Biography.

The major part of the biographical information known about Dominic Savio comes from his biography written by John Bosco, in addition to the testimonies given by Savio's family and friends.

Early life.

On 2 April 1842 in the village of Riva, from the town of Chieri, in Piedmont, northern Italy a son was born to Carlo and Brigitta Savio. He was given the name Domenico at baptism. The name "Domenico" means "of the Lord" and the surname "Savio" means "wise". His parents had ten children in all. His father was a blacksmith and his mother, a seamstress. They were poor, hardworking and pious.  When he was two years old, his parents returned to their native place at Murialdo on the outskirts of Castelnuovo d'Asti and from where they had gone to Riva in 1841. His parents took great care to give him a Christian upbringing. By the age of four, Dominic was able to pray by himself and was occasionally found in solitude, praying. John Bosco records that Savio's parents recollect how he used to help his mother around the house, welcome his father home, say his prayers without being reminded, (even reminding others when they forgot) and say Grace at mealtimes unfailingly.

At the village school.

Fr. Giovanni Zucca from Murialdo, who was then the chaplain at Murialdo when Dominic was five years old, notes in a statement to John Bosco that he came to notice Dominic due to his regular church attendance with his mother, and his habit of kneeling down outside the church to pray (even in the mud or snow) if he happened to come to Church before it had been unlocked in the morning. The chaplain also notes that Savio made good progress at the village school not merely due to his cleverness, but also by working hard. He would not join the other boys in doing something that he believed to be morally wrong and would explain "why" he thought a particular deed was wrong.  At the age of five, he learned to serve Mass, and would try to participate at Mass every day as well as go regularly to Confession. Having been permitted to make his First Communion at an early age, he had much reverence for the Eucharist.

First Communion.

At that time, it was customary for children to receive their First Communion at the age of twelve. (Pope Pius X would later lower this age to seven) After initial hesitation, and subsequent consultation with other priests, the parish priest agreed to permit Dominic to receive his First Communion at the age of seven, since he knew the catechism and understood something of the Eucharist. He spent much time praying and reading in preparation, asking his mother's forgiveness for anything he might have done to displease her and then went to Church. In his biography of Dominic Savio, John Bosco devotes a chapter to tell of Dominic's First Communion. He says that several years later, whenever Dominic talked of the day of his First Communion, he said with joy: ""That was the happiest and most wonderful day of my life."" John Bosco records that on the day of his First Communion, Dominic made some promises which he wrote in a "little book", and re-read them many times. John Bosco once looked through Dominic's book, and he quotes from it the promises that he made:

At the county school.

For secondary education, Dominic had to go to another school and it was decided that he would go to the County School at Castelnuovo, three miles (5 km) from his home. (Castelnuovo d' Asti, now Castelnuovo John Bosco, was the birthplace of another contemporary of John Bosco, Joseph Cafasso, also a saint. He was four years the senior of John Bosco, and was Bosco's mentor and advisor.)  Now ten years old, Dominic walked daily to and from school. In his biography of Dominic Savio, John Bosco records how a local farmer once asked Dominic, on a hot sunny day, if he was not tired from walking, and received the reply: "Nothing seems tiresome or painful when you are working for a master who pays well." Don Bosco also notes that Dominic refused to go swimming with his friends since Dominic considered that in such a situation, it would be "also easy to offend God", he believed that on a previous occasion his friends behaved in, what was to him, a vulgar manner. In his biography Bosco records that Fr. Allora, the head of this school, had this to say about Dominic: "...Hence it may very well be said that he was Savio (wise), not only in name, but in fact, viz., in his studies, in piety, in conversation and his dealing with others, and in all his actions...."

Under John Bosco's mentorship.

Meeting with John Bosco.

It was Fr. Giuseppe Cugliero, Dominic's teacher at school, who gave a high account of him to John Bosco and recommended that Bosco meet him during the Feast of the Rosary, when he would take his boys to Murialdo. Accordingly, accompanied by his father, Dominic met John Bosco on the first Monday in the month of October 1854. John Bosco records this conversation in some detail. He notes that Dominic was eager to go to Turin with John Bosco, and that he wished to become a priest after completing his studies in that town.  To test Dominic's intelligence, Don Bosco gave him a copy of "The Catholic Readings" (pamphlets on the subject of Catholic Apologetics), asking him to recite a particular page by heart and explain its meaning the next day, and then spoke for a while with Dominic's father. Ten minutes later, he found Dominic was beside him reciting the page and explaining its meaning satisfactorily. This meeting was the beginning of their relationship, the result of which was that John Bosco agreed to take Dominic to Turin with him.

At the Oratory of St. Francis de Sales.

John Bosco records that when Dominic arrived at the Oratory, he at once placed himself under his guidance. He also notes that Dominic worked diligently and followed the school rules. He would happily listen to talks and sermons (even if they tended to be lengthy at times), and would, without hesitation, ask for clarification on points that were not clear to him. John Bosco also notes how Dominic was obedient to his teachers and chose his companions carefully.  This happened in 1854, when, in Rome, the dogma of the Immaculate Conception of Mary was being defined. Preparations for the observation of this feast were thus going on at the Oratory. Don Bosco records that, at the advice of his confessor, Dominic renewed his First Communion promises at the altar of Mary at the Oratory. Bosco says that, from this point the result of Dominic's attempts towards holy life were so apparent, that he (John Bosco) took to recording the various incidents that occurred for future reference.  John Bosco's mother, who was called "Mamma Margaret" remarked to him of Dominic, ""You have many good boys, but none can match the good heart and soul of Dominic Savio. I see him so often at prayer, staying in church after the others; every day he slips out of the playground to make a visit to the Blessed Sacrament. When he is in church he is like an angel living in Paradise.""

Resolve to become a saint.

Around six months after Dominic had come to the Oratory, he had the occasion to listen to a talk on sainthood. John Bosco records that the talk had three main points that impressed Dominic:  This inspired Dominic to take a conscious decision to become a saint. The immediate result of this was that, not being sure how to live a saintly life, and worried about it, he was quiet and worried for the next few days. Noticing this, John Bosco spoke to Dominic and advised him to resume his customary cheerfulness, persevere in his regular life of study and religious practices, and especially not neglect being with his companions in games and recreation. On learning that his first name meant "belonging to God", his desire to be a saint intensified. Dominic's spiritual growth progressed under the guidance of Don Bosco. Clifford Stevens says in his biography of Savio, ""In other circumstances, Dominic might have become a little self-righteous snob, but Don Bosco showed him the heroism of the ordinary and the sanctity of common sense.""

Attempts to do penances.

In his desire to become a saint, Dominic attempted to perform physical penances, like making his bed uncomfortable with small stones and pieces of wood, sleeping with a thin covering in winter, wearing a hair shirt, and fasting on bread and water. When his superiors (i.e., John Bosco, or his Rector, or his confessor) came to know this, they forbade him from doing bodily mortification, as it would affect his health.  John Bosco told Dominic that as a schoolboy, the best penance would be to perform all his duties with perfection and humility, and that obedience was the greatest sacrifice. Thus, Dominic formed an important aspect of his philosophy of life, which was, in his words, "I can't do big things but I want everything to be for the glory of God." Don Bosco notes that from that time on, Dominic did not complain about the food or the weather, unlike some other boys at the Oratory, bore all suffering cheerfully, and practised custody of his eyes and tongue. Eugenio Ceria, a Salesian commentator on the autobiography of John Bosco, ("Memoirs of the Oratory of Saint Francis de Sales") notes that by this time, owing to his experience as an educator, John Bosco's ideas on several pedagogical and spiritual principles were well developed and linked and this led him to associate the fulfillment of daily duties with holiness in his advice to Savio.

The Immaculate Conception Sodality.

The definition of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception of Mary influenced Dominic and he was anxious to create at the school a lasting reminder of this event. He now felt that he had not long to live. With the help of his friends, he started a group called the "Sodality of Mary Immaculate", the main aim of which was to be to obtain the special protection of Mary during life and at the time of death. The means Dominic proposed to this end were: (1) to honour, and to bring others to honour, Mary by different means, and (2) to encourage frequent Communion. On 8 June, he and his friends read out together before the altar of Mary at the Oratory, the set of rules they had drawn up. There were twenty-one articles (which were recorded by John Bosco in his biography), ending with an appeal to Mary for her assistance. These were submitted to the rector, and, after careful perusal, he gave his approval, under certain conditions. One of the members of this Sodality, Giuseppe Bongioanni, (who was later ordained a priest) was later to found the "Sodality of the Blessed Sacrament", which became a traditional sodality in Catholic schools.

Preparation for a holy death.

All the pupils under John Bosco observed a monthly event called "The Exercise of a Happy Death"; this practice continues under the name "The Monthly Day of Recollection". This practice was encouraged by Pope Pius IX. Part of this was to make a Confession and Communion as though they were the last ones to be made before death. Bosco notes that Dominic observed this practice devoutly, and that one day, Dominic said that he would be the first amongst the group to die. During the month of May, before his death, the intensity of his spiritual practices increased. John Bosco notes that he said, "Let me do what I can this year; if I am here next year I'll let you know what my plans are."

Failing health.

Dominic's health was steadily deteriorating, but he spent most of his time with his friends, talking with them, and encouraging those who were experiencing troubles. He also helped at the school infirmary whenever his companions were admitted. On the recommendation of doctors, Dominic was sent home to recover from his ill health, but a few days later Bosco found him back at the Oratory. Despite his affection for Dominic, and his wish to allow Dominic to remain at the Oratory, John Bosco decided to follow the recommendation of the doctors, especially since Dominic had developed a severe cough and he wrote to Dominic's father, fixing the date of his departure on 1 March 1857. Though Dominic said that he wanted to spend his last days at the Oratory, he accepted this decision and spent the evening before his departure at John Bosco's side, discussing spiritual matters. (Bosco recorded a part of this conversation in his biography of Dominic). On the morning of his departure, Don Bosco notes that Dominic made the "Exercise of a Happy Death" with great zeal, even saying that this would be his final such devotion. He said his farewell to John Bosco, asking as a keepsake that Bosco add his name to the list of those who would participate in the Plenary Indulgence that John Bosco had received from the Pope, to which John Bosco readily agreed. He then took leave of his friends with great affection, which surprised them, for his illness was not considered by many of his companions to be serious.

Death.

In his first four days at home his appetite decreased and his cough worsened; this prompted his parents to send him to the doctor, who, at once, ordered bed rest. Inflammation was diagnosed, and as was the custom at that time, the doctor decided to perform bloodletting. The doctor cut Dominic's arm ten times in the space of four days and it is now considered that this probably hastened his death. In his biography, John Bosco records that Dominic was calm throughout the procedure. The doctor assured his parents that the danger had passed and now it only remained for him to recuperate. Dominic, however, was sure that his death was approaching, and asked that he be allowed to make his Confession and receive Communion. Though they thought it unnecessary, his parents sent for the parish priest who heard Dominic's confession and administered the Eucharist.  After four days, despite the conviction of the doctor and his parents that he would get better, Dominic asked that he be given the Anointing of the Sick in preparation for death. Again, his parents agreed, to please him. On 9 March, he was given the papal blessing and he said the "Confiteor". Don Bosco records that throughout these days, he stayed serene and calm. On the evening of 9 March 1857, after being visited by his parish priest, he asked his father to read him the prayers for the "Exercise of a Happy Death" from his book of devotions. Then he slept a while, and shortly awakened and said in a clear voice, "Goodbye, Dad, goodbye... what was it the parish priest suggested to me... I don't seem to remember... Oh, what wonderful things I see...". With these words, Dominic died, though, at first, it appeared to his father that he was asleep. Dominic's father wrote in a letter to John Bosco, conveying the news of the death of his son,  With my heart full of grief I send you this sad news. Dominic, my dear son and your child in God, like a white lily, like Aloysius Gonzaga, gave his soul to God on 9 March after having received with the greatest devotion the Last Sacraments and the Papal Blessing.

Notable incidents in the life of Dominic Savio.

In order to give the reader a well rounded picture of Dominic's personality Don Bosco recorded several incidents from Dominic's life in his biography.

Before he joined the Oratory.

At the school at Mondonio.

Don Bosco records this from the testimony of Fr Giuseppe Cugliero. One day, in the absence of his teacher, two of Dominic's classmates stuffed the room-heating iron stove with snow and rubbish as a prank. Fearing expulsion, they blamed Dominic. Fr. Cugliero soundly berated Dominic in front of the class and Dominic bore this silently. The following day, the true culprits were discovered. On being asked why he had remained silent, Dominic replied that he had thought that he would be let off with a scolding whereas the other boys might have been expelled. Dominic added that Jesus had remained silent when blamed unjustly and that he was trying to imitate him. Mary Reed Newland, in her book, suggests that, since Dominic was yet to meet John Bosco, this incident is indicative of the upbringing his parents had given him.

At the Oratory.

Resolves a conflict.

At the Oratory, two of his friends had a disagreement and decided to fight each other by throwing stones. As they were older and stronger than Dominic (he had been promoted from first form to second form ) physical intervention was not possible. He tried to reason with them but with no positive result. Thus, on the day of the fight, he went with them to the site where the fight was to take place, and just before they could start, he placed himself between them, and holding up his crucifix, requested that they throw their first stones at him. Ashamed, the two boys gave up their fight. Dominic then persuaded them to go to Confession.

Custody of the eyes.

John Bosco records that once a boy who was visiting had brought with him a "magazine with bad pictures", and a group of fascinated boys were looking. On finding out, Dominic snatched the magazine and tore it up, saying, "You know well enough that one look is enough to stain your souls, and yet you go feasting your eyes on this."

Influence over his friends.

John Bosco records that Dominic spent a lot of time with his friends, encouraging them in their devotions, discouraging those with a habit of swearing, and teaching Catechism at Sunday School. Bosco also records that he would encourage his friends to make frequent use of the sacrament of confession and take Communion regularly, even giving them encouragement and advice in spiritual practices during games. John Bosco makes particular mention of two of Dominic's friends, Camillo Gavio of Tortona, and John Massaglia of Marmorito. (These two friends were dead by the time John Bosco wrote the biography, as he thought it best not to write about the friends of Dominic who were still alive.)

Devotions practised by Dominic.

Don Bosco narrates that before he came to the Oratory, Dominic made his Confession and took Communion once a month. After hearing a homily on the Sacraments, he chose a priest as his regular Confessor, (to whom Dominic made his Confessions until the end of his stay at the Oratory). The regularity with which Dominic approached the sacraments increased and, at the end of that year, as per the advice of his confessor, Dominic was taking Communion daily. He had a special intention for the Eucharist each day of the week. John Bosco notes that, whenever permitted, Dominic eagerly accompanied the priest when he took the Viaticum, and that he also kept the habit of kneeling down in the street if he encountered the Eucharist being carried by a priest, as was the custom in Catholic countries.

Incidents with special spiritual significance.

"Distractions".

John Bosco records that Dominic occasionally had intense experiences during prayer, which Dominic described as such: ""It is silly of me; I get a distraction and lose the thread of my prayers and then I see such wonderful things that the hours pass by like minutes”". On one occasion, he was missing from breakfast and the rector finally found him in the chapel, standing motionless and gazing at the tabernacle. He was not aware that the morning Mass had ended. On another occasion, John Bosco records that he saw Dominic in the chapel, speaking to God, and then waiting, as though listening to a reply.

Special knowledge.

John Bosco narrates how Dominic came to his room one day and urged him to accompany him. He led Bosco through many streets to a block of flats, rang the doorbell, and at once, went away. When the door opened, John Bosco found that within, there was a dying man who was desperately asking for a priest to make his last confession. Later, John Bosco asked Dominic how he had known about that man. However, since the question made Dominic uncomfortable, John Bosco did not press the matter.

The vision of England.

John Bosco records that Dominic once recounted to him a vision he had:  At his last goodbyes, Dominic requested John Bosco to tell the pope of his vision, which he did in 1858. The pope felt that this confirmed the plans he had already made concerning England.

His mother's pregnancy.

On 12 September 1856, Dominic asked John Bosco permission to go home, saying that his mother was ill, though he had received no communication. Dominic's mother was then expecting a baby and was in great pain, and when Dominic reached the house, he hugged and kissed his mother, and then left. His mother felt her pain leave her and Dominic's baby sister, Catherine, was born. The women assisting at the birth found that Dominic had left a green scapular around his mother's neck. His sister Theresa later wore this same scapular when she was in labour. She testified that it had been passed around to several other pregnant women and was later lost.

Charles Savio's vision of Dominic after his death.

The veneration of Dominic Savio grew with an event narrated by his father:

"The Life of Dominic Savio".

Soon after the death of Dominic, John Bosco wrote his biography, "The Life of Dominic Savio", which contributed to his canonisation. The original Italian edition was considered so well written during the time of Don Bosco that, along with his "History of Italy" and "Ecclesiastical History", it was used in many public schools as part of the course materials on the Italian language. Among the other writings of John Bosco are the "Biography of Fr. Joseph Cafasso", "The Life of Francis Besucco" and "The Life of Michael Magone".

Veneration.

Though some were of an opinion that Dominic was too young to be canonised, Pope Pius X insisted that this was not so, and started the process of his canonisation. Dominic Savio was declared Venerable in 1933 by Pope Pius XI, was beatified in 1950 by Pope Pius XII, and declared a saint in 1954. Pope Pius XI described him as "small in size, but a towering giant in spirit."

Memorials.

Schools and other.

United States.

In the saint's honour, there are several schools with his namesake. These include Dominic Savio High School in Austin, Texas, a middle school in Niagara Falls, New York, and in East Boston, Massachusetts, a college preparatory school, Savio Preparatory High School, which closed in 2008. In Tempe, Arizona, St. Dominic Savio Academy is a school for children with autism and related disorders. In Bellflower, CA, St. Dominic Savio School is a Salesian elementary school. In St. Louis, MO, the St. Dominic Savio campus of Holy Cross Academy serves Pre-K through 5th Grade.

United Kingdom.

In the United Kingdom, there is a primary school named after him, in Woodley, Berkshire, a secondary school, Savio Salesian College, in Bootle, Merseyside, and Savio House Retreat Centre in Bollington, Cheshire, there is also a special educational needs school in Hambledon, Surrey that is named after Dominic Savio. A former Catholic church in Farnborough, Hampshire (registered between 1967 and 2003) was dedicated to him.

Hong Kong.

In Hong Kong, there is a kindergarten on Hong Kong Island named Dominic Savio Kindergarten.

Ireland.

In Ireland there is a school called Saint Dominics in Kenagh, Co. Longford

India.

In India, there are high schools named after the saint – St. Dominic Savio's High School (http://stdominicsavios.com), in Patna and St. Dominic Savio High School (http://www.stdominicsavio.com) in Mumbai. In Lucknow there in an Intermediate College named after the saint – St. Dominic Savio College. In Chennai TN, there is St. Dominic Savio Matriculation Higher Secondary School and in West Bengal, St. Dominic Savio School, a coeducational school in Howrah. In Kerala, there is Savio English School in Kozhencherry. In the district of Matunga, Mumbai, Savio Kindergarten is attached to Don Bosco High School.

Malta.

In Malta, the presence of the Salesians is felt strongly. In Dingli, Savio College (a secondary boys school for pupils aged 11–15) is dedicated to the saint. Furthermore, a Youth Centre or "Oratorju" (oratory) dedicated to the same saint is found in Birkirkara.

Belgium.

In Belgium, there is a ‘dienstencentrum Gid(t)s’, commonly known as "Dominiek Savio Instituut".

Thailand.

There is a school named after him – Saint Dominic School – in Bangkok.

Indonesia.

In Indonesia, there is a junior high school named Domenico Savio Junior High School, in Semarang.

Philippines.

In the Philippines, there is St. Dominic Savio School of Lapu Lapu City in Lapu Lapu City, Cebu, St. Dominic Savio School Of Kalookan City in Caloocan, St. Dominic School of Kalibo in Aklan, and St. Dominic Savio Learning Center in Parañaque City. There is also a St. Dominic Savio Parish in Mandaluyong City. There is a Dominic Savio St. In Barangay Don Bosco, Better Living Subd, Paranaque City. There is a brass tribute memorial statue together with St. John Bosco and Blessed Laura Vicuña were located in St. John Bosco Parish Church in Makati, and also a colored tribute memorial statue located in Barangay Don Bosco beside PNCC Skyway Bldg. and near SM Bicutan in Parañaque City, Metro Manila.

Australia.

Dominic College is situated in Glenorchy, Tasmania.  Dominic College is the result of the amalgamation of Savio College, Holy Name Secondary School for girls, Savio Primary and St. John's Primary Schools.  The school was formed in 1973 and was the first Co-educational Catholic College in the State of Tasmania. The school has classes from Kindergarten to Year Ten and the Senior Campus amalgamated with other Catholic Secondary Colleges in 1995 to form Guilford Young College.  St. Dominic's College, Penrith, near Sydney, New South Wales, was established as a Christian Brothers college in 1959. Still administered by Edmund Rice Education Australia it is still an independent Catholic all boys school years 7–12.  Savio is a house at Salesian College Chadstone, a year 7–12 boys' school.

Slovakia.

In Slovakia, there are a few elementary schools named after the saint: the Elementary school of Dominic Savio in Zvolen founded in 1992, the Elementary School of Dominic Savio in Dubnica nad Váhom founded in 1991 and the Church Elementary School and Nursery of Dominic Savio in Vranov nad Topľou founded in 1992.

Canada.

There are five St. Dominic Savio Catholic Elementary Schools. One is located in Sainte-Catherine-de-Hatley, Quebec, one is located in Edmonton, Alberta, the other in Regina, Saskatchewan, one in Scarborough, Ontario. and the other in the Waterloo Catholic District School Board in Kitchener, Ontario.

Dominic Savio (; 2 April 1842 – 9 March 1857) was an Italian adolescent student of Saint John Bosco. He was studying to be a priest when he became ill and died at the age of 14, possibly from pleurisy. He is the only person of his age group who was declared a saint not on the basis of his having been a martyr, but on the basis of having lived what was seen as a holy life. He was noted for his piety and devotion to the Catholic faith, and was eventually canonized.

Der heilige Dominikus Savio auch Domenico Savio (* 2. April 1842 in Riva bei Chieri (Norditalien); † 9. März 1857 in Mondonio d'Asti) war Schüler bei Don Bosco.


Early life.

Viktor Pynzenyk was born on April 15, 1954 in Smolohovytsia, in the westernmost Zakarpattia Oblast (province) of the Ukrainian SSR (now Ukraine) to Mykhailo and Mariya Pynzenyk. After completing his secondary education, Pynzenyk studied at the Lviv State University, from which he graduated in 1975 as an economist. He stayed on in the same university until 1979 for the post-graduate work on his dissertation in Economics which he defended in 1980 receiving the degree of Candidate of Science (roughly Ph.D. equivalent). He continued his scientific work in the Moscow State University where he received his Doktor of Science degree in 1989. A year later, Pynzenyk became a professor of economics at his alma mater—the Lviv University.  In 1996 he received an honorary doctorate from the National University of Kyiv-Mohyla Academy.

Political and economic career.

Pynzenyk was sworn into Ukrainian parliament on January 4, 1992, and soon afterwards became a member of the economic reforms working group. Later that year, he became the Vice-Prime Minister of Ukraine as well as the Minister of Economy. As minister, Pynzenyk introduced the first economic reforms in the newly independent Ukraine, helping transform the country into a market economy.  In March 1992, Pynzenyk was elected to the second convocation of the parliament as part of the "Reforms" faction, serving his mandate until April 1998. As an MP, he participated in the finance and banking work group. From October 31, 1994 until September 5, 1995, he served as the country's First Vice Prime Minister of Ukraine, and from August 3, 1995 to April 7, 1997—as the Vice Prime Minister of Ukraine.  Viktor was elected to Verkhovna Rada for the third time in the 1998 Ukrainian parliamentary election serving from March 1998 until the next election in 2002. In 2002, Pynzenyk was elected as part of the "Our Ukraine" electoral bloc. Three years later, after the Orange Revolution, Pynzenyk was chosen as the Minister of Economy on February 4, 2005, and served his post until August 2006. Then on November 3, 2007, he became a deputy of the Verkhovna Rada of the sixth convocation as a member of the Reforms and Order Party, which participated in the elections as part of the Yulia Tymoshenko Bloc.  Viktor Pynzenyk served as the Minister of Finance of Ukraine in the Prime Minister Yulia Tymoshenko's Cabinet, elected on December 18, 2007. He offered his resignation on February 12, 2008 because he could not abandon the principles of a balanced budget with a minimum deficit, realistic revenue sources and limits on government borrowing. The Ukrainian Parliament still has to support this resignation. Tymoshenko's reaction to his resignation was: "Not all officials can withstand the challenges of a global economic crisis, not all of them can work under pressure, and respond adequately to challenges. The weakest leave their combat posts and turn to other activities", Tymoshenko also stated: "He was in hospital and was not working for health reasons". President Viktor Yushchenko's reaction to Pynzenyk's resignation was of a different nature: "It is a pity that such people – professional, honest and devoted to state interests are unable to realize their potential being members of the Government, losing such voice is a great misunderstanding and unprofessional policy of the Government. I am assured that the whole range of negative processes in budgetary policy will follow". Pynzenyk, in conversation with United States Ambassador to Ukraine John F. Tefft at a meeting on February 22, 2010 showed "frustration at his inability to convince Tymosehnko to take advantage of the opportunity presented by the 2008–2009 Ukrainian financial crisis to reform” (according to Tefft) and called Tymoshenko's decisions “normally guided by ‘adventurous populism,’” which she saw as a tool to “consolidate power in her own hands.”  On February 17, 2009 the Verkhovna Rada officially dismissed Pynzenyk. Pynzenyk was absent from the voting as he was in hospital.  Pynzenyk withdrawaled from the Reforms and Order Party in April 2010.  Pynzenyk was appointed deputy chairman of the supervisory council of UkrSibbank in February 2011.  Pynzenyk returned to national politics as number 7 on the party list of UDAR of Vitaliy Klychko for the 2012 Ukrainian parliamentary election. He was (re-)elected into parliament.  In the 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election he was again re-elected into parliament; this time after placing 17th on the electoral list of Petro Poroshenko Bloc.

Personal life.

Despite his career in politics, Viktor Pynzenyk remains a professor at the Lviv University. He has been named an honorary professor of the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy, and the Economics Institute of Ternopil. Additionally, he has been named an "Honored Economist of Ukraine" (as of 2004).  Viktor Pynzenyk is married to Mariya Romanivna (b. 1969), and they have two children:sons Volodymyr (b. 1993) and Vitaliy (b. 2007). He also has two daughters from the previous marriage Olga (b. 1981) and Yulia (b. 1989). Pynzenyk's hobbies include tourism, an interest in music, as well as playing the preferans game. His income declaration for 2006 constituted 265,200 hryvnias ($53,000). He drives a Toyota RAV4 and a Toyota 4Runner.

External links.

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Viktor Mykhailovych Pynzenyk () (born April 15, 1954 in Smolohovytsia, Zakarpattia Oblast) is a Ukrainian politician, economist, and former Minister of Finance. He is the former leader of the Reforms and Order Party.

Wiktor Mychailowytsch Pynsenyk (* 15. April 1954 in Smolohowyzja, Rajon Irschawa, Oblast Transkarpatien) ist ein ukrainischer Politiker. Er war von 1992 bis 1993, 2005 bis 2006 und 2007 bis 2009 Finanzminister der Ukraine.


Biography.

Born in Mobile, Alabama, Williams began his professional career at the age of fourteen with the Young Family band, which included saxophonist Lester Young. According to Williams he acquired his nickname as a boy when his father took him to a band concert. When it was over his father asked him what he'd heard and he replied, "Cootie, cootie, cootie."  In 1928, he made his first recordings with pianist James P. Johnson in New York, where he also worked briefly in the bands of Chick Webb and Fletcher Henderson. He rose to prominence as a member of Duke Ellington's orchestra when the band was playing at the Cotton Club, with which he first performed from 1929 to 1940. He also recorded his own sessions during this time, both freelance and with other Ellington sidemen. Williams was renowned for his "jungle" style trumpet playing (in the manner of Ellington's earlier trumpeter Bubber Miley and trombonist Joe "Tricky Sam" Nanton) and for his use of the plunger mute. He also sang occasionally. A notable instrumental feature being in the Ellington piece, "Echoes of the Jungle". For him, Duke Ellington wrote <nowiki>"</nowiki>Concerto for Cootie,<nowiki>"</nowiki> which when lyrics were added became "Do Nothing till You Hear from Me". He was also the soloist in other major Ellington compositions like <nowiki>"</nowiki>Echoes of Harlem<nowiki>"</nowiki>, "Harlem Air Shaft", and the religious piece <nowiki>"</nowiki>The Shepherd Who Watches Over the Night Flock,<nowiki>"</nowiki> which was dedicated to the Rev. John Gensel.  In 1940 he joined Benny Goodman's orchestra, a highly publicized move that caused quite a stir at the time (commemorated by Raymond Scott with the song "When Cootie Left the Duke"), then in 1941 formed his own orchestra, in which over the years he employed Charlie Parker, Eddie "Lockjaw" Davis, Bud Powell, Eddie Vinson, and other young players.  In 1947, Williams wrote the song "Cowpox Boogie" while recuperating from a bout with smallpox. He contracted the disease from a vaccination he insisted all band members receive.  By the late 1940s Williams had fallen into obscurity, having had to reduce his band numbers and finally to disband. In the 1950s, he began to play more rhythm and blues, toured with small groups, and played in the Savoy Ballroom.  In the late 1950s he formed a small jazz group and recorded a number of albums with Rex Stewart, as well as his own album, "Cootie in Hi-Fi" (1958). In 1962, he rejoined Ellington and stayed with the orchestra until 1974, after Ellington's death. In 1975, he performed during the Super Bowl IX halftime show. He was a 1991 inductee of the Alabama Jazz Hall of Fame.

Death.

Williams died in New York City on September 15, 1985, at age 74 from a kidney ailment. He is interred at Woodlawn Cemetery in the Bronx, New York City.

Discography.

As sideman.

With Duke Ellington

Charles Melvin "Cootie" Williams (July 10, 1911 – September 15, 1985) was an American jazz, jump blues, and rhythm and blues trumpeter.

Charlie Melvin „Cootie“ Williams (* 10. Juli 1911 in Mobile, Alabama; † 15. September 1985 in Long Island in New York City) war ein US-amerikanischer Jazztrompeter.


Background.

Petrov, despite his relatively junior diplomatic status, was a colonel in (what became in 1954) the KGB, the Soviet secret police, and his wife was an MVD officer. The Petrovs had been sent to the Canberra embassy in 1951 by the Soviet security chief, Lavrentiy Beria. After Joseph Stalin's death in March 1953, Beria had been arrested and shot by Stalin's successors, and Vladimir Petrov evidently feared that, if he returned to the Soviet Union, he would be purged as a "Beria man".

Defection.

Petrov made contact with the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation (ASIO) and offered to provide evidence of Soviet espionage in exchange for political asylum. The defection was arranged by Michael Bialoguski, a Polish doctor and musician, and part-time ASIO agent, who had cultivated Petrov for nearly two years, befriending him and taking him to visit prostitutes in Sydney's King's Cross area. Bialoguski introduced Petrov to a senior ASIO officer, Ron Richards, who offered Petrov asylum plus £5,000 in exchange for all the documents he could bring with him from the embassy. Planning for Petrov's defection was codenamed Operation Cabin 12, after a briefer period of being designated Operation Cabin 11, following the standard practice of referring to potential defectors as "Cabin Candidates". Petrov defected on 3 April 1954.

Evdokia Petrova.

Petrov did not tell his wife Evdokia of his intentions; apparently he planned to defect without her. After falsely claiming that Australian authorities had kidnapped Petrov, the MVD sent two couriers to Australia to fetch Evdokia Petrova. Word of this leaked out and on 19 April there were violent anti-Communist demonstrations at Sydney Airport as Evdokia Petrova was escorted by the KGB men to the aircraft. On the plane, on radioed instructions from Prime Minister Robert Menzies, a flight attendant asked her if she was happy being escorted back to the USSR, but she did not give a clear answer, as she was racked with indecision – defection could have severe consequences for her family in the USSR. Menzies decided that he could not allow her to be removed in this way, and when the aircraft stopped for refuelling at Darwin Airport, she was seized from the MVD men by ASIO officials. (In order to separate Petrova from the MVD, the ASIO officials confronted them on the grounds that they were carrying arms, which it was illegal to do on an aircraft.) The ASIO officials offered Petrova asylum, which she accepted, after speaking to her husband by phone. By now it was the early hours of 20 April 1954.  These dramatic events were flashed around the world giving immediate sense to a world public of the real life drama that was at pitch and occurring. The photos of Evdokia Petrova being rough-handled by KGB agents at Sydney Airport and her agonised last-moment decision to defect with her husband, made at Darwin Airport, have become iconic Australian images of the 1950s.

Royal Commission.

The affair grew more dramatic when Menzies told the House of Representatives that Petrov had brought with him documents concerning Soviet espionage in Australia. He announced that a Royal Commission would investigate the matter, the Royal Commission on Espionage. Petrov's documents were shown to the commission members, though they were never made public. The documents were alleged to provide evidence of an extensive Soviet spy ring in Australia, and named (among many others), two staff members of the leader of the Australian Labor Party, Dr. H. V. Evatt, during proceedings. Evatt, a former justice of the High Court of Australia and the third President of the United Nations General Assembly, appeared before the Royal Commission as attorney for his staff members. His cross-examination of a key ASIO operative transformed the commission's hearings and greatly perturbed the government. Almost immediately, the Royal Commission simply withdrew Evatt's leave to appear. Evatt alleged that the judges of the commission were biased towards the Menzies' government in the wake of this unprecedented denial of his right to appear.  Another person who was questioned at length (over a week) about his activities and associations was Ric Throssell, a diplomat and former adviser to Evatt. His mother, the writer Katharine Susannah Prichard, was a committed Communist, and it was strongly suggested he had at least inadvertently, if not wittingly, given her classified information, as well as actively spying for the Soviet Union. The final report did not uphold these charges, but his career from then on was blighted by these suspicions.

Aftermath and legacy.

As a result of the defections, the Australian embassy in Moscow was expelled and the USSR embassy in Canberra recalled. Diplomatic relations were not re-established until 13 March 1959.

Political repercussions.

The defections came shortly before the 1954 federal election. Evatt accused Menzies of having arranged the defections to coincide with the election, for the benefit of the incumbent Liberal Party.  According to some, partly as a result of the Petrov Affair, Menzies was successful at the election, which Labor had been widely expected to win. The Royal Commission continued for the rest of 1954 and uncovered some evidence of espionage for the Soviet Union by some members and supporters of the Communist Party of Australia during and immediately after World War II, but no-one was ever charged with an offence as a result of the commission's work and no major spy ring was uncovered. (No one was charged for various reasons: one was given immunity from prosecution, others who had handled documents had not technically broken the law, one was in Prague and remained there, and evidence against others could not be presented because it would reveal that Western intelligence services had broken Soviet codes).  Evatt's loss of the election and his belief that Menzies had conspired with ASIO to contrive Petrov's defection led to criticism within the Labor Party of his decision to appear before the Royal Commission. He compounded this by writing to the Soviet Foreign Minister, Vyacheslav Molotov, asking if allegations of Soviet espionage in Australia were true. When Molotov replied, denying the allegations, Evatt read the letter out in Parliament, inviting amazement and ridicule from his opponents.  Evatt's actions aroused the anger of the right wing of the Labor Party, influenced by the Catholic anti-Communism of B.A. Santamaria and his clandestine "Movement". Evatt came to believe that the Movement was also part of the conspiracy against him, and publicly denounced Santamaria and his supporters in October 1954, leading to a major split in the Labor Party, which did not win office again until 1972.

Fate of the Petrovs.

The Petrovs, having been given political asylum, were eventually settled in suburban Melbourne under the names Sven and Maria Allyson, and given a pension. Prior to this, they spent an 18-month period in a safe house in Palm Beach, Sydney, with the then ASIO officer Michael Thwaites, who ghost-wrote their memoirs, published in 1956 as "Empire of Fear".  They lived in relative obscurity for the rest of their lives. The press was formally requested by the Department of Defence, by way of a D-Notice, not to reveal their identities or whereabouts, but this was not always honoured. Vladimir died in 1991 and Evdokia in 2002.

Retrospection.

The belief that there had been a "Petrov conspiracy" became an article of faith in the Labor Party and on the left generally for many years, although even pro-Labor historians acknowledged that Evatt's eccentric conduct had contributed greatly to the Labor split. The "left" version of the Petrov story was given in 1974 in "Nest of Traitors: The Petrov Affair", by Nicholas Whitlam (son of Gough Whitlam, who was Labor Prime Minister at the time of publication) and John Stubbs. This book was written without access to classified documents.  Menzies always denied that he had had advance knowledge of Petrov's defection, although he did not deny that he had exploited it and Cold War anti-Communist sentiment. Colonel Charles Spry, head of ASIO at the time, when interviewed after his retirement, maintained that, although it had taken some months of negotiations to bring about Petrov's defection, he had not told Menzies about these negotiations and that the timing of the defection had no connection to the elections.  In 1984, the ASIO files on Petrov and the records of the Royal Commission were made available to historians. In 1987, the historian Robert Manne published "The Petrov Affair: Politics and Espionage", which gave the first full account of the affair. He showed that Evatt's suspicions were unfounded, that Menzies and Spry had been telling the truth, that there had been no conspiracy, and that Evatt's own conduct had been mainly responsible for subsequent political events.  But Manne also showed that although there had been some Soviet espionage in Australia, there was no major Soviet spy ring, and that most of the documents given by Petrov to ASIO contained little more than political gossip which could have been compiled by any journalist. This included the notorious "Document J", which had been written by Rupert Lockwood, a member of the Communist Party of Australia expressing his beliefs on the matter. Page 35 of the document sourced the information to Evatt's staffers, Fergan O’Sullivan, Albert Grundeman, and Allan Dalziel. Evatt insisted that page 35 was misinformation added specifically to damage the Australian Labor Party. He managed to prove that his staff had not authored the document. The Royal Commission concluded that Document J was entirely Lockwood’s work.

Fictional works.

The Petrov Affair has inspired a number of fictional works, many of which have won awards.

The Petrov Affair was a Cold War spy incident in Australia in April 1954, concerning Vladimir Petrov, Third Secretary of the Soviet embassy in Canberra.

Die Petrov-Affäre ist ein Ereignis der australischen Geschichte. Im Jahr 1954 bat der russische Diplomat Wladimir Michailowitsch Petrow (1907–1991) um politisches Asyl in Australien mit der Begründung, dass er Informationen über einen sowjetischen Spionage-Ring habe, der aus der russischen Botschaft in Australien heraus operiere. Die Russen forderten, dass Petrows Frau nach Russland zurückkehren sollte. Ein großer öffentlicher Aufschrei war die Folge, als sie am Flughafen von Sydney mit Gewalt in ein Flugzeug gesteckt wurde. Die Menge war wütend, da sie glaubte, dass sie von sowjetischen Wachmännern in ihr Geburtsland Russland entführt wurde. Als das Flugzeug in Darwin einen Zwischenstopp einlegte, stellte sich heraus, dass die Wachmänner Waffen trugen. Frau Petrowa wurde bald politisches Asyl gewährt.


History.

MEPIS was designed as an alternative to SUSE Linux, Red Hat Linux, and Mandriva Linux (formerly Mandrake) which, in the creator Warren Woodford's opinion, were too difficult for the average user. MEPIS's first official release was on May 10, 2003.  In 2006, MEPIS made a transition from using Debian packages to using Ubuntu packages. SimplyMEPIS 6.0, released in July 2006, was the first version of MEPIS to incorporate the Ubuntu packages and repositories.  SimplyMEPIS 7.0 discontinued the use of Ubuntu binary packages in favor of a combination of MEPIS packaged binaries based on Debian and Ubuntu source code, combined with a Debian stable OS core and extra packages from Debian package pools.  Major releases occurred about six months to one year apart until 2013, based mostly on Warren's availability to produce the next version.

Variants.

SimplyMEPIS, designed for everyday desktop and laptop computing. The default desktop environment is KDE-based, although Gnome and/or other GUI-environments can be installed. SimplyMEPIS 11.0 is based on Debian 6 and includes Linux 2.6.36.4, KDE 4.5.1 and LibreOffice 3.3.2, with other applications available from Debian and the MEPIS Community. It was released on May 5, 2011. Development halted during beta testing of Mepis 12.  antiX, a fast and lightweight distribution, was originally based on MEPIS for x86 systems in an environment suitable for old computers. It's now based on Debian Stable.  MX Linux, a midweight distribution developed in collaboration between antiX and former MEPIS communities which is based on Debian Stable.

Name.

According to Warren Woodford, the name MEPIS is pronounced like "Memphis", with the extra letters removed. Originally, the word "MEPIS" didn't mean anything in particular; it came about by mistake. When Woodford misunderstood a friend over the telephone, he decided to use the name because it was a simple five-letter word and there were no other companies or products with that name.

MEPIS was a set of Linux distributions, distributed as Live CDs or DVDs that could be installed onto a hard disk drive. MEPIS was started by Warren Woodford and the eponymous company MEPIS LLC.

SimplyMEPIS (Managerial, Educational and Personal Information Systems) ist eine auf Debian GNU/Linux basierende Linux-Distribution. Die Distribution wurde von Warren Woodford (aus Morgantown, West Virginia, USA) ab November 2002 eigenständig entwickelt, da er mit den diversen Linux-Distributionen unzufrieden war. Woodfords Ziel ist die Entwicklung einer Distribution, die das tut, was der Anwender möchte. Linux-Distributionen wie SuSE, Red Hat oder Mandriva sind seiner Meinung nach für den einfachen Anwender ohne IT-Kenntnisse zu schwer zu verstehen und zu gebrauchen. Der Name soll auch nach Memphis, Tennessee, USA benannt sein, die Einwohner sprechen ihre Stadt ähnlich wie Mepis aus.


History.

First mention of the St. Peter's Church is in records dating to 1209. The church was of masonry construction and therefore undamaged by a city fire in Riga that year. The history of the church can be divided into three distinct periods: two associated with Gothic and Romanesque building styles and the third with the early Baroque period. The middle section of the church was built during the 13th century, which encompasses the first period. The only remnants of this period are located in the outer nave walls and on the inside of a few pillars in the nave, around which larger pillars were later built.

Second period of construction.

The second period dates to 1408–09, when master builder from Rostock supervised the construction of the sanctuary, based on the St. Mary's Church in Rostock. The sanctuary was almost finished by 1409, but due to the Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War it was completed and dedicated only in 1419. Other construction work was interrupted by the plague in 1420 and resumed in the 1430s. The 13th-century church was reconstructed in 1456–66 to conform to the newly built sanctuary. Both constructions were joined in the 1470s, thereby creating a mighty basilica with three aisles and ornate vaulted ceilings. The old bell tower was replaced in 1456, and a bell was hung in the new tower in 1477. A octagonal steeple was added to the tower in 1491, which, along with the church's front facade, dominated the silhouette of Riga. The tower collapsed 11 March 1666, destroying a neighboring building and burying eight people in the rubble. The cornerstone for a new tower was laid 29 June 1667.

Third period of construction.

The third period of construction dates to 1671–90, with the construction of the western facade and the new tower. The roof, vaulted ceilings and furnishings were also renovated during this time. Jacob Josten, the Dutch-born master builder of Riga, designed the tower and supervised its construction, which was begun April 1671 by the master mason Heinrich Henicke. Josten was replaced in 1675 by ("1645–1698"), the next master builder of Riga. The tower was completed in 1677, but it, along with the church interior, were destroyed already 21 May 1677, during a citywide fire. Bindenshu supervised the subsequent repairs in 1677–79: vaulted wooden ceilings replaced the former masonry vaulted ceilings, and the roof, windows, interior and furnishings were replaced or renovated. First service in the renovated church took place 14 September 1679. Renovation of the tower began 1686 and was designed by the city engineer Friedrich S. von Dahlen. The city council did not approve of the half-finished steeple, and so it was torn down in 1688. A new copper-roofed steeple, designed by Bindenshu, was then built. A sphere and rooster were set atop the steeple 10 May 1690. This tower was the tallest wooden construction in Europe at the time. The western facade of the church was also altered in the later 17th century. The brick construction was covered with reddish limestone from Salaspils and Koknese, and the facade was decorated with volutes, pilasters, cornices, vases and borders made of Gotland stone. In 1692 the Riga City Council approved a design by Bindenshu and the mason Andreas Peterman for three identical portals. The merchant Klaus Mistett financed the portals, which were built by H. Henneken, Johann Daniel Schauss, Johann Gerwin and several other sculptors. The portals were decorated with Baroque style limestone sculptures. In 1694 L. Martini installed a new tower clock with a glockenspiel from Amsterdam.

First reconstruction.

The newly renovated church served for a mere 29 years, for lightning struck and set fire to the tower and church 10 May 1721. Only the church and tower walls remained standing after the fire. Reconstruction of the church began immediately under the direction of the master carpenter Tom Bochum and master mason Kristofer Meinert. By 1723 the building already had a temporary roof. Johann Heinrich Wilbern took over supervision of the project in 1740, and under his direction a new steeple was built in 1746. The steeple was covered with copper-plate and the rooster was gilded in 1746–47. Christoph Haberland designed a new marble pulpit for the church, which was built in Italy in 1793. In 1794 Haberland renovated the wooden vaulted ceilings in the central sections of the nave. The interior walls were plastered and the lower sections of the pillars were covered with oak panels in 1885 under the direction of architect Reinhold Georg Schmaeling ("1840–1917").

Second reconstruction.

Artillery fire destroyed the church on 29 June 1941. Conservation and restoration began 1954 with research by architect Pēteris Saulītis. The work was carried out from 1967 to 1983 under the direction of Saulītis and architect Gunārs Zirnis. Renovation began with the metal tower frame. A rooster – a precise reproduction of the previous rooster and the seventh rooster in all – was placed atop the steeple 21 August 1970. The renovated tower clock began to show time in July 1975. According to tradition, it has only an hour hand. The bell music began in 1976; it plays the Latvian folk melody ""Rīga dimd"" five times a day and bells ring at the top of every hour. The tower has an elevator installed that allows visitors a view of Riga from a height of. Renovation of the interior of the church ended in 1984. The Polish company ""PKZ"" restored the main facade and portals in 1987–91. The St. Peter's Latvian Lutheran congregation resumed services in the church 1991, and the church was returned to the ownership of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Latvia on 4 April 2006.  During World War II, the church lost an important object of cultural heritage - an impressive bronze candelabrum made in 1596 - which was taken to the town of Włocławek by Germans from Riga, resettled during "Heim ins Reich" action to annexed Polish territories. The 310 cm high and 378 cm wide candelabrum, previously called a standing lantern, was ordered by the City Council of Riga from the metal founder Hans Meyer’s Riga foundry. After the war, it was displayed in Włocławek's Basilica Cathedral of the St. Mary of Assumption. On 1 March 2012 this piece of the Late Renaissance art returned to its ancient home, as a result of an agreement on the repatriation of cultural properties. The statue of the rooster on the top of the church weighs 158 kg and 140 grams of gold were used to gold plate the statue.

St. Peter's Church () is a Lutheran church in Riga, the capital of Latvia, dedicated to Saint Peter. It is a parish church of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Latvia.

Die Petrikirche (lett. "Svētā Pētera baznīca") befindet sich im Zentrum der Rigaer Altstadt, an der "Pēterbaznīcas iela". Die Petrikirche war im Mittelalter die Pfarrkirche Rigas. Es handelt sich aus architektonischer Sicht um eine große, dreischiffige Basilika, errichtet im Stil der Backsteingotik.


History.

Origin and etymology.

The livre was established by Charlemagne as a unit of account equal to one pound of silver. It was subdivided into 20 "sous" (also "sols"), each of 12 "deniers". The word "livre" came from the Latin word "libra", a Roman unit of weight, and the denier comes from the Roman denarius. This system and the denier itself served as the model for many of Europe's currencies, including the British pound, Italian lira, Spanish dinero and the Portuguese dinheiro.  This first livre is known as the "livre carolingienne". Only deniers were initially minted, but debasement led to larger denominations being issued. Different mints in different regions used different weights for the denier, leading to several distinct livres of different values.  "Livre" is a homonym of the French word for "book" (from the Latin word ""), the distinction being that the two have a different gender. The monetary unit is feminine, la/une livre, while "book" is masculine, le/un livre.

Late medieval and early modern period.

For much of the Middle Ages, different duchies of France were semi-autonomous if not practically independent from the weak Capetian kings, and thus each minted their own currency. Charters would need to specify which region or mint was being used: "money of Paris" or "money of Troyes". The first steps towards standardization came under the first strong Capetian monarch, Philip II Augustus (1165–1223). Philip II conquered much of the continental Angevin Empire from King John of England, including Normandy, Anjou, and Touraine.  The currency minted at the city of Tours in Touraine was considered very stable, and Philip II decided to adopt the "livre tournois" as the standard currency of his lands, gradually replacing even the livre of Paris, and ultimately the currencies of all French-speaking areas he controlled. This was a slow process lasting many decades and not completed within Philip II's lifetime.  The result was that from 1200 onwards, following the beginning of King Philip II's campaigns against King John, the currency used within French speaking lands was in a state of flux, as the "livre tournois" was gradually introduced into other areas.  Until the thirteenth century and onwards, only deniers were actually minted as coin money. Both livres and sous did not actually exist as coins but were used only for accounting purposes.  Upon his return from the crusades in the 1250s, Louis IX instigated a royal monopoly on the minting of coinage in France and minted the first gold "écu d'or" and silver "gros d'argent", whose weights (and thus monetary divisions) were roughly equivalent to the livre tournois and the denier.  Between 1360 and 1641, coins worth 1 livre tournois were minted known as francs. This name persisted in common parlance for 1 livre tournois but was not used on coins or paper money. The official use of the livre tournois accounting unit in all contracts in France was legislated in 1549. However, in 1577, the livre tournois accounting unit was officially abolished and replaced by the écu, which was at that time the major French gold coin in actual circulation. In 1602, the livre tournois accounting unit was brought back.

Seventeenth century.

Louis XIII of France stopped minting the franc in 1641, replacing it with coins based on the silver écu and gold Louis d'or. The écu and louis d'or fluctuated in value, with the écu varying between three and six livres tournois until 1726 when it was fixed at six livres. The louis was initially (1640) worth ten livres, and fluctuated too, until its value was fixed at twenty-four livres in 1726.  In 1667, the livre parisis was officially abolished. However, the sole remaining livre was still frequently referred to as the livre tournois until its demise.

Eighteenth century.

The first French paper money was issued in 1701 and was denominated in livres tournois. However, the notes did not hold their value relative to silver due to massive over–production. The Banque Royale (the last issuer of these early notes) crashed in 1720, rendering the banknotes worthless (see John Law for more on this system).  In 1726, under Louis XV's minister Cardinal Fleury, a system of monetary stability was put in place. Eight ounces (a mark) of gold was worth 740 livres, 9 sols (so, one ounce of gold was worth approximately 4 Louis or 93 livres); 8 ounces of silver was worth 51 livres, 2 sols, 3 deniers. This led to a strict conversion rate between gold and silver (14.4867 to 1) and established the values of the coins in circulation in France at:  A coin of value 1 livre was not, however, minted. Yet in 1720 a special coin minted in pure silver was produced and assigned an over-value of 1 livre. Additionally, France took Navarrese 20-sol coins minted in 1719 and 1720, re-struck them as écu (between the years of 1720 and 1723) essentially creating a coin worth 1 livre. These re-struck coins, however, eventually were assigned the value of 18 sols.  A kind of paper money was reintroduced by the Caisse d'Escompte in 1776 as "actions au porteur", denominated in livres. These were issued until 1793, alongside "assignats" from 1789. Assignats were backed (in theory) by government-held land. Like the issues of the Banque Royale, their value plummeted.  The last coins and notes of the livre currency system were issued in Year II of the Republic (1794). In 1795, the franc was introduced, worth 1 livre 3 deniers ( livres), and the first one-franc coin was struck in 1803. Still the word livre survived; until the middle of the 19th century it was indifferently used alongside the word franc, especially to express large amounts and transactions linked with property (real estate, property incomes or "rentes", cattle, etc...).

Later history.

The livre had also been used as the legal currency of the Channel Islands. The Jersey livre remained legal currency in Jersey until 1834 when dwindling supplies of no-longer minted coins obliged the adoption of the pound as legal tender.  Today, France uses the euro as its currency.

The livre (French for "pound") was the currency of Kingdom of France and its predecessor state of West Francia from 781 to 1794. Several different livres existed, some concurrently. The livre was the name of both units of account and coins.

Die (teilweise auch „das“) Livre, frz. für "Pfund" (von gleichbedeutend lat. "libra"), war vom 9. bis zum 18. Jahrhundert eine französische Einheit der Silberwährung. Durch die Verordnung vom 15. August 1795 wurde die Livre durch den Franc ersetzt.


History.

The name the Belmonts was derived from the fact that two of the four singers lived on Belmont Avenue in the Bronx, and the other two lived near Belmont Avenue.  After unsuccessful singles on Mohawk Records in 1957 and then on Jubilee Records ("The Chosen Few"; Dion & the Timberlanes "not" the Belmonts), Dion was paired with The Belmonts. The group signed with Laurie Records in early 1958. The breakthrough came when their first Laurie release, "I Wonder Why", reached No. 22 on the "Billboard" Top 100 chart, and they appeared for the first time on the nationally televised "American Bandstand" show, hosted by Dick Clark. Dion said of the Belmonts, "I'd give 'em sounds. I'd give 'em parts and stuff. That's what 'I Wonder Why' was about. We kind of invented this percussive rhythmic sound. If you listen to that song, everybody was doing something different. It was totally amazing. When I listen to it today, often times I think, 'Man, those kids are talented'." Dion and the Belmonts were the sound of the city. Their roots were doo-wop groups like the Flamingos, the Five Satins, the Dells, acts who developed their sound in urban settings on street corners, mimicking instruments with their voices, even complex jazz arrangements.  They followed the hit with the ballads "No One Knows" (No. 19) and "Don’t Pity Me" (No. 40), which they also performed on "Bandstand". This early success brought them their first major tour in late 1958, with the Coasters, Buddy Holly and Bobby Darin, followed by the historic and tragic Winter Dance Party tour featuring Holly, Ritchie Valens and the Big Bopper. On February 2, 1959, after playing the Surf Ballroom, Holly arranged to charter a plane. Dion decided he could not afford the $36 cost to fly to the next venue. According to Dion, $36 was the same price his parents paid for monthly rent. He told Holly no. Shortly after midnight, on February 3rd 1959, the plane crashed near Clear Lake, Iowa, with Holly, Valens, The Big Bopper, and the pilot, Roger Peterson, all being killed. Bobby Vee, then an unknown artist, performed in Holly's place at the next concert. Later, Jimmy Clanton, Frankie Avalon, and Fabian were hired to finish the tour in place of the three deceased headliners. As of January 11, 2017 with the death of Holly's tour guitarist Tommy Allsup, Dion is the lone surviving member of the original Winter Dance Party lineup. (The lone surviving Belmont, Angelo D'Aleo, was not on the tour, as he was in the US Navy at the time.)  In March 1959, Dion and the Belmonts’ next single, "A Teenager in Love", broke the Top Ten, reaching No. 5 on the Billboard Hot 100 and No. 28 on the UK Singles Chart. Written by Doc Pomus and Mort Shuman, it's considered one of the greatest songs in rock and roll history. It was followed by their first album, "Presenting Dion and the Belmonts". Their biggest hit, "Where or When", was released in November 1959, and reached No. 3 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 with the group making another national appearance on "American Bandstand".  Other singles released for the group that year continued to chart Billboard, but were less successful. In early 1960, Dion checked into a hospital for heroin addiction, a problem he had since his mid-teens. At the height of the group's success his drug dependency worsened. When, "Where or When", peaked, he was in a hospital detoxifying. In addition, there were financial and musical differences between Dion and members of the Belmonts. "They wanted to get into their harmony thing, and I wanted to rock and roll," said Dion. "The label wanted me doing standards. I got bored with it quickly. I said, I can't do this. I gotta play my guitar. So we split up and I did "Runaround Sue", "The Wanderer", and "Ruby Baby". In October 1960, DiMucci decided to quit for a solo career. Now simply known as "Dion", his first major hit, "Lonely Teenager" was backed by a female chorus. He eventually chose to work with The Del-Satins, who backed him (uncredited) on all his early Laurie and Columbia Records hits, which, besides the three aforementioned hits Dion quoted, also included "Donna the Prima Donna","Drip Drop", "Lovers Who Wander", and "Little Diane". Later reissues of these songs would often be erroneously attributed to Dion and the Belmonts. The Belmonts also continued to release records on their own label, Sabina Records, but with less success, although songs like "Such a Long Way", "Tell Me Why", "I Need Someone", "I Confess", and "Come On Little Angel" all got significant radio play in the New York City area.  Dion and the Belmonts reunited in late 1966 for the album "Together Again" on ABC Records. Produced by "DiMont Music", two singles were released from the LP, "My Girl The Month of May" / "Berimbau", and "Movin' Man" / "For Bobbie". Neither charted in the United States, but fared better in England. "My Girl The Month Of May" broke the "Radio London Fab 40" top ten at No. 9 the week of December 25, 1966. One reviewer stated, "some British radio DJ's gave it a lot of airplay at the time." The follow up, "Movin Man", reached No. 17 on the "Radio London" chart on March 26, 1967. "My Girl The Month Of May", was later covered by English artists Alan Bown in 1967, and by The Bunch (featuring Sandy Denny of Fairport Convention) in April 1972. During their brief mid 1960s reunion, Dion and the Belmonts appeared on the "Clay Cole Show" performing "Berimbau" and "My Girl The Month of May", and occasionally performed at local New York City clubs such as "The Mardi Gras" on Staten Island (April 29, 1967) before disbanding. The original group reunited once again June 2, 1972 for a show at Madison Square Garden, which was recorded and released as a live album for Warner Brothers. A year later, in 1973, DiMucci, Mastrangelo, Milano and D'Aleo performed once more, doing a sold-out concert at the Nassau Coliseum on Long Island, New York. No recording of the 1973 reunion was ever released.  In 1968, as a solo performer, Dion recorded "Abraham, Martin and John" written by Dick Holler. It is a tribute to social change icons, Abraham Lincoln, Martin Luther King, Jr., John F. Kennedy and Robert F. Kennedy. It was written as a response to the assassination of King and the younger Kennedy in April and June 1968. When producer Phil Gernhard initially presented the song to DiMucci, the latter did not care for it. With the persistence of Gernhard, and Dion's wife Susan, he flew to New York that summer. He recorded the song in just one take. Laurie Records released the single in September of that year and it quickly raced up the chart, peaking at number four in December. DiMucci, now a star again, was invited to sing this comeback hit on "The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour", as well as many other top shows.  Including Billboard Hot 100 singles, Dion and the Belmonts charted 856 radio station surveys across the United States during the 1950s and 1960s. In 2000 the group was inducted in the Vocal Group Hall of Fame. Dion (without The Belmonts) was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1989.

Rock Hall omission.

In 2012, the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame did a mass induction of six deserving pioneering groups that were left out in error when their lead singers were inducted in the Hall of Fame's early years of inductions: the Miracles (Smokey Robinson), the Crickets (Buddy Holly), the Midnighters (Hank Ballard), the Famous Flames (James Brown), the Comets (Bill Haley) and the Blue Caps (Gene Vincent). Because of the timeline when these groups were successful, it was believed that the Belmonts would be included in this induction, but none was forthcoming. Because of the fact that the Belmonts scored chart hits for an additional three years "after" Dion left the group, coupled with the fact that the "entire group", including Dion, were inducted intact into the Vocal Group Hall of Fame in 2000, 11 years "after" Dion's solo induction into the Rock Hall, made their omission even more puzzling. In January 2012, the year of that mass vocal group induction, Fred Milano of the Belmonts died (January 1, 2012). In a "Billboard Magazine" article, dated January 3, 2012, it was stated: "There was strife between DiMucci and Belmonts members, who were not pleased when DiMucci was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame without them in 1989." Carlo Mastrangelo died on April 4, 2016.

Discography.

Albums.

Dion and the Belmonts released four albums:  The two Laurie Records LPs are the most collectible, especially the first pressings of "Presenting Dion and the Belmonts", issued as Laurie LLP-1002 (later reissued as LLP-2002). There were also later compilations, some of which included the separate hits of The Belmonts, and some that included the hits of Dion, and Dion and The Belmonts.

Dion and the Belmonts were a leading American vocal group of the late 1950s. All of its members were from the Bronx, New York City. In 1957, Dion DiMucci (born July 18, 1939) joined the vocal group The Belmonts. The established trio of Angelo D'Aleo (born February 3, 1940), Carlo Mastrangelo (October 5, 1937April 4, 2016), and Fred Milano (August 26, 1939January 1, 2012), formed a quartet with DiMucci.

Dion and the Belmonts waren eine US-amerikanische Popmusik-Gruppe aus den späten 1950er Jahren, die den Doo-Wop-Stil prägten. Ihre größten Erfolge waren "A Teenager in Love", "Where or When" und "When You Wish upon a Star".


Signs and symptoms.

Typical visible symptoms include rash-like patches, tumors, or lesions. Itching (pruritus) is common, perhaps in 20 percent of patients, but is not universal. The symptoms displayed are progressive, with early stages consisting of lesions presented as scaly patches. These lesions prefer the buttock region. The later stages involve the patches evolving into plaques distributed over the entire body. The advanced stage of mycosis fungoides is characterized by generalized erythroderma, with severe pruritus and scaling.

Cause.

The cause of mycosis fungoides is unknown, but it is not believed to be hereditary or genetic in the vast majority of cases. One incident has been reported of a possible genetic link. It is not contagious, although some research suggests that the Human T-lymphotropic virus is associated with this condition.  The disease is an unusual expression of CD4 T cells, a part of the immune system. These T cells are skin-associated, meaning they are biochemically and biologically most related to the skin, in a dynamic manner. Mycosis fungoides is the most common type of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma (CTCL), but there are many other types of CTCL that have nothing to do with mycosis fungoides and these disorders are treated differently.

Diagnosis.

Diagnosis is sometimes difficult because the early phases of the disease often resemble eczema or even psoriasis. Several biopsies are recommended, to be more certain of the diagnosis. The criteria for the disease are established on the skin biopsy: Pautrier microabcesses are aggregates of four or more atypical lymphocytes arranged in the epidermis. Pautrier microabcesses are characteristic of mycosis fungoides but are generally absent.  To stage the disease, various tests may be ordered, to assess nodes, blood and internal organs, but most patients present with disease apparently confined to the skin, as patches (flat spots) and plaques (slightly raised or 'wrinkled' spots).  Peripheral smear will often show buttock cells.

Staging.

Traditionally, mycosis fungoides has been divided into three stages: premycotic, mycotic and tumorous. The premycotic stage clinically presents as an erythematous (red), itchy, scaly lesion. Microscopic appearance is non-diagnostic and represented by chronic nonspecific dermatosis associated with psoriasiform changes in epidermis.  In the mycotic stage, infiltrative plaques appear and biopsy shows a polymorphous inflammatory infiltrate in the dermis that contains small numbers of frankly atypical lymphoid cells. These cells may line up individually along the epidermal basal layer. The latter finding if unaccompanied by spongiosis is highly suggestive of mycosis fungoides. In the tumorous stage a dense infiltrate of medium-sized lymphocytes with cerebroid nuclei expands the dermis.

Prognosis.

A 1999 US-based study of patient records observed a 5-year relative survival rate of 77%, and a 10-year relative survival rate of 69%. After 11 years, the observed relative survival rate remained around 66%. Poorer survival is correlated with advanced age and black race. Superior survival was observed for married women compared with other gender and marital-status groups.

Treatments.

Mycosis fungoides can be treated in a variety of ways. Common treatments include simple sunlight, ultraviolet light (mainly NB-UVB 312 nm), topical steroids, topical and systemic chemotherapies, local superficial radiotherapy, the histone deacetylase inhibitor vorinostat, total skin electron radiation, photopheresis and systemic therapies (e.g. interferons, retinoids, rexinoids) or biological therapies. Treatments are often used in combination.  There is limited evidence for the efficacy of topical and systemic therapies for mycosis fungoides. Due to the possible adverse effects of these treatments in early disease it is recommended to begin therapy with topical and skin-directed treatments before progressing to more systemic therapies. Larger and more extensive research is needed to identify effective treatment strategies for this disease.  In 2010, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration granted orphan drug designation for naloxone lotion, a topical opioid receptor competitive antagonist used as a treatment for pruritus in cutaneous T-cell lymphoma.  The US FDA approved the drug mogamulizumab (trade name Poteligeo) in August 2018 for treatment of relapsed or refractory mycosis fungoides and Sézary disease.

Epidemiology.

It is rare for the disease to appear before age 20, and it appears to be noticeably more common in males than females, especially over the age of 50, where the incidence of the disease (the risk per person in the population) does increase. The average age of onset is between 45 and 55 years of age for patients with patch and plaque disease only, but is over 60 for patients who present with tumours, erythroderma (red skin) or a leukemic form (the Sézary syndrome). The incidence of mycosis fungoides was seen to be increasing till the year 2000 in the United States, thought to be due to improvements in diagnostics. However, the reported incidence of the disease has since then remained constant, suggesting another unknown reason for the jump seen before 2000.

History.

Mycosis fungoides was first described in 1806 by French dermatologist Jean-Louis-Marc Alibert. The name "mycosis fungoides" is very misleading—it loosely means "mushroom-like fungal disease". The disease, however, is not a fungal infection but rather a type of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. It was so named because Alibert described the skin tumors of a severe case as having a mushroom-like appearance.

Mycosis fungoides, also known as Alibert-Bazin syndrome or granuloma fungoides, is the most common form of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma. It generally affects the skin, but may progress internally over time. Symptoms include rash, tumors, skin lesions, and itchy skin.

Die Mycosis fungoides (MF) ist ein T-Zell-Non-Hodgkin-Lymphom, das vorwiegend die Haut betrifft. Als Erstbeschreiber gelten die französischen Ärzte Jean-Louis-Marc Alibert und Pierre-Antoine-Ernest Bazin in der ersten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts. Die Erkrankung wird deswegen auch als "Alibert-Bazin-Syndrom" bezeichnet. Diese Benennung ist – ebenso wie der ältere deutsche Name "Wucherflechte" – jedoch kaum in Gebrauch.


Use.

The catheter is introduced into the vein by a needle (similar to blood drawing), which is subsequently removed while the small plastic cannula remains in place. The catheter is then fixed by taping it to the patient's skin or using an adhesive dressing.  A peripheral venous catheter is the most commonly used vascular access in medicine. It is given to most emergency department and surgical patients, and before some radiological imaging techniques using radiocontrast, for example. In the United States, in the 1990s, more than 25 million patients had a peripheral venous line each year.  A peripheral venous catheter is usually placed in a vein on the hand or arm. It should be distinguished from a central venous catheter which is inserted in a central vein (usually in the internal jugular vein of the neck or the subclavian vein of the chest), or an arterial catheter which can be placed in a peripheral or central artery. In children, a topical anaesthetic gel (such as lidocaine) may be applied to the insertion site to facilitate placement.  Blood sampling can be carried out at the time of insertion of a peripheral venous catheter or at a later time.  Peripheral venous catheters may also be used in the emergency treatment of a tension pneumothorax- they can be placed in the second intercostal space along the mid clavicular line in order to relieve tension before definitive management with a chest drain.

Complications.

Infection, phlebitis, extravasation, infiltration, air embolism, hemorrhage (bleeding) and formation of a hematoma (bruise) may occur. Because of the risk of insertion-site infection the CDC advises in their guideline that the catheter needs to be replaced every 96 hours. However, the need to replace these catheters routinely is debated. Expert management has been shown to reduce the complications of peripheral lines.

Sizes.

Sizes of peripheral venous catheters can be given by Birmingham gauge or French gauge. Diameter is proportional to French gauge and inversely proportional to Birmingham gauge.

History.

The insertion of a plastic cannula and withdrawal of the needle was introduced as a technique in 1945. The first disposable version to be marketed was the "Angiocath", first sold in 1964. In the 1970s and 1980s, the use of plastic cannulas became routine, and their insertion was more frequently delegated to nursing staff.  Newer catheters have been equipped with additional safety features to avoid needlestick injuries. Modern catheters consist of synthetic polymers such as teflon (hence the often used term 'Venflon' or 'Cathlon' for these venous catheters). In 1950 they consisted of PVC plastic. In 1983, the first polyurethane version was introduced.

In medicine, a peripheral venous catheter (PVC), peripheral venous line or peripheral venous access catheter is a catheter (small, flexible tube) placed into a peripheral vein for venous access to administer intravenous therapy such as medication fluids.

Der periphere Venenkatheter, der periphervenöse Katheter, der peripher-venöse Zugang, der PVK, der PVVK, die periphere Venenverweilkanüle, der periphere Venenverweilkatheter (je nach Hersteller auch "Abbokath", "Braunüle", "Flexüle", "Venflon", "Vygonüle"; umgangssprachlich auch "Viggo", "Venüle", "Nadel" oder "(venöser) Zugang", in Österreich auch einfach "Leitung") ist eine besondere Form eines Gefäßzuganges. Der Katheter wird in der Regel in eine Vene in der Ellenbeuge oder auf dem Handrücken eingelegt. Er dient der parenteralen Flüssigkeitstherapie oder der intravenösen Applikation von Medikamenten, ohne den Patienten mehrmals mit Einstichen zu belasten. Auch Bluttransfusionen werden im Allgemeinen über periphere Venenkatheter verabreicht. Ein derartiger (intravaskulärer) Katheter kann im Allgemeinen mehrere Tage verwendet werden. Für einen dauerhaften Zugang zum Blutkreislauf verwendet man hingegen einen chirurgisch implantierbaren Langzeitkatheter (z. B. Portkatheter).


History.

The term "chauffeur" comes from the French term for stoker because the earliest automobiles, like their railroad and sea vessel counterparts, were steam-powered and required the driver to stoke the engine. Early petrol/gasoline-powered motor cars, before the advent of electric ignition, were ignited by 'hot tubes' in the cylinder head which had to be pre-heated before the engine would start. Hence the term "chauffeur" which, in this context, means something like "heater-upper". The chauffeur would prime the hot tubes at the start of a journey, after which the natural compression cycle of the engine would keep them at the correct temperature. The chauffeur also maintained the car, including routine maintenance and cleaning, and had to be a skilled mechanic to deal with breakdowns and tyre punctures en route, which were very common in the earliest years of the automobile.  Only the very wealthy could afford the first automobiles, and they generally employed chauffeurs rather than driving themselves. A 1906 article in "The New York Times" reported that "the chauffeur problem to-day is one of the most serious that the automobilist has to deal with", and complained that "young men of no particular ability, who have been earning from $10 to $12 a week, are suddenly elevated to salaried positions paying from $25 to $50" and recommended the re-training of existing coach drivers.

Scope.

While the term may refer to anybody who drives for a living, it usually implies a driver of an elegant passenger vehicle such as a horse-drawn carriage, luxury sedan, motor coach, or especially a limousine; those who operate buses or non-passenger vehicles are generally referred to as "drivers". In some countries, particularly developing nations where a ready supply of labor ensures that even the middle classes can afford domestic staff and among the wealthy, the chauffeur may simply be called the "driver".  People currently sometimes employ chauffeurs full-time to drive themselves in their own personal vehicles, yet there are also professional services offering limousines or rental cars driven by chauffeurs. This is very similar to but much more luxurious than taking a taxicab. A variety of benefits are cited for using chauffeurs, including convenience, productivity and time savings, and driving safety for business people and seniors. Insurance costs for luxury vehicles are often lower if the designated driver is a chauffeur.  The legal requirements to be a chauffeur vary depending on the local jurisdiction and class of vehicle. In some cases, a simple permit is all that is required, but in others an additional professional license with certain minimum standards in areas such as: age, health, driving experience, criminal record, local geographic knowledge, training attended.

Training.

In addition to the minimum legal requirements, limousine companies often require their chauffeurs to undergo specific extra training. These courses may involve evasive driving or defensive driving techniques, the proper methods to ensure safety in the most extreme conditions such as inclement weather, a flat tire at high speeds, or other exterior influences for loss of vehicular control, etc. Most companies also have their own courses as to what they expect from their chauffeurs. Chauffeurs may be taught proper etiquette for use when they are in presence of their clientele. They may also be trained for services to the client beyond the car itself, such as for a personal valet or bodyguard. Many companies and local licensing agencies currently require random drug screening – in the United States this was especially the case after professional ice hockey player Vladimir Konstantinov's career-ending injuries when his recently hired chauffeur, Richard Gnida, lost control of their limousine and crashed.

Dress.

In many places (or at times in the past), proper physical presence is presented by the chauffeur at all times. This usually includes a well-groomed individual, conservatively dressed in a clean and crisply pressed black or dark business suit or tuxedo, dress shirt, and appropriately matching tie, with black leather gloves and freshly polished matching footwear. In some areas, such as Japan, white gloves are the norm. Some companies have complete uniforms for their chauffeurs, and some require that hats be worn as part of the uniform.

A chauffeur is a person employed to drive a passenger motor vehicle, especially a luxury vehicle such as a large sedan or limousine. A woman employed to drive a passenger motor vehicle is a chauffeuse.

Ein Chauffeur (weibl., besonders in der Schweiz: Chauffeuse, im älteren deutschen Sprachgebrauch "Kraftwagenführer") ist ein Fahrer von motorgetriebenen Straßenfahrzeugen. In der Regel ist damit aber nur der berufsmäßige Führer von Personenkraftfahrzeugen gemeint (z. B. Dienstwagen, Taxichauffeur). Im Gegensatz zum Berufskraftfahrer handelt es sich dabei "nicht" um ein staatlich anerkanntes Berufsbild. In der Schweiz, in Österreich und Altbayern werden Motorfahrzeugführer im Allgemeinen als Chauffeur oder Lenker bezeichnet; insbesondere bei öffentlichen Verkehrsmitteln spricht man in diesen Ländern – anders als im übrigen deutschsprachigen Gebiet – nicht vom Busfahrer, sondern vom Buschauffeur.


Early life and education.

Peter Graves was born Peter Duesler Aurness on March 18, 1926, in Minneapolis, Minnesota, the son of Rolf Cirkler Aurness (1894–1982), a businessman, and his wife Ruth (née Duesler, died 1986), a journalist. Graves's ancestry was Norwegian, German, and English. He used the stage name Graves, a maternal family name, to honor his mother's family, and also so as to not be confused with his older brother, James Arness, the star of the television series "Gunsmoke".  Graves graduated from Southwest High School in 1944. He served in the United States Army Air Forces during World War II reaching the rank of corporal. After demobilization, Graves enrolled at the University of Minnesota on the G.I. Bill, and was a member of Phi Kappa Psi fraternity.

Career.

Graves appeared in more than 70 films, television shows, and television movies during his career. In 1955, Graves joined the NBC television series "Fury", as the rancher and adoptive single father, Jim Newton. Graves also was featured in the 1953 World War II film, "Stalag 17". From 1960 to 1961, Graves starred as leading character Christopher Cobb in 34 episodes of the TV series "Whiplash". In the storyline, Cobb is an American who arrives in Australia in the 1850s to establish the country's first stagecoach line, using a bullwhip rather than a gun to fight the crooks he encounters. The series also starred Anthony Wickert. Graves also starred in the British ITC series "Court Martial", playing U.S. Army lawyer Major Frank Whittaker (one of the series' two American leads starring opposite Bradford Dillman's Captain David Young), as well as guest roles in such series as "Alfred Hitchcock Presents", "Cimarron City", "Route 66", and "The Invaders",(episode "Moonshot"). In 1967, Graves was recruited by Desilu Studios to replace Steven Hill as the lead actor on "". Graves portrayed the iconic character of Jim Phelps, the sometimes-gruff director of the Impossible Missions Force, for the six following seasons of the series. After the series ended in 1973, Graves played a cameo-type support role in the feature film "Sidecar Racers" in Australia which was released in 1975. Graves also made a guest appearance in the teen soap opera "Class of 74" in mid-1974, playing himself.  Graves was cast as Palmer Kirby in the 1983 ABC miniseries, "The Winds of War". He played opposite Robert Mitchum, Jan Michael Vincent, Deborah Winters and Ali MacGraw in what became in 1983, the second-most watched miniseries of all time (after "Roots)". He reprised the role for the 1988 sequel miniseries, "War and Remembrance". During this time, he became the host of PBS' "", based on Discover Magazine.  After playing mainly serious roles in the 1970s, he appeared as Captain Clarence Oveur in the early 1980s comedies "Airplane!" and "Airplane II: The Sequel".  In 1988, a Hollywood writers' strike resulted in a being commissioned. Graves was the only cast member from the original series to return as a regular, reprising his role as Jim Phelps, though others (most notably Greg Morris, whose son Phil was a regular in this version) made guest appearances. The series was filmed in Australia, and Graves made his third journey there for acting work. The new version of "Mission: Impossible" lasted for two seasons, ending in 1990. Bookending his work on "Mission: Impossible", Graves starred in two pilot films called "Call to Danger", which were an attempt to create a "Mission: Impossible"–style series in which Graves played a government agent (the Bureau of National Resources) who recruited civilians with special talents for secret missions.  The 1960s version of the pilot, according to Patrick White in "The Complete Mission: Impossible Dossier" (which White reports was actually the second such pilot, but Graves was not involved in the first), is credited with winning Graves the role of Phelps; after "Mission: Impossible" ended in 1973, Graves filmed a third version of the pilot (this one structured as a made-for-TV movie), but it did not sell as a series. The concept was later used in the brief 1980s adventure series "Masquerade".  During the 1990s, he hosted and narrated the documentary series "Biography" on A&E. He also acted in a number of films featured on "Mystery Science Theater 3000", which subsequently featured running jokes about Graves' "Biography" work and presumed sibling rivalry with Arness. The films that have been featured on "Mystery Science Theater 3000" include "", "It Conquered the World", "Beginning of the End", and "". The film "Killers from Space" was featured in "The Film Crew", Michael J. Nelson's follow-up to "MST3K". Graves himself parodied his "Biography" work in the film "Men in Black II", hosting an exposé television show. He also played Colonel John Camden in the television series "7th Heaven".  Graves refused to reprise the role of Jim Phelps (played by Jon Voight) in the of "Mission: Impossible", after the character was revealed to be a traitor and the villain of the film. In the film, Phelps murders three fellow IMF agents, and is killed in a helicopter crash at the end, a decision that disappointed Graves and fellow cast members, and upset many fans of the original series.  On October 30, 2009, Graves was honoured with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6667 Hollywood Blvd.  AirTran Airways featured Graves in a series of web-only "Internetiquette" videos in 2009 in which Graves appeared in a pilot's uniform and references classic "Airplane!" lines. The videos were part of an AirTran Airways campaign to promote their in-flight wireless internet access.  In the summer of 2009, Graves signed on as a spokesman for reverse mortgage lender American Advisors Group. Graves' final project was narrating the computer game epic "", released November 5, 2010.

Personal life.

Graves was a devout Christian. He was married to Joan Endress Graves for 60 years from 1950 until his death.  On March 6, 1984, Graves was hospitalized at Tahoe Forest Hospital for a fractured jaw among other injuries sustained from a fall on an icy Lake Tahoe road the previous weekend, Graves receiving 100 stitches to his lower lip during his stay.  Peter Graves and his wife Joan Graves had three daughters: Amanda, Kelly, and Claudia.

Death.

After returning from a brunch on March 14, 2010, Graves collapsed and died of a heart attack, four days before his 84th birthday.

Awards.

Graves was awarded a Golden Globe Award in 1971 for his role as Jim Phelps in the series "Mission: Impossible". He also received nominations for an Emmy Award and Golden Globe awards in other seasons of that show. Graves also won a Primetime Emmy Award for outstanding informational series in 1997 as host of "Biography".

Peter Graves (born Peter Duesler Aurness; March 18, 1926 – March 14, 2010) was an American film and television actor. He was best known for his role as Jim Phelps in the CBS television series "" from 1967 to 1973 (original) and from 1988 to 1990 (revival). His elder brother was actor James Arness. Graves was also known for his portrayal of airline pilot Captain Clarence Oveur in the 1980 comedy film "Airplane!" and its 1982 sequel "".

Peter Graves (* 18. März 1926 in Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA; † 14. März 2010 in Los Angeles, Kalifornien; eigentlich "Peter Duesler Aurness") war ein US-amerikanischer Schauspieler, der unter anderem durch seine Hauptrolle als Geheimagent Jim Phelps in der Fernsehserie "Kobra, übernehmen Sie" bekannt wurde.