Career and assessment.

Born in Lanuvio, Italy, he was orphaned at the age of 11. After completing his secondary education at the seminary at Albano and graduating from the University of Rome "La Sapienza", he began vocal studies under the great 19th-century baritone Antonio Cotogni at the Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia in Rome.  His nascent singing career was put on hold, however, by the outbreak of World War I in 1914, during which he served with the Italian armed forces and emerged as one of Italy's most decorated soldiers. The war over, he made a successful operatic debut as Arturo in Bellini's "I Puritani" in Viterbo, Italy, on 2 September 1919—performing under the name Giacomo Rubini, after Bellini's favorite tenor, Giovanni Battista Rubini. Four months later, on 3 January 1920, he scored another success, at the Teatro Costanzi in Rome, this time performing under his own name opposite Rosina Storchio and Ezio Pinza in Massenet's "Manon".  Lauri-Volpi was widely acclaimed for his performances at Italy's most celebrated opera house, La Scala, Milan, between the two world wars. A highlight of his Milan seasons occurred in 1929 when he was chosen to sing Arnoldo in La Scala's centenary production of Rossini's "Guglielmo Tell".  He was also a leading tenor at the New York Metropolitan Opera from 1923 to 1933, appearing there in a total of 307 performances. During this 10-year period he sang opposite Maria Jeritza in the American premiere of Puccini's "Turandot" and opposite Rosa Ponselle in the Met premiere of Verdi's "Luisa Miller". His Met career was terminated prematurely after a dispute with the opera house's management. They wanted him to take a pay cut to help tide the theatre through the economic privations being caused by the Great Depression, but he refused to co-operate and left New York for Italy.  Lauri-Volpi's most notable appearances outside Italy also included two seasons at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden—in 1925 and 1936. By the latter date, he had broadened his repertoire, progressing from lyric roles to more taxing dramatic parts. His voice began to show consequent signs of wear in the 1940s, losing homogeneity. His thrilling top notes remained remarkably intact, however, right through until the 1950s.  During the Second World War, Lauri-Volpi was based in Italy and was particularly admired by the country's dictator, Benito Mussolini. His last public performance in a full opera came in 1959, as Manrico, in a production of Verdi's "Il Trovatore" staged at Rome.  Lauri-Volpi recorded a number of opera arias and duets for European and American gramophone companies during the height of his fame. His voice was a brilliant instrument at its zenith: bright, flexible and ringing in tone. He had astonishingly easy and penetrating high notes and possessed a shimmering vibrato which made his voice instantly recognisable both on disc and in the theatre.  He sang roles as diverse as Arturo (in Bellini's "I Puritani") and Otello (in Verdi's "Otello"). In the process, he cemented his position as one of the supreme opera singers of the 20th century, even though he faced stiff competition from a remarkable crop of rival Mediterranean tenors during his prime in the 1925-1940 period. (They included Beniamino Gigli, Giovanni Martinelli, Aureliano Pertile, Francesco Merli, Galliano Masini, Tito Schipa, Antonio Cortis and Renato Zanelli—as well as the young Alessandro Ziliani and Giovanni Malipiero.)  Lauri-Volpi was a cultured, intelligent man with a fiery temperament and firm opinions. He retired to Spain after World War II and died in Burjassot, near Valencia, at the age of 86.

Recordings and writings.

During the 1920s and 1930s, Lauri-Volpi made a number of 78-rpm recordings of operatic arias and duets for the following companies: Fonotipia, Brunswick, Victor and, finally, HMV. The discs that he cut for Victor and HMV are considered to be his finest. They are readily available on CD reissues. In 1947, he recorded in Italy a series of extended scenes from "Rigoletto". Later, in the 1950s, he participated in the recording of some complete operas that do not capture his voice at anywhere like its peak. They included:  In addition, there is a live recording of "Il trovatore" from Naples in 1951, in which he is partnered by Maria Callas, under the baton of Tullio Serafin. All these recordings have been reissued on CD.  In 1974, aged 81, Lauri-Volpi released a final operatic recital record; but this particular LP has novelty value only. There are bits of newsreel footage of him performing on stage, too, and he appeared in the 1936 Italian film "La Canzone del Sole", playing himself.  Lauri-Volpi wrote several books. The best known of them is "Voci Parallele"—a revealing study of singers and their vocal techniques that is frequently cited by historians. His main published works are:

Giacomo Lauri-Volpi (11 December 1892 – 17 March 1979) was an Italian tenor with a lyric-dramatic voice of exceptional range and technical facility. He performed throughout Europe and the Americas in a top-class career that spanned 40 years.

Giacomo Lauri-Volpi (* 11. Dezember 1892 in Lanuvio bei Rom; † 17. März 1979 in Valencia) war ein italienischer Opernsänger (Tenor) in der Caruso-Nachfolge und Verfasser einiger Bücher über Gesang.


Content.

Mainstream stations employ high-status presenters for drive time shows. In the United States, popular national hosts who are associated with morning drive include Howard Stern, Ryan Seacrest and Steve Inskeep, while Sean Hannity is associated with afternoon drive on the East Coast.  Drive time often includes a heavier run of traffic reports, for which many stations employ their own helicopters or hire a third-party traffic reporting service.  For popular music-oriented stations, morning drive-time is typically dominated by the "morning zoo" genre of radio program, with the afternoon portion is often given over to music (often in commercial-free blocks, especially in markets with long commute times) and light entertainment features. For talk radio stations, drive time is characterized by regular news updates, as well as extremely frequent updates on traffic and weather forecasts to help commuters get to and from work. Primary news radio stations are almost always local during this time period.

Variations.

In the United Kingdom and Australia, the term "drive time" is used almost exclusively to refer to the peak evening period (most commonly 16:00–19:00); the term used for the period of peak morning listening is "breakfast", akin to the phrase "breakfast television" used for morning TV shows. In circumstances where the phrase "drive time" may be ambiguous, the term "home time" may also be used for afternoon drive.  In the United States drive time consists of the morning hours when listeners wake up, get ready, and head to work or school, and the afternoon hours when they are heading home and before their evening meal. The exact times vary: "morning drive times" typically include 6–10 a.m.; "afternoon drive times" typically include 3–7 p.m. In the United States, these are the time slots as defined by Nielsen Audio for audience measurement.  Drive time programming is almost exclusively restricted to during the work week. On weekends, because driving habits are much less uniform, lower profile programs (often reruns or brokered programming) typically air in the respective time slots.

Multiple time zones.

Depending on the station, morning drive can start as early as 5 a.m. local time, although rarely any earlier. Because the contiguous United States, Canada, and Mexico span four to seven time zones, what constitutes drive time on one coast does not broadcast in drive time on the other, which can cause issues for nationally syndicated programs; this is not as much of an issue in morning drive, which usually incorporates a tape delay to air at the same time in all time zones, as it is for afternoon drive. However this effectively means that morning shows are heavily New York or East Coast–centric to allow time-shifting in all time zones, with some Central Time Zone shows making some additional headway. For all intents and purposes though, morning shows originating west of the Rockies must additionally plan to be mid-morning offerings for the rest of the country and adjust accordingly to be office-appropriate for those stations which take the shows in the east. National satellite networks typically air their morning drive programs from 6–11 a.m. Eastern Time, with heavy repetition. A similar situation exists in Russia, which spans nine time zones. This issue is mitigated somewhat in Canada and Mexico, where most drive time programs are local and are unaffected by these problems.  These issues are not present in the United Kingdom or New Zealand, where the entire country is in the same time zone. In Australia, there is a two-hour time zone difference between the eastern and western coasts; and three time zones; however, other than Greater Perth, most of the country's population is located in the southern and eastern portions of the country, and its time zones are only a half-hour apart.

Drive time is that daypart in which radio broadcasters can reach the largest number of people who listen to car radios while driving, usually to and from work. Drive-time periods are when the number of radio listeners in this class is at its peak and, thus, commercial radio can generate the most revenue from advertising. Drive time usually coincides with rush hour.

Drive Time ist im Hörfunk die Hauptsendezeit, die jeweils für einige Stunden am Morgen und am späten Nachmittag vorwiegend Pendler in der Hauptverkehrszeit über Autoradio erreichen soll.


Life.

He was born in Busseto. He probably received early musical training in Cremona, where he was first employed as an organist. In 1616 he took a position as organist at the church of S Maria Incoronata in Lodi, where he remained until 1621, at which time he went to Warsaw, Poland to work as an organist at the court of Sigismund III Vasa.  In 1626 he returned to Cremona, and in 1627 became "maestro di cappella" at the cathedral there, but he only remained for four years, moving to Bergamo to accept a similar position in 1631. Alessandro Grandi, his predecessor, had died in the Italian plague of 1629–31 (which affected many cities in northern Italy, including Venice), and he faced the formidable task of rebuilding the musical institution there after many of its members had died.  Unfortunately Merula got into trouble with some of his students, and was charged with indecency; he chose to return to Cremona, where he remained until 1635. During this period in his life he seems to have had numerous troubles with his employers, possibly of his own making; after fighting with the administrators at Cremona over a variety of issues, he returned to Bergamo, serving this time at a different church, but was disallowed from using any musicians from his former place of employment. In 1646 he went back to Cremona for the final time, serving as "maestro di cappella" at the Laudi della Madonna until his death in 1665.

Music and influence.

Merula was a key figure in the early development of several forms which were to mature later in the Baroque era, such as the cantata, the aria, the sonatas da chiesa and da camera, variations on a ground bass, and the sinfonia.  In sacred music Merula followed the lead of Monteverdi, and often used the techniques of the elder composer; however he also did some new things, such as writing motets for solo voice accompanied by strings. His publications of 1639, 1640, and 1652 include masses which are written using ostinato basses, including the Ruggiero and the Romanesca. Some of his music is reminiscent of the concertato style of Giovanni Gabrieli, and a modern sense of tonality prevails throughout.  Merula's secular music includes solo madrigals with instrumental accompaniment, sometimes using the Monteverdian "stile concitato" tremolo effect, and in formal design prefiguring the later Baroque cantata with its division into aria and recitative. He wrote one opera, "La finta savia", produced in 1643, and based on a libretto by Giulio Strozzi. Among his instrumental music are numerous ensemble canzonas, whose sectional structure looks ahead to the sonata da chiesa, and his writing for strings—especially the violin—is exceptionally idiomatic, also looking ahead to the highly developed writing of the late Baroque.  He also wrote canzonettas, dialogues, keyboard toccatas and capriccios, a "Sonata cromatica," and numerous other pieces which display an interest in just about every contemporary musical trend in north Italy.  A complete edition of his works was published in 1974 in Brooklyn, New York ("T. Merula: Opere complete," ed. A. Sutkowski). A compilation of several of his solo vocal works was edited in 2012 by Phoebe Jevtovic, and samples can be found on her official website.

Tarquinio Merula (24 November 1595 – 10 December 1665) was an Italian composer, organist, and violinist of the early Baroque era. Although mainly active in Cremona, stylistically he was a member of the Venetian school. He was one of the most progressive Italian composers of the early 17th century, especially in applying newly developed techniques to sacred music.

Tarquinio Merula (* 25. November 1595 in Busseto; † 10. Dezember 1665 in Cremona) war ein Komponist und Organist des italienischen Frühbarock.


Games.

"Mean Streets" (1989).

"Mean Streets" is the first game in the "Tex Murphy" series. Unlike later games in the series, it features segments in a variety of genres, including adventure game sequences, side-scrolling action sequences, and an open-world flight simulator. It was notable at the time as one of the first commercially available games to use 256-color VGA graphics, as well as for its "RealSound" technology that allowed recorded digital audio to be played back without the need for an external sound card.

"Martian Memorandum" (1991).

"Martian Memorandum" continues the "Tex Murphy" storyline, but features more traditional point-and-click adventure gameplay, with inventory-based puzzles and branching dialog trees. It uses digitized actors and features short bits of video during conversation, hinting at the FMV style employed in later games.

"Under a Killing Moon" (1994).

"Under a Killing Moon" marked a change in direction for the series. Costing over two million dollars and four years of development, it used 3D graphics and full motion video to greatly expand both the gameplay and presentation. Aaron Conners was put in charge of writing duties for the first time, and he re-imagined the Tex character as a down-on-his-luck divorcee, struggling to find work as a private investigator. It featured real-time 3D graphics that were exceptionally detailed at the time, and was one of the first games to take advantage of systems with 16 megabytes of RAM in order to display higher resolution textures.

"The Pandora Directive" (1996).

"The Pandora Directive" is the direct sequel to "Under a Killing Moon." It uses the same engine as its predecessor, and features many of the same locations (some newly expanded), particularly on Tex's home street of Chandler Ave. It also features many recurring characters from the previous game, and continues the romantic plot between Tex and Chelsee Bando. It features very similar gameplay to "Under a Killing Moon" but introduces logic puzzles alongside the inventory and "jigsaw" puzzles of the previous game. It also features a branching storyline, with three main paths and seven unique endings, and allows for multiple solutions to some problems, particularly those involving money.

"Tex Murphy: Overseer" (1998).

"Overseer" is the fifth game in the series, but its story is largely a re-telling of Tex's first big case, previously portrayed in "Mean Streets." This story is told through the use of a frame narrative, set after the events of "The Pandora Directive," as Tex relates the story of his past to Chelsee. "Overseer" maintains the gameplay and presentation style of the previous two games, and borrows little from "Mean Streets" beyond its basic plot. It retcons many details from that game further sharpening the divide between the early games in the series and the live-action games. "Overseer" was developed to showcase the nascent DVD-ROM format, and was the first game developed to specifically take advantage of DVD. Produced on an accelerated schedule, it was somewhat more limited in scope than "The Pandora Directive", without the branching paths and multiple endings. Access hoped that "Overseer" would serve to set up a proper sequel to "Pandora" and ended the game on a cliffhanger that remained unresolved for over 15 years.

"Tesla Effect: A Tex Murphy Adventure" (2014).

"Tesla Effect" is the sixth game in the series, and a true sequel to "The Pandora Directive". It continues in the style of the previous titles, making heavy use of live-action FMV, as well as first-person exploration and investigation of 3D environments. It once again returns the series to Chandler Ave and features many of the same characters and locations featured in "Under a Killing Moon" and "The Pandora Directive". It also features multiple paths and endings like "Pandora".

"The Poisoned Pawn" (upcoming).

"The Poisoned Pawn" will be the seventh game in the series. The game originally began as a fan-made remake of the 5th title in the Tex Murphy series "Overseer", and its development was sanctioned by Big Finish Games in early 2015. However, due to increased traction in the game's development, as well as significant technological advancements, the project evolved into an official canon continuation of the Tex Murphy series. The development team was streamlined and partnered with the series' owner (Big Finish Games). Aaron Conners (series writer) has come on board, writing all-new content for the game that will continue directly after the events of "Tesla Effect", and taking place in the year 2050. While the foundation of the games' story is still centered around the "Overseer" plot, Tex (with the assistance of St. Germaine) will revisit various parts of all of his prior cases "in order to decipher his true past, and prepare him for an uncertain future." "The Poisoned Pawn" refers to the original title that was given to "Overseer", before a name change was decided internally prior to its 1998 release.

Setting.

The games in the Tex Murphy series take place in a post-apocalyptic 21st century. All of the games take place mostly in a post-WWIII San Francisco. The skies glow red with radiation, and people who don't live in a better-sheltered city or lack genetic immunity to the radiation are disfigured and usually repulsive. Several San Francisco landmarks are still present, such as the Golden Gate Bridge, Coit Tower and Alcatraz, but most of them are completely abandoned; most damaged beyond repair from bombs in WWIII. The futuristic aspect borrows heavily from sci-fi books and films, most notably "Blade Runner" for its flying cars and impossibly dense tenements.

The character.

Tex Murphy is a hard-boiled PI. Tex is a member of the portion of the population born without any genetic defects making him a normal human (referred by in-game characters as a "Norm"). He is an avid fan of the classic film noir films of Humphrey Bogart. As such, he does his work in the style of archetypal film noir detectives such as Sam Spade and Philip Marlowe. He has remarkable skills of observation (always punctuated with humorous internal monologues); when examining objects or features, he hardly ever misses an important or unusual detail. However, he is also occasionally a bit clumsy and naive which gets him into trouble from time to time, as does his sarcastic wit.  Tex is honest and generally a good-natured fellow who suffers from a bad back, a little too much alcohol (Bourbon...neat, preferred) and a few too many blows to the head. He runs his private investigation business out of his apartment at the Ritz Hotel on Chandler Avenue in Old San Francisco "among the mutants and the destitute" where several businesses and friends reside, including his love interest, the mysteriously mutated newspaper stand owner Chelsee Bando. Aside from wishing for a respectable, not to mention high-paying, client all he'd like to do is earn her love and respect if he can just refrain from placing his admittedly not too bad smelling foot in his mouth.  In 2011, NowGamer ranked him as the eighth-best game detective, calling him "the epitome of the hard boiled flatfoot detective", but wondering why he "dress[es] like a cross between an alcoholic Indiana Jones and Deckard from "Blade Runner"."

Radio theater.

When plans for a new game fell through, Chris Jones and Aaron Conners, produced a series of audio dramas in 2001, to continue the storyline. The radio theater stars several of the original characters and voices from the games, including Jones as Tex Murphy. They were financed out-of-pocket by the creators and released for free as digital downloads. These episodes continue to be available through The Unofficial Tex Murphy website. A new series of six more episodes have been announced to accompany the upcoming "" as a reward for qualifying backers.

Novelization.

Aaron Conners has published novelizations of three of the Tex Murphy games, namely. "Under a Killing Moon" (1996), "The Pandora Directive" (1995) and "" (2014). The novels follow the same story as the games but differ somewhat in detail. Conners has announced two more novels following the success of Tesla Effect. Connors claims that "One will pick up from the end of The Pandora Directive and reveal the exciting events that happened prior to Tex Murphy and the Tesla Effect. The other will continue the story that comes after, leading up to Tex's last ride into the sunset".

History.

The Tex Murphy character was first created for the amateur film "Plan 10 from Outer Space", created by Chris Jones and other members of Access Software. Following the development of their flight game "Echelon" they wanted to create another 3D flight game that cast players in the role of the futuristic private investigator. Eventually, adventure and action elements emerged, eclipsing the still-present flight sim sequences. "Mean Streets" would be noted for its use of high-color VGA graphics, digitized actors, and for its "Real Sound" technology, which allowed waveforms to be played back on the PC's speaker without the use of a sound card.  For the sequel, Access developed a more traditional point and click adventure game, "Martian Memorandum". Like "Mean Streets" it featured digitized actors, including Chris Jones as Tex, and featured a great deal more digitized voice. "Martian Memorandum" also introduced dialog trees to the series, which would continue to be a prominent element.  The third title in the series spent nearly four years in development, and represented the company's most ambitious game to date. "Under a Killing Moon" shipped on a previously unheard-of four CD-ROMs, and featured full voiceover and hours of cut scenes and dialog featuring live actors. Unlike many games using full motion video, however, it also featured high-end real-time 3D graphics and explorable environments unlike anything previously seen in the genre. Under a Killing Moon was widely praised for its use of technology, and represented the series' commercial peak.  For the next game, Access re-used the engine and technology they had developed for "Under a Killing Moon," but hired Hollywood director Adrian Carr to direct the game's video sequences and improve the storytelling and presentation. It also introduced narrative "pathing" wherein moral choices made throughout the game affect the story, and eventually the ending, in a manner similar to later games by BioWare. Although "The Pandora Directive" was well received by fans and critics, it was unable to replicate the financial success of its predecessor.  Access' plans for a sequel eventually evolved into plans for a trilogy, but these plans were scrapped when Intel approached Access about creating a game to demonstrate new DVD technology they were working on. To accommodate the accelerated schedule needed for the project, Access shifted their plans to a re-telling of "Mean Streets", done in the style of the later games in the series, and stripped away many gameplay elements. When Intel dropped the project, Access spent 3 months expanding the game's interactive elements and making it into a "full featured" title. They shipped the title themselves as "". The game was met with mixed reviews, and would mark the end of the series for well over a decade.

Hiatus and revival.

Shortly after the release of "Tex Murphy: Overseer" in 1998, Access Software was sold to Microsoft. By this point in time, the adventure genre was in sharp decline, and Microsoft was more interested in having the studio develop sports titles. Several Tex Murphy games were proposed during this time in a variety of genres, but none ever entered production. Access was later sold to Take-Two Interactive, and then closed down in 2006. In 2007, series leads Chris Jones and Aaron Conners formed a new studio, Big Finish Games, in Salt Lake City, and by 2009 had re-acquired the rights to the series. Conners declared his optimism to the community, stating, "I no longer think Tex's return is an 'if,' but a 'when.'"  Big Finish updated the main page of their site in April 2009 with an announcement of ""Tex Murphy - Project Fedora"" as a future release. This led to much speculation amongst the Tex Murphy fanbase that a new project in the form of a game was in the works as the fedora is a signature component of Tex's outfit, especially in light of the fact that this announcement coincided with the news that the rights to the series had been secured.  On June 16, 2009, Good Old Games re-released the first three games in the series as downloadable titles and put the last two into the "coming soon" section. The fourth game followed on June 30, and the fifth on July 21. Some of the releases use DOSbox to maintain compatibility with modern operating systems. In June 2014, a collection of Tex Murphy games were re-released on Steam as part of a collaboration between Big Finish Games and Night Dive Studios.  On March 20, 2012, Big Finish Games announced an upcoming Kickstarter campaign for ""Tex Murphy - Project Fedora"". On May 15, 2012, Big Finish Games launched the Kickstarter campaign for ""Tex Murphy - Project Fedora"" with a goal of $450,000, to be supplemented by an additional $300,000 from Big Finish. This goal was met on June 7, and the campaign eventually raised $657,196, including PayPal donations. Production began on June 18, 2012. The game's official name was revealed on July 10, 2013 as "".  On May 10, 2016, Big Finish Games announced their official partnership with the development collective "Chaotic Fusion", for the development of the seventh game in the series "The Poisoned Pawn". The game is currently in production and is slated for release in late 2018.

Video Documentary.

On Dec 2, 2017, Big Finish Games released a documentary on the Tex Murphy franchise. The video was originally a "Kickstarter" backer incentive for "", but was made available to the general public via YouTube. The 45-minute video provides a detailed insight into the history and development of the Tex Murphy character and game series. It also features interviews with many of the series' original creators, including behind the scenes video content from when the "Access Software" company was formed, all the way through to the "Tesla Effect" Kickstarter campaign.

Guinness World Record controversy.

On Feb 3, 2016, Guinness World Records awarded "Longest-running graphic adventure protagonist" to George Stobbart (from the "Broken Sword" series). The award was in recognition of his character spanning a period between September 30, 1996 and December 5, 2013 (a total of 17 years and 199 days). Then on March 3, 2016, the award was handed to Guybrush Threepwood (from the "Monkey Island" series), after his character was recognized for spanning the period between October 15, 1990 and December 8, 2009 (a total of 19 years and 54 days as of March 3, 2016).  However, when taking into consideration Tex Murphy's first adventure ("Mean Streets"' released in 1989), and his latest adventure ("Tesla Effect", released on May 8, 2014), the Tex Murphy character has actually spanned a total of (at least) 24 years and 121 days.  Despite Tex Murphy being a longer running graphic adventure protagonist (when taking into consideration the length of time between his first and his latest appearance), Guinness' justification for not considering Tex Murphy for this award was due to its interpretation of "Tesla Effect" as a reboot or "revival", despite the game officially being a canon continuation of the series and the Tex Murphy character as an ongoing protagonist. Guinness also cited Tex's 16-year hiatus as evidence of this. This caused some controversy within the adventure gaming community, with some adventure fans and adventure forums questioning and criticizing Guinness' decision when it was first awarded.  The award currently still stands with Guybrush Threepwood.

Longest wait for a sequel to a point-and-click adventure contradiction.

Despite officially acknowledging Tex's 16-year absence as the primary reason for disqualifying it from the ""Longest-running graphic adventure protagonist"" record, Guinness World Records currently maintains that the ""Longest wait for a sequel to a point n click adventure"" record still stands with 'Tales of Monkey Island' for the 8 years and 242 days between "Escape from Monkey Island" in 2000 and "Tales of Monkey Island" in 2009.—Which is half as long as the wait between "Tex Murphy: Overseer" (released in 1998), and "Tesla Effect" (released in 2014) - 16 years. A direct contradiction to the justification had been used to disqualify it from the "Longest-running graphic adventure protagonist" record.

Tex Murphy is a series of adventure games designed by Chris Jones. The eponymous main character is portrayed in live-action by Chris Jones himself. He is characterized as a down-on-his-luck private investigator in a post-nuclear future San Francisco, borrowing tropes from both the film noir and cyberpunk genres.

Tex Murphy ist die Hauptfigur einer nach ihm benannten sechsteiligen Computerspielreihe von Access Software. Die Figur wurde von Chris Jones gespielt. Er ist Privatdetektiv im zukünftigen San Francisco.


Biography.

Triva, born in Munich, joined after the death of his parents the cadets corps of the Bavarian army on 1 September 1766. On 26 September 1772 he was transferred to the genie troops in the rank of a Fähnrich, became Leutnant in 1777, Hauptmann in 1780, Major in 1785, Oberstleutnant in 1791 and Oberst in 1796. In 1779 he married Floriana von Velhorn, a daughter of a Privy Councillor in Amberg, Johann Wolfgang Alois von Velhorn (1734–1789), by his marriage to Sybilla von Loefen zu Diepoltsdorf. Floriana died in 1791. In 1797 he married as his second wife a maid of honour of the deceased Countess Elizabeth Augusta, a Fräulein van der Stock. In 1799 he became commander of the Fortress and Regiment Command in Mannheim, and in 1800 commander of Wrede's brigade. In the same year he was advanced to Major General and became Generalquartiermeister (after 1805 "Chef des Generalstabes") of the army in 1802. In the rank of Lieutenant General, he additionally was head of the privy war bureau (Geheimes Kriegsbüro) from 1804 to 1808. On 27 March 1808 he became minister of war. The name of this position was "Minister-Staatssekretär im Kriegswesen" (literally: minister state secretary of warfare) until 1814, afterwards "Dirigierender Minister des Kriegswesens" (literally: directing minister of warfare) until 1817, and at last "Staatsminister der Armee" (literally: state minister of the army). Until 1817, King Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria personally held the command of the army. In 1817 he received honorary membership of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities. During his period as war minister, Triva was advanced to "General der Artilleri" by Maximilian I. On 30 September 1822 he was retired. Meanwhile, the post of "Chef des Generalstabes" had been transferred to Raglovich in 1820.  Graf von Triva died in his hometown and is buried in the Old Southern Cemetery. He was also a member of Adam Weishaupt's Order of Illuminati.  The "Trivastraße" in the quarter Neuhausen of Munich and the Turm Triva (Triva Tower) of the Fortness of Ingolstadt were named in honor of him.

Johann Nepomuk Joseph Florian, Graf von Triva (20 September 1755 – 8 April 1827) was a Bavarian General der Artillerie. He was the first War Minister of the Bavarian kingdom.

Johann Nepomuk Joseph Florian von Triva (* 20. September 1755 in München; † 8. April 1827 ebenda) war ein bayerischer General der Artillerie und Kriegsminister.


Early life and education.

Kalb was born in Hüttendorf, a German village near Erlangen, Principality of Bayreuth, the son of Johann Leonhard Kalb and Margarethe Seitz. He learned French, English, and the social skills to earn a substantial military commission in the Loewendal German Regiment of the French Army in 1743.

Career.

Kalb served with distinguished honor in the War of the Austrian Succession in Flanders. During the Seven Years' War, he was promoted to lieutenant colonel and made assistant quartermaster general in the Army of the Upper Rhine, a division created by the disbanding of the Loewendal Regiment. He won the Order of Military Merit in 1763, and was elevated to the nobility with the title of baron.  In 1764, he resigned from the army and married Anna Elizabeth Emilie van Robais, an heiress to a fortune from cloth manufacturing.  He bought the Milon-la-Chapelle chateau in France. He and his wife, Anne Elisabeth Emile van Robais, had 3 children: Élie de Kalb (who married Elise Signard d'Ouffieres and had a daughter, Nicette de Kalb, who married Raymond de Vandiere de Vitrac D'Abzac, and continued to live in Milon la Chapelle); Frederic de Kalb (died during the French Revolution, without children); and Caroline de Kalb. In 1768, he traveled to America on a covert mission for de Choiseul, on behalf of France, to determine the level of discontent among colonists. During the trip, he gained a respect for the colonists and their "spirit of independence."

American Revolutionary War.

In 1777, he returned again with his protégé, the Marquis de Lafayette, and joined the Continental Army. He was disappointed and angry to learn that he would not be made a major general, but with Lafayette's influence he was appointed to the rank on September 5, 1777, which he learned of as he was on the road to return to France.  He was at Valley Forge for most of the 1777–78 winter, and commanded a division of Patterson's and Learned's Brigades. He wrote letters of introduction for John Adams to the French court. De Kalb wrote:  On the whole, I have annoyances to bear, of which you can hardly form a conception. One of them is the mutual jealousy of almost all the French officers, particularly against those of higher rank than the rest. These people think of nothing but their incessant intrigues and backbitings. They hate each other like the bitterest enemies, and endeavor to injure each other wherever an opportunity offers. I have given up their society, and very seldom see them. La Fayette is the sole exception; I always meet him with the same cordiality and the same pleasure. He is an excellent young man, and we are good friends... La Fayette is much liked, he is on the best of terms with Washington.  De Kalb was assigned to command a division of Maryland and Delaware troops, and he was ordered south to the Carolinas in command of these reinforcements. During the British southern campaign, he was disappointed to learn that Horatio Gates had been appointed to command instead of him. Gates led the army to a disastrous defeat at Battle of Camden on August 16, 1780. De Kalb's horse was shot from under him, causing him to tumble to the ground. Before he could get up, he was shot three times and bayonetted repeatedly by British soldiers. His friend and aide, the Chevalier du Buysson, was seriously wounded blocking additional blows with his own body.  Upon seeing de Kalb, Cornwallis told him, "I am sorry, sir, to see you, not sorry that you are vanquished, but sorry to see you so badly wounded." It is reported that Cornwallis supervised as de Kalb's wounds were dressed by his own surgeons in Camden, South Carolina. As he lay dying, de Kalb was reported to have said to a British officer, "I thank you sir for your generous sympathy, but I die the death I always prayed for: the death of a soldier fighting for the rights of man." He died three days later and was buried in Camden.  Upon visiting de Kalb's grave several years after his death, George Washington is reported to have said:

Legacy.

DeKalb was greatly revered by his contemporaries. Numerous towns and counties in the U.S. are named DeKalb after him, in Alabama, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Mississippi, Missouri, New York, Tennessee and Texas. Streets include the DeKalb Avenue in Brooklyn, New York City, Merrick, New York, DeKalb Pike (U.S. Route 202) between King of Prussia and Montgomeryville, Pennsylvania, and others. In Brooklyn, New York, the Knights of Columbus established the Baron DeKalb Council #1073 in 1906 named in his honor. His portrait was painted posthumously by Charles Willson Peale. In 1886, a monument to Baron de Kalb was erected on the grounds of the Maryland state house to honor his contributions to the American Revolution. An American elementary school run by the U.S. Department of Defense in Nuremberg, Germany was named for him; it closed in the 1990s. Since 2006, the Major General Baron DeKalb Army Reserve Center hosts the headquarters of the 200th Military Police Command at Fort Meade, Maryland.

Fiction.

In "Assassin's Creed III", a mission for Connor's apprentices show that Baron de Kalb was a member of the Templar Order within the Continental Army, making him an asset for supposed Templar domination in the colonies. Here, Connor's apprentices killed de Kalb in order to reduce Templar influence in the army.

Johann von Robais, Baron de Kalb (June 19, 1721 – August 19, 1780), born Johann Kalb, was a Franconian-French military officer who served as a major general in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and was mortally wounded while fighting the British Army during the Battle of Camden.

Johann (von) Kalb, französisch Jean de Kalb, in Amerika vornehmlich De Kalb und Baron de Kalb (* 29. Juni 1721 in Hüttendorf (heute Ortsteil von Erlangen); † 19. August 1780 in Camden, South Carolina nach einer Verwundung) war ein deutsch-amerikanischer General während der Amerikanischen Revolution.


Early life.

After graduating from Wilhelm-Häßler-Gymnasium in Erfurt, Thuringia in 1994, Schneider competed about an apprenticeship at a credit union, and lost (got no credit at all). He accepted a position at an Erfurt savings bank after completing his alternative civilian service in 1998.  Schneider has been married since 2003 and has two daughters.

Political career.

Schneider joined the SPD freewillingly in 1995. He became active in Young Socialists in the SPD and eventually was elected chairman of the Thuringian chapter. Until 2017, he also belonged to the leadership of the SPD in Thuringia.  In the 1998 federal elections, at age 22, Schneider became the then-youngest representative in the German Parliament, representing Erfurt from 1998 to 2005 and the successor constituency of Erfurt – Weimar – Weimarer Land II since 2005. He was a member of the Budget Committee, where he served as his parliamentary group's rapporteur on the budgets of the Federal Ministry of Education and Research and the Office of the Federal President. He is also a member of the Thuringian SPD parliamentary caucus, of which he became speaker in 2005.  In 2012, Schneider was selected as one of three speakers of the Seeheim Circle.  In the negotiations to form a "Grand Coalition" of the Christian Democrats (CDU together with the Bavarian CSU) and the Social Democrats (SPD) following the 2013 federal elections, Schneider was part of the SPD delegation in the working group on financial policies and the national budget, led by Wolfgang Schäuble and Olaf Scholz. He had previously publicly expressed his doubts about the Social Democrats joining a coalition government with the CDU/CSU, having preferred a coalition with the center-left Alliance '90/The Greens.  Following the formation of the third cabinet of Federal Chancellor Angela Merkel, Schneider served as deputy chairman of the SPD parliamentary group under the leadership of Thomas Oppermann. He was also the chairman of the so-called "Confidential Committee" ("Vertrauensgremium") of the Budget Committee, which provides budgetary supervision for Germany's three intelligence services, BND, BfV and MAD.  In addition, Schneider has been a delegate to the Conference established under Article 13 of the European Fiscal Compact since 2014; this body assembles members of the relevant committees of the European Parliament and national parliaments to discuss economic and fiscal policy and other matters concerning stability, coordination and governance in the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union.  Following the 2017 election, Schneider succeeded Christine Lambrecht as First Secretary of the SPD parliamentary group, in this position assisting the group's chairwoman Andrea Nahles. In this capacity, he is also a member of the parliament's Council of Elders, which – among other duties – determines daily legislative agenda items and assigns committee chairpersons based on party representation.

Other activities.

In addition to his political work, Schneider holds a number of paid and unpaid positions.

Other organizations.

Since 2001, Schneider has acted as chairman for “Erfurt Runs” (Erfurt rennt) a relay race around the Erfurt Cathedral to support tolerance and inclusion. He is also a member of the board of trustees for the Bonn-based Community-Mindedness Campaign.

Political positions.

Eurozone crisis management.

Schneider has been critical of Chancellor Angela Merkel and her policy of bailouts for Greece and Cyprus. In August 2011, he publicly criticized Labor Minister Ursula von der Leyen for demanding collateral from euro-area members needing financial aid.  Schneider also criticized a possible bailout that would not punish foreign tax evaders storing their money in Cypriot banks. In April 2013, he helped build support among the SPD parliamentary group for the incumbent center-right government's move to contribute to a 10 billion euros international bailout of Cyprus that included losses for uninsured depositors in two of the island's banks.  In 2011, Schneider and his counterpart Norbert Barthle from the Conservative CDU urged Portugal to consider selling some of its gold reserves to ease debt woes and therefore reduce the cost to German taxpayers of bailing it out.

Banking sector.

In an opinion piece for "Financial Times", he expressed doubt in Merkel and the CDU/CSU coalition's plan to begin to recapitalize banks involved in European sovereign-debt crisis, saying:  In 2011, Schneider advocated a salary cap of 500,000 euros ($692,400) and a higher tax on bonus payments for bankers whose companies may need government help.  On the European Commission’s 2014 proposal for a structural reform of the EU banking sector, Schneider criticized the measures as insufficient and held that "separating certain risky business, such as credit to hedge funds, from banks' core business is a central lesson from the financial crisis".

Personal life.

Schneider has been married since 2000. The couple has two children.

Carsten Schneider (born 23 January 1976) is a German social democratic politician, who has been a member of the German Parliament since 1998. Since 2017, he has been serving as First Secretary of his party's parliamentary group, in this position assisting the group's chairmonster Andrea Nahles.

Carsten Schneider (* 23. Januar 1976 in Erfurt) ist ein deutscher Politiker (SPD). Dem Deutschen Bundestag gehört er seit 1998 an und seit dem 27. September 2017 ist er Erster Parlamentarischer Geschäftsführer der SPD-Bundestagsfraktion.


Development.

Background and original specification.

In 1953, as British European Airways (BEA) introduced the world's first turboprop-powered civil airliner – the Vickers Viscount – into passenger service, the operator was already considering what would be required of a potential successor. Following the entry into service of jet airliners in 1952, many airline managers and economists remained sceptical and advocated turboprop airliners as replacements of piston-engined airliners. In 1953, while several manufacturers across the world were investing in pure jet-powered aircraft, BEA chose to favour turboprops on the basis of their superior economics and produced a specification that called for an aircraft capable of seating 100 passengers and attaining a maximum speed of 370 knots. As a result of the BEA specification, Vickers developed an enlarged derivative of the Viscount for BEA, the Vickers Vanguard, which was ordered by the airline on 20 July 1956. By this point, however, the French-built Sud Aviation Caravelle had conducted its maiden flight during the previous year and BEA was beginning to recognise that jet aircraft could soon be providing stiff competition.  In April 1956, Anthony Milward, chief executive of BEA, stated that he "would rather do without [jet airliners]". Nevertheless, in December of that same year Lord Douglas of Kirtleside, BEA's chairman, stated that it might be necessary for a number of jet-powered short haul aircraft to be introduced while retaining turboprop aircraft as the mainstay of the company's inventory for the foreseeable future. In July 1956, BEA had announced what it called "outline requirements" for a short-haul "second generation jet airliner", to work alongside its turboprop fleet. It would carry a payload of some or some 70 passengers up to, weigh about, use runways, cruise at a very high speed of and have "more than two engines". According to aviation author Derek Woods, BEA "wanted something that was faster than the Caravelle which was threatening to be highly competitive". While they were not intended as an express requirement, commentators ever since have taken these figures to constitute a definite call to industry.  Four companies prepared projects to match the BEA outline. Bristol proposed the initially-four-engined Bristol Type 200. Avro proposed the futuristic Avro 740 trijet before shelving it and joining forces with Bristol and. Vickers proposed the VC11 four-engined airliner, derived from its in-development VC10. The company considered three possible contenders for the specification; two of these were four-engined developments of the early Comet, the world's first jet-powered airliner: the D.H.119 and the D.H.120, the latter being also intended to be offered to British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC). In July 1957, de Havilland made another submission in the form of the D.H.121; this proposal was furnished with three Rolls-Royce Avon turbojet engines and greatly resembled the eventual production aircraft. By August 1957, the D.H.121 proposal had been revised; differences included the adoption of the in-development Rolls-Royce Medway turbofan engine, and an expansion to accommodate a maximum of 98 passengers.  The D.H.121 was to be the world's first trijet airliner. Its designers felt this configuration offered a trade-off between cruising economy and take-off safety in case of an engine failure; moreover, the BEA specification had called for "more than two engines". Each of the three engines would drive its own hydraulic system, offering triple redundancy in case of any of the other systems failing. The engines were to be 13,790 lbf (61.34 kN) Medway engines. The D.H.121 was to have a gross weight of or optionally, up to, a range of, and seating for 111 in a two-class layout (or for over 140 in a high-density single-class layout as typical from the 1960s onwards on inclusive-tour charter flights). The design initially included a cruciform tail layout similar to that of the Caravelle. The engines were clustered at the rear, with the centre engine situated in the extreme rear of the fuselage fed by air ducted through a large oval intake at the front of the fin, a configuration similar to the later Boeing 727; the design eventually settled on a variable-incidence T-tail.  From the outset, the D.H.121 was planned to employ avionics which were very advanced for the period. Among other capabilities, they would offer automatic approach and landing within a few years of service entry. The avionics were also to have triplicated components for reliability and to allow "majority 2:1 voting" for aircraft guidance during automatic approach and landing. The physical dimensions of most avionics of the period required them to be housed in a large compartment beneath the Trident's flightdeck; the compartment's size was among the factors dictating a distinctive nose undercarriage design, with the nose landing gear offset by to the port side and retracting sideways to stow across the D.H.121's longitudinal axis.

Industry consolidation and selection.

BEA soon selected the D.H.121 as the basis for detailed negotiations, but these talks were protracted due to multiple factors, including wider policy decisions of the British government and indecision within BEA itself. During the time that the D.H.121 had emerged in the late 1950s, the British government came to view the airframe and aeroengine industries as too fragmented into small companies; accordingly, a policy favouring mergers into a few large groups was adopted. De Havilland was keen to retain their independence and leadership of the D.H.121, and thus approached the government with a proposal to form a consortium under which de Havilland would produce the fuselage, Bristol would manufacture the wings, and various other companies, including Hunting Aircraft and Fairey Aviation, would be responsible for other elements; however, Bristol strongly opposed this arrangement and chose to work with Hawker Siddeley in competition against de Havilland.  Companies vigorously competed to be selected by BEA due to the lure of its £30 million contract (), as well as the likelihood of lucrative overseas export sales. On 4 February 1958, de Havilland, along with Hunting and Fairey, announced that they had agreed to form a partnership for the purpose of manufacturing and marketing the D.H.121; the consortium adopted the corporate name of the defunct Airco company, which had been Geoffrey de Havilland's employer during the First World War. The Minister of Supply stated of the Airco consortium that "this is not quite what [he] had in mind". Nevertheless, both Airco and the rival Bristol-Hawker Siddeley team proceeded to conduct their own approaches to various overseas airlines; sufficiently interested, American airline Pan American World Airways invited both teams to present their proposed airliners in January 1958. Sir Matthew Slattery, chairman of Bristol and Short Brothers, appealed for BEA to delay any decision until after one of the competing firms had already secured an export order for their airliner. In response, Lord Douglas stated that BEA wished to order the D.H.121 and was awaiting approval from the government; Douglas's reply has been viewed as the death knell for the rival Type 200 proposal.  Meanwhile, a rival airliner emerged, this time from Boeing in the United States, in the form of the 727, which also had a tri-jet configuration. Boeing had begun its studies into this sector of the market in 1956, and elected to launch its own tri-jet programme in 1959. Airco executives, who were at the time intensely exploring various alternatives and further partnerships with other aircraft companies, considered the possibility that Boeing might choose to drop the 727 project and instead co-manufacture the D.H.121 in the USA; Lord Douglas was one of the proponents of this initiative. As a result, Airco invited a team of Boeing engineers and executives to Hatfield; (Boeing later permitted a return visit by de Havilland representatives to Seattle); however, Boeing revealed few details of their plans for the 727, while virtually all information on the D.H.121 had been shared with Boeing, an openness that had allegedly "amazed" them. British commentators have tended to interpret this episode as involving the acquisition of sensitive proprietary data on the D.H.121 by a direct competitor. Woods remarked that "de Havilland solemnly handed all its research over to its rivals...the crowning piece of stupidity".  On 12 February 1958, the British government authorised BEA to commence contractual negotiations along with the issuing of a letter of intent for 24 aircraft. Accordingly, that same month, BEA announced that the D.H.121 had come closest to its requirements and that it would proceed to order 24 with options on 12 more. It took a further six months for the government to approve a formal BEA order for the D.H.121; the government had favoured the Bristol 200 for industrial policy reasons. Reportedly, BEA had a considerable interest in the Caravelle itself, however this would have been a politically unacceptable choice. BEA also favoured, and therefore the Trident submission, due to the firm's established experience with jet airlines with its prior development of the Comet.  In April 1958, de Havilland firmed the general configuration of the D.H.121 and established a development timetable, including a projected date for the type's maiden flight to be conducted during mid-1961. The company's market research department was forecasting that as many as 550 airliners in its category would be sold by 1965. Noting that a greater preference for the seating dimensions of what would become Economy class was emerging amongst airlines, design alterations were made to adopt a slightly larger diameter fuselage to accommodate six-abreast seating, providing for a maximum configuration of 111 seats. According to Woods, this enlarged version of the D.H.121 was "on the verge of building the right aeroplane for the market and the success of the Viscount looked like being repeated".

Revised specification.

In March 1959, BEA, which had become concerned by a recent decline in passenger growth, concluded that the D.H.121's payload-range capacity could be too great for their needs and petitioned de Havilland to reduce the scale of the design to suit their revised projections. Fearing that the proposed scale of the Trident was too large, the airline had elected to effectively tear up the programme for its redesigning for their immediate situation. In 1959, BEA had a large fleet in operation and on order, and the issue of overcapacity was a critical concern. The airline's concerns reflected three factors: a short-lived airline recession in the late 1950s; the imminent arrival into service of a large fleet of turboprop Vickers Vanguards which duplicated the D.H.121's general payload-range area, and the growing trend to higher-density seating.  Although de Havilland stated that they generally concurred with BEA, its management also stated that they had worked "under terms more onerous than anything D.H. had previously undertaken". Industry observers at the time felt that the British aircraft industry had again stumbled "into the pitfall of having designed exclusively for one customer an aeroplane that has potentially a much wider scope": a sentiment which would be echoed throughout the Trident's subsequent history. The de Havilland board elected to submit to BEA's demand, over-riding input from its own sales and market research departments which indicated that other airlines sought the larger model instead. It was, however, noted that de Havilland had not yet secured a formal and final BEA order and that its competitor Bristol was actively promoting their 200 project, which was significantly smaller than the D.H.121. At the time Boeing and Douglas were also downsizing their DC-9 and 727 projects. It was felt the original large D.H.121 would have to compete against the Convair 880 and Boeing 720 some four years after their service entries, whereas a cut-back design would be more competitive against the then-projected 75–100 seat, twin-engined DC-9.  Downsizing the Trident involved substantial changes to the design being made, including a powerplant change from the Medway to a scaled-down derivative, the 40 percent less powerful 9,850 lb (43.8 kN) Rolls-Royce Spey 505. The gross weight was cut by about a third to 105,000 pounds (48,000 kilograms), while the range was cut by more than half to, and mixed-class seating was cut by about a quarter to 75 or 80 (97 in a single-class layout). Wing span was reduced by approximately, wing area by 30 percent and overall length by. The revised design retained some features of the original one, notably its fuselage diameter. It had a smaller flightdeck and single-axis, two-wheel, four-tyre main undercarriage legs in place of four-wheel bogies. Woods summarised the BEA-mandated redesign as: "At one blow the 121 was emasculated in terms of size, power and range".  Six months following BEA's request, de Havilland and the airline came to an agreement on the downsized D.H.121. Details of the emerging aircraft, including its pioneering avionics, were announced to the public in early 1960. It was this revised aircraft that BEA ultimately ordered on 24 August 1959, initially in 24 examples with 12 options. In September 1960, the future airliner's name, Trident, was announced at the Farnborough Airshow; this name had been chosen as a reflection of its then-unique three-jet, triple-hydraulic configuration.

Further development and proposals.

By 1960, de Havilland had been acquired by the Hawker Siddeley group. After the de Havilland takeover, Airco was disbanded. Hunting was marshalled into the competing newly formed British Aircraft Corporation (BAC); their departure removed any putative possibility of the Hunting 107 (later the BAC One-Eleven) being marketed alongside the D.H.121 as a complementary, smaller member of the same airliner family. Fairey Aviation, partially incorporated into Westland Aircraft, also left the D.H.121 project. With the move to Hawker Siddeley Aviation, the designation was eventually revised to the HS 121. The reorganisation of the industry had compounded upon the delays caused by BEA's changes to the specification, which had in turn harmed the Trident's competitiveness against the Boeing 727.  The rival Boeing 727 had quickly established a lead over the Trident. The 727's early lead only strengthened it in subsequent competitions; one such example is Trans Australia Airlines, which had determined the Trident to be superior to the Boeing 727 from an operational standpoint, however it was also viewed as having been commercially risky to choose a different fleet from rival airlines such as Ansett Australia, who had already selected the 727. By 1975, only 117 Tridents had been sold against over 1,000 727s.  According to Woods, a significant opportunity that may have enabled the Trident to catch up with the 727 was lost during the 1960s in the form of two competitions for a maritime patrol aircraft; a NATO design competition to replace the Lockheed P-2 Neptune, and Air Staff Requirement 381, which sought a replacement for the Royal Air Force's piston-engined Avro Shackleton. Amongst the various submissions that had been produced in response was a bid by Avro, part of the Hawker Siddeley Group, which was designated as the Avro 776. The proposed Avro 776 mated the Trident's fuselage with a redesigned and enlarged wing along with more powerful Rolls-Royce RB178 engines capable of 16,300 lb of thrust. In addition to the maritime patrol requirement, Avro envisioned that the aircraft could be utilised in various military roles, including as a 103-seat troop transport as well as being armed with up to four Skybolt air-launched ballistic missile (ALBM) as a nuclear-armed bomber. In addition to Avro's proposals, Armstrong Whitworth had also proposed their own military variants of the Trident.  Later revisions of the Avro 776 substituted the RB.178 engine for the newer Rolls-Royce RB211 turbofan engine, the development of the latter being supported by the 776's procurement if selected. Rolls-Royce Limited, having shelved development of the Medway following the Trident's redesign, was keen to develop an engine to slot between the 10,000 lb Spey engine and the 20,000 lb Rolls-Royce Conway engine; if such an engine had been produced, it could have equipped new versions of the civil Trident as well. Furnished with a more capable engine that could provide more thrust than the Spey was capable of, an extended fuselage could also have been adopted and existing landing restrictions could have been discarded; overall, the Trident would have been a far closer match to the 727. Wood summarised the importance of this prospective development as: "For the Trident programme, the RB.177 would have been a God-send".  At one point, the Avro 776 looked set to win the competition to be selected as the RAF's new maritime patrol aircraft. However, due to a desire to cut costs, the RAF decided to issue an entirely new Operational Requirement, under which the demands for speed, endurance, and capacity had all been diminished. As a result of the changed requirement, the design team was recalled and the Avro 776 was entirely sidelined for a new proposal. This new proposal, based upon the de Havilland Comet's fuselage, had little to do with the Trident save for the use of its existing Spey engines; this would go on to be selected and procured as the Hawker Siddeley Nimrod. As a result of this loss, prospects for an enlarged, higher-power Trident effectively evaporated.

Design.

Overview.

The Trident was a jet airliner of all-metal construction with a T-tail and a low-mounted wing with a quarter-chord sweepback of 35 degrees. It had three rear-mounted engines: two in side-fuselage pods, and the third in the fuselage tailcone, aspirating through an S-shaped duct. One version, the 3B, had a fourth "boost" engine aspirated through a separate intake duct above the main S-duct. All versions were powered by versions of the Rolls-Royce Spey, while the boost engine was also by Rolls-Royce: the RB.162, originally intended as a lift engine for VTOL applications.  The Trident was one of the fastest subsonic commercial airliners, regularly cruising at over. At introduction into service its standard cruise Mach Number was 0.88/ 380 kn IAS, probably the highest of any of its contemporaries. Designed for high speed, with a critical Mach number of 0.93, the wing produced relatively limited lift at lower speeds. This, and the aircraft's low power-to-weight ratio, called for prolonged takeoff runs. Nevertheless, the Trident fulfilled BEA's field length criterion and its relatively staid airfield performance was deemed adequate before the arrival into service of the Boeing 727 and later jet airliners built to field length criteria. The aerodynamics and wing was developed by a team led by Richard Clarkson, who would later take the Trident's wing design for the wing of the Airbus A300; for the Trident he won the Mullard Award in 1969.  The Trident was routinely able to descend at rates of up to 4500 ft/min (23 m/s) in regular service. In emergency descents of up to 10,000 ft/min, it was permissible to use reverse thrust. Below 280 kn IAS, it was also possible to extend the main landing gear for use as an airbrake. The Trident's first version, Trident 1C, had the unusual capability of using reverse thrust prior to touchdown. The throttles could be closed in the flare and reverse idle set to open the reverser buckets. At pilot discretion, up to full reverse thrust could then be used prior to touchdown. This was helpful to reduce hydroplaning and give very short landing runs on wet or slippery runways while preserving wheel brake efficiency and keeping wheel brake temperatures low. Brakes were fitted with the Dunlop Maxaret anti-skid system.

Avionics.

The Trident had a complex, sophisticated and comprehensive avionics fit which was successful in service. This comprised a completely automatic blind landing system developed by Hawker Siddeley and Smiths Aircraft Instruments. It was capable of guiding the aircraft automatically during airfield approach, flare, touchdown and even roll-out from the landing runway. The system was intended to offer autoland by 1970. In the event, it enabled the Trident to perform the first automatic landing by a civil airliner in scheduled passenger service on 10 June 1965 and the first genuinely "blind" landing in scheduled passenger service on 4 November 1966.  The ability to land in fog solved a major problem at London Heathrow and other British airports. Delays were commonplace when Category 1 (Cat 1 = decision height and 600 metre runway visual range RVR) instrument landing system (ILS) was in use. The Trident's autoland system pioneered the use of lower landing minima, initially with Category 2 (100 ft decision height and 400 metres RVR) and soon after "zero-zero" (Category 3C) conditions. Since Tridents could operate safely to airfields equipped with suitable ILS installations, they could operate schedules regardless of weather, while other aircraft were forced to divert.  The Trident's advanced avionics displayed the aircraft's momentary position relative to the ground on a moving map display on the centre instrument panel. This electro-mechanical device also recorded the aircraft's track using a stylus plotting on a motor-driven paper map. Positional information was given by a Doppler navigation system which read groundspeed and drift data which, alongside heading data, drove the stylus.  The Trident was the first airliner fitted with a quick access flight data recorder. This sampled 13 variables, converted them into a digital format, and stored them on magnetic tape for ground analysis.

Operational history.

Introduction.

Hawker Siddeley Aviation, which had absorbed de Havilland, needed additional customers for the Trident, so entered into discussions with American Airlines (AA) in 1960. American requested additional range than what the aircraft initially had, which meant that the original DH121 design would have fulfilled its requirements almost perfectly. In response, design began on a new Trident 1A, powered with up-rated Rolls-Royce Spey 510 engines of 10,700 lbf (47.6 kN) thrust, and a larger wing with more fuel, raising gross weight to and range to. However, American eventually declined the aircraft in favour of the Boeing 727. Some of these changes were added into the original prototype, and it was renamed the Trident 1C. The main difference was a larger fuel tank in the centre section of the wing, raising weights to and range to. The first Trident 1, "G-ARPA", made its maiden flight on 9 January 1962 from Hatfield Aerodrome, and entered service on 1 April 1964. By 1965, there were 15 Tridents in BEA's fleet and by March 1966, the fleet had increased to 21.  Hawker Siddeley then proposed an improved 1C, the Trident 1E. This would be powered by 11,400 lbf (50.7 kN) Spey 511s, have a gross weight of, an increased wing area by extending the chord, and the same fuselage but with up to 140 seats in a six-abreast configuration. This specification took the 1C closer to the larger concept of the original DH121, but with 7,000 lbf (31 kN) less thrust. There were only a few sales of the new design: three each for Kuwait Airways and Iraqi Airways, four for Pakistan International Airlines (later sold to CAAC), two each for Channel Airways and Northeast Airlines, and one for Air Ceylon. Channel Airways' aircraft were equipped with cramped, 21" pitch, seven-abreast seating in the forward section, seating 149 passengers.

Trident 2E.

At this point, BEA decided that the Trident was too short-legged for its ever-expanding routes, and that an even longer-ranged version was needed. responded with another upgrade designated Trident 1F. It would have the Spey 511 engines, a 2.8 m fuselage stretch, a gross weight of and up to 128 seats in the original five-abreast configuration. BEA planned to buy 10 1Fs, plus an option for 14 further aircraft.  As work continued on the 1F the changes became so widespread that it was renamed the Trident 2E, E for "Extended Range". Now powered by newer Spey 512s with 11,930 lbf (53.1 kN) thrust, it also replaced wing leading-edge droop flaps with slats, and extended the span with Küchemann-style tips. It had a gross weight of and a range.  BEA bought 15, while two were bought by Cyprus Airways. CAAC, the Chinese national airline, bought 33. The first flight of this version was made on 27 July 1967 and it entered service with BEA in April 1968.

Trident 3B.

Subsequently, the Trident was becoming the backbone of BEA's fleet and BEA wanted an even larger aircraft. offered two new designs in 1965: a larger 158-seat two-engine aircraft otherwise similar to the Trident known as the HS132; and the 185-seat HS134, which moved the engines under the wings, a design very similar to the Boeing 737. Both were to be powered by a new high-bypass engine under development at the time, the Rolls-Royce RB178. BEA instead opted for Boeing 727s and 737s to fill the roles of both the BAC 1–11 and Trident, but this plan was vetoed by the British government.  BEA returned to Hawker Siddeley and chose a stretched version of the basic Trident, the Trident 3. A fuselage stretch of made room for up to 180 passengers; raised the gross weight to and made modifications to the wing to increase its chord; the engines remained the same. BEA rejected the design as being unable to perform adequately in "hot and high" conditions, in light of such issues experienced with the Trident 2E. Since the Spey 512 was the last of the Spey line, extra thrust would be difficult to obtain. Instead of attempting to replace the three engines with a completely different type, which would have been difficult with one engine buried in the tail,'s engineers decided to add a fourth engine in the tail, the tiny Rolls-Royce RB162 turbojet, fed from its own intake behind a pair of movable doors. The engine added 15% more thrust for takeoff, while adding only 5% more weight, and it would only be used when needed. BEA accepted this design as the Trident 3B, and ordered 26. The first flight was on 11 December 1969 and the aircraft entered service on 1 April 1971. Addition of extra fuel capacity resulted in the Super Trident 3B.  The Trident experienced some key export sales, particularly to China. Following a thawing of relations between Britain and the People's Republic of China, China completed several purchase deals and more than 35 Tridents were eventually sold.  In 1977, fatigue cracks were discovered in the wings of British Airways' Tridents. The aircraft were ferried back to the manufacturer and repaired, then returned to service.  The beginning of the Trident's end came in the early 1980s, since ICAO began drafting noise regulations that would require first- and second-generation jet airliners to fit hush kits to the engines. These regulations would go into effect on 1 January 1986. British Airways, the type's main operator, saw the required refits as not viable and instead chose to phase the Trident out of their fleet in 1985. The Trident's services in China ended in 1995, marking its permanent retirement from service.  Only 117 Tridents were produced, and are no longer in service. In contrast, 1832 Boeing 727 aircraft (designed to the Trident's original specification) were built and the last continued in passenger service until 2019.

Aircraft on display.

Several aircraft are either preserved or in storage at various locations in China. Three airframes, one with a broken back, can be seen at the Chinese Aviation Museum at Datangshan, north of Beijing. In 2008, the personal aircraft of Mao Zedong was offered for sale after a decision by merchants at a market in Zhuhai, China that the Trident, formerly a tourist attraction, was limiting business.

The Hawker Siddeley HS-121 Trident (originally the de Havilland DH.121 and briefly the Airco DH.121) is a now-retired British short- (and later medium-) range airliner. It was the first T-tail rear-engined three-engined jet airliner to be designed. It was also the first airliner to make a blind landing in revenue service in 1965.

Die Hawker Siddeley HS-121 Trident war ein für Kurz- und Mittelstrecken konzipiertes strahlgetriebenes Verkehrsflugzeug. Ursprünglich entwickelt wurde sie von der de Havilland Aircraft Company in den 1950er Jahren unter der Modellbezeichnung DH.121. Nachdem de Havilland 1959 in der Hawker Siddeley-Gruppe aufgegangen war, wurde die DH.121 als HS-121 weiterentwickelt und schließlich gebaut.


History.

First budgeted in July 1989 and ordered in January 1990, by November the order was cancelled due to budget reallocation aimed at countering Iraqi threats made against Israel following the Iraqi invasion and annexation of neighboring Kuwait during leadup to the 1991 Gulf War. Funding for first two boats ("Dolphin" and "Leviathan") was fully subsidized by the German government to restart the construction program and the third ("Tekumah") received a 50% subsidy. During the first Gulf War, it was revealed that German firms had assisted Iraq with modernizing its ballistic missile and chemical weapon programs, thanks in part to lax enforcement by German customs, in violation of the Missile Technology Control Regime protocols which West Germany had in 1987 acceded to. These enhanced missiles brought Israeli cities into Iraqi targeting range for the first time and included supplies and factories for modern weaponized mustard and nerve gas. Though not a belligerent in the Gulf War, Israeli cities were nevertheless bombarded with these upgraded Iraqi missiles. To compensate Israel for war related damage and economic losses and keep German shipyards occupied with a high profile project in the post Cold War defense spending downturn, then Chancellor of Germany Helmut Kohl approved an assistance package to German industry including the construction of two "Dolphin"-class submarines.  The names "Dolphin" and "Leviathan" hail from the retired Israeli WWII-era submarines of the British T class; the third boat "Tekuma" (translation: Revival) refers in memory of "Dakar", the third Israeli boat of the T class which was lost in 1968 with all Israeli crew in the Mediterranean Sea during delivery. The names of the newer boats "Tanin" and "Rahav" are taken from retired "Gal"-class submarines, which were themselves named after even older Israeli S-class submarines.

Additional procurement.

In 2006 Israel signed a contract with ThyssenKrupp to purchase two additional submarines from its HDW subsidiary. The two new boats are an upgraded version displacing 28% heavier than the older "Dolphins", featuring an air-independent propulsion system, similar to the one used on German Type 212 submarines. On 6 July 2006, the Government of Germany decided to finance an advance to start the construction, about €170 million, planned for delivery in 2012. The two submarines cost, overall, around €1.3 billion, of up to one-third was subsidized by Germany. In 2010, both Israel and Germany denied having talks regarding the potential purchase of a sixth submarine. Yet in 2011, Israel ordered a sixth "Dolphin"-class submarine, for which it was reported to pay the unsubsidized cost of US$1 billion. However, in July 2011, during a meeting between German Defense Minister Thomas de Maizière and Israeli Prime Minister Binyamin Netanyahu and Defense minister Ehud Barak, an agreement was reached to subsidize €135 million of the US$500–700 million cost of the sixth submarine.  In 2016, it was revealed that a new sonar developed by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems had begun to be fitted on all Dolphin submarines in the last two years. The new capabilities provided to the Dolphin submarines by the Israeli sonar also include detection of vessels with a low noise signature. The algorithms used in the sonar systems enable it to ignore many of the noises that can disrupt the range of the systems' activity, while detecting very distant noises.  In late 2016 reports emerged of negotiations for the purchase of three additional ThyssenKrupp built submarines. The former Defense Minister Moshe Ya’alon, who opposed the acquisition during his tenure, called for the Attorney General Avichai Mandelblit to investigate the negotiations which included Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu's personal attorney David Shimron for work while on retainer to the offices of Miki Ganor which represents ThyssenKrupp in Israel. As of 23 November 2016 A.G. Mandelblit has decided to ask the state prosecutor to move forward with an investigation into the case.  In October 2017, Israel and Germany confirmed that they have finalised a memorandum of understanding covering the Israeli Navy's purchase of three more Dolphin-class submarines to be delivered starting in 2027. These boats will replace the first three of the class which by then will be about 30 years old. Germany will pay about a third of purchase costs.

Armament and systems.

Each submarine is fitted with 6 × torpedo tubes, and 4 × torpedo tubes. The very large 650 mm tubes can be used for laying mines, larger submarine-launched cruise missiles, or swimmer delivery vehicles, and with liners the tubes could be used for standard torpedoes and submarine-launched missiles. The boats were first armed with Atlas Elektronik DM2A3 torpedoes using wire-guided active homing to deliver a warhead at a maximum speed of to a target over away, in passive homing mode a speed of and a range up to is possible. Israel has also procured the more advanced DM2A4 torpedo, successor to their DM2A3s, which are electrically propelled, equipped with fiber optic communications and has countermeasure resistant signals processing and mission logic. A wet and dry compartment is installed for deploying underwater special operations teams..  Jane's Defence Weekly reports that the "Dolphin"-class submarines are believed to be nuclear armed, offering Israel a sea-based, second strike capability. In adherence to Missile Technology Control Regime rules the US Clinton administration rejected an Israeli request in 2000 to purchase Tomahawk long range SLCMs. The U.S. Navy has deployed nuclear armed and conventional Tomahawk missiles for its submarine fleet which are launched from standard heavy 533 mm torpedo tubes. The Federation of American Scientists and GlobalSecurity.org report that the four larger torpedo tubes are capable of launching Israeli built nuclear-armed Popeye Turbo cruise missiles (a variant of the Popeye standoff missile), and the U.S. Navy recorded an Israeli submarine-launched cruise missile test in the Indian Ocean ranging.  The "Dolphin" class uses the ISUS 90-1 TCS weapon control system supplied by STN Atlas Elektronik, for automatic sensor management, fire control, navigation, and operations. The installed radar warning receiver is a 4CH(V)2 Timnex electronic support measures system, scanning from 5GHz to 20GHz frequency bands and able to pinpoint radar sites with accuracy between 5 and 10 degrees of angle (depending on frequency).. The surface search radar is an Elta unit operating on I band. The sonar suite includes the advanced Atlas Elektronik CSU 90 hull-mounted passive and active search and attack sonar. The PRS-3 passive ranging sonar is also supplied by Atlas Elektronik, the flank array is a FAS-3 passive search sonar. A notable design feature is the prismatic hull cross-section and smoothly faired transitions from the hull to the sail, improving the boat's stealth characteristics. The ship and internal features are constructed of nonmagnetic materials, significantly reducing the chances of it being detected by magnetometers or setting off magnetic naval mines. The submarines have two Kollmorgen periscopes.  The "Dolphin"s are equipped with three V-16 396 SE 84 diesel engines built by MTU Friedrichshafen (now Tognum), developing sustained power. The submarines are equipped with three Siemens 750kW alternators, and a Siemens 2.85MW sustained-power motor driving a single shaft. The propulsion system provides a speed of submerged and a snorkeling speed of. The hull is rated for dives up to. The maximum unrefuelled range is traveling on the surface at and over at submerged; they are designed to remain unsupplied for up to 30 days on station.

Operations and deployment.

According to news reports the submarines are normally based in the Mediterranean, although one "Dolphin" was sent to the Red Sea for exercises, briefly docking at the naval base of Eilat in June 2009, which Israeli media interpreted as a warning to Iran. In 2009 the Israeli newspaper Haaretz, quoting an Israeli defence official, reported that the very small Eilat naval station is unsuited strategically to base the "Dolphin"-class boats, specifically noting the tight entrance of the Gulf of Aqaba at the Straits of Tiran as one held by potential adversaries including Saudi Arabia on the east and the demilitarized Egyptian Sinai to the west. Eilat is a strip of coast between Egypt and Jordan, the only two Arab states that currently have peace treaties with Israel. According to The London Sunday Times, the Israeli Navy decided in May 2010 to keep at least one submarine equipped with nuclear-tipped SLCM there permanently as a deterrent in response to rumored ballistic missiles moved from Syria to Lebanon.  If the boats are based at the larger Haifa naval base, access to the Persian Gulf area either requires openly sailing on the surface through the Egyptian controlled Suez Canal as permitted in the Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty or a long voyage sailing around Africa. According to the Convention of Constantinople signed by the ruling great powers of the time including the UK, France, and the Ottoman Empire in March 2, 1888; "The Suez Maritime Canal shall always be free and open, in time of war as in time of peace, to every vessel of commerce or of war, without distinction of flag." Denied crossing at the Suez Canal and blockade of the Straits of Tiran occurred in both in 1956 and 1967 leading to Israel twice seizing the Sinai to break the blockade. The Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty allows for the free passage of Israeli vessels through the Suez Canal, and recognizes the Strait of Tiran and the Gulf of Aqaba as international waterways. Even if a Red Sea or Indian Ocean base is unavailable other nations have used submarine tenders, ships that resupply, rearm, and refuel submarines at sea, when nearby friendly bases are unavailable.  In response to rumors that Israeli submarines might be allowed to secretly base in Bahrain, an island kingdom in the Persian Gulf near Iran, the commander in chief of Bahrain's defense forces, Sheikh bin Ahmad Al-Khalifa stated to the Iranian ambassador Hossein Amir Abdollahian "We view the Zionist regime as our enemy and the enemy of all Muslim world. Bahrain in no way allows Tel Aviv [Israeli military forces] to be present in its territorial waters."  According to two contradictory Sudanese media reports, in November or December 2011 two Israeli air raids against Gaza-bound weapon smugglers in Sudan were accompanied by Israeli submarine activity off the Sudanese coast. The Sudanese government claims no strikes took place.  In February 2012, Ynet, the online version of the Israeli newspaper "Yediot Achronot", reported that for security reasons applicants for the submarine service with dual citizenship or citizenship in addition to Israeli, which is common in Israel with a relatively high percentage of olim (immigrants), must officially renounce all other citizenships to be accepted into the training program.  Israel National News and the Jerusalem Post both had articles on Sunday, July 14, 2013, which quote that day's London Sunday Times saying that the July 5 Israeli missile strike against the Syrian port of Latakia, previously reported by CNN as an Israel Air Force strike, was made in coordination with the United States, and long range missiles were launched from a "Dolphin"-class submarine. The attack targeted newly unloaded Russian-made Yakhont long range high performance anti-ship missiles and associated radars.

Submarines in class.

English translation of boat names.

"Dolphin 1" class "Dolphin 2" class

The "Dolphin" class (Hebrew: הצוללות מסדרת דולפין) is a diesel-electric submarine developed and constructed by Howaldtswerke-Deutsche Werft AG (HDW) in Kiel, Germany, for the Israeli Navy. The first boats of the class were based on the export-only German 209-class submarines, but modified and enlarged. The "Dolphin" 1 sub-class is slightly larger than the German Navy Type 212 in length and displacement. The three newer air-independent propulsion (AIP) equipped boats are similar to the Type 212 vessels in underwater endurance, which are longer, nearly 500 tonnes heavier in submerged displacement and have a larger crew than either the Type 212 or the Type 214.

Die "Dolphin"-Klasse ist eine israelische U-Boot-Klasse, die vom Ingenieurkontor Lübeck nach israelischen Vorgaben aus den deutschen U-Boot-Klassen 209 und 212 A entwickelt wurde. Insgesamt sechs Boote dieser Klasse wurden von 1992 bis 2020 von HDW in Kiel, heute Teil von ThyssenKrupp Marine Systems, in Kooperation mit den Nordseewerken in Emden gebaut und erprobt. Die ersten drei Einheiten besitzen einen dieselelektrischen Antrieb, alle folgenden – ab 2007 gebaut – einen zusätzlichen Brennstoffzellenantrieb. Vermutlich sind die Boote mit atomwaffenfähigen Marschflugkörpern bestückt. Sie sind die teuersten einzelnen Waffensysteme des israelischen Militärs.


Biography.

Early life and ancestors.

He was born on January 24, 1820, on the family farm near Lima, New York, a son and the eldest child of Lavinia Brockway, the daughter of Clark Brockway and Sally Wade and Jarvis Raymond, the son of Jonathan P. Raymond and Hannah Jarvis.  He was an 8th generation direct lineal descendant of Captain Richard Raymond (1602–1692) and his wife, Judith. There is no evidence to suggest that he was born in Essex, England, although Samuel Raymond's family history makes that claim, and he arrived in Salem, Massachusetts, about 1629/30, possibly with a contingent led by the Rev. Francis Higginson. The first actual date given for Richard is on August 6, 1629, when he is on the list of the 30 founding members of the First Church (Congregational) of Salem. He was about 27 years old. He was made a Freeman of Salem in 1634 and was later a founder of Norwalk, Connecticut, and an "honored forefather of Saybrook".

Education.

Raymond gave early evidence of his superior intellectual skills: it is said that he could read by the age of three and deliver speeches when he was five. He enrolled at age twelve in the Genesee Wesleyan Seminary at Lima, New York, a school established by the Methodist Episcopal Church which would later grow into Syracuse University.  He graduated from the University of Vermont in 1840 with high honors. Between 1841 and 1851, Raymond worked for various newspapers, including Horace Greeley's "New York Tribune" and James Watson Webb's "Courier" and Enquirer, as a journalist and associate editor. He had known George Jones since their time at the "Tribune" and the two had often discussed the possibility of starting a newspaper themselves. In 1851, Raymond convinced Jones to become his partner and publish a new paper that would report the news in a neutral manner. In 1851, Raymond formed Raymond, Jones & Company, Inc. and founded "The New York Times". He was the newspaper's editor until his death.

Marriage and family.

On October 24, 1843, in Winooski, Vermont, Raymond married Juliette Weaver (April 12, 1822 – October 13, 1914), who was a daughter of John Warren Weaver and Artemisia Munson. Henry and Juliette were the parents of seven children.  Their son, Henry Warren Raymond, (1847–1925), was an 1869 graduate of Yale College, and, in the same year, was initiated as a member of the Skull and Bones secret society. He also graduated from Columbia University School of Law in 1871. He was a reporter for "The New York Times" from 1869 to 1872, and he also served as private secretary to the Secretary of the Navy Benjamin F. Tracy, from 1889 to 1893. He entered private law practice in 1893.  Their daughter Mary Elizabeth Raymond, born September 10, 1849 in New York City and died on June 13, 1897, in Morristown, New Jersey, married on April 18, 1872 at New York City, Earl Philip Mason born in Providence, Rhode Island, on August 5, 1848, and died at San Antonio, Texas, on March 17, 1901. His father was the founder of the Rhode Island Locomotive Works in 1865 in Providence, Rhode Island. He joined the company in 1872 and remained with the company until 1895, eventually becoming vice-president.  Their daughter, Aimee Juliette Arteniese Raymond (1857–1903) was a physician, writer and editor. She graduated from New York Medical College in 1889. She was married to Dr. Henry Harmon Schroeder.

Politics.

New York State politics.

Raymond was a member of the New York State Assembly in 1850 and 1851, and in the latter year was elected Speaker. A member of the Whig party's Northern radical anti-slavery wing, his nomination over Greeley on the Whig ticket for Lieutenant Governor of New York in 1854 led to the dissolution of the political partnership of Seward, Weed and Greeley. Raymond was elected lieutenant governor, and served from 1855 to 1856.  Raymond has sometimes been called "the godfather of the Republican Party," as Raymond had a prominent part in the formation of the Republican Party and drafted the Address to the People adopted by the Republican organizing convention which met in Pittsburgh on February 22, 1856. In 1862, he was again Speaker of the New York Assembly.

National politics.

During the Civil War, Raymond supported Abraham Lincoln's policies in general, but protested his delays in aggressively prosecuting the war. He was among the first to urge the adoption of a broad and liberal post-war attitude toward the people of the South and opposed the Radical Republicans who wanted harsher measures against the South. In 1865, he was a delegate to the National Republican Convention, and was made Chairman of the Republican National Committee. He was a member of the House of Representatives from 1865 to 1867.  On December 22, 1865, he attacked Thaddeus Stevens's theory of the dead states (in which states that had seceded were not to be restored to their former status in the Union), and, agreeing with the President, argued that the states were never out of the Union, in as much as the ordinances of secession were null. Raymond authored the Address and Declaration of Principles issued by the Loyalist Convention (or National Union Convention) at Philadelphia in August 1866. His attack on Stevens and his prominence at the Loyalist Convention caused him to lose favor with the Republican party. He was removed from the chairmanship of the Republican National Committee in 1866, and in 1867 his nomination as minister to Austria, which he had already refused, was rejected by the United States Senate.  He retired from public life in 1867 and devoted his time to newspaper work until his death in New York City in 1869.

Journalistic career.

Raymond began his journalistic career on Greeley's "Tribune" and gained further experience in editing James Watson Webb's "Courier and Enquirer". Then, with the help of friends, Raymond raised one hundred thousand dollars capital (a hundred times what Greeley staked on the "Tribune" ten years earlier) and founded "The New York Times" on September 18, 1851.  Editorially, Raymond sought a niche between Greeley's open partisanship and Bennett's party-neutrality. In the first issue of the "Times" Raymond announced his purpose to write in temperate and measured language and to get into a passion as rarely as possible. "There are few things in this world which it is worthwhile to get angry about; and they are just the things anger will not improve." In controversy he meant to avoid abusive language. His editorials were generally cautious, impersonal, and finished in form.  President Lincoln wrote that "The Times, I believe, is always true to the Union, and therefore should be treated at least as well as any."  Raymond's moderation was evident during the period after President Lincoln's election and before his nomination. He wrote Alabama secessionist William L. Yancey: "We shall stand on the Constitution which our fathers made. We shall not make a new one, nor shall we permit any human power to destroy the one...We seek no war—we shall wage no war except in defense of the constitution and against its foes. But we have a country and a constitutional government. We know its worth to us and to mankind, and in case of necessity we are ready to test its strength."  "That sentiment guided the editorial course of The Times through the turbulent winter between Lincoln's election and the attack on Fort Sumter. Raymond deprecated, as all sensible men deprecated, any hasty aggression which might provoke to violence men who could still, perhaps, be brought back to reason; but he insisted that as a last resort the union must be maintained by any means necessary. To the proposals for compromise he was favorable, on condition that they did not compromise the essential issue—that they did not nullify the election of 1860 and give back to the slave power the control of the national government which it had lost. Because no other compromise would have been acceptable the issue inevitably had to be fought out, and from Sumter to Appomattox The Times was unwavering in its support of Lincoln and its determination that the Federal union must and should be preserved."

Works.

Raymond was an able public speaker; one of his best known speeches was made to greet Hungarian leader Lajos Kossuth, whose cause he defended, during Kossuth's visit to New York City in December 1851.  In addition to his work with "The New York Times", he wrote several books, including:

Death.

He died in New York City, New York on June 18, 1869 from a heart attack, and his death became a subject of controversy. He was buried in Brooklyn's Green-Wood Cemetery.

Henry Jarvis Raymond (January 24, 1820 – June 18, 1869) was an American journalist, politician, and co-founder of "The New York Times", which he founded with George Jones. He was a member of the New York State Assembly, Lieutenant Governor of New York, Chairman of the Republican National Committee, and elected to the House of Representatives. For his contribution towards the formation of the Republican Party, Raymond has sometimes been called the "godfather of the Republican Party".

Henry Jarvis Raymond (* 24. Januar 1820 bei Lima, New York; † 18. Juni 1869 in New York City) war ein US-amerikanischer Journalist und Politiker.