History.

The Vectrex was conceived by John Ross of Smith Engineering in late 1980. He, Mike Purvis, Tom Sloper, and Steve Marking had gone to Electro-Mavin, a surplus warehouse in Los Angeles. They found a 1-inch cathode ray tube (CRT) and wondered if a small electronic game could be made of this. A demonstration of a vector-drawing cathode ray tube display was made by connecting the deflection yoke in a standard television to the channels of a stereo amplifier fed with music program material. An auxiliary yoke was used to keep the raster television's horizontal fly-back high-voltage system running. The demo led to a system originally conceived as a handheld called the Mini Arcade, but as Smith Engineering shopped the idea around to developers, it evolved into a tabletop with nine-inch screen.  The system was ultimately licensed to General Consumer Electronics in 1981. After an exceptionally brief hardware and software development period, the Vectrex was unveiled on 7 June of the following year at the Summer Consumer Electronics Show in Chicago. It was released to the public in November, just in time for the holidays. The launch sales were strong enough that Milton Bradley bought out General Consumer Electronics in early 1983.  Milton Bradley's greater resources allowed the Vectrex to be released in parts of Europe by mid-1983, and through a co-branding agreement with Bandai, in Japan as well. However, the video game crash of 1983 turned Milton Bradley's support of the Vectrex into a costly mistake. In May 1984, Milton Bradley merged with Hasbro, and the Vectrex was discontinued a few months after. Over its lifetime, it had cost Milton Bradley tens of millions of dollars.  Prior to the Vectrex's discontinuation, a successor console with a color screen had been planned. After the rights reverted to Smith Engineering, the company made plans to revive the Vectrex as a handheld, but the imminent arrival of Nintendo's Game Boy put an end to those plans. In the mid-1990s, Jay Smith, then head of Smith Engineering, allowed new hardware and software development on a fee free / royalty free basis. Smith has also allowed duplication of the original Vectrex software on a not for profit basis in order to provide a method for Vectrex owners to obtain the original titles low cost or free.

Design.

The computer and vector generator were designed by Gerry Karr. The computer runs the game's computer code, watches the user's inputs, runs the sound generator, and controls the vector generator to make the screen drawings. The vector generator is an all-analog design using two integrators: X and Y. The computer sets the integration rates using a digital-to-analog converter. The computer controls the integration time by momentarily closing electronic analog switches within the operational-amplifier based integrator circuits. Voltage ramps are produced that the monitor uses to steer the electron beam over the face of the phosphor screen of the cathode ray tube. Another signal is generated that controls the brightness of the line.  The cathode ray tube is a Samsung model 240RB40 monochrome unit measuring 9 × 11 inches, displaying a picture of 240 mm diagonal; it is an off-the-shelf picture tube manufactured for small black/white television sets. The brightness of the CRT is controlled using a circular knob on the back of the display. A vector CRT display such as the one in the Vectrex does not require a special tube, and differs from standard raster-based television sets only in the control circuits. Rather than use sawtooth waves to direct the internal electron beam in a raster pattern, computer-controlled integrators feed linear amplifiers to drive the deflection yoke. This yoke has similar, if not identical inductances, unlike a TV deflection yoke. The yoke uses a standard TV core. The high-voltage transformer also uses a standard core and bobbin. There is special circuitry to turn off the electron beam if the vector generator stops or fails. This prevents burning of the screen's phosphors. This design is a great deal smaller than the electronics found in the free-standing, full-sized "Asteroids".  During development, for a short period of time, the possibility of using the 6502 processor was considered, but later its performance was considered insufficient.  Early units have a very audible "buzzing" from the built-in speaker that reacts to the graphics generated on screen. This is due to improper production grounding of signal lines of the low-level audio circuitry, and was eventually resolved in later production models. A "ground loop" had been created by a grounding strap added in production to meet U.S. Federal Communications Commission signal radiation requirements. This idiosyncrasy has become a familiar characteristic of the machine.

Peripherals.

The 3-D Imager, invented by John Ross, turns the 2-D black-and-white images drawn by the Vectrex into a color 3-D experience. The imager works by spinning a disk in front of the viewer's eyes. The disk is black for 180 degrees and in some cases has 60 degree wedges of transparent red, green, and blue filters. The user looks through this to the Vectrex screen. The Vectrex synchronizes the rotation of the disk to the software frame rate as it draws 6 screens: with the right eye covered: the left eye red image, then green, and then the blue image is drawn... and then, while the left eye is covered by the black 180-degree sector: the right eye red, green, and then the blue image is drawn. Only one eye will see the Vectrex screen and its 3 associated images (or colors) at any one time while the other will be blocked by the 180-degree mask. The prototype was made in the plastic casework of a Viewmaster. The disc spins freely and is driven by a motor. The Vectrex software generates its own frame-rate and compares it to an index signal from the glasses once per revolution. Score is kept of how many wheel rotations are early compared to the software frame rate, and how many are late. The software tries to keep these two trends equal by adjusting the power being delivered to the motor that spins the filter and mask wheel. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is used to control the motor speed: the ratio of the "on" time versus the "off" time of a rapid stream of power pulses to the motor. In this way the software synchronizes the wheel rotation to the software's frame rate, or drawing time, for the combined and repeating group of up to 6 evolving images.  A single object that does not lie on the plane of the monitor ("i.e.", in front of or into the monitor) is drawn at least twice to provide information for each eye. The distance between the duplicate images and the angles from which they are drawn will determine where the object will appear to "be" in 3-D space. The 3-D illusion is also enhanced by adjusting the brightness of the object (dimming objects in the background). Spinning the disk at a high enough speed will fool the viewer's eyes/brain into thinking that the multiple images it is seeing are two different views of the same object due to the persistence of vision. This creates the impression of 3-D and color.  The same 3-D effect is in fact possible with raster or film-projection images, and the shutter glasses used in some 3-D theaters and virtual reality theme park rides work on the same principle.  The light pen allows the user to "draw", to create images and to indicate, on the screen. It has a photo-detector that can see the bright spot of the vector-drawing display monitor when it goes by under the light pen's position where it is being held to the screen. The photo-detector feeds internal pulse-catching circuits that tell the Vectrex and its software of the event. The prototype was made in the plastic casework of a Marks-A-Lot felt-tipped marker pen. The Vectrex draws a spider-web-like search-pattern to track the pen's location. The software changes the pattern size as the pen changes motions and velocity in an attempt keep a continuous lock on the pen's position. The Vectrex light pen was invented by John Ross.

Software.

Some of the Vectrex's library consisted of ports of arcade hits, most of them brought to the console through a licensing deal with Cinematronics.  The liquor company Old Mr. Boston gave out a limited number of customized "Clean Sweep" cartridges, with a Mr. Boston sticker on the box. The overlay was the regular "Clean Sweep" overlay with the Mr. Boston name, logo, and copyright info running up either side. The game itself had custom text, and the player controlled a top hat rather than a vacuum. "Clean Sweep" was written by Richard Moszkowski.

Reception.

"Byte" in 1982 called Vectrex "one of the greatest game machines we have seen this year... [Vectrex] is a good bet to score big with the consumer". The magazine praised the screen, stating that "it almost has to be seen to be believed; imagine playing games at home (or in the office) using vector graphics with three-dimensional rotation and zoom", and noted that "It is unusual and refreshing to see a product appearing on the market with its software ready to run". David H. Ahl stated in "Creative Computing Video & Arcade Games" in 1983 that "Vector graphics really do make a difference, and the strong line-up of games helps immensely".

Legacy.

Since late 1995, there has been a Usenet community of hobbyists writing games for ParaJVE, a Vectrex emulator. Today there are also several people manufacturing and selling newly made games, some complete as cartridges with packing and overlays in the style of the original commercially released games, others with varying degrees of packaging.

The Vectrex is a vector display-based home video game console developed by Smith Engineering. It was first released for North America in November 1982 and for both Europe and Japan in 1983. Originally manufactured by General Consumer Electronics, it was licensed to Milton Bradley after they acquired the company. Bandai released the system in Japan.

Das Vectrex ist eine stationäre Spielkonsole, die 1982 auf den Markt kam. Auffälligstes Merkmal ist der eingebaute Hochformat-Schwarz-Weiß-Vektorbildschirm zur Ausgabe der Vektorgrafik. Dieser Kompaktaufbau führte zur Einstufung durch Fachzeitschriften in eine eigene Kategorie: Mini-Arcade. Federführender Entwickler war Jay Smith, welcher bereits 1979 die Handheld-Konsole Microvision für Milton Bradley (MB) entwarf. Hergestellt und veröffentlicht wurde die Konsole in den USA von General Consumer Electric (GCE) ab 1982. In Europa und Japan (gemeinsam mit Bandai) übernahm MB den Vertrieb. 1984 stellte MB den Vertrieb ein.


Types.

Recognizing the difficulty of hitting moving ships during the Spanish Civil War, the Germans were first to develop steerable munitions, using radio control or wire guidance. The U.S. tested TV-guided (GB-4), semi-active radar-guided (Bat), and infrared-guided (Felix) weapons.

Inertial-guided weapons.

The CBU-107 Passive Attack Weapon is an air-dropped guided bomb containing metal penetrator rods of various sizes. It was designed to attack targets where an explosive effect may be undesirable, such as fuel storage tanks or chemical weapon stockpiles in civilian areas.

Radio-controlled weapons.

The Germans were first to introduce PGMs in combat, with KG 100 deploying the 1,400-kg (3,100-lb) MCLOS-guidance Fritz X armored glide bomb, guided by the "Kehl-Straßburg" radio guidance system, to successfully attack the Italian battleship "Roma" in 1943, and the similarly "Kehl-Straßburg" MCLOS-guided Henschel Hs 293 rocket-boosted glide bomb (also in use since 1943, but only against lightly armored or unarmored ship targets).  The closest Allied equivalents, both unpowered designs, were the 1,000-lb (454-kg) VB-1 AZON (from "AZimuth ONly" control), used in both Europe and the CBI theater, and the US Navy's Bat, primarily used in the Pacific Theater of World War II — the Navy's Bat was more advanced than either German PGM ordnance design or the USAAF's VB-1 AZON, in that it had its own on board, autonomous radar seeker system to direct it to a target. In addition, the U.S. tested the rocket-propelled Gargoyle, which never entered service. Japanese PGMs—with the exception of the anti-ship air-launched, rocket-powered, human-piloted [[Yokosuka MXY-7 Ohka] suicide ("Kamikaze" flying bomb—did not see combat in World War II.  Prior to the war, the British experimented with radio-controlled remotely guided planes laden with explosive, such as [[Larynx (unmanned aircraft)|Larynx]]. The [[United States Army Air Forces]] used similar techniques with [[Operation Aphrodite]], but had few successes; the German [[Mistel]] (Mistletoe) "[[parasite aircraft]]" was no more effective, guided by the human pilot flying the single-engined fighter mounted above the unmanned, explosive-laden twin engined "flying bomb" below it, released in the "Mistel's" attack dive from the fighter.  The U.S. programs restarted in the [[Korean War]]. In the 1960s, the "electro-optical bomb" (or "camera bomb") was reintroduced. They were equipped with [[television camera]]s and flare sights, by which the bomb would be steered until the flare superimposed the target. The camera bombs transmitted a "bomb's eye view" of the target back to a controlling aircraft. An operator in this aircraft then transmitted control signals to steerable fins fitted to the bomb. Such weapons were used increasingly by the [[USAF]] in the last few years of the [[Vietnam War]] because the political climate was increasingly intolerant of civilian casualties, and because it was possible to strike difficult targets (such as bridges) effectively with a single mission; the [[Thanh Hoa Bridge]], for instance, was attacked repeatedly with iron bombs, to no effect, only to be dropped in one mission with PGMs.  Although not as popular as the newer [[JDAM]] and [[JSOW]] weapons, or even the older [[laser-guided bomb]] systems, weapons like the [[AGM-62 Walleye]] [[TV guidance|TV guided]] bomb are still being used, in conjunction with the [[AAW-144]] Data Link Pod, on [[US Navy]] [[F/A-18 Hornet]]s.

Infrared-guided/electro-optical weapons.

In World War II, the U.S. [[National Defense Research Committee]] developed the VB-6 Felix, which used infrared to home on ships. While it entered production in 1945, it was never employed operationally. The first successful electro optical guided munition was the [[AGM-62 Walleye]] during the Vietnam war. It was a family of large glide bombs which could automatically track targets using contrast differences in the video feed. The original concept was created by engineer Norman Kay while tinkering with Televisions as a hobby. It was based off a device which could track objects on a television screen and place a "blip" on them to indicate where it was aiming. The first test of the weapon on On 29 January 1963 was a success, with the weapon making a direct hit on the target. It served successfully for three decades until the 1990s.  The [[Raytheon]] [[AGM-65 Maverick|Maverick]] is the most common electro optical guided missile. As a heavy anti-tank missile it has among its various marks guidance systems such as electro-optical (AGM-65A), imaging infra-red (AGM-65D), and laser homing (AGM-65E). The first two, by guiding themselves based on the visual or IR scene of the target, are [[fire-and-forget]] in that the pilot can release the weapon and it will guide itself to the target without further input, which allows the delivery aircraft to manoeuvre to escape return fire. The Pakistani [[NESCOM]] [[H-2 MUPSOW]] and [[H-4 MUPSOW]] is an electro-optical (I.R imaging and Television guided) is a drop and forget precision-guided glide bomb. The Israeli Elbit [[Opher]] is also an I.R imaging "drop and forget" guided bomb that has been reported to be considerably cheaper than laser-homing bombs and can be used by any aircraft, not requiring specialized wiring for a laser designator or for another aircraft to illuminate the target. During NATO's air campaign in 1999 in Kosovo the new Italian AF AMX employed the Opher.

Laser-guided weapons.

[[File:BOLT117LGB.jpg|thumb|[[BOLT-117]], the world's first [[laser-guided bomb]] ]] In 1962, the US Army began research into [[laser]] guidance systems and by 1967 the USAF had conducted a competitive evaluation leading to full development of the world's first [[laser-guided bomb]], the [[BOLT-117]], in 1968. All such bombs work in much the same way, relying on the target being illuminated, or "painted," by a laser target designator on the ground or on an aircraft. They have the significant disadvantage of not being usable in poor weather where the target illumination cannot be seen, or where a target designator cannot get near the target. The laser designator sends its beam in a coded series of pulses so the bomb cannot be confused by an ordinary laser, and also so multiple designators can operate in reasonable proximity.  Originally the project began as a surface to air missile seeker developed by Texas Instruments. When TI executive Glenn E. Penisten attempted to sell the new technology to the AirForce they inquired if it could instead be used as a ground attack system to overcome problems they were having with accuracy of bombing in Vietnam. After 6 attempts the weapon improved accuracy from 148 feet to within 10 feet of the target and greatly exceeded the design requirements. The system was sent to Vietnam and performed well. Without the existence of tracking pods they had to be aimed using a hand held laser from the back seat of an F-4 Phantom, but still performed well. Eventually over 28,000 were dropped during the war.  Laser-guided weapons did not become commonplace until the advent of the microchip. They made their practical debut in Vietnam, where on 13 May 1972 they were used in the second successful attack on the [[Thanh Hóa Bridge]] ("Dragon's Jaw"). This structure had previously been the target of 800 American sorties (using unguided weapons) and was partially destroyed in each of two successful attacks, the other being on 27 April 1972 using [[AGM-62 Walleye|Walleyes]].  They were used, though not on a large scale, by the British forces during the 1982 [[Falklands War]]. The first large-scale use of smart weapons came in the early 1990s during Operation [[Desert Storm]] when they were used by coalition forces against [[Iraq]]. Even so, most of the air-dropped ordnance used in that war was "dumb," although the percentages are biased by the large use of various (unguided) [[cluster bomb]]s. Laser-guided weapons were used in large numbers during the 1999 [[Kosovo War]], but their effectiveness was often reduced by the poor weather conditions prevalent in the southern Balkans.  There are two basic families of laser-guided bombs in American (and American-sphere) service: the [[Paveway]] II and the Paveway III. The Paveway III guidance system is more aerodynamically efficient and so has a longer range, however it is more expensive. Paveway II 500-pound LGBs (such as [[GBU-12]]) are a cheaper lightweight PGM suitable for use against vehicles and other small targets, while a Paveway III 2,000-pound penetrator (such as [[GBU-24]]) is a more expensive weapon suitable for use against high-value targets. GBU-12s were used to great effect in the first [[Gulf War]], dropped from [[General Dynamics F-111|F-111F]] aircraft to destroy Iraqi armored vehicles in a process informally referred to by pilots as "[[tank plinking]]."  [[AGM-123 Skipper II]] is a short-range laser-guided missile developed by the [[United States Navy]]. The Skipper was intended as an [[Anti-ship missile|anti-ship weapon]], capable of disabling the largest vessels with a 1,000-lb (450-kg) impact-[[fuze]]d warhead. It is composed of a [[Mark 83 bomb]] fitted with a [[Paveway]] guidance kit and two Mk 78 solid propellant rockets that fire upon launch.  [[File:Laser guided munition CIA report.jpg|thumbnail|left|Diagram showing the operation of a laser-guided ammunition round. From a CIA report, 1986.]] [[Sudarshan laser-guided bomb|Sudarshan]] is an Indian [[laser-guided bomb|laser-guided]] [[bomb]] [[Electronic kit|kit]], developed by [[Aeronautical Development Establishment]] (ADE), a [[Defence Research and Development Organisation|DRDO]] lab with technological support from another DRDO lab [[Instruments Research and Development Establishment]] (IRDE), for the [[Indian Air Force]] (IAF).  [[KAB-1500L]] and [[KAB-500L]] are Russian laser-guided bombs.  [[LT PGB]] is a family of Chinese [[laser-guided]] [[munition]]s.  [[LS PGB]] is a family of Chinese GPS+INS or laser guided munitions.  The [[Advanced Precision Kill Weapon System]] (APKWS) also known as Laser, infrared Guided Rocket (LiGR) is a design conversion of [[Hydra 70]] [[unguided rocket]]s with a [[laser guidance]] kit to turn them into precision-guided munitions (PGMs).  [[Ugroza]] (, meaning "menace") is a precision-guided weapons system made in [[Russian Federation]]. It is an upgrade for standard Russian "dumb" rockets, including the [[S-5 rocket|S-5]], [[S-8 rocket|S-8]], and [[S-13 rocket]]s. The system upgrades the "dumb" rockets with [[laser guidance]], very significantly increasing their accuracy. It requires a [[laser target designator]], from either an airborne or land based source, to "paint" a target. [[Circular error probable]] (CEP) is about 0.8 to 1.8 m, while maximum ranges of rockets varies from the rockets used 1.5–8 km. Ugroza allows rockets to be ripple-fired up to 7 at a time. The notable novelty is that the system does not use aerodynamic flight control (e.g. tail fins), but [[reaction control system|impulse steering]] with mini-thrusters. It has been dubbed as the Russian concept of impulse corrections (RCIC).  [[Roketsan Cirit]]: Turkish [[laser guided]] missile. Cirit is a 70 mm (2.75 in) [[precision guided|guided]] missile system fitted with a [[semi-active laser]] homing seeker. The seeker and guidance section is attached to a purpose-built [[warhead]] with a Class 5 [[Insensitive Munitions|Insensitive Munition (IM)]]. The multipurpose warhead has a combined [[armour-piercing]] ammunition with enhanced behind armor [[anti-personnel]] and [[Incendiary device|incendiary]] effects. The engine is of reduced smoke design, with IM properties. It is connected to the rear section by a roll bearing that enables it to rotate in flight. There are four small stabilising surfaces at the very rear of the missile in front of the exhaust nozzle that ensures stable flight. Roketsan has developed a new launch pod and a new canister in which Cirit is delivered as an all-up round. The Cirit has a maximum effective guided range of 8 km with a high probability of hit on a 3×3 m target at this range.

Radar-guided weapons.

The Lockheed-Martin [[Hellfire II]] light-weight anti-tank weapon in one mark uses the radar on the [[Boeing]] [[AH-64 Apache#ah-64D|AH-64D Apache Longbow]] to provide fire-and-forget guidance for that weapon.

Satellite-guided weapons.

[[File:F-22 bomb.jpg|thumb|A [[F-22]] releases a [[Joint Direct Attack Munition|JDAM]] from its center internal bay while flying at supersonic speed]]  [[File:BGT Hosbo.jpg|thumb|left|[[HOPE/HOSBO]] of the [[German Air Force|Luftwaffe]] with a combination of GPS/INS and electro-optical guidance]] Lessons learned during the first Gulf War showed the value of precision munitions, yet they also highlighted the difficulties in employing them—specifically when visibility of the ground or target from the air was degraded. The problem of poor visibility does not affect satellite-guided weapons such as [[Joint Direct Attack Munition]] (JDAM) and [[Joint Stand-Off Weapon]] (JSOW), which make use of the United States' [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] system for guidance. This weapon can be employed in all weather conditions, without any need for ground support. Because it is possible to [[Radar jamming and deception|jam]] GPS, the guidance package reverts to [[inertial navigation]] in the event of GPS signal loss. Inertial navigation is significantly less accurate; the JDAM achieves a published [[circular error probable|Circular Error Probable]] (CEP) of 13 m under GPS guidance, but typically only 30 m under inertial guidance (with free fall times of 100 seconds or less).  The [[Joint Direct Attack Munition]] (JDAM) is a guidance kit that converts [[unguided bomb]]s, or "dumb bombs", into all-weather "smart" munitions. JDAM-equipped bombs are guided by an integrated [[inertial guidance system]] coupled to a [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS) receiver, giving them a published range of up to. JDAM-equipped bombs range from to. When installed on a bomb, the JDAM kit is given a GBU (Guided Bomb Unit) nomenclature, superseding the [[Mark 80]] or BLU (Bomb, Live Unit) nomenclature of the bomb to which it is attached.  [[Wind Corrected Munitions Dispenser]] (WCMD) is a [[Global Positioning System|GPS]]/[[Inertial navigation system|INS]]-guided US tail kit for use with the TMD (Tactical Munitions Dispenser) family of cluster bombs to convert them to precision-guided munitions.  [[Wan Chien|Wan chien]] – Taiwanese indigenous version of JDAM.  The Griffin Laser Guided Bomb ([[Griffin LGB]]) is a [[laser-guided bomb]] system made by [[Israel Aerospace Industries]]' MBT missile division. It is an add-on kit which is used to retrofit existing [[Mark 82 bomb|Mark 82]], [[Mark 83 bomb|Mark 83]], and [[Mark 84 bomb|Mark 84]] and other "dumb fire" [[unguided bomb|gravity bomb]]s, making them into [[laser-guided bomb|laser-guided]] smart bombs (with the option of [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] guidance). Initial development completed in 1990. The Griffin conversion kit consists of a front "seeker" section and a set of steerable tailplanes. The resulting guided munition features "trajectory shaping", which allows the bomb to fall along a variety of trajectories – from a shallow angle to a vertical [[top attack]] profile. IAI publishes a [[circular error probable]] figure for the weapon of 5 metres.  The '[[GBU-57A/B]] Massive [[Aircraft ordnance|Ordnance]] Penetrator (MOP) is a [[United States Air Force|U.S. Air Force]], precision-guided, "[[bunker buster]]" [[bomb]]. This is substantially larger than the deepest penetrating bunker busters previously available, the [[GBU-28]] and [[GBU-37 GPS-Aided Munition|GBU-37]].  The [[SMKB]] (Smart-MK-Bomb) is a Brazilian guidance kit that turns a standard [[Mk 82]] (500 lbs) and [[Mk 83]] (1.000 lbs) into a Precision-guided weapon, respectively called SMKB-82 and SMKB-83. The kit provides extended range up to and are guided by an integrated [[inertial guidance system]] coupled to three satellites networks, relying on wireless to handle the flow of data between the aircraft and the munition.  [[FT PGB]] is a family of Chinese satellite and [[Inertial navigation system|Inertial]], guided munitions.  [[LS PGB]] is a family of Chinese GPS+INS or laser guided munitions.  The precision of these weapons is dependent both on the precision of the measurement system used for location determination and the precision in setting the coordinates of the target. The latter critically depends on intelligence information, not all of which is accurate. According to a CIA report, the accidental [[United States bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade]] during [[Operation Allied Force]] by NATO aircraft was attributed to faulty target information. However, if the targeting information "is" accurate, satellite-guided weapons are significantly more likely to achieve a successful strike in any given weather conditions than any other type of precision-guided munition.

Advanced guidance concepts.

Responding to after-action reports from pilots who employed laser or satellite guided weapons, [[Boeing]] developed a Laser JDAM (LJDAM) to provide both types of guidance in a single kit. Based on the existing [[Joint Direct Attack Munition]] configurations, a laser guidance package is added to a GPS/INS-guided weapon to increase its overall accuracy. Raytheon has developed the Enhanced Paveway family, which adds GPS/INS guidance to their Paveway family of laser-guidance packages. These "hybrid" laser and GPS guided weapons permit the carriage of fewer weapons types, while retaining mission flexibility, because these weapons can be employed equally against moving and fixed targets, or targets of opportunity. For instance, a typical weapons load on an F-16 flying in the [[Iraq War]] included a single 2,000-lb JDAM and two 1,000-lb LGBs. With LJDAM, and the new GBU-39 [[Small Diameter Bomb]] (SDB), these same aircraft can carry more bombs if necessary, and have the option of satellite or laser guidance for each weapon release.  [[Spice (munition)]] is an Israeli [[Electro-optics|EO]]/[[GPS]]-guided guidance kit for converting air-droppable unguided [[bomb]]s into precision guided bombs. Spice can be preprogrammed, with up to 100 different targets it may have to engage during a mission. The one target it will "actually" engage may then be selected, inflight, by an aircrewman.  [[HGK (bomb)|The HGK guidance kit (HGK)]], ), developed by [[TÜBİTAK Defense Industries Research and Development Institute|TÜBİTAK-SAGE]], is a [[Global Positioning System|GPS]]/[[Inertial navigation system|INS]] guidance kit that converts 2000-lb [[Mark 84 bomb]]s into [[Smart bomb|smart weapon]]s. It enables precision strike capability in all weather conditions with long range at a dispersion of.  [[Armement Air-Sol Modulaire]] (AASM) is a French equivalent to JDAM. AASM comprises a frontal guidance kit and a rear-mounted range extension kit matched to a [[dumb bomb]]. The weapon is modular because it can integrate different types of guidance units and different types of bombs. It uses hybrid [[inertial navigation system]] (INS) / [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS) guidance. Other variants add [[infrared homing]] or [[laser guidance]] to increase accuracy.  [[Paveway IV]] is a dual mode [[Global Positioning System|GPS]]/[[inertial navigation system|INS]] and [[Laser guidance|laser-guided]] bomb manufactured by [[Raytheon|Raytheon UK]] (formerly Raytheon Systems Limited). It is the latest iteration of the [[Paveway]] series.  [[Denel Dynamics Umbani]] a [[Precision guided munition|precision-guided]] bomb kit manufactured by [[Denel Dynamics]] in South Africa. It consists of a number of modules fitted to [[NATO]] standard [[Mark 81 bomb|Mk81]], [[Mark 81 bomb|Mk82]] or [[Mark 83 bomb|Mk83]] low drag free-fall bombs to convert them to [[glide bomb]]s.  [[DRDO Smart Anti-Airfield Weapon]] is an Indian precision-guided [[Anti-runway penetration bomb|Anti-Airfield Weapon]] with the range up to 100 km.  Moving Target Artillery Round (MTAR)  The U.S. Navy leads development for a new 155mm artillery round called Moving Target Artillery Round, capable of destroying moving targets in GPS-denied environments". The Office of Naval Research (ONR), the Naval Surface Warfare Center Dahlgren Division (NSWC Dahlgren), and the [[U.S. Army Research Laboratory]] (ARL) have been coordinating MTAR, with final development scheduled for 2019.  Key features of the MTAR shell include extended range against moving targets, precision guidance and navigation without GPS, subsystem modularity, subsystem maturity, weapon system compatibility, restricted altitude, all-weather capability, reduced time of flight, and affordability. The new munition is intended for the Army or Marine Corps M777A1 howitzer, the M109A6 Paladin, and M109A7 Paladin Integrated Management (PIM) self-propelled 155-millimeter artillery systems. The shell also would be for the Navy's Advanced Gun System (AGS) aboard the Zumwalt-class destroyer, and other future naval gun systems.  Precision Guidance Kit – Modernization (PGK-M)  The U.S. Army is planning for GPS-denied environments with the new Precision Guidance Kit – Modernization (PGK-M). An enhancement of previous technologies, PGK-M will give U.S. forces the ability to continue launching precision strikes when GPS is compromised by the enemy.  Picatinny Arsenal engineers are leading the development of a GPS alternative using image navigation for precision guidance of munitions, under the Armament Research, Development and Engineering Center (ARDEC). Other research partners include Draper Labs, [[U.S. Army Research Laboratory]], [[Air Force Research Laboratory]] and the Aviation and Missile Research, Development, and Engineering Center.  The enhanced munition can navigate to a desired location, through a reference image utilized by the technology to reach the target. The PGK-M includes a collection of ad hoc software programmable radio networks, various kinds of wave-relay connectivity technologies and navigational technology.  [[PBK-500U Drel]] is a Russian guided jamming-resistant stealth glide bomb.

Cannon and mortar-launched guided projectiles.

A cannon-launched guided projectile (CLGP), is fired from [[artillery]], [[naval artillery|ship's cannon]], or [[armored vehicle]]s. Several agencies and organizations sponsored the CLGP programs. The [[United States Navy]] sponsored the Deadeye program, a laser-guided shell for its [[5"/54 caliber Mark 45 gun|5" guns]] and a program to mate a [[Paveway]] guidance system to an 8" shell for the [[8"/55 caliber Mark 71 gun]] in the 1970s (Photo). Other Navy efforts include the [[BTERM]], [[ERGM]], and [[LRLAP]] shells.  The [[U.S. Army]]'s [[MGM-51 Shillelagh]] missile can be considered a type of CLGP. Intended for use on the [[M551 Sheridan]] light tank, the Shillelagh missile was fired out of the Sheridan's cannon to provide robust anti-tank capability. The Army's [[M712 Copperhead]] laser guided artillery round was used in Desert Storm. Army CLGPs include the [[M982 Excalibur]] 155mm artillery shell, the [[XM395 Precision Guided Mortar Munition]], and the [[XM1156 Precision Guidance Kit]] to refit existing 155mm shells with precision guidance, as the [[United States Air Force|Air Force]]'s [[JDAM]] program converts dumb bombs into precision munitions.  [[M982 Excalibur]], GPS-guided munitions (XM982) for 155mm artillery was developed in a collaborative effort between [[U.S. Army Research Laboratory]] (ARL) and the Armaments Research and Development Center (ARDEC). Research included developing GPS and microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) Inertial Sensor Technology. Excalibur was fielded in Operation Iraqi Freedom in the summer of 2007. Technology developed on the Excalibur is also applied in the Army's Precision Guidance Kit (PGK) for use on existing conventional projectiles and the Mortar Guidance Kit (MGK) for use on conventional mortars.  [[XM1111 Mid-Range Munition]] is cancelled 120mm tank gun launched missile.  [[LAHAT]] is Israeli [[semi-active laser homing]] guided low-weight anti-tank guided missile that can be launched from [[smoothbore]] tank guns.  [[KSTAM]] is South Korean guided munition shot from the gun of [[K2 Black Panther]] tank.  [[Krasnopol (Weapon)|30F39 Krasnopol]] is a Russian 152/155 mm [[cannon]]-launched, fin-stabilized, [[base bleed]]-assisted, semi-automatic [[laser-guided]], [[explosive]] [[projectile]]. It automatically 'homes' on a point illuminated by a laser designator, typically operated by a ground-based artillery observer.  [[Kitolov-2M]] is a Russian laser-guided 120/122mm artillery shell with Malakhit automated artillery [[fire control system]].  [[9M119 Svir/Refleks]] are Russian [[tank gun]]-launched laser-guided projectiles.  [[Strix mortar round|Pansarsprängvinggranat m/94 "STRIX"]] is a Swedish endphase-guided projectile fired from a 120 mm [[mortar (weapon)|mortar]] currently manufactured by [[Saab Bofors Dynamics]]. STRIX is fired like a conventional mortar round. The round contains an [[infrared]] imaging sensor that it uses to guide itself onto any [[tank]] or [[armoured fighting vehicle]] in the vicinity where it lands. The seeker is designed to ignore targets that are already burning.  [[Basir]] is an [[Iran]]ian artillery fired [[laser-guided]], 155 mm [[explosive]] [[projectile]] designed to destroy enemy tanks, vehicles and other moving or non-moving targets with high precision. This weapon is similar in function with Russian [[Krasnopol (Weapon)|Kransnopol]] or American [[M712 Copperhead]]. Basir put [[Iran]] among the five countries in the world with laser targeting technology.  [[SMArt 155]] is a German 155 mm artillery round, designed for a long range, [[indirect fire]] [[top attack]] role against armoured vehicles. The SMArt [[carrier shell]] contains two [[submunition]]s with [[infrared sensor]] and [[millimeter wave]] [[radar]], which descend over the battlefield on [[ballute]]s and attack hardened targets with [[explosively formed penetrator]] warheads. Built with multiple redundant self-destruct mechanisms, these submunitions were specifically designed to fall outside the category of submunition weapons prohibited by the 2008 [[Convention on Cluster Munitions]].  Rheinmetall Denel Munitions 155 mm V-LAP  GP1: Chinese laser-guided 155mm artillery projectile based on Krasnopol.  GP6: Chinese laser-guided 155mm artillery projectile based on Krasnopol.  [[XM395 Precision Guided Mortar Munition]]  [[Strix mortar round]]  [[KM-8 Gran]] is a Russian guided 120mm mortar shell with Malakhit [[fire control system]].  GP120 (GP4) is a Chinese terminal corrected 120 mm mortar shell.  GP140 is a Chinese [[semi-active laser]] (SAL) guided 120 mm mortar shell.

Guided small arms.

Precision-guided [[small arms]] prototypes have been developed which use a laser designator to guide an [[smart bullet|electronically actuated bullet]] to a target. Another system in development uses a laser range finder to trigger an explosive small arms shell in proximity to a target. The U.S. Army plans to use such devices in the future.  In 2008 the [[EXACTO]] program began under [[DARPA]] to develop a "[[fire and forget]]" smart sniper rifle system including a guided smart bullet and improved scope. The exact technologies of this smart bullet have not been released. EXACTO was test fired in 2014 and 2015 and results showing the bullet alter course to correct its path to its target were released.  In 2012 [[Sandia National Laboratories]] announced a self-guided bullet prototype that could track a target illuminated with a [[laser designator]]. The bullet is capable of updating its position 30 times a second and hitting targets over a mile away.  In mid-2016, Russia revealed it was developing a similar "[[smart bullet]]" weapon designed to hit targets at a distance of up to.  [[Pike (munition)|Pike]] is a precision-guided mini-missile fired from an underslung grenade launcher.  [[Air burst]] grenade launchers are a type of precision-guided weapons. Such grenade launchers can preprogram their grenades using a [[fire-control system]] to explode in the air above or beside the enemy.  [[Category:Weapon guidance| 01]]

External links.

[[Category:Aerial bombs]] [[Category:Targeting (warfare)]]

A precision-guided munition (PGM, smart weapon, smart munition, smart bomb) is a guided munition intended to precisely hit a specific target, to minimize collateral damage and increase lethality against intended targets. During the First Gulf War guided munitions accounted for only 9% of weapons fired, but accounted for 75% of all successful hits. Despite guided weapons generally being used on more difficult targets, they were still 35 times more likely to destroy their targets per weapon dropped.

Als präzisionsgelenkte Munition ( (PGM),'oder ') werden selbststeuernde Raketen, Flugkörper, Fliegerbomben und Artilleriegranaten bezeichnet, die nach dem Verlassen des Trägersystems beziehungsweise nach dem Abschuss ihre Fluglage beeinflussen können und eine gegenüber ungelenkter Munition größere Zielgenauigkeit erreichen können.


Use.

The body (mantle) can be stuffed whole, cut into flat pieces or sliced into rings. The arms, tentacles, and ink are edible; the only parts of the squid that are not eaten are its beak and gladius (pen).

Asia.

China.

In Chinese and Southeast Asian cuisine, squid is used in stir-fries, rice, and noodle dishes. It may be heavily spiced.  In China, Thailand, and Japan squid is grilled whole and sold in food stalls  Pre-packaged dried shredded squid or cuttlefish are snack items in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Korea, Japan, China and Russia, often shredded to reduce chewiness.

Japan.

In Japan, squid is used in almost every type of dish, including sushi, sashimi, and tempura. It can also be stewed ("nabemono"), and grilled ("ikayaki").

Korea.

In Korea, squid is sometimes killed and served quickly. Unlike octopus, squid tentacles do not usually continue to move when reaching the table. This fresh squid is 산 오징어 ("san ojingeo") (also with small octopuses called "nakji"). The squid is served with Korean mustard, soy sauce, chili sauce, or sesame sauce. It is salted and wrapped in lettuce or pillard leaves. Squid is also marinated in hot pepper sauce and cooked on a pan (Nakji Bokum or Ojingeo Bokum). They are also served by food stands as a snack food, battered and deep fried or grilled using hot skillets. They are also cut up into small pieces to be added to 해물파전 (Korean Seafood Pancake) or a variety of spicy seafood soups. Dried squid may also accompany alcoholic beverages such as "anju". Dried squid is served with peanuts. Squid is roasted and served with hot pepper paste or mayonnaise as a dip. Steamed squid and boiled squid are delicacies.  Also in Korea, squid is made into "jeotgal" (salted seafood). The "ojingeo-jeot", thin strips of skinned, gutted, washed, salted, and fermented squid seasoned with spicy "gochutgaru" (chili powder)-based spices and minced aromatic vegetables, is a popular "banchan" (side dish) served in small quantities as an accompaniment to bap (cooked rice). In Japan, similar dish is called "ika-no-shiokara". The heavily salted squid (usually sparkling enope (firefly) squid or Spear Squid), sometimes with innards, ferments for as long as a month, and is preserved in small jars. This salty, strong flavoured item is served in small quantities as an accompaniment to white rice or alcoholic beverages.

Philippines.

In the Philippines, squid is cooked as "adobong pusit", squid in adobo sauce, along with the ink, imparting a tangy flavour, especially with fresh chillies. Battered squid rings, which is also sold as a popular deep-fried street food called "calamares" in the Philippines, is served with alioli, mayonnaise or chilli vinegar. Squid is grilled on charcoal, brushed with a soy sauce-based marinade, and stuffed with tomato and onions. Another recipe is "rellenong pusit", stuffed with finely-chopped vegetables, squid fat, and ground pork. A variant of "pancit" noodles is "pancit pusit", which is "pancit bihon" with squid added, along with the ink, giving the noodles its dark color.

South Asia.

In India and Sri Lanka, squid or cuttlefish is eaten in coastal areas for example, in Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Squid are eaten deep fried (Koonthal Fry) or as squid gravy (koonthal varattiyathu/Roast). In Kerala and Tamil Nadu, squid are called "koonthal", "kanava" or "kadamba".In Coastal Karnataka Squid is also called "bondaas"

Middle East.

In Egypt, Cyprus and Turkey, squid rings and arms are coated in batter and fried in oil. Other recipes from these regions feature squid (or octopus) simmered slowly, with added vegetables. In Greek or Turkish cuisine, there is also a stuffed squid dish ("gemisto kalamari", "kalamar dolma").  In Lebanon, Syria and Turkey, fried squid is served with tarator, a sauce made using tahini. Like many seafood dishes, it may be served with a slice of lemon.

Europe.

Southern Europe.

Fried squid (calamari) is a dish in Mediterranean cuisine. It consists of batter-coated squid, deep-fried for less than two minutes to prevent toughness. It is served plain, with salt and lemon on the side.  In Spain, ("rabas" or "calamares a la romana", battered calamari, lit. "Roman-style calamari") has the calamari rings covered in a thick batter, deep fried, and with lemon juice and mayonnaise or garlic mayonnaise. Battered and fried baby squid is "puntillitas". Squid stewed in its own black ink is called "calamares en su tinta" or "chipirones en su tinta" resulting a black stew-like dish in which squid meat is very tender and is accompanied by a thick black sauce usually made with onion, tomato, squid ink, among others.  In Spain and Italy, squid or cuttlefish ink is eaten in dishes such as paella, risotto, soups and pasta.  In Italy, Greece, Spain, Portugal and Croatia, squid rings and arms are coated in batter and fried in oil. Other recipes from these regions feature squid (or octopus) simmered slowly, with vegetables such as squash or tomato. When frying, the squid flesh is kept tender by short cooking time. When simmering, the flesh is most tender when cooking is prolonged with reduced temperature.  In Portugal, "lulas" are commonly eaten grilled whole, in kebabs of squid rings with bell peppers and onion ("Espetadas") or stewed. Also stuffed with minced meat and stewed ("Lulas Recheadas"). The battered version is known as 'lulas à sevilhana', named after Seville, the Andalusian city that popularised the dish.  In Malta, "klamar mimli" involves stuffing the squid with rice, breadcrumbs, parsley, garlic and capers and then gently stewing in red wine.  In Sardinia, squid are served with a sauce made from lemon, garlic, parsley, and olive oil.  In Slovenia, squid are eaten grilled and stuffed with pršut and cheese, with "blitva" (Swiss chard).

Russia.

In Russia, a lightly boiled julienned squid with onion rings, garnished with mayonnaise, makes a salad. Another dish is a squid stuffed with rice and vegetables and then roasted.

Commonwealth.

In South Africa, Australia and New Zealand, fried calamari is popular in fish and chip shops; imitation calamari of white fish may also be used. When offered for sale as whole fresh animals, the term calamari should only be used to describe the northern and southern calamari ("Sepioteuthis spp".), however once prepared as food it is common to apply the term calamari to any squid species and even cuttlefish.

North America.

In North America, fried squid is a staple in seafood restaurants. It is served as an appetizer, garnished with parsley, or sprinkled with parmesan cheese. It is served with dips: peppercorn mayonnaise, tzatziki, or in the United States, marinara sauce, tartar sauce, or cocktail sauce. In Mexico it is served with Tabasco sauce or habanero. Other dips, such as ketchup, aioli, and olive oil are used. In the United States, the government and industry worked together to popularize calamari consumption in the 1990s.  In the United States, in an attempt to popularize squid as a protein source in the 1970s, researchers at Massachusetts Institute of Technology developed a squid-gutting machine, and submitted squid cocktail, rings, and chowder to a 70-person tasting panel for market research. Despite a general lack of popularity of squid in the United States, aside from the internal "ethnic market", polling had shown a negative public perception of squid foods, the tasting panel gave the dishes "high marks".

Name.

The direct source of the English name "calamari" is disputed, with Spanish "calamar", Italian "calamaro" (plural "calamari"), and Modern Greek "kalamári" being cited. Ultimately, all of these terms derive from the Late Latin "calamarium", "pen case" or "ink pot", itself from the Latin "calamarius", "pertaining to a writing-reed", after the resemblance in shape and the inky fluid that squid secrete; "calamarius" in turn derives from the Greek "kalamos"'reed' or 'pen'.

Nutritional value.

The nutritional value of squid compares favorably with other fishes, having high content of protein and phosphorus with traces of calcium, thiamine and, riboflavin. Squid are 67.5 – 80.7% protein and 2.22 – 8.48% fat. A 2016 study of loligo squid found that 13% of the wet weight was oil, which was a rich source of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids (2.78% arachidonic acid, 3.10% linolenic acid, 5.20% linoleic acid, 15.40% docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and 9.60% eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)).

Allergies.

Allergies to calamari can occur. As with other molluscs, the allergen is probably tropomyosin.

Squid is eaten in many cuisines; in English, the culinary name calamari is often used for squid dishes. There are many ways to prepare and cook squid. Fried squid is common in the Mediterranean. In Lebanon, and Syria, it is served with tartare sauce. In New Zealand, Australia and South Africa, it is sold in fish and chip shops. In North America, fried squid is a staple in seafood restaurants. In Britain, it can be found in Mediterranean 'calamari' or Asian'salt and pepper fried squid' forms in all kinds of establishments, often served as a bar snack, street food, or starter.

Die wirbellosen Tintenfische werden als Meeresfrüchte in der mediterranen Küche und in Asien vielfältig verwendet. In der deutschen Küchensprache werden meist alle essbaren Kopffüßer als "Tintenfische" bezeichnet und als "Kalmare (Calamari, Kalamari, Seppie, Polpi, Calamares)" und "Kraken (Octopus, Polpo, Pulpo)" unterschieden, wohingegen in anderen Küchensprachen, zum Beispiel im Portugiesischen, auch kulinarisch klar zwischen Sepia ("choco"), Krake ("polvo") und Kalmar ("lula") unterschieden wird.


Provenance and reception.

The poem is named after Wessobrunn Abbey, a Benedictine monastery in Bavaria, where the sole manuscript containing the text was formerly kept. The abbey was dissolved in 1803 and its library incorporated into the Bavarian Royal Library in Munich, under the signature Clm 22053. The script of the Latin title is uncial, that of the text Caroline minuscule. Paleographic characteristics of the script support production in Bavaria, with some Swabian influence, consistent with an origin in southern Bavaria, likely in the Diocese of Augsburg. The manuscript was probably not written at Wessobrunn, however (original monastery at Wessobrunn was destroyed in a Magyar raid in 955). Suggestions for the origin of the manuscript include Regensburg, Benediktbeuern, Staffelsee and Augsburg itself.  The manuscript is a convolution of five parts, with a total of 98 folia (numbered to 99, fol. 8 missing). The poem is contained at the end of the second fascicle (foll. 22-66), on foll. 65v/66r, following a collection of Latin excerpts on theology, geography and metrology. The date of composition is put in the reign of Charlemagne, roughly in the 790s (estimates range from "shortly after 772" to "shortly after 800"). The manuscript itself was written in the early 800s, most likely the years just predating 814.  The language has some Bavarian characteristics ("cootlîh, paum, pereg") besides traces of Low German or Anglo-Saxon influence, specifically in the first line ("dat" is Low German; "gafregin ih" parallels OS "gifragn ik" and AS "ȝefraeȝn ic"). Anglo-Saxon influence is further suggested the scribe's representation of the word "enti" "and" (with one exception) by Tironian "et" (⁊), and by the use of a "star-rune" 🞵 (a bindrune combining g and i) to represent the syllable "ga-" shared by only one other manuscript, also Bavarian, viz., Arundel MS 393 in the British Library. This rune is analogous to the "gilch" rune in the so-called "Marcomannic runes" of Hrabanus Maurus ("De Inventione Litterarum"); also comparable in shape is the Old English "io" rune (ᛡ) and the Younger Futhark "h" rune (ᚼ). Perrett (1938) went as far as attempting the reconstruction of an Anglo-Saxon original of the poem.  The text was printed, without attempts at an interpretation, by Bernhard Pez in 1721, again in "Monumenta Boica" in 1767, under the title "De Poeta * Kazungali", and again by Johann Wilhelm Petersen, "Veränderungen und Epochen der deutschen Hauptsprache" (1787).  The first edition of the text with philological commentary and translation is due to F. D. Gräter (1797). Gräter also included a facsimile of a copy by Wessobrunn librarian Anselm Ellinger (1758–1816). Gräter's edition was improved upon by the Brothers Grimm in 1812.  The word "Kazungali" printed in the 1767 transcription was interpreted as the name of the poem's author, but this was recognized as mistaken by Docen (1809). Rather, the word "kazungali" (equivalent to modern German "Gezüngel") is a gloss for "poetry". It is not found on the page of the poem, but four pages earlier (fol. 63r), where "[ars] poetica" is glossed with "x "kazungali"" (with an "asterisk" symbol reminiscent of the "star-rune" but with horizontal bar). The editors of "Mon. Boi." were thus inspired to transfer the Old High German gloss for "poetry" to the poem's Latin header.

Text.

The poem is in two sections: the first is a praise of creation in nine lines of alliterative verse. This is followed by a prayer in prose: Grimm (1812) and Massmann (1824) made attempts at the reconstruction of alliterating verses in the second part, but following Wilhelm Wackernagel (1827:9), the second part is now mostly thought to be intended as prose with occasional alliteration.  Some features in the first section reflect the language and idiom of Germanic epic poetry, using alliteration and poetic formulae known from the Anglo-Saxon and Old Saxon traditions ("manno miltisto", "dat gafregin ih").  The cosmological passages in the poem have frequently been compared to similar material in the Voluspa, and in the Rigvedic Nasadiya Sukta. Against this, Wackernagel (1827:17ff) holds that the emphasis of a "creatio ex nihilo" is genuinely Christian and not found in ancient cosmogonies.  Grimm (1812) and Massmann (1824) agree in the analysis of the first six verses, as shown above. They differ in their analysis of verses seven to nine, and they attempt to restitute an alliterative structure in the "prose" portion (for a total of 15 and 17 verses, respectively), as follows:

Adaptations.

The poem has been set to music many times in the 20th century. Arrangements include those by Heinrich Kaminski as part of the work "Triptychon" for voice and organ (1931), and by his pupil Carl Orff, published as part of the series "Schulwerk" (1950–54). Other settings include those by Hans Josef Wedig, op. 11, (Version 1) (1937), for male choir and organ, and a 1951 motet by Leopold Katt (1917–1965), "Mir gestand der Sterblichen Staunen als der Wunder grösstes..." (a free translation of the opening line based on the translation by Karl Wolfskehl).  One of the most unusual settings is by the German composer Helmut Lachenmann in his "Consolation II" (1968), in which component phonetic parts of the words of the prayer are vocalised separately by the 16 solo voices in a texture of vocal'musique concrète'. More recent interpretations by composers in the classical tradition include those by Felix Werder in 1975 for voice and small orchestra, and by Michael Radulescu in two works: "De Poëta" in 1988 for four choirs and bells, and in another arrangement of 1991 re-worked in 1998 for soprano and organ.  Medieval folk groups have adapted the text, includin Estampie in their album "Fin Amor" (2002), and In Extremo in "Mein rasend Herz" (2005).

The Wessobrunn Prayer (, also "Wessobrunner Schöpfungsgedicht", "Wessobrunn Creation Poem") is among the earliest known poetic works in Old High German, believed to date from the end of the 8th century.

Das Wessobrunner Gebet, auch Wessobrunner Schöpfungsgedicht genannt, gehört zu den frühesten poetischen Zeugnissen in althochdeutscher Sprache. Es ist das älteste erhaltene christliche Gedicht der deutschsprachigen Literatur.


Definition.

A beat 'em up (sometimes also called a "brawler") is a type of action game where the player character must fight a large number of enemies in unarmed combat or with melee weapons. Gameplay consists of walking through a level, one section at a time, defeating a group of enemies before advancing to the next section; a boss fight normally occurs at the end of each level. Arcade versions of these games are often quite difficult to win, causing players to spend more money.  Beat 'em ups are related to but distinct from fighting games, which are based around one-on-one matches rather than scrolling levels and multiple enemies. Such terminology is loosely applied, however, as some commentators prefer to conflate the two terms. At times, both one-on-one fighting games and scrolling beat 'em ups have influenced each other in terms of graphics and style and can appeal to fans of either genre. Occasionally, a game will feature both kinds of gameplay.  In the United Kingdom, gaming magazines of the early 1990s such as "Mean Machines" and "Computer & Video Games" (C+VG) referred to all games which had a combat motif as beat 'em ups, even fighting games. However, they were differentiated by a specific prefix; games like "Double Dragon" or "Final Fight" were called "scrolling beat 'em ups" and games such as "Street Fighter II" or "Mortal Kombat" were referred to as "one on one beat 'em ups".

Game design.

Beat 'em up games usually employ vigilante crime fighting and revenge plots with the action taking place on city streets, though historical and fantasy themed games also exist. Players must walk from one end of the game world to the other, and thus each game level will usually scroll horizontally. Some later beat 'em ups dispense with 2D-based scrolling levels, instead allowing the player to roam around larger 3D environments, though they retain the same simple gameplay and control systems. Throughout the level, players may acquire weapons that they can use as well as power-ups that replenish the player's health.  As players walk through the level, they are stopped by groups of enemies who must be defeated before they're able to continue. The level ends when all the enemies are defeated. Each level contains many identical groups of enemies, making these games notable for their repetition. In beat 'em up games, players often fight a boss—an enemy much stronger than the other enemies—at the end of each level.  Beat 'em ups often allow the player to choose between a selection of protagonists—each with their own strengths, weaknesses, and set of moves. Attacks can include rapid combinations of basic attacks (combos) as well as jumping and grappling attacks. Characters often have their own special attacks, which leads to different strategies depending on which character the player selects. The control system is usually simple to learn, comprising as little as two buttons. These buttons can be combined to pull off combos, as well as jumping and grappling attacks. Since the release of "Double Dragon", many beat 'em ups have allowed two players to play the game cooperatively—a central aspect to the appeal of these games. Beat 'em ups are more likely to feature cooperative play than other game genres.

History.

Origin.

The first game to feature fist fighting was Sega's boxing game "Heavyweight Champ" (1976), which is viewed from a side-view perspective like later fighting games. However, it was Data East's fighting game "Karate Champ" (1984) which popularized martial arts themed games. The same year, Irem's Hong Kong cinema-inspired "Kung-Fu Master" (known as "Spartan X" in Japan) laid the foundations for side-scrolling beat 'em ups with its simple gameplay and multiple enemies. Also in 1984, "Bruce Lee" combined multi-player, multi-character combat with traditional collecting, platform and puzzle gameplay. Later that year, "Karateka" combined the one-on-one fight sequences of "Karate Champ" with the freedom of movement in "Kung-Fu Master", and it successfully experimented with adding plot to its fighting action. It was also among the first beat 'em ups to be successfully ported to home systems. "Nekketsu Kōha Kunio-kun", released in 1986 in Japan, deviated from the martial arts themes of earlier games and introduced street brawling to the genre. The Western adaptation "Renegade" (released the same year) added an underworld revenge plot that proved more popular with gamers than the principled combat sport of other games. "Renegade" set the standard for future beat 'em up games as it introduced the ability to move both horizontally and vertically. It also introduced the use of combo attacks; in contrast to earlier games, the opponents in "Renegade" and "Double Dragon" could take much more punishment, requiring a succession of punches, with the first hit temporarily immobilizing the enemy, making him unable to defend himself against successive punches.

Golden age.

In 1987, the release of "Double Dragon" ushered in a "Golden Age" for the beat 'em up genre that lasted nearly five years. The game was designed as Technōs Japan's spiritual successor to "Renegade", but it took the genre to new heights with its detailed set of martial arts attacks and its outstanding two-player cooperative gameplay. "Double Dragon"'s success resulted in a flood of beat 'em ups that came in the late 1980s, where acclaimed titles such as "Golden Axe" and "Final Fight" (both 1989) distinguished themselves from the others. "Final Fight" was Capcom's intended sequel to "Street Fighter" (provisionally titled "Street Fighter '89"), but the company ultimately gave it a new title. In contrast to the simple combo attacks in "Renegade" and "Double Dragon", the combo attacks in "Final Fight" were much more dynamic, and the sprites were much larger. Acclaimed as the best game in the genre, "Final Fight" spawned two home sequels and was later ported to other systems. "Final Fight" was also the reason for Capcom's new found fame and for Technos Japan's bankruptcy. "Golden Axe" was acclaimed for its visceral hack and slash action and cooperative mode and was influential through its selection of multiple protagonists with distinct fighting styles. It is considered one of the strongest beat 'em up titles for its fantasy elements, distinguishing it from the urban settings seen in other beat 'em ups. "Bad Dudes Vs. DragonNinja" featured platform elements, while "" took the weapon aspect a stage further, allowing the players to pick up guns. Another beat 'em up—"River City Ransom" (1989), named "Street Gangs" in Europe—featured role-playing game elements with which the player's character could be upgraded, using money stolen from defeated enemies.  The "Streets of Rage" series was launched in the early 1990s and borrowed heavily from "Final Fight". "Streets of Rage 2" for Sega's Genesis was one of the first console games to match the acclaim of arcade beat 'em ups. Its level design was praised for taking traditional beat 'em up settings and stringing them together in novel ways, and its success led to it being ported to arcades. The beat 'em up was also a popular genre for video games based on television series and movies, with "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles" and "Batman Returns" a surprise success, and encouraged many more beat 'em up games based on the characters. However, the "golden age" of the genre ended in the wake of the success of Capcom's "Street Fighter II" (1991), which drew gamers back towards one-on-one fighting games, while the subsequent emerging popularity of 3D video games diminished the popularity of 2D-based pugilistic games in general. By 1994, the genre suffered from a lack of innovation and popularity.

32-bit era onward.

Core Design's "Fighting Force" (1997) was anticipated to redefine the genre for 32-bit consoles through its use of a 3D environment. However, it was met with a lukewarm reception. The "Dynasty Warriors" series, beginning with "Dynasty Warriors 2" in 2000, offered traditional beat 'em up action on large 3D battlefields, displaying dozens of characters on the screen at a time. The series to date spans 14 games (including expansions) which players in the West view as overly similar, although the games' creators claim their large audience in Japan appreciates the subtle differences between the titles. While critics saw "Dynasty Warriors 2" as innovative and technically impressive, they held a mixed opinion of later titles. These later games received praise for simple, enjoyable gameplay but were simultaneously derided as overly simplistic and repetitive. In 2000, Italian studio NAPS team released "Gekido: Urban Fighters" for the PlayStation console, which uses a fast paced beat 'em up system, with many bosses and a colorful design in terms of graphics. Another best-selling Japanese series, "Yakuza", combined elaborate plots and detailed interactive environments with street brawling action. Despite these releases, game reviewers started to pronounce that the genre had died off. By 2002, there were virtually no new beat 'em ups being released in arcades. Capcom's "Viewtiful Joe" (2003) used cel-shaded graphics and innovative gameplay features (such as the protagonist's special powers) to "reinvigorate" its traditional 2D scrolling formula. The Behemoth's "Castle Crashers" (2008) also featured cartoon graphics, quirky humor, and acclaimed cooperative gameplay. Rockstar Games' "The Warriors" (based on the 1979 movie of the same name), released in 2005, featured large scale brawling in 3D environments interspersed with other activities such as chase sequences. The game also featured a more traditional side-scrolling beat 'em up "Armies of the Night" as bonus content, which was acclaimed along with the main game and was later released on the PlayStation Portable. Releases such as "God Hand" in 2006 and "MadWorld" in 2009 were seen as parodies of violence in popular culture, earning both games praise for not taking themselves as seriously as early beat 'em up games. Classic beat 'em ups have been re-released on services such as the Virtual Console; critics reaffirmed the appeal of some, while the appeal of others has been deemed to have diminished with time. Although the genre lacks the same presence it did in the late 1980s, some titles such as "Viewtiful Joe" and "God Hand" kept the genre alive.  After 2000, the beat 'em up genre has seen a revival in the form of popular 3D hack and slash games in the style of "Devil May Cry" (2001 onwards), including "Ninja Gaiden" (2004 onwards), "God of War" (2005 onwards), "Heavenly Sword" (2007), "Afro Samurai" (2009), and "Bayonetta" (2009). Several traditional 2D scrolling beat 'em ups have also been released in recent years, including "" (2010). The popular "Grand Theft Auto" series also has elements of the beat 'em up genre.. "Saints Row IV" (2013) featured a parody of "Streets Of Rage" entitled "Saints Of Rage", where the player rescues Johnny Gat from a virtual prison.  The 2D beat 'em up genre has seen a resurgence in Asia, where the South Korean online beat 'em up "Dungeon Fighter Online" (2004) is very popular. "Dungeon Fighter Online" has become one of the most-played and highest-grossing games of all time, having grossed over $10 billion.  The beat 'em up genre has also seen a resurgence within indie game development, after the medium's rising popularity in the latter half of the 2000s, resulting in unique titles such as The Behemoth's "Castle Crashers". DrinkBox Studios' indie title "Guacamelee!" (2013) is noted for its hybrid 2D Metroidvania-style platform brawler gameplay.

Beat 'em up (also known as brawler) is a video game genre featuring hand-to-hand combat between the protagonist and an improbably large number of opponents. Traditional beat 'em ups take place in scrolling, two-dimensional (2D) levels, though some later games feature more open three-dimensional (3D) environments with yet larger numbers of enemies. These games are noted for their simple gameplay, a source of both critical acclaim and derision. Two-player cooperative gameplay and multiple player characters are also hallmarks of the genre. Most of these games take place in urban settings and feature crime-fighting and revenge-based plots, though some games may employ historical, science fiction or fantasy themes.

Das Beat ’em up (englisch für „Schlag sie zusammen“; vor allem im englischen Sprachraum oft auch als Brawler bezeichnet) ist ein Computerspiel-Genre und Subgenre des Actionspiels, das den Einsatz von direkter körperlicher Gewalt, oft in Form von verschiedenen Kampfstilen thematisiert. Die Spielfiguren kämpfen dabei je nach Thematik auch mit Blankwaffen und manchmal übernatürlichen Fähigkeiten. Fernwaffen können Bestandteil sein, sind aber kein zentrales Element.


Life.

Rott was born in Braunhirschengrund, a suburb of Vienna. His mother Maria Rosalia (1840–1872, maiden name Lutz) was an actress and singer. His father Carl Mathias Rott (real name Roth, born 1807, married 1862) was a famous comic actor in Vienna who was crippled in 1874 by a stage accident which led to his death two years later.

Studies.

Hans was left alone to continue his studies at the Conservatory. Fortunately, both his skill and financial need were recognized and he was excused from paying tuition. While studying, he briefly roomed with Gustav Mahler and. He studied piano with Leopold Landskron and Josef Dachs, harmony with Hermann Graedener, counterpoint and composition—like Mahler—with Franz Krenn.  He studied organ with Bruckner, starting in 1874, and graduating from Bruckner's organ class in 1877, with honors. Bruckner said that Rott played Bach very well, and even improvised wonderfully (a high compliment since Bruckner himself was a great improviser). Rott was also influenced by the works of Wagner, and even attended the very first Bayreuth Festival in 1876.

Compositions.

During that time Rott was also organist at the Piarist church "Maria Treu" in Vienna. For the final year of his studies in 1878, Rott submitted the first movement of his Symphony in E major to a composition contest. The jury, except Bruckner, was very derisive of the work. After completing the Symphony in 1880, Rott showed the work to both Brahms and Hans Richter, in order to get it played. His efforts failed. Brahms did not like the fact that Bruckner exerted great influence on the Conservatory students, and even told Rott that he had no talent whatsoever and that he should give up music. Unfortunately, Rott lacked Mahler's inner resolve, and whereas Mahler was able to overcome many of the obstacles in his life, Rott was brought down by mental illness. The symphony has been recorded by the BIS, CPO, Acousence, Hyperion, Ondine, RCA, Arte Nova, & Oehms record labels. Hans Rott also wrote a Symphony for String Orchestra in A flat major, in three movements, (1874–75), and a String Quartet in C minor, a student work in five movements. They have both been recorded on the Acousence Records label #ACO-CD 20205 (2005).

Final years.

Rott began to evidence persecutory delusions. In October 1880, while on a train journey, he reportedly threatened another passenger with a revolver, claiming that Brahms had filled the train with dynamite. Rott was committed to a mental hospital in 1881, where despite a brief recovery he sank into depression. By the end of 1883 a diagnosis recorded "hallucinatory insanity, persecution mania—recovery no longer to be expected." He died of tuberculosis in 1884, aged 25. Many well-wishers, including Bruckner and Mahler, attended Rott's funeral at the Zentralfriedhof in Vienna.

Legacy.

Mahler wrote of Rott a musician of genius... who died unrecognized and in want on the very threshold of his career.... What music has lost in him cannot be estimated. Such is the height to which his genius soars in... [his] "Symphony [in E major]", which he wrote as 20-year-old youth and makes him... the Founder of the New Symphony as I see it. To be sure, what he wanted is not quite what he achieved.... But I know where he aims. Indeed, he is so near to my inmost self that he and I seem to me like two fruits from the same tree which the same soil has produced and the same air nourished. He could have meant infinitely much to me and perhaps the two of us would have well-nigh exhausted the content of new time which was breaking out for music.  Thanks to Rott's friends, some of his music manuscripts have survived in the music collection of Vienna's national library. This includes Rott's "Symphony in E major", and sketches for a second Symphony that was never finished. The completed symphony is remarkable in the way it anticipates some of Mahler's musical characteristics. In particular, the third movement prefigures the second movement of Mahler's First Symphony. The Finale includes references to Brahms's First Symphony. Mahler also spoke well of Rott's Lieder, of which all eight surviving complete songs have been performed in concert since 2002 and four sung by Dominik Wörner were recorded in 2009 on the Ars label. We also know of a "Sextet", which Mahler never heard and has also been lost. In his last years, Rott wrote a lot of music, only to destroy what he wrote soon after writing it, saying it was worthless.  Bruckner and Mahler were the first to recognise Rott's talent. Mahler himself included references to Rott's work in his own music. However, in the 20th century, Rott's work was largely forgotten; and only in 1989 was Rott's "Symphony in E major" finally premiered by the Cincinnati Philharmonia Orchestra under Gerhard Samuel, in a performing edition prepared by Paul Banks. A CD recording followed.  Other recordings of the symphony have since been issued, and other Rott works have been occasionally revived, including his "Julius Caesar Overture", "Pastoral Overture" and "Prelude for Orchestra".  He figures in the murder mystery "Requiem in Vienna" by J. Sydney Jones.

Hans Rott (1 August 1858 – 25 June 1884) was an Austrian composer and organist. His music is little-known today, though he received high praise in his time from Gustav Mahler and Anton Bruckner. He left a symphony and "Lieder", among other works.

Johann Nepomuk Karl Maria Rott (* 1. August 1858 in Braunhirschengrund; † 25. Juni 1884 in Wien) war ein österreichischer Komponist und Organist.


Early life.

Norris and Ross were the twin sons of William McWhirter, the editor of the "Sunday Pictorial", and Margaret Williamson. In 1929, as William was working on the founding of the Northcliffe Newspapers chain of provincial newspapers, the family moved to "Aberfoyle", in Broad Walk, Winchmore Hill. Like their elder brother, Kennedy (born 1923), Norris and Ross were educated at Marlborough College and Trinity College, Oxford. Norris chose to complete his law degree in two years rather than the usual three. Between 1943 and 1946, Norris served as a sub-lieutenant with the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve on escort duty in Atlantic and on board a minesweeper in the Pacific.

Sports.

McWhirter was an all-round athlete and represented Scotland at running during the 1950s. He and his brother became sports journalists in 1950. In 1951, they published "Get to Your Marks" and that year they founded an agency to provide facts and figures to Fleet Street, setting out, in Norris McWhirter's words: "to supply facts and figures to newspapers, yearbooks, encyclopedias, and advertisers". At the same time, he became a founding member of the Association of Track and Field Statisticians.  McWhirter came to public attention while working for the BBC as a sports commentator. On 6 May 1954, he kept the time when Roger Bannister ran the first sub four-minute mile. After the race, he began his announcement:  As a result of Event Four, the one mile, the winner was R. G. Bannister of Exeter and Merton colleges, in a time which, subject to ratification, is a track record, an English native record, a United Kingdom record, a European record, in a time of three minutes...  at which the rest of McWhirter's announcement was drowned out in the enthusiastic uproar.  One of the athletes covered was runner Christopher Chataway, the employee at Guinness who recommended them to Sir Hugh Beaver. After an interview in which the Guinness directors enjoyed testing the twins' knowledge of records and unusual facts, the brothers agreed to start work on the book that became "The Guinness Book of Records" in 1954. In August 1955, the first slim green volume – 198 pages long – was at the bookstalls, and in four more months it was Britain's No. 1 nonfiction best-seller.  In 1954, the McWhirter brothers sued "Daily Mail" sports writer J. L. Manning for his critical piece about non-journalist (i.e. not members of the National Union of Journalists) sports writers. The McWhirters were awarded £300 in damages.  McWhirter was also part of the BBC commentary team for their Olympic Games coverage between 1960 and 1976.

Political activity.

He was an active member of the Conservative Party in the early 1960s and fought, unsuccessfully, to recapture Orpington in the 1964 and 1966 UK general elections after its loss to the Liberals in the 1962 by-election.  His brother, Ross, was a critic of British government policy in Northern Ireland, and called for a "tougher" response by the Army against Irish republicans. Ross was shot dead by the IRA in 1975 at his home in Middlesex after offering a reward for information leading to the apprehension of those carrying out a bombing campaign in London at the time. Following Ross's murder, Norris co-founded the right-wing political organisation the National Association for Freedom (now The Freedom Association) in 1975. This organisation initiated legal challenges against the trade union movement in the UK, Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) and the European Economic Community (EEC) in Brussels. All of the work it undertakes falls within the following Eight Principles of a Free Society: Individual Freedom, Personal & Family Responsibility, The Rule of Law, Limited Government, Free Market Economy, National Parliamentary Democracy, Strong National Defences and a Free Press and Other Media. It continues its political activities to this day.  Norris was a member of the Secretariat of the anti-communist European Freedom Campaign, established in London at an Inaugural Rally at Westminster Central Hall on 10 December 1988.

"Record Breakers".

Both brothers were regulars on the BBC show "Record Breakers". They were noted for their photographic memory, enabling them to provide detailed answers to any questions from the audience about entries in the "Guinness Book of Records".  After Ross's death, Norris continued to appear on the show, eventually making him one of the most recognisable people on children's television in the 1970s and 1980s. McWhirter was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1980 New Year Honours.

Personal life and death.

In 1957, McWhirter married Carole Eckert, who died in 1987; they had a son and a daughter. In 1990, he married his secretary, Tessa von Weichardt, née Pocock.  He retired from "The Guinness Book of Records" in 1985, though he continued in an advisory role until 1996. He continued to write, editing a new reference book, "Norris McWhirter's Book of Millennium Records", in 1999.  In 1985, he launched an unsuccessful defamation case against the Independent Broadcasting Authority for the TV programme "Spitting Image", which had inserted a subliminal image of McWhirter's face imposed on the body of a naked woman.  McWhirter died from a heart attack at his home in Kington Langley, Wiltshire, on 19 April 2004, aged 78. His memorial service – attended by, among others, Baroness Thatcher, John Gouriet, Jeremy Beadle, Christopher Gill (who read The Lesson), Jeffrey Archer, Gregory Lauder-Frost and Sir Roger Bannister (who read an appreciation) – was held in St Martin-in-the-Fields, Trafalgar Square, London, on 7 October 2004. however, He was interred at St Peter's Church, Wiltshire, England.

Norris Dewar McWhirter (12 August 192519 April 2004) was a British writer, political activist, co-founder of The Freedom Association, and a television presenter. He and his twin brother Ross were known internationally for the founding of "Guinness World Records" (as "The Guinness Book of Records") which they wrote and annually updated together between 1955 and 1975. After Ross's assassination by the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA), Norris carried on alone as editor.

Norris Dewar McWhirter (* 12. August 1925 in Winchmore Hill, Middlesex; † 19. April 2004 in Wiltshire) war ein britischer Verleger.