Drivetrain.

The XP90 Vitz and Belta share underpinnings with each other including the drivetrain and platform. However, while the Vitz was designed at Toyota's French design studios, the Belta was designed at Toyota's Japanese design studios—design projects for similar cars marketed toward different demographics. While the outgoing Vitz and Platz models look and feel very much alike, the newer Vitz hatchback and Belta sedans are more subtly related. No sheetmetal is shared between the two, and although both have a similar centralized dashboard design (Toyota's efforts to standardize the design for all markets, left or right hand drive) there are some cosmetic differences. The Belta is the only subcompact sedan which is designed, built and sold in Japan, and has no direct competitors in the Japanese domestic market, as the Vitz's competitors do not offer sedan versions at the time.

Markets.

Asia.

For most Asian markets (except Japan, Hong Kong and Macau), the Belta was sold as the second generation Vios which was built and assembled in Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand. It was launched in April 2007. For the Japanese, American and Middle Eastern markets (except Israel, Morocco, Korea, Russia and Europe), the Belta is built in Japan.  The model code for cars with 1.5 L "1NZ-FE" engines is "NCP93" and is only available where the Yaris/Vios is marketed. As was the first generation Vios, the second generation Vios is assembled at Thailand's Toyota Gateway Plant and also at the Philippines Santa Rosa, Laguna Plant.  The second generation Vios is the best-selling car in Southeast Asia in 2009.

Japan.

The Japanese market Belta had three engine variants available, namely the 1.0 L "1KR-FE" straight-three engine and two variants of the 1.3 L "2NZ-FE"/"2SZ-FE" engine rated at. The "2SZ-FE" engine comes with Super CVT-i transmission while the "2NZ-FE" engine has a Super ECT transmission. An optional S Package is also available across the three variants.

China.

The second generation Vios was introduced to China in 2008. The major difference of the Vios in China is that the larger capacity models are powered by the 1.6 L "4ZR-FE" engine with Dual VVT-i. The engine system adjusts timing on both intake and exhaust camshafts.  Unlike other markets, Mainland China uses version naming as follows:

Philippines.

In the Philippines, the second generation Vios was launched in 2007 in 3 trim levels: 1.3 J, 1.3 E and 1.5 G. All trim levels were available with a 5-speed manual transmission, the G trim also with a 4-speed automatic transmission.  The 1.5 G Limited XX Edition was released in July 2008. This is the same as the G trim, but came with HID headlights, 17-inch 10-spoke alloy wheels and a small rubber spoiler. The 1.5 S also got this spoiler and different 17-inch Rota Bolognia Mags with 205/45 tires. The G XX Limited and S trims were released in different colour schemes.  A facelifted model was launched on 6 April 2010, with a redesigned front grille, redesigned headlamp and tail lamp assemblies, and redesigned 15-inch alloy wheels (for the G trim). It was available in three trim levels: the base 1.3 J mated to a 5-speed manual transmission, the 1.3 E, with the choice of a 5-speed manual or the now available 4-speed automatic transmission, and the 1.5 G, with the choice of a 5-speed manual or 4-speed automatic transmission.  For 2012, a 1.3 L engine for the G trim was released, and it was mated to a 4-speed automatic transmission, then later a 5-speed manual transmission equipped with fog lights, steering wheel audio controls and power adjusting side mirrors. Also available from 2012 was a trim lower than the J trim called the 1.3 Base which came only in a 5-speed manual transmission. In 2013, the 1.5 TRD Sportivo trim was released.  During its entire period on the market, the second generation Vios was the best selling car in the Philippines helping Toyota to maintain its status as the best selling brand in the country.

Indonesia.

The second generation Vios was officially launched to the Indonesian market on 11 April 2007. The Indonesian Vios can be distinguished from other countries' models with its V-shaped grille ornament, which is optional for the Yaris Hatchback. Like the outgoing NCP42, the NCP93 Vios is offered in E (with manual transmission only) and G (with either manual or automatic transmission) trim levels.  All trim levels come equipped with ABS and analog instrument panel. The E trim has rear drum brakes and the G trim comes with all discs. The higher-grade G trim has standard front and rear fog lamps, audio control on the steering wheel, auto-leveling HID headlamps, multi-information display and back sonar. Start/Stop push button is only available on the G trim with automatic transmission.  For the facelifted model, the Indonesian Vios no longer featured V-shaped grille ornament. It now has the same appearance as other countries' models. In addition to the regular trim levels, there is also TRD "Sportivo" model based on the G trim which adds an all-round body kit to the exterior and comes fitted with AV DVD player with Navi Ready.

Malaysia.

The second generation Vios was unveiled in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia on 5 October 2007, two weeks ahead of its official launch on 19 October 2007. The Vios is powered exclusively by the "1NZ-FE" 1.5 L four-cylinder engine with VVT-i, which included a redesigned air intake and exhaust system to improve low to mid-range torque. It was also fitted with the Super ECT four-speed automatic with the same gear ratios as its predecessor, but with improved programming for the transmission control unit. Electric power steering was offered in place of the hydraulic system in its predecessor. The second generation Vios was made available in four trim levels for the Malaysian market: J, E, G and S.  The "J" is the base version. It was initially unavailable at the Malaysian Vios launch in October 2007, but was introduced on 1 July 2008, offering a choice of either 5-speed manual or 4-speed automatic transmissions.  The "E" and "G" differ mostly in terms of equipment levels and are mechanically identical, both sharing the 4-speed Super ECT transmission. On 29 June 2011, the "G Limited" was introduced offering a body kit, 15-inch alloy wheels and leather seats.  The "S" is an addition featuring cosmetic enhancements, including a front bumper spoiler, side skirts, rear skirt and a bootlid spoiler. The interior received a dark grey/black trim treatment and an "Optitron" meter with a multi-information display, as opposed to the "E" and "G" trims' conventional backlit display. The "S" trim was the most expensive Vios variant. On 17 June 2009, UMW Toyota launched the Vios 1.5 TRD Sportivo which effectively replaced the "S" trim. It featured a body kit, Enkei wheels, various interior trim improvements and an optional sports suspension kit. The Vios TRD Sportivo was updated on 29 June 2011, featuring a redesigned grille, unique alloy wheels and leather seats.  On 15 April 2010, the Vios received a facelift in Malaysia, offering mostly cosmetic improvements. The Vios was updated on 21 June 2012 in response to Honda Malaysia's facelift of the City, with appearance changes without significant mechanical improvements.  All model grades included ABS with EBD and BA at the October 2007 launch, but the "E" trim was only offered with a single driver's airbag, whereas the "G" and "S" trims had an additional passenger airbag. The "J" trim had no airbags at all upon its July 2008 launch, but was nonetheless offered with ABS + EBD and BA. The "J" trim later received a driver's airbag in its 2010 facelift and a front passenger airbag in its 2012 update.  The Malaysian Vios is assembled locally by ASSB, a subsidiary of UMW Toyota, in Shah Alam, Selangor. The Vios has since become the best selling non-national badged vehicle in Malaysia, achieving record sales in 2012.

Singapore.

In Singapore, the Vios was sold in the base model J, the mid-level E and the top-of-the-line G trim levels, and later the TRD Sportivo model.  The J trim is the lowest version and comes standard with a CD/MP3/WMA player with 4 speakers, keyless entry, ABS/EBD/BA (on front disc brakes only), driver-only SRS airbag and interior fabric with dark grey colour seats.  The E trim is the only manual variant after the local dealer discontinued the manual J variant in Singapore. The E Classic includes an additional SRS airbag for the front passenger and side moulding. There is another variant of the E trim known as the Elegance that includes leather seats and fog lights.  The G trim is the top-of-the-line version available in Singapore and comes with an automatic transmission. The G trim adds a 6-speaker CD/MP3 player, optitron meters, four-wheel disc brakes, and 60:40 split foldable rear seats.  Optional "Sport" and “Racing” bodykit were offered and aftermarket alloy wheels that were added by the Toyota dealership in Singapore (Borneo Motors). In 2012, three colours were added – Grey Metallic (1G3), Attitude Black Mica (211) and Blackish Red Mica (3R0) – to make 7 colours in total. In 2013, Borneo Motors (Singapore) re-introduced optional TRD ""Sportivo"" sports kit to the E grade which was the only variant available for the Vios.

Thailand.

Thailand, which currently manufactures the Vios, is offered in three trim levels (J, E and G), as well as two limited edition trim levels (G Limited and S Limited). Thailand is currently the only country that offers all existing grades of the Vios, while export markets are only given a fraction of the Thai range in varying combinations. In addition, certainly the range of equipment in Thai Vios' differs from those in export versions.  The J is the basic trim level of the second generation Vios, offering a CD/MP3/WMA player with four speakers, an optional keyless entry with TVSS, ABS/EBD/BA, 15-inch steel wheels with hubcaps, rear fog lamps and interior fabric with dark grey colour seat.  The E is a mid-level trim featuring a keyless entry with TDS, an option between dark grey or ivory-coloured seat fabrics, optional driver and front passenger SRS airbags, front and rear fog lamps, 15-inch sports alloy wheels and side moulding.  The G trim features an unchangeable 6 speaker CD/MP3/WMA player, leather seating in either dark grey or ivory, driver and front passenger SRS airbags, a multi-functional steering wheel, 15-inch sports alloy wheels front and rear fog lamps, side moulding, a blue "Optitron" panel with a multi-information display and 60:40 fold-down rear seats.  The G Limited trim includes a keyless and smart entry with TDS, a Start/Stop push button, an immobilizer key and a body kit to the exterior.  The limited edition S Limited trim features a "Wrap-Around Aeropart" body kit, an orange "Optitron" panel with a multi-information display, high intensity discharge headlamps with automatic height adjustment and all-wheel disc brakes.  Audio systems in all second generation Vios trim levels are equipped with ASL (Auto-Speed Sound Levelizer), which detects and compensates for changes in external noise levels, adjusting volume and tone controls automatically based on the car's speed.  Toyota Thailand has also exported the Vios to the Middle East, Australia and South Africa, where it is sold as the Yaris.  The second generation Vios has been campaigned in One Make Races in Bangkok, Thailand.

North America.

The US version of the Yaris sedan went on sale in April 2006 for the 2007 model year. Conventional trim levels are replaced by the more modular convenience, power, and all-weather guard packages. However, the Yaris sedan is also available as the Yaris S, which has standard convenience and appearance packages fitted as standard. The power package on the Yaris sedan offers alloy wheels as an option. Side airbags were optional. The Yaris sedan was sold alongside the Yaris 3-door hatchback, and from 2009 onwards only the Yaris 5-door was available as a hatchback.  The Canadian version of the Yaris sedan, is based on the US-market Yaris S with power and all-weather guard packages, but with standard wheels. The regular CE, LE and RS trims used in the Canadian Yaris hatchback are replaced in the Yaris sedan by option packages of "B", "C", "D" or "Aero" types. The "B" adds all-season tires, chrome trim on the decklid, front and rear splash guards, colour-keyed door handles, blacked-out side window frames, keyless entry and power door locks; the "C" adds ABS, air conditioning, power windows, colour-keyed mirrors and power mirrors; the "D" adds both side and side-curtain airbags; the Aero adds alloy wheels, wheel locks, a rear spoiler and a body kit. The Aero, however, has neither air conditioning nor side airbags. The Canadian model lacks the two-tone interior, pseudo-metallic trim on the door panels and the new audio system controls (instead it uses an old design) found on the Japanese and American models.  The 2007 Yaris sedan received EPA fuel economy ratings of on the highway and in the city, with a fuel capacity of. However, because the EPA changed the way they calculate fuel economy, ratings were revised for the 2008 model year and the Yaris is now rated at city/ mpg highway for the manual transmission, and mpg city/ mpg highway for the automatic version.  For the 2009 model year, all Yaris sedans received updated styling with a new grille, alloy designs, interior fabric, standard side curtain airbags and anti-lock brakes. There are also options such as a leather-wrapped steering wheel/shift knob and satellite radio.

Australia.

In Australia, it is known as the Yaris sedan and is sold alongside the Vitz-based Yaris hatchback. The Yaris sedan is available only in a 1.5 L "1NZ-FE" petrol engine. There were two variants of the model, namely the YRS and YRX, with the former being the model with the basic necessities. The YRX model features an all-round bodykit and only comes with an automatic transmission.  The Australian version of the Yaris sedan uses orange blinker bulbs with clear lenses instead of orange blinker lenses.  At the end of mid-year 2015, the Australian version Yaris sedan was discontinued due to poor sales with over 27 percent drop. It was then phased out with no direct replacement for the Australian market.

Safety.

United States.

Standard safety features include airbags, front seatbelt pretensioners, and head restraints for all seating positions. Side-impact airbags, side curtain airbags and ABS are optional on 2007–2008 models. Beginning in 2009, front and rear row side curtain airbags along with front seat-mounted torso side airbags and anti-lock brakes became standard. Stability control was unavailable on all models until the 2010 model year when it became standard.  According to the US Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) the Yaris sedan received a "Good" overall score in the frontal crash test and a "Good" overall score in the side impact test on models equipped with side airbags but a "Poor" overall score on models without side airbags. In their roof strength evaluation the Yaris is rated "Acceptable" with a strength-to-weight ratio of 3.78.  U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) Yaris sedan crash test ratings:

Southeast Asia.

ASEAN NCAP test results for a RHD, 4-door sedan on a 2012 registration:

Discontinuation.

The Japanese Belta was discontinued in June 2012, replaced by the E160 series Corolla in the Japanese market; however, the Yaris sedan was still in production for Mexico and Australia until it was discontinued in both countries in 2016. For the U.S. market, the Yaris sedan was briefly replaced by the Scion iA which was called the Yaris iA for 2017 model year. Two years later, the Yaris iA was renamed again to Yaris sedan.  For the Asian market, the XP150 series Vios was launched in 2013 as the sedan counterpart to the XP150 series Yaris hatchback.

The, referred to in North American and Australian markets as the Yaris and in Asian markets as the Vios, is a subcompact sedan manufactured by Toyota.

Der Toyota Belta (in den USA Toyota Yaris Sedan und in Südasien Toyota Vios) ist eine kleine Stufenhecklimousine, die Toyota seit 2006 herstellt. Im Grunde ist sie eine überarbeitete, sportlichere Version der Modelle Platz und Vitz. Der Belta ging in Japan mit Vierzylindermotoren mit 1,0 l und 1,3 l in den Verkauf und in den USA mit einem 1,5 l-R4. Um die Verkäufe anzukurbeln und Belta und Yaris bei den jungen Käufern bekannter zu machen, hat Toyota ein Profil bei MySpace eingestellt.


History.

The statue of Adam Mickiewicz, the greatest Polish Romantic poet of the 19th century, was unveiled on June 16, 1898, on the 100th anniversary of his birth, in the presence of his daughter and son. It was designed by Teodor Rygier, a little-known sculptor at the time, who won the third and final competition for this project "by popular demand" ahead of over 60 artists in total, the renowned painter Jan Matejko included.  Even though the first prize was awarded to famed Cyprian Godebski, professor at the Imperial Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg from Paris, with Rygier at a close second, for the final execution a more popular design by Rygier was accepted with a contract signed in November 1889. At the poet's feet are four allegoric groups symbolising the Motherland (from the face of the monument along "Sienna" Street), Science (facing north), Courage (facing Sukiennice Hall) and Poetry (facing Church of St. Wojciech, south). The inscription on the pedestal reads: "To Adam Mickiewicz, the Nation".  The monument came into being at a studio on Długa Street under the supervision of an artistic committee. All the figures were cast in the Nellich foundry in Rome. The final location of the monument was not decided at once, with at least three other city squares taken into consideration. Ultimately, it was the city Mayor who suggested that the structure be placed in the Main Market Square instead.  In 1940 the monument was destroyed by the Nazis following German invasion of Poland "(photo)". It was not to be seen in the Square until its restoration in 1955. However, most of the figures were recovered from a Hamburg scrap metal heap in 1946, which allowed the restoration of the Monument's original appearance.

Cultural significance.

Adam Mickiewicz had himself never been to Kraków. In 1890, 35 years after his death, his remains were brought there from Paris and ceremoniously laid to rest in the St. Leonard's Crypt under the Wawel Cathedral, which partially inspired the project with the original idea put forward by university youth. Every year on Christmas Eve, the Adam Mickiewicz Monument is decorated with flowers by the florists of Kraków.

Adam Mickiewicz Monument in Kraków, (), is one of the best known bronze monuments in Poland, and a favourite meeting place at the Main Market Square in the Old Town (Stare Miasto) district of Kraków.

Das Adam-Mickiewicz-Denkmal in Krakau () ist eine der bekanntesten Bronzestatuen in Polen und ein beliebter Treffpunkt auf dem Hauptmarkt in der Krakauer Altstadt. Von Bürgern Krakaus wird das Denkmal auch kurz „Adaś“ (Verkleinerungsform von „Adam“) genannt.


Career.

Debevec started shooting in 1971 and became a member of the Yugoslavian junior national team in 1979. Debevec joined the Military Sport Squad of the Slovenian Army in 1991 and holds the rank of Warrant Officer.

Olympic Games.

He won his first medal in 1980 by participating in the Junior European Championships. He represented Yugoslavia at the Olympic Games in 1984 and 1988, and Slovenia in 1992, 1996, 2000, 2004, 2008, and 2012. He won gold at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, where he competed in the event 50 metre rifle three positions.  His appearance at eight Olympic Games ties him for fourth-most all time, and are the most ever by a Slovenian or Yugoslavian athlete. Latvian shooter Afanasijs Kuzmins is the only shooter with more Olympic appearances than Debevec; Kuzmins competed in his ninth games at the 2012 Summer Olympics, where Debevec competed for the eighth time.

World Cup and other competitions.

Debevec formerly held the world record for 50m rifle three position with 1186 points, which he set in Munich at the World Cup Final in 1992. He also held the Olympic record (1177 points) for the same event, which he set during his gold medal-winning performance at the 2000 Summer Olympics.  He has won two world military championships in 300m three positions in 2006 and 300m rapid fire rifle in 2005 and 2008. He has also competed in World Cup events for crossbow, air rifle, small-bore rifle, and big bore rifle.

Rajmond Debevec (born 29 March 1963) is a Slovenian shooter. He has won three Olympic and ten World Championship medals in shooting. He formerly held the world record in the 50 meter rifle 3 positions event.

Rajmond Debevec (* 29. März 1963 in Postojna) ist ein slowenischer Sportschütze. Er nahm bislang an acht Olympischen Spielen teil und gehört damit zu den Sportlern mit den meisten Olympiateilnahmen überhaupt. Insgesamt gewann er dabei drei Medaillen.


Life.

He was born in Umstadt near Darmstadt in western Germany on 14/15 April 1833, the son of Fritz Dittmar an Assessor at Umstadt. In 1848 he was apprenticed as a pharmacist at the Hof Apotheker in Darmstadt.  In 1857 went to work in the illustrious Bunsen laboratory in Heidelberg, and his focussed changed to chemical analysis. Here he met Henry Enfield Roscoe who brought him back to Britain with him to work as his assistant at Owen's College in Manchester, Roscoe then being Professor of Chemistry there. In 1861 he received a post as Chief Laboratory Assistant in the Chemistry Department of the University of Edinburgh and stayed there until 1869.  In 1863 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, his Proposer being Lyon Playfair, 1st Baron Playfair. He served as a Counillor to the Society 1868-9. In 1882 he was also elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London.  In 1869 he took a break from the UK and returned to Germany, and worked in the Poppelsdorf district of Bonn as a lecturer in meteorology at the local Agricultural College. In 1872 he declined the Chair in Chemistry at Kassel instead wishing to await for a post back in the United Kingdom. In 1873 he returned to Owen’s College as a lecturer, but then moved to the Andersonian college in Glasgow as a full Professor in 1874, a post he then held until death.  The University of Edinburgh awarded him an honorary doctorate (LLD) in 1887. He died suddenly at home, 11 Hillhead Street in Hillhead, Glasgow on 9 March 1892, shortly after returning from giving his morning lecture. His obituary in the Royal Society of Edinburgh was written and delivered by Alexander Crum Brown.

Family.

Dittmar’s son, also William Dittmar (1859-1951) came with him to Britain and is thought to have also been a chemist.

Professor William Dittmar FRS FRSE LLD (1833–1892) was a German-born scientist renowned as a chemical analyst. He was based largely in Scotland. He did much analytical work on the findings from the Challenger expedition.

Wilhelm Dittmar (* 14. April 1833 in Umstadt; † 10. März 1892 in Glasgow) war ein deutsch-britischer Chemiker. 1861–69 war er Chefassistent am Laboratorium der Universität Edinburgh unter Lyon Playfair, ab 1871 Assistent von Heinrich Ritthausen an der "agrikulturchemischen Versuchsanstalt" in Poppelsdorf tätig. Ritthausen war es auch, der Dittmar dazu veranlasste, die Struktur, der von Ritthausen 1866 entdeckten Aminosäure Glutaminsäure, aufzuklären. 1873 ging Dittmar als "Assistent Lecturer" ans Owen's College (der heutigen Universität Manchester). 1874 wurde er Professor für Chemie am Anderson's College der Medizin in Glasgow.


Description.

It is an evergreen shrub or small tree approaching 15 meters (50 feet) in height, with dense, hard leaves (sclerophyllous foliage). The leaves are 1.6–12 cm (0.64-4.8 inches) long with a 4–25 mm (0.16-1.00 inch) petiole and spiny margins, somewhat resembling those of the holly. The leaves are dark green when mature and generally shiny on top, and have a smell resembling almonds when crushed; these are poisonous to eat, but not to handle. The flowers are small (1–5 mm), white, produced on racemes in the spring. The fruit is a cherry 12–25 mm diameter, edible and sweet, but contains little flesh surrounding the smooth seed.

Subspecies.

There are two subspecies:

Distribution, habitat, and ecology.

"Prunus ilicifolia" is native to California chaparral and foothill woodlands along the Coast Ranges below 1,600 m. Its distribution extends from northern Baja California along the California coast to the northernmost extent of the Coast Ranges, as well as into the desert chaparral areas of the Mojave desert. In chaparral communities, it tends to inhabit north-facing slopes, erosion channels, or other moist, cool sites.  It is a persistent member of chaparral communities, being slow-growing but long-lived; common chaparral flora associates are toyon, western poison-oak and coffeeberry. In the absence of fire, "P. ilicifolia" will outlive or outshade surrounding vegetation, making room for seedlings. Eventually, it will form extensive stands codominated by scrub oak.

Regeneration and seedlings.

Although it will resprout from the stump after fires, the seeds are not fire-adapted like those of many other chaparral plants. Instead, it relies on the natural death of surrounding vegetation during long periods of fire-free conditions to make room for its seedlings.  The seeds are also reported to require sunlight to germinate. However, near 100% germination rates have been achieved with wild-collected seed buried completely in pots with a peatlite mix.

Butterflies.

The caterpillars of the pale swallowtail ("Papilio eurymedon") feed on this and other members of the riparian woodland plant community. It is also a larval host to the California hairstreak, Lorquin's admiral, Nevada buckmoth, and tiger swallowtail.

Cultivation.

"Prunus ilicifolia" is used in California native plants and wildlife gardens, and drought-tolerant sustainable landscaping.

Uses.

Native Americans fermented the fruit into an intoxicating drink. Some also cracked the dried cherries and made meal from the seeds after grinding and leaching them. It has also been made into jam.

Prunus ilicifolia (Common names: hollyleaf cherry, evergreen cherry; islay - Salinan Native American) It is native to the chaparral areas of coastal California (from Mendocino County to San Diego County), Baja California, and Baja California Sur. as well as the desert chaparral areas of the Mojave desert.

Prunus ilicifolia (im Englischen "Holly-Leafed Cherry", was genauso wie das Artepitheton auf die stechpalmenähnlichen Blätter hinweist; auch "Evergreen Cherry" oder "Islay") ist eine Pflanzenart aus der Gattung "Prunus" in der Familie der Rosengewächse (Rosaceae).


Early life and family.

Seddon was born in Eccleston near St Helens, Lancashire, England in 1845. His father Thomas Seddon (born 1817) was a school headmaster, and his mother Jane Lindsay was a teacher. They married on 8 February 1842 at Christ Church, Eccleston. Richard was the third of their eight children.  Despite this background, Seddon did not perform well at school, and was described as unruly. Despite his parents' attempt to give him a classical education, Seddon developed an interest in engineering, but was removed from school at age 12. After working on his grandfather Richard's farm at Barrow Nook Hall for two years, Seddon was an apprentice at Daglish's Foundry in St Helens. He later worked at Vauxhall foundry in Liverpool, where he attained a Board of Trade Certificate as a mechanical engineer.  On 15 June 1862, at the age of 16, Seddon decided to emigrate to Australia, on the SS "Great Britain". He later provided his reasoning: "A restlessness to get away to see new, broad lands seized me: My work was irksome. I felt cramped." He entered the railway workshops at Melbourne, Victoria. He was caught by the gold fever and went to Bendigo, where he spent some time in the diggings. He did not meet with any great success. In either 1865 or 1866, he became engaged to Louisa Jane Spotswood, but her family would not permit marriage until Seddon was financially secure.  In 1866, Seddon moved to New Zealand's West Coast. Initially, he worked the goldfields in Waimea. He is believed to have prospered here, and he returned briefly to Melbourne to marry Louisa. He established a store, and then expanded his business to include the sale of alcohol, becoming a publican. He was followed to the West Coast by his older sister Phoebe, younger brothers Edward and Jim and younger sister Mary. Phoebe married William Cunliffe on 9 May 1863 at Holy Trinity Church Eccleston. Their son Bill was Labour MP David Cunliffe's grandfather, making Richard Seddon David Cunliffe's great-great-uncle.

Local politics.

Seddon's first real involvement with politics was with various local bodies, such as the Arahura Road Board. In 1874 elected to the council of Westland Province, representing Arahura. He lost this position with the abolition of the provinces in 1876. Gradually, Seddon became known along the West Coast as an advocate for miners' rights and interests, and he was frequently consulted over various political issues.  In 1877, Seddon was elected as the first Mayor of Kumara, which was to become a prominent goldmining town. He had staked a claim in Kumara the previous year, and had shortly afterwards moved his business there. Despite occasional financial troubles (he filed for bankruptcy in 1878), his political career prospered.

Entry to Parliament.

Seddon first sought election to the New Zealand House of Representatives in the 1876 election, standing for the Hokitika electorate. In the two-member electorate, he came fourth out of five candidates. In the 1879 election, he tried again, and was elected. He represented Hokitika to 1881, then Kumara from 1881 to 1890, then Westland from 1890 to his death in 1906. His son Tom Seddon succeeded him as MP for Westland.  In Parliament, Seddon aligned himself with George Grey, a former Governor turned Premier. Seddon later claimed to be particularly close to Grey, although some historians believe that this was an invention for political purposes. Initially, Seddon was derided by many members of Parliament, who mocked his "provincial" accent (which tended to drop the letter "h") and his lack of formal education. He nevertheless proved quite effective in Parliament, being particularly good at "stonewalling" certain legislation. His political focus was on issues of concern to his West Coast constituents. He specialised on mining issues, became a recognised authority on the topic, and chaired the goldfields committee in 1887 and 1888.  He aggressively proclaimed a populist anti-elitist philosophy in many speeches and toast. "It is the rich and the poor; it is the wealthy people and the landowners against the middle classes and the labouring classes," he explained.

Liberal Party.

Seddon joined the nascent Liberal Party, led by John Ballance, following the December 1890 general election. Their platform was for reform in the areas of land and labour. They were greatly helped by the abolition of plural voting, which allowed landowners in each district they owned land in to vote in them.  Seddon was sworn into his first ministerial positions when the Liberals came to power in January 1891. He became minister of public works, mines, defence, and marine. He promoted co-operative contract system for road-making and other public works projects.  Unlike Ballance who believed in classical liberalism, Seddon did not have any great commitment to any ideology. Rather, he saw the Liberals as champions of "the common man" against large commercial interests and major landowners. His strong advocacy for what he saw as the interests of ordinary New Zealanders won him considerable popularity. Attacks by the opposition, which generally focused on his lack of education and sophistication (one opponent said that he was only "partially civilised") reinforced his growing reputation as an enemy of elitism.  Seddon quickly became popular across the country. Some of his colleagues, however, were not as happy, accusing him of putting populism ahead of principle, and of being an anti-intellectual. John Ballance, now Premier, had a deep commitment to liberal causes such as women's suffrage and Māori rights, which Seddon was not always as enthusiastic about. Nevertheless, many people in the Liberal Party believed that Seddon's popularity was a huge asset for the party, and Seddon developed a substantial following.

Premiership.

In 1892, Ballance fell seriously ill and made Seddon acting leader of the House. After Ballance's death in April 1893, the Governor David Boyle, 7th Earl of Glasgow asked Seddon, as the acting leader of the house, to form a new ministry. Despite the refusal of William Pember Reeves and Thomas Mackenzie to accept his leadership, Seddon managed to secure the backing of his Liberal Party colleagues as interim leader, with an understanding being reached that a full vote would occur when Parliament resumed sitting. Seddon's most prominent challenger was Robert Stout, a former Premier for two separate terms. Like Ballance, Stout had a strong belief in classical-liberal principles. Ballance himself had preferred Stout as his successor, but had died before being able to secure this aim. Stout was not a member of the House of Representatives at the time of Ballance's death, and only re-entered following the by-election in Inangahua on 8 June 1893.  Despite Seddon's promise, however, there was no vote on the party leadership and therefore the premiership. By convincing his party colleagues that a leadership contest would split the party in two, or at least leave deep divisions, Seddon managed to secure a permanent hold on the leadership. Stout continued to be one of his strongest critics and led the campaign for women's suffrage despite Seddon's opposition. Eventually Stout left the Liberal Party in 1896 and remained in the house as an independent until 1898. In 1899 however, Seddon recommended Stout to the Governor as the next Chief Justice of New Zealand.

Women's suffrage.

John Ballance, founder of the Liberal Party, had been a strong supporter of voting rights for women, declaring his belief in the "absolute equality of the sexes". At the time women's suffrage was closely linked to the temperance movement, which sought prohibition of alcohol. As a former publican and self-styled "Champion of the Common Man" Seddon initially opposed women's suffrage. In July 1893, two months after Seddon became Premier, the second of two major petitions for women's suffrage was presented to the House.  This resulted in considerable debate within the Liberal Party. John Hall, a former conservative premier, moved a Bill to enact women's suffrage. Seddon's opponents within the party, led by Stout (also an advocate of temperance), managed to gather enough support for the Bill to be passed despite Seddon's opposition. When Seddon realised that the passage of the bill was inevitable, he changed his position, claiming to accept the people's will. In actuality, however, he took strong measures to ensure that the Legislative Council would vote down the Bill, as it had done previously. Seddon's tactics in lobbying the Council were seen by many as underhand, and two Councillors, despite opposing suffrage, voted in favour of the bill in protest. The Bill was granted Royal Assent in September.  Nonetheless, at the 1893 general election in November, Seddon's Liberal Party managed to increase its majority.

Alcohol licensing.

The debate on women's suffrage exposed deep divisions within the Liberal Party between more doctrinaire liberals, broadly led by Stout, and "popular" liberals, led by Seddon. This division was again highlighted by the debate over alcohol licensing. Seddon moved the radical Alcoholic Liquors Sale Control Bill in 1893 to introduce licensing districts where a majority could vote for continuance (continued liquor licensing in that district) or reduction of licences or no liquor licences at all. Votes were to be taken every three years at general elections and licensing districts were matched to electoral districts.

Old-age pensions.

One of the policies for which Seddon is most remembered is his Old-age Pensions Act of 1898, which established the basis of the welfare state later expanded by Michael Joseph Savage and the Labour Party. Seddon put considerable weight behind the scheme, despite considerable opposition from many quarters. Its successful passage is often seen as a testament to Seddon's political power and influence.

Foreign policy.

In the sphere of foreign policy, Seddon was a notable supporter of the British Empire. After he attended the Colonial Conference in London in 1897, he became known "as one of the pillars of British imperialism", and he was a strong supporter of the Second Boer War and sponsored preferential tariffs for trade with Britain. He is also noted for his support of New Zealand's own "imperial" designs – Seddon believed that New Zealand should play a major role in the Pacific Islands as a "Britain of the South". Seddon's plans focused mainly on establishing New Zealand dominion over Fiji and Samoa. However, his expansionist policies were discouraged by the Imperial Government. Only the Cook Islands came under New Zealand's control during his term in office.

Immigration.

Although Chinese immigrants were invited to New Zealand by the Dunedin Chamber of Commerce, prejudice against them quickly led to calls for restrictions on immigration. Following the example of anti-Chinese poll taxes enacted by California in 1852 and by Australian states in the 1850s, 1860s and 1870s, John Hall's government passed the Chinese Immigration Act 1881. This imposed a £10 tax per Chinese person entering New Zealand, and permitted only one Chinese immigrant for every 10 tons of cargo. Richard Seddon's government increased the tax to £100 per head in 1896, and tightened the other restriction to only one Chinese immigrant for every 200 tons of cargo.  Seddon compared the Chinese people to monkeys, and so used the Yellow Peril to promote racialist politics in New Zealand. In 1879, in his first political speech, Seddon said that New Zealand did not wish her shores "deluged with Asiatic Tartars. I would sooner address white men than these Chinese. You can't talk to them, you can't reason with them. All you can get from them is 'No savvy'."

Style of government.

Seddon was a strong premier, and enforced his authority with great vigour. At one point, he even commented that "A president is all we require", and that Cabinet could be abolished. His opponents, both within the Liberal Party and in opposition, accused him of being an autocrat – the label "King Dick" was first applied to him at this point.  Seddon accumulated a large number of portfolios for himself, including that of Minister of Finance (from which he displaced Joseph Ward), Minister of Labour (from which he displaced William Pember Reeves), Minister of Education, Minister of Defence, Minister of Native Affairs, and Minister of Immigration.  Seddon was also accused of cronyism – his friends and allies, particularly those from the West Coast, were given various political positions, while his enemies within the Liberal Party were frequently denied important office. Many of Seddon's appointees were not qualified for the positions that they received – Seddon valued loyalty above ability. One account, possibly apocryphal, claims that he installed an ally as a senior civil servant despite the man being illiterate. He was also accused of nepotism – in 1905, it was claimed that one of his sons had received an unauthorised payment, but this claim was proved false.  Sir Carl Berendsen recalled seeing Seddon in 1906 as a Department of Education junior innocently bearing what was an unwelcome document. A replacement was needed for a small native school. The inspectors had picked out three outstanding candidates, but Seddon picked out the last on the lengthy list; he had no academic qualifications and had just been released from gaol for embezzlement. When the Premier appointed the gentlemen from gaol, Departmental officials returned the papers and called attention to his criminal record. Berendsen cowered in the corner while with a snarl Seddon grasped his pen and wrote once more in very large letters, "Appoint Mr X". Berendsen noted though that when an Editor was required for the new School Journal, Departmental officials had agreed on the best man, but the Massey Government (which had replaced the Liberal Government) was "quite shameless in devotion to the principle of the loaves and fishes... and the Minister of the day appointed the third choice".  As Minister of Native Affairs, Seddon took a generally "sympathetic" but "paternalistic" approach. As Minister of Immigration, he was well known for his hostility to Chinese immigration – the so-called "Yellow Peril" was an important part of his populist rhetoric, and he compared Chinese people to monkeys. In his first political speech in 1879 he had declared New Zealand did not wish her shores to be "deluged with Asiatic Tartars. I would sooner address white men than these Chinese. You can't talk to them, you can't reason with them. All you can get from them is 'No savvy'."  Successive governments had also shown a lack of firmness in dealing with Māori, he said: "The colony, instead of importing Gatling guns with which to fight Maori, should wage war with locomotives"... pushing through roads and railways and compulsorily purchasing "the land on both sides".

Freemasonry.

In 1868, Seddon became a Freemason, being initiated into the Pacific Lodge No 1229 (under the United Grand Lodge of England) in Hokitika. The lodge is still extant, but has since relocated to Christchurch. In 1898, while premier, he was elected Grand Master of New Zealand, and served in that role for two years.

Honours.

Seddon attended Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee and received her Jubilee Medal and an appointment in the Privy Council. In 1902 he attended the coronation of King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra and received his Coronation Medal. During the same visit, he received the Freedom of the Borough of his home-town St Helens during a visit there in July 1902, and the Freedom of the City of Edinburgh and an honorary degree LL.D. from the University of Edinburgh during a visit to the city later the same month. He was also presented with the Honorary Freedom of the Worshipful Company of Tallow Chandlers on 8 August 1902.  He twice refused a knighthood, wanting to be seen as a man of the people.

Death.

Seddon remained Prime Minister for 13 years, but gradually, calls for him to retire became more frequent. Various attempts to replace him with Joseph Ward met with failure.  In June 1906, while returning from a trip to Australia on the ship "Oswestry Grange", Seddon had a massive heart attack and died suddenly 12 days before his 61st birthday, on 10 June. News of his death provoked numerous public gestures of grief, which included black-bordered displays in shop windows and several public monuments, including a memorial lamp post outside the St Helens Hospital in Pitt Street Auckland. Seddon was buried in Wellington's Bolton Street Memorial Park, with his grave being marked by a large monument.  Joseph Ward was away in London at the time of Seddon's death. He succeeded Seddon as Prime Minister nearly two months later, on 6 August 1906.

Legacy.

He is considered by academics and historians to be one of New Zealand's greatest and most revered Prime Ministers. Seddon centralised government decision-making around himself—at his peak he exercised "almost one-man, one-party rule"—and, in doing so, he established the premiership as the de facto most important political office in New Zealand.  Seddon's son Thomas replaced him as MP for Westland in the by-election following his death. When Thomas met former US President Theodore Roosevelt in 1918, he expressed admiration for his late father, particularly the labour legislation his government passed. A statue of Seddon is located outside Parliament Buildings in Wellington, and another has a prominent position in the West Coast town of Hokitika. A town in New Zealand and a suburb of Melbourne, Australia are named after him. Wellington Zoo was originally created when a young lion was presented to Prime Minister Richard Seddon by the Bostock and Wombwell Circus. Seddon created the Zoo from this single specimen and the lion was later named King Dick in the Prime Minister's honour. The stuffed body of King Dick (the lion) is displayed on the ground floor of the Museum of Wellington City & Sea. St Mary's Church in Addington, Christchurch also has a memorial bell tower to Richard Seddon.  The Duke of Argyll unveiled a memorial to Seddon in St Paul's Cathedral, London, in 1910. It shows a portrait of Seddon with the inscription "

Richard John Seddon (22 June 1845 – 10 June 1906) was a New Zealand politician who served as the 15th Premier (Prime Minister) of New Zealand from 1893 until his death.

Richard John Seddon (* 22. Juni 1845 in Ecclestone; † 10. Juni 1906 auf See), auch bekannt als King Dick, war der 15. Premierminister von Neuseeland und der mit der längsten Amtszeit. Er wird von einigen, einschließlich des Historikers Keith Sinclair als einer der größten politischen Führer Neuseelands angesehen.


Biography.

"“If you are having a slow day, his samples will wake you right up.”"  Ned McGowan is a composer, teacher, flutist, improviser and curator. Known for rhythmical vitality and technical virtuosity, his music has won awards and been performed at Carnegie Hall, the Concertgebouw and other halls and festivals around the world by many orchestras, ensembles and soloists.  Ned's compositions are often informed by his experiences as a flutist in European contemporary, improvisational and non-western musical circles and his main artistic goal is to create self-contained musical worlds through a process of cross-genre translation. By utilizing the possibilities of notation and a variety of performance practice approaches, he seeks to create practical methods to universal, cultural and personal expressions.

Performances.

Orchestras who have performed his works include American Composers Orchestra, Valdosta Symphony Orchestra and the Dutch orchestras Radio Kamer Filharmonie, Radio Filharmonisch Orkest, Gelders Orkest, Rotterdam Sinfonia and Ricciotti. Ensembles include Aleph, Array Music, Atlantic Chamber Ensemble, Duo Blow, Calefax, David Kweksilber Big Band, Flexible Music, Great Noise, Hexnut, Insomnio, Klang, MMM..., musikFabrik, Nederlands Blazers Ensemble, Nederlands Fluit Orkest, BlowUp Flute Octet, Pittsburgh New Music Ensemble, Post & Mulder Piano Duo, Sax & Stix, Spinifex, Ensemble Scala, Trio Scordatura, Ensemble Verge, Wervelwind, Zapp4 String Quartet, Zephyr String Quartet and soloists including Susanna Borsch, Helen Bledsoe, Keiko Shichijo, Guy Livingston, Tatiana Koleva/Rutger Oterloo, Francesca Thompson, Greg Oakes, Reiko Manabe, Mysore Manjunath, Derek Bermel, Sarah Jeffrey, Egbert Jan Louwerse and Eric Vloeimans.

Awards.

Ned's piece Tools, winner of the Henriette Bosmans Prize (NL), was described as “brutal and humorous” (Geneco), while at the same time “packed with discreet acoustic rooms, some more resonant than others, but all proving that... subtlety pays off” (Guy Livingston, Paris Transatlantic). His work “Wood Burn grew to be the highpoint of the evening” (Mark van de Voort, the Brabants Dagblad). Hans van Lissum (www.cut-up.com) wrote, “the compositions of band leader Ned McGowan, very complex in many ways, are especially well put together. Live performance also allows them to breathe enough, by optimally taking advantage of theatrical aspects....” In 2014, he was awarded the Alumni Achievement Award from the Cleveland Institute of Music.

Extended techniques and instruments.

Many of his works utilize unusual instrumentations, extended techniques or theatrical setups. For Tempest in a Teapot, commissioned by the Dutch Music Days for the Radio Kamer Philharmonic, the orchestra is spatialized around the public. As winner of the Harvey Gaul competition from the Pittsburgh New Music Ensemble, he composed Sound becomes visible in the form of radiance, which is built around the bowing of a piano: “a radical work that reorients the listener's relationship to time.” (Mark Kanny, Pittsburgh Tribune) His recent set of six pièces mécaniques for Calefax and Eric Vloeimans consists mostly of text directions and staging diagrams. Also McGowan composed the world's first Concerto for iPad (tablet computer) and orchestra, which saw its premiere with soloist Keiko Shichijo and the Rotterdam Sinfonia, conducted by Conrad van Alphen. Upcoming performances are scheduled for the Netherlands and Belgium.

Flute.

When playing the flute, Ned focuses mainly on creative projects and he has collaborated with Aka Moon, Derek Bermel, Gabriel Bolkosky, George Brooks, Oguz Buyukberber, Larry Coryell, Oene van Geel, Stephen Gosling, Dr. Marshall Griffith, Wiek Hijmans, Rozalie Hirs, Guus Janssen, David Kweksilber, Dr. Gregory Oakes, Erkan Ogur, Keiko Shichijo, Fahrettin Yarkın, mime-ist Virag Dezso and Zapp 4 in addition to many renowned Indian artists. He has also performed with the musikFabrik, Beethoven Academie, the Erie Philharmonic, Aspen Contemporary Ensemble, Non Sequitur, Axyz Ensemble, Spinifex Orchestra and his own quintet Hexnut. His specialty is also the contrabass flute, where he often performs solo and in 2008 he composed the first concerto for contrabass flute and orchestra. Premiered at Carnegie Hall with the American Composers Orchestra, he “proved there’s still plenty of life in old-fashioned virtuosity with Bantammer Swing, a playful, athletic concerto for his unwieldy contrabass flute," according to Steve Smith of the New York Times. He has composed often for flute and also for recorder in solo and chamber ensembles, and will compose both the competition piece for the National Flute Convention High School Soloist Competition in 2016 and a work for piccolo specialist Ilonka Kolthof.

India.

One strong facet of Ned's influence is the Carnatic music from South India. Over the past decade he has collaborated and performed regularly in India and Europe with Indian musicians Pravin Godkhindi, Jahnavi Jayaprakash, Ronu Majumdar, Dr. Mysore Manjunath, B.C. Manjunath, Mysore Nagaraj, M.K. Pranesh, Dr. Suma Sudhindra, Anoor Anathakrishna Sharma and Ghiridar Udupa. “What fascinates me is the Carnatic use of rhythmical complexities developed through a tradition of performance.” Works exploring Indian forms from a European perspective include Chamundi Hill, for flute and harp, Alap for voice and ensemble, Stone Soup for jazz ensemble, Tusk for ensemble and Three Amsterdam Scenes for voice, viola and keyboards.

New works.

The festivals Acht Brücken, Grachten, Klankkleur Festivals, MATA, Nederlandse Muziek Dagen, Voorwaarts Maart have commissioned new works from McGowan and his music has been performed at Aspen, Gaudeamus, Dag in de Branding, North Sea Jazz, November Music, SinusTon, Huddersfield, Klap op de Vuurpijl festivals. Other current commissions include a third work for Calefax and works for the Slagwerk Den Haag, viola soloist Kimberly Sparr and music for a radio play for the NTR.

Compositions.

ORCHESTRA Hydraulic Principles (2012) - orchestra | pianola Tempest in a Teapot (2006) - orchestra  ORCHESTRA WITH SOLO Concerto for iPad and Orchestra "Rotterdam Concerto 2" (2012) - solo iPad and orchestra Bantammer Swing (2008) - solo contrabass flute and orchestra  CHAMBER ENSEMBLE Ricochet (2014) - contrabass flute and percussion Building Music (2013) - large ensemble six pièces mécaniques (2012) - six players Stop Horn Please OK (2012) - jazz ensemble The Deccan Queen (2012) - jazz ensemble Chamundi Hill (2012) - flute and harp | flute and piano SMAK! (2011) - woodwind sextet, mezzo-soprano and actor Destroy Recycle Construct (2011) - mixed quintet Three Amsterdam Scenes (2011) - voice, viola and keyboards Solar Neon (2010) - mixed septet Sound Becomes Visible in the Form of Radiance (2010) - mixed sextet LITH / A Mausoleum of Redshifted Endeavors (2009) - two pianos Chaaya (2009) - music for dance Heads or Tails (2008) - jazz ensemble Hymn (2008) - improvising string quartet | string quartet | saxophone quartet | flute octet Plantae Magnoliophyta Liliopsida Poales Poaceae Spinifex (2007) - jazz ensemble Second City (2007) - mixed quintet Spectra (2007) - solo contrabass flute, flute and flute orchestra Not Pseudopetiolate Triodia 2 (2006) - jazz ensemble Devil's Dust (2006) - string quartet Alap (2005) - soprano and chamber ensemble Wood Burn (2005) - reed quintet | chamber ensemble | chamber ensemble 2 Annabel (2004) - narrator and chamber ensemble | narrator and chamber ensemble 2 | narrator and woodwind sextet Capsule (2003) - chamber orchestra Song (2003) - mixed quartet Tools (2003) - mixed quartet | mixed sextet; winner Henriette Bosmans Prize, 2003, Netherlands In the Land of Cheese (2001/2002) - flute octet | flute orchestra Stone Soup (2001) - jazz ensemble Tusk (2001) - mixed quintet Urban Turban (2001) - two marimbas | alto saxophone and marimba | flute and marimba | flute and piano | fl, b.cl, pno | fl, vln, pno | a.sax, gtr, pno | mixed quartet Ios Duo (1999) - flute and clarinet Melting Igloos (1998) - mixed quartet; Finalist Gaudeamus Foundation Prize, 2000  SOLO INSTRUMENT Hallucination (2014) - solo fortepiano The Beating Heart of the City (2014) - installation Rhythmic Etudes - Book One (2014) - piano solo Torrent (2011) - solo flute For Crying Out Loud (2004) - harpsicord | piano Workshop (2004) - alto record and tape | flute and tape Moonrise (1998) - flute; finalist Gaudeamus Foundation Prize, 1999 Why (1994) - flute solo

Discography.

NOT Trio - Injured (2013) American Composers Orchestra - Playing it UNsafe (2009) Steve Horowitz - Stations of the Breath (2009) Gregory Oakes - New Dialects (2009) Axyz Ensemble - Medcezir (2008) Spinifex Orchestra (2008) Hexnut (2007) Tools (2006) Nandi Dasaru (2005) Non Sequitur (2005) Paximadi (2005) Rickshaw Chase (2001)

Ned McGowan (born 1970) is an American composer and flutist based in Amsterdam. Ned holds degrees in composition from the Royal Conservatory Den Haag and in flute from the Cleveland Institute of Music and the San Francisco Conservatory of Music. "“McGowan’s music strives for an idiom in which various musics – American popular, European classical and avant-garde, Carnatic, a fascination with proportionally intricate rhythms, the use of microtones in the search for new subtleties of melody – and many others, rub against each other and generate new meanings.”" - musicologist Bob Gilmore.

Ned McGowan (* 1970 in Philadelphia) ist ein US-amerikanischer Flötist und Komponist, der auf dem Gebiet der Neuen Musik, des Jazz und der Weltmusik aktiv ist.


History.

The first horrea were built in Rome towards the end of the 2nd century BC, with the first known public horreum being constructed by the ill-fated tribune Gaius Gracchus in 123 BC. The word came to be applied any place designated for the preservation of goods; thus it was often used refer to cellars ("horrea subterranea"), but it could also be applied to a place where artworks were stored, or even to a library. Some public horrea functioned somewhat like banks, where valuables could be stored, but the most important class of horrea were those where foodstuffs such as grain and olive oil were stored and distributed by the state. Rome's insatiable demands for foodstuffs meant that the amount of goods that passed through some of the city's horrea was immense, even by modern standards. The artificial hill of Monte Testaccio in Rome, which stands behind the site of the Horrea Galbae, is estimated to contain the remains of at least 53 million olive oil amphorae in which some 6 billion litres (1.58 billion gallons) of oil were imported.

Design and naming.

The horrea of Rome and its port, Ostia, stood two or more stories high. They were built with ramps, rather than staircases, to provide easy access to the upper floors. Grain horrea had their ground floor raised on pillars to reduce the likelihood of damp getting in and spoiling the goods. Many horrea appear to have served as great trading areas with rows of small shops ("tabernae") off a central courtyard; some may have been fairly elaborate, perhaps serving as the equivalent of modern shopping arcades. Others, such as those in Ostia, dispensed with the courtyard and instead had rows of "tabernae" standing back-to-back. In the Middle East, horrea took a very different design with a single row of very deep "tabernae", all opening onto the same side; this reflected an architectural style that was widely followed in the region's palaces and temple complexes, well before the arrival of the Romans.  Unsurprisingly, security and fire protection were major concerns. Horrea were frequently built with very thick walls (as much as 1 m / 3 ft thick) to reduce the danger of fire, and the windows were always narrow and placed high up on the wall to deter theft. Doors were protected with elaborate systems of locks and bolts. Even the largest horrea usually only had two or three external doors, which were often quite narrow and would not have permitted the entrance of carts. The arduous task of moving goods into, out of and around horrea was most probably carried out by manual labour alone; the biggest horrea would thus have had an enormous staff of labourers.  Roman horrea were individually named, some having names indicating the commodities they stored (and probably sold), such as wax ("candelaria"), paper ("chartaria") and pepper ("piperataria"). Others were named after emperors or other individuals connected with the imperial family, such as the aforementioned Horrea Galbae, which were apparently named after the 1st century AD emperor Galba. A particularly well-preserved horreum in Ostia, the Horrea Epagathiana et Epaphroditiana, is known from an inscription to have been named after two freedmen (presumably its owners), Epagathus and Epaphroditus.

A horreum (plural: "horrea") was a type of public warehouse used during the ancient Roman period. Although the Latin term is often used to refer to granaries, Roman horrea were used to store many other types of consumables; the giant Horrea Galbae in Rome were used not only to store grain but also olive oil, wine, foodstuffs, clothing and even marble. By the end of the imperial period, the city of Rome had nearly 300 horrea to supply its demands. The biggest were enormous, even by modern standards; the Horrea Galbae contained 140 rooms on the ground floor alone, covering an area of some 225,000 square feet (21,000 m2). The amount of storage space available in the public horrea can be judged by the fact that when the emperor Septimius Severus died in 211 AD, he is said to have left the city's horrea stocked with enough food to supply Rome's million-strong population for seven years. Smaller (though similar) horrea were a standard feature of Roman towns, cities and forts throughout the empire; well-preserved examples of military horrea have been excavated on Hadrian's Wall in England, notably at the forts of Housesteads, Corbridge and South Shields.

Ein Horreum (lateinisch "horreum"; Plural "horrea") ist ein römisches Lagerhaus oder Magazingebäude. Neben Lagerhäusern für Waren aller Art wurden als "horrea" vor allem Magazine für Lebensmittel bezeichnet, insbesondere für Getreide (diese wurden auch "granaria" genannt). Es gab Lagerhäuser für spezielle Waren:


Origin.

Lasserre's father, Henri Lasserre (born 4 July 1875 in Geneva, Switzerland, died 26 May 1945 in Toronto, Ontario, Canada) was, by nationality Swiss. His family came as Huguenots from Pont de Camarès (France) and emigrated to Switzerland in 1749. Early in his life, Henri Lasserre was interested in Tolstoy and life in communities and later immigrated to Canada. Jean Lasserre dedicated his book War and the Gospel to the memory of his father. His mother, Marie Schnurr (born 12 January 1878 in Lyon, France, died 19 February 1960 in Lyon) was an artist and botanist. After the divorce of his parents in 1909 Jean Lasserre lived in Lyon. In 1930, he became a French citizen.

Studies and encounter with Dietrich Bonhoeffer.

From 1926 to 1930 Jean Lasserre studied theology in Paris and from September 1930 to 1931, Lasserre was a seminarian at Union Theological Seminary in New York. There he met two other European scholars, Erwin Sutz and Dietrich Bonhoeffer. Despite the inter-War tensions between France and Germany, Bonhoeffer and Lasserre became friends. Following the academic year Jean Lasserre and Dietrich Bonhoeffer traveled around the United States and Mexico.  In the following years, there were various reunions: 1931 at an ecumenical conference in Cambridge, in 1932 in Les Houches in the valley of Chamonix, 1934 at the World Youth Conference of the World Association for Friendship through the Churches and in the same year in Bruay en-Artois. Eventually, Lasserre was only able to correspond with Dietrich Bonhoeffer via letter until he was arrested in April 1943. Jean Lasserre burned their letters during the German occupation of France out of concern for his family and himself.

Parish, family, Resistance and struggle against alcoholism, racism and prostitution.

After completing his theological studies from 1932 to 1938 Jean Lasserre served as pastor of the Reformed church in Bruay-en-Artois where, in 1938, he married Geneviève Lasserre Marchyllie (born March 8, 1912 in Calais, died April 11, 1991 in Lyon). They had three children together. Dietrich Bonhoeffer visited Lasserre there. Lasserre fought in the community against alcoholism and racism.  From 1938 to 1949 Lasserre was pastor in Maubeuge. During World War II, Lasserre confronted his pacificist convictions and hid for the Résistance two radio receivers from London in preparation for sabotaging ammunition transports. The explosion left no one dead. After Lasserre worked as a lawyer in court proceedings trying collaborators. He succeeded in at least in one case in averting the death penalty.  In 1946, he launched a campaign against prostitution (see his book Comment les maisons furent fermées, 1955). From 1949 to 1953 Lasserre served as a pastor in Épernay. In Épernay, Lasserre wrote about the war and the gospel and wrote his first book on peace theology. From 1953 to 1961 he was pastor of the "Fraternity in St. Étienne" and from 1969 to 1973 a pastor in Calais.

Peace Work for the International Fellowship of Reconciliation.

As a member of the French branch of the International Fellowship of Reconciliation, which was founded in 1921 by Henri Roser others, Lasserre served in 1961 as travel secretary of the International Fellowship of Reconciliation. On 29 March 1966 Martin Luther King Jr. visited Lyon and made a speech before 5 000 people, and Jean Lasserre was one of the organizers. Lasserre also participated in the struggle against the war in Algeria and in the fight against torture.  A selection of his lectures in 1965 was published in second book on peace theology, "Les Chrétien et la Violence."  From 1957 to 1968 and again from 1977 until 1978 Lasserre served as an editor of the Cahiers de la Réconciliation, the journal of the French-speaking Fellowship of Reconciliation.  In 1966 Lasserre toured Africa, remaining in contact with the Kimbanguistenkirche in the French Congo (now the Republic of Congo) and helped it to join the World Council of Churches. Even after Lasserre retired in 1973, he remained in constant contact with the Larzac struggle (against the expansion of a military training ground), the Ark community and the fight against nuclear weapons. From 1975 Lasserre crafted Franco-German meeting with theological studies on the Gospel and nonviolence.

Significance.

Together with the Mennonite theologian John Howard Yoder, Jean Lasserre contributed significantly to the position of Christian pacifists interpreting the meaning of the beatitude of Jesus in, "Blessed are the peacemakers," in the wake of the Ecumenical Conference of 1948 in Amsterdam regarding the three different positions within Christianity over the issue of violence. He created the concept of the Constantinian heresy, since the union of church and state as a result of the Constantine turning Christianity into the state religion.  Armée ou défense civile non-violente? Ouvrage collectif publié par "Combat non-violent". La Clayette 1975. More Articles:

Jean Lasserre (28 October 1908 in Geneva, Switzerland, † 22 November 1983 in Lyon, France) was a pastor of the Reformed Church of France, a peace theologian, the travel secretary of the French branch of the International Fellowship of Reconciliation and the editor of the "Cahiers de la Réconciliation", a French-language magazine. His book, "The War and the Gospel" (French original 1953) made him internationally known.

Jean Lasserre (* 28. Oktober 1908 in Genf; † 22. November 1983 in Lyon) war ein schweizerisch-französischer Pfarrer und Pazifist. Er war Pfarrer der reformierten Kirche Frankreichs, Friedenstheologe, Reisesekretär des französischen Zweiges des Internationalen Versöhnungsbundes und Herausgeber der "Cahiers de la Réconciliation", dessen französischsprachiger Zeitschrift. Sein Buch "Der Krieg und das Evangelium" (französisches Original 1953) machte ihn international bekannt.


History.

Sankt Andreasberg was founded in the 1480s. It was first mentioned in a letter from the Count Heinrich zu Stolberg to Dietrich von Witzlebenon on 3 November 1487. The establishment of the village took place around the market. The first silver mines are assumed to be the St. Andrews Cross Mine () at the foot of the "Beerberg" and the St. Andrews Mine ("Grube St. Andreas") by the market. In 1521, St. Andreasberg received the right to mine from Counts Heinrich and Ernst von Hohenstein. It was proclaimed in Mansfelder Land and in the mining areas of Saxony and miners were invited to dig for silver and other metals.

Natural monuments.

The area around Sankt Andreasberg is especially rich in habitats worthy of protection in within the Harz National Park, but also around the town in the form of Upper Harz mountain meadows. In the national park north-northwest of Sankt Andreasberg are the "Dreibrodesteine" (at ca. ; ; ND GS 43), three outsize blocks of granite that have been formed by spheroidal weathering. According to legend they originated as the three loaves of bread of a heartless woman who would not help a starving miner. With the words ("I'd rather my three loaves became stones") she spurned the miner, whereupon the loaves grew into giant stones and squashed the woman into the mossy earth. The granite blocks were considered a warning against heartlessness. At the "Dreibrodesteine" is checkpoint no. 154 ("Dreibrodestein") in the Harzer Wandernadel hiking system and a memorial to the foresters and officials of the Andreasberg Forestry Office who fell in the two world wars.  Other natural monuments are a group of chestnuts on the market square (ND GS 42) and the diabase deposit in the village of Silberhütte (ND GS 45). Johann Wolfgang von Goethe researched in 1783 the Hohe Klippen rocks (ND GS 146) on the Rehberg mountain above the present-day Goethe Place on the Rehberger Graben ditche, because he believed he would find evidence there for his assumptions about the earth's history. The boundary between the geological platform made of greywacke hornfels and the underlying fine-grained Brocken granite runs by the Hohe Klippen.

Religion.

The population of Sankt Andreasberg is mostly Protestant.

Sport.

As a result of their elevation, Sankt Andreasberg (520–720 m) and Sonnenberg (800–850 m) still have fairly guaranteed snow. Sankt Andreasberg is an "Alpine Ski Centre of the Harz", with three T-bar lifts on the Sonnenberg as well as two double chair lifts and three T-bars at the Matthias Schmidt Mountain Centre. In the Teichtal there is the first snowtubing track in the Harz. The cross-country skiing trail network around Sankt Andreasberg has 40 km of tracks and is linked from the Sonnenberg to Oderbrück/Torfhaus and to the Ackerloipe/Altenau networks. On Matthias Schmidt Mountain a Sommerrodelbahn is open during the summer. Nordic Walking, hiking, mountain biking and trekking are popular summer activities in the peaceful surroundings of the Sankt Andreasberg mountain town. In the spa park there is a ropes course and climbing park. The southern part of the Oderteich reservoir in the Harz National Park is open to swimmers in the summer.  Coming from Torfhaus and Oderteich, the Brocken bypass section of the nearly 100 km long Harzer Hexenstieg hiking trail passes through the town and heads for Braunlage and Thale.  Mountain rescue services are provided by the local Harz Mountain Rescue Club.  Several Sankt Andreasberg sports clubs enjoy a long tradition. These include the Sankt Andreasberg Shooting Club (1522) and the Sankt Andreasberg Gymnastics and Sports Club (1861). Following the success of the 1st Winterfest in 1896 the Upper Harz Ski Club was founded on the Brocken; it is now called the St. Andreasberg Ski Club 1896.

Sankt Andreasberg is a former town in the district of Goslar, in Lower Saxony, Germany. Since 1 November 2011, it is part of the town Braunlage. It is situated in the Harz, approximately 7 km west of Braunlage proper, and 20 km east of Osterode am Harz.

Sankt Andreasberg () (auch "St. Andreasberg", offizielle Bezeichnung "Bergstadt Sankt Andreasberg") ist eine ehemals freie Bergstadt im Oberharz und gehört seit dem 1. November 2011 zur neugebildeten Stadt Braunlage im Landkreis Goslar.


Early life.

Paul Zorner was born on 31 March 1920 in Roben, Leobschütz, Upper Silesia. He was a son of head teachers and one of eight children. Zorner expressed an interest in Glider flying in his early years but the size of the family strained his parent's financial resources and he could not take up the hobby. In the spring, 1938 aged 18, Zorner passed his "Abitur", school leaving certificate. Zorner desired a military flying career and he applied to join the "Luftwaffe" and was accepted as a "Fahnenjunker" (officer candidate) in October 1938.  On 8 November 1938 Zorner began his "Flugzeugführerausbildung" (pilot training) as a learner pilot at Oschatz-Sachsen. On 14 March 1939 he was accepted as "Fähnrich" and transferred to Berlin-Gatow. There, he completed the first stage of his officer training on 31 October 1939. Zorner progressed through the A/B Schools (elementary flying schools) and trained at the "Flugzeugführerschule C" in Lönnewitz to gain his pilot license on multi-engine aircraft from 1 November 1939 to the 30 June 1940. He was promoted to the officer rank "Leutnant" (Second Lieutenant) on 1 April 1940.  From 4–30 June 1940 Zorner was based at the "Fluglehrerschule" (flight instructor school) in Brandenburg and from the 1 July 1940 – 15 January 1941 he attended the "Flugzeugführerschule" C 11 to complete his advanced training. Zorner attended the "Blindflugschule" (Blind Flying School) at Neuburg an der Donau from 23 August–16 September 1940 to qualify for night flying.

World War II.

Zorner was posted to 4. "Staffel" (squadron) "Kampfgruppe zur besonderen Verwendung" 104 (KGr.z.b.v. 104—Fighting Group for Special Use) to fly the Junkers Ju 52 transport aircraft. The unit deployed to Athens, Greece in April 1941. It assisted in the airborne drop against Crete—"Unternehmen Merkur" (Operation Mercury). Zorner flew over 160 missions in the Mediterranean and North African theatre. The most notable action was the Anglo-Iraqi War in May 1941. KGr.z.b.v. 104 flew spare part supplies for "Zerstörergeschwader" 76 (Destroyer Wing 76) in Iraq. Zorner recorded transport flights from Athens to Aleppo. Zorner was awarded the Iron Cross Second Class on 6 June 1941 for his service. KGr.z.b.v. 104 then moved to Romania to participate in Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union. It supported Army Group South in the initial assault but then disbanded in the autumn. Zorner left "KGr.z.b.v." 104 on 8 October 1941.

Night fighter.

Following the 1939 aerial Battle of the Heligoland Bight, bombing missions by the Royal Air Force (RAF) shifted to the cover of darkness, initiating the Defence of the Reich campaign. By mid-1940, "Generalmajor" (Brigadier General) Josef Kammhuber had established a night air defense system dubbed the Kammhuber Line. It consisted of a series of control sectors equipped with radars and searchlights and an associated night fighter. Each sector, named a "Himmelbett" (canopy bed), would direct the night fighter into visual range with target bombers. In 1941, the Luftwaffe started equipping night fighters with airborne radar such as the "Lichtenstein" radar. This airborne radar did not come into general use until early 1942.  Zorner joined the German night fighter force on 20 October 1941 and was ordered to Schleißheim, Austria, to attend the "Nachtjadgschule" 1 (Night Fighter School 1) to begin conversion and night fighter training on the Messerschmitt Bf 110. At Schleißheim Zorner learned the rudiments of air combat and day fighter tactics which he completed on 28 December 1941. From 1 January 1942 Zorner undertook night fighter training "Nachtjadgschule" 1, at the Ingolstadt base. On 1 April 1942 he was promoted to "Oberleutnant" (First Lieutenant). He graduated on 20 May 1942. The final phase of training was completed with "Ergänzungs-Nachtjagdgruppe" (Supplementary Night Hunting Group) at Stuttgart.  Zorner was posted to 8. "Staffel" (squadron), II. "Gruppe" (Group) "Nachtjagdgeschwader" 2 (NJG 2—Night Fighter Wing 2) based at Gilze-Rijen Air Base in the Netherlands on 1 July 1942. On 3 October 1942 Zorner was moved again, this time to 10./"Nachtjagdgeschwader" 3 (NJG 3—Night Fighter Wing 3), at Grove, where he remained until 5 December 1942. The next day he was ordered to Wittmundhafen and appointed "Staffelkapitän" (squadron leader) of 2./NJG 3. Zorner held this command until 15 March 1943. The "Staffel" was equipped with the Dornier Do 217 night fighter. Zorner disliked flying the Dornier and lobbied his commanding officer, "Gruppenkommandeur" Egmont Prinz zur Lippe-Weißenfeld to fly the Bf 110. Lippe-Weißenfeld agreed on the condition that he flies both operationally in rotation with other units.  On the night of 17/18 January 1943 Air Officer Commanding (AOC) RAF Bomber Command, Arthur Harris ordered an attack on Berlin. 170 Avro Lancaster and 17 Handley-Page Halifax bombers carried out the operation. It was to be the last attack on the German capital until the H2S ground scanning radar became available. Zorner intercepted a Halifax northwest of Juist and shot it down at 21:55. Zorner achieved this success on his 14th mission as a night fighter pilot.  Bomber Command attacked Wilhelmshaven with 177 aircraft—129 Lancaster, 40 Halifax and eight Short Stirlings on 11/12 February 1943. The Pathfinders found that the Wilhelmshaven area was covered by cloud. The British marked the target by parachute flares using H2S. The naval ammunition depot at Mariensiel to the south of Wilhelmshaven blew up and caused widespread damage in the naval dockyard and in the town. Zorner engaged a Lancaster west northwest of Borkum and claimed it shot down over the North Sea. Zorner was the only pilot in the "Luftwaffe" to claim a victory on this night. One of the three crews lost in the operation flew in Lancaster I, DX-D, of No. 57 Squadron RAF. Sergeant K. T. Dutton and his six crewmembers disappeared and were listed "lost without trace."  After his second victory, "Geschwaderkommodore" Johann Schalk warned Zorner for leaving the Do 217s idle. On Zorner's next flight, he operated the type. Zorner claimed his third victory on 19 February, north of Norderney at 20:34. The bomber was recorded as a Douglas A-20 Havoc. During the engagement Zorner's Dornier sustained a hit in the wing and one through the starboard engine casing causing an oil leak, necessitating a forced landing on one engine. Although Zorner claimed a probable, an anti-aircraft artillery battery had witnessed the enemy bomber flying just above the sea before it disappeared into the mist. Since its recovery was deemed impossible, he was granted the victory. Zorner's victim was Vickers Wellington II, "BJ1919" OW-P of No. 426 Squadron RAF piloted by Sergeant J. O. R. Gauthier. Sergeants H. R. Bailey, F. Ruzycki, R. C. Ramsay, Flight Sergeant R. W. Ferrier and Pilot Officer C. A. McKinnon, all of RCAF, were posted missing in action. The aircraft has never been found, and likely crashed into the North Sea. On the night of 26 February Zorner claimed a Short Stirling northwest of Schiermonnikoog at 20:46.

Ruhr and Baltic.

Air Marshal Harris, AOC RAF Bomber Command escalated the air war in 1943 and began a concerted effort to destroy the industrial German Ruhr region through area bombing. From March to July 1943 Bomber Command began the campaign, dubbed the Battle of the Ruhr. Harris had 53 squadrons, 16 of which were medium bombers equipped with H2S terrain mapping radar. Zorner's first victory in the defence of the Ruhr came on the night of the 7/8 March 1943 northeast of Norden at 20:50 when he claimed a Wellington. The only other claimant was Karl-Heinz Scherfling. Zorner's victim was probably Wellington "HE202", SE-Z, piloted by Sergeant Derek Cecil of No. 431 Squadron RAF. The bomber was conducting "Gardening" (minelaying operations) by the Frisian Islands when it was shot down. All five crewmen became prisoners of war.  Zorner claimed another Wellington on 13/14 March at 03:51, north of Norderney, one of only two claims. This machine was "BK296", PT, from No. 420 Squadron RCAF. Pilot Flight Sergeant Charles Harrison Tidy and his crew were killed. Zorner was made "Staffelkapitän" of 8./NJG 3 two days later. In April 1943 Zorner was ordered to carry out two daylight operations against the United States Army Air Force (USAAF). Zorner found the task unsuitable for the Bf 110. A combat box of B-17 Flying Fortress bombers had eight firing positions and a formation of nine could muster over 100 guns. The Bf 110 was adjudged to be only faster and the most effective tactic, the head-on-attack, could only be executed three times for the aircraft could not position itself in front of the bomber formations quickly enough: the endurance of two hours forty-five minutes was not sufficient for these lengthy manoeuvres. On the second sortie he flew Lippe-Webenfeld's Bf 110 but was hit in both wings and engines and force-landed without success near Cloppenburg. Zorner claimed his 7th victory on 28/29 June southeast of Antwerp, Belgium at 02:20. It was recorded as a Halifax bomber. Another Wellington was claimed southwest of Sint-Truiden at 01:09. Zorner achieved his 10th victory west of Malmedy at 01:53. Zorner's 11th victory was shot down northeast of Groningen at 03:54 on 24/25 July. His victim was Halifax "R5573" flown by Flight Sergeant Kenneth Hector Wally McLean from No. 106 Squadron RAF. Zorner saw the Halifax crash and explode which resulted in a fire-work display of green, red and white flashes. They assumed the aircraft to be a pathfinder, and the flashes exploding flares. Soon afterwards Zorner and his crewman had to abandon the Bf 110G-4 because an engine caught fire. Zorner extinguished the fire but he could no longer calibrate the propeller pitch to a glide setting. The other power plant could not cope with the added workload and the Bf 110 began to lose height. Zorner ordered his crew to leave. Zorner struggled to exit as his parachute snagged. He managed to clamber back into the cockpit and lower the flaps which slowed the aircraft and afforded him time to unhook the parachute from the strengthening beam in the cockpit and parachute to safety.  Zorner had to wait several weeks for another successful engagement. On 18 August 1943 Bomber Command carried out Operation "Hydra", an attack on the Peenemünde Army Research Center. At 01:53 over the Baltic Sea Zorner claimed a Lancaster followed by another Lancaster over Peenemünde at 02:03—his 13th victory. It was his last victory with 3./NJG 3. On 9 September 1943 he was appointed "Staffelkapitän" of 8./NJG 3.

Battle of Berlin.

At the beginning of November 1943 Zorner's Bf 110G was fitted with a FuG 220 Lichtenstein SN-2 radar. The new radar was not affected by "window". On the night of 18/19 November 1943 as RAF Bomber Command began their Berlin offensive and Zorner led 8. "Staffel" through his most successful period of operations. Operating from Lüneburg, Zorner scrambled to intercept 383 aircraft, 365 Lancaster, 10 Halifax and eight de Havilland Mosquito bombers which attacked Berlin on 23/24 November 1943. Zorner caught a Lancaster at 20:09 northwest of Berlin and dispatched the bomber for his 14th victory. On 2 December, Zorner accounted for two Lancaster bombers: one near Diepholz at 19:24 and southwest of Berlin at 20:29. On 20 December at 20:02 claimed a Lancaster. The location was recorded as "Hintetmeiligen". On 23/24 December 1943 Bomber Command returned to Berlin. Zorner claimed three Lancasters: one east of Giessen at 03:02, another south of Diepholz at 05:43 and a third at 06:02 over Cloppenburg. One of the bombers was Avro Lancaster III "ED999", KM-X, from No. 44 Squadron RAF, piloted by Sergeant R. L. Hands. Hands and his crew were killed in action. Zorner maintained his success in 1944. Over Luckenwalde at 03:10 on 3 January 1944 Zorner accounted for his 21st victory. On the 6 January at 02:42 and 02:51 he claimed two Lancasters northwest of Stettin and on 20 January at 19:31 and 19:45 he claimed one Halifax (LL135) and one Lancaster (JB419), while operating north west of Berlin. These victories were achieved with the "Schräge Musik" which had been installed on his Bf 110G-4 prior to the patrol. Four weeks later, on 15 February, Zorner filed claims for two Lancaster bombers at 20:22 and 21:11 near Berlin. The latest Lancaster bombers took his victory total to 27. On 20 February at 03:04 and 03:17 near Wesendorf, at 03:26 over Gardelegen, and at 03:41 south of Briest, Zorner claimed a Lancaster shot down to record his 28th–31st aerial victories.  On 24/25 February 1944, Bomber Command turned its attention to Schweinfurt. 554 Lancaster, 169 Halifax and 11 Mosquito bombers carried out the attack. The route took the bomber stream over Stuttgart. Bomber Command lost 26 Lancaster and seven Halifax bombers (4.5 per cent). Zorner claimed five bombers shot down, becoming an ace in one sortie. The first claim was made west of Stuttgart at 22:15, southwest of the city at 22:22, southwest at 22:30, west at 00:25 and finally north of Stuttgart at 00:51. All five were Lancasters. The latter two claims were made after midnight thus Zorner did not qualify for ace in a day status. By day-break Zorner had been officially credited with 35 enemy bombers destroyed in night operations.  On 1 March 1944 Zorner was promoted to "Hauptmann" (Captain). He continued to command 8. "Staffel". He downed two Lancasters on 22 March in the Frankfurt area between 21:42 and 22:16. A solitary claim on 24 March was followed by a triple claim on 26 March. A single Lancaster was engaged and destroyed north of Oberhausen at 22:01, west of Sint Truiden at 23:03 and then southwest of Brussels at 23:12. For his achievements in battle Zorner was awarded the German Cross in Gold on 20 March 1944. On 4 April 1944 Zorner was appointed "Gruppenkommandeur" of III./"Nachtjagdgeschwader" 5 (NJG 5), based at Mainz Finthen Airport having relinquished his command of 8. "Staffel" the day before. In the early hours of 21 April 1944 Zorner claimed a rare victory for the German night fighter arm—a de Havilland Mosquito. Southeast of Antwerp at 03:00 Zorner spotted an aircraft which appeared to be a Junkers Ju 88 flying on one engine. Zorner closed to and saw it was an enemy aircraft. He fired a burst that shattered the good engine. The British bomber dived into haze and four minutes later the crew observed an explosion on the ground. The following morning a Mosquito was confirmed shot down. The Mosquito belonged to No. 169 Squadron RAF. "DD616", was operating out of RAF Little Snoring, Norfolk. Flight Lieutenant Morgan and his navigator Flight Sergeant Bentley bailed out.

Gruppenkommandeur.

On the night of 27/28 April 1944, Bomber Command struck at Friedrichshafen with 322 heavy bombers. The diversion attacks confused German defences and no bomber was lost on the inward flight. The German night fighter reorganised and 18 were shot down on the homeward route. Zorner intercepted southeast of Nancy claimed it destroyed at 01:20. After 31 minutes Zorner's radar operator Heinrich Wilke gained another contact and Zorner duly shot down a second Lancaster southwest of Strasbourg. Northwest of Friedrichshafen, he shot down another bomber at 02:10. Zorner claimed a single victory on 1 June at 02:35 over Tergnier and the 3 June northwest of Evreux.  On 6 June 1944 Operation Overlord began. On that morning the D-Day landings began in Normandy. Within twenty-four hours Zorner's "Gruppe" had relocated to Athies-sous-Laon. The night fighter force resisted the Allied air forces over France by night and the skies over France became a target-rich environment. The RAF Second Tactical Air Force and the Ninth US Tactical Air Force flew night operations alongside bomber command. For the "Luftwaffe", the night actions also produced dangers. Their bases were within easy range of No. 100 Group RAF night fighters.  Two days after his deployment to France, Zorner was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross () on 9 June for 48 victories. He received the award from Joseph Schmid, commanding 1. "Jagdkorps". On the night of the 10/11 June 1944 he shot down four bombers targeting railway installations. The victories (nos. 49–52) were recorded west and southwest of Dreux with two more Lancaster bombers falling over Verneuil-sur-Avre between 01:00 and 01:42. The first three bombers were claimed within eight minutes. Zorner achieved a double victory on 25/26 June. Bomber Command sent 739 bombers including 53 Lancaster, 165 Halifax and 39 Mosquito bombers to attack the V-1 flying bomb sites in the Pas-de-Calais. At 00:30, east of Boulogne Zorner shot down a Lancaster with his front-firing guns and he used his "Schärge Musik" armament to down a second—his 54th victory.  On the 1 July at 01:22 near Bourges Zorner shot down another Lancaster. On 24/25 July 1944 Bomber Command returned to the V-1 sites. Northwest of both Strasbourg and Saint-Dizier, between 02:35 and 02:54 Zorner claimed victory number 57 and 58. Zorner remained with NJG 5 but did not file another claim as the German front in Normandy collapsed. On 17 September 1944 Zorner became the 588th recipient of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves (). It was not presented to Zorner until 2 December 1944 when he was handed the medal by "Reichsmarshal" Hermann Göring, commander-in-chief of the "Luftwaffe" at the "Reichsluftfahrtministerium". By this time III./NJG 5 was based at Lübeck.  Zorner was transferred from front-line operations and on 13 October 1944 he appointed "Gruppenkommandeur" of II./"Nachtjagdgeschwader" 100 equipped with Ju 88G night-fighters based at Nový Dvůr. On 1 December 1944 Zorner was promoted to Major. He commanded the unit in operations over Czechoslovakia and Austria until 8 May 1945. The promotion came six days after his radar operator "Feldwebel" Heinrich Wilke, was awarded the Knight's Cross on 25 November 1944 for participating in all Zorner's 58 victories. II./NJG 100 was subordinated to the 7th "Jagddivision" (7th Fighter Division).  The "Geschwader" relocated several times owing to Red Army advances, moving to Vienna, Linz, Prague and finally to Karlsbad in western Germany. The "Gruppe" was overloaded with 53 of the Ju 88G-6 models and Zorner had 630 men under his command. Only 35 were technically fit for operations and he classified only four as combat ready. On the evening of 5/6 March 1945, the group was ordered to scramble a single Ju 88. Zorner decided to fly himself, after a long period of non-operational flying. South southwest of Graz, he shot down Consolidated B-24 Liberator at 01:30.  One B-24 was lost on this night to a night fighter. Liberator VI "KH150", "R", of 34 Squadron SAAF was shot down and the crew were killed. Lieutenant J. B. Masson, C. E. Park, Second Lieutenant C. D. Foord, Flying Officer F. S. A. Thomas, A. R. Thomas, M. A. Ueckermann, R. V. Wilkson and Sergeant A. Stables died. They are buried in Udine, Italy.

Later life.

Zorner surrendered his "Gruppe" to United States Army forces near Karlovy Vary on 8 May 1945. Only Zorner and an interpreter were allowed through the lines. Zorner refused to abandon his men and for a week he remained with them under American guard. He was then handed over to Soviet Forces on 17 May. The men were marched without food for to Hoyerswerda north east of Dresden. Zorner was separated from his men and confined with 2,000 other officers. They survived on rations of fish soup and bread. In October 1945 he was transported to the Caucasus Mountains, in southern Russia. Some 500 officers were sent to a camp at Tkibuli, near Kutaisi, in the Georgian region of the Soviet Union. The prisoners organised the camp themselves. They were permitted to travel within a radius around the camp as long as their work assignments were complete. The German prisoners received some form of monetary payment.  Highly decorated officers were responsible for the kitchen and keeping the peace in the camp. The rooms were four by three metres in area. On the longer wall a wooden framework was mounted. Across this layered boards which measured two metres in length were stacked with a varying gap of. Outside was a corridor that was a metre wide. In 18 of the 20 rooms 500 prisoners were houses, usually 22 per room. The prisoners had to travel some on foot every morning to a quarry were they worked for eight hours drilling out limestone and fed 600 grams of bread and half a litre of cabbage soup. Zoner worked in the camp until the end of 1946.  In January 1946 Zorner was moved to a harsher environment in a coal mine. He heard a rumour that officers of Major rank and above could not be forced to work. He refused to work anymore and was subjected to punishment by the NKVD. The following day he was locked in solitary confinement. The following morning Zorner explained that he would prefer to work as a carpenter and the NKVD officers agreed. From April 1946 the conditions slowly improved in the camp. Ill-treatment from the guards, which had been rare anyway, stopped altogether. At the end of 1947 the prisoners were allowed to send letters to Germany. In 1948 they were permitted to receive packages from their families. In March 1949, Zorner and others planned to escape to Turkey, but events overtook them and the prisoners were repatriated to Germany.  On 19 December 1949 the prisoners were deloused, given new clothes, and transported to Brest-Litovsk on 23 December. From there he was sent to Frankfurt, where he arrived on 29 December. On 1 January 1950 he was sent to Ulm and was processed on 2 January. Zorner then travelled to Kaiserslautern in the French zone of occupation to obtain his discharge certificate and was officially a civilian on 3 January 1950.  Zorner studied mechanical engineering in Stuttgart and entered the field of refrigeration engineering before he rejoined the West German Air Force (Luftwaffe) in 1956. He was not passed fit to fly jet fighters and returned to civilian life in May 1957. He was employed within the chemical industry. He retired in 1981 as a chief engineer with Hoechst near Frankfurt. In May 2006, Zorner received the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany () for his voluntary services as founder of the "Silesian Partnership" (). The association, which was founded in 1995, aims to improve German-Polish relations and, among other things, has organised help during the 1997 Central European flood. Zorner died on 27 January 2014 in Homburg.

Aerial victory claims.

Zorner was credited with 59 nocturnal aerial victories, claimed in 272 combat missions, 110 of which as a night fighter.

Paul Anton Guido Zorner, born Paul Zloch (31 March 1920 – 27 January 2014) was a German night fighter pilot, who fought in the "Luftwaffe" during World War II. Zorner is credited with aerial victories claimed in including fighter missions. Zorner was the ninth most successful fighter pilot in the "Luftwaffe" and in the history of aerial warfare.

Paul Zorner, eigentlich "Paul Zloch", (* 31. März 1920 in Roben bei Leobschütz; † 27. Januar 2014 in Homburg) war ein deutscher Luftwaffenoffizier und Nachtjagdflieger im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Er beendete den Krieg als Gruppenkommandeur mit 59 Luftsiegen im Range eines Majors und wurde mit dem Eichenlaub zum Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ausgezeichnet. 2006 erhielt Zorner für seine Verdienste als Gründer des Fördervereins „Partnerschaft mit Schlesien“ die Verdienstmedaille des Verdienstordens der Bundesrepublik Deutschland.


Career.

Cambridge United.

Born in Redditch, Craddock started his career at non-league Christchurch before earning a move to third tier Cambridge United in August 1993 on a free transfer. He made his league debut on 11 December 1993 in a 0–0 draw with Stockport County.

Sunderland.

After four seasons at Cambridge, his talent was noted by Sunderland and he joined for £300,000 in August 1997. His second season with the Black Cats saw him help them to promotion to the top level, however, he ended up spending part of their first Premier League campaign on loan at Sheffield United.

Wolverhampton Wanderers.

When Sunderland were relegated after four seasons in the Premier League in 2003, Craddock was sold to newly promoted Wolves for £1.75million to replace the injured Joleon Lescott at centre back.  He was made captain at the start of the 2006–07 season by new manager Mick McCarthy. He found himself sent to Stoke City on loan in August 2007 though, but this spell was cut short through the emergency 24-hour clause the following month.  His 2008–09 season was interrupted when he broke a metatarsal in his foot in just the second league game, ruling him out for several months. After months of rehabilitation, Craddock was on the verge of a loan move, however injuries and loans meant that he stayed with the club. After a poor run of form for Richard Stearman, Craddock found himself once again in Wolves' first team, where he remained as the side went on to win the division and a return to the Premier League. He lifted the Championship trophy after the final game against Doncaster.  His return to the Premier League brought him a series of goals, as he netted against Stoke City, Arsenal, Bolton Wanderers and Aston Villa to help the club achieve safety. The season ended with him being voted the club's Player of the Season Award winner.  On 14 May 2011, the penultimate Premier League game of the 2010–11 season, Craddock opened the scoring for Wolves in their league game against his old club Sunderland at the Stadium of Light. Wolves won the game 3–1, taking a big step towards Premier League survival. On 22 June 2011, it was confirmed that Craddock had agreed a new one-year deal to stay at Molineux. Craddock was out of selection for the start of the 2011–12 season but on 4 December against Sunderland, Craddock was recalled to the starting XI to replace out of form Roger Johnson. On 20 July 2012, it was confirmed that Craddock had agreed a new one-year deal to stay at Molineux. This contract included him being involved in the first-team, but also coaching younger players in the academy.  He announced his retirement on 17 May 2013 and was granted a testimonial by Wolves as reward for ten years of service.

Personal life.

After his football career ended, Craddock developed as an artist producing portraiture, graffiti and photorealism. His first exhibition of his works, entitles "Le Bellezza Della Fusione", was held in November 2015, at the Antidote Art Gallery in Lutterworth, Leicestershire.

Career statistics.

Source:

Jody Darryl Craddock (born 25 July 1975) is an English former footballer and artist who played as a centre back in the Premier League for Sunderland and Wolverhampton Wanderers.

Jody Darryl Craddock (* 25. Juli 1975 in Redditch) ist ein ehemaliger englischer Fußballspieler. Der Innenverteidiger stand zwischen 2003 und 2013 bei den Wolverhampton Wanderers unter Vertrag, nachdem er zuvor bereits für Cambridge United und den AFC Sunderland jeweils fast 150 Ligaspiele absolviert hatte. Abseits des Sports machte sich Craddock als Maler einen Namen.