Biography.

Christopher Rice comes from a family of authors. His parents are renowned horror novelist Anne Rice and the late poet Stan Rice; his aunt, Alice Borchardt, was a noted writer. Rice had an older sister named Michele, whom he never met as she died at the age of five years old, six years before he was born.  Rice has lived in New Orleans, Louisiana and is a 1996 graduate of the prestigious Isidore Newman School. Rice went on to attend Brown University and the Tisch School of the Arts. He did not graduate from either school; instead, he moved to Los Angeles to explore writing screenplays.  As of 2005, Rice lived in Los Angeles, California.

His sexuality and its role in his work.

Rice is gay, and his works consist of descriptions of contemporary American life for the gay male. When asked in 2002 about "being pegged a 'gay writer,'" he replied: Nonetheless, Rice is proud of the reaction of the gay community to his writing, explaining "it was incredibly rewarding when I got a huge positive response from the character Stephen in "The Density of Souls." More than a thousand young gay men contacted me and said that I captured what it was like for them going through those years. That means everything to me."

Work.

In December 1998, Anne Rice suffered a medical crisis and nearly died when she fell into a diabetic coma. Her son Christopher wrote his first novel, "A Density of Souls", upon returning home to New Orleans during her recuperation. Published the following year, "Souls" generated buzz in the gay and mainstream press, and became a "New York Times" Best Seller.  Early in his career, Rice distinguished himself by saying that unlike his famous mother, he did not write horror novels, instead considering his books to be thrillers. However, as years went by, Rice became more comfortable experimenting in different genres, exploring his own version of the supernatural with works such as "The Heavens Rise" and "The Vines". Both of these novels met with critical acclaim, and each were nominated for the Bram Stoker Award for Superior Achievement in a Novel but lost to "Dr. Sleep" by Stephen King and "Blood Kin" by Steve Rasnic Tem, in their respective years.  In 2012, Rice launched a streaming Internet radio show called "The Dinner Party Show". Eric Shaw Quinn, his partner and co-host, was known for having ghost written two books by celebrity Pamela Anderson and a 1992 novel about gay adoption called "Say Uncle". The show describes itself as "the Internet's first live comedy variety show" and became known for its hard-hitting satire. After a year on the air, the show dropped its run time to one hour and focused on celebrity interviews and scripted specials. Guests have included Patricia Cornwell, Dan Savage, transgender activist Chaz Bono and "Tales of the City" author Armistead Maupin.  In 2014, Rice announced through his social media channels that he was scheduled to publish several works of erotic romance. The first of them, "The Flame", was published in November 2014 as part of the 1,001 Dark Nights series.  Rice also writes a regular feature for the LGBT-related biweekly news magazine "The Advocate" called "Coastal Disturbances," in which he discusses various topics.  On November 26, 2016, Anne Rice announced that the film and television rights to her entire Vampire Chronicles franchise had reverted to her after unsuccessful attempts to launch them as a film franchise with Universal Pictures and Imagine Entertainment. Her announcement included the detail that she and Christopher would be executive producers on a planned TV series based on the franchise. On February 28, 2017, the Rices announced their first novel written in collaboration, "", slated for publication on November 21, 2017.

Christopher Travis Rice (born March 11, 1978) is an American author. Rice has written novels including "A Density of Souls", "The Snow Garden", "Light Before Day", "Blind Fall", "The Moonlit Earth", "The Heavens Rise", and "The Vines". His work spans multiple genres, including suspense, crime, supernatural thriller, and erotic romance. With his mother Anne Rice he also co-authored the historical horror novel "".

Christopher Travis Rice (* 11. März 1978 in Berkeley, Kalifornien) ist ein US-amerikanischer Schriftsteller und Aktivist für die Rechte der Homosexuellen in den Vereinigten Staaten.


History.

Saint Simeon was born in 386 AD in the Amanus mountains village. He entered a monastery at the age of 16, but he was soon judged to be unsuited for cenobitic life due to his extravagant asceticism. Following the example of Saint Anthony, he attempted to live the life of a hermit ascetic in the wilderness, but his feats of physical endurance and self denial attracted pilgrims seeking religious instruction and other devout admirers. In an effort to escape from such distractions, he resolved to live on a small platform atop a 3-meter column. The height of the column was raised over time to 18 meters. From his perch, Simeon preached twice a day to the crowds who gathered to witness this spectacle or self-mortifcation. A ladder attached to he column allowed messengers to bring food and written messages to Simeon, who also sent letters to his followers this way. Such was his renown and reputation for sanctity that the eastern emperors Theodosius, Leo, and Theodosius III sought his advice a implored his intervention in state affairs. Simeon lived on the column for years, dying in AD 459 at the approximate age of 70. After a fierce contest for the possession of his remains between Antioch and Constantinople was settled in favor of Antioch, the solemn translation of his remains to Antioch was accompanied by a procession of the patriarch of Constantinople, 6 bishops, the Master-General of the East, 21 counts and tribunes and 6,000 soldiers. His tomb became a major pilgrimage destination.  A few decades following Saint Simeon's death, a large monastic church (occupying over 5,000 square meters) was constructed in on the site where his pillar stood. The church was made up of four basilicas that emanated from the sides of a central octagon. The octagonal crossing was surmounted by a dome; at its center stood Simeon’s column. The church was the centerpiece of a walled monastic complex that included two minor churches, and pilgrim hostels.  Long abandoned and ruined, the site is part of the series of ruins referred as the Dead Cities of Syria. Until just recently, remains of the pillar of Saint Simeon still stood, despite having been whittled down to a block only a few meters tall from years of pilgrims cutting down small parts for themselves as relics; substantial surviving parts of the column shaft were last visible in the 17th century. The dome above it apparently survived until the 19th century.

Architecture.

As opposed to many cathedrals that were constructed in medieval Europe, the idea of the church of Saint Simeon was born and realized as one project over a short span of time. It was designed in a cruciform made up of four distinct basilica complexes. The grounds for construction of the church were born by the imperial authorities who later promoted the course. Primarily, the high number of pilgrims who frequently flocked to the column of Saint Simeon to pray necessitated the construction of the church in 473 AD.  The ambitious plan of the church of Saint Simeon complex portrays numerous architectural designs. The fundamental concept of the three-aisled basilica can be traced to the lasting traditions of the Romans. It is reported that the main basilica and the baptistery were the first to be constructed. Subsequently, the monastery and the fixtures to the baptistery followed. Ultimately, the other parts of the complex including the colossal arch on the Via Sacra concluded the construction process. Apparently, the best relics that are evident from the church of Saint Simeon are the massive arch that is located at the beginning of the start of the Via Sacra on the way to the cathedral on the mountain. Besides, two monasteries are visible from the church; a bazaar which is a few little housings, and a tomb chapel. The following are the numerous grouped buildings that were arranged at the complex.

The four-basilica church.

The shaped like cross church was finely preserved, and it offers an excellent view in the spring with all the freshly blossomed flowers. When viewed from inside, the pillar of Saint Simeon is still apparent, only that it has been reduced to approximately 2 meters high boulder in the middle of the courtyard. The reduction in the length of the pillar can be attributed to many years of relic-gathering by pilgrims. The courtyard is octagonal and is bordered by four basilicas in the shape of a rood-tree and described as a four-basilica church. Apparently, the idea of a crucifix was to represent the crucifixion of Jesus on the cross. Evidently, the east basilica is considerably bigger compared to other basilicas. The more significant size can be attributed to the critical role it played in hosting all the key ceremonies, making it most important.

The U-shaped monastery.

Bordering the south partition of the eastern basilica laid a chapel and a monastery. Originally, Deir Semaan (Simeon Monastery) bore the name of Telanissos and was established to make the most of the two productive plains that surrounded it. In the mid of the 5th century AD, the locals established a monastery on the plains and in 412 AD, Saint Simeon opted to be part of it. Later on, he left the locals to live there as he went to live in the mountain above the plains where the monastery was situated.

Baptistery.

The baptistery was located on the opposite side of the southern basilica, down the sacred road known as Via Sacra. The baptistery was constructed shortly after the construction of the main church, and it served as a crucial part of the pilgrimage complex. The design of the baptistery was impeccable and was often regarded to be amongst the remarkable artifacts of the Christian architecture in the entire Syria. The baptistery was constructed in two phases; the baptistery itself and then some related little basilicas later. The baptistery took the form of an octagonal drum that lay on the top of the square base of the building. At some point, it was filled with a wooden roof, with shape either like a cone or dome. The inner octagon was covered in a rectangular outer building. Evidently, at the far end of the chamber to the east lays a semi-circular apsidole that encompasses a tunnel with steps heading down to its location.

Extensions to the Baptistery.

The processional route guides towards the Deir Semaan (Simeon Monastery) emanates from the western side of the baptistery. Besides, at the opening of this road is the monumental arch, which comes from the monastery to the direction of the baptistery. The location of the church on the hill provides views of the surrounding countryside.

UNESCO.

As of June 2011, the Church and surrounding village were designated by United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as part of the "Ancient Villages of Northern Syria", a World Heritage site. There is much value attached to the building because of its representation of great sacrifice for a holy course as manifested by Saint Simeon.

Wars.

Saint Simeon Church has continuously faced destruction by wars.

Arab-Byzantine War.

The church was negatively affected by the Arab conquest during the agitation for the control of Syria between the Byzantines and the Arabs. Notwithstanding this, the Byzantines fortified the church even after such destruction. The complex was attacked and conquered by the Emir of Aleppo Sa'd al-Dawla, and it was considered a fortress. This compromised the symbolism of the complex as a holy site. This did not stop worshippers from continuing to visit the complex for the purpose of worship of God.

Syrian Civil War.

The war in Syria has caused much damage to the historical sites because of the fighting between the opposing sides in the conflict. Additionally, the building has been destroyed by illegal digging and stone removal. The ruined building forms part of the ancient buildings on the Northern side of Syria, which have been ruined. The structure has been under threat from both the Syrian and Turkish governments through their conflict on the link contested by the two governments through the Bab Al-Hawa border crossing. On 28 May 2015, the church was captured by the Kurdish YPG/YPJ but was subsequently lost to factions opposing the Assad government. In May 2016 the Russian Air Force attacked the church, destroying the remains of the pillar of St Simeon and damaging the rest of the ruins. By 8 February 2020, the hilltop near the site was occupied by the Turkish Land Forces.

The Church of Saint Simeon Stylites () is a building that can be traced back to the 5th century, located approximately northwestern part of Aleppo, Syria. It is one of the oldest surviving church complexes. It was constructed on the site of the pillar of Saint Simeon Stylites, a renowned recluse monk. The church is popularly known as either Qalaat Semaan (, the 'Fortress of Simeon') or Deir Semaan (, the 'Monastery of Simeon').

Qalʿat Simʿan () war ein frühbyzantinisches Kloster und eine bedeutende Pilgerstätte im Gebiet der Toten Städte im Norden des heutigen Syrien. Es entstand an dem Ort, an dem Symeon Stylites, der erste christliche Säulenheilige, wirkte und 459 starb.


Concept.

"In Sorte Diaboli" is the band's first concept album, with a story located in medieval Europe. It is about a priest who begins to doubt his faith, and then ends up taking the place of the Antichrist. "There's this dude that works as a priest's assistant, and after a while he just discovers that he has nothing to do with Christianity", Silenoz says. "He just sort of has this awakening and realizes that he has different abilities and different powers and is leaning more to the dark side." The words "In Sorte Diaboli" are a repeated line in the song "The Chosen Legacy" and the words also appears towards the end of the song, "The Sinister Awakening". The conclusion of the story in the booklet implies that the story of "In Sorte Diaboli" is not yet finished. This remains to be seen, as their next album, "Abrahadabra", is heavily influenced by Aleister Crowley's Thelema text "The Book of the Law". IGN named the album the Top Metal Album of 2007.

Critical reception.

"In Sorte Diaboli" received generally positive critical reception. Allmusic gave the album 3 stars and praised the music, saying "[T]here's really great stuff here in the music, the production, in the sound effects". However they criticised the concept and lyrics of the album, writing "Too bad it all melts down when it comes to the concept, which is ho hum at best". About.com was more positive and gave the album 4 stars and wrote that "[T]he songs are orchestral and melodic, but still plenty of punch and darkness". Both Blabbermouth and Metal Hammer gave the album 9/10, and "Kerrang!" gave it 4/5.  The album cover was rated by LA Weekly 9 out of 25 from their article "The 25 Creepiest Heavy Metal Album Covers".

Chart and sales performance.

In their native Norway, the album peaked at number 1, which marks the first time in history of a black metal band reaching the number 1 spot. The album sold approximately 14,000 copies in its first week. The album also sold well in Sweden, Finland, Austria and Switzerland.

Track listing.

All songs written by Shagrath, Silenoz and Galder. Lyrics by Silenoz

In Sorte Diaboli (Latin for "In league with the devil") is the eighth studio album by Norwegian symphonic black metal band Dimmu Borgir, released in 2007. It is the band's first concept album. A site on the Nuclear Blast website was created for "In Sorte Diaboli", in which a new promotional photo can be seen and an audio sample can be heard. This would be the last album by Dimmu Borgir to feature ICS Vortex, Hellhammer and Mustis.

In Sorte Diaboli (lat. für ‚Im Auftrag des Teufels‘) ist das siebte Album der norwegischen Metal-Band Dimmu Borgir. Das Album wurde in Europa am 27. April 2007 via Nuclear Blast veröffentlicht. In den Vereinigten Staaten erschien das Album bereits am 24. April.


Early life.

Guido de Bres was born in Mons, today in southwestern Belgium. His father was formerly known as Jean Du Beguinage (alternatively: Jan le Béguinage) was an itinerant "blauschilder" [lit. blue painter] which is indicative of the tin-glazed process, a precursor to Delftware, introduced into the Netherlands by Guido de Savino in 1512 at Antwerp. Jean changed his name to that of De Bres when he settled in Mons and with his wife bore five children: Jehan, Jherome, Christoffel, Guido and daughter Mailette. Rehalenbeck suggests one other son, Michel.  De Bres was brought up by his mother, a devout Roman Catholic until the end of her days. The names of Guido's mother are unknown other than that of De Bres. Guido was a Roman Catholic and was very strong in that faith by all accounts. Not much is known of Guido's early life other than he followed his brother Jehan into school at the appropriate age and after a basic education followed his father in learning the craft of "blauschilder".  The De Bres family were known for their skills in glass painting, and young Guido was trained in this art before moving to England. In his teenage years, he became a follower of the Protestant religion as taught by Martin Luther. Later he converted to Calvinism. He met and studied under John Calvin at the academy of Geneva where Calvin taught.

Career.

Guido was converted between the age of 18 and 25. It is almost certain he became familiar with the Reformed faith through printed works. On 22 September 1540 a proclamation banned a large number of books: by Erasmus in Latin, Melanchthon, Eobanus Hessus and others, as well as the New Testament, the Gospels, the Epistles, and the Prophetical books of the Bible in French and Flemish. These books were deemed heretical by the Roman Catholic Church authorities. In 1543 books were burned in the marketplace of Lille: "La Doctrines des Enfants" (a Lutheran catechism), also "Lamentations of Jesus Christ", "La Sant Otraison" and a book by a Flemish priest entitled: "Letters Institution 2".  In 1548, while Guido was still in Mons, he forged a friendship with an English couple: Mr. Nicholas and his wife. Mr Nicholas, his friend and two wives were caught by the authorities and charged with subversion of the Roman Catholic faith. They were imprisoned together with a number of Protestants from that area. Guy then fled to England, during the reign of Edward VI. On 4 November 1547 the English parliament had decided to allow the two elements used in the communion to be enjoyed by all people. Guido probably kept company with a number of refugees from continental Europe: Tremellius, Valérand Poullain, Martin Bucer, John a Lasco, Jan Utenhove, Marten de Klyne (Marten Micron or Micronius), Wouter Deelen, François Perucel de la Rivière and others. Whilst in England Guido attended the church of John a Lasco, and in 1551 he also became familiar with a Lasco's London Confession. The largest group of refugees came from the Low Countries. John a Lasco served as superintendent to a number of foreign congregations including the Dutch. A Lasco was a Polish nobleman with Zwinglian tendencies.(1551). Guido left England in 1552 before Mary, Queen of England came to the throne.  De Bres went to Germany and later moved back to Geneva. Around 1559 he returned to the Low Countries, but now as a travelling Calvinist preacher. From 1559 to 1561 he served as the resident minister in Tournai. In 1561 De Bres authored the Belgic Confession. This confession was meant for the Spanish Government to show them that the Calvinists weren't a radical Anabaptist sectarian movement, but demanded a Reformation in the biblical sense of the Roman Catholic Church. The text is strongly influenced by Calvin's "Institutes of the Christian Religion" and the creed of the French Huguenots. The creed was printed by Jean Crespin in Geneva. On the night of November 1, 1561, De Bres threw his creed over the castle wall of Tournai, where Margaret of Parma, governor of the Netherlands stayed, to bring the confession to the attention of the Spanish government.

Death.

In 1567, after the Siege of Valenciennes De Bres was arrested for his Calvinist beliefs and his rebellion during the siege. He was tried before the Spanish Inquisition, received the death penalty and was hanged at Valenciennes. He died in front of a large crowd after making a final statement of his beliefs. He was pushed off the scaffold by the hangman whilst addressing the crowd. Twelve days before his death he wrote a letter to his wife, which speaks of his trust in God.

Legacy.

De Bres wrote a number of books. The Belgic Confession is part of the Three Forms of Unity, a set of official statements of doctrine used by churches with roots in the continental Reformed tradition. Its text is still in wide use in particular among confessionally Reformed churches.

Guido de Bres (also known as Guido de Bray, Guy de Bray and Guido de Brès, 1522 – 31 May 1567) was a Walloon pastor, Protestant reformer and theologian, a student of John Calvin and Theodore Beza in Geneva. He was born in Mons, County of Hainaut, Southern Netherlands, and was executed at Valenciennes, aged 45. De Bres compiled and published the Walloon Confession of Faith known as the Belgic Confession (1561) ("Confessio Belgica") still in use today in Belgium and the Netherlands. It is also used by many Reformed Churches all over the world.

Guido von Bray, auch als "Guy de Brès" (* 1522 in Mons; † 31. Mai 1567 in Valenciennes) war ein protestantischer Reformator in den Niederlanden während der Renaissancezeit.


Causes.

Being small for gestational age is broadly either:

Diagnosis.

The condition is determined by birth weight and/or length.  A related condition, IUGR, is generally diagnosed by measuring the mother's uterus, with the fundal height being less than it should be for that stage of the pregnancy. If it is suspected, the mother will usually be sent for an ultrasound to confirm.

Management.

90 percent of babies born SGA catch up in growth by the age of 2. However, all SGA babies should be watched for signs of Failure-to-Thrive (FTT), hypoglycemia and other conditions common to SGA babies (see below). Hypoglycemia is common in asymmetrical SGA babies because their larger brains burn calories at a faster rate than their usually limited fat stores hold. Hypoglycemia is treated by frequent feedings and/or additions of cornstarch-based products (such as Duocal powder) to the feedings.  For the 10 percent of those that are SGA without catchup growth by the age of 2, an endocrinologist should be consulted. Some cases warrant growth hormone therapy (GHT).  There are some common conditions and disorders found in many that are SGA (and especially those that are SGA without catchup growth by age 2). They should be treated by the appropriate specialist: For IUGR (during pregnancy), possible treatments include the early induction of labor, though this is only done if the condition has been diagnosed and seen as a risk to the health of the fetus.

Terminology.

By definition, at least 10% of all newborns will be labeled SGA. Not all newborns that are SGA are pathologically growth restricted and, in fact, may be constitutionally small. However, the designation has prognostic importance because it predicts susceptibility to hypoglycemia, hypothermia, and polycythemia.  If small for gestational age babies have been the subject of intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), formerly known as intrauterine growth retardation, the term SGA associated with IUGR is used. Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) refers to a condition in which a fetus is unable to achieve its genetically determined potential size. This functional definition seeks to identify a population of fetuses at risk for modifiable but otherwise poor outcomes. This definition intentionally excludes fetuses that are small for gestational age (SGA) but are not pathologically small. Infants born SGA with severe short stature (or severe SGA) are defined as having a length less than 2.5 standard deviation scores below the mean.  A related term is low birth weight (LBW), defined as an infant with a birth weight (that is, mass at the time of birth) of less than 2500 g (5 lb 8 oz), regardless of gestational age at the time of birth. Related definitions include very low birth weight (VLBW) which is less than 1500 g, and extremely low birth weight (ELBW) which is less than 1000 g. Normal Weight at term delivery is 2500 g - 4200 g.  SGA is not a synonym of LBW, VLBW or ELBW. Example: 35-week gestational age delivery, 2250g weight is appropriate for gestational age but is still LBW. One third of low-birth-weight neonates - infants weighing less than 2500g - are small for gestational age.  There is an 8.1% incidence of low birth weight in developed countries, and 6–30% in developing countries. Much of this can be attributed to the health of the mother during pregnancy. One third of babies born with a low birth weight are also small for gestational age. Infants that are born at low birth weights are at risk of developing neonatal infection.  Both low and high maternal serum Vitamin D (25-OH) are associated with higher incidence SGA in white women, although the correlation does not seem to hold for African American women.

Small for gestational age (SGA) newborns are those who are smaller in size than normal for the gestational age, most commonly defined as a weight below the 10th percentile for the gestational age.

Small for Gestational Age (englisch für ‚klein bezogen auf das Reifealter‘), abgekürzt SGA, ist eine international gebräuchliche medizinische Bezeichnung. In Ermangelung einer griffigen deutschen Entsprechung setzt sie sich auch im deutschen Sprachraum immer mehr durch. Sie beschreibt untergewichtige oder zu kleine Neugeborene, bei denen das Geburtsgewicht oder die Körperlänge bezogen auf das Reifealter im unteren Bereich der statistischen Normalverteilung liegt.


Structure and function.

Each LT-α/LT-β subunit is a trimer and assembles into homotrimers or heterotrimers. LT-α binds with LT-β to form membrane-bound heterotrimers LT-α1-β2 and LT-α2-β1, which are commonly referred to as lymphotoxin beta. LT-α1-β2 is the most prevalent form of lymphotoxin beta. LT-α also forms a homotrimer, LT-α3, which is secreted by activated lymphocytes as a soluble protein.  Lymphotoxin is produced by lymphocytes upon activation and is involved with various aspects of the immune response, including inflammation and activation signaling. Upon binding to the LTβ receptor, LT-αβ transmits signals leading to proliferation, homeostasis and activation of tissue cells in secondary lymphoid organs through induced expression of chemokines, MHC (major histocompatibility complex), and adhesion molecules. LT-αβ, which is produced by activated TH1, CD8+ T cells, and natural killer (NK) cells, is known to have a major role in the normal development of Peyer's patches. Studies have found that mice with a knockout (inactivated) LT-α gene (LTA) lack developed Peyer’s patches and lymph nodes. In addition, LT-αβ is necessary for the proper formation of the gastrointestinal immune system.

Receptor binding and signaling activation.

In general, lymphotoxin ligands are expressed by immune cells, while their receptors are found on stromal and epithelial cells.  The lymphotoxin homotrimer and heterotrimers are specific to different receptors. The LT-αβ complexes are the primary ligands for the lymphotoxin-beta receptor (LTβR), which is expressed on tissue cells in multiple lymphoid organs, as well as on monocytes and dendritic cells. The soluble LT-α homotrimer binds to TNF receptors 1 and 2 (TNFR-1 and TNFR-2), and the HVEM (herpesvirus entry mediator), expressed on T cells, dendritic cells, macrophages, and epithelial cells. There is also evidence that LTα3 signaling through TNFRI and TNFRII contributes to the regulation of IgA antibody in the gut.  Lymphotoxin administers a variety of activation signals in the innate immune response. LT-α is necessary for the expression of LT-α1-β2 on the cell surface as LT-α aids in the movement of LT-β to the cell surface to form LT-α1-β2. In the LT-α mediated signaling pathway, LT-α binds with LT-β to form the membrane-bound LT-α1-β2 complex. Binding of LT-α1-β2 to the LT-β receptor on the target cell can activate various signaling pathways in the effector cell such as the activation of the NF-κB pathway, a major signaling pathway that results in the release of additional pro-inflammatory cytokines essential for the innate response. The binding of lymphotoxin to LT-β receptors is essential for the recruitment of B cells and cytotoxic (CD8+) T cells to specific lymphoid sites to allow the clearing of antigen. Signaling of the LT-β receptors can also induce the differentiation of NK (natural killer) and NK-T cells, which are key players in the innate immune defense and in antiviral responses.

Carcinogenic interactions.

Lymphotoxin has cytotoxic properties that can aid in the destruction of tumor cells and promote the death of cancerous cells. The activation of LT-β receptors causes an up-regulation of adhesion molecules and directs B and T cells to specific sites to destroy tumor cells. Studies using mice with an LT-α knockout found increased tumor growth in the absence of LT-αβ.  However, some studies using cancer models have found that a high expression of lymphotoxin can lead to increased growth of tumors and cancerous cell lines. The signaling of the LT-β receptor may induce the inflammatory properties of specific cancerous cell lines, and that the elimination of LT-β receptors may hinder tumor growth and lower inflammation. Mutations in the regulatory factors involved in lymphotoxin signaling may increase the risk of cancer development. One major instance is the continuous initiation of the NF-κB pathway due to an excessive binding of the LT-α1-β2 complex to LT-β receptors, which can lead to specific cancerous conditions including multiple myeloma and melanoma. As excessive inflammation can result in cell damage and a higher risk of the growth of cancer cells, mutations that affect the regulation of LT-α pro-inflammatory signaling pathways can increase the potential for cancer and tumor cell development.

Lymphotoxin is a member of the Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF) family of cytokines, whose members are responsible for the regulating the growth and function of lymphocytes, and are expressed by a wide variety of cells in the body.

Lymphotoxin-α (kurz LTA, alternativ auch Tumornekrosefaktor-β, kurz TNFB, oder ganz wissenschaftlich "Tumor necrosis factor ligand superfamily member 1", kurz "TNFSF1") ist ein Zytokin aus der TNF/TNFR-Superfamilie. Es hat viele Gemeinsamkeiten mit TNF – teilt z. B. dessen Rezeptoren – wird aber von aktivierten Lymphozyten sezerniert. Es ist wie TNF ein Modulator der Immunantwort. Mutationen im "LTA"-Gen sind mit altersabhängiger Lepra und mit Psoriasis-Arthritis assoziiert.


Structure.

The dranyen is a long-necked, double-waisted and fretless lute. It is usually hollowed out of a single piece of wood and can vary in size from 60 cm to 120 cm in length. Unlike a contemporary guitar, the dranyen does not have a round sound hole in the wooden sounding board, but rather rosette-shaped ones like a lute.  For 6 string dranyen all six strings continue to the pegbox. They run in 3 double courses. This is a common Tibetan style. 7 string dranyen are a common Bhutanese style. Of this styles's seven strings, or "thag", only six continue to the pegbox. Thus, six tuning pegs are located in the pegbox, while one (typically corresponding to the string which is third from the left) is located in the neck itself. Strings were originally made from animal gut, but are presently made from synthetic material like nylon (similar to the progression in usage of guts in racquet sports). The seven strings occur in two double courses, and one triple course. These become three double courses by the time they reach the pegbox.  Traditional dranyens are equipped with a single bridge. Resonance is achieved with a taught, thick animal skin. Certain older forms of the dranyen possessed sympathetic strings and under-strings to produce more resonance.  Some dranyens come with a plectrum attached to the base for plucking. Plectrums were traditionally made of bone, but are now made of plastic or wood.  It is often ornately and colourfully painted or carved with religious symbols and motifs, and its pegbox is often impressively carved into a "C" shape resembling a "chusing", a type of sea monster. Tassels may be hung from the horns of the "chusing" to give the instrument a more frightening look.

Play.

The triple (usually middle) course of the dramyin typically contains the half string on the left, which is usually tuned an octave above the middle unison strings. One of the other two courses are typically tuned an octave apart. The courses are normally plucked in unison during playing. Typically a single note is played at a time, making for melodic music and not harmony. Dranyens may also be played to keep time, in a rhythmic fashion.  One standard tuning for the Dranyen is: g G c' c c f f.  The standard way of plucking a course is down and up. One of the two strings in the course is plucked in a downward motion, and the other in the upward motion. The downward motion is typically louder than the other.

Cultural significance.

Dramyins are often used as accompaniment while narrating stories for providing ambience and keeping time, as shown in the Bhutanese film Travellers and Magicians  Dramyins are notably used in the performance of Dramyin Cham - a cham dance of subjugation performed by Drukpa monks during the singing of Dramyin Choeshay - a religious song. These are performed at religious festivals called tsechus - banned in Tibet, but continuing unabated in Bhutan much as they have been for the past four centuries. The Dramyin music in the cham is notable as it is one of the very few instances of stringed instruments in monastic music in Bhutan, or for that matter in Tibetan Buddhism in general. A Dramyin player leads the dance and keeps time for the dancers by plucking the instrument. In many chams, the place of the dramyin is taken by a percussion instrument, usually the cymbals.  The Dranyen is generally regarded as a secular instrument, and the performance of a "Dranyen Cham" or "Dranyen Choeshay" are one of the few instances when Dranyen is allowed to be played inside a monastery or a Dzong. However, dranyens are often depicted on thongdrels (Tibetan: thankas) and given as offerings to deities. The guardian king of the Eastern direction - Sharchop Gyalpo (identified with Dhritarashtra of Hindu mythology) is associated with a dranyen in religious iconography.  The Dranyen's melodious sound is supposed to attract demons, and the role of the carved "chusing" on the pegbox acts to ward off demons. The Dranyen is associated with a guardian deity in the "Dranyen Cham".

Popular culture and modern variants.

Rigsar is a popular music arising in Bhutan. "Rigsar" music often makes extensive use of the dranyen, although the traditional dranyen is typically modified into the "rigsar dranyen" by Bhutanese musician Sonam Dorji, for use in such popular music. The rigsar dranyen has 15 strings, two bridges and an extra set of tuning keys.

The dramyin or dranyen (; ; ) is a traditional Himalayan folk music lute with six strings, used primarily as an accompaniment to singing in the Drukpa Buddhist culture and society in Bhutan, as well as in Tibet, Sikkim and Himalayan West Bengal. It is often used in religious festivals of Tibetan Buddhism (cf. tshechu). The instrument is played by strumming, fingerpicking or (most commonly) plucking. The dramyen, chiwang (fiddle), and lingm (flute) comprise the basic instrumental inventory for traditional Bhutanese folk music.

Dran-nye (auch "dranyen, dramyin", tibetisch "sgra snyan", dzongkha "dramnyen", im Nepal "damyan", was auf Deutsch etwa „süße Töne“ bedeutet) ist eine traditionelle Halslaute aus dem Himalaya-Raum und insbesondere in Bhutan und in der tibetischen Musik im Gebrauch. Sie besitzt drei bis sieben Saiten und ähnelt im Aufbau der in der tadschikischen Musik in Badachschan gespielten "Pamiri rubab".


Definition.

Mastitis occurs when white blood cells (leukocytes) are released into the mammary gland, usually in response to bacteria invading the teat canal or occasionally by chemical, mechanical, or thermal trauma on the udder. Milk-secreting tissue and various ducts throughout the mammary gland are damaged due to toxins released by the bacteria resulting in reduced milk yield and quality.

Identification.

This disease can be identified by abnormalities in the udder such as swelling, heat, redness, hardness, or pain (if it is clinical). Other indications of mastitis may be abnormalities in milk such as a watery appearance, flakes, or clots. When infected with sub-clinical mastitis, a cow does not show any visible signs of infection or abnormalities in milk or on the udder.

Mastitis-causing bacteria.

Bacteria that are known to cause mastitis include:  These bacteria can be classified as environmental or contagious depending on mode and source of transmission.

Types of mastitis.

Mastitis may be classified according two different criteria: either according to the clinical symptoms or depending on the mode of transmission.

Transmission.

Mastitis is most often transmitted by repetitive contact with the milking machine, and through contaminated hands or materials.  Another route is via the oral-to-udder transmission among calves. Feeding calves on milk may introduce some mastitis causing bacteria strain in the oral cavity of the calf where it will stay dormant until it is transmitted elsewhere. Since grouped calves like to stimulate suckling, they will transmit the bacteria to the udder tissue of their fellow calves. The bacteria will lay dormant in the udder tissue as the calf grows until it begins to lactate. That is when the bacteria activates and causes mastitis. This calls for strict calf management practices to curb this route of transmission.

Effects on milk composition.

Mastitis can cause a decline in potassium and an increase in lactoferrin. It also results in decreased casein, the major protein in milk. As most calcium in milk is associated with casein, the disruption of casein synthesis contributes to lowered calcium in milk. The milk protein continues to undergo further deterioration during processing and storage. Milk from cows with mastitis also has a higher somatic cell count. Generally speaking, the higher the somatic cell count, the lower the milk quality.

Management.

Detection.

Cattle affected by mastitis can be detected by examining the udder for inflammation and swelling, or by observing the consistency of the milk, which will often develop clots or change color when a cow is infected.  Another method of detection is the California mastitis test, which is designed to measure the milk's somatic cell count as a means for detecting inflammation and infection of the udder.

Treatment.

Treatment is possible with long-acting antibiotics, but milk from such cows is not marketable until drug residues have left the cow's system. Antibiotics may be systemic (injected into the body), or they may be forced upwards into the teat through the teat canal (intramammary infusion). Cows being treated may be marked with tape to alert dairy workers, and their milk is syphoned off and discarded. To determine whether the levels of antibiotic residuals are within regulatory requirements, special tests exist. Vaccinations for mastitis are available, but as they only reduce the severity of the condition, and cannot prevent reoccurring infections, they should be used in conjunction with a mastitis prevention program.

Control.

Practices such as good nutrition, proper milking hygiene, and the culling of chronically infected cows can help. Ensuring that cows have clean, dry bedding decreases the risk of infection and transmission. Dairy workers should wear rubber gloves while milking, and machines should be cleaned regularly to decrease the incidence of transmission.

Prevention.

A good milking routine is vital. This usually consists of applying a pre-milking teat dip or spray, such as an iodine spray, and wiping teats dry prior to milking. The milking machine is then applied. After milking, the teats can be cleaned again to remove any growth medium for bacteria. A post milking product such as iodine-propylene glycol dip is used as a disinfectant and a barrier between the open teat and the bacteria in the air. Mastitis can occur after milking because the teat holes close after 15 minutes if the animal sits in a dirty place with feces and urine.

Industry costs.

This disease costs the US dairy industry about 1.7 to 2 billion USD each year.

Bovine mastitis is the persistent, inflammatory reaction of the udder tissue due to physical trauma or microorganisms infections. Mastitis, a potentially fatal mammary gland infection, is the most common disease in dairy cattle in the United States and worldwide. It is also the most costly disease to the dairy industry. Milk from cows suffering from mastitis has an increased somatic cell count. Prevention and Control of mastitis requires consistency in sanitizing the cow barn facilities, proper milking procedure and segregation of infected animals. Treatment of the disease is carried out by penicillin injection in combination with sulphar drug.

Als Mastitis wird in der Medizin eine Entzündung der Milchdrüse bezeichnet. Sie wird meist durch Bakterien verursacht und hat bei den Haustieren, die zur Milchproduktion verwendet werden (Rinder, Schafe, Ziegen), eine besondere Bedeutung für die menschliche Gesundheit. Darüber hinaus hat sie eine große wirtschaftliche Bedeutung durch Milchverluste, Behandlungskosten sowie als Ursache für das Aussondern von Tieren aus einem Milchviehbetrieb (Abgangsursache). Allein bei Milchkühen wird in Deutschland der jährliche wirtschaftliche Schaden durch Euterentzündungen auf 255 Millionen Euro geschätzt. Die Mastitis ist beim Hausschwein Bestandteil des MMA-Komplexes. Bei anderen Haustieren, z. B. Hunden und Katzen, tritt eine Mastitis seltener auf.


Education.

He studied from 1948 to 1951 economics and business administration at the University of Mainz where he obtained his "Diplom-Volkswirt" (former German master's equivalent) in 1951. Afterwards, he obtained his PhD in Economy/Econometrics at the same university in 1953—in his dissertation König concentrated on the Circular flow of income and Input–output model (Original Title: "Wirtschaftskreislaufmodelle und die Methode der Input-Output-Analyse"). König worked as research assistant at the Institute for Economics and Social Sciences of the University of Münster where he completed his habilitation in 1958. Between 1958/1959 he was Rockefeller Fellow at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Harvard University and Stanford University.

Academics.

He worked from 1962 until his retirement in 1996 as chaired professor at the University of Mannheim. Over the years of his academic work he received several other proposal from universities in Bochum (1964), Münster (1966), Zürich (1966 and 1971), Bonn (1970), Munich (1971) and Vienna (1974) which he turned down. From 1991 to 1998, König served as director of the "Institute für Mittelstandsforschung" (Institute for Small- and Medium Sized Companies) at the UMA, where he conducted research on the German Mittelstand. Moreover, König was visiting professor at the University of Basel (1963), the Northwestern University (1979–1982) and the University of Pennsylvania (1983). He became emeritus at the University of Mannheim in 1996. König co-founded the ZEW in 1991 and served as its first director until 1997.

Heinz König Young Scholar Award.

The Heinz König Young Scholar Award is named after ZEW's late founding director Heinz König. It awards excellent empirical papers by young researchers. Every year, the Heinz König Young Scholar Award is given to the author of the best paper presented at the end of the annual ZEW Summer Workshop. The price is endowed with €5,000.

Heinz König (25 December 1927 – 21 November 2002) was a German researcher, economist and former professor for Economy and Econometrics at the University of Mannheim from 1962 to 1996. Moreover, he served as President ("Rektor") of the University of Mannheim between 1979 and 1982. In addition, König was founding director of the Zentrum für Europäische Wirtschaftsforschung (ZEW).

Heinz König (* 25. Dezember 1927 in Montabaur; † 21. November 2002) war ein deutscher Ökonom. Er war Rektor der Universität Mannheim. Er gilt als einer der bekanntesten Ökonometriker Deutschlands; er war der Gründungsdirektor des Zentrums für Europäische Wirtschaftsforschung (ZEW) in Mannheim.


Etymology.

The river was originally named Rotta, from rot,'muddy' and a 'water', thus'muddy water'.

Geography.

It rises in Moerkapelle in the so-called Green Heart. It used to drain the Zuidplas lake until it was reclaimed in 1840.  It flows past Bleiswijk and Bergschenhoek; and then the village of Hillegersberg, which was built on a sand dune and was one of the few places in the marsh land that could be permanently settled before the dikes were constructed. In the churchyard there are the ruins of a 13th century castle whose origins probably date back to the Roman Empire. Originally it flowed into the Nieuwe Maas in Rotterdam; however, the lower reach of the river was dammed off and the water now flows to the Nieuwe Maas via several man-made canals. On the outskirts of Rotterdam, the Rotte merges with the Crooswijksesingel. Here, there is an old factory building of the Heineken brewery, which was brought here in the city due to the efforts of.

Inner Rotte.

The Inner Rotte, that is, the part of the river in the Rotterdam city area, had to give way in 1869-1871 to the construction of the "Luchtspoor", an elevated section of the railway line. The river water was diverted via the Stokvisverlaat, the Delftse Vaart and Vlasmarktsluis to the. When the Luftwaffe bombed the city in 1940, this connection was also damaged. During the Second World War, city planner created a new connection to Leuvehaven. After the war, the Rotte was no longer used for freight transport.  The construction of the East-West line of the Rotterdam Metro interrupted the direct connection between the Rotte and Nieuwe Maas. Since then, the river water flows through an underground channel to the Oostplein.  In 1993 the elevated section of the railroad was demolished; trains now use the "Willemspoor" tunnel. Plans were made to dredge the old river bed and fill it with water. These plans were never implemented. The Inner Rotte is now a wide avenue, where events such as markets can be held. The former dam was situated where today the Inner Rotte crosses the Hoogstraat ('High Street').

The Rotte is a river in the Rhine-Maas-delta in the Netherlands. The Rotte is the eponym of the city of Rotterdam: the city was founded in the 13th century when a dam was built along the river.

Die Rotte ist ein Fluss im Rhein-Maas-Delta, der bei Moerkapelle in den Niederlanden entspringt, an Bleiswijk und Bergschenhoek durch das sogenannte Groene Hart vorbeifließt und in Rotterdam in die Nieuwe Maas mündet. Die Rotte ist der Namensgeber der Stadt Rotterdam, die im 14. Jahrhundert gegründet wurde, als ein Damm am Fluss errichtet wurde.


Biography.

Byrne was born on 8 September 1929 in the Gorton district of Manchester, the only child of William Henry Byrne (1894–1972) and Jessie Byrne (1899–1986). Byrne undertook two years of National Service in the Royal Air Force, where he was not considered good enough to play football and played rugby instead. While playing for Ryder Brow, Byrne came to the attention of United scout Joe Armstrong and was offered amateur terms at the club, turning professional soon after, becoming the first of what would come to be known as the Busby Babes.  Byrne was captain of Manchester United from the 1955–56 season onwards. He captained the side through the legendary Busby Babes era, playing as a left-sided full-back of the traditional style. He had previously been fielded at wing half and outside left and it was a testament to his versatility that, despite being naturally right sided, he should have been a success in a variety of positions.  Byrne was never considered the most gifted of footballers. His tackling could be suspect and his aerial ability was described as no better than average, but his incredible work ethic and footballing intelligence allowed him to position himself and react to danger swiftly. Innovatively, he was also adept at making forward runs and joining attacks at a time when full-backs were expected only to stand back and defend. Perhaps his best asset was his ability to inspire players with his charismatic leadership. Even more than 60 years after his death, he is still regarded as one of Manchester United's greatest captains. He earned league-winner's medals in 1952, 1956 and 1957, and was an FA Cup runner-up to Aston Villa in 1957. He also helped United reach the semi-finals of the European Cup in 1957, when they were the English Football League's first entrants into the competition.  Byrne was also a regular member of Walter Winterbottom's England team during the 1950s and was considered a possible captain of the national team after the retirement of the incumbent captain, Billy Wright, whose career continued until 1959. His total of 33 England caps were all won in consecutive fixtures. He appeared in every England international from his debut against Scotland in April 1954 to his last match against France in November 1957. This remains a record. Byrne didn't score for England, and took two penalties during his England career, but both were missed against Brazil and Yugoslavia respectively in 1956.  He died in the Munich air disaster at the age of 28, Byrne was the oldest of the eight players who perished at Munich. On arriving home he would have received the news that his wife Joy was expecting their first child. They had only married the previous year. He was also survived by both of his parents at that time. Byrne's funeral service was held at Flixton parish church and his body was cremated.  He was in the side which ousted Red Star Belgrade in the quarter-finals of the European Cup.  Eight months after Byrne's death (7 October 1958), Roger Jr. was born. During the late 1960s and early 1970s he was a ball boy at Old Trafford. Roger Jr. died of cancer in December 2011 at age 53. He was living in Swindon, Wiltshire, and had been working in a senior role for the local council. He was survived by his mother, Joy, who by this stage was well into her seventies.  Some years after his death, a street on a new housing development near Manchester city centre was named after him – Roger Byrne Close. Other roads and paths on the estate include Tommy Taylor Close, Eddie Colman Close, Mark Jones Walk, Billy Whelan Walk and David Pegg Walk, as well as a housing complex called Duncan Edwards Court, all of which are named after other players who died at Munich.  A biography, "Roger Byrne, Captain of the Busby Babes", written by Iain McCartney, was published on 2 December 2000. The 2011 television drama "United" centred on the successes of the Busby Babes and the decimation of the team in the Munich air disaster, wrongly named Mark Jones as the captain of the team, while Byrne was not mentioned as a member of the team.

The Triumph TR4 is a sports car produced by the Triumph Motor Company from 1961 to 1965. As the successor to the TR3A, the car was based on the chassis and drivetrain of the previous TR sports cars, but with a modern body designed by Michelotti.

Der Triumph TR 4 war ein von 1961 bis 1965 produzierter Roadster des britischen Autoherstellers Triumph, der technisch zunächst weitgehend dem vorhergehenden Modell TR 3A entsprach. Wesentliche Verbesserungen gegenüber dem Vorgänger wurden mit dem TR 4A 1965 eingeführt. Bis zum Produktionsende am 2. August 1967 und der Ablösung durch den TR 5 entstanden in der TR4-Serie insgesamt 68.717 Fahrzeuge, davon 40.253 TR 4 und 28.465 TR 4A.


Name.

The Jouhikko is also called jouhikannel or jouhikantele, meaning a bowed kantele. In English, the usual modern designation is bowed lyre, although the earlier preferred term bowed harp is also met with. There are different names for the instrument in different languages.

History.

Perhaps the earliest definite depiction of this kind of instrument is the stone carving from Trondheim Cathedral, Norway, dating from the second quarter of the 14th century.  18th-century writers in Latin mention instruments that seem to be a jouhikko, but the first illustration comes from c. 1830 CE. Folk music collectors in the late 19th and early 20th century visited players in Finland and Karelia, and collected instruments, noted tunes, made field recordings and took photographs.

Repertory.

The jouhikko repertory was mostly collected in the field by A. O. Väisänen from 1913 to 1931. The jouhikko was used for playing dance music, and the collected tunes are very short, and were largely improvised. The scale of the jouhikko is only 6 notes, with a constantly sounding drone.

Tuning.

In a three-string jouhikko, the middle string, or in a two-string instrument, the lower or left hand string, is the drone string. Absolute pitch is not fixed, but in Nieminen's charts this is given the note d. The upper or right hand string, passing over the finger-hole, is fingered to give a scale, and this scale typically runs upwards from the note a 4th above the drone, or in Nieminen's charts, g a b c d e. The third or left hand string can be tuned down to a lower drone, or up to provide one of the melody notes.

Playing technique.

The strings are stopped by touching them with the back of the fingers (the knuckles or nails), as there is no fingerboard to press the strings against. This fingering method is rather similar to the igil or the sarangi which also lack fingerboards. To touch the melody string the hand is inserted through a hole in the flat wooden board that makes up the top third of the instrument.  On a 3-string instrument tuned g-d-a, the first note of the scale is played on the g string, which cannot be fingered as it lies on the far side of the drone and out of reach of the hand hole. The second note is the a string played open. The third, fourth, fifth and sixth notes of the scale are played with the backs of the four fingers, stopping the a string. Whilst it is possible to play higher notes by moving the hand further up the string all the traditional melodies are within a compass of six notes, the first six notes of either a major or minor scale.

Modern revival.

Modern instruments are made with horsehair, nylon, gut or even metal viola strings. Following Estonian talharpa technique, the hand hole is often made larger so that the hand can be inserted between the first and second strings, stopping the first with the insides of the fingers and the second with the outside  The most prominent recent use of the jouhikko is the Finnish folk band Jouhiorkesteri, whose member Rauno Nieminen is considered to be the modern master of the instrument. Other bands using jouhikko include Finnish folk metal band Korpiklaani, and Estonian folk metal bands Raud-Ants and Metsatöll.  Kvitrafn (Einar Selvik) of the Norwegian traditional/folk band Wardruna uses his own made Jouhikko on their 2009 album Runaljod – Gap Var Ginnunga.  The Jouhikko sound has been recently popularized in performances by the traditional siberian/norse folk music of 'Nyttland' and also in the dark age trance music from celtic duo 'Primordia'.

Related instruments.

The jouhikko is a member of a family of bowed lyre type instruments that stretches from Russia in the east, through Scandinavia, to Britain and Ireland. Most of these regions have only very sketchy evidence about their extinct bowed lyre traditions. The four-stringed Estonian talharpa and hiiu kannel have a wider hand hole and can play a wider range and shifting drones. The Welsh crwth is the most developed of this family to survive, with six strings, a fingerboard, and a complex playing style. Extinct or obscure variants include the Shetland gue and the English "crowd". Other instruments are perhaps less closely related, including the bowed zithers such as the Finnish harppu, Icelandic fiðla, and the North American Inuit tautirut.

The jouhikko is a traditional, two- or three-stringed bowed lyre, from Finland and Karelia, Russia. Its strings are traditionally of horsehair. The playing of this instrument died out in the early 20th century but has been revived and there are now a number of musicians playing it.

Jouhikko, auch "jouhikannel" oder "jouhi kantele", ist die seltene Form einer zwei- oder dreisaitigen, mit einem Bogen gestrichenen Leier, die in der Volksmusik in Finnland gespielt wird. Der Namensbestandteil "kantele" bezieht sich auf die andersgeartete, finnische griffbrettlose Zither "kantele" und "jouhi" (finnisch „Rosshaar“) bezeichnet allgemein Streichinstrumente.


History.

In his 1922 book titled "To-te: Ryūkyū Kenpō / 唐手 琉球拳法" Gichin Funakoshi called this series of forms "Naihanchi/ナイハンチ" and attributes the form to what he calls the "Shōrei-Ryu/昭霊流." Similarly, Motobu Chōki spells the name of this form "Naihanchi/ナイハンチ" in his 1926 "Okinawa Kenpō To-te Jutsu/沖縄拳法唐手術". By 1936, in his "Karate-do Kyohan/空手道教範" Funakoshi had started referring to this form as “Kibadachi (騎馬立/キバ ダチ)” or “Cavalry Horse Stance,” while still referencing the original “Naihanchi / ナイハンチ” name. In the 1973 "Karate-do Kyohan The Master Text", a translation of the 1956 second edition of the Kyohan book, there is no longer any mention of Naihanchi and the book claims the form, which it calls "Tekki" is named in reference to "the distinctive feature of these kata, their horse-riding (kiba-dachi) stance." Other than the "Shorei-Ryu" reference, none of these books attribute the form to any particular source or practitioner.  Itosu is reported to have learned the kata from Sokon Matsumura, who learned it from a Chinese man living in Tomari. Itosu is thought to have changed the original kata. The form is so important to old style karate that Kentsu Yabu (a student of Itosu) often told his students 'Karate begins and ends with Naihanchi' and admonished his students must practice the kata 10,000 times to make it their own. Before Itosu created the Pinan (Heian) kata, Naihanchi would traditionally be taught first in Tomari-te and Shuri-te schools, which indicates its importance. Gichin Funakoshi learned the kata from Anko Asato. Funakoshi renamed the kata Tekki (Iron Horse) in reference to his old teacher, Itosu, and the form's power. The oldest known reference to Naihanchi are in the books of Motobu Choki. He states the kata was imported from China, but is no longer practiced there. Motobu learned the kata from Sokon Matsumura, Sakuma Pechin, Anko Itosu and Kosaku Matsumora. Motobu taught his own interpretation of Naihanchi, which included te (Okinawan form of martial arts which predates karate) like grappling and throwing techniques.  In the earlier days of karate training, it was common practice for a student to spend two to three years doing nothing but Naihanchi/Tekki, under the strict observation of their teacher. Motobu Choki, famous for his youthful brawling at tsuji (red-light district), credited the kata with containing all that one needs to know to become a proficient fighter.  The Tekki series of kata were renamed by Funakoshi from the Naihanchi kata, which were derived from an older, original kata, Nifanchin. Nifanchin was brought to Okinawa via Fuzhou, China, at some point in the long history of trade between the two kingdoms. It was broken into three distinct segments, possibly by Anko Itosu, Tokumine Pechin, or Motobu Choki. The kata are performed entirely in Kiba dachi ("Horse stance"). The name Tekki itself (and Nifanchin) translates to "Iron Horse." Tekki Shodan (鉄騎初段), literally meaning ""Iron Horse Riding, First Level"", is the first of the series, followed by Tekki nidan and Tekki sandan.  In the 1960s a kung fu practitioner, Daichi Kaneko, studied a form of Taiwanese white crane kung-fu, known as Dan Qiu Ban Bai He Quan (Half Hillock, Half White Crane Boxing). Kaneko, an acupuncturist who lived in Yonabaru, Okinawa, taught a form called Neixi (inside knee) in Mandarin. This form includes the same sweeping action found in the nami-gaeshi (returning wave) technique of Naihanchi. Neixi is pronounced Nohanchi in Fuzhou dialect, which could indicate Neixi is the forerunner to Naihanchi. Neixi is also the shortened form of the mandarin 内 Nei (internal/inside) 方 Fang (place/location) 膝(厀) Xi (knee). This is closer to the original Nifanchin pronunciation. Taking this one step further, in Classical Chinese, Nei could have had a double meaning. One straightforward reference to the inside knee and one indirect reference to soft styles of traditional Chinese martial arts such as Taichi. See neigong.

Embusen.

The embusen is a straight line, running horizontally to the left and right of the dojo.

Whilst the kata is linear, moving side to side, the techniques can be applied against attackers at any angle. The side to side movements in a low stance build up the necessary balance and strength for fast footwork and body shifting. The kata are intricate strategies of attacking and defensive movement, done in the kiba dachi, for the purpose of conditioning the legs to develop explosive power. If one rotates one's torso a few degrees to one side or the other while performing Naihanchi/Tekki, the result is the Hachi-monji, or figure eight stance. Some researchers believe the form is a non-ballistic two-man grappling exercise.

Naihanchi (jap. ) ist eine klassische Kata des Karate. Im Shotokan wird diese Kata Tekki (jap., dt. "eiserner Reiter") genannt.


Life.

Ivy Lilian Close was born 15 June 1890 in Stockton-on-Tees, County Durham, the daughter of Emma Blackburn and John Robert Close. She had a younger brother, Raymond, and a sister, Dorothy.  Her first husband was photographer and filmmaker Elwin Neame (1885–1923), who she married in 1910. Together they established Ivy Close Films in 1914, one of the first movie production companies founded by a film star. This marriage produced two sons: the director, cinematographer, producer and screenwriter Ronald Neame, and author and screenwriter Derek Neame (1915–1979). Her grandson, by Ronald, was producer and screenwriter Christopher Neame and her great grandson, by Christopher, is producer Gareth Neame. In 1938 she married Australian stuntman and make-up artist Curly Batson; this marriage lasted until his death in 1957.  In 1908, Ivy Close was named the World's Most Beautiful Woman by the British tabloid Daily Mirror, beating over 1,500 contestants, so becoming generally recognized as Britain's first beauty queen. Her victory won her not only a new Rover motorcar but also the exhibition of a portrait, by Sir Arthur Hacker, at the Royal Academy in London; the portrait was subsequently used on 4 May 1908 to fill the front page of the newspaper which had organised the contest. The painting was subsequently discovered to be in the collection of the Ferens Art Gallery in Hull but not on display because it required restoration; the necessary work was paid for by her great-grandson Gareth Neame. Neame has argued, "And there was then a competition between the winner in Britain and the winner in the US, and she ended up winning that one. So I often say she was effectively the first ever Miss World."  Besides acting, her other pursuits were motorcycling and golf. She also worked as a model in advertising campaigns and sang in English music halls. Close's film career ended with the advent of talkies, as her English accent was deemed unsuitable for American audiences. Her great-grandson incorporated a passing reference to her career in an episode of "Downton Abbey".  Close died 4 December 1968 in Goring, Oxfordshire.

Ivy Lilian Close (15 June 1890 – 4 December 1968) was a British actress. She acted in 44 films between 1912 and 1929.

Ivy Lilian Close (* 15. Juni 1890 in Stockton-on-Tees, England; † 4. Dezember 1968 in Goring-on-Thames, England) war eine britische Schönheitskönigin und Filmschauspielerin.


History of the Scandinavian Bishops Conference.

The first known episcopal encounter took place in May 1923 in Gothenburg. The Vicars Apostolic of Sweden (Mgr. Johannes E. Müller: 1877-1965), Denmark (Mgr. Josef Brems: 1870-1958), and Norway (Mgr. Jan O. Smit: 1883-1972) discussed themes of common interest such as the best way of dealing with the congregations of women religious, how to foster the spiritual life of their priests, but above all how to prepare for the announced Scandinavian tour of the Cardinal Prefect of the Roman Congregation Propaganda Fide, Willem Marinus van Rossum, the first such dignitary to enter Scandinavia since the Reformation.  The next encounter took place in two stages: first in Stockholm on August 12, 1923, when Bishop Müller played host to Bishops Brems and Smit en route to Helsinki. During a festive reunion Bishop Müller launched a warm appeal for increased Nordic Catholic collaboration and announced that an important Scandinavian Catholic congress probably would soon be arranged in Copenhagen. Nine years, however, were to pass before this became a reality.  The second stage was celebrated in Helsinki on August 15, 1923, when Bishop M. J. Buckx, S.C.I. (1881-1946) received the episcopal consecration at the hands of Cardinal van Rossum. The only recorded subject for discussion during the following day's meeting was the Cardinal Prefect's earnest call for the founding of a minor seminary in Scandinavia, a matter which the bishops decided to take very seriously in spite of the obvious difficulties involved.  The third meeting took place in Copenhagen in February 1924 where, in addition to the above-mentioned prelates, the Local Ordinary of the newly erected Prefecture Apostolic of Iceland, Rev. Marteinn Meulenberg, S.M., completed the Nordic representation. The discussions, referred to as being "private and of an informative character," seem to have been a continuation of the agenda from the previous encounters.  A further meeting was held in Stockholm in 1927 without, unfortunately, leaving anything for the record.  In August 1932 the announced Internordic Catholic rally finally took place in Copenhagen in the form of a Eucharistic Congress. All five countries were represented. Bishop Smit, who had resigned in 1927, was replaced by Bishop-elect Mgr. Jacques Mangers, S.M. (1889-1972), Vicar of South Norway, that country having in 1931 been divided into three jurisdictions. Among the many foreign dignitaries present for the occasion we find, once more, Cardinal van Rossum (who died only some weeks later) and Cardinal August Hlond of Gniezno and Poznań. It stands to reason that the busy programme of a Eucharistic Congress did not allow time for a formal Conference meeting.  More is known of the next encounter in Stockholm in April 1936, when Bishop Müller chaired a two-day meeting including bishops Brems, Mangers, and William Cobben, S.C.I., Finland's new Vicar Apostolic (1897-1985). Iceland was unrepresented.  The matters discussed were to re-emerge during later Conference Plenaries: the fostering of vocations both to the priesthood and the religious life, as well as the spiritual and material well-being of candidates; the image of the Roman Catholic Church in the mass media of the day; basic principles for pastoral care; the production of fitting literature for Catholics, etc. In the compte-rendu consequently sent to the Propaganda Fide Congregation in Rome, three salient points were made:  Very soon after, the same ordinaries assembled again, this time in Copenhagen (July 1936) at the direct behest of the Propaganda Fide Congregation, in order to continue their deliberations. Alas, nothing came of the ambitious plan to establish a minor seminary. The project, however, has continued to haunt the Nordic bishops' meetings over the years.  A further conference was not convened until after the Second World War, when Bishop Müller in June 1946 chaired a meeting in Stockholm. Participants were the aforementioned bishops, except for Denmark where Bishop Theodor Suhr, O.S.B. (b. 1896) had replaced Bishop Brems. In addition, the Apostolic Prefects of Middle Norway, Antonius Deutsch, SS.CC. (1896-1980) and North Norway, Johannes Wember, M.S.F. (1900-1980) were also present. Only Iceland was missing. Several points of interest were brought up: especially marriage questions seemed to have been a matter in need of clarification.  A final meeting took place in Oslo in September 1951, where marriage questions were again on the agenda. Various items were discussed, amongst others the growing conviction that the time had now come for the Apostolic Vicariates to become fully fledged dioceses. It was decided that a request to this effect be forwarded to Rome. As we now know, this was soon to be granted.  The prehistory of this informal conference activity came to a close when in 1959 Pope John XXIII decided to send a permanent Apostolic Visitor to the five Nordic Countries (Archbishop M.H. Lucas), an arrangement which was soon to end in the formal establishment of the Apostolic Delegation to Scandinavia on March 1, 1960, with Mgr. Lucas in charge.  The establishment of the Scandinavian Episcopal Conference followed only two months after that of the Apostolic Delegation. Convoked by the Apostolic Delegate, the entire hierarchy of the five countries met in Bergen (South Norway) on May 1, 1960, with the prime purpose of founding a proper bishops' conference. Some participants were still the same as in 1951 (Bishops Cobben, Mangers, Suhr, and Wember). Newcomers were Bishops Ansgar Nelson, O.S.B., of Stockholm (b. 1906), Johannes Gunnarson, S.M.M., of Iceland (1897-1972), and Johannes Rüth, SS.CC., of Central Norway (1899 - 1978).  After some days of preliminary clarifications, the "Conventus Ordinariorum Scandiae" was formally established on May 4. After a secret vote, Bishops Suhr and Nelson were elected chairman and vice-chairman respectively.  The meeting, which lasted a full week, bore most of the marks of proper Episcopal Conferences developed as a result of the Second Vatican Council. Agreement was reached on several issues, such as common days of fasting and abstinence, clerical clothing, Internordic jurisdiction for hearing confessions, a common Catholic Directory, the canonical form for marriage, altar boys' societies, a yearly vocations Sunday, and other items of mutual interest and uncertainty.  The erection of episcopal conferences was as yet by no means obligatory. This, then, was a freely agreed-upon instrument of mutual help and cooperation. And as such it was in advance of most European Conferences, which were only established in connection with the Second Vatican Council (1962-1965). Rome, though praising the Scandinavian initiative by sending a high-level congratulatory telegram, did not formally recognise this or any of the existing conferences. Nor did the Holy See as yet use them as consultative bodies, but all this was to come. The necessities arising from Vatican II brought about the change.  The Second Vatican Council assembled approximately 2500 major prelates from all five continents. It soon became clear that a dividing up of this large body was necessary. But how to go about carrying out this division? The answer was by resorting to the already partly existing structures, i.e., the Bishops' Conferences. These would normally coincide with national boundaries, as had long been the case with the German Episcopal Conferences which had existed for over 100 years. A hurried establishment of such entities, willed by the Holy See to be ad hoc, was effected for the sole purpose of facilitating the working out of common stands on the Council documents. Any bishop who presented a paper in the Council aula in the name of such a conference was granted priority.  The Council itself decided that episcopal conferences were practical and useful bodies which should carry on in an institutionalised way. It was also clear that the Holy See, which traditionally had had to deal with individual dioceses, liked the idea of sharing some of the burden of labour and responsibility with these much larger units. After long discussions and several attempts at formulating practical guidelines, the Council could finally lay down a framework for such conferences in its Decree "Christus Dominus" (about the Pastoral Responsibility of Bishops), promulgated on October 28, 1965. This framework was followed by a more detailed set of rulings in the Papal motu proprio "Ecclesiae Sanctae" of August 6, 1966. Although there was now a set of guidelines common to all bishops' conferences, each is obliged to work out its own statutes, which, however, need the subsequent approval of the Holy See.  The Nordic Episcopal Conference had its statutes already worked out and approved by its members in 1962. When the Vatican Council institutionalised and imposed conferences generally, new statutes had to be elaborated – a task which, starting with the first revision over four conference sessions in 1965, has continued at regular intervals. This is because Rome prefers to approve such rulings for a maximum period of five years, "ad experimentum" as the formula goes. When the new body of Canon Law became effective on the first Sunday of Advent 1983, most of these statutes had to undergo at least revisory touches. And so the newly updated statutes of the Nordic Episcopal Conference, approved by the bishops in its Plenary Session in Stella Maris near Helsinki on September 27, 1984, were duly transmitted to Rome and received unqualified approbation on January 19, 1985.

The Scandinavian Bishops Conference is an episcopal conference of Roman Catholic bishops covering the Nordic countries of Sweden, Norway, Finland, Denmark and Iceland. At present, it has 12 members who represent all five Catholic dioceses and all two territorial prelatures in the Nordic countries. It is unusual for bishops' conferences to be organised across several countries, but this reflects the fact that there are fewer than half a million Catholics in these countries. The Conference states as its tasks:

Die Nordische Bischofskonferenz () ist die Bischofskonferenz der römisch-katholischen Bischöfe der fünf nordischen Länder Dänemark, Finnland, Island, Norwegen und Schweden. In den sieben Diözesen leben rund 250.000 Gläubige, ein Großteil davon sind katholische Ausländer.


Toponymy.

The name is thought to be derived from the local dialect for the phrases for searching for wolves ("wołków isk") or the howling of wolves ("wołków wisk"). Old Belarusian tradition refers to the area surrounding Vawkavysk as once being occupied by vast forestry filled with wolves. The river flowing through the town was named Wołkowyja. This also explains the appearance of a wolf's head or body on the town's coat of arms.  However, modern scholars have also hypothesized that the name of Vawkavysk was of more recent origin and hence succeeded the original legend. Vawkavysk was mentioned in a manuscript written by the priest D. Bułakowski at the end of the 16th or beginning of the 17th century. It was stored in the Sapieha family's library in Ruzhany Palace, where it was translated into Russian in 1881 and published in a Vilnius gazette. According to the manuscript, in the place where Vawkavysk is now situated, were large swathes of forest, through which flowed the now non-existent Nietupa River, and consisted of winding travel routes on which travelers were frequently attacked. Within this forest, two robbers, named Voloko and Visek, had their hide-out. A prince named Vladislav Zabeyko, upon hearing of these attacks, tracked down the robbers and hung them on trees for the birds to feed upon. A settlement was built in the location of the robbers' hide-out, which was named Volokovysek, and occupied by slaves. At the execution site, a large stone was placed but, according to local tradition, was later broken up to be used to build a temple.

Geography.

Vawkavysk is located in the valley basin of the Wołkowyja river near its confluence with the Ros River, which flows, in turn, directly north about to the Neman River. The historical core of Vawkavysk lies on the left bank of the river. The town has been expanding to the west and south. The town has an urban area of, while together with its metropolitan area it covers. Forests occupy an area of, swamps, and water facilities. Its raion is bordered by those of Masty to the north, Zel’va to the east, Pruzhany of Brest oblast to the south, Svislach to the southwest, and Byerastavitsa to the west.  On the left bank of the Wołkowyja, the town is surrounded on three sides by hilly terrain, while the highest point of Vawkavysk proper is Swedish Mountain, located on the southeastern outskirts of town, with its height from the base to the top of its defensive wall varying from. The mountain's base is round with a diameter of about. A flat top of "the Swedish mountain" nearly round and is wide east to west. The perimeter of the flat top is surrounded by a powerful defensive wall broken in the south by the entrance. The mountains of Zamchishche (Castle Mountain) and Muravelnik (Mouse Mountain) lie to the west and east of Swedish Mountain, respectively.

Climate.

Vawkavysk lies in the or hemiboreal (Dfb) climate zone, with four seasons and uniformly spread precipitation. Monthly averages range from -5.0 °C (23 °F) in January to 17.9 °C (64.2 °F) in July. There are, on average, 95 days a year when there is snow cover. Vawkavysk receives about of precipitation a year. The average period of vegetation is 194 days, and lasts from April to October. The highest officially recorded temperature in Vawkavysk was 36 °C (96.8 °F) in 1959, while on the other end, the lowest temperature was -38 °C (-36.4 °F) in 1950.

History.

Prehistory.

Originally three fortified settlements were started here prior to the 10th century. Swedish Mountain, along with Muravelnike and Zamchishcha, are considered territory that chronicles the town known as Vawkavysk. Swedish Mountain is a remnant of one of these fortifications. Gradually, as the settlement grew, the boundaries of the town extended to the neighboring hill of Zamchishcha. Industrical and commercial sites were located at the foot of Swedish Mountain along its northern, eastern, and southern sides. Muravelnike was also inhabited, but was not as populated as Swedish Mountain and Zamchishcha. Due to flooding of the Wołkowyja River, there are no other known archaeological sites.

Middle Ages.

Vawkavysk is one of the oldest towns of Eastern Europe and has played a role in the political development of medieval Slavic civilization. It is believed that Vawkavysk was founded in the 10th century. The origin of the town is obscured by legends, one of which tells about a prince Vladislav Zabeyko who, in 738, found robbers named Voloka and Visek and killed them. In the place of their shelter, 10 huts were built, which expanded into a settlement. According to it, the name Vawkavysk is derived from the names of the two robbers. Another legend states that the town was founded by the King of Lithuania, Mindaugas.  There is little historical evidence pertaining to the period when the town was founded. Archaeological excavations conducted at the site of the ancient town attest that a Slavic settlement had already existed in the area by the late 10th century based on the dwellings and defensive works which were discovered during the excavation. Vawkavysk was first unofficially mentioned in the Turov Annals in 1005 and this year has been widely accepted as the town's founding year. Vawkavysk turned into a town and became a center of crafts and trades in the early 12th century. In 1224 and 1241, the Mongol invasion of Rus led by Batu Khan destroyed Vawkavysk and its fortress.  Vawkavysk lies in a region formerly referred to as Black Ruthenia that was subjugated to various invading forces of Baltic and Slavic tribes. At various times, the town was influenced by the Principality of Polotsk and Galicia-Volhynia. On the nights of 15 and 16 February 1038, the town was destroyed by a Baltic tribe of Yatvingians. Up until 1084, this territory belonged under Slavic Kievan Rus and later became a dependent vassal state. After Mindaugas conquered the area in 1239, it was incorporated into what would later become the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and was administered from Navahrudak from the 1240s to the 1250s.  Vawkavysk's location on the border between Lithuania and neighboring Galicia-Volhynia resulted in frequent fighting over these territories. The Ipatiev Chronicle mentions Vawkavysk in connection with an invasion of the Galicia-Volhynian prince Daniel Romanovich Galitsky and his brother Vasilko in 1252. Power exchanged hands periodically during the years of 1254-1258 between the princes of these two kingdoms. The chronicle continues with describing that a peace treaty was signed in 1254 where the Grand Duke of Lithuania, Vaišvilkas, transferred Vawkavysk, along with several other towns, to Daniel's son, Roman Danylovich Galitsky. Sometime after this event, in 1255, a prince named Gleb, who acknowledged himself as a vassal of the Grand Duke of Lithuania, became ruler of Vawkavysk. Prince Gleb participated in a Galicia-Volhynian campaign against the Yatvingians in 1256.  It was not until 1258, after several years of war, that Vawkavysk and Slonim settled as vassal states of Lithuania with Vaišvilkas again reigning from Navahrudak as a vassal of Mindaugas. In 1260, Vaišvilkas and another Lithuanian prince, Toth, captured and killed Roman, which resulted in Daniel marching to the upper reaches of the Neman River to recapture Vawkavysk and take Gleb as prisoner. The chronicle fails to explain what ended this particular campaign. Meanwhile, in 1263, Mindaugas of Lithuania was murdered. In the chaos that followed Mindaugas' assassination, the lands of the Grand Duchy were in disarray, with both local and foreign rulers struggling for power. Additionally, in 1264, Daniel died and his son Svarn Danylovich Galitsky received nominal overlordship over all of the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia as its duke, including Vawkavysk. Ownership of the town in 1269 belonged to prince Vladimir.  Following Svarn's loss of the throne in 1269, his brother Lev I of Galicia entered into conflict with Lithuania. In 1274–1276 he fought a war with the new Lithuanian ruler Traidenis but was defeated, and Lithuania annexed the territory of Black Ruthenia with its city of Navahrudak.  During a campaign against the Lithuanians in 1277, the Rus army and their princes, Mstislav Danylovich, another son of Daniel; Vladimir Vasilkovich; and Yuri Lvovich, stopped for the night in Vawkavysk. The last time Vawkavysk is mentioned in the Ipatiev Chronicle is when Lithuanian Grand Duke Butigeidis transferred Vawkavysk to prince Mstislav Danylovich in exchange for peace in 1289.

Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

Vawkavysk came under the rule of Grand Duke Vytenis and became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from 1293.  It was from a now non-existent castle in Vawkavysk that, in 1385, Jogaila sent his envoys to Kraków to ask for the hand of the Queen of Poland, Jadwiga. He declared that he along with the Lithuanian people was to adopt the Catholic faith, and received the Polish envoys after a long-awaited decision on 11 January 1386. In 1386 Jogaila was baptized as Władysław II Jagiełło in Kraków and became King of Poland. Jagiełło, while in Vawkavysk in 1387, ordered the destruction of pagan deities.  In 1409 the town was attacked and plundered by the Teutonic Knights under the command of Hochmeister Ulrich von Jungingen and its residents taken captive. On 16 March 1410, the town was seized again and burnt under the command of Ordensmarschall Frederic von Wallenrode and its residents were murdered. On 15 July 1410, the Vawkavysk banner participated in the Battle of Grunwald against the Teutonic Order. In 1430 the church of St. Nicholas was built. Vawkavysk was included in the composition of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1441 after being under its authority since 1258.  In 1503 Vawkavysk was granted Magdeburg city rights by Polish king Alexander I Jagiellon. These rights were confirmed by different kings up to 1773. The town received its personal coat of arms of a wolf's head on a blue background. In 1507, Vawkavysk became part of the Nowogródek Voivodeship and was capital of Wołkowysk powiat until 1795. By 1513, Vawkavysk had 9 streets. A church was mentioned as having existed since 1536, while a monastery of Jesuits was founded in 1598. From 1566, Vawkavysk was also a venue for General Sejmiks, which provincial delegates and senators attended, that were held for the whole of Lithuania. The most prominent nobility of Vawkavysk at this time included the Gołgowski and Piotrowicz families.

Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

The Union of Lublin was signed July 1, 1569, in Lublin, Poland, and created a single state, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. It replaced the personal union of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with a real union and an elective monarchy, since Sigismund II Augustus, the last of the Jagiellons, remained childless after three marriages. Subsequent to this, Vawkavysk became a town within the Commonwealth.  The 17th century was a very difficult time in the history of Vawkavysk, in particular, and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in general. The region became the scene of many wars. It was during this time that the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth entered into a series of mid-17th century campaigns, known as The Deluge, consisting of uprisings, invasions and Northern Wars with Russia and Sweden. Following the popular uprising led by Bohdan Khmelnytsky in Ukraine, the rebellion brought into focus the rivalry between Russia and the Commonwealth for hegemony over Ukraine and over the eastern Slavic lands in general. In October 1653 the Russian zemsky sobor declared war on the Commonwealth and in June 1654, the forces of Tsar Alexis of Russia invaded the eastern half of Poland-Lithuania, starting the Russo-Polish War of 1654-67. During this time, Vawkavysk was captured twice by Russian troops in 1655 and 1662 and left heavily damaged.  At the same time, the Swedish Empire, which technically already was in conflict, although with a cease-fire agreement, with the Commonwealth from the Polish-Swedish War of 1626-29, invaded in July 1654 and occupied the remaining half of the country. In 1656, after three days of battle, Vawkavysk was destroyed and burned by the army of King Charles X Gustav of Sweden. The administrative center of the town was a castle on the river near the road to Izabelin, which was destroyed alongside the town.  During the Great Northern War in 1706, the Swedes attacked Vawkavysk again, which resulted in the residents demanding large indemnity.  In 1736, a Jesuit mission was formed at the expense of a E. Linovskiy, as well as a school in 1747. By the second half of the 18th century, several Jesuit and Marianite monasteries operated in Vawkavysk. As of 1792, the town had about 1,000 buildings, and a church in which the Uniates used as well.  The region participated in the Kościuszko Uprising in 1794, temporarily freeing the area from under the Russian occupation.  By the end of the 18th century, the town had only 362 houses, where the population consisted of 2,127 people.

Russian Empire.

Vawkavysk eventually found itself within the Russian Empire in 1795 following the third partition of Poland. It was placed under the administration of the Slonim Governorate as a province and became the capital of its own district within the Lithuania-Grodno Governorate in 1802.  During the French invasion of Russia in 1812, Vawkavysk housed the headquarters of General Pyotr Bagration, commander of the 2nd Russian Army. From 17 June to, the town housed Napoleon's army. On 2–4 November 1812, during a battle between the French and Russian forces, Vawkavysk was burned. Russian General Fabian Gottlieb von Osten-Sacken defeated the VII Saxon Corps of French General Jean Reynier. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 confirmed Vawkavysk's belonging to Russia.  In 1844 there were in Vawkavysk a wooden church and another church, a parish school, two hospitals, and a pharmacy. In 1845 the town received new Russian coat of arms. As of 1860 Vawkavysk consisted of 492 homes, 2 schools, St. Wenceslas church, 7 Jewish prayer houses, a synagogue, a brick factory, 2 mills, a hospital, and 58 shops.  In 1863 a company from Vawkavysk under the command of Gustaw Strawiński took part in the January Uprising.  In 1885 the town began construction on what would become an important railway junction with the building of a railway line from Baranovichi to Białystok and opened its railway station in 1886. By 1891 Vawkavysk had 19 industrial enterprises operating. In 1906 construction began of a railway line to Siedlce and upon completion in 1907 the town was an important railway junction.

World War I and the Interbellum.

During the First World War, Vawkavysk was the headquarters of the commander-in-chief of the North-Western Front. In the autumn of 1915, the town was occupied by German troops. Following the collapse of Imperial Russia in 1917, the subsequent emergence of the new Bolshevik government of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, and the signing of the armistice between Russia and the Central Powers, Vawkavysk and the surrounding area temporarily laid within Russian territory. The signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on 3 March 1918, between Russia and the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey) ended Russia's participation in World War I. In this peace treaty, Russia renounced all territorial claims in Finland (which it had already acknowledged), the future Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania), Belarus, and Ukraine. During the negotiations of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Belarus first declared independence under German occupation on 25 March 1918, forming the Belarusian People's Republic. Meanwhile, an independent Polish state was restored in 1918, but its borders were not formally determined.

Polish-Bolshevik War.

By 1919 Bolsheviks took control over Belarus and forced the country's democratic government into exile. Immediately afterwards, the Polish–Bolshevik War ignited, and the territory of Belarus was divided between Poland and Soviet Russia. On 8 February 1919 Vawkavysk was occupied by Polish troops. The town was then captured by the 16th Bolshevik Army on 24 July 1920 and subsequently recaptured on 27 September 1920 by the 3rd Legions Infantry Division under the command of General Leon Berbecki.

Second Polish Republic.

The Treaty of Riga was signed in Riga on 18 March 1921, between Poland, Soviet Russia (acting also on behalf of Soviet Belarus) and Soviet Ukraine. The treaty ended the Polish-Bolshevik War. Following this, Vawkavysk became a part of the interwar Second Polish Republic in the period between 1919 and 1939. Wołkowysk powiat was part of the Białystok Voivodeship and the seat of gmina Biskupice.  On 8 December 1922 the 3rd Regiment of Mounted Riflemen entered the town's barracks. In 1924 the 8th Cavalry Brigade Command was created. As of 1939 Vawkavysk contained an iron foundry, two brick factories, two sawmills, and other small businesses. On the outskirts of town was a cement plant, which was considered one of the most powerful companies in Western Belarus.

World War II.

Upon the invasion of the Second Polish Republic by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, the Reserve Cavalry Brigade "Wołkowysk" was formed. Vawkavysk came under Soviet occupation on 18 September 1939 as a result of the German–Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Demarcation. On 2 November 1939 Vawkavysk, along with the rest of Western Belarus, was adopted into the USSR and on 14 November 1939 was adopted into the BSSR. Vawkavysk became the regional capital of the Białystok region within the BSSR on 15 January 1940. The town was a point of detention and deportation of German and Polish prisoners-of-war and citizens in POW camp 281 by the Red Army until 1941.  Vawkavysk was occupied by the German Army on 28 June 1941. A concentration camp and a Jewish ghetto were built within town limits, in which eventually 20,000 people were murdered. During the Białystok Operation, on 14 July 1944, the 2nd Belarusian Front of the Red Army was able to recapture the town. The town became the regional center of Grodno region of the BSSR on 20 September 1944.

After World War II.

Following the conclusion of the European front of World War II in 1945, Vawkavysk came under the authority of the Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. Since 1991, Vawkavysk has belonged to the Republic of Belarus.  3 March 1963 it became a town of regional subordination. 12 April 2001 held approval emblem and flag of the city. In 2004 it conducted the Vawkavysk republican festival of rural workers' Dozhinki.

Administration.

Local issues are represented by the locally elected Councils of Deputies. These local councils operate on 3 levels: primary (villages and towns), basic (towns and regional councils), and regional (oblast) (Regional Council of Deputies). Deputies are elected for a 4-year term to deal with local issues and represent the local population in decisions on issues relating to health, education, social welfare, trade, and transport. Local Councils of Deputies make decisions on local issues within the framework of national legislation.  Settlements in the surrounding Vawkavysk region are Izabelin, Ros, Mstibovo, and Voupa.  The district includes the townships Krasnosel'skii and Ross, as well as 191 rural settlements.  In Region 2, Township Council - Rossky, Krasnosel'skii and 9 village councils  Vereykovsky Volkovysskii Volpovsky Gneznovsky Elizabethan Podorossky Replevsky Subochsky Shilovichi

Demographics.

The town and surrounding area has a population of 74,000, while the urban area of Vawkavysk (with adjacent urban settlements of Ros and Krasnosel'skii included) has about 56,000 inhabitants, and the population of the rural area stands at 18,000 people. The main population groups according to nationality in the town of Vawkavysk are: Belarusians (63.4%), Poles (25%), Russians (8.7%), and other nationalities (2.9%). There are people of a total of 50 nationalities living in the area.

Religion.

According to the 1897 Russian census, the population of Vawkavysk was 10,323 people (5,982 women and 4,341 men). The main population groups according to religion were: Jews (5,528), Orthodox (2,716), and Roman Catholic (1,943).

Economy.

The industrial sections of the city are dominated by the building materials industry (46.4%), and food processing (44%).  Major companies in Vawkavysk (unless otherwise indicated, all are "open joint stock companies"):

Sites of interest.

The Volkovysk archaeological complex includes three heights: "the Swedish mountain" (picture), Zamchishche, and Muravelnik. "The Swedish mountain" is located in a southeast suburb of modern Volkovysk. There is a legend that during The Deluge, "the Swedish mountain" was created by Swedish soldiers above the tomb of their commander. It is the highest point among associates Volkovysk of hills a moraine of a ridge.  The archaeological study of Volkovysk was begun in 1925 by the director of the Grodno Museum of History-Archaeology, Jozef Jodkowski, who was author of several books about history of the area, as well as tourist guides of Grodno and vicinity, popular in the Second Polish Republic  Other local sights include the Roman Catholic Church of St. Wenceslas (1846–48, picture) and the Peter Bagration Museum (picture).

International relations.

List of Vawkavysk's town twinning, and other forms of city cooperation and friendship:

Vawkavysk (, ; ; ; ; ; ) is one of the oldest towns in southwestern Belarus and the capital of the Vawkavysk district. It is located on the Wołkowyja River, roughly from Grodno and from Minsk. Its population is estimated at 43,826 inhabitants.

Waukawysk (weißruss. ; litauisch Valkaviskas, russisch Волковыск ["Wolkowysk"], ) ist eine Stadt in der Republik Weißrussland in der Hrodsenskaja Woblasz. Die Stadt hatte am 1. Januar 2019 43.815 Einwohner und ist Verwaltungszentrum des Rajon Waukawysk.