Regulations and Entries.

The 1992 race had seen the lowest number of entries since the iconic race's advent in the 1920s, and in October 1992 the FIA officially cancelled the Sportscar World Championship - a series that had been running, in various guises, continuously since 1953. The idea to run the premier class on F1-derived engines had proved a spectacular failure with negligible interest from the major car manufacturers that had been anticipated, and too high costs for small teams. Soon after the series cancellation, and with no alternative international series proposed, the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) took matters into its own hands, drafting up regulations for a new "Le Mans Prototype" category: open-cockpit, flat-bottomed cars powered by regular production or restricted race engines. Early in 1993 the American IMSA federation also announced a new "World Sports Car" category along very similar (but crucially, not identical) lines.  In March however the ACO only had 21 entrants, but with no formal championship to adhere to, the ACO was now free to set its own invitation list to the great race and so it revised its entry parameters to offer four distinct divisions: This marked the return of GT cars to Le Mans, since the solitary Group B BMW M1 raced in 1986. The revision worked and soon a number of Group C and GT teams lined up. When entries closed in April, it had a full field of 58, including the first Ferrari (a GT) to appear since 1984. They also revived the May Test Day (last run in 1987), attracting 32 cars. A number of current and future F1 drivers were in the driver list. A new rule was also included that teams had to qualify the car to be used in the race, to stop abuses with specialised test-cars, and that reserve cars could be qualified in case of accident to the primary cars.

Qualification.

Over a sunny race week, unsurprisingly the Category 1 works Peugeots and Toyotas set the pace. In attempting to better their Wednesday times, both teams damaged their chances: Philippe Alliot wrote his Peugeot off in a big accident doing nearly 200 km/h in the Porsche Curves, while Eddie Irvine had a spin at Mulsanne corner with his car using a special qualifying engine. Expecting to have to use their reserve car, Peugeot instead returned a fully repaired car the very next day. People suspected a replacement had been built on a spare monocoque but nothing could be proven. In the end, Alliot's earlier time of 3:24.94 won pole and the six works cars locked out the front rows. The elderly Porsche 962s in Category 2, hampered by engine restrictors were at least 13 seconds slower. In GT, the latest variant of the Porsche 911, the 964-series Turbo S Le Mans from the Porsche works team, was fastest ahead of the three new Jaguar XJ220C of Tom Walkinshaw Racing. 48 cars survived Qualifying however neither the Ferrari (punted off in Warm-up by Irvine's Toyota) nor a new MiG (Russian designed, and the first all-carbon GT) reached the starting grid.

The Race.

Start.

From flagfall, Alliot and Irvine dueled at the front, with the latter's Toyota taking the lead on the eighth lap when the Peugeot spun at Mulsanne corner. Irvine continued to hold the lead through two driving shifts until a slow pitstop (Sekiya lost 2 laps waiting for his drinks bottle to be secured) handed the lead back to the Peugeot, now driven by Mauro Baldi. At 6.30pm Raphanel brought in the second Toyota, while running third, with an engine misfire. Half an hour later the lead Peugeot lost 35 minutes and 8 laps with a broken oil pipe. The to and fro battle between the works teams was then picked up by Geoff Lees' Toyota and the Peugeot of Boutsen/Dalmas/Fabi. In GT, one of the TWR-Jaguars was out with a blown head-gasket after only half an hour. After the works Porsche was held up for 20 minutes with a sticking throttle, the other two Jaguars dominated the class, around 15th place, mixing it with the Group C (Category 2) cars, ahead of a raft of works and private Porsches. In the works Porsche, Walter Röhrl had driven hard to make back 2 of the 5 laps by 10pm when he rammed the back of the Debora in the Mulsanne chicanes. Losing oil, the engine seized before it could reach the pits.

Night.

Juan Manuel Fangio II had been closing in on the leader into the night until 11pm when he was hit from behind by Yojiro Terada's Lotus GT missing its braking point at the 2nd Mulsanne chicane. Repairs cost it 35 minutes, dropping it to 10th. Through the night Boutsen and his co-drivers held the lead over the third team car of steady teammates Brabham/Bouchut/Hélary, with a recovering Irvine a lap behind. At 2.30am, Fabi bought his Peugeot into the pit with smoke in the cockpit from faulty wiring. Though fixed in five minutes they lost the lead to their sister-car. When Irvine's Toyota lost more time with electrical problems, the two Peugeots had a comfortable lead, swapping the lead depending on the pit strategy. In Category 2, brilliant night-time driving by Roland Ratzenberger in the Toyota 93C-V of Shin Kato's SARD team kept them the lead, ahead of the Porsche 962s, that he had got them soon after 5pm.

Morning.

At 7am Hélary had his rear wing damaged by debris, losing the lead, then at 8.50am Boutsen lost a lap with a fractured exhaust handing the lead back. Irvine, meanwhile, was driving blisteringly fast, breaking the lap record and making back a lap. But battery and clutch issues affected the Toyotas: Wallace's car came to a stop out at the Dunlop curves at 7.45am with gearbox problems, then Irvine's challenge ended after midday with a 30-minute engine repair, and finally Lees' car, despite all three drivers doing triple stints to save pit-time, needed gearbox repairs dropping it from 4th to 9th. In GT, the private Porsche of Jean-Pierre Jarier's Monaco Média team had been leading for 6 hours, chased by the remaining Jaguar who finally passed it in the 21st hour.

Finish and post-race.

So with Toyota's problems, Jean Todt's Peugeots finished a convincing 1-2-3, with Alliot's car making its way back up through the field to 3rd (still 8 laps behind). Toyota ended up finishing 4-5-6, with the older Category 2 (Group C) cars heading the rest of the field home with a big lead over the Porsche 962s, with Roland Ratzenberger and Mauro Martini holding on for the Japanese SARD team. In the battle of the 962s, the Obermeier team's reliability beat its bigger brothers: the Joest and Kremer teams.  Sir Jack Brabham had two of his sons on the podiums when David, along with fledgling test-driver David Coulthard and veteran John Nielsen bought the Jaguar XJ220C as the first GT home. However, it had raced under waiver due to scrutineering concerns on its lack of catalytic converters like its production-model had (although no other GT cars used them, nor the racing-spec version of the Jaguar). A month later, they were disqualified on a technicality- Jaguar's evidence and appeal had been filed correctly with the ACO, but not on time with the French motorsport authority (FFSA). The record thus shows the GT win went to the Porsche 911 of Jürgen Barth that had finished 2 laps behind.  In the small Category 3 field of 3 LMP cars, Gérard Welter's latest WR-Peugeot prototype had started well, staying in the top 20 well ahead of its rivals until delayed by wheel-bearing problems. Didier Bonnet's Debora SP93 took the category lead until the WR overtook it again just before dawn, until delayed again - this time replacing a driveshaft. The Debora took over again until halted the engine broke with just over an hour to go, handing the win to the long-suffering WR drivers.  With consecutive wins, this was the last Le Mans for the works Peugeot team for 14 years. After the race, Jean Todt immediately left Peugeot to manage the Scuderia Ferrari F1 team. Back in Japan, blame was laid at the engine engineering department. A month later, Toyota bought out Anderson Motor Sports, running its rally cars and set up Toyota Motorsport GmbH in Cologne for a European racing programme.  Included in the GT field were seven new Venturi 500LM supercars, coming out of the French one-make race series. Although not on the pace with the Porsche 911s or Jaguars, five of them finished. It was a success for the brand though: Jürgen Barth's German Porsche series joined Patrick Peter and Stéphane Ratel's Venturi series in 1994 to create the BPR Global GT Series (named for their surname initials) - the only major international sports car series running that year, piquing FISA's interest.

Official results.

† - #50 finished first in the GT category but was disqualified a month after the race for failing to utilize catalytic converters on the XJ220C.

The 1993 24 Hours of Le Mans was the 61st Grand Prix of Endurance, and took place on 19 and 20 June 1993.

Das 61. 24-Stunden-Rennen von Le Mans, der 61 Grand Prix d’Endurance les 24 Heures du Mans, auch 24 Heures du Mans, Circuit de la Sarthe, Le Mans, fand vom 19. bis 20. Juni 1993 auf dem Circuit des 24 Heures statt.


Central Scotland (Scottish Parliament electoral region)

Constituencies and council areas 2011–.

As a result of the First Periodic Review of Scottish Parliament Boundaries the boundaries for the region and constituencies were redrawn for the 2011 Scottish Parliament election.

Constituencies and council areas 1999–2011.

The constituencies were created in 1999 with the names and boundaries of Westminster constituencies, as existing in at that time. They cover all of two council areas, the Falkirk council area and the North Lanarkshire council area, and parts of three others, the East Ayrshire council area, the East Dumbartonshire council area and the South Lanarkshire council area.  The rest of the East Ayrshire council area is within the South of Scotland region, the rest of the East Dunbartonshire council area is within the West of Scotland region, and the rest of the South Lanarkshire council area is within the Glasgow and South of Scotland regions.

Boundary changes.

The Boundary Commission recommended changes to the electoral regions used to elect "list" members of the Scottish Parliament. The new "Central Scotland" region was formed from the constituencies of Airdrie and Shotts; Coatbridge and Chryston; Cumbernauld and Kilsyth; East Kilbride; Falkirk East; Falkirk West; Hamilton, Lanark and Stonehouse; Motherwell and Wishaw; and Uddingston and Bellshill.

Members of the Scottish Parliament.

Regional List MSPs.

N.B. This table is for presentation purposes only

Election results.

2016 Scottish Parliament election.

In the 2016 Scottish Parliament election the region elected MSPs as follows:

Constituency results.

Additional Member results.

2011 Scottish Parliament election.

In the 2011 Scottish Parliament election the region elected MSPs as follows:

Constituency results.

Additional Member results.

2007 Scottish Parliament election.

Constituency results.

Additional member results.

2003 Scottish Parliament election.

In the 2003 Scottish Parliament election the region elected MSPs as follows:

Constituency results.

Additional member results.

1999 Scottish Parliament election.

In the 1999 Scottish Parliament election the region elected MSPs as follows:

Constituency results.

Additional member results.

Central Scotland ("Meadhan-Alba" in Gaelic) is one of the eight electoral regions of the Scottish Parliament which were created in 1999. Nine of the parliament's 73 first past the post constituencies are sub-divisions of the region and it elects seven of the 56 additional-member Members of the Scottish Parliament (MSPs). Thus it elects a total of 16 MSPs.

Central Scotland ist eine der acht schottischen Wahlregionen zur Wahl des Schottischen Parlaments. Sie wurde auf Grundlage des Scotland Act von 1998 geschaffen. Die Region umfasst die Städte Airdrie, Bellshill, Coatbridge, East Kilbride, Falkirk, Hamilton, Larkhall, Motherwell und Wishaw. Die ersten Wahlen fanden im Rahmen der Parlamentswahl vom 6. Mai 1999 statt.


Early life, education and early career.

al-Nujaifi was born 1956 in Mosul to a wealthy family of landowners and politicians. Both his grandfather Muhammad and his father served as members of parliament during the monarchist era. He grew up racing Arabian horses for his family.  In 1978, al-Nujaifi earned a degree in electrical engineering, from the University of Mosul. Shortly after graduation, he worked in the Iraqi government's electricity ministry for 12 years, involved in building power plants.  Together with his brother Atheel, the later governor of Nineveh, in the early 1990s he took over his family's agricultural company, and particularly started out in the Arabian horse trade.  During the rule of Saddam Hussein, the al-Nujaifi family largely remained out of politics, returning to the public scene following his toppling in 2003. They were however accused of harboring sympathies for Saddam's Baath Party, and were indeed involved in horse trades with Saddam's sons Uday and Qusai.

Political career.

In the Iraqi Transitional Government, al-Nujaifi was appointed Minister of Industry. During his one-year tenure, he privatized most of the state-owned companies which included firms working in sectors from petrochemical and cement to sugar, silk and heavy industry. He campaigned against the ratification of the Constitution of Iraq.  Following the Iraqi legislative election of December 2005, he was nominated by the Iraqi National List to become a member of the Council of Representatives. On 26 January 2006, he survived an assassination attempt, when a roadside bomb detonated close to his convoy near the town of Balad, killing three of his bodyguards. Heading a parliamentary committee to assess the humanitarian situation in Nineveh Governorate, he criticized the conduct of governor Duraid Kashmoula: "We have seen no trace of the huge sums of money said to have been appropriated for the province and could gather no idea on how they were spent."  In September 2006 al-Nujaifi's bodyguard was assassinated. Later that month, al-Nujaifi sparked a walkout by the 55 MPSs of the Kurdistan Alliance when in a parliamentary speech he belittled the historical and current role of Kurds in Mosul area. His speech was seen chauvinist by the Kurds, urging even fellow members of the Iraqi National List to distance themselves from al-Nujaifi's words. al-Nujaifi claimed in October 2008 that the 2008 attacks on Christians in Mosul were carried out by Kurdish peshmerga and intelligence operatives.

Speaker of the Council of Representatives.

The al-Nujaifi brothers' al-Hadba party contested the 2010 parliamentary election as part of the cross-sectarian "Iraqiyya" bloc, which became the largest parliamentary force. "Iraqiyya", however, didn't manage to secure a clear majority to elect its Shiite leader Ayad Allawi to replace current prime minister Nouri al-Maliki. On 11 November 2010, after three days of pressure talk, al-Nujaifi was elected the Speaker of the Council of Representatives, obtaining 227 votes out of 295, with 30 MPs not attending the session. In turn, the power-sharing deal brokered by Kurdish politician Massoud Barzani secured al-Maliki and President Jalal Talabani's posts. In his first parliamentary speech, Nujafi however held al-Maliki's government responsible for the country's "fear, hunger, poverty and corruption," adding that Iraq was considered today "the most corrupt country in the world."  In his first visit to the US as Iraqi parliament speaker, al-Nujaifi refused following protocol, denying to place a wreath on the Arlington Tomb of the Unknowns on the basis that he considered the Americans "an occupying force rather than liberators". When he revisited Washington in early 2014 to discuss the ongoing Sunni insurgency in Al Anbar Governorate, he took a different stance, stressing the importance of the US role in Iraq "to support the political process developed in Iraq." He criticized the treatment of the Sunni Sahwa forces, who fought al-Qaeda in Iraq, though refused to join the Iraqi Army, until they were massively prosecuted by the al-Maliki government. "The policy of exclusion and marginalization of Sunnis and the arrest of thousands of them for illegal reasons provided a suitable ground for the return of al-Qaeda."  Named "the inner circle's new face", Nujaifi by then was the highest-ranking Sunni politician of Iraq, Within the increasingly fragmented "Iraqiyya" national bloc, al-Nujaifi's al-Hadba party shaped the new moderately Sunni "Muttahidoon" coalition, advocating a Sunni federal region in Iraq to contest the 2013 governorate elections. Seen by many as a future presidential prospect, his new coalition however didn't succeed in playing a central role neither in the governorate elections nor in the 2014 parliamentary election. After a weeklong deadlock situation, al-Nujaifi agreed not to seek another term as parliamentary speaker, if al-Maliki also drops his premiership bid. As the prime minister cleared the path, Salim al-Jabouri from the "Muttahidoon"-allied "Diyala is Our Identity" coalition became the new parliamentary speaker.

Vice President.

al-Nujaifi was assigned the post of one of the three Vice Presidents of Iraq, along with the former prime ministers al-Maliki and Allawi on 8 September 2014. On 11 August 2015, these largely ceremonial posts were however altogether abolished as part of prime minister Haider al-Abadi's reform plans. Later, he filed a complaint against the decision, considering it to be against the Constitution. Also Nouri al-Maliki promised to cling to his post. On 10 October 2016, the three posts of Vice Presidents were restored by the Supreme Court of Iraq which termed their abolition as unconstitutional. On 12 May 2017, he announced the establishment of a political party dubbed "United for Iraq" in Erbil.

Osama Abdul Aziz al-Nujaifi or Najifi (; born c. 1956 in Mosul) is an Iraqi politician and served as one of the three Vice Presidents of the country, from 2016 to 2018. As the Speaker of the Council of Representatives, the informal leader of the moderate Sunni al-Hadba party was the highest ranking Sunni politician of Iraq.

Usama an-Nudschaifi (; * 1956 in Mossul) oder Osama el-Nudschaifi ist ein irakischer Politiker. Seit dem 10. Oktober 2016 ist er einer der drei Vizepräsidenten des Irak, zusammen mit Nuri al-Maliki und Ijad Allawi.


History.

In September 1862, the Royal Württemberg State Railways () planned to build a railway from Illingen via Vaihingen an der Enz and Weil der Stadt to Calw. It did not pursue this project for long because the Kingdom of Württemberg had begun negotiations with the Grand Duchy of Baden in order to build the Nagold Valley Railway from Pforzheim. In February 1865, the Baden Government agreed to the construction of this line.  On 13 August 1865, the parliament of Württemberg decided to build the Black Forest Railway from Zuffenhausen via Leonberg to Calw. This line connected Weil der Stadt to the rail network. The State Railways built Weil der Stadt station north of the town. The monumental entrance building has survived but it is now used for other purposes.

State Railway era.

The opening of the second part of the line from Ditzingen to Weil der Stadt took place on 1 December 1869. The difficult section through the Black Forest to Calw, was put into operation by the State Railways on 20 June 1872. The Black Forest Railway lost much of its importance after the completion of the Gäu Railway in September 1879. A planned branch from Weil der Stadt to Pforzheim was never built.  Despite the opening of the railway, Weil der Stadt continued to be dominated by agriculture. It was not until 1893 that a clothes manufacturer built a factory with four looms outside the town walls. The mill later produced Beyerle blankets. The increase in the population and industry was still limited. In 1910, only 1,859 people lived in the town, which was not much more than in previous decades. The inhabitants mostly grew hops and raised sheep.

Reichsbahn era.

Deutsche Reichsbahn reduced services on the Black Forest line. In 1939, it operated only nine trains directly between Stuttgart and Calw on weekdays. Most trains from Stuttgart ended in Leonberg or Renningen. Nevertheless, the Reichsbahn electrified the Black Forest Railway on 18 December 1939 to Weil der Stadt. This gave the town, which still had a population of only 2,200, a connection to Stuttgart's suburban services. The locomotives used to haul through trains from Stuttgart to Calw and vice versa were changed in Weil der Stadt.

Deutsche Bundesbahn era.

In the 1960s, the suburban electrical services were incorporated into the Stuttgart S-Bahn project. Weil der Stadt would be the terminus of a line. On 1 October 1978, Deutsche Bundesbahn launched operations S-Bahn line S 6. This finally ended continuous operations from Stuttgart to Calw. Deutsche Bundesbahn operated Uerdingen railbuses between Weil der Stadt and Calw until 29 May 1983, when passenger services were abandoned. Freight traffic to Althengstett ended after a landslide at Ostelsheim in March 1988.  For years, the Calw district and the Association of the Württemberg Black Forest Railway, Calw–Weil der Stadt ("Verein Württembergische Schwarzwaldbahn Calw–Weil der Stadt") have tried to have the line reactivated, if necessary or appropriate, by extending line S 6 to Calw.

Entrance building.

The station building has a very wide three-storey central block with a shallow hipped roof that is almost atypical of the Royal Württemberg State Railways, which usually used rather slender designs for its stations. Left and right of the central building there are two-storey extensions. The facade of the building is built of red sandstone (Buntsandstein), which is also found in other buildings in Weil der Stadt (e.g. the church and the Rundbogenstil pillars of the town hall). The frames of the windows and doors are made of yellow sandstone and stand in contrast. The station's name is also carved in yellow sandstone on both extensions as WEILDERSTADT.

Rail operations.

The station is served by the S-Bahn Stuttgart. It has two platform tracks. Services of S-Bahn line S 6 start on track 1. Track 2 is no longer used. It is classified by Deutsche Bahn as a category 4 station.

Weil der Stadt station is a station located at the terminus of the Black Forest Railway in the town of Weil der Stadt in the German state of Baden-Württemberg. The section to Calw is disused. The station is the terminus of line S 6 of the S-Bahn. It is classified by Deutsche Bahn as a category 4 station.

Der Bahnhof Weil der Stadt liegt am Streckenkilometer 25,6 der Württembergischen Schwarzwaldbahn, die hier endet, da der Streckenabschnitt bis Calw nicht mehr befahren wird. Der Bahnhof ist Ausgangs- und Endpunkt der Linie S6 der S-Bahn Stuttgart.


History.

According to London mayor Boris Johnson, in around October 2008 he and Tessa Jowell decided that the site in Stratford, London that was to become the Olympic Park for the 2012 Olympics needed "something extra" to "distinguish the East London skyline", and "arouse the curiosity and wonder of Londoners and visitors".  A design competition held in 2009 called for designs for an "Olympic tower". It received about 50 submissions. Johnson has said that his early concept for the project was something more modest than "Orbit", along the lines of "a kind of 21st-century Trajan's Column", but this was dropped when more daring ideas were received.  The media reported unconfirmed details of the project in October 2009, describing the interest of the steel magnate Lakshmi Mittal, one of Britain's richest men, in funding a project that would cost around £15 million. Boris Johnson was believed to want something like the Eiffel Tower or the Statue of Liberty. At that time there were understood to be five artists being considered, including Antony Gormley. Early designs reportedly included 'Transmission' by Paul Fryer, a high structure "resembling a cross between a pylon and a native American totem pole", according to "The Times". A spokesman for Johnson would only confirm that he was "keen to see stunning, ambitious, world-class art in the Olympic Park", and that work on commissioning the project was at an early stage.  Mittal's involvement came about after a chance meeting with Johnson in a cloakroom in Davos in January 2009, as they were on their way to separate dinner engagements. In a conversation that reportedly lasted 45 seconds Johnson pitched the idea to Mittal, who immediately agreed to supply the steel. Mittal later said of his involvement, "I never expected that this was going to be such a huge project. I thought it was just the supply of some steel, a thousand tonnes or so, and that would be it. But then we started working with artists and I realised that the object was not just to supply steel but to complete the whole project. It took us almost 15 months of negotiation and discussion." Johnson has said that, "In reality, ArcelorMittal has given much more than the steel."  Kapoor's and Balmond's "Orbit" was announced as the winner on 31 March 2010. According to "The Guardian", Orbit was chosen from a short list of three, beating a design by Antony Gormley and one by the architectural firm Caruso St John. According to "The Times", Gormley's design was a steel colossus titled "Olympian Man", a trademark piece of a statue of himself, rejected mainly on the grounds of its projected cost, estimated at £40 million.  Johnson and Jowell agreed to issue a commission for "Orbit" in partnership with Mittal after it was chosen by a nine-person advisory panel brought together by them to advise on a long list of proposals. According to Mittal, the panel made a unanimous decision to pick "Orbit", as it both represented the Olympic Games and was achievable within the ambitious time frame. Kapoor described it as "the commission of a lifetime".  Johnson pre-empted possible criticism during the official launch by stating: "Of course some people will say we are nuts – in the depths of a recession – to be building Britain’s biggest ever piece of public art. But both Tessa Jowell and I are certain that this is the right thing for the Stratford site, in Games time and beyond."  The completed structure was officially unveiled to the press and public on 11 May 2012.  An image of the structure was included in the 2015 design of the British passport.  The structure was re-purposed with the world's longest slide in 2016, as a way to attract more visitors.

Design.

Interpretation.

According to Kapoor, the design brief from the Mayor's office was for a "tower of at least ", while Balmond said that he was told the Mayor was "looking for an icon to match the Eiffel Tower".  Kapoor said that one of the influences on his design was the Tower of Babel, the sense of "building the impossible" that "has something mythic about it", and that the form "straddles Eiffel and Tatlin". Balmond, working on the metaphor of an orbit, envisaged an electron cloud moving, to create a structure that appears unstable, propping itself up, "never centred, never quite vertical". Both believe that "Orbit" represents a new way of thinking, "a radical new piece of structure and architecture and art" that uses non-linearity – the use of "instabilities as stabilities." The spaces inside the structure, in between the twisting steel, are "cathedral like", according to Balmond, while according to Kapoor, the intention is that visitors will engage with the piece as they wind "up and up and in on oneself" on the spiral walkway.  "The Independent" described "Orbit" as "a continuously looping lattice... made up of eight strands winding into each other and combined by rings like a jagged knot". "The Guardian" describes it as a "giant lattice tripod sporting a counterweight collar around its neck designed to offset the weight of its head, a two-storey dining and viewing gallery". According to the BBC, the design incorporates the five Olympic rings.  Upon its launch Johnson said "It would have boggled the minds of the Romans. It would have boggled Gustave Eiffel." Nicholas Serota, a member of the design panel, said that "Orbit" was a tower with an interesting twist, with "the energy you might traditionally associate with this type of structure but in a surprisingly female form".  According to Mittal, "Orbit" was already the working title, as it describes continuous action, a creative representation of the "extraordinary physical and emotional effort" that Olympians undertake in their continuous drive to do better. It was decided to keep this as the final name and prepend ArcelorMittal (as the project supporter).  On the public announcement of the design Johnson conceded that it might become known by something other than its official name, suggesting "Colossus of Stratford" or the "Hubble Bubble", in reference to his belief that it resembles a giant shisha pipe, or a variant on people's perceptions that it resembled a "giant treble clef", a "helter-skelter", or a "supersized mutant trombone".

Designers.

"Orbit" is described as "designed by Anish Kapoor and Cecil Balmond". Kapoor is a Turner Prize winning sculptor, while Balmond is one of the world's leading designers. According to Kapoor, both men are "interested in a place where architecture meets sculpture" and "the way that form and geometry give rise to structure". Kapoor and Balmond stated that their interests have blurred and crossed over into each other's fields since they first began working together in 2002 on Kapoor's "Marsyas" installation in the Turbine Hall of the Tate Modern. As well as "Orbit", in 2010 Kapoor and Balmond were also working on the Tees Valley Giants, a public art project in northern England.  The sculpture was engineered by the Global engineer Arup, who developed the overall geometry, structural design and the building services including the lighting displayed extensively during the Olympic games. Architectural input by Kathryn Findlay (Ushida Findlay Architects, as a sub-consultant to Arup) made the sculpture into a functional building, for example designing the staircase.

Structural.

The organic design of "Orbit" demanded an extraordinary amount of structural engineering work. This was done by Arup, which reported that it took up two-thirds of the budget for the project (twice the percentage normally allotted to structural engineering in a building project).  From a structural point of view, "Orbit" consists of two parts:  The trunk has a base diameter of, narrowing to on the way up, then widening again to just under the observation deck. The trunk is supported and stabilized by the tube, which gives a structural character of a tripod to the entire construction. Further structural integrity is given to the construction by octagonal steel rings that surround the tube and trunk, spaced at and cross-joined pairwise by sixteen diagonally mounted steel connectors.  A special part of the construction is the canopy, the conic shape that hangs off the bottom of the trunk. Originally planned as a fibreglass composite construction, costs forced the use of steel for this section as well. Centraalstaal was approached as a special consultant for the design of the steel cone and came up with a design for a cone built out of 117 individually shaped steel panels with a total surface area of 586 square metres. The entire cone weighs 84 tonnes.

Height.

Early contradictory reports suggested the tower would be tall. However, it finally measured in at making it the UK's tallest sculpture, surpassing the tall "Aspire".  The Greater London Authority on announcing the project described "Orbit"s height in comparison with the Statue of Liberty, stating that it would be taller – the Statue of Liberty is high, including the statue and its pedestal. The media picked up the apparent intention to cast the "Orbit" as London's answer to the Eiffel Tower, which is tall. "The Guardian" related how it was "considerably shorter", also noting that it is even " shorter than the diminutive Blackpool Tower".  Its height was also compared in the media with other London landmarks. It was described as being "slightly taller" or "nearly taller" than the Big Ben clock tower, the centrepiece of the Palace of Westminster. It was also described as being "twice as tall" or "more than double the height" of Nelson's Column, the monument honouring Admiral Nelson in Trafalgar Square. Other reports described how it was "just short of" or "almost as tall as" the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt, the ancient tomb of the Pharaoh Khufu. Big Ben is tall, Nelson's Column is tall, including statue and column. The Giza Pyramid was thought to have been constructed as 280 Egyptian cubits or tall, although with erosion it has reduced in height by nearly 10 metres.

Construction.

"Orbit" is located in the southern area of the Olympic Park, between Olympic Stadium and the Aquatics Centre. After the March 2010 confirmation of the winning design, construction began in November 2010; it reached its full height in November 2011.  Steel is the primary material used in the sculpture. According to Balmond, there was no feasible alternative, as steel was the only material that could give the minimum thickness and maximum strength represented in the coiling structure. It was built from approximately 2000 tonnes of steel, produced as much as possible from ArcelorMittal plants, with the exact sourcing being determined by the grades of steel required and the technical requirements of the project. Of this, 60% was recycled steel produced by the Esch Belval steel plant in Luxembourg.  On 14 March 2011, with construction already underway on the main pylon, "The One Show" broadcast footage of the on-site status of project, and profiled the four-man team putting it together, comprising two steel erectors, a crane operator and a site foreman.

Use.

As an observation tower, "Orbit" has two indoor viewing platforms on two levels, with each level having capacity for 150 people. According to the Greater London Authority, the observation platform offers "unparalleled views of the entire of the Olympic Park and London's skyline". According to "The Independent", visitors should take the elevator to the top and descend the 455-step staircase; this should allow them to appreciate the views around which Anish Kapoor arranged the sculpture.  It is expected to cope with 700 visitors per hour. During the Olympic Games the entrance fee was £15 for adults and £7 for children. The tower does not include a dining area, however there is a cafe, shop and other facilities at the South Park Hub building, which opened in April 2014.  The ambition is that the sculpture, as well as being a focal point for the Olympic Park during the Games, will form part of the wider Stratford regeneration plans, which aim to turn the Olympic site into a permanent tourist destination after the Games. Tessa Jowell said "Orbit" will be "like to honey to bees for the millions of tourists that visit London each year". Boris Johnson predicted it would become "the perfect iconic cultural legacy". According to Lord Coe, chairman of the London 2012 Olympic organisers, it would play a central part in the Game's role of leaving a lasting legacy and transformed landscape in east London.  During the opening ceremony of the 2012 Summer Paralympics, Joe Townsend (a Royal Marine and double amputee) delivered the Paralympic flame into Olympic Stadium via a zipline that was attached to the top of "Orbit".  In 2016, a permanent slide designed by German artist Carsten Höller was added to the sculpture. The slide is reported to be the world's tallest and longest tunnel slide at 178 metres. Though it was originally reported that admission to the slide would cost around £5, the general adult price for entry to the slide and orbital is currently £16.50, with additional rides costing £5 each.

Funding.

At the time of its public launch, the total cost of "Orbit" was announced as £19.1m. ArcelorMittal was to fund up to £16m, with the remaining £3.1m being provided by the London Development Agency. This consists of a £10m cash donation, and £6 million in underwriting of capital costs, which could be potentially recovered from profits generated after the Games. According to Johnson, the cost of the project would be recouped after the games through the private hire of a dining area at the top, predicting it would become a "corporate money-making venture".  Mittal said he was immediately interested in "Orbit" after he remembered the excitement that surrounded the announcement that London had won the Olympic bid. He saw it as an opportunity to leave a lasting legacy for London, showcase the "unique qualities of steel" and play a role in the regeneration of Stratford. Mittal said of his involvement in the project, "I live in London – I’ve lived here since 1997 – and I think it’s a wonderful city. This project is an incredible opportunity to build something really spectacular for London, for the Olympic Games and something that will play a lasting role in the legacy of the Games."  Advisory panel member and director of the Tate gallery, Nicholas Serota, said "Orbit" was "the perfect answer to the question of how sport and art come together", and praised Mittal's "really impressive piece of patronage" for supporting a "great commission".  In October 2015 Len Duvall, a Labour member of the London Assembly, stated that the tower was losing £520,000 a year; LLDC said they had revised their visitor target from 350,000 to 150,000 per year.

Reception.

Overall reception to "Orbit" was mixed, but mostly negative. With regard to its potential as a lasting visitor attraction, "The Guardian's" Mark Brown reflected on the mixed fortunes of other large symbolic London visitor attractions such as the popular, but loss-making, Thames Tunnel; the Skylon structure, dismantled on the orders of Winston Churchill; and the successful London Eye. When plans were first reported for an Olympic tower, the media pointed to a manifesto pledge of Johnson's to crack down on tall buildings, in order to preserve London's "precious" skyline. "The Times" criticised the idea as a vanity project of Johnson's, with a design "matching his bravado", built to "seal his legacy", surmising it would be compared to other similar vanity projects such as the "wedding cake", the Monument to Vittorio Emanuele II built in Rome, or the Neutrality Arch, a rotating golden statue erected by Turkmenistan's President Saparmurat Niyazov, while comparing Johnson to Ozymandias. Art critic Brian Sewell said "Our country is littered with public art of absolutely no merit. We are entering a new period of fascist gigantism. These are monuments to egos and you couldn't find a more monumental ego than Boris."  "The Times" reported the description of it being the "Godzilla of public art". In October 2012, ArcelorMittal "Orbit" was nominated and made the "Building Design" magazine shortlist for the Carbuncle Cup—an award for the worst British building completed in the past year, which was ultimately awarded to the Cutty Sark renovation.  Jay Merrick of "The Independent" said that "[Orbit's] sculptural power lies in its ability to suggest an unfinished form in the process of becoming something else", describing how its artistic riskiness elevated it above the banal artworks of the public art movement that have been built elsewhere in Britain's towns and cities. Merrick was of the opinion that it would be either loved or hated, being a design which is "beautifully fractious, and not quite knowable". Jonathan Glancey of "The Guardian" described "Orbit" as "Olympian in ambition" and a "fusion between striking art and daring engineering", and said that, the Aquatics Centre apart, it represented the architecturally striking Joker in the pack, given that the rest of the landscaping and architecture for the Games "promises little to get excited about". He believed it would become a "genuine eyecatcher" for the Olympics television coverage, with its extraordinary form being a "strange and enticing marriage of sorts" between the Eiffel Tower and the un-built early Soviet era Tatlin's Tower, with the biblical Tower of Babel as "best man".  Richard Morrison of "The Times" described "Orbit" as "like an enormous wire-mesh fence that has got hopelessly snagged round the bell of a giant french horn", adding that it "seems like an awful lot of trouble just to look at East London", in comparison to a music hall comedian's refrain at the $16 million cost of the Brooklyn Bridge. Morrison not only compared Johnson to Ozymandias, but also to the 20th century dictators Adolf Hitler, Joseph Stalin and Nicolae Ceauşescu, in their acts of "phallic politics" in building grandiose monuments. Criticising the lack of public involvement, he described how it would be an "undesired intrusion by the few into the consciousness of the many". He feared that it could become one of the many "thousands of naff eyesores" of recent public art in Britain, citing the embracing couple at St Pancras station ("The Meeting Place"), the Dockland's "Traffic Light tree", and the proposed Rotherhithe Tunnel'match-stick man' tribute to Isambard Kingdom Brunel, as London based examples. Fellow "Times" writer Tom Dyckhoff, while calling it "a gift to the tabloids" and a "giant Mr. Messy", questioned whether the Olympic site needed another pointless icon, postulating whether it would stand the test of time like the London Eye and become a true icon to match the Eiffel Tower, or a hopeless white elephant. Suggesting the project had echoes of Tatlin's Monument to the Third International, and especially Constant Nieuwenhuys' utopian city New Babylon, he asked whether "Orbit" was just as revolutionary or possessed the same ideological purpose, or whether it was merely "a giant advert for one of the world’s biggest multinationals, sweetened with a bit of fun".  Rowan Moore of "The Guardian" questioned if it was going to be anything more than a folly, or whether it would be as eloquent as the Statue of Liberty. He speculated that the project might mark the time when society stops using large iconic projects as a tool for lifting areas out of deprivation. He questioned its ability to draw people's attention to Stratford after the Games, in a similar manner to the successes of the Angel of the North or the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao. He also questioned the piece's ability to strike a chord like the Angel, which he believed had at least "created a feelgood factor and sense of pride" in Gateshead, or whether it would simply become one of the "many more unloved rotting wrecks that no one has the nerve to demolish". He postulated that the addition of stairs and a lift made "Orbit" less succinct than Kapoor's previous successful works, while ultimately he said "hard to see what the big idea is, beyond the idea of making something big".  Fellow "Guardian" writer John Graham-Cumming rejected comparisons to icons like the Eiffel Tower, which had itself not been intended to be a lasting monument, only persisting into public acceptance as art through being useful; he also pointed out the Colossus of Rhodes collapsed within a few decades, and the Tower of Babel was "constructed to glorify those that constructed it." He suggested that Johnson should reconsider whether it should be pulled down after 20 years. Questioning its corporate role, he believed that meant it looked less and less like a work of art and more like a vanity project. In an online poll published by "The Guardian", 38.6% of readers considered it a "grand design", while 61.4% for considered it "garbage".  Responding to concerns from "The Times" that ArcelorMittal's sponsorship and naming of "Orbit" would represent an improper incursion of corporate branding into public life, Johnson stated that Olympic rules mean that it cannot carry any corporate branding during the games. Felicity Carus of "The Guardian's" environment blog questioned whether ArcelorMittal's record on carbon emissions was good enough to mean Orbit represented a fitting monument for the 2012 Olympics, billed as a 'world's first sustainable Olympics'.

Advisory panel.

The advisory panel consisted of:  In announcing the winning design, Johnson thanked the Greater London Authority, the Olympic Delivery Authority and the London Organising Committee of the Olympic Games and Paralympic Games, as well as David McAlpine and Philip Dilley of Arup, and Sir Robin Wales and Jules Pipe for their involvement and support in the project.

The ArcelorMittal "Orbit (often referred to as the Orbit Tower or its original name, Orbit") is a 114.5-metre-high sculpture and observation tower in the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park in Stratford, London. It is Britain's largest piece of public art, and is intended to be a permanent lasting legacy of London's hosting of the 2012 Summer Olympic and Paralympic Games, assisting in the post-Olympics regeneration of the Stratford area. Sited between the Olympic Stadium and the Aquatics Centre, it allows visitors to view the whole Olympic Park from two observation platforms.

Der ArcelorMittal Orbit ist ein 115 Meter hoher Aussichtsturm im Olympiapark in Stratford, London. Die Stahlskulptur ist Großbritanniens größtes Kunstwerk im öffentlichen Raum und soll zu einer dauerhaften Erinnerung an die Olympischen Spiele 2012 werden. Der Turm wurde zwischen dem Olympiastadion und dem "Aquatics Centre" errichtet. Seit der Eröffnung im April 2014 können die Besucher den ganzen "Olympic Park" von zwei Aussichtsplattformen aus überblicken. Weitere Ausblicke ergeben sich für Besucher, die die 435 Stufen zur Erde zu Fuß herabsteigen.


Playing career.

As a youth, Sigalet played in the 2000 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament with a minor ice hockey team from Burnaby.

Amateur.

Sigalet's career began with the BCHL's Salmon Arm Silverbacks in 2002. During his season with the team, he received numerous awards, including being named to the BCHL First-Team All-Star and All-Rookie teams, as well as being named "Top Defenceman" by the team.  Following his season in the BCHL, Sigalet joined the Bowling Green Falcons for the 2003–2004 season, joining his brother, goaltender Jordan Sigalet. Following a three-point night against Findlay on December 12, Sigalet was named CCHA Rookie of the Week on December 14, 2003. He concluded his freshman season with 3 goals, 12 assists and 26 penalty minutes, earning him an Honorable Mention for the CCHA All-Rookie Team.  During his sophomore season, Sigalet recorded 3 goals, 13 assists and 36 penalty minutes. In March 2005 he was named to the CCHA Scholar-Athlete Team for a GPA of 3.87 in Health Science.

Professional.

Sigalet was Boston's fourth pick (100th overall) in the 2005 NHL Entry Draft. He officially signed with the Boston Bruins on August 15, 2005, foregoing his final two years of college eligibility and joining his brother in Boston's system. Jonathan played three seasons with the Bruins' minor league team, the Providence Bruins.  In his rookie season with Providence, Jonathan was the team's leading scorer among defensemen with 9 goals and 27 assists. He added 2 more goals and another assist in the playoffs. Following the season he was awarded, along with David Lundbohm, Providence’s Community Service Award. He was also named the team's recipient of the American Specialty/AHL Man of the Year Award for 2005–2006, in honor of his community service efforts.  Jonathan played his first NHL game on January 9, 2007 with the Boston Bruins in a 5–2 loss against the Ottawa Senators. He registered one shot, no points, four penalty minutes and a minus-two plus/minus rating.  On May 28, 2008 the Columbus Blue Jackets acquired the rights to Sigalet in a trade with the Bruins in exchange for the rights of forward Matt Marquardt.  In the summer of 2011, he signed for Lev Poprad, the newest expansion team in the Kontinental Hockey League and the first team in that league based outside of the territory of the former Soviet Union.  In May 2012, he signed for Slovan Bratislava, which had recently completed the move from the Slovak Extraliga to the KHL to become one of the newest teams in the KHL.  After parts of two seasons in the Swedish Hockey League with Luleå HF, on April 29, 2016, Sigalet moved to fellow competitors, Frölunda HC, on a three-year contract.

Jonathan Patrick Sigalet (born February 12, 1986) is a Canadian professional ice hockey defenceman currently playing for Brynäs IF of the Swedish Hockey League (SHL). He was selected by the Boston Bruins in the fourth round (100th overall) of the 2005 NHL Entry Draft.

Jonathan Sigalet (* 12. Februar 1986 in Vancouver, British Columbia) ist ein kanadischer Eishockeyspieler, der seit April 2016 beim Frölunda HC in der Svenska Hockeyligan unter Vertrag steht. Sein Bruder Jordan war ebenfalls ein professioneller Eishockeyspieler.


Early life.

Inō was born in the small village of Ozeki in the middle of Kujūkuri beach, in Kazusa Province (in what is now Chiba Prefecture). He was born to the Jimbo family and his childhood name was Sanjirou. His mother died when he was seven and after a somewhat tumultuous childhood (not uncommon at the time), he was adopted (age 17) by the prosperous Inō family of Sawara (now a district of Katori, Chiba), a town in Shimōsa Province. He ran the family business, expanding its sake brewing and rice-trading concerns, until he retired at the age of 49.  At this time he moved to Edo and became a pupil of astronomer Takahashi Yoshitoki, from whom he learned Western astronomy, geography, and mathematics.

Mission.

In 1800, after nearly five years of study, the Tokugawa shogunate permitted Inō to perform a survey of the country using his own money. This task, which consumed the remaining 17 years of his life, covered the entire coastline and some of the interior of each of the Japanese home islands. During this period Inō reportedly spent 3,736 days making measurements (and traveled 34,913 kilometres), stopping regularly to present the Shogun with maps reflecting his survey's progress. He produced detailed maps (some at a scale of 1:36,000, others at 1:216,000) of select parts of Japan, mostly in Kyūshū and Hokkaidō.  Inō's magnum opus, his 1:216,000 map of the entire coastline of Japan, remained unfinished at his death in 1818 but was completed by his surveying team in 1821. An atlas collecting all of his survey work, "Dai Nihon Enkai Yochi Zenzu" ( "Maps of Japan's Coastal Area"), was published that year. It had three pages of large scale maps at 1:432,000, showed the entire country on eight pages at 1:216,000, and had 214 pages of select coastal areas in fine detail at 1:36,000. The "Inō-zu" (Inō's maps), many of which are accurate to 1/1000 of a degree, remained the definitive maps of Japan for nearly a century, and maps based on his work were in use as late as 1924.

Expeditions.

Ino's surveys were done in 10 expeditions. The first survey started on June 11, 1800 and included 5 members. This survey was mainly to begin charting the coast of Hokkaido (where Russian ships had come to open trading houses). This survey was done almost entirely by measuring walking steps and taking astronomical observations. They made it to Bekkai 別解 in far Northeast Hokkaido. In total they walked and surveyed 3,244 km.  The results of the first survey, paid for almost entirely by Ino's own funds, helped the Bakufu government understand the significance of the work. For this reason, starting with the second expedition (departing Tokyo in the summer of 1801) he received more support, and the route was more ambitious, covering most of the Eastern seaboard from just south of Tokyo to the far northern tip of Honshu, and then the interior portion on the return trip. This expedition lasted approximately 6 months and covered 3,122 km.  After the second survey, more and more trust was put in Ino's endeavor. By the fifth expedition, there were 19 people involved, they covered almost 7,000 km. On the 8th expedition they covered over 13,000 km in 914 days, most of it in Kyushu. By this time Ino was 70 years old, which was decades older than the average lifespan at that time. In addition to his maps, Inō produced scholarly works on surveying and mathematics, including "Chikyū sokuenjutsu mondō" and "Kyūkatsuen hassenhō".

Commemoration.

Inō is celebrated as one of the 'architects' of modern Japan. A museum, dedicated to his memory, was opened in his former home in Sawara, and in 1996 was designated a National Historic Site.  In November 1995 the Japanese government issued a commemorative 80 yen postage stamp, showing Inō's portrait and a section of his map of Edo.  Most of the complete copies of the atlas have been lost or destroyed (often by fire), although a mostly-complete copy of the large-scale map was discovered in the collection of the U.S. Library of Congress in 2001.

Inō Tadataka (伊能 忠敬 February 11, 1745 - May 17, 1818) was a Japanese surveyor and cartographer. He is known for completing the first map of Japan using modern surveying techniques.

Inō Tadataka (jap., bzw. in respektvoller Lesung "Inō Chūkei"; * 11. Februar 1745 in Kozeki, Provinz Kazusa (heute Kozeki, Kujūkuri, Präfektur Chiba), Japan; † 17. Mai 1818 in Edo (heute Tokio)) war ein japanischer Landvermesser und Kartograph. Er erstellte die erste vollständige Karte von Japan.


Background.

The song was reportedly inspired by a post-season holiday undertaken by Australian Football League (AFL) player Jude Bolton and several of his Sydney Swans teammates to Los Angeles during the 2010 post-season.

Music video.

The music video for the song was uploaded to YouTube on June 8, 2011 and is a continuation of "Party Rock Anthem", this time emulating the movie "Blade", the rave bloodbath scene specifically, instead of "28 DAYS LATER".  The video's introduction is quite similar to "Party Rock Anthem". An opening caption says Redfoo and SkyBlu have become shuffling zombies and are now in search of the perfect party in downtown Transylvania "From Dusk Till Dawn". Redfoo and SkyBlu exit their vehicle in an empty car park and Redfoo opens out a map on the vehicle's hood. While arguing about their next destination, the shufflers are grabbed by an eccentric looking man, who pulls them behind the personalized Kia Soul. This time, they don't take it lightly and start to hit the stranger with the map. The "beating" soon ceases and the assailant is shown in full view. He recognizes the LMFAO crew, calling them the "shuffle guys". While the duo are justifying this nickname, the stranger appears to be day-dreaming yet focusing intensely on the shufflers. He invites them to a party, and after much persistence and also the promise of shots, LMFAO decide to attend this club.  The actual song begins, the video changes to the duo entering the club, and the viewer is shown that the guests are many of the original shufflers (including the Shuffle Bot and also Quest Crew – winners of America's Best Dance Crew, season 3) who are already busy party rocking. LMFAO join the dance-floor and the video alternates between shots of the dancers and shots of Natalia Kills. However, little do Redfoo and Sky Blu know that this party is hosted by a crew of blood-suckers who feast on their guests. This is made evident when one of the women bares her fangs and even more so when Redfoo cuts his finger while trying to open a champagne bottle – this grabs the attention of the vampires who begin to flirt with him. Natalia almost gets seduced by Redfoo, but then throws him to her vampires. The guys are oblivious to the attacking vampires and unknowingly manage to fight them off while dancing. However, they only realize the truth when the vampires form a demonic group behind them.  The next scene involves Redfoo, Sky Blu, the Shuffle Bot and Q running towards the exit. The door suddenly bursts open and Jesus of Hollywood (Kevin Lee Light) strides in wearing Beats by Dr. Dre. He presents the group with crates filled with bottles of "Holy Champagne", and they use these drinks against the vampires, creating a huge champagne shower, referring to the song name. The music video ends with the dancers party rocking in victory and Jesus of Hollywood high-fiving the entire crew.

Critical reception.

Robert Copsey of Digital Spy UK gave the track 2 out of 5 stars, saying, "During our recent interview with LMFAO", the uncle-nephew duo not only described their new single as "the ultimate party song", but insisted that it would "change the way that people view champagne".

"Champagne Showers" is a song performed by American EDM/electro hop recording duo LMFAO, featuring vocals from English singer-songwriter Natalia Kills. It was released as the second single from the album "Sorry for Party Rocking" (2011). This song was an international hit in New Zealand, Australia, France, Ireland and Austria, peaking #8, #9, #12, #15 and #18 respectively. This song was also in the Australian Top 50 for 27 Weeks and in the French Top 200 for 50 weeks.

Champagne Showers ist ein Lied des US-amerikanischen Electro-/Hip-Hop-Duos LMFAO und die zweite Singleauskopplung des Albums "Sorry for Party Rocking". Das Stück wurde in Deutschland am 27. Mai 2011 veröffentlicht und entstand als Zusammenarbeit LMFAOs mit der Sängerin Natalia Kills. Der Text wurde vom Duo selbst geschrieben, ebenfalls beteiligt daran waren D.J. Listenbee und K. Oliver. Die Musik wurde von dem Bandmitglied Redfoo zusammen mit GoonRock und Audiobot komponiert.


History.

Beginnings (1885–1916).

The Yonsei University Medical School dates to April 10, 1885, when the first modern hospital to practice Western medicine in Korea, "Gwanghyewon", was established.  The hospital was founded by Horace Newton Allen, the American protestant missionary appointed to Korea by the Presbyterian Church in the USA. The hospital was renamed Jejungwon (제중원 濟衆院, House of Universal Helpfulness) on April 26. As there appeared difficulties, the church appointed Canadian Oliver R. Avison to run "Jejungwon" on July 16, 1893. "Gwanghyewon" was financed at first by the Korean government, while the medical staff was provided by the church. However, by 1894 when the First Sino-Japanese War and Gabo reforms (갑오개혁) took place, the government was not able to continue its financial support, thus management of "Jejungwon" came fully under the church. In 1899, Avison returned to the US and attended a conference of missionaries in New York City where he elaborated on the medical project in Korea. Louis Severance, a businessman and philanthropist from Cleveland, Ohio, was present and was deeply moved. He later paid for the major portion of the construction costs of new buildings for the medical facility. "Jejungwon" (제중원) was renamed Severance Hospital after him.  "Jejungwon" (later Severance Hospital) was primarily a hospital, but it also performed medical education as an attachment. The hospital admitted its first class of 16 medical students selected through examinations in 1886, one year after its establishment. By 1899, Jejungwon Medical School was independently recognized. Following the increase of diversity in missionary denominations in Korea, collaboration began to form. "Jejungwon" began to receive medical staff, school faculty, and financial support from the Union Council of Korean Missionaries (한국연합선교협의회; 韓國聯合宣敎協議會) in 1912. Accordingly, the medical school was renamed as Severance Union Medical College in 1913.  The rest of Yonsei University traces its origins to Chosun Christian College, which was founded on March 5, 1915, by an American Protestant missionary, Horace Grant Underwood sent by the church. Underwood became the first president, and Avison became the vice president. It was located at the YMCA. Courses began in April with 60 students and 18 faculty members.  Underwood died of illness on October 12, 1916, and Avison took over as president.

During World War II.

On August 22, 1910, Japan annexed Korea with the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910. The first Governor-General of Korea, Terauchi Masatake, introduced the "Ordinance on Chosun Education" (조선교육령; 朝鮮敎育令) in 1911, and subsequently "Regulations on Professional Schools" (전문학교 규칙) and "Revised Regulations on Private Schools" (개정사립학교 규칙) in March, 1915. These were intended to stifle private education in Korea; any establishment of schools, any change in school regulations, location, purpose, coursework, or textbooks must all be reported to and authorized by the governor-general, and all courses must be in Japanese.  Severance Union College struggled to meet these requirements; school regulations and coursework were altered, faculty evaluated and enlarged, its foundation and its board clarified. It received its recognition as a professional medical school on May 14, 1917. In 1922 the governor-general Makoto Saito issued "Revised Ordinance on Chosun Education" (개정조선교육령). It called for stricter qualifications for the faculty, and Severance reacted obediently and further recruited more members with degrees from accredited institutions in North America and Europe. Japan did not completely ignore the competence of this institution; in 1923, Severance recovered its right to give medical licenses to its graduates without state examination, a right which had been lost since 1912. Moreover, in March 1934, the Japanese Ministry of Education and Culture further recognized Severance in allowing its graduates the right to practice medicine anywhere in Japanese sovereignty.  Oh Geung Seon (오긍선; 吳兢善) became the first Korean president of Severance in 1934. Ordinances in 1915 and 1922 also affected the fate of Chosun Christian College. Intended as a college, it was not legally recognized as such, since the Ordinance of 1915 did not allow the establishment of Korean private colleges. Hence, Chosun Christian College, now renamed Yonhi College, was accepted only as a "professional school" on April 17, 1917, then a joint project from diverse missionary denominations. However, Yonhi had formed the organization and faculty becoming a university. It consisted of six departments: humanities, agriculture, commerce, theology (this department did not open due to differences among the founding denominations), mathematics and physics, and applied chemistry. The ordinances, furthermore, prohibited coursework in Korean history, its geography, or in the Bible outside the department of theology. The council of missionaries reacted with "A Resolution on the Revised Educational Ordinance" (개정교육령에 관한 결의문) which carefully pointed out that Japan did not apply such rigorous absurdities to its private schools in mainland Japan.  After the March First Independence Movement swept the peninsula in 1919, Japan somewhat relaxed its grip on Korea, and this is reflected in the Ordinance of 1922. It ceased the arbitrary control of governor-general over the coursework and the qualification of faculty members, and altered its stance on strict separation of religion from all education. It also recognized Yonhi as a professional school equal to its counterparts in Japan, and permitted the Christian programs and the Bible in its coursework. Nevertheless, Japanese literature became mandatory. Under Japanese intervention, Korean history was taught under the name Eastern History, and the Korean language was taught whenever possible.  The department of agriculture was closed after 1922 when its first graduates left Yonhi. Efforts were made to revive this department, without much success. However, Yonhi installed a training center for agricultural leaders on campus, with impressive results.  Yonhi was liberal in its admission of non-Christians. Its policy was to admit non-Christians relatively freely and allow the majority Christian students to gradually influence and assimilate them.  In the late 1930s, Japan again shifted its policy towards Korea to incorporate it to its scheme of expansionism. In August 1936, the new Japanese Governor-General Jirō Minami began the assimilation of Koreans, to exploit them for military purposes; The governor-general enforced Sōshi-kaimei and Shintoism on Koreans, and began to recruit Koreans for Japanese war efforts. In April 1938, the third "Ordinance on Chosun Education" ordered the acceptance of Shintoism, voluntary removal of Korean language in coursework, and further intensification of Japanese and Japanese history education. Yonhi Professional School did not follow suit and opened courses on the study of the Korean language in November 1938. This was not tolerated for long: In March 1940, Yonhi was forced to open courses in Japanese studies for each department and each year. In 1938, English classes began to come under pressure following a deterioration of relations between Japan and United States; coursework in English was forbidden and texts of English writers were censored. In 1938, President H.H. Underwood accepted the practice of Shintoism to avoid Yonhi's potential closure. Governors-General pushed Yonhi to refuse financial support from United States and financial difficulties mounted.  On an individual level, Yonhi faculty members and its students were apprehended or investigated during this period for their involvement in real and alleged resistance movements.  In 1939, the United States government recalled all its citizens and missionaries in Korea; Underwood and some of the faculty refused to leave Korea until forced to in 1941–1942 following the outbreak of the Pacific War. Japanese military officers were dispatched to Yonhi for military training of its students in 1940 and forced labor began in 1941. Scientific equipment, building parts, and even the Underwood statue were seized. The school yard was turned into a drill ground. Due to their value in the war, medical students of Severance were not a target of "voluntary recruitment", but Severance faced Sōshi-kaimei, military training, and constant surveillance by the Japanese authorities. Severance was coerced into changing its name to Asahi (旭) in 1942.  On August 17, 1942, the board was dismissed and Yonhi was designated as enemy property, and thus appropriated and managed directly by an appointee of the governor-general. Yonhi ceased to be a place of education and was converted into a tool for assimilation of Koreans and exploitation of manpower. By October 1943, students were practically being conscripted. In 1944, dormitories were converted into barracks and the campus was occupied by the Japanese air force. Finally, on May 10, 1944, the Governors-General closed Yonhi and replaced it with Kyungsung Industrial Management School (경성공업경영학교), the primary purpose of which was to train engineers required to continue the war.  Both Severance and Yonhi were closely involved in Korean independence movements. Many faculty members were directly involved in the March First Independence Movement, as were their students. Severance continued its contribution by printing "The Independence" in the basement of one of its buildings, and Yonhi was as active as any other school. By the end of the movement, only 17 students were left. Yonhi students were active participants in the Chosun Student Council for Scientific Research (조선학생과학연구회), which was one of the leading groups in the Mansei Movement of June 10, 1926. The Yonhi Student Council and many faculty members belonging to the clandestine New Stem Association (신간회; 新幹會) gave full support to the Gwangju Student Independence Movement (광주학생독립운동). In the aftermath, students were apprehended, and the Shin Gan Society was exposed. Later on, students actively participated in V Narod (브나로드) and Student Enlightenment Movement (학생계몽운동) during 1929–1930.  Under Japanese oppression in the 1940s, the Yonhi School kept producing Koreans who fought for independence. In 1942, the Japanese Colonial Government of Korea arrested 33 Korean students of the Korean language, including three faculty members of Yonhi and prominent Korean language scholars, Choi Hyun Bae (최현배; 崔鉉培), Lee Yun Jae (이윤재; 李允宰), and Kim Do Yeon (金度演; 김도연), as well as other graduates of the school including Jung Tae Jin (정태진; 丁泰鎭) and Kim Yoon Kyung (김윤경; 金允經). They were charged with organizing the Joseon Language Society (조선어학회; 朝鮮語學會; now Korean Language Society; 한글학회; 한글學會), studying the Korean language, and attempting to publish a Korean-language dictionary. Lee Yun Jae died in jail in 1942 from torture and harsh treatment, eleven of the others were found guilty, and five including Choi Hyun Bae were imprisoned. The Japanese Colonial Court found them guilty because "behaviors such as publishing of a Korean-language dictionary is a form of nationality movement to maintain the spirit of Joseon."  Yun Dong-ju (윤동주; 尹東柱), a 1941 graduate of Yonhi School who joined the Korean independence movement, left many poems about patriotism and self-reflection. He was imprisoned by the Japanese, and died from torture and harsh treatment in 1945.  As tributes to their efforts, Yonsei University has constructed a monument called "Yonsei Hangultap" (A Monument for Korean Language by Yonsei; 연세 한글탑; 延世 한글塔), a monument for Yun Dong Ju (윤동주 시비; 尹東柱 詩碑), and bust statues of Choi Hyun Bae and Kim Yoon Kyung on its Seoul campus.

During the Korean War (1946–1952).

Severance was approved as a college by the liberated Korean government in 1947. Since most medical institutions in Korea were run by the Japanese, medical staff and faculty were in short supply after their departure. Thus, many members of Severance staff and faculty left to assist other institutions. Severance took up the role of student leadership and was outspoken against US-Soviet occupation. In 1950, during the outbreak of the Korean War, Severance functioned as a field hospital until Seoul was overrun. Severance fled hurriedly, but some faculty members and students were unable to leave in time; some were killed and others were captured then exploited by the advancing North Koreans. Severance seniors joined the military as army surgeons. Although Severance returned to Seoul for a while after its recapture, it had to flee again in December on a LST in Incheon.  When Severance arrived in Busan, its medical school joined the wartime college, a temporary body. Meanwhile, the Severance facility in Seoul received heavy damage, as it was in the center of the city near Seoul Station. Severance Hospital again returned on April 1, 1952, and its medical college on June 12, 1952.  The US military neglected the restitution of Yonhi and held other plans to use it as a military hospital or judiciary training center. With time, nevertheless, Yonhi came to be viewed as a missionary institution that was dispossessed by the governor-general.  Yonhi was able to open its doors again on January 21, 1946, and, on August 15, 1946, was recognized as a university. Baek Nak Jun became president. It was a period of transition, and Yonhi University faced obstacles including financial ones; after 1947, things settled down. At the time, Korea lacked teachers, and Yonhi was asked to provide education and training; the Temporary Training Center for Secondary School Teachers in Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry (임시 수물화학과 중등교원양성소) was established. In December 1948, plans for unification of Yonhi and Severance began to take form. The Graduate School was formed in July 1950.  At this point, all progress came to a halt due to the Korean War. The university suspended all courses on June 27 and recruited student soldiers. The North Korean military advanced into the Yonhi campus and established its headquarters there. This was a cause of severe damage to the campus when the US military recaptured Seoul in September. The university reopened following the recapture of Seoul, but it was once more on the run to Busan in December. In February 1951, Yonhi joined the wartime college; however, it kept an independent body and opened its own courses on October 3, 1951. On April 15, 1953, Yonhi began its work on restoration; Yonhi returned to its campus in the fall.

1953–1959.

In 1957, Severance Medical College and Hospital and Yonhi University merged to form Yonsei University.

Academics.

Reputation.

Yonsei is one of Korea's three "SKY" universities, which are the most prestigious in the country, with the other members being Seoul National University and Korea University. Admission of these "SKY" universities is extremely competitive. Acceptance rate of Yonsei University in early admission(수시) is below 5%. In general, exhibiting 1% of academic achievement (Korean SAT) is needed to apply for Yonsei regular admission(정시). Inside Korea, admission to a SKY university is widely considered as a determination of one's career and social status.

World rankings.

In 2019, Yonsei University ranked 5th in the QS World University Rankings for the top universities in South Korea. It ranked 21st in Asia and 104th globally. In 2016, Yonsei University was ranked 105th overall, 24th in Social Policy and Administration, 12th in Modern Languages and 51-100 in economics by QS World University Rankings. It was ranked 104th worldwide and 2nd in the nation by Center for World University Rankings in 2017 and in 2018 Academic Ranking of World Universities placed Yonsei University at the 20th position in Asia/Pacific region and 3rd in South Korea. Yonsei was ranked 96th in the world according to an SCI paper published in 2007.  Yonsei is one of four Korean universities ranked in all three ARWU World University Ranking, QS World University Rankings, and The Times World University Ranking in 2010–13, along with Seoul National University, KAIST, and POSTECH). Yonsei University was ranked 16th in Asia in 2012 and continues to rise rapidly in global rank: 112 in the world in 2012; 129 in 2011; 142 in 2010; 151 in 2009; 203 in 2008; and ranked globally 236 in 2007 by QS World University Rankings. Yonsei was ranked the 1st Korean university to be in the "Economist"s 2011 Top 100 Full-time MBAs (#76); "US News", 2011 World's Best Universities: Asia #18; and UK "Financial Times" 2011 Top 100 EMBA (#57).  Yonsei University was ranked 36th in Reuters' "The world's most innovative university", which was announced in September 2015.  Yonsei International Summer School (YISS), usually held from late June to early August, started in 1985, and it has grown over 1,300 students from over 30 countries.  Winter Abroad at Yonsei (WAY) is a relatively new program, started 2013. The winter program is composed of two separate 3-week sessions which start in late December.  Yonsei University's Exchange/Visiting Student Programs offer opportunities to students who plan to study for a year or a semester in Korea.

Culture.

University symbols.

The "ᄋ" and "ᄉ" in the University shield derived from the first letters of each syllable in "연세" (Yonsei). The circle "ᄋ" represents the ideal of a complete and well-rounded person, while the "ᄉ" symbolizes the upward-looking striving for scholarly excellence. In addition, the "ᄋ" stands for Heaven (天), the "ᅳ" represents the horizon of the Earth (地), and "ᄉ" signifies Man (人) as expressed in the Chinese character. The open book stands for Truth, the torchlight signifies Freedom, and the shield protects these two core principles of the University.  The university's mascot is an eagle, and its color is "royal blue."

Christianity.

Yonsei University is founded on Christian principles and purporting to "produce Christian leaders with the spirits of freedom and truth". The Christian character of the university is well illustrated by its history as a school founded by American Protestant missionaries and by its school motto from the Bible, "The truth will set you free" (John 8:32). As of 2007, the Board of Directors of Yonsei University should include a member from four Korean Christian organizations: (대한예수교장로회), (한국기독교장로회), (기독교대한감리회), and the Anglican Church of Korea (대한성공회). In Korea and Japan, Christian schools founded by Christian organizations or individuals, especially by Western missionaries, such as Yonsei University, are commonly called "".  A school's founding ideology and a student's freedom of religion has been debated in South Korean society for some time. As of 2009, a student does not have to be an active Christian to be admitted to Yonsei University.  In Yonsei University entered an agreement with The United Methodist Church, in which the university will serve as the regional office for the Methodist Global Education Fund for Leadership Development.

Student life.

A large number of Yonsei degree programs, including UIC, ASD, and GSIS (in Seoul and YIC) have extensive tuition scholarships for international students that cover tuition and accommodation.  Akaraka is the official college festival for Yonsei students that is usually held on May. During the festival, many prominent singers and celebrities perform.  It is strictly forbidden by the university code of conduct to discriminate against students from non-Christian backgrounds, yet as a missionary school, Yonsei undergraduates are required to attend weekly chapel service for four semesters to qualify for graduation.

Clubs.

There are more than 100 clubs at Yonsei University; the clubs listed here do not represent all clubs on campus.

Rivalry with Korea University.

Each claiming to be the best private university in South Korea, Yonsei University and Korea University have had a rivalry that is longer and more intense than rivalries between other universities in South Korea.  The rivalry is well-illustrated by famous annual sports matches between them. This event, starting in 1925, is called KoYon Jeon (고연전; 高延戰) when Yonsei University hosts the matches and YonKo Jeon (연고전; 延高戰) when Korea University hosts the matches. However, the above official name is actually used only for official appearances such as broadcasting and newspaper reports. 'YonKo Jeon' is commonly used in Yonsei University and 'KoYon Jeon' is generally used in Korea University. The annual one-time matches include soccer, baseball, basketball, rugby, and ice hockey.  Many students in each university come to this event to cheer for their teams, and the event has a significant meaning as many influential alumni are very interested in the result for the sake of their school spirit.  Until 2012, Yonsei recorded 18 winning seasons, 8 draws, and 16 losses. In 2012, out of the five sports, Yonsei University lost three (baseball, basketball, soccer) and won two (ice hockey, rugby). In 2017, Yonsei university won all five games. In 2018, Yonsei university won three games (rugby, soccer and basketball) and lost one (ice hockey). Baseball was cancelled due to the rain.

Campus.

Main Campus (Sinchon).

Yonsei University Seoul Campus is composed of Sinchon Campus and International Campus in Songdo, Incheon. From 2011, Yonsei University adopted a Residential College (RC) Program in Yonsei International Campus (YIC). Most freshmen of Yonsei University are required to live in an International Campus dormitory and complete RC programs for a year. After that, they move on to Sinchon campus in Seoul to complete their education.  Yonsei has a campus with the Underwood International College and Graduate School of International Studies programs in Seoul, and a new campus with the international Asian Studies Program in Yonsei International Campus in Songdo, South Korea.

Yonsei International Campus.

Based on the May 8, 2006 agreement between the city of Incheon and Yonsei University, the Yonsei Songdo Global Academic Complex (now the Yonsei International Campus) is an anchor of the R&D aspect of the Songdo area and the Korean education and research industries. Construction was in two phases with the first phase including the Global Campus, Joint University Campus, R&D Campus, and the Global Academic Village. Phase one was completed in 2010 and phase two began the next year in 2011 with further expansion.  The Joint University Campus aspect of the project is expected to be either an overseas campus of a major foreign research university or a joint campus created and managed between such a university and Yonsei University. This joint campus will be integrated and fully compatible with the Yonsei University program.  The construction of the complex began on 26, November, 2008.  The dormitory of the International Campus is composed of 12 houses. Until 2013, there were eight houses: Avison, Yun, Dong-Joo, Muak, Yoongjae, Underwood, Baek Yang, Aristotle, and Allen. In 2014, four more houses were founded: Evergreen, Wonchul, Chi Won, and Cheongsong.

References.

The sections "Beginnings, Under Japanese Rule (I), Under Japanese Rule (II): The War Machine, Liberation and the Korean War" are largely based on 연세대학교백년사 "100 Years of Yonsei University History", Yonsei University Press.

Yonsei University (; ) is a private research university in Seoul, South Korea. It is one of Korea's three SKY universities, a group of universities widely regarded as the most prestigious in the country.

Die Yonsei University ist eine private, christliche Eliteuniversität in Seoul, Südkorea. Die Universität ging aus einer im Jahr 1885 gegründeten Medizinschule hervor. In ihrer heutigen Form wurde die Yonsei University im Jahr 1957 durch die Fusion von den zwei Hochschulen Yonhi Universität und Severance Medical College gegründet.