Biography.

Early life and education (1902 – 1923).

Alois Carigiet was the seventh of eleven children born to Alois Carigiet and Barbara Maria Carigiet, "née" Lombriser; the actor and comedian Zarli Carigiet was one younger brother. It was a farm family in Trun in the canton of Graubünden, where he grew up and spent his first school years. At home, the family spoke "Sursilvan", the local Romansh dialect of the anterior Rhine valley. In 1911, economic hardship forced them to move to the canton's German-speaking capital Chur where his father found employment. This relocation into a more urban environment had a strong impact on the nine-year-old. In retrospect, Carigiet described the move as an "emigration to the low-lands", from a "mountain boy's paradise" to a "gloomy apartment on the ground floor in a narrow town alley".  Carigiet visited primary and secondary schools in Chur, as well as the "Kantonsschule", the canton's gymnasium, which he quit in 1918 in order to start an apprenticeship as a decorative designer and draftsman with master painter Martin Räth. While learning the art of graining, marbleizing, gold plating and other techniques of decorative art in Räth's atelier, Carigiet spent a lot of his spare time filling volumes of sketchbooks with drawings of rural and urban scenes, farm animals and pets, anatomical studies of heads and beaks of the birds exhibited at Chur's natural history museum, as well as with numerous caricatures of his acquaintances and family. Räth noticed the apprentice's talent as well, and one of Carigiet's appointed creations, an assembly of decorated vases for the Siebler & Co. shop windows, seems to have received particular appreciation. Carigiet finished his apprenticeship in 1923, with the highest grade in every subject.

Graphic design in Zurich (1923 – 1939).

After having completed his apprenticeship, Carigiet sought work in Zurich and started a job as a practical trainee with Max Dalang's advertisement agency in 1923, where he soon learned the techniques of graphic design and was hired as a regular employee. After having won several competitions and having gained a reputation, Carigiet opened his own graphic atelier in Zurich in 1927, employing up to six people at times, due to the constantly large volume of orders his business received. Carigiet created numerous commercial and political advertisement posters, festive decorations, educational posters and murals for schools, illustrations and satirical caricatures for the print media, as well as magazine covers for periodicals such as "Schweizer Spiegel" and "SBB-Revue". Important work in the 1930s included a diorama for the Swiss Pavilion at the Paris International world fair in 1937, and set designs, murals and the official posters for the "Landi", the Swiss national exposition held in Zurich in 1939.

Artistic development.

Though he had never studied visual arts in the academic sense, Carigiet's early graphic design was already strongly influenced by contemporary artists, such as El Lissitzky, whose use of photomontage in a poster announcing the exhibition of Russian avant-garde artists in Zurich, in 1928, inspired the design of a political campaign poster for Zurich's mayor Emil Klöti. In the early 1930s Carigiet traveled to Paris, Munich, Vienna, and Salzburg where he became acquainted with the art movement "Neue Sachlichkeit", as reflected in painted scenes of Paris in "Das rote Haus am Montmartre" (watercolor) and of Ascona in "Haus und Garten in Ascona" (oil painting on cardboard), both created in 1935. Contemporary expressionism had an influence on his work as well, including his commercial artwork. For example, the display of red horses and a green cow on posters for the OLMA, Switzerland’s annual national agricultural fair, in 1946 and 1952 received acclaim from art critics and questions from more conservative farmers, to which he succinctly replied that the cow was green because it had eaten grass. Carigiet's paintings increasingly depicted everyday motifs from his home canton Graubünden and occasionally Zurich, but also from further trips to France, Spain, and Lapland in the mid-1930s.  Carigiet always held a keen interest in the theatre, and had already worked in costume design in the late 1920s. With the help of art critic Jakob Rudolf Welti, he was commissioned as costume and stage designer for the Stadttheater Zürich performance of "La belle Hélène" in an adaptation by Max Werner Lenz, and created design work for three other programs at the Stadttheater as well. Carigiet was one of the founding members of the influential Cabaret Cornichon, a satirical cabaret program staged in the restaurant "zum Hirschen" in Zurich which would become one of the most significant political cabarets of German-speaking Switzerland during Germany's Nazi regime. Carigiet designed the Cabaret's logo, a grinning cornichon (gherkin) with a carrot-nose, and from 1935 to 1946 he created often parodistic costume and set designs for ten of the Cornichon’s programs, including a heavily decorated barrel organ used by his brother Zarli who was also a member of the Cabaret's ensemble.

Platenga (1939 – 1950).

While spending a holiday in Trun in May 1939, Carigiet hiked to "Platenga", a hamlet on one of the terraces in the community of Obersaxen, where, in his own words, he was immediately fascinated by the landscape's vastness and untouchedness and the feeling of a newly found, long lost paradise. He gave up his business in Zurich, and, in October 1939, rented a small farm house without electricity or running water, the "Hüs am Bach" ("house at the stream") in Platenga. Carigiet wished to dedicate his life to art and observation, spending hours a day, equipped with a pair of binoculars and a sketch book, tracking down the alpine fauna.  On 20 April 1943, Carigiet married Berta Carolina Müller (1911–1980) an art student from Halle whom he had met in Germany. After their first daughter was born in 1944, they bought land near Platenga's chapel. In 1945 Carigiet designed plans for a larger house which was built in 1946. In 1947, the second daughter was born in the new house, called "Im Sunnefang". Mainly for the sake of the girls' education, the family moved back to Zurich in 1950, where Carigiet took up his work as a graphic designer again, while also continuing his artistic pursuits.

Children's books.

In 1940, Carigiet was approached by the Romansh-speaking author Selina Chönz who asked him to illustrate her story "Uorsin" to create a children's picture book. After several years of hesitating, Carigiet finally agreed, and spent several weeks sketching the scenery and architecture in Guarda, Chönz's home village in the Lower Engadin, after which he modeled the protagonist's village. In October 1945 the book was published in German as "Uorsin (Schellen-Ursli. Ein Engadiner Bilderbuch)" and later in English as "A Bell for Ursli" (1950). The story follows the boy Ursli's perilous climb through snow to an abandoned summer hut in order to retrieve a large "trychel" for the annual Chalandamarz celebration on 1 March. The book has been translated into ten languages with total sales estimated around 1.7 million worldwide. Carigiet's dramatic and colorful compositions were noticed and positively reviewed by art critics including Manuel Gasser in "Graphis Inc." or Linus Birchler, editor-in-chief of the series "Art Monuments of Switzerland" and member of the Swiss Federal Art Commission.  Carigiet and Chönz created a series of Alpine children's books with two sequels featuring Ursli's younger sister: "Flurina (Flurina und das Wildvögelein. Schellen-Ursli's Schwester)" in 1952 (English title: "Florina and the Wild Bird") and "La naivera (Der grosse Schnee)" in 1957 ("The Snowstorm"). In the 1960s, Carigiet continued on his own, illustrating "and" writing "Zottel, Zick und Zwerg. Eine Geschichte von drei Geissen" in 1965 ("Anton the Goatherd"), "Birnbaum, Birke, Berberitze. Eine Geschichte aus den Bündner Bergen" in 1967 ("The Pear Tree, the Birch Tree and the Barberry Bush"), and "Maurus und Madleina. Über den Berg in die Stadt" in 1969 ("Anton and Anne"). In 1966, he was awarded the Schweizer Jugendbuchpreis (Swiss youth book prize) for "Zottel, Zick und Zwerg".  The biennial Hans Christian Andersen Award, conferred by the International Board on Books for Young People and first awarded in 1956, is the highest recognition available to a writer or illustrator of children's books. Carigiet received the inaugural Illustrator award in 1966.

Later life (1960 – 1985).

In 1960, Carigiet bought the house "Flutginas" (ferns) located above Trun, his village of childhood, where he would spend the rest of his life dedicated to painting. In a speech held in Zurich in 1962, he described his works as "narrative art" in a century of abstraction, and named Georges Rouault, "the greatest of all", as an exemplary inspiration for his artistic approach. Until 1982, he frequently exhibited his artwork in Switzerland, but also in Toronto (1969) and Frankfurt (1971). Alois Carigiet died on 1 August 1985 in Trun.

Alois Carigiet (30 August 1902 – 1 August 1985) was a Swiss graphic designer, painter, and illustrator. He may be known best for six children's picture books set in the Alps, "A Bell for Ursli" and its sequels, written by Selina Chönz, and three that he wrote himself. In 1966 he received the inaugural Hans Christian Andersen Medal for children's illustrators.

Alois Carigiet [] (* 30. August 1902 Trun, Graubünden; † 1. August 1985 Trun) war ein Schweizer Maler, Zeichner, Lithograf und Kinderbuchautor.


History.

Gempenach is first mentioned under its French name in 1340 as "Champagnie". In 1408 it was mentioned as "Gempenach" followed in 1409 as "Gempernach".

Geography.

Gempenach has an area,, of. Of this area, or 74.0% is used for agricultural purposes, while or 18.3% is forested. Of the rest of the land, or 5.9% is settled (buildings or roads).  Of the built up area, housing and buildings made up 2.4% and transportation infrastructure made up 3.0%. Out of the forested land, 17.2% of the total land area is heavily forested and 1.2% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land, 55.6% is used for growing crops and 12.4% is pastures, while 5.9% is used for orchards or vine crops.  The municipality is located in the See/Lac district, about north-east of Murten along the border with the Canton of Bern. It consists of the linear village of Gempenach.

Coat of arms.

The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is "Gules a House Argent to its sinister a pine tree Vert trunked proper and issuant from sinister a Bush of the Third all issuant from a Base of the last."

Demographics.

Gempenach has a population () of., 9.8% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (2000–2010) the population has changed at a rate of 5.8%. Migration accounted for 11.6%, while births and deaths accounted for -1.1%.  Most of the population () speaks German (274 or 97.5%) as their first language, Portuguese is the second most common (4 or 1.4%) and French is the third (2 or 0.7%). , the population was 50.5% male and 49.5% female. The population was made up of 129 Swiss men (44.3% of the population) and 18 (6.2%) non-Swiss men. There were 135 Swiss women (46.4%) and 9 (3.1%) non-Swiss women. Of the population in the municipality, 87 or about 31.0% were born in Gempenach and lived there in 2000. There were 38 or 13.5% who were born in the same canton, while 134 or 47.7% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 13 or 4.6% were born outside of Switzerland. , children and teenagers (0–19 years old) make up 31% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) make up 59.4% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 9.6%. , there were 121 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 141 married individuals, 10 widows or widowers and 9 individuals who are divorced. , there were 108 private households in the municipality, and an average of 2.6 persons per household. There were 29 households that consist of only one person and 10 households with five or more people., a total of 105 apartments (92.9% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 6 apartments (5.3%) were seasonally occupied and 2 apartments (1.8%) were empty. The vacancy rate for the municipality,, was 0.83%.  The historical population is given in the following chart:

Politics.

In the 2011 federal election the most popular party was the SVP which received 53.9% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SPS (10.5%), the BDP/PBD (8.1%) and the FDP (7.5%).  The SVP received about the same percentage of the vote as they did in the 2007 Federal election (55.9% in 2007 vs 53.9% in 2011). The SPS moved from third in 2007 (with 9.1%) to second in 2011, the BDP moved from below fourth place in 2007 to third and the FDP moved from second in 2007 (with 14.1%) to fourth. A total of 97 votes were cast in this election.

Economy.

, Gempenach had an unemployment rate of 1.4%., there were 48 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 10 businesses involved in this sector. 21 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 2 businesses in this sector. 41 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 11 businesses in this sector. There were 150 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 40.0% of the workforce. , there were 18 workers who commuted into the municipality and 98 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net exporter of workers, with about 5.4 workers leaving the municipality for every one entering. Of the working population, 8.7% used public transportation to get to work, and 62% used a private car.

Religion.

From the, 26 or 9.3% were Roman Catholic, while 229 or 81.5% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 12 individuals (or about 4.27% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There were 2 individuals who were Buddhist. 14 (or about 4.98% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 4 individuals (or about 1.42% of the population) did not answer the question.

Education.

In Gempenach about 97 or (34.5%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 34 or (12.1%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a "Fachhochschule"). Of the 34 who completed tertiary schooling, 82.4% were Swiss men, 14.7% were Swiss women.  The Canton of Fribourg school system provides one year of non-obligatory Kindergarten, followed by six years of Primary school. This is followed by three years of obligatory lower Secondary school where the students are separated according to ability and aptitude. Following the lower Secondary students may attend a three or four year optional upper Secondary school. The upper Secondary school is divided into gymnasium (university preparatory) and vocational programs. After they finish the upper Secondary program, students may choose to attend a Tertiary school or continue their apprenticeship.  During the 2010-11 school year, there were a total of 44 students attending 2 classes in Gempenach. A total of 40 students from the municipality attended any school, either in the municipality or outside of it. The municipality had 2 primary classes and 44 students. During the same year, there were no lower secondary classes in the municipality, but 19 students attended lower secondary school in a neighboring municipality. There were no upper Secondary classes or vocational classes, but there were 3 upper Secondary students and 3 upper Secondary vocational students who attended classes in another municipality. The municipality had no non-university Tertiary classes. who attended classes in another municipality. , there were 20 students in Gempenach who came from another municipality, while 46 residents attended schools outside the municipality.

Gempenach (former French name: Champagny) is a municipality in the district of See in the canton of Fribourg in Switzerland.

Gempenach (; Freiburger Patois ) ist eine politische Gemeinde im Seebezirk (französisch: District du Lac) des Kantons Freiburg in der Schweiz.


Design and description.

By early 1939 it was clear that the first two s could not be delivered before 1943 at the earliest and that further battleship construction would be necessary to match the German and Japanese battleships already under construction. The main constraint on the construction of any new battleships was the limited available capacity and the time required to build large-calibre guns and their gun turrets. Using four existing twin 15-inch mountings offered the possibility of bypassing this bottleneck and allowed the construction of a single fast battleship more quickly than building more "Lion"-class ships. The turrets were originally built for the battlecruisers and during the First World War, and were removed during the conversions of these ships to aircraft carriers in the 1920s. To save time, the "Lion" design was modified to accommodate the four turrets, and preliminary design work began in July 1939. The square or transom stern was retained as it was estimated to improve speed at full power by. This made "Vanguard" the only British battleship built with a transom stern as the "Lion"s were never finished.  Design work was suspended on 11 September 1939, after the start of the Second World War, but resumed in February 1940 after the First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill, expressed an interest in the ship. The design was modified to increase protection against shell splinters on the unprotected sides of the ship's hull, the armour of the secondary armament was increased to resist semi-armour-piercing bombs, and the splinter belt's thickness fore and aft of the main armour belt was reduced by in compensation. A small conning tower was added aft, and four Unrotated Projectile mounts were added to supplement the six octuple-barrel 2-pounder anti-aircraft mounts already planned.  More pressing commitments forced the preliminary design work to be suspended again in June and when it resumed in October, the design was modified again in light of recent war experience. Greater fuel capacity was added and the armour protection improved but these changes deepened the design's draught so that it exceeded the limit of the Suez Canal. The thickness of the main belt was reduced by to save weight but the primary method chosen to reduce the draught was to increase the beam by. This exceeded the width of the docks at Rosyth and Plymouth, which severely limited the number of docks that could handle the ship but these changes were approved by the Board of Admiralty on 17 April 1941. The ship had already been ordered on 14 March under the 1940 Emergency War Programme, although the drawings were not turned over to John Brown & Company until ten days later. "Vanguard"s design was revised again, while the ship was under construction in 1942, to reflect lessons learned from the loss of the battleship and operations with the other battleships. The longitudinal distance between the inboard and outboard propellers was increased from to reduce the chance of a single torpedo wrecking both propeller shafts on one side and watertight access trunks were added to all spaces below the deep waterline to prevent progressive flooding through open watertight doors and hatches as happened to "Prince of Wales". This change and the relocation of some of the ammunition handling rooms from the lower deck to the middle deck seriously delayed the ship's completion. The design requirement that the guns of 'A' turret be capable of firing straight ahead at 0° of elevation was sacrificed to allow her freeboard forward to be increased, and her bow was reshaped to make it less prone to shipping water and throwing sea spray in head seas. The ship's fuel supply was increased from to to prevent the fuel shortage problems suffered by and during their pursuit of the. The Unrotated Projectile mounts were deleted from the design and the light anti-aircraft armament was increased to a total of 76 two-pounders in one quadruple and nine octuple mounts and 24 Oerlikon 20 mm cannon were also added in 12 twin mounts. Space for these was made available by removing the two floatplanes, the catapult and their associated facilities.  A proposal was made in 1942 to convert "Vanguard" to an aircraft carrier. The Director of Naval Construction stated that doing so along the lines of the would present no major difficulties but would require six months to redesign the ship. The proposal was formally rejected on 17 July.

General characteristics.

"Vanguard" had an overall length of, a beam of and a draught of at deep load. She displaced at standard load and at deep load. The ship was significantly larger than her predecessors of the class, almost longer and displaced about more than the older ships at deep load. "Vanguard" was overweight by some, which magnified the difference. The ship had a complete double bottom deep and she was divided into 27 main compartments by watertight bulkheads.  The "King George V"-class ships had been built with almost no sheer to the main deck forwards to allow 'A' turret to fire straight forward at zero elevation, resulting in those ships being wet forward. "Vanguard" was redesigned as a result of this experience, significant sheer and flare being added to the bow. The ship was well regarded as seaworthy, able to keep an even keel in rough seas. At full load, "Vanguard" had a metacentric height of.  As a fleet flagship, her complement was 115 officers and 1,860 men in 1947. Air conditioning was provided for many of the ship's control spaces, and asbestos insulation was provided on exposed areas of the ship's sides, decks and bulkheads. Steam heating was provided for her armament, instruments, look-out positions and other equipment to make "Vanguard" suitable for operations in the Arctic. An Action Information Centre was fitted below the main armour deck with facilities to track aircraft and ships around "Vanguard".

Propulsion.

To save design time, the four-shaft unit machinery from the "Lion"-class battleship was duplicated with alternating boiler and engine rooms. "Vanguard" had four sets of single-reduction geared Parsons steam turbines housed in separate engine rooms. Each set consisted of one high-pressure and one low-pressure turbine, driving a propeller that was in diameter. The turbines were powered by eight Admiralty 3-drum boilers in four boiler rooms at a working pressure of and temperature of. The engines were designed to produce a total of and a speed of but achieved more than during the ship's sea trials in July 1946, when she reached a speed of. After trials, the three-bladed propellers on the inboard shafts were replaced by five-bladed propellers in a failed attempt to reduce vibrations of the inboard propeller shafts.  "Vanguard" was designed to carry 4,850 long tons of fuel oil and of diesel fuel. With a clean bottom, she could steam at a speed of for. The ship had four turbogenerators and four diesel generators that supplied the common ring main at 220 volts. Their total output of was the largest of any British battleship.

Armament.

The ship's main armament consisted of eight 42-calibre BL 15-inch Mk I guns in four twin hydraulically powered gun turrets, 'A', 'B', 'X' and 'Y' from bow to stern. When the turrets were modernised to the Mk I(N) RP12 design, their maximum elevation was increased from 20° to +30°, although the guns were loaded at +5°. They fired projectiles at a muzzle velocity of ; this provided a maximum range of. These guns were also capable of firing the same projectiles while using supercharges which gave a maximum range of. Their rate of fire was two rounds per minute. "Vanguard" carried 100 shells per gun. The 15-inch turrets had been designed when the customary practice was to place the magazine above the shell room and it was not cost-effective to modify the ammunition hoists to accommodate the opposite arrangement, which was adopted after the Battle of Jutland demonstrated the dangers of exposing the magazines to long-range gunfire. The ship was provided with a powder-handling room above the shell room to mimic the arrangement that turret's hoists were designed to handle, and another set of hoists moved the propellant charges from the magazines to the powder-handling room. The charges were stowed in cases to reduce their exposure to fire.  The secondary armament consisted of sixteen 50-calibre QF 5.25-inch Mk I* dual-purpose guns in eight twin gun mounts. They had a maximum depression of −5° and a maximum elevation of 70°. They fired an high-explosive shell at a muzzle velocity of. The improved RP10 spec 5.25 turrets on "Vanguard" were claimed to be fully automatic, with a power-rammed breech and automatic tracking and elevation under radar control enabling a rate of fire of about 18 rounds per minute. At maximum elevation, the guns had a maximum range of. 391 rounds were provided for each gun.  Short-range air defence was provided by 73 Bofors 40 mm AA guns in a variety of mountings. "Vanguard" had ten sextuple-barrel power-operated mounts concentrated in the superstructure and stern, a twin-barrel mount on 'B' turret and 11 power-operated single mounts on the upper deck and rear superstructure. All mounts could depress to −10° and elevate to a maximum of +90°. The gun fired a shell at a muzzle velocity of to a distance of. The guns' rate of fire was approximately 120 rounds per minute. Space was not available to stow the standard allowance of 1,564 rounds per gun, and "Vanguard" carried only 1,269 rounds per gun. Two of the single guns on the quarterdeck were removed in 1949 and five others during a major refit in 1954. All of her multiple Bofors mounts were removed at this same time.

Fire control.

"Vanguard" was unique among British battleships in having remote power control (RPC) for her main, secondary and tertiary guns along with the Admiralty Fire Control Table Mk X for surface fire control of the main armament. There were two director control towers (DCT) for the 15-inch guns, each carrying a "double cheese" Type 274 fire-control radar for range finding and spotting the fall of shot. Each DCT could control all four turrets while 'B' turret could control 'A' and 'X' turrets. 'X' turret could only control 'Y' turret. There were four American Mark 37 DCTs for the 5.25-inch guns, each carrying the twin domes of Type 275 gunnery radar. Each Mark VI sextuple 40 mm Bofors mounting was provided with a separate CRBF ("close range blind fire") director fitted with a Type 262 radar, although the ship never mounted her complete outfit of those directors. The STAAG Mk II 40 mm Bofors mounting carried its own Type 262 on the mounting itself. Other radar sets carried were Type 960 air and surface search, Type 293 target indication and Type 277 radar height finding.  When the 15-inch gun turrets were modernised, their rangefinders were replaced by ones in all turrets except for 'A' and they were fitted for RPC in azimuth only. The turrets were also provided with de-humidifying equipment and insulation to improve their habitability.

Protection.

The ship's armour scheme was based on that of the "King George V" class with a thinner waterline belt and additional splinter protection. Originally the belt armour was equal to that of the older ships but it had to be reduced to offset weight increases when the design was modified to reflect wartime experience. The waterline main belt was composed of Krupp cemented armour (KCA) thick but increased to abreast the magazines. It was high and tapered to a thickness of at the bottom edge of the belt. Fore and aft of the transverse bulkheads that closed off the central citadel, the belt continued almost to the ends of the ship. Forward it tapered to a thickness of and a height of and aft to the same thickness but a height of. At the aft end of the steering gear compartment was a transverse bulkhead. After the Battle of the Denmark Strait in 1941, non-cemented armour bulkheads were added on the sides of the magazines, to protect them from splinters from any hits from plunging shells that might have penetrated the ship's side beneath her belt.  When the gun turrets from the First World War-era battlecruisers were modernised, their KCA faceplates were replaced by new ones 13 inches thick, and their roofs were replaced by non-cemented armour plates. Their sides remained in thickness. The barbettes for the 15-inch guns were 13 inches thick on the sides but tapered to closer to the centreline of the ship. The side and roof armour of the 5.25-inch turrets was thick. Their ammunition hoists were protected by armour thick.  Intended to resist the impact of a armour-piercing bomb dropped from a height of, "Vanguard"s deck protection was identical to that of the "King George V" class. It consisted of six-inch non-cemented armour over the magazines that reduced to over the machinery spaces. The armour continued forward and aft of the citadel at the lower-deck level. Forward it tapered in steps from five inches down to 2.5 inches near the bow. Aft, it protected the steering gear and propeller shafts with 4.5 inches of armour before tapering to a thickness of 2.5 inches near the stern. Unlike the Germans, French and Americans, the British no longer believed that heavy armour for the conning tower served any real purpose given that the chance of hitting it was very small; "Vanguard"s conning tower was therefore protected with of armour on the face and 2.5 inches on the sides and rear. The secondary conning tower aft had of armour on its sides.  "Vanguard"s underwater protection was enhanced when she was redesigned in 1942 to reflect the lessons learned when "Prince of Wales" was sunk by Japanese torpedo bombers. It still consisted of a three-layer system of voids and liquid-filled compartments meant to absorb the energy of an underwater explosion. It was bounded on the inside by the torpedo bulkhead. Her enlarged oil tanks reduced the empty spaces that could flood and cause the ship to list and greater provision was made to pump these spaces out. The longitudinal bulkheads of the side protection system were raised one deck higher to further subdivide the spaces behind the waterline armour belt. The side protection system had a maximum depth of but this decreased significantly as the ship narrowed at its ends. Over the length of the citadel, this system was found to be proof against of TNT during full-scale trials.

Construction and career.

"Vanguard" was laid down on 2 October 1941 by John Brown and Company of Clydebank, Scotland, with the yard number of 567. After the Japanese invasion of Malaya in December, the ship was given an A1 priority in the hope of finishing her by the end of 1944, and construction of the light cruiser HMS "Bellerophon", as well as some merchant shipping, was halted to expedite the ship's completion. This was unsuccessful, however, due to a shortage of skilled labour. As a result, it was not until 30 November 1944 that the ship was launched. Princess Elizabeth presided over this ceremony, the first ship she ever launched, and was presented with a diamond rose brooch to commemorate the event.  Two yard workers were killed and six others injured when a "blinding explosion ripped" the ship in a fitting-out basin at Clydebank on 16 September 1945.  Captain William Gladstone Agnew assumed command on 15 October 1945. The end of hostilities following Japan's surrender reduced the need for new warships, and consequently the ship was not commissioned until 12 May 1946. By this time, a total of £11,530,503, including £3,186,868 for the modernisation of the main armament, had been spent on producing "Vanguard".  After commissioning, the ship spent several months conducting sea trials and training until August, when she began the necessary modifications to serve as a royal yacht for the forthcoming royal tour of South Africa. The Admiral's suite was reworked into accommodations for the Royal Family and their staff while the anti-aircraft mount on top of 'B' turret was replaced by a saluting platform. Agnew was promoted to rear-admiral with effect from 8 January 1947. The alterations were complete by December, and "Vanguard" made a shakedown cruise into the Central Atlantic and made a port visit to Gibraltar on the return voyage. Initially escorted by the destroyers,,,, and, the ship rendezvoused with the Home Fleet on 1 February 1947 to receive a 21-gun salute led by the battleships and, and the aircraft carrier. Later that morning, a Sikorsky R-4 helicopter landed aboard to pick up mail and photographic film.  "Vanguard" arrived in Cape Town on 17 February, escorted by the South African frigates, and on the last leg of her voyage. While the Royal Family toured the country on the first visit by a reigning monarch to South Africa, the ship exercised with ships of the South African and Royal Navies stationed there and made port visits to a number of South African cities. She sailed for home on 22 April and made brief visits to Saint Helena and Ascension Island en route. "Vanguard" arrived in Portsmouth on 11 May, and Captain F. R. Parham relieved the newly promoted Agnew on 29 May. In July, the ship began an overhaul in Devonport, which lasted until August 1948. While she was refitting, "Vanguard" was tasked to carry the Royal Family on a tour of Australia and New Zealand, planned for January 1949. On 31 August, she began a shakedown cruise to the Mediterranean and returned to Devonport on 12 November. Around this time, "Vanguard" was considered, along with a number of other large warships, for conversion to carry anti-aircraft missiles, but nothing further was done along these lines.  George VI was now too ill for travel, and the Royal Tour was indefinitely postponed later that month. "Vanguard" became the flagship of Admiral Sir Arthur Power, Commander-in-Chief of the Mediterranean Fleet, on 1 March 1949, and the ship made port visits to Algeria, France, Italy, Cyprus, Libya, Lebanon, Greece and Egypt before she arrived back at Devonport on 21 July. The newly promoted Rear Admiral Parham was relieved by Captain G. V. Gladstone a week later. The ship then became the flagship of the Home Fleet Training Squadron under Rear Admiral Edward Evans-Lombe on 12 November. While returning from a brief training sortie to Gibraltar, "Vanguard" went to the aid of a small French merchantman whose cargo had shifted in a severe storm on 13 February 1950. The merchantman,, was taken under tow and the cargo was redistributed. Once the storm had abated, "Boffa" was able to resume her voyage under her own power. "Vanguard" reached Weymouth Bay the following day. Later, in March, she fired the salute to Vincent Auriol, the President of France, during his state visit to Great Britain. On 13 September 1950 Admiral Sir Philip Vian hoisted his flag as Commander in Chief, Home Fleet, on "Vanguard" and the ship joined the rest of Home Fleet on exercises with the Royal Canadian Navy and the Mediterranean Fleet. On 19 December, Vian transferred his flag to. Nearly two months later, on 10 February 1951, the aircraft carrier collided with "Vanguard" as the carrier docked at Gibraltar. The hole in the battleship's stern was not serious, and Vian re-hoisted his flag in "Vanguard" shortly afterwards. After manoeuvres with "Indomitable", during which her aircraft "sank" the battleship, the ship made port visits in Genoa and Villefranche-sur-Mer before returning for a brief refit in Devonport on 14 March. After completing her refit in May, she became flagship of the Home Fleet Training Squadron under Rear Admiral R. M. Dick at the Isle of Portland. Four months later the admiral transferred his flag to the carrier as "Vanguard" began another refit in preparation to again become the flagship of Home Fleet.  Buckingham Palace announced in November that King George VI was planning to take a short cruise for his health aboard "Vanguard", which meant that her Admiral's suite again had to be modified to accommodate him and his staff. Captain John Litchfield assumed command on 21 December while the ship was still refitting, but the King died on 6 February 1952 before he could make his cruise. A detachment from the ship participated in his funeral procession before she departed for her post-refit shakedown cruise on 22 February. After exercising with "Implacable", "Indomitable" and the fast minelayer, "Vanguard" returned home on 29 March. She became flagship of Home Fleet again on 13 May when Admiral Sir George Creasy hoisted his flag. Due to manning and weight problems, "Vanguard" operated with many of her turrets unmanned and with ammunition carried for only two of the 15-inch turrets and only starshell ammunition for the 5.25-inch guns. She participated in exercises with the Dutch and American navies, before returning to Portsmouth for the holidays. Litchfield was relieved by Captain R. A. Ewing on 19 January 1953; the ship departed the next day for a brief refit at Gibraltar. After its completion on 2 March, the ship trained with several of the Royal Navy's carriers before arriving back at Portsmouth on 25 March. "Vanguard" participated in Queen Elizabeth's Coronation Fleet Review at Spithead on 15 June 1953. The following September, she participated in NATO's Exercise Mariner in the Denmark Strait. Admiral Sir Michael Denny replaced Creasy as Commander-in-Chief, Home Fleet, on 5 January 1954 and "Vanguard" participated in Exercise Medflex A with Dutch and French ships in March. During the rest of the year she participated in anti-submarine and anti-aircraft exercises as well as making port visits to Oslo and Kristiansand in Norway and Helsingborg in Sweden. She was inspected on 11 July by King Gustaf VI Adolf of Sweden before returning home later that month. Denny struck his flag on 15 September, and "Vanguard" sailed to Devonport for a £220,000 refit 10 days later. The February 1955 Defence Estimates had intended her as the Home Fleet flagship with a role as a killer, but after the appointment of Earl Mountbatten in April 1955 and with Antony Eden replacing Churchill as prime minister, the government decided instead to maintain two extra cruisers in the fleet, and "Vanguard" was placed in reserve when it completed its 1955 refit. She subsequently became the flagship of the Reserve Fleet when Vice Admiral Richard Onslow hoisted his flag on 28 November. While moored in Fareham Creek, during her time in the reserve fleet, waterline shots of "Vanguard" in Portsmouth Harbour were filmed for the title sequence of the 1957 comedy film "Carry on Admiral". Just before decommissioning, scenes for the 1960 film "Sink the Bismarck!" were filmed aboard, with "Vanguard" being used to depict interiors of the bridges, Admiral's Quarters and gun turrets for "Hood", "Bismarck" and "King George V".

Decommissioning and fate.

On 9 October 1959 the Admiralty announced that "Vanguard" would be scrapped, as she was considered obsolete and too expensive to maintain. She was decommissioned on 7 June 1960 and sold to BISCO for £560,000. On 4 August 1960, when the ship was scheduled to be towed from Portsmouth to the breaker's yard at Faslane, Scotland, the whole of the Southsea sea front was packed with people who came to see her off. As "Vanguard" was being towed towards the harbour entrance, she slewed across the harbour and ran aground near the Still & West pub. She was pulled off by five tugboats an hour later, and made her final exit from Portsmouth. Five days later she arrived at Faslane, and by mid-1962 the demolition process was complete; she was the last British battleship to be scrapped.  As a part of the scrapping process, sections of pre-atomic steel plate uncontaminated with radionuclides were recovered from "Vanguard" and used for the shielding of the whole body monitor at the Radiobiological Research Laboratory (now DSTL) at Alverstoke, Gosport in Hampshire, England.

HMS "Vanguard" was a British fast battleship built during the Second World War and commissioned after the end of the war. She was the biggest and fastest of the Royal Navy's battleships, the only ship of her class, and the world's last battleship to be built.

HMS "Vanguard" (23) war ein Schlachtschiff der britischen Royal Navy. Sie wurde im Jahre 1946 in Dienst gestellt und ist damit das weltweit letzte gebaute Schlachtschiff. Sie war außerdem das größte und schnellste Schlachtschiff im Bestand der Royal Navy.


History.

The instrumentation of the observatory originated from the Mannheim Observatory, founded in 1774. In 1880 the observatory was provisionally moved to Karlsruhe because the astronomical/atmospherical seeing conditions worsened. In subsequent years, three other locations were considered, with Heidelberg-Königstuhl finally being chosen.  On 20 June 1898 the "Großherzogliche Bergsternwarte" was ceremonially inaugurated by Frederick I, Grand Duke of Baden. The astronomical institute comprised two complementary departments, the astrophysical, led by Max Wolf, and the astrometrical led by Karl Wilhelm Valentiner. Valentiner was director of the Mannheim observatory and initiated the move to Karlsruhe. After Valentiner's retirement in 1909, both departments were placed under the administration of Max Wolf.  While the new observatory complex was still under construction Max Wolf obtained a grant of $10,000 from the American philanthropist Catherine Wolfe Bruce for the acquisition of a powerful new dual refractor telescope, the "Bruce double astrograph". For many years this telescope was the observatory's main research instrument. He later obtained a grant to build the observatory's a reflector telescope, the observatory's first.  The main field of activity of the observatory was the investigation of nebulae and the search for asteroids. Wolf, his staff and his successors discovered over 800 asteroids, including the first trojan asteroid Achilles in 1906.  The observatory ceased to be run by the German federal government in 2005 when it was joined with the Institute of Theoretical Astrophysics and Astronomical Calculation Institute to make up the Center of Astronomy of the University of Heidelberg.  Between 1912 and 1957 Karl Wilhelm Reinmuth discovered almost 400 asteroids from the Heidelberg-Königstuhl State Observatory.

Heidelberg-Königstuhl State Observatory () is a historic astronomical observatory located near the summit of the Königstuhl hill in the city of Heidelberg in Germany. The predecessor of the current observatory was originally opened in 1774 in the nearby city of Mannheim but degradation of observational conditions there resulted in a relocation to the Königstuhl in 1898.

Die Landessternwarte Heidelberg-Königstuhl ist eine von der Universität Heidelberg betriebene, vor allem historisch bedeutsame Forschungssternwarte. Sie befindet sich auf dem Westgipfel des Königstuhls bei Heidelberg. Ihre geografische Lage ist 8° 43' 15" östliche Länge und 49° 23' 55" nördliche Breite,.


Interpreting the symbol.

Stock symbols are unique identifiers assigned to each security traded on a particular market. A stock symbol can consist of letters, numbers, or a combination of both, and is a way to uniquely identify that stock. The symbols were kept as short as possible to reduce the number of characters that had to be printed on the ticker tape, and to make it easy to recognize by traders and investors.  The allocation of symbols and formatting convention is specific to each stock exchange. In the US, for example, stock tickers are typically between 1 and 4 letters and represent the company name where possible. For example, US-based computer company stock Apple Inc. traded on the NASDAQ exchange has the symbol AAPL, while the motor company Ford's stock that is traded on the New York Stock Exchange has the single-letter ticker F. In Europe, most exchanges use three-letter codes; for example, Dutch consumer goods company Unilever traded on the Amsterdam Euronext exchange has the symbol UNA. In Asia, numbers are often used as stock tickers to avoid issues for international investors when using non-Latin scripts. For example, the bank HSBC's stock traded on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange has the ticker symbol 0005.  Symbols sometimes change to reflect mergers. Prior to the 1999 merger with Mobil Oil, Exxon used a phonetic spelling of the company "XON" as its ticker symbol. The symbol of the firm after the merger was "XOM". Symbols are sometimes reused. In the US the single-letter symbols are particularly sought after as vanity symbols. For example, since Mar 2008 Visa Inc. has used the symbol V that had previously been used by Vivendi which had delisted and given up the symbol.  To fully qualify a stock, both the ticker and the exchange or country of listing needs to be known. On many systems both must be specified to uniquely identify the security. This is often done by appending the location or exchange code to the ticker.

Other identifiers.

Although stock tickers identify a security, they are exchange dependent, generally limited to stocks and can change. These limitations have led to the development of other codes in financial markets to identify securities for settlement purposes. The most prevalent of these is the International Securities Identifying Number (ISIN). An ISIN uniquely identifies a security and its structure is defined in ISO 6166. Securities for which ISINs are issued include bonds, commercial paper, stocks, and warrants. The ISIN code is a 12-character alpha-numerical code that does not contain information characterizing financial instruments, but serves for uniform identification of a security at trading and settlement.  The ISIN identifies the security, not the exchange (if any) on which it trades; it is therefore not a replacement for the ticker symbol. For instance, Daimler AG stock trades on twenty-two different stock exchanges worldwide, and is priced in five different currencies; it has the same ISIN on each (DE0007100000), though not the same ticker symbol. ISIN cannot specify a particular trade in this case, and another identifier, typically the three- or four-letter exchange code (such as the Market Identifier Code) will have to be specified in addition to the ISIN.

Symbol for stock market indices.

While usually a stock ticker identifies a security that can be traded, stock market indices are also sometimes assigned a symbol, even though they can generally not be traded. Symbols for indices are usually distinguished by adding a symbol in front of the name, such as a caret (^) or a dot. For example, Reuters lists the Nasdaq Composite index under the symbol ".IXIC".

Symbols by country.

Australia.

In Australia the Australian Securities Exchange uses the following conventions: 3 character base symbol with the first and third character being alphanumeric and the second alphabetic. ETFs, ETMFs can be either 3 or 4 characters. Exchange traded warrants and exchange-traded options are 6 characters. ETOs can have numbers in the sixth character.

Canada.

In Canada the Toronto Stock Exchange TSX and the TSXV use the following special codes after the ticker symbol:

United Kingdom.

In the United Kingdom, prior to 1996, stock codes were known as EPICs, named after the London Stock Exchange's Exchange Price Information Computer (e.g.: "MKS" for Marks and Spencer). Following the introduction of the Sequence trading platform in 1996, EPICs were renamed Tradable Instrument Display Mnemonics (TIDM), but they are still widely referred to as EPICs. Stocks can also be identified using their SEDOL (Stock Exchange Daily Official List) number or their ISIN (International Securities Identification Number).

United States.

In the United States, modern letter-only ticker symbols were developed by Standard & Poor's (S&P) to bring a national standard to investing. Previously, a single company could have many different ticker symbols as they varied between the dozens of individual stock markets. The term "ticker" refers to the noise made by the ticker tape machines once widely used by stock exchanges.  The S&P system was later standardized by the securities industry and modified as years passed. Stock symbols for preferred stock have not been standardized.  Some companies use a well-known product as their ticker symbol. Belgian brewer InBev, the brewer of Budweiser beer, uses "BUD" as its three-letter ticker for American Depository Receipts, symbolizing its premier product in the United States. Its rival, the Molson Coors Brewing Company, uses a similarly beer-related symbol, "TAP". Likewise, Southwest Airlines pays tribute to its headquarters at Love Field in Dallas through its "LUV" symbol. Cedar Fair Entertainment Company, which operates large amusement parks in the United States, uses "FUN" as its symbol. Harley-Davidson uses "HOG" for its Harley Owners Group. Yamana Gold uses "AUY", because on the periodic table of elements, "Au" is the symbol for gold. Sotheby's (the famous auction house) uses the symbol "BID".  While most symbols come from the company's name, sometimes it happens the other way around. Tricon Global, owner of KFC, Pizza Hut and Taco Bell, adopted the symbol "YUM" to represent its corporate mission when the company was spun out of PepsiCo in 1997. In 2002, the company changed its name to match its symbol, adopting the name Yum! Brands.  Symbols sometimes change to reflect mergers. Prior to the 1999 merger with Mobil Oil, Exxon used a phonetic spelling of the company "XON" as its ticker symbol. The symbol of the firm after the merger was "XOM". After Hewlett-Packard merged with Compaq, the new firm took on the ticker symbol "HPQ". (The former symbols were HWP and CPQ.) AT&T's ticker symbol is simply "T"; accordingly, the company is referred to simply as "Telephone" on Wall Street (the T symbol is so well known that when the company was purchased by SBC, it took the AT&T name, capitalizing on its history and keeping the desired single letter symbol).  Some examples of US Stock symbols include:  Formerly, a glance at a U.S. stock symbol and its appended codes would allow an investor to determine where a stock trades; however in July 2007, the SEC approved a rule change allowing companies moving from the New York Stock Exchange to the Nasdaq to retain their three letter symbols; DirecTV was one of the first companies to make this move. When first implemented, the rule change did not apply to companies with one or two letter symbols, but subsequently any stock was able to move from the NYSE to the Nasdaq without changing its symbol. CA, Inc., which trades under the symbol CA, moved from the NYSE to the Nasdaq in April 2008 and kept its two-letter symbol.

Single-letter ticker symbols.

Unassigned letters:

Other countries.

In countries where Arabic script is used, and in East Asia, transliterated Latin script versions of company names may be confusing to an unpracticed Western reader; stock symbols provide a simple means of clear communication in the workplace. Many Asian countries use numerical or alphanumerical ticker symbols instead of characters to facilitate international trade.

A ticker symbol or stock symbol is an abbreviation used to uniquely identify publicly traded shares of a particular stock on a particular stock market. A stock symbol may consist of letters, numbers or a combination of both. "Ticker symbol" refers to the symbols that were printed on the ticker tape of a ticker tape machine.

Ein Tickersymbol ist meistens eine Abkürzung als Bezeichnung eines börsennotierten Unternehmens in den USA. Dieses Symbol besteht aus 1–4 Buchstaben je nach Art der Börse und Bedeutung des Unternehmens.


History.

Early history (1891-1910s).

Columbus was established in 1891 just across the Mexican border from Palomas, Chihuahua, and named after 15th-century explorer Christopher Columbus. In 1902, the village was moved north when the El Paso and Southwestern Railroad built its Columbus station. This station is now converted into a museum run by the Columbus Historical Society.  About 1905, it was a very small town with a population of about 100, two of those early settlers being Colonel Andrew O. Bailey and Louis Heller. By this time, Columbus had only one general store, a saloon, and a society inspector. In time, a high school was built, and Perrow G. Mosely established the "Columbus News", which later was renamed the "Columbus Courier". By 1915, the town had 700 residents, the Columbus State Bank was built, four hotels were constructed, and several stores and a Baptist church were also established. At that time, the area around Columbus also had rich silver, copper, lead, and zinc deposits.

1916 Pancho Villa raid.

On March 9, 1916, on the orders of Mexican revolutionary leader Pancho Villa, Colonel Francisco Beltrán, Colonel Candelario Cervantes, General Nicolás Fernández, General Pablo López, and others led 500 men in an attack against the town, which was garrisoned by a detachment of the 13th Cavalry Regiment. Villa's army burned a part of the town and killed seven or eight soldiers and 10 residents before retreating back into Mexico.  United States President Woodrow Wilson responded to the Columbus raid by sending 10,000 troops under Brigadier General John J. Pershing to Mexico to pursue Villa. This was known as the Punitive Mexican Expedition or Pancho Villa Expedition. The expedition was eventually called off after failing to find Villa, who had escaped. The Pershing expedition brought prosperity and international attention to Columbus and a realization that war had come to the border of the United States.

From 1926 to the 1990s.

In 1926 after the Punitive Expedition ended, Columbus started to change and decay over the decades. Camp Furlong activity was greatly reduced. The army decided to close their camp, and the El Paso and Southwestern Railroad stopped service in Columbus. After all these events, the economy naturally faded over time.  In the 1990s Columbus started to revitalize, with the development of city and state parks, museums, RV parks, and history involving the city.

2011 gun-smuggling scandal.

In July 2011, Columbus dissolved its police force after a gun-smuggling scandal that involved its village officials and others. The mayor, a village trustee, a former police chief, and nine other people were indicted in the scandal. The case was prosecuted by the United States Attorney from El Paso, Texas, before United States District Court Judge Robert Brack in Las Cruces, New Mexico. Of the 11 people charged, 10 pleaded guilty, with one person still at large. Sentences ranged from five years in federal prison to two years' probation.

Geography.

Columbus is in southern Luna County at (31.830760, -107.641558). It is about north of the border between the United States and Mexico. The village limits extend south to the international border. The Mexican village of Puerto Palomas, Chihuahua, is across the border.  New Mexico State Road 11 leads north from Columbus to Deming, the Luna county seat, while State Road 9 leads east to Santa Teresa and west to Hachita.  According to the United States Census Bureau, the village of Columbus has a total area of, all land.

Climate.

The climate is a cold semi-arid (Köppen: "BSk") like much of New Mexico's lower elevations outside El Paso–Juárez.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 1,765 people, 536 households, and 411 families residing in the village. The population density was 635.3 people per square mile (245.1/km2). There were 720 housing units at an average density of 259.2 per square mile (100.0/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 70.42% White, 0.68% African American, 0.57% Native American, 0.06% Asian, 25.50% from other races, and 2.78% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 83.34% of the population.  There were 536 households out of which 50.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 61.8% were married couples living together, 10.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 23.3% were non-families. 20.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 12.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.29 and the average family size was 3.89.  In the village, the population was spread out with 39.2% under the age of 18, 7.7% from 18 to 24, 22.0% from 25 to 44, 18.6% from 45 to 64, and 12.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 28 years. For every 100 females, there were 100.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 99.6 males.  The median income for a household in the village was $13,773, and the median income for a family was $14,318. Males had a median income of $16,912 versus $12,344 for females. The per capita income for the village was $6,721. About 56.7% of families and 57.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 67.0% of those under age 18 and 20.2% of those age 65 or over.  In 2010, Columbus had the 21st-lowest median household income of all places in the United States with a population over 1,000.

Education.

Columbus Elementary School is part of the Deming Public Schools District.  Columbus Elementary School is located 30 miles south of Deming, New Mexico and 3 miles north of Palomas, Chihuahua, across the border in Mexico. About 90% of the students come from homes where Spanish is the dominant language. The staff at Columbus Elementary is required to be bilingually endorsed or working toward bilingual endorsement. The mission of Columbus Elementary School is to build on the students' bicultural and bilingual environment; they work in partnership with the parents and the community to enable students to reach their full potential.  Students from Columbus and Puerto Palomas attend Columbus Elementary from preschool up to sixth grade. Students then move on to attend Red Mountain Middle School (6-8) in Deming, Hofacket Mid-High School (9-12), and Deming High School (9-12).  Deming Public Schools buses U.S. citizen students residing in Mexico (including the city of Palomas) from the United States-Mexico border to Columbus Elementary and to upper grades in Deming.

Columbus Village Library.

Columbus Village Library, the town's only public library, is located at 112 West Broadway, Columbus, NM 88029. Around 22,386 visits to this local library occur annually. Columbus Village Library has 14,989 books and serial volumes, 343 audios, 1,428 videos, and 30 computers.

City of the Sun.

An intentional community called City of the Sun is on the northern edge of Columbus. Started in 1972, the community has many unique, experimental homes. Members of the community aim "to serve the Divine Purpose in community living with other Light Seekers."

In popular culture.

Pancho Villa's raid on Columbus is depicted in the novel "The Friends of Pancho Villa" (1996) by James Carlos Blake. In "Spring Break Adventure", the sixth film in The Adventures of Young Indiana Jones series, Indiana Jones and his cousin are in town during Pancho Villa's raid, and he ends up joining Pancho Villa's army.  Columbus features in the 2008 film "" starring Jean-Claude Van Damme. The 1989 cult classic "Sonny Boy" has Columbus-based locations.

Las Cruces is the seat of Doña Ana County, New Mexico, United States. As of the 2010 census the population was 97,618, and in 2019 the estimated population was 103,432, making it the second largest city in the state, after Albuquerque. Las Cruces is the largest city in both Doña Ana County and southern New Mexico. The Las Cruces metropolitan area had an estimated population of 213,849 in 2017. It is the principal city of a metropolitan statistical area which encompasses all of Doña Ana County and is part of the larger El Paso–Las Cruces combined statistical area.

Las Cruces (von ) ist mit rund 97.000 Einwohnern die zweitgrößte Stadt des US-Bundesstaates New Mexico (nach Albuquerque und noch vor der Hauptstadt Santa Fe). Sie liegt unweit der mexikanischen Grenze im Doña Ana County und ist Sitz der Countyverwaltung (County Seat).


Comparisons with other party systems.

A system where only two parties have the possibility of winning an election is called a two-party system. A system where only three parties have a "realistic possibility" of winning an election or forming a coalition is sometimes called a "Third-party system". But, in some cases the system is called a "Stalled Third-Party System," when there are three parties and all three parties win a large number of votes, but only two have a chance of winning an election. Usually this is because the electoral system penalises the third party, e.g. as in Canadian or UK politics. In the 2010 elections, the Liberal Democrats gained 23% of the total vote but won less than 10% of the seats due to the first-past-the-post electoral system. Despite this, they still had enough seats (and enough public support) to form coalitions with one of the two major parties, or to make deals in order to gain their support. An example is the Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition formed after the 2010 general election. Another is the Lib-Lab pact during Prime Minister James Callaghan's Minority Labour Government; when Labour lost its three-seat majority in 1977, the pact fell short of a full coalition. In Canada, there are three major federal political parties: the Conservative Party of Canada, the Liberal Party of Canada, and the New Democratic Party. However, in recent Canadian history, the Liberals and Conservatives (and their states) have been the only two parties to elect a Prime Minister in Canada, with the New Democratic Party, Bloc Quebecois and Green Party often winning seats in the House of Commons. The main exception was the 2011 Canadian election when the New Democrats were the Official Opposition and the Liberal Party was reduced to third party status.  Unlike a one-party system (or a two-party system), a multi-party system encourages the general constituency to form multiple distinct, officially recognized groups, generally called political parties. Each party competes for votes from the enfranchised constituents (those allowed to vote). A multi-party system prevents the leadership of a single party from controlling a single legislative chamber without challenge.  If the government includes an elected Congress or Parliament, the parties may share power according to proportional representation or the first-past-the-post system. In proportional representation, each party wins a number of seats proportional to the number of votes it receives. In first-past-the-post, the electorate is divided into a number of districts, each of which selects one person to fill one seat by a plurality of the vote. First-past-the-post is not conducive to a proliferation of parties, and naturally gravitates toward a two-party system, in which only two parties have a real chance of electing their candidates to office. This gravitation is known as Duverger's law. Proportional representation, on the other hand, does not have this tendency, and allows multiple major parties to arise. But, recent coalition governments, such as that in the U.K., represent two-party systems rather than multi-party systems. This is regardless of the number of parties in government.  A two-party system requires voters to align themselves in large blocs, sometimes so large that they cannot agree on any overarching principles. Some theories argue that this allows centrists to gain control. On the other hand, if there are multiple major parties, each with less than a majority of the vote, the parties are strongly motivated to work together to form working governments. This also promotes centrism, as well as promoting coalition-building skills while discouraging polarization.

A multi-party system is a political system in which multiple political parties across the political spectrum run for national election, and all have the capacity to gain control of government offices, separately or in coalition. Apart from one-party-dominant and two-party systems, multi-party systems tend to be more common in parliamentary systems than presidential systems and far more common in countries that use proportional representation compared to countries that use first-past-the-post elections. Several parties compete for power and all of them have reasonable chance of forming government.

Ein Mehrparteiensystem ist (in der Regel im Gegensatz zu einem Einparteiensystem) ein politisches System, in dem zumindest potenziell mehrere Parteien die Politik dieses Staates, insbesondere durch Regierungsbeteiligung, lenken können. Damit erhöht sich die Chance, den politischen Willen des Volkes durch verschiedene Parteien oder aber durch verschiedene Fraktionen und Verbände innerhalb einer Partei zu artikulieren.


Use in historical cultures.

Ireland.

The Newgrange passage tomb has an intact corbel arch (vault) supporting the roof of the main chamber, and the buildings of the monastery at Skellig Michael are constructed using this method.

Ancient Egypt.

During the Fourth Dynasty reign of Pharaoh Sneferu, the Ancient Egyptian pyramids used corbel vaults in some of their chambers. These monuments include the Meidum Pyramid, the Bent Pyramid and its satellite pyramid, and the Red Pyramid. The Great Pyramid of Giza uses corbel arches at the Grand Gallery. The Egyptians discovered the principle of the true arch early on, but continued to use the corbel arch in many buildings, sometimes mixing the two in the same building. In particular they avoided the true arch in temples as long as these were constructed, preferring rectangular openings with a straight lintel.

Ancient Mediterranean.

Corbel arches and vaults are found in various places around the ancient Mediterranean. In particular, corbelled burial vaults constructed below the floor are found in Ebla in Syria, and in Tel Hazor, and Tel Megiddo in Israel.  Ugarit also has corbelled constructions.  Nuraghe constructions in ancient Sardinia, dating back to 1900 BC, use similar corbel techniques. The use of beehive tombs on the Iberian peninsula and elsewhere around the Mediterranean, going back to 3000 BC, is also similar.

Anatolia.

The Hittites in ancient Anatolia were also building corbelled vaults. The earliest ones date to the 16th century BC.  Some similarities are found between the Hittite and Mycenaean construction techniques. Yet the Hittite corbelled vaults are earlier by about 300 years.

Greece.

The ruins of ancient Mycenae feature many corbel arches and vaults, the Treasury of Atreus being a prominent example. The Arkadiko Bridge is one of four Mycenean corbel arch bridges which are part of a former network of roads, designed to accommodate chariots, between Tiryns and Epidauros in the Peloponnese, in Greece. Dating to the Greek Bronze Age (13th century BC), it is one of the oldest arch bridges still in existence and use. The well-preserved Hellenistic Eleutherna Bridge on Crete has an unusually large span of nearly 4 metres.

Maya civilization.

Corbeled arches are a distinctive feature of certain pre-Columbian Mesoamerican constructions and historical/regional architectural styles, particularly in that of the Maya civilization. The prevalence of this spanning technique for entrances and vaults in Maya architecture is attested at a great many Maya archaeological sites, and is known from structures dating back to the Formative or Preclassic era. By the beginning of the Classic era (ca. 250 CE) corbeled vaults are a near-universal feature of building construction in the central Petén Basin region of the central Maya lowlands.

India.

Before the true arch was introduced in Indo-Islamic architecture, almost all the arches in Indian buildings were trabeated or corbelled. In North India in the state of Orissa, "the later temples at Bhubaneswar were built on the principle of corbelled vaulting, which is seen first in the porch of the Mukteswar [a temple said to epitomize North Indian architecture, circa 950 AD] and, technically speaking, no fundamental change occurred from this time onwards."  The earliest large buildings of the Delhi Sultanate established in 1206 after a Muslim invasion used Indian workers used to Hindu temple architecture, but the patrons were used to Central Asian styles that used true arches heavily. Corbel arches, the largest of exceptional size, were used in the massive screens in front of the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque in Delhi, begun in 1193, and the Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra mosque, Ajmer, Rajasthan, c. 1229. These are examples of Islamic architecture drawing on Persia and Central Asia, where builders were well used to the true arch, that stick with the corbelled arch that Indian builders were used to.  It took almost a century from the start of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206 for the true arch to appear. By around 1300 true domes and arches with voussoirs were being built; the ruined Tomb of Balban (d. 1287) in the Qutb complex in Delhi may be the earliest survival.

Indonesia.

The "candi" or temples of Indonesia which were constructed between 8th to 15th century, made use of corbel arch technique to create a span opening for gate or inner chamber of the temple. The notable example of corbel arch in Indonesian classic temple architecture are the arches of Borobudur. The interlocking andesite stone blocks creating the corbel arch, are notable for their "T" formed lock on the center top of the corbel arch.

Cambodia.

All the temples in Angkor made use of the corbel arch, between the AD 9th and 12th centuries.

A corbel arch (or corbeled / corbelled arch) is an arch-like construction method that uses the architectural technique of corbeling to span a space or void in a structure, such as an entranceway in a wall or as the span of a bridge. A corbel vault uses this technique to support the superstructure of a building's roof.

Als Kragbogen () oder als falscher Bogen bezeichnet man in der Architektur eine Bauweise zum Überbrücken von Tür- oder Fensteröffnungen im Mauerwerk. Er gilt als eine historische Vorstufe des "echten" Bogens. Er lässt sich bei ausreichender Steilheit der Seitenflächen einfach und ohne Lehrgerüst aufmauern. Ein Kragbogen kann als eine Folge von übereinander liegenden Kämpfern oder Konsolen angesehen werden.


Development.

The design of the "Nevada" class took place in the context of strong political opposition to the continual growth (and thus increases in cost) of battleship building that had accelerated with the development of the dreadnought type. In the early 1900s, the Navy had settled on a program of two new battleships per year, a plan approved by President Theodore Roosevelt, but beginning in 1904, Congress began to reject the Navy's requests, frequently authorizing only one ship per year, and at times, no new vessels. Howard Taft, Roosevelt's successor, attempted to pressure Congress to build more ships, but had little success, though he did secure a pair of ships for Fiscal Year 1912, which would become the "Nevada" class. Woodrow Wilson, who was elected in 1912, opposed what he saw as excessive naval spending and his Secretary of the Navy, Josephus Daniels, blocked proposals from the General Board for larger, more powerful ships as part of an effort to return to two vessels per year. The resulting stabilization of designs produced the standard-type battleship, of which the two "Nevada"s were the first.

Initial design.

The General Board was not satisfied with the adoption of 5 and 6 twin-gun turrets in earlier dreadnoughts and so requested the next ship be equipped with three-gun turrets. Three-gun turrets would provide a main battery of twelve guns, two more than the preceding, but with four turrets instead of five. Design work on the ships that would be authorized for FY1912 had begun in 1910, with the first sketch prepared by the Bureau of Construction and Repair (C&R) in May that was based on the preceding "New York"s. The aft superfiring No. 4 turret was removed, the amidships No. 3 turret was moved up to superfire over what had been No. 5 turret in an arrangement similar to contemporary British battlecruisers. It was a complicated arrangement that required an ammunition magazine to separate the engine and boiler rooms; the naval historian Norman Friedman suggests it may have been adopted to reduce the concentration of weight aft, which would have put greater stress on the hull and thus required significant strengthening of the hull structure. The ship would also carry four torpedo tubes and a secondary battery of seventeen guns, while belt armor was to be thick.  By this time, the Navy had come to the conclusion that naval engagements would be fought at very long range, and primarily with armor-piercing shells (AP) instead of high-explosive shells, since the latter would be defeated by even medium armor, and at long range, there was no ability to aim specifically at unarmored portions of ships. And because AP shells would easily perforate medium armor plate, only the thickest possible protection should be carried. Another important development that resulted from the assumption of long battle ranges was the adoption of thick deck armor. This was necessitated by the trajectory of the projectiles; as range increased significantly, the angle of impact increased, and thus shells would tend to strike the horizontal deck, not the heavily armored sides, an effect known as plunging fire. The result was the "all or nothing" principle of armor protection, which reserved armor protection only for the ship's vitals, including magazines, propulsion machinery spaces, and command spaces. The arrangement was made watertight to create an armored raft that contained enough reserve buoyancy to keep the ship afloat even if the unarmored ends were completely flooded. The "Nevada" design was the first of any navy to introduce the concept.  In June, the Board sent a set of requirements to C&R that incorporated the twelve-gun battery already projected, a minimum speed of, and an armor layout based on the "all or nothing" concept. The engineers at C&R noted that the armor deck would considerably strengthen the hull, but pointed out that the 11-inch belt of the original design would be wholly insufficient to defeat the latest main guns in foreign navies. The Board suggested the addition of a splinter bulkhead behind the belt, which would contain shell fragments. In late 1910, before a final design was accepted, the Navy had to submit estimates for FY1912 to be voted on by Congress in 1911; they used figures based on the "New York"s, which were accepted by Congress, and in turn limited the size of the new ships to a displacement of around ; this was too low for C&R's existing proposals, necessitating a redesign. By this time, the first generation of American dreadnoughts had begun to enter service, so experiences operating them could be incorporated into the redesign.

Redesign and approval.

The first major change was the arrangement of the aft pair of turrets. The amidships magazine of the battleship had difficulty remaining cool, as it was adjacent to the boiler room and the steam lines for the propulsion system ran alongside it. Since the thicker deck increased hull strength, the initial arrangement proposed for "Nevada" could be abandoned in favor of a closely spaced superfiring pair. This shortened the length of hull that required armor protection, and thus reduced displacement. Experience with "Delaware"s propulsion system—which mixed coal and oil fired boilers—provided the next improvement: boilers that were exclusively oil fired. These would confer a number of advantages, including the ability to refuel at sea, a significant reduction in boiler room crews, greater fuel efficiency, and more compact boiler rooms, among others. Again, the smaller boiler rooms shortened the length of armor necessary to protect the vitals. C&R was not convinced, since coal bunkers had been used to reinforce the side armor, but the Board approved the change in November 1910. Even by that time, the engineers at C&R continued to lobby for their original design based on the "New York" class, but the Board refused to entertain the proposal. Next, the Board decided to return to steam turbines rather than triple-expansion engines, as they believed the greater efficiently of fuel oil would allow the notoriously voracious turbines to achieve the long cruising radius necessary for operations in the Pacific Ocean.  C&R submitted its next proposal on 13 February 1911; it generally aligned with the Board's ideas for the armor layout, but it retained some medium armor to protect the secondary guns and it incorporated triple-expansion machinery (though they noted that the engine rooms could accommodate Curtis turbines). The Board rejected it, leading the designers to remove the medium armor, producing a series of studies with speeds of,, and 21 knots and main batteries that ranged from eight to twelve guns. During this period, on 4 March, Congress authorized a pair of ships, designated BB-36 and BB-37 for FY1912. With the ships now authorized, the Board selected one of the ten-gun, 20.5-knot variations on 30 March, which had a belt that was increased to 14 in but included a series of tapers at the top and bottom edge to save weight. The Bureau of Ordnance pointed out that the belt could not be manufactured in a single strake with the tapers, so a joint between upper and lower strakes—a design weakness the engineers had been attempting to avoid—would have to be used. The problem was resolved in July, when C&R proposed removing the 1.5-inch splinter bulkhead in favor of increasing the belt to and incorporating only one taper at the lower edge.  The next issue to address was the triple turret that was the linchpin of the design, since the weight savings made the heavier belt possible and it corrected design defects present in the earlier 5- and 6-turret classes. The US Navy had never built a three-gun turret, and there were concerns that a single hit could disable all three guns, and that three holes in the turret face would weaken the armor too much. C&R suggested conducting firing trials with the old battleship, but nothing came of the proposal. Daniels approved the finalized "Nevada" design on 31 March, without a completed turret design, which was a significant gamble because the turret design might not have been successful. An experimental turret was completed in August 1912, proving the concept, though it required some modifications to reduce shell interference. Since the finalized design adopted a ten-gun battery, only two of the four turrets would be triple mounts, one forward and one aft, with twin-gun turrets superfiring over them.  With the design nearly finalized, the Board began to circulate it with fleet officers for comment; Captain John Hood, who was soon to become a member of the Board, criticized the placement of the secondary battery, as experience with the early dreadnoughts had shown casemate batteries to be completely unusable in all but the calmest seas. The Board pointed out that the increasing range of torpedoes meant that the standard 5-inch /51 caliber guns could not effectively engage destroyers before they launched their weapons, so retaining the weapons at all might not be worthwhile. But there were no suitable alternative, so the Board decided to keep the 5-inch guns as they were. This proved to be the correct decision, as the development of fire-control systems improved the guns' ability to hit at longer ranges.

Design.

General characteristics and machinery.

The ships of the "Nevada" class were long at the waterline and long overall. They had a beam of and a draft of at normal displacement and at full load. They displaced as designed and fully laden. The ships had a ram bow and a forecastle deck that extended half of the length of the ship. As built, the ships had a minimal superstructure, consisting of a heavily-armored conning tower directly aft of the forward main battery turrets. They were completed with two lattice masts fitted with spotting tops to assist in directly the main battery, common features of American capital ships of the period. They had a crew of 55 officers and 809 enlisted men.  Since the Board expected turbines to achieve greater efficiency, "Nevada" was equipped with a pair of direct-drive Curtis steam turbines, with steam provided by twelve oil-fired Yarrow water-tube boilers. "Nevada" was the first US capital ship to use reduction geared cruising turbines, which could be clutched into the high-pressure turbines to improve fuel economy at low speeds. Geared turbines were fitted in most subsequent US battleships, except those with turbo-electric propulsion. "Oklahoma", meanwhile, received two vertical triple-expansion engines and twelve oil-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers. "Oklahoma"s reciprocating engines were prone to excessive vibration, prompting the Navy to consider converting her to double-acting, two-stroke diesel engines in 1925, but the great weight of diesels at the time led to the idea being abandoned. Both ships' boilers were ducted into a single funnel located amidships.  "Nevada"s engines were rated at, while those of "Oklahoma" were projected to produce. Both ships had a designed top speed of 20.5 knots, though "Nevada" reached from on speed trials upon completion. Their designed endurance was at a speed of. Under service conditions, "Nevada" was found to have an endurance of at a speed of, which fell considerably at to. With a freshly-cleaned hull, these figures improved slightly, to and, respectively. "Nevada" had a tactical diameter—the distance it took to turn the ship 180 degrees—of at and at. The only figure available for "Oklahoma" is her high-speed turning circle: at.

Armament.

The "Nevada"s were equipped a main battery of ten 14-inch /45 caliber Mark III guns mounted in two twin and two triple turrets. To save weight and keep the mounts as compact as possible, the triple turrets had all three barrels supported by two trunnions, which required all three guns to be elevated as a unit. Both of the twin turrets had armored rangefinders installed atop their roofs, with a centralized fire control room in the conning tower.  The guns fired a armor-piercing (AP) shell at a muzzle velocity of. Trials with the triple turret revealed excessive dispersion caused by interference between the projectiles while in flight, so a system was adopted to fire each gun individually, separated by a tenth of a second apiece. The turrets allowed elevation to 15 degrees and depression to −5 degrees. At maximum elevation, the guns had a range of about. Two shell hoists serviced all three guns, which were electrically loaded and operated.  For defense against destroyers and torpedo boats, the ships carried a secondary battery of twenty-one 5-inch /51 caliber Mark VIII guns in individual mounts. Twelve of the guns were in casemates in the forecastle deck, six on either side, and another six were in casemates toward the stern at main deck level, with another weapon directly in the stern. These guns proved to be excessively wet in heavy seas and thus were frequently unusable, as experience with earlier vessels had already demonstrated. The last two guns were in open mounts on either side of the conning tower. The guns had a muzzle velocity of firing a shell.  As was customary for capital ships of the period, both vessels were armed with a pair of torpedo tubes submerged below the waterline, one on each broadside. They were supplied with Bliss-Leavitt torpedoes of the Mark VII type; these carried a warhead and had a range of at a speed of. "Nevada" and "Oklahoma" were the first battleships to carry the Mark 7 torpedoes.

Armor.

The "Nevada" class was protected by side armor that was 13.5 in thick in the central portion where it protected the ship's vitals, the magazines and propulsion machinery spaces. It was wide, of which was below the waterline. At the bottom edge, the belt was reduced to to save weight, relying on the assumption that shells that fell short and passed through the water, they would be slowed significantly, thus reducing their ability to penetrate heavy armor. On either end of the belt, both sides were connected by a transverse bulkhead that was 8 to thick. The bow and stern were left unarmored. The ships had a armored deck that consisted of special treatment steel (STS) in three layers over the central armored raft; further aft, the deck was increased in thickness to, where it covered the propeller shafts. The armor deck was connected to the top of the belt. One deck below, another layer of armor thick was intended to contain splinters from shells and bombs that were detonated by the upper deck. The sides of the deck sloped down and were increased slightly to thick, and they were connected to the bottom edge of the belt. The lower deck consisted of nickel steel.  The ships' main battery turrets received very heavy armor protection; the triple turret faces were thick, with sides and 5 in roofs. The twin-gun turrets had slightly thinner protection, consisting of faces and sides. Both turret types had 9 in rears and they rested atop barbettes that were 13 in thick. The conning tower had 16 in sides and a 8 in roof, the latter consisting of STS. The uptakes from the boilers to the funnel were protected by a conical mantlet that was 13 in thick.

Modifications.

The ships underwent a series of changes over the course of their careers, particularly with regards to their secondary batteries, along with the addition of a tertiary anti-aircraft battery. The first such alteration, the addition of a pair of /50 cal. anti-aircraft guns, was made at the time the ships were completed. In 1918, "Nevada" had her seven aft-most 5-inch guns removed along with the two guns in open mounts; "Oklahoma" had the same reduction in her secondary battery, though she retained the centerline gun in the stern. These were used to arm merchant ships that would have a greater likelihood of encountering a German U-boat on the voyage to Europe. In 1919, both ships received flying-off platforms for aircraft on their superfiring turrets, but these proved to be problematic in service, as they prevented the guns from being fired without destroying the ramps and they severely limited the ability of the guns to be elevated and depressed.  In the late 1920s, both ships were substantially modernized. Both were re-boilered with six Bureau Express boilers that were significantly more efficient than the original twelve boilers. In addition, "Nevada" was re-engined using the turbines that had been installed in in 1917 and removed before the latter was scrapped under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty. Design speed remained the same, but designed horsepower fell slightly to for "Nevada". She nevertheless achieved on trials, for a top speed of. Fuel capacity was also substantially increased, to normally and for wartime conditions. This increased the ships' range to at 10 knots and at. The re-boilering saved a considerable amount of weight that was used to increase the deck armor and add torpedo bulges that increased their beam to. Both vessels' main armor deck was increased in thickness by, bringing the total to 5 inches, though because it consisted of layers, it was not as effective as a single plate of the same thickness.  Both vessels' armament was significantly improved. The main battery turrets were modified to allow elevation to thirty degrees, which increased their maximum range to. The remaining 5-inch casemates were plated over and the guns were moved a deck higher in an attempt to improve their ability to be used in heavy seas. The eight 3-inch anti-aircraft guns were replaced with an equal number of 5-inch /25 cal. guns, also in individual mounts. In addition, they received eight Browning machine guns. Both vessels had their torpedo tubes removed at this time. Their lattice masts were replaced with more robust tripod masts, and they had a pair of aircraft catapults installed, one of which was placed on the fantail, the other being mounted atop her rear superfiring turret. The alterations increased the ships' displacement to as designed and a maximum of at full load. The ships' crews increased to 1,374. At some point in 1941, "Nevada" was fitted with an SC air search radar.  In 1942, during repairs for the damage sustained in the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, "Nevada" was again heavily reconstructed. Her tripod mainmast was removed, along with her heavily-armored conning tower, the latter to save weight for further additions to the anti-aircraft battery and the latter to clear up firing arcs for the anti-aircraft weaponry. In place of the conning tower and mast, a large bridge structure was installed She had both her 51-cal. and 25-cal. guns removed. They were replaced with battery of sixteen 5-inch /38 cal. Mark 12 dual purpose guns in eight twin gun mounts. Four were mounted on either side of the vessel amidships. The guns fired a shell to a maximum range of or a maximum altitude of at an elevation of 45 degrees. Her light anti-aircraft battery was completely replaced as well; she now carried thirty-six Bofors guns in nine quadruple mounts and thirty-eight Oerlikon autocannon in individual mounts. By the end of the war, she had received an additional quadruple 40 mm mount, while her 20 mm guns were reorganized into five single and twenty twin mounts, for a total of forty-five barrels. Unlike many of the other battleships rebuilt after the attack, "Nevada" did not receive fire-control radar for her main battery, but she was fitted with Mark 37 directors for her new secondary battery.

Service history.

Early careers.

After entering service in 1916, both vessels were assigned to the Atlantic Fleet. They were occupied with training exercises off the East Coast of the United States into early 1918, by which time the United States had entered World War I on the side of the Allies. Both vessels were sent to Ireland in August 1918 to escort troopship convoys against German warships that might try to break out of the North Sea to intercept them, though no such attacks materialized. Both were present for President Wilson's arrival in France to participate in the Versailles Conference at the end of the conflict. After the war, both vessels returned to the Atlantic Fleet, though in 1919, "Nevada" was transferred to the Pacific Fleet; "Oklahoma" joined her there in 1921.  Throughout the 1920s, both ships participated in a yearly routine of training exercises with the rest of the fleet, including shooting practice, tactical training, and annual, large-scale Fleet Problems, the latter providing the basis for the US Navy's operations in the Pacific War, and experience that demonstrated that the standard-type battleships were too slow to operate with aircraft carriers led to the development of the fast battleships built in the 1930s. They were also involved in cruises around the Americas and further abroad, such as a goodwill visit to Australia and New Zealand in 1925. Between 1927 and 1930, both ships were heavily modernized. The standard peacetime routine continued through the 1930s. In 1936, "Oklahoma" embarked on a training cruise to Europe; she was there when the Spanish Civil War broke out that year, and she went to Spain to evacuate Americans in the country.  As tensions with Japan began to rise in the late 1930s over the latter's waging of the Second Sino-Japanese War, the United States began to prepare for the increasingly likely prospect of war. In 1940, the Pacific Fleet was transferred from its homeport, San Pedro, California, to Pearl Harbor in Hawaii in an effort to deter further aggression. Both ships were at anchor in Battleship Row along Ford Island in December 1941.

World War II.

On the morning of 7 December 1941, the Japanese aircraft carriers of the 1st Air Fleet launched a surprise attack on the American fleet in Pearl Harbor. "Oklahoma" was struck by three torpedoes early in the attack and quickly began to capsize before receiving six more torpedo hits. As she rolled over, her superstructure prevented her from fully inverting and she came to rest on her port side. Her crew suffered heavy casualties in the sinking, with 20 officers and 395 enlisted men killed. "Nevada" was hit by a single torpedo in her bow early in the attack, but she nevertheless got underway, the only battleship to do so during the attack. She was hit by between six to ten bombs as she moved through the harbor and fears that she might sink in the channel out of Pearl Harbor, thus blocking the port, led her commander to decide to beach the vessel. She suffered relatively minor casualties, with 50 killed and 109 wounded. "Nevada" was refloated in February 1942 and was immediately dry-docked for repairs and modernization, while "Oklahoma" was too seriously damaged to be returned to service; she was righted in 1943 and partially dismantled in 1944 before being sold for scrap in 1946. While being towed from Pearl Harbor to San Francisco on 17 May 1947, she slipped her towing line and sank.  After returning to service in 1943, "Nevada" was primarily used to support amphibious operations. She took part in the Aleutian Islands campaign in April and May, before returning to the United States for further modifications in preparation for her role as a bombardment vessel for the Normandy landings. She steamed to Britain in April 1944 to join the assault fleet, which conducted the landing on 6 June; "Nevada" remained off the beaches for the next eleven days to bombard German positions as the Allied soldiers fought inland, withdrawing only once to replenish ammunition. She and several other vessels from the bombardment force were sent to shell other ports in occupied France, including Cherbourg before being reassigned to the force tasked with supporting Operation Dragoon, the landing in southern France conducted on 15 August. During the landings, she shelled the damaged French fast battleship, which was at that time under German control, scoring hits that inflicted further damage on the vessel.  "Nevada" then returned to the United States to have her badly-worn barrels relined before returning to the Pacific Fleet. She arrived in the advance base at Ulithi in January 1945 and began preparations for the next major operation, the landing at Iwo Jima the following month. She joined several other battleships for an intensive bombardment of the island for three days before the Marines went ashore on 19 February. The ship operated off the island providing fire support through 7 March, when she departed to prepare for the invasion of Okinawa. The initial bombardment began on 24 March and continued until the landing on 1 April, and "Nevada" remained off the island until 14 April when she was withdrawn for an overhaul. The ship returned for patrols in the East China Sea in July, though she saw no further action before the end of the war on 15 August.  Worn out after nearly thirty years of service by late 1945, she was slated for disposal in nuclear weapons tests in November 1945. She was allocated to the fleet of target ships to be used for Operation Crossroads in January 1946 and she arrived in Bikini Atoll in May. The target fleet included several other battleships, including the captured Japanese vessel. "Nevada" was used as the aiming point for the first test, an air-dropped bomb on 1 July, because the Navy deemed her to be the most resilient of the battleships. The bomb missed the target and inflicted minimal damage. Another test, an underwater blast, was conducted on 24 July, which also failed to sink the ship. She was taken to Pearl Harbor to be examined and was ultimately sunk off Hawaii in conventional weapon tests in 1948.

The "Nevada" class comprised two dreadnought battleships— and —built for the United States Navy in the 1910s. They were significant developments in battleship design, being the first in the world to adopt "all or nothing" armor, a major step forward in armor protection because it emphasized protection optimized for long-range engagements before the Battle of Jutland demonstrated the need for such a layout. They also introduced three-gun turrets and oil-fired water-tube boilers to the US fleet. The two "Nevada"s were the progenitors of the standard-type battleship, a group that included the next four classes of broadly similar battleships that were intended to be tactically homogeneous.

Die "Nevada"-Klasse war eine Klasse von Schlachtschiffen der United States Navy, die aus der USS "Nevada" und der USS "Oklahoma" bestand. Sie kam gegen Ende des Ersten Weltkrieges und im Zweiten Weltkrieg zum Einsatz.