 2011, 2012 and 2013 show that at least ten of the rock-art sites have been the object of deliberate and considerable destruction since at least April 2009. The ambiguity surrounding property boundaries of the World Heritage Site and therefore the property management combined with lack of local understanding of its cultural values were contributing factors in the ongoing vandalism. Conflicts in the area since 2011 led to increased vandalism.  In May 2013 UNESCO undertook a technical mission to assess the state of conservation the Tadrart Acacus site and to "build-up a strategic plan to enforce the protection and management of this unique cultural and natural context."  On 14 April 2014 two kinds of vandals were reported, those who thoughtlessly carve their own names beside the ancient rock art and those who deliberately use chemical products to remove the rock drawings. On April 20, 2014, the French special correspondent was informed by a local journalist from Ghat, Libya, Aziz Al-Hachi, that the UNESCO Rock-Art World Heritage Site of Tadrart Acacus was being destroyed with sledgehammers and scrub brushes.

Geography.

The Tadrart Acacus have a large variation of landscapes, from different-coloured dunes to arches, gorges, isolated rocks and deep wadis (ravines). Major landmarks include the arches of Afzejare and Tin Khlega. Although this area is one of the most arid in the Sahara, there is vegetation, such as the medicinal "Calotropis procera", and there are a number of springs and wells in the mountains.

The Acacus Mountains or Tadrart Akakus ( / ALA-LC: "Tadrārt Akākūs") form a mountain range in the desert of the Ghat District in western Libya, part of the Sahara. They are situated east of the city of Ghat, Libya, and stretch north from the border with Algeria, about. The area has a particularly rich array of prehistoric rock art.

Tadrart Acacus (aus dem mazirischen, „Berg von Akakus“; ) ist ein Gebirge im Südwesten Libyens. Es befindet sich unweit der libyschen Stadt Ghat und in der Nähe des Felsmassivs Idinen. Ein südlicher Ausläufer ist das Tassili Tadrart.


Name.

Rashi's surname, Yitzhaki, derives from his father's name, Yitzhak. The acronym is sometimes also fancifully expanded as Rabban Shel YIsrael which means the rabbi of Israel, or as Rabbenu SheYichyeh (Our Rabbi, may he live). He may be cited in Hebrew and Aramaic texts as (1) "Shlomo son of Rabbi Yitzhak", (2) "Shlomo son of Yitzhak", (3) "Shlomo Yitzhaki", and myriad similar highly respectful derivatives.  In older literature, Rashi is sometimes referred to as "Jarchi" or "Yarhi" (), his abbreviated name being interpreted as Rabbi Shlomo Yarhi. This was understood to refer to the Hebrew name of Lunel in Provence, popularly derived from the French "lune" "moon", in Hebrew, in which Rashi was assumed to have lived at some time or to have been born, or where his ancestors were supposed to have originated. Later Christian writers Richard Simon and Johann Christoph Wolf claimed that only Christian scholars referred to Rashi as Jarchi, and that this epithet was unknown to the Jews. Bernardo de Rossi, however, demonstrated that Hebrew scholars also referred to Rashi as Yarhi. In 1839, Leopold Zunz showed that the Hebrew usage of Jarchi was an erroneous propagation of the error by Christian writers, instead interpreting the abbreviation as it is understood today: Rabbi Shlomo Yitzhaki. The evolution of this term has been thoroughly traced.

Biography.

Birth and early life.

Rashi was an only child born at Troyes, Champagne, in northern France. His mother's brother was Simon the Elder, Rabbi of Mainz. Simon was a disciple of Gershom ben Judah, who died that same year. On his father's side, Rashi has been claimed to be a 33rd-generation descendant of Johanan HaSandlar, who was a fourth-generation descendant of Gamaliel, who was reputedly descended from the Davidic line. In his voluminous writings, Rashi himself made no such claim at all. The main early rabbinical source about his ancestry, Responsum No. 29 by Solomon Luria, makes no such claim either.

Legends.

His fame later made him the subject of many legends. One tradition contends that his parents were childless for many years. Rashi's father, Yitzhak, a poor winemaker, once found a precious jewel and was approached by non-Jews who wished to buy it to adorn their idol. Yitzhak agreed to travel with them to their land, but en route, he cast the gem into the sea. Afterwards he was visited by either the Voice of God or the prophet Elijah, who told him that he would be rewarded with the birth of a noble son "who would illuminate the world with his Torah knowledge."  Another legend also states that Rashi's parents moved to Worms, Germany while Rashi's mother was pregnant. As she walked down one of the narrow streets in the Jewish quarter, she was imperiled by two oncoming carriages. She turned and pressed herself against a wall, which opened to receive her. This miraculous niche is still visible in the wall of the Worms Synagogue.

Yeshiva studies.

According to tradition, Rashi was first brought to learn Torah by his father on Shavuot day at the age of five. His father was his main Torah teacher until his death when Rashi was still a youth. At the age of 17 he married and soon after went to learn in the yeshiva of Rabbi Yaakov ben Yakar in Worms, returning to his wife three times yearly, for the Days of Awe, Passover and Shavuot. When Rabbi Yaakov died in 1064, Rashi continued learning in Worms for another year in the yeshiva of his relative, Rabbi Isaac ben Eliezer Halevi, who was also chief rabbi of Worms. Then he moved to Mainz, where he studied under another of his relatives, Rabbi Isaac ben Judah, the rabbinic head of Mainz and one of the leading sages of the Lorraine region straddling France and Germany.  Rashi's teachers were students of Rabbeinu Gershom and Rabbi Eliezer Hagadol, leading Talmudists of the previous generation. From his teachers, Rashi imbibed the oral traditions pertaining to the Talmud as they had been passed down for centuries, as well as an understanding of the Talmud's unique logic and form of argument. Rashi took concise, copious notes from what he learned in yeshiva, incorporating this material in his commentaries. He was also greatly influenced by the exegetical principles of Menahem Kara.

Rosh yeshiva.

He returned to Troyes at the age of 25, after which time his mother died, and he was asked to join the Troyes "Beth din" (rabbinical court). He also began answering halakhic questions. Upon the death of the head of the "Bet din", Rabbi Zerach ben Abraham, Rashi assumed the court's leadership and answered hundreds of halakhic queries.  In around 1070 he founded a yeshiva which attracted many disciples. It is thought by some that Rashi earned his living as a vintner since Rashi shows an extensive knowledge of its utensils and process, but there is no evidence for this. Most scholars and a Jewish oral tradition contend that he was a vintner. The only reason given for the centuries-old tradition that he was a vintner being not true is that the soil in all of Troyes is not optimal for wine growing grapes, claimed by the research of Rabbi Haym Soloveitchik. Earlier references such as a reference to an actual seal from his vineyard are said not to prove that he sold wine but just that fermented his grapes for his own use.  Although there are many legends about his travels, Rashi likely never went further than from the Seine to the Rhine; the utmost limit of his travels were the yeshivas of Lorraine.  In 1096, the People's Crusade swept through the Lorraine, murdering 12,000 Jews and uprooting whole communities. Among those murdered in Worms were the three sons of Rabbi Isaac ben Eliezer Halevi, Rashi's teacher. Rashi wrote several "Selichot" (penitential poems) mourning the slaughter and the destruction of the region's great yeshivot. Seven of Rashi's "Selichot" still exist, including "Adonai Elohei Hatz'vaot"", which is recited on the eve of Rosh Hashanah, and "Az Terem Nimtehu", which is recited on the Fast of Gedalia.

Death and burial site.

Rashi died on July 13, 1105 (Tammuz 29, 4865) at the age of 65. He was buried in Troyes. The approximate location of the cemetery in which he was buried was recorded in "Seder Hadoros", but over time the location of the cemetery was forgotten. A number of years ago, a Sorbonne professor discovered an ancient map depicting the site of the cemetery, which now lay under an open square in the city of Troyes. After this discovery, French Jews erected a large monument in the center of the square—a large, black and white globe featuring the three Hebrew letters of רשי artfully arranged counterclockwise in negative space, evoking the style of Hebrew microcalligraphy. The granite base of the monument is engraved: "Rabbi Shlomo Yitzchaki — Commentator and Guide".  In 2005, Yisroel Meir Gabbai erected an additional plaque at this site marking the square as a burial ground. The plaque reads: ""The place you are standing on is the cemetery of the town of Troyes. Many Rishonim are buried here, among them Rabbi Shlomo, known as Rashi the holy, may his merit protect us"".

Descendants.

Rashi had no sons, but his three daughters, Yocheved, Miriam and Rachel, all married Talmudic scholars. Legends exist that Rashi's daughters wore tefillin. While some women in medieval Ashkenaz did wear tefillin, there is no evidence that Rashi's daughters did or did not do so.

Works.

Commentary on the Tanakh.

Rashi's commentary on the Tanakh—and especially his commentary on the Chumash—is the essential companion for any study of the Bible at any level. Drawing on the breadth of Midrashic, Talmudic and Aggadic literature (including literature that is no longer extant), as well as his knowledge of Hebrew grammar and halakhah, Rashi clarifies the "simple" meaning of the text so that a bright child of five could understand it. At the same time, his commentary forms the foundation for some of the most profound legal analysis and mystical discourses that came after it. Scholars debate why Rashi chose a particular Midrash to illustrate a point, or why he used certain words and phrases and not others. Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi wrote that "Rashi's commentary on Torah is the 'wine of Torah'. It opens the heart and uncovers one's essential love and fear of G-d."  Scholars believe that Rashi's commentary on the Torah grew out of the lectures he gave to his students in his yeshiva, and evolved with the questions and answers they raised on it. Rashi completed this commentary only in the last years of his life. It was immediately accepted as authoritative by all Jewish communities, Ashkenazi and Sephardi alike.  The first dated Hebrew printed book was Rashi's commentary on the Chumash, printed by Abraham ben Garton in Reggio di Calabria, Italy, 18 February 1475. (This version did not include the text of the Chumash itself.)  Rashi wrote commentaries on all the books of Tanakh except Chronicles I & II. Scholars believe that the commentary which appears under Rashi's name in those books was compiled by the students of Rabbi Saadiah of the Rhine, who incorporated material from Rashi's yeshiva. Rashi's students, Rabbi Shemaya and Rabbi Yosef, edited the final commentary on the Torah; some of their own notes and additions also made their way into the version we have today.  Today, tens of thousands of men, women and children study "Chumash with Rashi" as they review the Torah portion to be read in synagogue on the upcoming Shabbat. According to halakha, a man may even study the Rashi on each Torah verse in fulfillment of the requirement to review the Parsha twice with Targum (which normally refers to Targum Onkelos) This practice is called in Hebrew: "Shnayim mikra ve-echad targum". Since its publication, Rashi's commentary on the Torah is standard in almost all Chumashim produced within the Orthodox Jewish community.  Rabbi Mordechai Leifer of Nadvorna said that anyone who learns the weekly Parsha together with the commentary by Rashi every week, is guaranteed to sit in the Yeshiva (school) of Rashi in the Afterlife.

Commentary on the Talmud.

Rashi wrote the first comprehensive commentary on the Talmud. Rashi's commentary, drawing on his knowledge of the entire contents of the Talmud, attempts to provide a full explanation of the words and of the logical structure of each Talmudic passage. Unlike other commentators, Rashi does not paraphrase or exclude any part of the text, but elucidates phrase by phrase. Often he provides punctuation in the unpunctuated text, explaining, for example, "This is a question"; "He says this in surprise", "He repeats this in agreement", etc.  As in his commentary on the Tanakh, Rashi frequently illustrates the meaning of the text using analogies to the professions, crafts, and sports of his day. He also translates difficult Hebrew or Aramaic words into the spoken French language of his day, giving latter-day scholars a window into the vocabulary and pronunciation of Old French.  Rashi exerted a decisive influence on establishing the correct text of the Talmud. Up to and including his age, texts of each Talmudic tractate were copied by hand and circulated in yeshivas. Errors often crept in: sometimes a copyist would switch words around, and other times incorporate a student's marginal notes into the main text. Because of the large number of merchant-scholars who came from throughout the Jewish world to attend the great fairs in Troyes, Rashi was able to compare different manuscripts and readings in Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, Midrash, Targum, and the writings of the Geonim, and determine which readings should be preferred. However, in his humility, he deferred to scholars who disagreed with him. For example, in Chulin 4a, he comments about a phrase, "We do not read this. But as for those who do, this is the explanation..."  Rashi's commentary, which covers nearly all of the Babylonian Talmud (a total of 30 tractates), has been included in every version of the Talmud since its first printing in the fifteenth century. It is always situated towards the middle of the opened book display; i.e., on the side of the page closest to the binding.  Some of the other printed commentaries which are attributed to Rashi were composed by others, primarily his students. Akiva Eger stated that the commentary on Nazir was not in fact by Rashi, while Zvi Hirsch Chajes states that the commentary on Taanit was not by Rashi. In some commentaries, the text indicates that Rashi died before completing the tractate, and that it was completed by a student. This is true of Makkot (the end of which was composed by his son-in-law, Rabbi Judah ben Nathan), and of Bava Batra (finished, in a more detailed style, by his grandson the Rashbam). There is a legend that the commentary on Nedarim, which is clearly not his, was actually composed by his daughters. Another legend states that Rashi died while writing a commentary on Talmud, and that the very last word he wrote was 'tahor,' which means pure in Hebrew - indicating that his soul was pure as it left his body.

Responsa.

About 300 of Rashi's responsa and halakhic decisions are extant. Although some may find contradictory to Rashi's intended purpose for his writings, these responsa were copied, preserved, and published by his students, grandchildren, and other future scholars. "Siddur Rashi", compiled by an unknown student, also contains Rashi's responsa on prayer. Many other rulings and responsa are recorded in Mahzor Vitry. Other compilations include "Sefer Hapardes", edited by Rabbi Shemayah, Rashi's student, and "Sefer Haorah", prepared by Rabbi Nathan Hamachiri.  Rashi's writing is placed under the category of post-Talmudic, for its explanation and elaboration on the Talmud; however, he not only wrote about the meaning of Biblical and Talmudic passages, but also on liturgical texts, syntax rules, and cases regarding new religions emerging. Some say that his responsa allows people to obtain "clear pictures of his personality," and shows Rashi as a kind, gentle, humble, and liberal man. They also showed the great deal of common sense and intelligence he had.  Rashi's responsa not only addressed some of the different cases and questions regarding Jewish life and law, but it shed light into the historical and social conditions which the Jews were under during the First Crusade. He covered the following topics and themes in his responsa: linguistic focus on texts, law related to prayer, food, and the Sabbath, wine produced by non-Jews, oaths and excommunications, sales, partnerships, loans and interest, bails, communal affairs, and civil law. Rashi's responsa can be broken down into three genres: questions by contemporary sages and students regarding the Torah, the law, and other compilations.  For example, in his writing regarding relations with the Christians, he provides a guide for how one should behave when dealing with martyrs and converts, as well as the "insults and terms of [disgrace] aimed at the Jews." Stemming from the aftermath of the Crusades, Rashi wrote concerning those who were forced to convert, and the rights women had when their husbands were killed.  A main characteristic of Rashi's writing was his focus on grammar and syntax. His primary focus was on word choice, and "essentially [he acts] as a dictionary where he defines unusual Hebrew words." He searches for things that may not be clear to the reader and offers clarification on the inconsistency that may be present. Rashi does so by "filling in missing information that [helps] lead to a more complete understanding" of the Torah. Rashi focused the majority of his responsa, if not all, on a "meticulous analysis of the language of the text." A portion of his writing is dedicated to making distinctions between the peshat, or plain and literal meaning of the text, and the aggadah or rabbinic interpretation. One of Rashi's grandchildren, Rabbi Samuel B. Meir or Rashbam, heavily critiqued his response on his "commentary on the Torah [being] based primarily on the classic midrashim (rabbinic homilies)."

Influence in non-Jewish circles.

Rashi also influenced non-Jewish circles. His commentaries on the Bible, especially those on the Pentateuch, circulated in many different communities. In the 12th–17th centuries, Rashi's influence spread from French and German provinces to Spain and the east. He had a tremendous influence on Christian scholars. The French monk Nicolas de Lyre of Manjacoria, who was known as the "ape of Rashi", was dependent on Rashi when writing the 'Postillae Perpetuate' on the Bible. He believed that Rashi's commentaries were the "official repository of Rabbinical tradition" and significant to understanding the Bible. De Lyre also had great influence on Martin Luther. Rashi's commentaries became significant to humanists at this time who studied grammar and exegesis. Christian Hebraists studied Rashi's commentaries as important interpretations "authorized by the Synagogue".  Rashi's influence grew the most in the 15th century; from the 17th century onwards, his commentaries were translated into many other languages. Rashi's commentary on the Pentateuch was known as the first printed Hebrew work. Many of his works were translated into English by M. Rosenbaum and A.M. Silbermann in London from 1929 to 1934. Although Rashi had an influence on communities outside of Judaism, his lack of connection to science prevented him from entering the general domain and he remained more popular among the Jewish community.

Criticism of Rashi.

Although Rashi's interpretations were widely respected, there were some who criticized his work. After the 12th century, criticism on Rashi's commentaries became common on Jewish works such as the Talmud. The criticisms mainly dealt with difficult passages. In general, Rashi provides the "pshat" or literal meaning of Jewish texts, while his disciples known as the Tosafot ("additions"), criticized his work and gave more interpretative descriptions of the texts. The Tosafot's commentaries can be found in the Talmud opposite Rashi's commentary. The Tosafot added comments and criticism in places where Rashi had not added comments. The Tosafot went beyond the passage itself in terms of arguments, parallels, and distinctions that could be drawn out. This addition to Jewish texts was seen as causing a "major cultural product" which became an important part of Torah study.  Although often disagreeing with his interpretations, the Tosafot always speak of Rashi with great respect.

Legacy.

Rashi's commentary on the Talmud continues to be a key basis for contemporary rabbinic scholarship and interpretation. Without Rashi's commentary, the Talmud would have remained a closed book. With it, any student who has been introduced to its study by a teacher can continue learning on his own, deciphering its language and meaning with the aid of Rashi.  The Schottenstein Edition Elucidated translation of the Talmud bases its English-language commentary primarily on Rashi’s, and describes his continuing importance as follows:  In 2006, the Jewish National and University Library at Hebrew University put on an exhibit commemorating the 900th anniversary of Rashi's death (2005), showcasing rare items from the library collection written by Rashi, as well as various works by others concerning Rashi.

Supercommentaries.

Voluminous supercommentaries have been published on Rashi's commentaries on the Bible and Talmud, including "Gur Aryeh" by Rabbi Judah Loew (the Maharal), "Sefer ha-Mizrachi" by Rabbi Elijah Mizrachi (the Re'em), and "Yeri'ot Shlomo" by Rabbi Solomon Luria (the Maharshal). Almost all rabbinic literature published since the Middle Ages discusses Rashi, either using his view as supporting evidence or debating against it.  Rashi's explanations of the Chumash were also cited extensively in "Postillae Perpetuae" by Nicholas de Lyra (1292–1340), a French Franciscan. De Lyra's book was one of the primary sources that was used in Luther's translation of the Bible.

"Rashi script".

The semi-cursive typeface in which Rashi's commentaries are printed both in the Talmud and Tanakh is often referred to as "Rashi script." This does not mean that Rashi himself used such a script: the typeface is based on a 15th-century Sephardic semi-cursive hand. What would be called "Rashi script" was employed by early Hebrew typographers such as the Soncino family and Daniel Bomberg, a Christian printer in Venice, in their editions of commented texts (such as the Mikraot Gedolot and the Talmud, in which Rashi's commentaries prominently figure) to distinguish the rabbinic commentary from the primary text proper, for which a square typeface was used.

Shlomo Yitzchaki (; ;, 22 February 1040 – 13 July 1105), today generally known by the acronym Rashi (, RAbbi SHlomo Itzhaki), was a medieval French rabbi and author of a comprehensive commentary on the Talmud and commentary on the "Tanakh". Acclaimed for his ability to present the basic meaning of the text in a concise and lucid fashion, Rashi appeals to both learned scholars and beginner students, and his works remain a centerpiece of contemporary Jewish study. His commentary on the Talmud, which covers nearly all of the Babylonian Talmud (a total of 30 out of 39 tractates, due to his death), has been included in every edition of the Talmud since its first printing by Daniel Bomberg in the 1520s. His commentary on Tanakh—especially on the Chumash ("Five Books of Moses")—serves as the basis for more than 300 "supercommentaries" which analyze Rashi's choice of language and citations, penned by some of the greatest names in rabbinic literature.

Schlomo Jizchaki, auch "Schlomo ben Jizchak", "Schelomo ben Isaak", "Salomo ben Isaak" oder "Rabbi Schlomo Jizchaki" (hebräisch ), meist jedoch Raschi (hebräisch ) genannt, ein Akronym für Rabbi Schlomo ben Jizchak (geboren 1040 oder 1041 in Troyes; gestorben am 13. Juli 1105 ebenda) war ein französischer Rabbiner und maßgeblicher Kommentator des Tanach und Talmuds. Er ist einer der bedeutendsten jüdischen Gelehrten des Mittelalters und der bekannteste jüdische Bibelexeget überhaupt. Sein Bibelkommentar wird bis heute studiert und in den meisten jüdischen Bibelausgaben abgedruckt, sein Kommentar des babylonischen Talmuds gilt ebenfalls als einer der wichtigsten und ist in allen gedruckten Ausgaben dessen Text beigefügt. Raschi hat auch christliche Exegeten beeinflusst.


History.

The word "borough" derives from common Proto-Germanic, meaning "fort": compare with "bury", "burgh" and "brough" (England), (Scotland), (Germany), (Scandinavia),, "burg" (Dutch), (West Frisian), and the Germanic borrowing present in neighbouring Indo-European languages such as (Italian), (French), (Spanish and Portuguese), (Romanian and Catalan), (Kajkavian). It is of Proto-Germanic and ultimately Indo-European origin: it is cognate with (, Bengali), (, Hindi) and (, Persian). The incidence of these words as suffixes to place names (for example, Aldeburgh, Bamburgh, Tilbury, Tilburg, Strasbourg (Strossburi in the local dialect), Luxembourg, Edinburgh, Grundisburgh, Hamburg, Gothenburg) usually indicates that they were once fortified settlements.  In the Middle Ages, boroughs were settlements in England that were granted some self-government; burghs were the Scottish equivalent. In medieval England, boroughs were also entitled to elect members of parliament. The use of the word "borough" probably derives from the burghal system of Alfred the Great. Alfred set up a system of defensive strong points (Burhs); in order to maintain these particular settlements, he granted them a degree of autonomy. After the Norman Conquest, when certain towns were granted self-governance, the concept of the burh/borough seems to have been reused to mean a self-governing settlement.  The concept of the borough has been used repeatedly (and often differently) throughout the world. Often, a borough is a single town with its own local government. However, in some cities it is a subdivision of the city (for example, New York City, London, and Montreal). In such cases, the borough will normally have either limited powers delegated to it by the city's local government, or no powers at all. In other places, such as the U.S. state of Alaska, "borough" designates a whole region; Alaska's largest borough, the North Slope Borough, is comparable in area to the entire United Kingdom, although its population is less than that of Swanage on England's south coast with around 9,600 inhabitants. In Australia, a "borough" was once a self-governing small town, but this designation has all but vanished, except for the only remaining borough in the country, which is the Borough of Queenscliffe.  Boroughs as administrative units are to be found in Ireland and the United Kingdom, more specifically in England and Northern Ireland. Boroughs also exist in the Canadian province of Quebec and formerly in Ontario, in some states of the United States, in Israel, formerly in New Zealand and only one left in Australia.

Etymology.

The word "borough" derives from the Old English word "burg, burh", meaning a fortified settlement; the word appears as modern English "bury", "-brough", Scots "burgh", "borg" in Scandinavian languages.  A number of other European languages have cognate words that were borrowed from the Germanic languages during the Middle Ages, including "brog" in Irish, "bwr" or "bwrc", meaning "wall, rampart" in Welsh, "bourg" in French, "burg" in Catalan (in Catalonia there is a town named "Burg"), "borgo" in Italian, "burgo" in Portuguese and Castilian (hence the place-name Burgos), the "-bork" of Lębork and Malbork in Polish and the "-bor" of Maribor in Slovenian.  The 'burg' element, which means "castle" or "fortress", is often confused with 'berg' meaning "hill" or "mountain" (c.f. iceberg, inselberg). Hence the 'berg' element in Bergen or Heidelberg relates to a hill, rather than a fort. In some cases, the 'berg' element in place names has converged towards burg/borough; for instance Farnborough, from "fernaberga" (fern-hill).

Pronunciation.

In many parts of England, "borough" is pronounced as an independent word, and as when a suffix of a place-name. As a suffix, it is sometimes spelled "-brough".  In the United States, "borough" is pronounced. When appearing as the suffix "-burg(h)" in place-names, it is pronounced.

Definitions.

Australia.

In Australia, the term "borough" is an occasionally used term for a local government area. Currently there is only one borough in Australia, the Borough of Queenscliffe in Victoria, although there have been more in the past. However, in some cases it can be integrated into the council's name instead of used as an official title, such as the Municipality of Kingborough in Tasmania.

Canada.

In Quebec, the term borough is generally used as the English translation of arrondissement, referring to an administrative division of a municipality, or a district. It was previously used in Metropolitan Toronto, Ontario, to denote suburban municipalities including Scarborough, York, North York, Etobicoke prior to their conversion into cities. The Borough of East York was the last Toronto municipality to hold this status, relinquishing it upon becoming part of the City of Toronto government on January 1, 1998. Only eight municipalities in Quebec are divided into boroughs. See List of boroughs in Quebec.

Colombia.

The Colombian Municipalities are subdivided into boroughs (English translation of the Spanish term "localidades") with a local executive and an administrative board for local government. These Boroughs are divided in neighborhoods.  Also, the principal cities had "localidades" with the same features as the European or American cities, including Soacha in Bogotá, Bello, La Estrella, Sabaneta, Envigado and Itagüí on Medellín.

Ireland.

There are four borough districts designated by the Local Government Reform Act 2014: Clonmel, Drogheda, Sligo, and Wexford. A local boundary review reporting in 2018 proposed granting borough status to any district containing a census town with a population over 30,000; this would have included the towns of Dundalk, Bray, and Navan. This requires an amendment to the 2014 act, promised for 2019 by minister John Paul Phelan.  Historically, there were 117 parliamentary boroughs in the Irish House of Commons, of which 80 were disfranchised by the Acts of Union 1800 and all but 11 abolished under the Municipal Corporations (Ireland) Act 1840. Under the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898, six of these became county boroughs: Dublin, Belfast, Cork, Derry, Limerick and Waterford. From 1921, Belfast and Derry were part of Northern Ireland and stayed within the United Kingdom on the establishment of the Irish Free State in 1922. Galway was a borough from 1937 until upgraded to a county borough in 1985. The county boroughs in the Republic of Ireland were redesignated as "cities" under the Local Government Act 2001.  Dún Laoghaire was a borough from 1930 until merged into Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown county in 1994.  There were five borough councils in place at the time of the Local Government Reform Act 2014 which abolished all second-tier local government units of borough and town councils. Each local government authority outside of Dublin, Cork City and Galway City was divided into areas termed municipal districts. In four of the areas which had previously been contained borough councils, as listed above, these were instead termed Borough Districts. Kilkenny had previously had a borough council, but its district was to be called the Municipal District of Kilkenny City, in recognition of its historic city status.

Israel.

Under Israeli law, inherited from British Mandate municipal law, the possibility of creating a municipal borough exists. However, no borough was actually created under law until 2005–2006, when Neve Monosson and Maccabim-Re'ut, both communal settlements (Heb: yishuv kehilati) founded in 1953 and 1984, respectively, were declared to be autonomous municipal boroughs (Heb: vaad rova ironi), within their mergers with the towns of Yehud and Modi'in. Similar structures have been created under different types of legal status over the years in Israel, notably Kiryat Haim in Haifa, Jaffa in Tel Aviv-Yafo and Ramot and Gilo in Jerusalem. However, Neve Monosson is the first example of a full municipal borough actually declared under law by the Minister of the Interior, under a model subsequently adopted in Maccabim-Re'ut as well.  It is the declared intention of the Interior Ministry to use the borough mechanism in order to facilitate municipal mergers in Israel, after a 2003 wide-reaching merger plan, which, in general, ignored the sensitivities of the communal settlements, and largely failed.

Mexico.

In Mexico as translations from English to Spanish applied to Mexico City, the word "borough" has resulted in a delegación (delegation), referring to the 16 administrative areas within the Mexico City, now call Alcaldías. (see: Boroughs of Mexico and Municipalities of Mexico City)

Netherlands.

In the Netherlands, the municipalities of Rotterdam and Amsterdam were divided into administrative boroughs, or deelgemeenten, which had their own borough council and a borough mayor. Other large cities are usually divided into districts, or stadsdelen, for census purposes. The deelgemeenten were abolished in 2014.

New Zealand.

New Zealand formerly used the term borough to designate self-governing towns of more than 1,000 people, although 19th century census records show many boroughs with populations as low as 200. A borough of more than 20,000 people could become a city by proclamation. Boroughs and cities were collectively known as municipalities, and were enclaves separate from their surrounding counties. Boroughs proliferated in the suburban areas of the larger cities: By the 1980s there were 19 boroughs and three cities in the area that is now the City of Auckland.  In the 1980s, some boroughs and cities began to be merged with their surrounding counties to form districts with a mixed urban and rural population. A nationwide reform of local government in 1989 completed the process. Counties and boroughs were abolished and all boundaries were redrawn. Under the new system, most territorial authorities cover both urban and rural land. The more populated councils are classified as cities, and the more rural councils are classified as districts. Only Kawerau District, an enclave within Whakatane District, continues to follow the tradition of a small town council that does not include surrounding rural area.

Trinidad and Tobago.

In Trinidad and Tobago, a Borough is a unit of Local Government. There are 3 boroughs in The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago:

United Kingdom.

England and Wales.

Ancient and municipal boroughs.

During the medieval period many towns were granted self-governance by the Crown, at which point they became referred to as boroughs. The formal status of borough came to be conferred by Royal Charter. These boroughs were generally governed by a self-selecting corporation (i.e., when a member died or resigned his replacement would be by co-option). Sometimes boroughs were governed by bailiffs or headboroughs.  Debates on the Reform Bill (eventually the Reform Act 1832) had highlighted the variations in systems of governance of towns, and a Royal Commission was set up to investigate the issue. This resulted in a regularisation of municipal government (Municipal Corporations Act 1835). 178 of the ancient boroughs were reformed as "municipal boroughs", with all municipal corporations to be elected according to a standard franchise based on property ownership. The unreformed boroughs either lapsed in borough status, or were reformed (or abolished) at a later time. Several new municipal boroughs were formed in the new industrial cities after the bill enacted, according to the provisions of the bill.  As part of a large-scale reform of local government in England and Wales in 1974, municipal boroughs were finally abolished (having become increasingly irrelevant). However, the civic traditions of many boroughs were continued by the grant of a charter to their successor district councils. In smaller boroughs, a town council was formed for the area of the abolished borough, while charter trustees were formed in other former boroughs. In each case, the new body was allowed to use the regalia of the old corporation, and appoint ceremonial office holders such as sword and mace bearers as provided in their original charters. The council or trustees may apply for an Order in Council or Royal Licence to use the former borough coat of arms.

Parliamentary boroughs.

From 1265, two burgesses from each borough were summoned to the Parliament of England, alongside two knights from each county. Thus parliamentary constituencies were derived from the ancient boroughs. Representation in the House of Commons was decided by the House itself, which resulted in boroughs being established in some small settlements for the purposes of parliamentary representation, despite their possessing no actual corporation.  After the Reform Act, which disenfranchised many of the rotten boroughs (boroughs that had declined in importance, had only a small population, and had only a handful of eligible voters), parliamentary constituencies began to diverge from the ancient boroughs. While many ancient boroughs remained as municipal boroughs, they were disenfranchised by the Reform Act.

County boroughs.

The Local Government Act 1888 established a new sort of borough – the county borough. These were designed to be 'counties-to-themselves'; administrative divisions to sit alongside the new administrative counties. They allowed urban areas to be administered separately from the more rural areas. They, therefore, often contained pre-existing municipal boroughs, which thereafter became part of the second tier of local government, below the administrative counties and county boroughs.  The county boroughs were, like the municipal boroughs, abolished in 1974, being reabsorbed into their parent counties for administrative purposes.

Metropolitan boroughs.

In 1899, as part of a reform of local government in the County of London, the various parishes in London were reorganised as new entities, the'metropolitan boroughs'. These were reorganised further when Greater London was formed out of Middlesex and the County of London in 1965. These council areas are now referred to as "London boroughs" rather than "metropolitan boroughs".  When the new metropolitan counties (Greater Manchester, Merseyside, South Yorkshire, Tyne and Wear, West Midlands, and West Yorkshire) were created in 1974, their sub-divisions also became metropolitan boroughs in many, but not all, cases; in many cases these metropolitan boroughs recapitulated abolished county boroughs (for example, Stockport). The metropolitan boroughs possessed slightly more autonomy from the metropolitan county councils than the shire county districts did from their county councils.  With the abolition of the metropolitan county councils in 1986, these metropolitan boroughs became independent, and continue to be so at present.

Other current uses.

Elsewhere in England a number of districts and unitary authority areas are called "borough". Until 1974, this was a status that denoted towns with a certain type of local government (a municipal corporation, or a self-governing body). Since 1974, it has been a purely ceremonial style granted by royal charter to districts which may consist of a single town or may include a number of towns or rural areas. Borough status entitles the council chairman to bear the title of mayor. Districts may apply to the British Crown for the grant of borough status upon advice of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom.

Northern Ireland.

In Northern Ireland, local government was reorganised in 1973. Under the legislation that created the 26 districts of Northern Ireland, a district council whose area included an existing municipal borough could resolve to adopt the charter of the old municipality and thus continue to enjoy borough status. Districts that do not contain a former borough can apply for a charter in a similar manner to English districts.

United States.

In the United States, a borough is a unit of local government below the level of the state. The term is currently used in seven states.  The following states use, or have used, the word with the following meanings:  Certain names of places, such as Hillsboro, Oregon; Greensboro, North Carolina; Tyngsborough, Massachusetts; and Maynesborough, New Hampshire reflect the historical use of "borough" as a geographical unit in the United States.

A borough is an administrative division in various English-speaking countries. In principle, the term "borough" designates a self-governing walled town, although in practice, official use of the term varies widely.

Als Borough (br. engl. [ˈbʌrə], am. engl. [ˈbɜrəʊ] od. [ˈbʌrəʊ]) (deutsch "Gemeinde", "Bezirk") bezeichnet man eine Verwaltungseinheit in verschiedenen englischsprachigen Staaten.


Life.

Early years.

Czepuck trained as an insurance salesman. Between 1944 and 1945 he served in the army, being captured by the Soviets near Halbe, and becoming a prisoner of war detained, initially, by the Soviets and subsequently by the Poles until 1949. In January 1949 he became editor of "Die Brücke", a German prisoners of war newspaper.

Party membership and a career in journalism.

By now the frontier between Germany and Poland had moved westward along with millions of Germans. As part of this process Breslau was now a Polish city. In June 1949 Czepuck was released from imprisonment not in his former home district but in the Soviet occupation zone which was in the process of mutating into the German Democratic Republic. He lost no time in joining the new country's newly formed ruling SED (Socialist Unity Party of Germany/"Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands"). He started work, initially as a volunteer, for Neues Deutschland, a leading national newspaper, and progressed through a succession of positions in the editorial department, as a department head and as the newspaper's correspondent in Bonn. In January 1966 he was appointed Deputy Chief Editor. However, at the start of October 1971 he lost the position on account of conflicts with, the editor in chief. This freed him up to spend more time on Union business.  In July 1967 Czepuck was at the top of a list of the first twelve East German journalists in many years to be permitted to attend the party conference of the West German SPD (moderate socialist party).

Beyond journalism.

Between 1967 and 1971 he served on the "West Commission" of the Party Central Committee's politburo. Between 1967 and January 1981 he was President of the German Journalists' Union (which in June 1972 renamed itself "Union of Journalists in the German Democratic Republic" / VDJ). At the same time he was also Vice-president of the Prague based "International Organisation of Journalists" (IOJ) between 1971 and 1981. In 1984 he retired on an invalidity pension although he continued to write as a freelance journalist.  In 1990 Czepuck joined the PDS which was setting itself up in the newly reunited Germany as a successor to the rather different SED which had in effect been the only party under the one party dictatorship of East Germany. During the twenty-first century he remained a member of "Die Linke" / ""The Left"" which was in effect a further developed and repackaged version of the PDS that was relaunched in 2007.  He was also a founding member of the Society for good neighbourly relations between German and Poland ("Gesellschaft für gute Nachbarschaft mit Polen").

Harri Czepuck (30 July 1927 – 14 June 2015) was a German journalist. In 1967 he was appointed President of the Journalists' Union in the German Democratic Republic.

Harri Czepuck (* 30. Juli 1927 in Breslau; † 14. Juni 2015) war ein deutscher Journalist und SED-Funktionär. Er war Vorsitzender des Verbandes der Journalisten der DDR und stellvertretender Chefredakteur des SED-Zentralorgans Neues Deutschland.


Context.

Klaus Mann fled to exile in March 1933 to avoid political persecution by Hitler's regime. In Amsterdam he worked for the exile magazine "Die Sammlung", which attacked National Socialism. His friend and publisher Fritz Helmut Landshoff made him a "relatively generous offer", as Mann wrote to his mother on 21 July 1935. He was to receive a monthly wage to write a novel. Mann originally intended to write a utopian novel about Europe in 200 years. However, Mann discarded this idea stating that he could not write an apolitical novel at that point in history. The author Hermann Kesten suggested that he write a novel of a homosexual careerist in the Third Reich, with the director of the state theatre Gustaf Gründgens as a subject matter. Gründgens's homosexuality was widely known.  In 1924, Klaus Mann, his sister Erika, Gründgens, and Pamela Wedekind had all worked together on a stage production of Mann's "Anja und Esther" and had toured through Germany. Gründgens and Erika Mann got engaged while Klaus Mann similarly got engaged to Wedekind. The first two got married in 1926 but divorced in 1929 and Wedekind married writer Carl Sternheim a year later. Gründgens and Mann had both belonged in the early 1930s to a strongly left-wing theatre group that in January 1933 was touring Spain. When Hitler was German Chancellor on 30 January 1933, the group was in Madrid, and Mann urged Gründgens not to return to Germany. When Gründgens disregarded Mann's advice and not only returned to Germany, but embraced the Nazi regime (for purely opportunistic reasons), Mann never forgave his former friend Gründgens. Klaus Mann was exiled in 1934; Gründgens became a renowned theater and movie director in Nazi Germany. While Mann never called Gründgens an adversary, he admitted "moved antipathy". Although he attacked Gründgens in newspaper articles, Mann hesitated to use homosexuality as a theme in the novel as he himself was gay and decided to use "negroid masochism" as the main character's sexual preference.  After the novel's publication in 1936, the newspaper "Pariser Tageszeitung" presented it as a roman à clef. Mann resented this characterization and argued that he had not written about a particular individual, but about a type of individual.

Plot introduction.

The novel portrays actor Hendrik Höfgen's rise from the "Hamburger Künstlertheater" (Hamburg Artists' Theater) in 1926 to nationwide fame in 1936. Initially, Höfgen flees to Paris on receiving news of the Nazis' rise to power because of his communist past (learning from a friend that he is on a blacklist). A former co-actress from Hamburg, Angelika Siebert, travels to Berlin to convince Lotte von Lindenthal, the girlfriend (and later wife) of a Luftwaffe general to have him pardoned. On returning to Berlin he quickly manages to win over Lotte and her general and with his support has a wonderful career. On obtaining the role of Mephisto in Faust Part One he realizes that he actually made a pact with evil (i.e. Nazism) and lost his humane values (even denouncing his mistress as "Black Venus"). There are situations where Höfgen tries to help his friends or tell the prime minister about concentration camp hardships, but he is always concerned not to lose his Nazi patrons.

Lawsuit.

After Gründgens' death, his adopted son Peter Gorski sued the "Nymphenburger Verlagsbuchhandlung", then the publisher of Mephisto in West Germany, and obtained the prohibition of publication, confirmed by the appeal judges of the Federal Court of Justice in 1968.  On 24 February 1971 the constitutional complaint was rejected by an equally divided Federal Constitutional Court, which ruled that the freedom of art (Article 5 Section 3 of the Basic Law) must be balanced against late Gründgens' personal dignity (Article 1 Section 1). The case, in which two judges wrote dissenting opinions, is considered a milestone in Germany's juridical history.  The novel was however still available (and importable) from the East German "Aufbau-Verlag". In 1981 Rowohlt republished it in West Germany. Since the 1968 verdict concerned only "Nymphenburger" and Gorski never took legal action against Rowohlt, its "Mephisto" is still available.

Critique.

The role of Höfgen is ambivalent, because on various occasions in the novel, he attempts to help his friends. However, Höfgen also fears losing his good job from his wealthy patron. For this reason, he calls himself a "totally normal actor" at the very end of novel, and can't understand why his friends have distanced themselves from him.

Full plot synopsis.

The Prussian Ministerpräsident (Prime Minister) celebrates his 43rd birthday in 1936 in the Berliner Opernhaus (Berlin Opera House). The party is so magnificent and extravagant that the foreign guests feel intimidated. As the propaganda minister enters the hall, his presence creates a stir. He is surrounded by an ice-cold atmosphere. Despite his disability he walks through the hall directly towards the director of the state theatre, Hendrik Höfgen. Although he hates the 39-year-old, he allows himself to be photographed conversing with him. To guarantee a good consequence of his appearance, the Ministerpräsident delays his arrival to the party. Later he enters with his wife, Lotte Lindenthal.  The story then reverts to the mid-1920s: Hendrik Höfgen, Otto Ulrichs and Hans Miklas belong to the Hamburger Künstlertheater (Artists' Theatre in Hamburg). Höfgen currently works there as an actor and director, and is friends with Otto Ulrichs, as they incessantly plan a "revolutionary theatre." The Hamburger Künstlertheater is the first rung on Höfgen's career ladder. He works there 16 hours a day and often suffers from fits of excitement and nerves. He demonstrates superiority over his colleagues. When the Berlin actress Dora Martin has a guest performance, he hides in her dressing room. Although he didn't see her performance, he congratulates her for it. Hans Miklas, a follower of the NSDAP, talks negatively of Martin because of her Jewish origin. In a harbour pub in Hamburg, he gets to know Juliette Martins. Her father is an engineer from Hamburg and her mother was African, giving Juliette her dark skin. She gives Höfgen dance lessons and becomes his mistress.  In the Hamburger Künstlertheater "Spring's Awakening" ("Frühlings Erwachen") is being rehearsed. Here Höfgen acts as a tyrant towards his colleagues. He adjourns the rehearsal in the afternoon because of his dance lesson. Juliette is the only person he allows to address him as Heinz – not even his family are allowed this. Höfgen is introduced to Barbara Bruckner (the daughter of Geheimrat Bruckner) by his colleague Nicoletta von Niebuhr. She encourages Höfgen to woo Barbara. To Barbara's surprise he does it, and they marry quickly. They spend their honeymoon in the Upper Bavarian lakes. Nicoletta joins them and is visited almost daily by the eccentric writer Theophil Marder. Two weeks after their return, Hendrik again meets with Juliette. Theophil Marder writes Nicoletta a telegram, saying that his feelings are hurt by his marriage; a wife must belong to her husband regardless of circumstances. Nicoletta von Niebuhr travels straight to him and gives up her job. She marries the man, 30 years her senior.  In 1928, Höfgen takes a role in a comedy in Vienna. He receives his place there on the recommendation of Dora Martin, Geheimrat Bruckner and Theophil Marder. He leaves the Hamburger Künstlertheater after an argument with Hans Miklas, after he called Lotte Lindenthal a blonde cow. Through the support of Dora Martin, Höfgen receives a role in the State Theatre in Berlin. There he makes his career; his fee triples. He even sings for the evening performance of Chansons in the Music Hall. Now he spends a week at the Reichskanzlerplatz (Chancellor of the Reich) and learns to drive. Geheimrat Bruckner and his daughter Barbara come to Berlin less and less often and withdraw from Höfgen.  He rents a room for Juliette in a remote corner of Berlin. Then he visits her during the week. In 1932, "Faust" is included in the play's performance listings to commemorate 100 years since the death of Goethe. Höfgen takes the role of Mephisto, which becomes his most successful part. Höfgen can hardly believe that the Nazis will come to power, but on 30 January 1933, Hitler is named as the new Reichskanzler (Chancellor of the Reich). At this time, Höfgen starts shooting a film in Madrid. Dora Martin emigrates to America. Once the shooting in Spain is finished, Höfgen doesn't return to Germany, instead travelling to Paris, because he had been warned that he was on the Nazi blacklist. After his colleague from Hamburg Angela Siebert puts in a good word for him with Lotte Lindenthal, Lotte decides to choose him as her partner for her debut performance at the Berlin State Theatre. Höfgen therefore is under the protection of the Ministerpräsident and can return to Germany. "Faust" is again written in the performance listings of the State Theatre. Höfgen tells Lotte that he would like to play Mephisto. Again, she manages to get him this part. Thanks to his patron, he organises the release of Otto Ulrichs, whom the Nazis had imprisoned in a concentration camp for his communist beliefs. Höfgen convinces him to take a job at the State Theatre. Meanwhile, Hans Miklas feels betrayed by national socialism, since in his opinion it was of no benefit to Germany.  Höfgen wants the Nazis to know nothing of his relationship with the dark-skinned Juliette. He implores her to leave Germany and go to Paris. Since Juliette refuses, Höfgen finds no alternative but to allow Juliette to be arrested. In prison Höfgen tells her that he will get her sent to Paris and support her financially. In 1934, Barbara divorces Höfgen. She too lives in Paris. Nicoletta separates from her husband and returns to Berlin, to continue working as an actress. She works alongside Höfgen. The Ministerpräsident and the propaganda minister argue over the choice of the new director of the State Theatre. The Ministerpräsident wants Höfgen to take the post and the propaganda minister disagrees, but eventually gives in. Höfgen takes over the position of Cäsar von Muck, who is named president of the "Dichterakademie" (Poetry Academy). In Paris, von Muck encounters Höfgen's black lover. Out of revenge he spreads the information. The Führer engages Höfgen for a short conversation on the matter, then dismisses him, content that the issue has been dealt with.  Höfgen buys a huge villa in Grunewald and calls his sister and parents to Berlin. He now marries Nicoletta to put an end to the rumours of his relationship with a black woman. Ulrichs once again works in underground communist circles. He now knows that Höfgen only lives for his fame. Ulrichs is again arrested. Höfgen begs for help from the Ministerpräsident, but he explains to Höfgen that he can no longer help and that he should say no more about it.  He plays his new role of Hamlet poorly, and suffers greatly from feelings of ineptitude. The premiere is very successful and the critics are impressed. The audience no longer assesses his artistic capabilities, but rather his relationship with power. At the end of the novel, he breaks down to his mother. She knows her son's susceptibility to nervous breakdowns, but notices in his composure that his spiritual condition is deep-rooted.

Adaptations.

In 2013, Helen Edmundson wrote a stage adaptation of "Mephisto", which was produced at the Altonaer Theater in Hamburg.

Mephisto – Novel of a Career is the sixth novel by Klaus Mann, which was published in 1936 whilst he was in exile in Amsterdam. It was published for the first time in Germany in the East Berlin Aufbau-Verlag in 1956. This novel (a thinly disguised portrait of the actor Gustaf Gründgens), the Tchaikovsky novel "Symphonie Pathétique", and the emigrant novel "Der Vulkan" are Klaus Mann's three most famous novels. An award-winning 1981 movie was based on Mann's novel. The novel adapts the Mephistopheles/Dr Faustus theme by having the main character Hendrik Höfgen abandon his conscience and continue to act and ingratiate himself with the Nazi Party to keep and improve his job and social position.

Mephisto "– Roman einer Karriere" ist der sechste Roman des Schriftstellers Klaus Mann, der 1936 im Exilverlag Querido in Amsterdam erschienen ist. Er wurde 1956 erstmals in Deutschland im Ostberliner Aufbau-Verlag verlegt. Der Roman, in dem der Schauspieler Gustaf Gründgens eine zentrale Rolle als die Romanfigur Hendrik Höfgen spielt, zählt neben dem Tschaikowsky-Roman "Symphonie Pathétique" und dem Emigranten-Roman "Der Vulkan" zu Klaus Manns drei bedeutendsten Romanen. "Mephisto" wird oft als Schlüsselroman gesehen, ist dies nach Aussage Klaus Manns allerdings nicht.


History.

Eggerberg is first mentioned in 1307 as "Eccun".

Geography.

Eggerberg has an area,, of. Of this area, 15.2% is used for agricultural purposes, while 56.4% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 5.5% is settled (buildings or roads) and 22.9% is unproductive land.  The municipality is located on the slopes above the northern Rhone valley, near Visp. It consists of the village of Eggerberg and the hamlets of Mühlackern, Wirmschland, Berg, Eggen and summer only settlement of Finnen.  The proposed merger of the municipalities of Eggerberg, Ausserberg, Bürchen, Baltschieder, Visp and Visperterminen was rejected by the residents.

Coat of arms.

The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is "Azure, issuant from Coupeaux Vert a Latin Cross Argent between in chief dexter a Moon Or and sinister a Sun of the Same."

Demographics.

Eggerberg has a population () of., 1.7% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (1999–2009 ) the population has changed at a rate of -13.6%. It has changed at a rate of -7.1% due to migration and at a rate of -3.3% due to births and deaths.  Most of the population () speaks German (378 or 99.0%) as their first language, French is the second most common (2 or 0.5%) and Italian is the third (1 or 0.3%). , the gender distribution of the population was 47.8% male and 52.2% female. The population was made up of 157 Swiss men (45.8% of the population) and 7 (2.0%) non-Swiss men. There were 172 Swiss women (50.1%) and 7 (2.0%) non-Swiss women. Of the population in the municipality 269 or about 70.4% were born in Eggerberg and lived there in 2000. There were 83 or 21.7% who were born in the same canton, while 16 or 4.2% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 5 or 1.3% were born outside of Switzerland. The age distribution of the population () is children and teenagers (0–19 years old) make up 27.5% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) make up 58.1% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 14.4%. , there were 159 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 193 married individuals, 25 widows or widowers and 5 individuals who are divorced. , there were 135 private households in the municipality, and an average of 2.7 persons per household. There were 35 households that consist of only one person and 17 households with five or more people. Out of a total of 147 households that answered this question, 23.8% were households made up of just one person and there were 4 adults who lived with their parents. Of the rest of the households, there are 26 married couples without children, 61 married couples with children There were 6 single parents with a child or children. There were 3 households that were made up of unrelated people and 12 households that were made up of some sort of institution or another collective housing. , a total of 115 apartments (48.5% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 105 apartments (44.3%) were seasonally occupied and 17 apartments (7.2%) were empty.  The historical population is given in the following chart:

Politics.

In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the CVP which received 66.73% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SVP (16.87%), the SP (13.66%) and the FDP (1.71%). In the federal election, a total of 216 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 74.7%.  In the 2009 Conseil d'Etat/Staatsrat election a total of 172 votes were cast, of which 6 or about 3.5% were invalid. The voter participation was 60.6%, which is much more than the cantonal average of 54.67%. In the 2007 Swiss Council of States election a total of 212 votes were cast, of which 3 or about 1.4% were invalid. The voter participation was 73.4%, which is much more than the cantonal average of 59.88%.

Economy.

, Eggerberg had an unemployment rate of 0.7%., there were 32 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 16 businesses involved in this sector. 5 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 2 businesses in this sector. 45 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 10 businesses in this sector. There were 192 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 41.1% of the workforce. , there were 17 workers who commuted into the municipality and 159 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net exporter of workers, with about 9.4 workers leaving the municipality for every one entering. Of the working population, 35.4% used public transportation to get to work, and 51.6% used a private car.

Transport.

Eggerberg railway station, on the Lötschberg line, is adjacent to the village of Eggerberg. It is served by trains to Bern, Thun and Brig. A PostAuto bus service links Finnen, Eggen, Eggerberg, Baltschieder and Visp.

Religion.

From the, 354 or 92.7% were Roman Catholic, while 6 or 1.6% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there was 1 individual who belongs to the Christian Catholic Church, and there were 22 individuals (or about 5.76% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. 3 (or about 0.79% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 7 individuals (or about 1.83% of the population) did not answer the question.

Education.

In Eggerberg about 134 or (35.1%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 11 or (2.9%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a "Fachhochschule"). Of the 11 who completed tertiary schooling, 90.9% were Swiss men, 9.1% were Swiss women.  During the 2010-2011 school year there were a total of 10 students in the Eggerberg school system. The education system in the Canton of Valais allows young children to attend one year of non-obligatory Kindergarten. During that school year, there were no kindergarten classes (KG1 or KG2) and there were no kindergarten students. The canton's school system requires students to attend six years of primary school. In Eggerberg there was one class and 10 students in the primary school. The secondary school program consists of three lower, obligatory years of schooling (orientation classes), followed by three to five years of optional, advanced schools. All the lower secondary students from Eggerberg attend their school in a neighboring municipality. All the upper secondary students attended school in another municipality. , there was one student in Eggerberg who came from another municipality, while 15 residents attended schools outside the municipality.

Eggerberg is a village and municipality in the district of Brig in the canton of Valais in Switzerland. Besides the village of Eggerberg, the municipality includes the settlements of Berg, Eggen, Finnen, Mühlackern and Wirmschland.

Eggerberg (Walliserdeutsch: "Eggerbärg") ist eine politische Gemeinde und eine Burgergemeinde mit einem Burgerrat des Bezirks Brig sowie eine Pfarrgemeinde des Dekanats Visp im deutschsprachigen Teil des Kantons Wallis in der Schweiz. Teile des Gemeindegebietes gehören zum Weltnaturerbe Jungfrau-Aletsch-Bietschhorn der UNESCO. Gemeindepräsident ist Reto Zimmermann. Alle fünf gewählten Gemeinderäte sind parteilos.