Geography.

The town was titled "Great Grimsby" to distinguish it from Little Grimsby, a village about to the south, near Louth.  The town had a population of 88,243 in 2011. It is physically linked to and forms a conurbation with the adjoining town of Cleethorpes. Some 11,000 of its residents live in the village of Scartho, which was absorbed into Grimsby before 20th-century laws on the green belt were passed. All

History.

There is some archaeological evidence of a small town of Roman workers sited in the area in the second century. Located on the River Haven, which flowed into the Humber, this provided an ideal location for ships to shelter from approaching storms. It was also well situated to exploit the rich fishing grounds in the North Sea.

Vikings.

Grimsby was settled by Danes sometime in the 9th century AD. According to legend, the name Grimsby derives from the name "Grim," a Danish fisherman, the suffix "-by" being the Old Norse word for village. The legendary founding of Grimsby is described in a medieval romance, the "Lay of Havelock the Dane," but historians consider this account to be myth.  In Norse mythology, "Grim" (Mask) and "Grimnir" (Masked One) are names adopted by the deity Odin (Anglo-Saxon "Woden") when travelling incognito amongst

Medieval period.

During the 12th century, Grimsby developed into a fishing and trading port, at one point ranking twelfth in importance to the Crown in terms of tax revenue. The town was granted its charter by King John in 1201. The first mayor was installed in 1202.  Grimsby is noted in the in this stanza by Kali Kolsson:  Grimsby does not have town walls. It was too small and was protected by the marshy land around it. However, the town did have a ditch.  In medieval times, Grimsby had

Rise of fishing and maritime industry.

The Grimsby Haven Company was formed by Act of Parliament in May 1796 (the Grimsby Haven Act) for the purpose of "widening, deepening, enlarging, altering and improving the Haven of the Town and Port of Great Grimsby". After dredging of The Haven and related improvement, in the early 19th century the town grew rapidly as the port was revived. Grimsby's port boomed, importing iron, timber, wheat, hemp and flax. New docks were needed to cope with the expansion. The Grimsby Docks Act of 1845 allowed the necessary building works.  The arrival of the railway in 1848 made it easier to transport goods to and from the port to markets and farms. Coal mined in the South Yorkshire coalfields was brought by rail and exported through Grimsby. Rail links direct to London and the Billingsgate Fish Market allowed for fresh "Grimsby Fish" to gain renown nationwide. The first true fish dock opened in Grimsby in 1856,

Second World War.

The Royal Dock was used as the UK's largest base for minesweepers to patrol the North Sea. The Admiralty requisitioned numerous trawlers to serve as minesweepers for the Royal Naval Patrol Service. In many cases, their crew were ex-trawlermen, as well as men from the Royal Naval Reserve and Royal Navy volunteers. Trawlers would use the winches and warps from fishing operations to tow a paravane with a cutting jaw through the water in what was known as a'sweep' to bring mines to the surface and allow for their removal.  The dangers faced

Post-Second World War.

Following the pressures placed on the industry during the Cod Wars, and the European Union's Common Fisheries Policy which distributes fishing quotas from what would have been British waters to other EU nations, many Grimsby firms decided to cease trawling operations from the town. The sudden demise of the Grimsby fishing industry brought an end to a way of life and community that had lasted for generations. The loss of the fishing industry brought severe social problems to the town, in a similar manner to that seen in the coalfields following the decline of mining. Huge numbers of men became redundant, highly skilled in jobs that no longer existed, and they struggled to find work ashore. As with the Ross Group, some firms concentrated on expanding industries within the town, such as food processing. Grimsby's trawling days are remembered through the artefacts and permanent exhibits at the town's Fishing Heritage Centre.

Governance.

Since the December 2019 general election, Lia Nici (Conservative) has been the Member of Parliament for the Great Grimsby constituency, having won the seat from the former MP, Melanie Onn (Labour), who had served as such since 2015. The result meant that the seat was not held by the Labour Party for the first time in 74 years.  Previously, the veteran MP Austin Mitchell (Labour) had held the seat between 1977 and 2015. Great Grimsby formed an ancient Borough in the North Riding of Lindsey. It was reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 and became a Municipal Borough in that year. In 1889 a County Council was created for Lindsey, but Great Grimsby was outside its area of control and formed an independent County Borough in 1891. The Borough expanded to absorb the adjacent hamlet of Wellow (1889), also the neighbouring parishes of Clee-with-Weelsby (1889), Little Coates (1928), Scartho (1928), Weelsby (1928) and Great Coates (1968). It had its own police force until 1967 when it merged with the Lincolnshire force.  In 1974, the County Borough was abolished and Great Grimsby was reconstituted (with the same boundaries) as the "Grimsby" non-metropolitan district in the new county of Humberside by the Local Government Act 1972. The district was renamed "Great Grimsby" in 1979.  In the early 1990s, local government in the area came under the review of the Local Government Commission for England and Humberside was abolished in 1996. The former area of the Great Grimsby district merged with that of Cleethorpes to form the unitary authority of North East Lincolnshire. The town does not have its own town council, instead there is a board of Charter Trustees. During 2007, in the struggle for identity, it was suggested that the district could be renamed to "Great Grimsby and Cleethorpes" to give a stronger indication of its towns. This did not meet with favour among local residents, and the Council Leader dropped the idea a year later.

Council wards.

North East Lincolnshire Council has

Economy.

The main sectors of the Grimsby economy are ports and logistics; and food processing, specifically frozen foods and fish processing, chemicals and process industries and digital media. To the east Cleethorpes has a tourist industry, and to the west, along the Humber bank to Immingham, is large-scale industrial activity, established from the 1950s onwards, focused on chemicals, and from the 1990s gas-powered electrical generation.

Food industry.

Grimsby is strongly linked with the sea fishing industry, which once generated wealth for the town. At its peak in the 1950s, it was the largest and busiest fishing port in the world. As a result of the Cod Wars with Iceland, and the European Union's Common Fisheries Policy this industry has been in decline for many years. In 1970 around 400 trawlers were based in the port, by 2013 only five remained, whereas 15 vessels were being used to maintain offshore wind farms in the North Sea. The town still has the largest fish market in the UK, but most of what is sold is brought overland from other ports or from Iceland by containerisation. Of the 18,000 tonnes of fresh fish sold in Grimsby fish market in 2012, almost 13,000 tonnes, mainly cod and haddock, came from Iceland.  Today, Greater Grimsby is home to around 500 food-related companies, giving it one of the largest concentrations of food manufacturing, research, storage, and distribution in Europe. The local council has promoted Grimsby as "Europe's Food Town" for nearly twenty years. In 1999, the BBC reported that more pizzas were

Docks.

The Port of Grimsby has been in use since the medieval period. The first enclosed dock, later known as the Old Dock, was built in the 1790s by the Grimsby Haven Company. Major expansion came with the coming of the railways, and construction of the Royal Dock, Grimsby in the 1840s. A Fish Dock was

Retail.

High street shopping in the town is focused on central Grimsby between the railway and River Freshney, where Victoria Street acts as a central pedestrianised shopping street with the undercover Freshney Place shopping centre to the north. Freshney Place is visited by 14 million shoppers a year and employs over 2,000 staff. The centre houses over 100 stores, including Marks and Spencer and House of Fraser. Constructed between 1967 and 1971 in a joint venture between the old "Grimsby Borough Council" and developers Hammerson's UK Ltd., it was known as the "Riverhead Centre" (so named as

Renewable energy.

Grimsby is beginning to develop as a renewable energy centre, and generates more electricity from solar, wind, biomass and landfill gas than anywhere else in England. The

Education.

There are numerous primary schools in Grimsby. Secondary schools in Grimsby include Havelock Academy, Oasis Academy Wintringham and Ormiston Maritime Academy. Many pupils from the town also attend secondary education institutions in Cleethorpes, Healing, Humberston and Waltham, and further afield Caistor Grammar. Independent schools

Transport.

Grimsby lies from the nearest motorway, the M180 which continues as the A180 into the town and acts as a link to the national motorway network. The transport infrastructure was described as strong, and having helped Grimsby transition to a food processing centre in a report by the European Commission. Though derided as "on the road to nowhere" by the writer and critic A. A. Gill. The town is skirted by the A18, with the A46 passing through the town providing a connection towards Lincoln, and the A16 linking the town to Louth and south and eastern Lincolnshire.

Buses.

Grimsby's bus service is provided by Stagecoach which took over the original "Grimsby-Cleethorpes Transport" in 1993. "Grimsby-Cleethorpes Transport" had been formed in 1957, with the merger of the previously separate Grimsby and Cleethorpes transport (GCT) undertakings. Stagecoach had all the buses resprayed to their standard livery to replace the buses previous colour-scheme of orange and white. Prior to this, the buses were painted blue and white until 1981, when the colours

Railways.

Grimsby also has rail links via Grimsby Town railway station and Grimsby Docks railway station. There is a level crossing in the centre of the town across "Wellowgate". TransPennine Express provide direct trains to Manchester Airport via Doncaster and Sheffield whilst Northern

Former trams.

Grimsby was home to two tramway networks: the "Grimsby District Light Railway" and the "Grimsby & Immingham Electric Railway". The Grimsby Electric was a normal gauge tramway opened in 1912 between Corporation Bridge at Grimsby and Immingham. There was no physical connection with the railway system. The tramway served the town with a passenger service between Grimsby and Immingham until closure in 1961. It is claimed that once this was controlled by the

Airport.

Humberside Airport is west of Grimsby and mainly caters for

Sport.

Football.

The local football team is Grimsby Town F.C., nicknamed The Mariners, who as of the 2016–17 season play in Football League Two. Their ground is Blundell Park in Cleethorpes and it is often joked by locals that it is the only British club to play away every game. It is the oldest professional football team in the county of Lincolnshire and one of the oldest in the country, being formed in 1878 as Grimsby Pelham with a home ground on land off Ainslie Street, Grimsby.  During the 1930s Grimsby Town played in the English First Division, then the highest level of the domestic game in England. It also appeared in two FA Cup semi-finals in the 1930s: in 1936 (against Arsenal) and in 1939 (against Wolverhampton Wanderers). The

Other sports.

An ice hockey club has been based in Grimsby since 1936. The current club has teams playing at different levels throughout the English Ice Hockey Association structure, all under the name of the Grimsby Red Wings. In 2009 the club added an ice sledge Hockey team to ensure that it was able to offer a fully inclusive sport to the NE Lincolnshire area.  The area has an amateur Rugby Union side, the Grimsby RUFC, and an amateur cricket side, the Grimsby Town Cricket Club, both of which attract reasonable levels of support. The Grimsby

Culture and attractions.

Entertainment.

Prior to the late 1960s many public houses in the area were owned by the local brewer "Hewitt Brothers" and gave a distinctive local touch but following a takeover in 1969 by the brewer Bass-Charrington these have been re-badged (many times), closed or sold off. The Barge Inn is former grain barge converted into a public house and restaurant and has been moored in the Riverhead quay since 1982.  Musical entertainment is found at the Grimsby Auditorium, built in 1995, on "Cromwell Road" in Yarborough near Grimsby

Notable places of interest and landmarks.

Grimsby is the site of a Blue Cross Animal Hospital, one of only four in the country; the other

Media.

The "Grimsby Telegraph", with an audited circulation of 40,533 copies (January – June 2004), has the highest circulation of a local newspaper in Grimsby and the surrounding area since it is the only daily newspaper. Its former headquarters are on "Cleethorpe Road" next to the A180, it is now based in Heritage House near to the Fishing

Flooding.

The Environment Agency has awarded Sheffield-based telemetry company CSE Seprol a contract to supply flood warning devices for risk areas in East Anglia. The 18 sirens, at various locations around the flood risk area of Grimsby and Cleethorpes,

Notable people.

Grimbarians (natives of Grimsby) were mainly born at the former Grimsby Maternity Hospital in Second Avenue, Nunsthorpe, Grimsby. Many

Twin cities.

Grimsby's twin cities include:  As a port with extensive trading ties to Continental Europe, the Nordic nations and Baltic Europe, the town plays host to honorary consulates of Denmark, Iceland, and Norway. Swedish and Finnish honorary consulates are located in Immingham, and that of Germany at Barrow-upon-Humber.  The people of Norway send a tree to the town of Grimsby every Christmas since the end of the Second World War. The Norwegian city of Trondheim sent a tree for 40 years until 2003, since then the tree has been donated by the northern Norwegian town of Sortland, and placed in the town's Riverhead Square. During redevelopment of Riverhead Square the tree has been placed in the Old Market Place since 2013.

Grimsby, also Great Grimsby, is a large coastal English seaport and administrative centre in North East Lincolnshire, on the South Bank of the Humber Estuary, close to where it reaches the North Sea. It was the home port for the largest fishing fleet in the world by the mid-20th century, but fishing declined dramatically after the Cod Wars denied the United Kingdom access to Icelandic fishing grounds, and the European Union parcelled out fishing quotas in waters within a limit of the UK coast to other European countries, in line with its Common Fisheries Policy. Since then Grimsby has suffered post-industrial decline, although food manufacturing has been encouraged since the 1990s. The Grimsby–Cleethorpes conurbation acts as a cultural, shopping and industrial centre for much of northern and eastern Lincolnshire. Grimsby people are called Grimbarians; the term "" is also used jokingly, often for Grimsby football supporters. Great Grimsby Day is 22 January.

Grimsby (alt: Great Grimsby) ist eine Hafenstadt an der Mündung des Humber in die Nordsee in der englischen Grafschaft Lincolnshire. Sie ist seit 1996 Verwaltungssitz der Unitary Authority North East Lincolnshire.


History.

Beginnings under Alexander I.

In 1795 the partitions of Poland left Warsaw with access only to the Academy of Vilnius; the oldest and most influential Polish academic center, University of Kraków, became part of the Habsburg Monarchy. In 1815, the newly established autonomous Congress Poland de facto belonging to the Russian Empire found itself without a university at all, as Vilnius was incorporated into Russia. The first to be established in Congress Poland were the Law School and the Medical School. In 1816 Tsar Alexander I permitted the Polish authorities to create a university, comprising five departments: Law and Administration, Medicine, Philosophy, Theology, and Art and Humanities. The university soon grew to 800 students and 50 professors. After most of the students and professors took part in the November 1830 Uprising the university was closed down. After the Crimean War, Russia entered a brief period of liberalization, and the permission was given to create a Polish medical and surgical academy ("Akademia Medyko-Chirurgiczna") in Warsaw. In 1862 departments of Law and Administration, Philology and History, and Mathematics and Physics were opened. The newly established academy gained importance and was soon renamed the "Main School" ("Szkoła Główna"). However, after the January 1863 Uprising the liberal period ended and all Polish-language schools were closed down again. During its short existence, the Main School educated over 3,000 students, many of whom became part of the backbone of the Polish intelligentsia. The Main School was replaced with a Russian-language "Imperial University of Warsaw". Its purpose was to provide education for the Russian military garrison of Warsaw, the majority of students (up to 70% out of an average of 1,500 to 2,000 students) were Poles. The tsarist authorities believed that the Russian university would become a perfect way to Russify Polish society and spent a significant sum on building a new university campus. However, various underground organizations soon started to grow and the students became their leaders in Warsaw. Most notable of these groups (the supporters of Polish revival and the socialists) joined the ranks of the 1905 Revolution. Afterwards a boycott of Russian educational facilities was proclaimed and the number of Polish students dropped to below 10%. Most of the students who wanted to continue their education left for Galicia and Western Europe.  After the fall of the January Uprising (1863–1864), the Tsarist authorities' decided to convert the Main School into a Russian-language university, which functioned under the name of Imperial University for 46 years. There were two times when the question of moving the university into Russia was considered. During the 1905–1907 revolution, such a proposal was made by some of the professors, in the face of a boycott of the university by Polish students. Talks on that subject were conducted with a number of Russian cities, including Voronezh and Saratov. The Russian government finally decided to keep a university in Warsaw, but as a result of the boycott, the university was Russian not only in the sense of the language used, but also of the nationality of its professors and students.  For the second time the question emerged during the First World War, when the military and political situation forced the Russian authorities to evacuate. Beginning from the autumn of 1915, there were two Universities of Warsaw: one Polish, in Warsaw, and another Russian, in Rostov-on-Don which functioned until 1917. On 5 May 1917 the Russian Provisional Government decided to close the University of Warsaw. The decision took effect on 1 July 1917; on the same day, the University of the Don, was inaugurated.  During World War I Warsaw was seized by Germany in 1915. In order to win the Poles for their case and secure the Polish area behind the front lines the governments of Germany and Austria-Hungary allowed for a certain liberalization of life in Poland. In accordance with the concept of "Mitteleuropa", German military authorities permitted several Polish social and educational societies to be recreated. One of these was the University of Warsaw. The Polish language was reintroduced, and the professors were allowed to return to work. In order not to let the Polish patriotic movement out of control the number of lecturers was kept low (usually not more than 50), but there were no limits on the number of students. Until 1918 their number rose from a mere 1,000 to over 4,500.

Second Polish Republic.

After Poland regained its independence in 1918, the University of Warsaw began to grow very quickly. It was reformed; all the important posts (the rector, senate, deans and councils) became democratically elected, and the state spent considerable amounts of money to modernize and equip it. Many professors returned from exile and cooperated in the effort. By the late 1920s the level of education in Warsaw had reached that of western Europe.  By the beginning of the 1930s the University of Warsaw had become the largest university in Poland, with over 250 lecturers and 10,000 students. However, the financial problems of the newly reborn state did not allow for free education, and students had to pay a tuition fee for their studies (an average monthly salary, for a year). Also, the number of scholarships was very limited, and only approximately 3% of students were able to get one. Despite these economic problems, the University of Warsaw grew rapidly. New departments were opened, and the main campus was expanded. After the death of Józef Piłsudski the Senate of the University of Warsaw changed its name to "Józef Piłsudski University of Warsaw" ("Uniwersytet Warszawski im. Józefa Piłsudskiego"). The "Sanacja" government proceeded to limit the autonomy of the universities. Professors and students remained divided for the rest of the 1930s as the system of segregated seating for Jewish students, known as ghetto benches, was implemented customarily, not institutionally; comparable to the era of the Civil rights movement in the United States.

World War II.

After the Polish Defensive War of 1939 the German authorities of the General Government closed all the institutions of higher education in Poland. The equipment and most of the laboratories were taken to Germany and divided amongst the German universities while the main campus of the University of Warsaw was turned into military barracks.  German racial theories assumed that no education of Poles was needed and the whole nation was to be turned into uneducated serfs of the German race. Education in Polish was banned and punished with death. However, many professors organized the so-called "Secret University of Warsaw" ("Tajny Uniwersytet Warszawski"). The lectures were held in small groups in private apartments and the attendants were constantly risking discovery and death. However, the net of underground faculties spread rapidly and by 1944 there were more than 300 lecturers and 3,500 students at various courses.  Many students took part in the Warsaw Uprising as soldiers of the Armia Krajowa and Szare Szeregi. The German-held campus of the University was turned into a fortified area with bunkers and machine gun nests. It was located close to the buildings occupied by the German garrison of Warsaw. Heavy fights for the campus started on the first day of the Uprising, but the partisans were not able to break through the gates. Several assaults were bloodily repelled and the campus remained in German hands until the end of the fights. During the uprising and the occupation 63 professors were killed, either during fights or as an effect of German policy of extermination of Polish intelligentsia. The University lost 60% of its buildings during the fighting in 1944. A large part of the collection of priceless works of art and books donated to the University was either destroyed or transported to Germany, never to return.

In the People's Republic.

After World War II it was not clear whether the university would be restored or whether Warsaw itself would be rebuilt. However, many professors who had survived the war returned, and began organizing the university from scratch. In December 1945, lectures resumed for almost 4,000 students in the ruins of the campus, and the buildings were gradually rebuilt. Until the late 1940s the university remained relatively independent. However, soon the communist authorities started to impose political controls, and the period of Stalinism started. Many professors were arrested by the Urząd Bezpieczeństwa (Secret Police), the books were censored and ideological criteria in employment of new lecturers and admission of students were introduced. On the other hand, education in Poland became free of charge and the number of young people to receive the state scholarships reached 60% of all the students. After Władysław Gomułka's rise to power in 1956, a brief period of liberalization ensued, though communist ideology still played a major role in most faculties (especially in such faculties as history, law, economics, and political science). International cooperation was resumed and the level of education rose.  By mid-1960s the government started to suppress freedom of thought, which led to increasing unrest among the students. A political struggle within the communist party prompted Zenon Kliszko to ban the production of "Dziady" by Mickiewicz at the Teatr Narodowy, leading to 1968 Polish political crisis coupled with anti-Zionist and anti-democratic campaign and the outbreak of student demonstrations in Warsaw, which were brutally crushed – not by police, but by the ORMO "reserve militia" squads of plain-clothed workers. As a result, a large number of students and professors were expelled from the university. Nonetheless, the University remained the centre of free thought and education. What professors could not say during lectures, they expressed during informal meetings with their students. Many of them became leaders and prominent members of the Solidarity movement and other societies of the democratic opposition which led to the collapse of communism. The scientists working at the University of Warsaw were also among the most prominent printers of books forbidden by censorship.

Campus.

University of Warsaw owns a total of 126 buildings. Further construction and a vigorous renovation program are underway at the main campus. The university is spread out over the city, though most of the buildings are concentrated in two areas.

Main campus.

The main campus of the University of Warsaw is in the city center, adjacent to the Krakowskie Przedmieście street. It comprises several historic palaces, most of which had been nationalized in the 19th century. The chief buildings include:  The Warsaw University Library building is a short walk downhill from the main campus, in the Powiśle neighborhood.

Natural sciences campus.

The second important campus is located near Banacha and Pasteura streets. It is home to the departments of chemistry, physics, biology, mathematics, computer science and geology, and contains several other university buildings such as the Interdisciplinary Centre for Mathematical and Computational Modelling, the Environmental Heavy Ion Laboratory that houses a cyclotron and a facility for the production of PET radiopharmaceuticals, and a sports facility. Several new buildings have been constructed within this campus in recent years, and the Department of Physics moved here from its previous location at Hoża street.  Together with buildings of other institutions, such as the Institute of Experimental Biology, Radium Institute and the Medical University of Warsaw, the campus is part of an almost contiguous area of scientific and educational facilities covering approximately.

The University of Warsaw (, ), established in 1816, is the largest university in Poland. It employs over 6,000 staff including over 3,100 academic educators. It provides graduate courses for 53,000 students (on top of over 9,200 postgraduate and doctoral candidates). The University offers some 37 different fields of study, 18 faculties and over 100 specializations in Humanities, technical as well as Natural Sciences.

Die Universität Warschau (, ) ist eine staatliche Universität in der polnischen Hauptstadt Warschau und mit knapp 50.000 Studenten die größte Hochschule in Polen.


Musician.

Born in Chicago but raised in Calvin Center, Cass County, Michigan, Lincoln was one of many singers influenced by Billie Holiday. She often visited the Blue Note jazz club in New York City. Her debut album, "Abbey Lincoln's Affair – A Story of a Girl in Love", was followed by a series of albums for Riverside Records. In 1960 she sang on Max Roach's landmark civil rights-themed recording, "We Insist!" Lincoln's lyrics were often connected to the civil rights movement in America. After a tour of Africa in the mid-1970s, she adopted the name Aminata Moseka. During the 1980s, Lincoln's creative output was smaller and she released only a few albums during that decade. Her song "For All We Know" is featured in the 1989 film "Drugstore Cowboy". During the 1990s and until her death, however, she fulfilled a 10-album contract with Verve Records.  These albums are highly regarded and represent a crowning achievement in Lincoln's career. "Devil's Got Your Tongue" (1992) featured Rodney Kendrick, Grady Tate, Yoron Israel, J. J. Johnson, Stanley Turrentine, Babatunde Olatunji and The Staple Singers, among others. In 2003, Lincoln received a National Endowment for the Arts Jazz Master Award.  Her lyrics often reflected the ideals of the civil rights movement and helped in generating passion for the cause in the minds of her listeners. In addition to her musical career, she ventured into acting as well and appeared in movies such as The Girl Can't Help It and Gentleman Prefer Blondes. She explored more philosophical themes during the later years of her songwriting career and remained professionally active until well into her seventies.

Actress.

In 1956 Lincoln appeared in "The Girl Can't Help It", for which she wore a dress that had been worn by Marilyn Monroe in "Gentleman Prefer Blondes" (1953), and interpreted the theme song, working with Benny Carter.  With Ivan Dixon, she co-starred in "Nothing But a Man" (1964), an independent film written and directed by Michael Roemer. In 1968 she co-starred with Sidney Poitier and Beau Bridges in "For Love of Ivy" and received a 1969 Golden Globe nomination for her appearance in the film.  Television appearances began in 1968 with "The Name of the Game". In March 1969 for WGBH-TV Boston, in one of a 10-episode series of individual dramas written, produced and performed by blacks, "On Being Black," was her work in Alice Childress's "Wine in the Wilderness". She appeared in "" (1971), the telemovie "Short Walk to Daylight" (1972), "Marcus Welby, M.D." (1974), and "All in the Family" (1978).  In the 1990 Spike Lee movie "Mo' Better Blues", Abbey Lincoln played the young Bleek's mother, Lillian.

Personal life.

Lincoln was married from 1962 to 1970 to drummer Max Roach, whose daughter from a previous marriage, Maxine, appeared on several of Lincoln's albums.  Lincoln died on August 14, 2010, in Manhattan, eight days after her 80th birthday. Her death was announced by her brother, David Wooldridge, who told "The New York Times" that she had died in a Manhattan nursing home after suffering deteriorating health ever since undergoing open-heart surgery in 2007. No cause of death was officially given. She was cremated and her ashes were scattered.

Discography.

As Leader

As guest.

With Max Roach  With others

Anna Marie Wooldridge (August 6, 1930 – August 14, 2010), known professionally as Abbey Lincoln, was an American jazz vocalist, songwriter, and actress. She was a civil rights activist beginning in the 1960s. Lincoln made a career not only out of delivering deeply felt presentations of standards but writing and singing her own material.

Abbey Lincoln, "eigentlich Anna Marie Gaby Wooldridge" (* 6. August 1930 in Chicago, Illinois; † 14. August 2010 in Manhattan, New York City) war eine US-amerikanische Jazzsängerin und Schauspielerin. Von einer Barsängerin entwickelte sie sich mit ihrer warmen Altstimme zu einer „politisch wachen, sozial bewussten und unprätentiösen“ Song-Interpretin, die „die ehrliche Tradition Billie Holidays in einer originellen Weise“ fortführte ("Down Beat").


Biography.

His first major role on stage was "Götz von Berlichingen" at which he played next to Ellen Schwiers as Adelheid at the Jagsthausen festival. On television, he is mostly known for his roles in filmed theatrical adaptations: "Der Richter und sein Henker" (1957) by Friedrich Dürrenmatt, "Der Schlaf der Gerechten" (1962) by Albrecht Goes and "Mirandolina" (1963) by Carlo Goldoni.  Suspected of espionage due to his editorial relations, he was arrested by the Gestapo in 1941, and imprisoned for a month, during which time he protested his innocence. He was eventually freed after his case was expedited. This episode was repeated in a number of his plays.  With "Paths in Twilight" in 1948, he made his cinematic debut under the direction of Gustav Fröhlich. In 1960, he was in one of the first films by Edgar Wallace after the war: "Der Rächer". In the same year, he was in "Es ist soweit". In 1966, he acted alongside Heinz Reincke in one of the first German colour television series, "Adrian der Tulpendieb".  After acting in 1962 in "Max the Pickpocket" with Heinz Rühmann, in 1964 he played the role of a doctor in "", a film which started a long series of films based on plane crashes.  Benno Sterzenbach found most success in the role of General Winston Woodrov Wamsler in "Raumpatrouille – Die phantastischen Abenteuer des Raumschiffes Orion". After this, he was invited to series such as "Die fünfte Kolonne", "Derrick" and "The Old Fox".  In France, he is best known for his role as Major Achbach in "La Grande Vadrouille" with Louis de Funès and Bourvil.  Benno Sterzenbach has also written a number of books.

Benno Sterzenbach (born 3 March 1916 Osnabrück - died 13 September 1985 Feldafing) was a German cinema and theatre actor and director.

Benno Sterzenbach (* 3. März 1916 in Osnabrück; † 13. September 1985 in Feldafing) war ein deutscher Schauspieler und Regisseur.


Life and career.

Ostrowski was born in Lemberg, Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria. His father, Michał Ostrowski, had earlier fought in the pro-Polish January Uprising of 1863 for which he was sent to the Russian katorga in Siberia.  Stanisław Ostrowski studied medicine at Lwow University. During the Polish-Ukrainian War (battle of Lwów (1918)) and the Polish-Bolshevik War (1919–1920) Ostrowski participated as a physician with the Polish Army. Following these conflicts he became Vice Mayor, and later Mayor, of Lwow. He was also a three-term member of the Sejm from the BBWR Bloc. As a legislator he focused on health affairs as well as developing a reputation of being a defender of minorities' rights.  After the Soviet invasion of Poland (1939), he was arrested and imprisoned in Moscow (until 1941). Among his fellow prisoners was Anandyn Amar, former Prime Minister and President of Mongolia. He was released from Soviet captivity on amnesty following the Sikorski–Mayski agreement as an officer of the Polish Army in the East by efforts of (commander-in-chief general Władysław Anders) in 1942.  In 1944-45 he participated in the anti-Nazi Germany Italian campaign as a physician of military hospitals. When World War II ended, he moved to England and became involved in the politics of the Polish community there, which included the Polish government in exile.  Ostrowski was the third President of Poland in exile (1972–1979). He took office after death of President August Zaleski. To begin with he had to deal with a deep crisis within the emigre circles. Zaleski, despite earlier promises, declined to step down after seven years in office (1954), which caused formation of the Council of Three, an opposition body, recognized by a part of the emigrees as a collective head of state. Ostrowski's selection was recognized by the Council, which then dissolved itself. Because of that Ostrowski is credited for uniting Polish emigree circles. He also strongly refused to acknowledge annexation of the eastern areas of the Second Polish Republic by the USSR after World War II.  As promised, President Ostrowski stepped down after a seven-years term in favor of Edward Bernard Raczyński.  Ostrowski died in London and is buried in a Polish military cemetery in Newark, along with other past Presidents in exile.  In 1987 a plaque dedicated to Ostrowski was unveiled in the St. Stanislaus Kostka Church, Warsaw.  Ostrowski died without children.

Stanisław Ostrowski (29 October 1892 – 22 November 1982) was a Polish politician, best known for serving as the last Polish Mayor of Lwow and third President of Poland in exile.

Stanisław Ostrowski (* 29. Oktober 1892 in Lemberg; † 22. November 1982 in London) war ein polnischer Arzt, Offizier und Politiker im 20. Jahrhundert.


Biography.

Born in the village of Fi Tong (), Vietnam, near the city of Nong Het, Laos, Yang grew up without learning to read or write, although he likely observed various writing systems. For much of his life, he subsisted as a farmer and basket maker. From 1959 onwards, he experienced a series of reported divine revelations during which he was taught the Pahawh script by a set of male twins. In his visions, he was instructed to teach the script to the Hmong and Khmu people. He believed that the groups who accepted the writing system would flourish and escape the hardships of the time leading up to the Laotian Civil War. Afterwards, he assumed the title of "Savior of the Common People" ("Theej Kaj Pej Xeem") and began teaching the script and his message of redemption across Laos.  Following initial successes, including the building of a school in the village of Fi Kha, Yang was targeted by communist forces for his association with General Vang Pao and his troops. Later, he fell under suspicion of Hmong groups who supported the Royal Lao Government (including members of Vang Pao's army) as well as Hmong who supported the communist Pathet Lao. By the bribe and order of General Vang Pao, Shong Lue Yang was assassinated in 1971 by Nos Toom Yang in the village of Nam Chia shortly after producing the final version of the Pahawh Hmong script. However, Nos Toom Yang never did receive his reward of 3,000,000.00 Lao-Kip (approximately $158.96 during the year 1974; adjusted for inflation (as of 14 February, 2011), the reward ranges between $340.14 to $377.96). In 1974, while attempting to collect the bribe from General Vang Pao in Thailand, Nos Toom Yang was killed by Thai officials ordered by General Vang Pao. Nos Toom Yang was handcuffed, blindfolded, and thrown into the Mekong River. Though Shong Lue Yang died, his writing system survived and was republished into many books. One of these books is "Mother of Writing," by William A. Smalley.

Shong Lue Yang (RPA: "Soob Lwj Yaj", Pahawh: 𖬌𖬤𖬵 𖬘𖬲𖬞 𖬖𖬲𖬤 ()) (September 15, 1929 – February, 1971) was a Hmong spiritual leader and inventor of the Pahawh script, a semi-syllabary for writing dialects of the Hmong language, as well as the Khmu language. He is honored as the "Mother of Writing" ("Niam Ntawv") among the Hmong people.

Yang Shong Lue (* 1929; † 1971, der Familienname ist Yang) war der Erfinder der Pahawh Hmong (einer eigenen Schrift für das Hmong-Volk) und der Pahawh Khmu’ (einer eigenen Schrift für das Khmu-Volk, beides Völker, die im Grenzgebiet von Laos und Vietnam leben). Seinen eigenen Angaben zufolge bekam er die Inspiration für Pahawh Hmong während eines Traumes. Im Jahr 1959 begann Shong Lue Yang, der selbst ursprünglich Analphabet war, seine Schrift und seine religiösen Lehren in den Dörfern der Grenzregion zu verbreiten.


Biography.

Muldaur was born Maria Grazia Rosa Domenica D'Amato in Greenwich Village, New York City, where she attended Hunter College High School.  Muldaur began her career in the early 1960s as Maria D'Amato, performing with John Sebastian, David Grisman, and Stefan Grossman as a member of the Even Dozen Jug Band. She then joined Jim Kweskin & the Jug Band as a featured vocalist and occasional violinist. During this time, she was part of the Greenwich Village scene that included Bob Dylan, and some of her recollections of the period, particularly with respect to Dylan, appear in Martin Scorsese's 2005 documentary film "No Direction Home".  She married fellow Jug Band member Geoff Muldaur, and after the Kweskin group broke up, the two of them produced two albums. She began her solo career when their marriage ended in 1972, but retained her married name.  Her first solo album, "Maria Muldaur", released in 1973, contained her hit single "Midnight at the Oasis", which reached number 6 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 in 1974. It also peaked at number 21 in the UK Singles Chart. Later that year, she released her second album, "Waitress in a Donut Shop". This included a re-recording of "I'm a Woman", the Leiber and Stoller number first associated with Peggy Lee and a standout feature from her Jug Band days. The title of this album is taken from a line in another song on the album, "Sweetheart", by Ken Burgan.  Around this time, Muldaur established a relationship with the Grateful Dead. Opening for some Grateful Dead shows in the summer of 1974, with John Kahn, bassist of the Jerry Garcia Band, eventually earned her a seat in that group as a backing vocalist in the late 1970s. Around the same time Muldaur met and eventually collaborated with bluegrass icon Peter Rowan. The two became close, and she was chosen to be the godmother of his daughter Amanda Rowan. She appeared on "Super Jam" (1989), the live recording of the German TV series "Villa Fantastica", with Brian Auger on piano, Pete York on drums, Dick Morrissey on tenor saxophone, Roy Williams on trombone, Harvey Weston on bass and Zoot Money, also on vocals.  Around 1980, Muldaur became a Christian and released a live album "Gospel Nights". In 1983 she returned to secular music with "Sweet and Slow", a set informed by vintage jazz and blues.  Muldaur continued to perform, tour, and record after her success in the mid-1970s, including a turn at the Teatro ZinZanni in 2001.  Her 2005 release, "Sweet Lovin' Ol' Soul", was nominated for both a Blues Music Award (formerly the W.C. Handy Award) and a Grammy Award in the Traditional Blues category. In 2013, she was nominated for a Blues Music Award in the Koko Taylor Award (Traditional Blues Female) category.  In 2003, Muldaur performed at Carnegie Hall in the Tribute to Peggy Lee produced by Richard Barone. In 2018 she performed in Barone's Central Park concert "Music & Revolution" along with John Sebastian and others from her Greenwich Village days.  In 2019, she received the Trailblazer award at the Americana Music Honors & Awards.

Maria Muldaur (born September 12, 1943) is an American folk and blues singer who was part of the American folk music revival in the early 1960s. She recorded the 1973 hit song "Midnight at the Oasis" and continues to record albums in the folk traditions.

Maria Muldaur (* 12. September 1943 als "Maria Grazia Rosa Domenica D’Amato" in Greenwich Village, New York) ist eine US-amerikanische Folk-, Jazz- und Blues-Sängerin.


Career.

Born in Kigumo, Muranga District, John Ngugi's earliest international successes came at the World Cross Country Championships, where he won a record four consecutive titles between 1986 and 1989 and five titles overall.  Ngugi established himself as a track runner when he won his heat of the 5000 m at the 1987 World Championships in Rome. In the final, Ngugi took the lead during the second kilometre, but despite his front-running tactics, he was outsprinted in the finish, finishing in a disappointing twelfth place. He won 5000 metres race in the 1987 All-Africa Games held in Kenya.  At the Seoul Olympic Games, Ngugi took the lead after the kilometre and achieved a 50 m lead. Although his lead was reduced when the expected sprints came in the last lap, Ngugi still wonby 30 metres.  At the 1990 Commonwealth Games in Auckland, New Zealand, Ngugi tried exactly the same tactics which had won him the Olympic gold medal. Although he tripped and fell after only two laps and lost 35 m on the rest of the field, he caught the leading group and establish a gap of 40 m at the bell. But in this time, that wasn't enough, as Andrew Lloyd from Australia won by a mere 0.08 seconds in an incredible finishing burst.  Ngugi returned in 1992 to capture the World Cross Country title for the fifth time. That was his final appearance at a major international championship before his retirement.  In 1993 Ngugi refused to take an out-of-competition drug test, and he then received a four-year suspension for the infraction. He contested the ruling, spending $80,000 of his own money to fight his case in Monaco. His ban was later reduced as it was judged that the Kenya Athletics Federation had not followed its duty of educating its athletes about out-of-competition testing and that Ngugi had a limited education. However, the long battle to contest the decision brought an end to his running career as his physical fitness had heavily declined over the period.

John Ngugi Kamau (born 10 May 1962), is a former Kenyan long-distance runner, often called one of the greatest cross country runners of all time and winner of the 5000 metres at the 1988 Summer Olympics, in Seoul South Korea.

John Ngugi (auch "John Ngugi Kamau"; * 10. Mai 1962 in Nyahururu) ist ein ehemaliger kenianischer Langstreckenläufer. Er war 1988 Olympiasieger im 5000-Meter-Lauf.


Near-field magnetic induction communication

Background: technical concepts.

Near-field magnetic induction (NFMI) communication systems differ from other wireless communications in that most conventional wireless RF systems use an antenna to generate, transmit, and propagate an electromagnetic wave. In these types of systems all of the transmission energy is designed to radiate into free space. This type of transmission is referred to as "far-field."  According to Maxwell's equation for a radiating wire, the power density of far-field transmissions attenuates or rolls off at a rate proportional to the inverse of the range to the second power (1/r) or −20 dB per decade. This slow attenuation over distance allows far-field transmissions to communicate effectively over a long range. The properties that make long range communication possible are a disadvantage for short range communication systems.  The NFMI system uses a short range (less than 2 meters).  The standard modulation schemes used in typical RF communications (amplitude modulation, phase modulation, and frequency modulation) can be used in near-field magnetic induction system  NFMI systems are designed to contain transmission energy within the localized magnetic field. This magnetic field energy resonates around the communication system, but does not radiate into free space. This type of transmission is referred to as "near-field." The power density of near-field transmissions is extremely restrictive and attenuates or rolls off at a rate proportional to the inverse of the range to the sixth power (1/r) or −60 dB per decade.  In current commercial implementations of near-field communications, the most commonly used carrier frequency is 13.56 MHz and has a wavelength (λ) of 22.1 meters. The crossover point between near-field and far-field occurs at approximately λ/2π. At this frequency the crossover occurs at 3.52 meters, at which point the propagating energy from the NFMI system conforms to the same propagation rules as any far-field system; rolling off at −20 dB per decade. At this distance the propagated energy levels are −40 dB to −60 dB (10,000 to 1,000,000 times) lower than an equivalent intentional far-field system.

Use.

Near-field magnetic induction technology has been in use nearly exclusively by the company FreeLinc. Using NFMI to create a secure wireless communication between two-way radio accessories. This is done by creating a magnetic communication "bubble" around headsets, speaker-microphones and radios. This magnetic bubble has a radius of approximately 1.5 meters, is immune from radio frequency (RF) interference and virtually secure from eavesdropping. An eavesdropper would have to be standing next to the radio, within the magnetic bubble, to intercept wireless transmissions to and from a microphone or headset.  NFMI was used in the DEF CON 27 conference badge to allow two-way communication between the badges.

External links.

http://www.freelinc.com/technology/  https://www.nxp.com/products/wireless-connectivity/miglo:NFMI-RADIO-SOLUTIONS  https://media.defcon.org/DEF%20CON%2027/DEF%20CON%2027%20presentations/DEFCON-27-Joe-Grand-The-DEFCON-27-Badge.pdf

A Near-Field Magnetic Induction communication system is a short range wireless physical layer that communicates by coupling a tight, low-power, non-propagating magnetic field between devices. The concept is for a transmitter coil in one device to modulate a magnetic field which is measured by means of a receiver coil in another device.

Ein Induktionssender ist ein kleiner mit einer Spule ausgestatteter Sender, wobei die Spule mit einem Wechselstrom einer Frequenz zwischen etwa 5 kHz und 150 kHz gespeist wird.


Early life.

Farrell was born and raised on the island of Aruba in the Dutch colony of Curaçao and Dependencies (later known as the Netherlands Antilles). He left after finishing school at 15 and was a sailor for two years before moving to Norway. He then went to the Netherlands, where he found occasional work as a DJ before finding better opportunities in Germany.

Years with Boney M..

In Germany, he worked mostly as a DJ until producer Frank Farian spotted him for his new Boney M. group. He became the sole male singer in the group, although Farian later revealed that Bobby made almost no vocal contributions to the group's records, with Farian himself performing the male parts on the songs in the studio. Liz Mitchell claimed that only she, Marcia Barrett and Farian had sung on the hit recordings. Farrell did, however, perform live in some of the various incarnations of 'Boney M', including the main 1970s incarnation. Farrell left the group in 1981, after clashes with Farian. He was replaced by Reggie Tsiboe. He re-joined in 1984, and continued as a member until it finally split in 1986.  Farrell's daughter Zanillya Farrell claims that Farian deprived Farrell of his rights over Boney M.'s hits, which caused her father to lose all his income after the band split.  When Dad asked Farian for 100,000 marks he was told to sign some papers. He signed away everything – image rights, royalties, the lot. My father lost everything. We had to move in with my grandmother in the Netherlands and live on welfare. After that, Dad started getting angry a lot. But Mum was very smart and realised if you own the name you can use it. Farian had not registered Boney M all over the world. So that’s why Dad could perform in certain countries.  He subsequently toured with his own group performing the band's hits under the name "Bobby Farrell's Boney M.". He also appeared as a dancer in late 2005 in the Roger Sanchez video clip of "Turn on the Music".

Later years, death, and legacy.

Farrell lived for many years in Amsterdam, in the neighbourhood of Gaasperdam in the borough of Amsterdam-Zuidoost.  In 1981 he married Macedonian Romani Jasmine Shaban. They had daughter Zanillya Farrell in 1983 and son Zanin. They split in 1995.  He died on the morning of 30 December 2010, in a hotel in Saint Petersburg, of heart failure. His agent John Seine said Farrell was complaining of breathing problems after performing with his band the evening before. Farrell's body was reportedly discovered by hotel staff after he failed to respond to an alarm call. Coincidentally, he died on the same date and in the same city as Grigori Rasputin, the subject of one of the group's most iconic songs, and who he had dressed as in some live performances. He was buried at Zorgvlied cemetery in Amsterdam.  His daughter Zanillya Farrell is a rapper. In December 2011, she won the national music prize Grote Prijs van Nederland in the hip hop category.

Discography.

Singles  Bobby Farrell's Boney M. / Boney M. Featuring Bobby Farrell / Bobby Farrell Featuring Sandy Chambers  "All of these releases contain re-recordings of Boney M.'s hits – not the original versions."

Roberto Alfonso Farrell (6 October 1949 – 30 December 2010), known professionally as Bobby Farrell, was a Dutch dancer, performing artist and singer from Aruba, best known as the male member of the successful 1970s pop and disco group Boney M.

Roberto „Bobby“ Alfonso Farrell (* 6. Oktober 1949 in Sint Nicolaas, Aruba, Niederländische Antillen; † 30. Dezember 2010 in Sankt Petersburg, Russland) war ein niederländischer DJ und Tänzer, der als Mitglied der besonders in den 1970er Jahren erfolgreichen Musikgruppe Boney M. bekannt wurde.


Building skin envelope.

This science analyzes noise transmission from building exterior envelope to interior and vice versa. The main noise paths are roofs, eaves, walls, windows, door and penetrations. Sufficient control ensures space functionality and is often required based on building use and local municipal codes. An example would be providing a suitable design for a home which is to be constructed close to a high volume roadway, or under the flight path of a major airport, or of the airport itself.

Inter-space noise control.

The science of limiting and/or controlling noise transmission from one building space to another to ensure space functionality and speech privacy. The typical sound paths are ceilings, room partitions, acoustic ceiling panels (such as wood dropped ceiling panels), doors, windows, flanking, ducting and other penetrations. Technical solutions depend on the source of the noise and the path of acoustic transmission, for example noise by steps or noise by (air, water) flow vibrations. An example would be providing suitable party wall design in an apartment complex to minimize the mutual disturbance due to noise by residents in adjacent apartments.

Interior space acoustics.

This is the science of controlling a room's surfaces based on sound absorbing and reflecting properties. Excessive reverberation time, which can be calculated, can lead to poor speech intelligibility. Sound reflections create standing waves that produce natural resonances that can be heard as a pleasant sensation or an annoying one. Reflective surfaces can be angled and coordinated to provide good coverage of sound for a listener in a concert hall or music recital space. To illustrate this concept consider the difference between a modern large office meeting room or lecture theater and a traditional classroom with all hard surfaces. Interior building surfaces can be constructed of many different materials and finishes. Ideal acoustical panels are those without a face or finish material that interferes with the acoustical infill or substrate. Fabric covered panels are one way to heighten acoustical absorption. Perforated metal also shows sound absorbing qualities. Finish material is used to cover over the acoustical substrate. Mineral fiber board, or Micore, is a commonly used acoustical substrate. Finish materials often consist of fabric, wood or acoustical tile. Fabric can be wrapped around substrates to create what is referred to as a "pre-fabricated panel" and often provides good noise absorption if laid onto a wall.  Prefabricated panels are limited to the size of the substrate ranging from to. Fabric retained in a wall-mounted perimeter track system, is referred to as "on-site acoustical wall panels". This is constructed by framing the perimeter track into shape, infilling the acoustical substrate and then stretching and tucking the fabric into the perimeter frame system. On-site wall panels can be constructed to accommodate door frames, baseboard, or any other intrusion. Large panels (generally, greater than ) can be created on walls and ceilings with this method. Wood finishes can consist of punched or routed slots and provide a natural look to the interior space, although acoustical absorption may not be great.  There are four ways to improve workplace acoustics and solve workplace sound problems – the ABCDs.

Mechanical equipment noise.

Building services noise control is the science of controlling noise produced by:  Inadequate control may lead to elevated sound levels within the space which can be annoying and reduce speech intelligibility. Typical improvements are vibration isolation of mechanical equipment, and sound attenuators in ductwork. Sound masking can also be created by adjusting HVAC noise to a predetermined level.

Architectural acoustics (also known as room acoustics and building acoustics) is the science and engineering of achieving a good sound within a building and is a branch of acoustical engineering. The first application of modern scientific methods to architectural acoustics was carried out by Wallace Sabine in the Fogg Museum lecture room who then applied his new found knowledge to the design of Symphony Hall, Boston.

Bauakustik ist ein Gebiet der Bauphysik bzw. der Akustik, das sich mit der Auswirkung der baulichen Gegebenheiten auf die Schallausbreitung zwischen den Räumen eines Gebäudes bzw. zwischen dem Rauminneren und der Außenwelt beschäftigt.


Disadvantages.

The maximum range of astronomy by radar is very limited, and is confined to the Solar System. This is because the signal strength drops off very steeply with distance to the target, the small fraction of incident flux that is reflected by the target, and the limited strength of transmitters. The distance to which the radar can detect an object is proportional to the square root of the object's size, due to the one-over-distance-to-the-fourth dependence of echo strength. Radar could detect something ~1 km across a large fraction of an AU away, but at 8-10 AU, the distance to Saturn, we need targets at least hundreds of kilometers wide. It is also necessary to have a relatively good ephemeris of the target before observing it.

History.

The Moon is comparatively close and was detected by radar soon after the invention of the technique in 1946. Measurements included surface roughness and later mapping of shadowed regions near the poles.  The next easiest target is Venus. This was a target of great scientific value, since it could provide an unambiguous way to measure the size of the astronomical unit, which was needed for the nascent field of interplanetary spacecraft. In addition such technical prowess had great public relations value, and was an excellent demonstration to funding agencies. So there was considerable pressure to squeeze a scientific result from weak and noisy data, which was accomplished by heavy post-processing of the results, utilizing the expected value to tell where to look. This led to early claims (from Lincoln Laboratory, Jodrell Bank, and Vladimir A. Kotelnikov of the USSR) which are now known to be incorrect. All of these agreed with each other and the conventional value of AU at the time,.  The first unambiguous detection of Venus was made by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory on 10 March 1961. JPL established contact with the planet Venus using a planetary radar system from 10 March to 10 May 1961. Using both velocity and range data, a new value of was determined for the astronomical unit. Once the correct value was known, other groups found echos in their archived data that agreed with these results.  The following is a list of planetary bodies that have been observed by this means:

Asteroids and comets.

Radar provides the ability to study the shape, size and spin state of asteroids and comets from the ground. Radar imaging has produced images with up to 7.5-meter resolution. With sufficient data, the size, shape, spin and radar albedo of the target asteroids can be extracted.  Only 19 comets have been studied by radar, including 73P/Schwassmann-Wachmann. There have been radar observations of 612 Near-Earth asteroids and 138 Main belt asteroids as of early 2016. By 2018, this had grown to 138 Main-Belt Asteroids, 789 Near-Earth Asteroids, also at that time 20 comets had been observed.  Many bodies are observed during their close flyby of Earth.

Radar astronomy is a technique of observing nearby astronomical objects by reflecting microwaves off target objects and analyzing the reflections. This research has been conducted for six decades. Radar astronomy differs from radio astronomy in that the latter is a passive observation and the former an active one. Radar systems have been used for a wide range of solar system studies. The radar transmission may either be pulsed or continuous.

Die Radarastronomie ist ein Verfahren zur Untersuchung der physikalischen Eigenschaften und bildlichen Darstellung von Himmelskörpern unseres Sonnensystems. Bei dieser Technik werden Mikrowellen von einem großen Radioteleskop oder einem anderen Sender, der fähig ist starke gebündelte Mikrowellenstrahlen auszusenden, in Richtung des zu untersuchenden Objekts ausgesandt und anschließend mit einem Radioteleskop oder Verbund von Radioteleskopen die reflektierten Mikrowellen, also das Echo untersucht, ähnlich wie bei einem irdischen Radar-System. Die Radarastronomie unterscheidet sich von herkömmlicher Radioastronomie darin, dass Radioastronomie eine rein passive Beobachtungsmethode der ankommenden Strahlung eines Objekts ist und Radarastronomie aktiv selber Strahlung aussendet. In der Radarastronomie wird zusätzlich noch zwischen gepulster und kontinuierlichen Mikrowellenaussendung unterschieden.


Childhood and adolescence.

James Matthew Barrie was born in Kirriemuir, Angus, to a conservative Calvinist family. His father David Barrie was a modestly successful weaver. His mother Margaret Ogilvy assumed her deceased mother's household responsibilities at the age of eight. Barrie was the ninth child of ten (two of whom died before he was born), all of whom were schooled in at least the three Rs in preparation for possible professional careers. He was a small child and drew attention to himself with storytelling. He grew to only 5 ft 3 in. (161 cm) according to his 1934 passport.  When he was 6 years old, Barrie's older brother David (his mother's favourite) died the day before his 14th birthday in an ice-skating accident. This left his mother devastated, and Barrie tried to fill David's place in his mother's attentions, even wearing David's clothes and whistling in the manner that he did. One time, Barrie entered her room and heard her say, "Is that you?" "I thought it was the dead boy she was speaking to", wrote Barrie in his biographical account of his mother "Margaret Ogilvy" (1896) "and I said in a little lonely voice, 'No, it's no' him, it's just me. Barrie's mother found comfort in the fact that her dead son would remain a boy forever, never to grow up and leave her. Eventually, Barrie and his mother entertained each other with stories of her brief childhood and books such as "Robinson Crusoe", works by fellow Scotsman Walter Scott, and "The Pilgrim's Progress".  At the age of 8, Barrie was sent to the Glasgow Academy in the care of his eldest siblings Alexander and Mary Ann, who taught at the school. When he was 10, he returned home and continued his education at the Forfar Academy. At 14, he left home for Dumfries Academy, again under the watch of Alexander and Mary Ann. He became a voracious reader, and was fond of penny dreadfuls and the works of Robert Michael Ballantyne and James Fenimore Cooper. At Dumfries, he and his friends spent time in the garden of Moat Brae house, playing pirates "in a sort of Odyssey that was long afterwards to become the play of "Peter Pan". They formed a drama club, producing his first play "Bandelero the Bandit", which provoked a minor controversy following a scathing moral denunciation from a clergyman on the school's governing board.

Literary career.

Barrie knew that he wished to follow a career as an author. However, his family attempted to persuade him to choose a profession such as the ministry. With advice from Alexander, he was able to work out a compromise: he would attend a university, but would study literature. Barrie enrolled at the University of Edinburgh where he wrote drama reviews for the "Edinburgh Evening Courant". He graduated and obtained an M.A. on 21 April 1882.  Following a job advertisement found by his sister in "The Scotsman", he worked for a year and a half as a staff journalist on the "Nottingham Journal". Back in Kirriemuir, he submitted a piece to the "St. James's Gazette", a London newspaper, using his mother's stories about the town where she grew up (renamed "Thrums"). The editor "liked that Scotch thing" so well that Barrie ended up writing a series of these stories. They served as the basis for his first novels: "Auld Licht Idylls" (1888), "A Window in Thrums" (1890), and "The Little Minister" (1891).  The stories depicted the "Auld Lichts", a strict religious sect to which his grandfather had once belonged. Modern literary criticism of these early works has been unfavourable, tending to disparage them as sentimental and nostalgic depictions of a parochial Scotland, far from the realities of the industrialised nineteenth century, seen as characteristic of what became known as the Kailyard School. Despite, or perhaps because of, this, they were popular enough at the time to establish Barrie as a successful writer. Following that success, he published "Better Dead" (1888) privately and at his own expense, but it failed to sell. His two "Tommy" novels, "Sentimental Tommy" (1896) and "Tommy and Grizel" (1900), were about a boy and young man who clings to childish fantasy, with an unhappy ending. The late nineteenth century English novelist George Gissing read the former in November 1896 and wrote that he "thoroughly dislike[d it]".  Meanwhile, Barrie's attention turned increasingly to works for the theatre, beginning with a biography of Richard Savage, written by Barrie and H.B. Marriott Watson; unfortunately, it was performed only once and critically panned. He immediately followed this with "Ibsen's Ghost" (or "Toole Up-to-Date")(1891), a parody of Henrik Ibsen's dramas "Hedda Gabler" and "Ghosts". "Ghosts" had been unlicensed in the UK until 1914, but had created a sensation at the time from a single "club" performance. The production of "Ibsen's Ghost" at Toole's Theatre in London was seen by William Archer, the translator of Ibsen's works into English. Apparently comfortable with the parody, he enjoyed the humour of the play and recommended it to others. Barrie's third play "Walker, London" (1892) resulted in his being introduced to a young actress named Mary Ansell. He proposed to her and they were married on 9 July 1894. Barrie bought her a Saint Bernard puppy, who played a part in the novel "The Little White Bird". He used Ansell's given name for many characters in his novels. Barrie also authored "Jane Annie", a comic opera for Richard D'Oyly Carte (1893), which failed; he persuaded Arthur Conan Doyle to revise and finish it for him.  In 1901 and 1902, he had back-to-back successes; "Quality Street" was about a respectable, responsible old maid who poses as her own flirtatious niece to try to win the attention of a former suitor returned from the war. "The Admirable Crichton" was a critically acclaimed social commentary with elaborate staging, about an aristocratic family and their household servants whose social order is inverted after they are shipwrecked on a desert island. Max Beerbohm thought it "quite the best thing that has happened, in my time, to the British theatre".  The character of "Peter Pan" first appeared in "The Little White Bird". The novel was published in the UK by Hodder & Stoughton in 1902, and serialised in the US in the same year in "Scribner's Magazine". Barrie's more famous and enduring work "Peter Pan, or The Boy Who Wouldn't Grow Up" had its first stage performance on 27 December 1904. This play introduced audiences to the name "Wendy"; it was inspired by a young girl named Margaret Henley who called Barrie "Friendy", but could not pronounce her "R"s very well. The Bloomsbury scenes show the societal constraints of late Victorian and Edwardian middle class domestic reality, contrasted with Neverland, a world where morality is ambivalent. George Bernard Shaw described the play as "ostensibly a holiday entertainment for children but really a play for grown-up people", suggesting deeper social metaphors at work in "Peter Pan".  Barrie had a long string of successes on the stage after "Peter Pan", many of which discuss social concerns, as Barrie continued to integrate his work and his beliefs. "The Twelve Pound Look" (1910) concerns a wife leaving her 'typical' husband once she can gain an independent income. Other plays, such as "Mary Rose" (1920) and "Dear Brutus" (1917), revisit the idea of the ageless child and parallel worlds. Barrie was involved in the 1909 and 1911 attempts to challenge the censorship of the theatre by the Lord Chamberlain, along with a number of other playwrights.  In 1911, Barrie developed the "Peter Pan" play into the novel "Peter and Wendy". In April 1929, Barrie gave the copyright of the Peter Pan works to Great Ormond Street Hospital, a leading children's hospital in London. The current status of the copyright is somewhat complex. His final play was "The Boy David" (1936), which dramatised the Biblical story of King Saul and the young David. Like the role of Peter Pan, that of David was played by a woman, Elisabeth Bergner, for whom Barrie wrote the play.

Social connections.

Barrie moved in literary circles and had many famous friends in addition to his professional collaborators. Novelist George Meredith was an early social patron. He had a long correspondence with fellow Scot Robert Louis Stevenson, who lived in Samoa at the time. Stevenson invited Barrie to visit him, but the two never met in person. He was also friends with fellow Scots writer S.R.Crockett. George Bernard Shaw was his neighbour in London for several years, and once participated in a Western that Barrie scripted and filmed. H. G. Wells was a friend of many years, and tried to intervene when Barrie's marriage fell apart. Barrie met Thomas Hardy through Hugh Clifford while he was staying in London.  After the First World War, Barrie sometimes stayed at Stanway House near the village of Stanway in Gloucestershire. He paid for the pavilion at Stanway cricket ground. In 1887, he founded an amateur cricket team for friends of similarly limited playing ability, and named it the Allahakbarries under the mistaken belief that "Allah akbar" meant "Heaven help us" in Arabic (rather than "God is great"). Some of the best known British authors from the era played on the team at various times, including H. G. Wells, Rudyard Kipling, Arthur Conan Doyle, P. G. Wodehouse, Jerome K. Jerome, G. K. Chesterton, A. A. Milne, E. W. Hornung, A. E. W. Mason, Walter Raleigh, E. V. Lucas, Maurice Hewlett, Owen Seaman (editor of "Punch"), Bernard Partridge, George Cecil Ives, George Llewelyn Davies (see below) and the son of Alfred Tennyson. In 1891, Barrie joined the newly-formed Authors Cricket Club and also played for its cricket team, the Authors XI, alongside Doyle, Wodehouse and Milne. The Allahakbarries and the Authors XI continued to exist side-by-side until 1912.  Barrie befriended Africa explorer Joseph Thomson and Antarctica explorer Robert Falcon Scott. He was godfather to Scott's son Peter, and was one of the seven people to whom Scott wrote letters in the final hours of his life during his expedition to the South Pole, asking Barrie to take care of his wife Kathleen and son Peter. Barrie was so proud of the letter that he carried it around for the rest of his life.  In 1896, his agent Addison Bright persuaded him to meet with Broadway producer Charles Frohman, who became his financial backer and a close friend, as well. Frohman was responsible for producing the debut of "Peter Pan" in both England and the US, as well as other productions of Barrie's plays. He famously declined a lifeboat seat when the RMS "Lusitania" was sunk by a German U-boat in the North Atlantic. Actress Rita Jolivet stood with Frohman, George Vernon and Captain Alick Scott at the end of Lusitania's sinking, but she survived the sinking and recalled Frohman paraphrasing "Peter Pan": 'Why fear death? It is the most beautiful adventure that life gives us.'  His secretary from 1917, Cynthia Asquith, was the daughter-in-law of H. H. Asquith, British Prime Minister from 1908 to 1916. In the 1930s, Barrie met and told stories to the young daughters of the Duke of York, the future Queen Elizabeth II and Princess Margaret. After meeting him, the 3-year old Princess Margaret announced, “He is my greatest friend and I am his greatest friend”.

Marriage.

Barrie became acquainted with actress Mary Ansell in 1891, when he asked his friend Jerome K. Jerome for a pretty actress to play a role in his play "Walker, London". The two became friends, and she helped his family to care for him when he fell very ill in 1893 and 1894. They married in Kirriemuir on 9 July 1894, shortly after Barrie recovered, and Mary retired from the stage. The wedding was a small ceremony in his parents' home, in the Scottish tradition. The relationship was reportedly unconsummated, and the couple had no children.  In 1895, the Barries bought a house on Gloucester Road, in South Kensington. Barrie would take long walks in nearby Kensington Gardens, and in 1900 the couple moved into a house directly overlooking the gardens at 100 Bayswater Road. Mary had a flair for interior design and set about transforming the ground floor, creating two large reception rooms with painted panelling and adding fashionable features, such as a conservatory. In the same year, Mary found Black Lake Cottage at Farnham in Surrey, which became the couple's "bolt hole" where Barrie could entertain his cricketing friends and the Llewelyn Davies family.  Beginning in mid-1908, Mary had an affair with Gilbert Cannan (who was twenty years younger than she and an associate of Barrie in his anti-censorship activities), including a visit together to Black Lake Cottage, known only to the house staff. When Barrie learned of the affair in July 1909, he demanded that she end it, but she refused. To avoid the scandal of divorce, he offered a legal separation if she would agree not to see Cannan any more, but she still refused. Barrie sued for divorce on the grounds of infidelity; the divorce was granted in October 1909. Knowing how painful the divorce was for him, some of Barrie's friends wrote to a number of newspaper editors asking them not to publish the story. In the event, only three newspapers did. Barrie continued to support Mary financially even after she married Cannan, by giving her an annual allowance, which was handed over at a private dinner held on her and Barrie's wedding anniversary.

Llewelyn Davies family.

The Llewelyn Davies family played an important part in Barrie's literary and personal life, consisting of Arthur (1863–1907), Sylvia (1866–1910) (daughter of George du Maurier), and their five sons: George (1893–1915), John (Jack) (1894–1959), Peter (1897–1960), Michael (1900–1921) and Nicholas (Nico) (1903–1980).  Barrie became acquainted with the family in 1897, meeting George and Jack (and baby Peter) with their nurse (nanny) Mary Hodgson in London's Kensington Gardens. He lived nearby and often walked his Saint Bernard dog Porthos in the park. He entertained the boys regularly with his ability to wiggle his ears and eyebrows, and with his stories. He did not meet Sylvia until a chance encounter at a dinner party in December. She told Barrie that Peter had been named after the title character in her father's novel, "Peter Ibbetson". Barrie became a regular visitor at the Davies household and a common companion to Sylvia and her boys, despite the fact that both he and she were married to other people. In 1901, he invited the Davies family to Black Lake Cottage, where he produced an album of captioned photographs of the boys acting out a pirate adventure, entitled "The Boy Castaways of Black Lake Island". Barrie had two copies made, one of which he gave to Arthur, who misplaced it on a train. The only surviving copy is held at the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University.  The character of Peter Pan was invented to entertain George and Jack. Barrie would say, to amuse them, that their little brother Peter could fly. He claimed that babies were birds before they were born; parents put bars on nursery windows to keep the little ones from flying away. This grew into a tale of a baby boy who did fly away.  Arthur Llewelyn Davies died in 1907, and "Uncle Jim" became even more involved with the Davies family, providing financial support to them. (His income from "Peter Pan" and other works was easily adequate to provide for their living expenses and education.) Following Sylvia's death in 1910, Barrie claimed that they had recently been engaged to be married. Her will indicated nothing to that effect, but specified her wish for "J. M. B." to be trustee and guardian to the boys, along with her mother Emma, her brother Guy du Maurier and Arthur's brother Compton. It expressed her confidence in Barrie as the boys' caretaker and her wish for "the boys to treat him (& their uncles) with absolute confidence & straightforwardness & to talk to him about everything." When copying the will informally for Sylvia's family a few months later, Barrie inserted himself elsewhere: Sylvia had written that she would like Mary Hodgson, the boys' nurse, to continue taking care of them, and for "Jenny" (referring to Hodgson's sister) to come and help her; Barrie instead wrote "Jimmy" (Sylvia's nickname for him). Barrie and Hodgson did not get along well, but served together as surrogate parents until the boys were grown.  Barrie also had friendships with other children, both before he met the Davies boys and after they had grown up, and there has since been speculation that Barrie was a paedophile. One source for the speculation is a scene in the novel "The Little White Bird", in which the protagonist helps a small boy undress for bed, and at the boy's request they sleep in the same bed. However, there is no evidence that Barrie had sexual contact with children, nor that he was suspected of it at the time. Nico, the youngest of the brothers, denied as an adult that Barrie ever behaved inappropriately. "I don't believe that Uncle Jim ever experienced what one might call 'a stirring in the undergrowth' for anyone—man, woman, or child", he stated. "He was an innocent—which is why he could write Peter Pan." His relationships with the surviving Davies boys continued well beyond their childhood and adolescence.  The Peter Pan statue in Kensington Gardens, erected secretly overnight for May Morning in 1912, was supposed to be modelled upon old photographs of Michael dressed as the character. However, the sculptor, Sir George Frampton, used a different child as a model, leaving Barrie disappointed with the result. "It doesn't show the devil in Peter", he said.  Barrie suffered bereavements with the boys, losing the two to whom he was closest in their early twenties. George was killed in action in 1915, in the First World War. Michael, with whom Barrie corresponded daily while at boarding school and university, drowned in 1921, with his friend, Rupert Buxton, at a known danger spot at Sandford Lock near Oxford, one month short of his 21st birthday. Some years after Barrie's death, Peter compiled his "Morgue" from family letters and papers, interpolated with his own informed comments on his family and their relationship with Barrie. Peter died by throwing himself in front of a train shortly after completing the work.

Death.

Barrie died of pneumonia at a nursing home in Manchester Street, Marylebone on 19 June 1937. He was buried at Kirriemuir next to his parents and two of his siblings. His birthplace at 9 Brechin Road is maintained as a museum by the National Trust for Scotland.  He left the bulk of his estate to his secretary Cynthia Asquith, but excluding the rights to all Peter Pan works (which included "The Little White Bird", "Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens", the play "Peter Pan, or The Boy Who Would Not Grow Up" and the novel "Peter and Wendy"), whose copyright he had previously given to Great Ormond Street Hospital in London. The surviving Llewelyn Davies boys received legacies, and he made provisions for his former wife Mary Ansell to receive an annuity during her lifetime.  His will also left £500 to the Bower Free Church in Caithness to mark the memory of Rev James Winter who was to have married Barrie’s sister in June 1892 but was killed in a fall from his horse in May 1892. Barrie had several connections to the Free Church of Scotland, including his maternal uncle Rev David Ogilvy (1822–1904), who was minister of Dalziel Church in Motherwell. James and his brother William Winter (also a Free Church minister) were both born in Cortachy the sons of Rev William Winter. Cortachy is just west of Kirriemuir and the Winters seem closely connected to the Ogilvy family.

Honours.

Barrie was appointed a baronet by King George V in 1913. He was made a member of the Order of Merit in 1922.  In 1919 he was elected Rector of the University of St Andrews for a three-year term. In 1922 he delivered his celebrated Rectorial Address on Courage at St Andrews, and visited University College Dundee with Earl Haig to open its new playing fields, with Barrie bowling a few balls to Haig. He served as Chancellor of the University of Edinburgh from 1930 to 1937.  Barrie was the only person to receive the Freedom of Kirriemuir in a ceremony on 7 June 1930 in Kirriemuir Town Hall where he was presented with a silver casket containing the freedom scroll. The casket was made by silversmiths Brook & Son in Edinburgh in 1929 and is decorated with images of sites in Kirriemuir which held significant memories for Barrie: Kirriemuir Townhouse, Strathview, Window in Thrums, the statue of Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens and the Barrie Cricket Pavilion. The casket is on display in the Gateway to the Glens Museum, Kirriemuir.

Sir James Matthew Barrie, 1st Baronet, (; 9 May 1860 19 June 1937) was a Scottish novelist and playwright, best remembered as the creator of Peter Pan. He was born and educated in Scotland and then moved to London, where he wrote a number of successful novels and plays. There he met the Llewelyn Davies boys, who inspired him to write about a baby boy who has magical adventures in Kensington Gardens (first included in Barrie's adult novel "The Little White Bird"), then to write "Peter Pan, or The Boy Who Wouldn't Grow Up", a "fairy play" about an ageless boy and an ordinary girl named Wendy who have adventures in the fantasy setting of Neverland.

Sir James Matthew „J. M.“ Barrie, 1. Baronet OM (* 9. Mai 1860 in Kirriemuir, Schottland; † 19. Juni 1937 in London) war ein schottischer Schriftsteller und Dramatiker. "Peter Pan" ist seine bekannteste literarische Figur.


Life.

Schröder was the second son of Frederick Freiherr von Schröder, a financier, and his wife Harriet Millberg, the daughter of a prominent Hanseaten family. He obtained his university degree in economics from the University of Bonn in 1907 and eventually obtained a commission in the Prussian Army as a cavalry officer. Schröder continued to alternate between his job as a merchant banker and a reserve officer until the outbreak of the First World War, which eventually left him disillusioned after the Armistice of Compiègne. Dissatisfied with the instability of the Weimar Republic, he first joined the center right and pro-monarchist German People's Party led by Gustav Stresemann. After Stresemann's death Schröder increasingly veered towards the nascent National Socialist movement before becoming an influential fundraiser and economic advisor to the NSDAP.  In 1927 Schröder formally joined the Circle of Friends of the Economy, a pro-Hitler lobbying group established by Wilhelm Keppler in order to strengthen ties between prominent industrialists and members of Hitler's inner circle.  Kurt Baron von Schröder was Royal Swedish Consul General in Köln 1938-1945.

Role in supporting Hitler.

Schröder's close ties to politicians across the spectrum of the political right allowed him to form a bridge between the center-right, led alternatively by Franz von Papen and Kurt von Schleicher, and the far-right led by Adolf Hitler. After Papen's government fell in the November 1932 election, Papen asked Schröder to make an introduction to Hitler at Schröder's villa in the fashionable Braunsfeld neighbourhood of Cologne. Accompanied by Heinrich Himmler and Rudolf Hess, Hitler ranted against Hindenburg and Schleicher for several hours during which time Schröder was unable to moderate the conversation although Papen and Hitler agreed to continue the conversation further. Schröder's meeting eventually paved the way for Hitler to be appointed Chancellor in 1933. Schröder figures prominently in the book by former Hoover Institution scholar Antony C. Sutton titled "Wall Street and the Rise of Hitler". As Sutton observes,  After the war, there were attempts to conceal the financing of Nazi regime, some by the former American bankers and officials of the Allied military government, especially by blocking the investigation of the bank "Bankhaus J.H. Stein" based in Cologne, Germany. This bank, the so-called "bank of the cartel kings", had been suspected to have served as a conduit for funding Heinrich Himmler's SS through deposits by German industrial cartels.

Rewards for support.

Schröder became chairman of the board of directors of several major companies in Germany and was president of the Rhineland Industrial Chamber in Cologne.

Postwar.

After the Second World War, Schröder was arrested and was tried by a German court for crimes against humanity. He was found guilty and was sentenced to three months' imprisonment.  Kurt von Schröder died on 4 November 1966.

Kurt Freiherr von Schröder (24 November 1889 in Hamburg, Germany – 4 November 1966) was a German nobleman, financier and SS-Brigadeführer. He is most famous for hosting the negotiations between members of Paul von Hindenburg's camarilla, Franz von Papen and Adolf Hitler in order to form a government after the German federal election of November 1932.

Kurt Freiherr von Schröder (* 24. November 1889 in Hamburg; † 4. November 1966 ebenda) war ein deutscher Bankier, NSDAP-Gauwirtschaftsberater und SS-Brigadeführer.


Conceptual problems.

Although this pragmatic definition is usable for most everyday purposes, specialists often use more complex models for information quality. Most information system practitioners use the term synonymously with data quality. However, as many academics make a distinction between data and information, some will insist on a distinction between data quality and information quality. This distinction would be akin to the distinction between syntax and semantics where for example, the semantic value of "one" could be expressed in different syntaxes like 00001; 1.0000; 01.0; or 1. Thus a data difference may not necessarily represent poor information quality.  Information quality assurance is the process to guarantee confidence that particular information meets some context specific quality requirements. It has been suggested, however, that higher the quality the greater will be the confidence in meeting more general, less specific contexts.

Dimensions and metrics of information quality.

"Information quality" is a measure of the value which the information provides to the user of that information. "Quality" is often perceived as subjective and the quality of information can then vary among users and among uses of the information. Nevertheless, a high degree of quality increases its objectivity or at least the intersubjectivity. Accuracy can be seen as just one element of IQ but, depending upon how it is defined, can also be seen as encompassing many other dimensions of quality.  If not, it is perceived that often there is a trade-off between accuracy and other dimensions, aspects or elements of the information determining its suitability for any given tasks. Wang and Strong propose a list of dimensions or elements used in assessing Information Quality is:  Other authors propose similar but different lists of dimensions for analysis, and emphasize measurement and reporting as information quality metrics. Larry English prefers the term "characteristics" to dimensions. In fact, a considerable amount of information quality research involves investigating and describing various categories of desirable attributes (or dimensions) of data. Research has recently shown the huge diversity of terms and classification structures used.  While information as a distinct term has various ambiguous definitions, there's one which is more general, such as "description of events". While the occurrences being described cannot be subjectively evaluated for quality, since they're very much autonomous events in space and time, their description can—since it possesses a garnishment attribute, unavoidably attached by the medium which carried the information, from the initial moment of the occurrences being described.  In an attempt to deal with this natural phenomenon, qualified professionals primarily representing the researchers' guild, have at one point or another identified particular metrics for information quality. They could also be described as 'quality traits' of information, since they're not so easily quantified, but rather subjectively identified on an individual basis.  Authority refers to the expertise or recognized official status of a source. Consider the reputation of the author and publisher. When working with legal or government information, consider whether the source is the official provider of the information. Verifiability refers to the ability of a reader to verify the validity of the information irrespective of how authoritative the source is. To verify the facts is part of the duty of care of the journalistic deontology, as well as, where possible, to provide the sources of information so that they can be verified  Scope of coverage refers to the extent to which a source explores a topic. Consider time periods, geography or jurisdiction and coverage of related or narrower topics.  Composition and organization has to do with the ability of the information source to present its particular message in a coherent, logically sequential manner.  Objectivity is the bias or opinion expressed when a writer interprets or analyze facts. Consider the use of persuasive language, the source’s presentation of other viewpoints, its reason for providing the information and advertising.  Validity of some information has to do with the degree of obvious truthfulness which the information carries  As much as ‘uniqueness’ of a given piece of information is intuitive in meaning, it also significantly implies not only the originating point of the information but also the manner in which it is presented and thus the perception which it conjures. The essence of any piece of information we process consists to a large extent of those two elements.  Timeliness refers to information that is current at the time of publication. Consider publication, creation and revision dates. Beware of Web site scripting that automatically reflects the current day’s date on a page. Means that documented methods are capable of being used on the same data set to achieve a consistent result.

Information quality conferences.

A number of major conferences relevant to information quality are held annually:

Information quality (IQ) is the quality of the content of information systems. It is often pragmatically defined as: "The fitness for use of the information provided.". IQ frameworks also provides a tangible approach to assess and measure DQ/IQ in a robust and rigorous manner.

Informationsqualität ist das Maß für die Erfüllung der „Gesamtheit der Anforderungen an eine Information bzw. ein Informationsprodukt, die sich auf deren Eignung zur Erfüllung gegebener Informationsbedarfe beziehen“. Aussagen zur Qualität einer Information beziehen sich zum Beispiel darauf, wie genau diese die Realität ‚beschreibt‘ oder wie verlässlich sie ist, inwieweit sie also als Grundlage für eine Planung des eigenen Handelns verwendbar ist.