Etymology.

The name is derived from the action some early competitors adopted of bobbing back and forth inside their sleds to increase speed.

History.

Origins.

Although sledding on snow or ice had long been popular in many northern countries, the origins of bobsleighing as a modern sport are relatively recent. Its foundation began when hotelier Caspar Badrutt (1848–1904) convinced some wealthy English regulars to remain through the entire winter at his hotel in the mineral spa town of St. Moritz, Switzerland. He had been frustrated that his hotel was only busy during the summer months. By keeping his guests entertained with food, alcohol, and activities, he quickly established the concept of "winter resorting". Within a few years, wintering at Badrutt's St Moritz hotel became very fashionable in Victorian Britain. However, with increased numbers this led some guests to search for new diversions. In the early 1870s some adventurous Englishmen began adapting boys' delivery sleds for recreational purposes.  However, when they began colliding with pedestrians in the icy lanes, alleyways and roads of St Moritz, this led to the invention of "steering means" for the sleds. The basic bobsleigh (bobsled) consisted of two cresta's (skeleton sleds) attached together with a board that had a steering mechanism at the front. The ability to steer meant the sleds could make longer runs through the town. Longer runs also meant higher speeds on curves. Local sentiments varied about these informal competitions but eventually complaints grew so vociferous that Badrutt had to do something. His solution was to build a basic natural ice run for his guests outside the town near the small hamlet named Cresta in the lates 1870s. Badrutt took action because he did not want to make enemies in the town and he had worked hard and investing a lot of time and money in popularizing wintering in St. Moritz so he was not going to let customers stop coming due to boredom.

Competitive discipline.

Formal competitions started down the natural ice Cresta Run in 1884, which was built in an annual partnership between guests and local people. The run, which is still in operation, has served as a host track for skeleton at two Winter Olympics (1928 and 1948). As one of the few natural weather tracks in the world, it does not use artificial refrigeration. It is not known how much the original track evolved in the early years as the three sports matured and stabilized. The first club formed in 1897, and the first purpose-built track solely for bobsleds opened in 1902 outside St Moritz. Over the years, bobsleigh tracks evolved from straight runs to twisting and turning tracks. The original wooden sleds gave way to streamlined fiberglass and metal ones.  The "International Bobsleigh and Skeleton Federation" (FIBT) was founded in 1923. Men's four-man bobsleigh appeared in the first ever Winter Olympic Games in 1924, and the men's two-man bobsleigh event was added in 1932. Though not included in the 1960 Winter Olympics, bobsleigh has featured in every Winter Olympics since. Women's bobsleigh competition began in the US in 1983 with two demonstration races in Lake Placid, New York, one held in February and the second held during the World Cup races in March 1983. Women's two-woman bobsleigh made its Olympic debut at the 2002 Winter Olympic Games. Bobsleigh is also contested at American, European, and World Cup championships.  Germany and Switzerland have proven the most successful bobsleighing nations measured by overall success in European, World, World Cup, and Olympic championships. Since the 1990s Germans have dominated in international competition, having won more medals than any other nation. Italy, Austria, United States and Canada also have strong bobsleigh traditions.  Bobsleighs can attain speeds of, with the reported world record being.  "Bobsleigh competitors are very noble". The World Fair Play Trophy was awarded to an Italian bobsleigh competitor, Eugenio Monti, 1964, then 30 years later to an Australian bobsleigh competitor, Justin McDonald, 1994.

Modern era.

Tracks.

Modern tracks are made of concrete, coated with ice. They are required to have at least one straight section and one labyrinth (three turns in quick succession without a straight section). Ideally, a modern track should be long and have at least fifteen curves. Speeds may exceed, and some curves can subject the crews to as much as 5 "g".  Some bobsleigh tracks are also used for luge and skeleton competition.  Some tracks offer tourists rides in bobsleighs, including those at Sigulda, Latvia; Innsbruck-Igls, Austria; Calgary, Alberta, Canada; Whistler, British Columbia, Canada; Lillehammer, Norway; Cesana Pariol, Italy; Lake Placid, US; Salt Lake City, Utah, US and La Plagne, France.

Sleighs and crews.

Modern day sleighs combine light metals, steel runners, and an aerodynamic composite body. Competition sleighs must be a maximum of long (4-crew) or long (2-crew). The runners on both are set at gauge. Until the weight-limit rule was added in 1952, bobsleigh crews tended to be very heavy to ensure the greatest possible speed. Nowadays, the maximum weight, including crew, is (4-man), (2-man), or (2-woman), which can be reached via the addition of metal weights. The bobsleighs themselves are designed to be as light as possible to allow dynamic positioning of mass through the turns of the bobsleigh course.  Although bobsleigh crews once consisted of five or six people, they were reduced to two- and four-person sleighs in the 1930s. The crew has a pilot, a brakeman, and pushers. Athletes are selected based on their speed and strength, which are necessary to push the sleigh to a competitive speed at the start of the race. Pilots must have the skill, timing, and finesse to steer the sleigh along the path, or "line", that will produce the greatest speed.  In modern bobsleighs, the steering system consists of two metal rings that actuate a pulley system located in the forward cowling that turns the front runners. For example, to turn left, the pilot would pull the left ring. Only subtle steering adjustments are necessary to guide the sled; at speeds up to, anything larger would result in a crash. The pilot does most of the steering, and the brakeman stops the sled after crossing the finish line by pulling the sled's brake lever.  Women compete in women's bobsleigh (which is always two-woman) and men in both two and four-man competitions. Women were confirmed as being able to compete in any four-"man" bobsleigh event, as from 25 September 2014, either as part of a mixed-sex team or an all-female team.

Racing.

Individual runs down the course, or "heats", begin from a standing start, with the crew pushing the sled for up to before boarding; though the pilot does not steer, grooves in the ice make steering unnecessary until the sled leaves the starting area. While poor form during the initial push can lose a team the heat, it is otherwise rarely, if ever, decisive. Over the rest of the course, a sleigh's speed depends on its weight, aerodynamics, runners, the condition of the ice, and the skill of the pilot.  Race times are recorded in hundredths of seconds, so even seemingly minor errors – especially those at the beginning, which affect the remainder of the heat – can have a measurable impact on the final race standings.  The men's and women's standings for normal races are calculated over the aggregate of two runs or heats. At the Olympic Winter Games and World Championships, all competitions (for both men and women) consist of four heats.

Bobsleigh or bobsled is a team winter sport that involves making timed runs down narrow, twisting, banked, iced tracks in a gravity-powered sleigh. International bobsleigh competitions are governed by the International Bobsleigh and Skeleton Federation, also known as FIBT from the French. National competitions are often governed by bodies such as the United States Bobsled and Skeleton Federation and Bobsleigh Canada Skeleton.

Der Bobsport ist eine Wintersportart, die Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts in der Schweiz von Engländern entwickelt wurde und heute Teil des olympischen Programms bei den Olympischen Winterspielen ist. Der Bobsport ist auch eng mit dem Rennrodeln und noch mehr mit dem Skeleton verwandt.


Ceramic clay.

Ceramic clays are water-based substances made from clay minerals and other raw materials. They are baked at high temperatures in a process known as firing to create ceramics, such as terra cotta, earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain. Paper clay produced by pottery clay manufacturers is a clay body to which a small percentage of processed cellulose fiber has been added. When kiln-fired, the paper burns out, leaving the clay body. Consequently, the firing temperatures and glazes selection should be the same on those used with the clay body.

Oil-based clay.

Oil-based clays are made from various combinations of oils, waxes, and clay minerals.  Because the oils do not evaporate like water, oil-based clays remain malleable even when left in dry environments for long periods. Articles made from oil-based clays cannot be fired, and thus are not ceramics. Because rising temperature decreases oil viscosity, the malleability is influenced by heating or cooling the clay. Oil-based clay is not water-soluble. As it can be re-used, it is a popular material for animation artists who need to bend and move their models. It is available in a multitude of colors and is non-toxic. Readily worked in fine detail, oil-based clays are also suitable for the creation of detailed sculptures from which molds can be made. Castings and reproductions can then be produced from much more durable materials. Cars and airplanes may be created using industrial design-grade modelling clay.  Oil-based clays are referred to by a number of genericized trademarks.

Polymer clay.

Polymer clay is a modelling material that cures when heated from for 15 minutes per of thickness, and does not significantly shrink or change shape during the process. Despite being called "clay", it generally contains no clay minerals. Polymer clay is sold in craft, hobby, and art stores, and is used by artists, hobbyists, and children. Polymer clay is also popular in animation, since it allows static forms to be manipulated frame after frame. Leading brands of polymer clay include Fimo, Kato Polyclay, Sculpey, Modello and Crafty Argentina.

Paper clay.

Paper clay is handmade or commercially available clay to which a small percentage of processed cellulose fiber is added. The fiber increases the tensile strength of the dry clay and enables dry-to-dry and wet-to-dry joins. Commercial paper clays air-dry to a firm, lightweight sculpture, with minimal shrinking during the drying process.  Paper clay can be used as an unfired body in craft and doll-making. It is used in ceramic art studios as sculptural and functional studio pottery.

Modelling clay is any of a group of malleable substances used in building and sculpting. The material compositions and production processes vary considerably.

Als Knetmasse (umgangssprachlich: Knete, Knetgummi), Modelliermasse oder "Plastilin" wird eine leicht verformbare, ton- oder wachsähnliche Masse bezeichnet, die zum einfachen Modellieren und Spielen verwendet wird.


Early life.

Born in the Maison de Santé Clinic of the Barranco District into a middle-class family, García met his father for the first time when he was five due to his father's imprisonment for being a member of the Peruvian Aprista Party. His mother founded the party's base in the Camaná Province of the Arequipa Region. From a very young age, he accompanied his father to party meetings and became acquainted with future leaders of the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA), such as Luis Alva Castro and Mercedes Cabanillas. At 14, he was already an immensely talented orator when he first gave a speech in honour of party founder Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre, whom he admired and followed until his death.  García studied law, first at the Pontifical Catholic University of Peru -although the official records of his tenure in this university were never found- and later earning a law degree from the National University of San Marcos in 1971. A year later, he left Peru for Spain, where he studied for a PhD in law. For years García claimed to have earned a PhD; in 2014, however, documents from the university proved he never finished the work for it. In 1974, he travelled to France with other members of the APRA to study at the prestigious University of Paris I. After earning a degree in sociology, he was called by Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre to come back to Peru in order to run for the Constituent Assembly election in 1978. García was elected a Member of the Assembly, where he impressed his colleagues with his oratory and skillful rhetoric. As APRA's Secretary of Organization, he was assigned to conduct the party's public affairs in the wake of Haya de la Torre's death in 1979.  From his first marriage, García had one daughter, Carla, who is also active in Peruvian politics. With his second wife Pilar Nores, from whom he separated in 2010, García had four children. He also had another child from an extramarital affair with economist Roxanne Cheesman.  Already recognized as a young leader with a bright future in the country, he was elected to Congress in 1980. Two years later, he was elected General Secretary of the Peruvian Aprista Party. He was elected to serve as president of the Republic in the 1985 general elections.

First presidency.

García won the presidential election on 14 April 1985 with 45% of the votes. Since he did not receive the 50% of the votes required for a first-round victory, a run-off was scheduled between him and Alfonso Barrantes (the former mayor of Lima) of the United Left party. Barrantes, however, withdrew and decided not to enter the run-off, saying he did not want to prolong the country's political uncertainty. García was thus declared President on 1 June and officially took power on 28 July 1985. For the first time in its sixty-year history, the APRA party came to power in Peru. Aged 36, García was dubbed "Latin America's Kennedy", becoming the region's youngest president at the time, and the second youngest president in Peruvian history (the youngest was Juan Crisostomo Torrico in 1842, aged 34).  His economic policy was based on APRA's initial anti-imperialist values with García distancing Peru from international markets, resulting in lower investment in the country. Despite his initial popularity among voters, García's term in office was marked by bouts of hyperinflation, which reached 7,649% in 1990 and had a cumulative total of 2,200,200% over the five years, which destabilised the Peruvian economy. Foreign debt under García's administration increased to $19 billion by 1989. Owing to this chronic inflation, the Peruvian currency, the sol, was replaced by the inti in February 1985 (before his presidency began), which itself was replaced by the nuevo sol ("new sun") in July 1991, at which time the new sol had a cumulative value of one billion (1,000,000,000) old soles.  According to studies by the National Institute of Statistics and Informatics and the United Nations Development Programme, around the start of his presidency, 41.6% of Peruvians lived in poverty. During his presidency, this percentage increased by 13% (to 55%) in 1991. García also made an attempt to nationalise the banking and insurance industries. The International Monetary Fund and the financial community recoiled after García's administration unilaterally declared a limit on debt repayment equal to 10% of the Gross National Product, thereby isolating Peru from international financial markets.  His presidency was marked by world-record hyperinflation with the annual rate exceeding 13,000 percent per year. The administration devastated the local economy as well as all governmental institutions. Hunger, corruption, injustice, abuse of power, partisan elitism, and social unrest raised to dramatic levels spreading throughout the whole nation due to García's misdeeds and incompetence, spurring terrorism. The economic turbulence exacerbated social tensions and contributed in great part to the rise of the violent Maoist rebel movement known as the Shining Path, which launched the internal conflict in Peru and began attacking electrical towers, causing a number of blackouts in Lima. The period also saw the emergence of the Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA). The García administration unsuccessfully sought a military solution to the growing terrorism, allegedly committing human rights violations, which are still under investigation. These include the Accomarca massacre, where 47 campesinos were gunned down by armed forces in August 1985; the Cayara massacre (May 1988), in which some thirty people were killed and dozens disappeared; and the summary execution of more than 200 inmates during prison riots in Lurigancho, San Juan Bautista (El Frontón) and Santa Bárbara in 1986. According to an official inquiry, an estimated 1,600 forced disappearances took place during García's presidency. His own personal involvement in these events is not clear. García was allegedly tied to the paramilitary Rodrigo Franco Command, which is accused of carrying out political murders in Peru during García's presidency. A U.S. declassified report, written in late 1987, said that García's party, APRA, and top government officials were running a paramilitary group, responsible for the attempted bombing of the "El Diario" newspaper, then linked to Shining Path, had sent people to train in North Korea and may have been involved in executions. According to investigative journalist Lucy Komisar, the report made it clear that it believed García had given the orders.  Alan García's historical economic failures were used by economists Rudi Dornbusch and Sebastian Edwards to coin the term macroeconomic populism. At García's farewell speech, he was booed by the entire opposition forces and prevented him from speaking. The anecdotical event was televised. That same day the board of the Chamber of Deputies requested the creation of a special committee to investigate García's Presidency, accusing him of massive corruption and illicit enrichment. The committee attacked García with numerous proven accusations involving embezzlement, missappropiation and bribery, based -among other trustworthy sources- on a U.S. congressional investigation that linked García with the BCCI scandal and had found millions of dollars in this as well as other banks. In 1991, New York District Attorney Robert Morgenthau charged García officially. Later in 1992, then U.S. Senator John Kerry presided over the BCCI Scandal Report (https://archive.org/details/TheBCCIAffair), which concluded García was not only guilty of corruption, but directly involved in an international racketeering network with activities that included drug and arm trafficking. Finally, the Peruvian Supreme Court declared null all the probes and constitutional accusations gathered against García, allowing him to return to Peru after a 9-year long self-imposed exile.

Exile.

On 5 April 1992, Alberto Fujimori conducted a self-coup, through which he dissolved the Peruvian Congress unconstitutionally and intervened in the Judiciary and other public institutions. Due to these actions, various politicians were persecuted and prevented from leaving their homes. García had been serving as Senator for life since 1990, although he was unable to perform his duty due to the accusations of the Chamber of Deputies. He was able to return to the Senate in March of 1992, after the Supreme Court dropped all constitutional charges against him. According to Jorge Del Castillo in 2008, Alberto Fujimori ordered Vladimiro Montesinos to capture and assassinate García on the day of the coup. According to his own testimony, García escaped his home while military tanks took over the bloc where he lived. After weeks oh hiding in a construction site, he was able to enter, at the end of May, the residence of the Colombian Ambassador, thus requesting political asylum. The request was granted on 1 June, by the government of President César Gaviria. The former president left Peru through a pass that allowed him to board a Colombian Air Force jet that transferred him, along with then congressman Jorge Del Castillo, bound for Bogotá. García arrived at the Catam military airport and in statements to the press promised to fight against the dictatorship of Alberto Fujimori. The regime opened processes for illicit enrichment and for various accusations of corruption; after that, the extradition of García was requested from the Colombian government, which was denied.  In 1994, the Human Rights Commission of the Organization of American States denounced the Fujimori Government for violation of the rights to liberty, security and due defense of Alan García and asked the Peruvian government to nullify the processes initiated.  In April 1995, Congress lifted Alan García's parliamentary immunity on accusations of having received bribes from the Italian consortium Tralima for the construction of the Lima electric train. Based on this, the Civil Chamber of the Supreme Court once again requested García's extradition to the Government of Colombia, which was denied because García went to live in Paris for the rest of his exile.  During the years between 1993 and 2001, Alan García did not actively participate in Peruvian politics, except in the publication of some works on his first presidency, and a literary work entitled "The World of Maquiavelo". He continued denouncing the human rights violations committed by the President Alberto Fujimori administration. On rare occasions, Alan García appeared on Peruvian television and radio from Bogotá, Colombia.  In 2001, the Supreme Court declared the allegations that were imputed to him at the end of his first term prescribed.

Return to politics.

Peruvian National Election 2001.

After a long-awaited return to Peru by the thousands of members of the APRA Party, Alan García returns to Lima in January 27th 2001 at 5:35pm, his return caused so much expectation that a huge crowd was waiting for him at the airport changing his name and showing support with hundreds of signs with the words "ALAN VUELVE". That same day at 8:30pm a rally was called in the Plaza San Martin de Lima where Garcia gave the greatest speech of his life in front of a large crowd, some say there were around 20 thousand people that night. Garcia ran for president in the new elections called by the interim president Valentín Paniagua, and in just 60 days of election campaign he won the second place behind Alejandro Toledo, which led him to a second back, Toledo's popularity remained stable, while Garcia's popularity was based on his innovative proposals on the issue of the agrarian bank, not continuing with a neoliberal model, etc. However, it was not enough to acquire more endorsements and support from the peruvian voters and Alejandro Toledo won the general elections in the second round. After the 2001 election, Garcia, as leader of the APRA party, became Leader of the Opposition. <Reference name = britbio />

2006 Peruvian national election.

García officially started his campaign for the April 2006 presidential election in Lima on 20 April 2005. Ollanta Humala won the first round with 32.50% of the valid votes, followed by García, who got 24.32% (against Lourdes Flores' 23.81%). As no candidate won a majority, a run-off election was held on 4 June 2006 between Humala and García. Preliminary official results gave García an advantage over his run-off opponent, who conceded defeat.  On 28 April 2006, prior to the run-off, García had become involved in a dispute with Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez. For the second time in a Peruvian presidential elections, Chávez declared his support for Ollanta Humala, García's opponent, and referred to García as a "robber", a "bandit", and "the Carlos Andrés Pérez of Peru". In response, García stated that Chávez was "not acting as a statesman" and challenged Chávez to a debate to be hosted by CNN. García called on the Organization of American States to intervene in the matter.  On 31 May 2006, a few days before the run-off election, García's economic adviser Enrique Cornejo told the media that if García won in the second round, his government would renew a US$422 million aid package with the International Monetary Fund. Anoop Singh, the IMF's Western Hemisphere Director, responded positively by saying he was "impressed by the vision of the president-elected for Peru, especially his commitment to applying prudent economic policy."

Second presidency.

On 28 July 2006, García was sworn in as president, after winning approximately 53% of the nationwide vote in the elections held on 4 June. He would spend the majority of his second term attempting to improve his reputation compared to his first term.  He won in the capital city, Lima, and the northern coast, a geographical base of the APRA party, but lost on the southern region (mostly impoverished but including major cities such as Cuzco and Arequipa) and the rainforest areas, considered Humala's strongholds. A third of the voters said that voting for him was "voting for the lesser of two evils": although many Peruvians had a very negative impression of García after his first term, they were frightened by rumours that Humala would create a government based on Fidel Castro's Cuba and would turn Hugo Chávez, President of Venezuela, into the virtual ruler of Peru, due to Chavez's patronage of Humala's party. These fears were accompanied by declarations of militarization, the re-introduction of the death penalty and criminalization and disrespect for LGBT communities. Humala denied these rumours, but his conflicting statements about his government's vision and Chávez's strong campaigning for him created enough suspicions among voters to cost him the ballotage. With 36 seats, APRA was the second largest bloc in the 120-seat unicameral Congress which was sworn in a couple of days before the President. With 45 seats, Humala's Union for Peru Party was the largest bloc, although it divided itself up into three factions.  On 28 June, one month before García was sworn in, his party gave 25 of the 79 votes (almost one third of the votes) that ratified the Peru–United States Trade Promotion Agreement in the Peruvian Congress, one month prior to the new legislature that included the Union for Peru congressmen, who opposed the agreement with the USA. The U.S. Congress ratified the agreement on 4 December 2007 and it came into effect on 1 February 2009.  In his first speech as President, García said he would appoint a Finance Minister who was neither "an orthodox market liberal" nor a person "excessively in favour of state intervention in the economy". The position of Prime Minister was given to Jorge del Castillo. According to the BBC, in private interviews García had stated his interest in a possible future trade agreement with Brazil and considered himself "an admirer" of Brazilian President Lula da Silva.  In press conferences with the foreign press, García acknowledged that the support Humala received in the election "could not be ignored". García, in a recognition of future domestic politics with a UPP controlled Congress, was quoted as saying "Mr. Humala is an important political figure, and a President should consult with different political factions". However, Humala said he wouldn't salute the winner personally, adding that "he and his party will constitute the principal opposition bloc, not to fight Mr. García, but to defend the interests of the State and watch the government". President Chávez of Venezuela responded to García's comments on his show "Aló Presidente" by stating that it was García who owed him an apology, saying: "the only way relations between the two countries can be restored is if Peru's elected President [García] gives an explanation and offers an apology to the Venezuelan people. He started throwing stones". Chávez questioned the legitimacy of the election, citing 1.2 million invalid ballots and a margin of victory of 600,000 votes, although offering no evidence for his comments. García, attending an invitation to meet Brazilian president Lula da Silva, responded to Chávez: "Accept your defeat in silence. Don't ask me to apologize for something arising from interference and remarks that are unacceptable under international law." Differences with Chávez were left behind after the two ended their controversy at the second South American Community of Nations Summit.  On 20 July 2006, García named Luis Carranza as Finance Minister, a former executive at Spain-based Banco Bilbao Vizcaya Argentaria and Central Bank director and deputy finance chief from August 2004 to August 2005 in Alejandro Toledo's government. The appointment was welcomed by some detractors of García's fiscal policies during his first administration. But Mario Huamán Rivera, the President of the Confederación General de Trabajadores del Perú (General Workers Confederation of Peru), the country's largest trade union, attacked the appointment, stating that "it looks as though Alan García is not going to fulfill his promise to change economic policy".  On the day before his inauguration, García formally named his cabinet, including former Secretary-General of the APRA party and re-elected Congressman Jorge del Castillo as Prime Minister, Luis Carranza as Minister of Finance and Economy, and José Antonio García Belaúnde as Foreign Affairs Minister. García was inaugurated as President on 28 July 2006.  During his campaign, García declared that he supported the death penalty for rapists of minors; he reiterated this stance while in office pushing a law on the matter, which would modify the Criminal Code. Although the issue seemed to be stalled, García widened the range of his proposal for the death penalty, by including terrorists in the list of those who could receive it.  García faced his first major political defeat of his second term in office on 11 January 2007 when his proposal to introduce the death penalty as a punishment for captured Shining Path rebels was rejected by Congress in a vote of 49 to 26. García had promised to introduce the death penalty for Shining Path rebels during the 2006 Presidential election. Following the defeat of the proposal, García suggested a national referendum on the issue but it was blocked by Congress. Legislators who voted against the bill stated that it would be a breach of the American Convention on Human Rights to which Peru is a signatory. Approximately 3000 supporters of the proposal marched in Lima holding up photos of victims of attacks by the Shining Path.  On 5 June 2009, García ordered police and military forces to stop Amazonian Indigenous protesters from blocking roads in the Bagua region. They had been demonstrating against the signing by Alan García of special decrees that allowed foreign corporations to enter Indigenous lands for oil drilling, mining and logging. As a result of the protests and armed military incursion, more than 100 native civilians and 14 policemen were killed. The government claimed, in a redacted television commercial, that several policemen were killed after being taken prisoner, while protesters claimed the bodies of the murdered Native Amazonians had been dumped into the river.  With the passage of time, studies of human rights violations in Peru have discovered a close relationship between García and the forces within Peru who promote impunity for human rights violators. García was involved in colonizing the bench by placing inside the judiciary judges who would be sympathetic to perpetrators of human rights violations. Additionally, García was supportive of efforts to punish judges who handed down indictments of perpetrators. García himself was in the presidency during many gross violations of human rights and was quite hostile to human rights organizations and to judicial actors who seek justice for victims of human rights violations. During his presidency García sought to tilt the legal playing field in favour of the military and against victims. He also tried to make life difficult for NGOs seeking to help victims. For example, he offered extensive resources to defendants and military officers while creating new laws that would make it difficult for human rights NGOs to do their jobs, receive necessary resources, and pursue the advancement of judicial action that attempted to bring human rights violators to justice.

Foreign affairs.

After being elected, in the months prior to his inauguration, García sought to heal Peru's relationship with Chile, which was stressed by the differences between the governments of Alejandro Toledo and Ricardo Lagos and severely impaired by former President Alberto Fujimori's extradition affair. García's intentions were well received by Michelle Bachelet, President of Chile, as she and García met and struck some preliminary agreements. These conversations eventually led to the final draft of a landmark economic agreement with Chile a month after García was sworn in.  On 9 November 2006, three months after being elected, García signed 12 commercial agreements with President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva of Brazil, strengthening the relationship between the two countries. As part of the IIRSA programme and continuing integration efforts – including the August 2006 negotiations between Petrobras and Petroperú – these new agreements sought to further bilateral cooperation. García offered Peruvian hydropower to meet Brazil's growing energy needs, although further details were not disclosed.

Post-presidency.

García ran for a third term as president in the 2016 Peruvian general election under the coalition Popular Alliance. The election's first round polls gave García 5.83% of the popular vote, preventing him from participating in the runoff election. Pedro Pablo Kuczynski was ultimately elected.

Odebrecht scandal and Suicide.

Peruvian press reported that in May 2012, after leaving office, he was paid US$100,000 to give a speech to Brazilian business leaders in São Paulo, money which was later characterized in the media and suspected by Peruvian prosecutors as a kickback from Brazil's construction company Odebrecht. García reported and paid taxes for each payment he was receiving for that reason his defense and lawyers were optimistic to show there was no Bribery at all since multiple organizations were willing to pay him to have him as speaker  In 2016 and 2017, five of his former ministers were accused of corruption by the Peruvian justice system: Yehude Simon (Prime Minister), Rosario Fernández (Minister of Justice), Mercedes Cabanillas (Minister of the Interior), Ántero Flores Aráoz (Minister of Defence) and Luis Nava Guibert (Minister of Production). Not even one of the ministers were arrested or detained due the lack of evidence and all the complaints received were based on false statements or assumptions.  In November 2018, García was banned from leaving Peru by the court as a result of the Odebrecht scandal investigation. He entered the residence of the Uruguayan ambassador on 17 November, requesting asylum. However, on 3 December his request was denied, and he subsequently left the ambassador's residence.  The scandal has also led to arrests where possible of all other living former presidents of Peru who have served since 2000: Kuczynski, Humala and Toledo.  At 6:31 UTC-5 of the 17th of April 2019, García shot himself in the head while hiding in his bedroom as he was being presented with a 10-day preliminary arrest warrant related to investigations for corruption and bribes his presidential secretary allegedly received from the Brazilian construction corporation. Initial reports stated that officers violated protocol allowing García to be alone with the excuse that he was going to talk with his lawyer, resulting in the incident. He was taken to the hospital Casimiro Ulloa and underwent an emergency surgical procedure where he suffered from cardiac arrest three times. After 4 hours his death was announced by the heads of the APRA political party and Nidia Vílchez with the cause being a "massive" cerebral hemorrhage and cardiorespiratory arrest. According to police sources, García used his personal Colt Anaconda revolver, which was given to him as a gift from the Peruvian Navy during his second term, and was among nine other firearms that the former president was licensed to own.  A few hours after his death was announced, García's body was taken in a wooden casket to the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance headquarters in Lima where a memorial service was held on the same day. President Martín Vizcarra declared a three-day mourning period.

Public image.

García was 2008 "Latin Business Chronicle"s "leader of the year" at a time when Peru was ranked as Latin America's third-best country for business.

Published works.

García was the author of several books on Peruvian and Latin American affairs. Most of them may be found in the National Library of Peru. His published works include the following:

Alan Gabriel Ludwig García Pérez (; 23 May 1949 – 17 April 2019) was a Peruvian politician who served as President of Peru from 1985 to 1990 and from 2006 to 2011. He was the second leader of the Peruvian Aprista Party and the only party member ever to have served as President. Instructed by the founder of the APRA, Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre, he served in Constituent Assembly of 1978-1979 presided by his master, which drafted the Constitution of 1979. Elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1980, he quickly rose as the long-term successor to Haya, rising as party Secretary General in 1982. He was elected to the Presidency in the 1985 general election with 53% of the popular vote.

Alan Gabriel Ludwig García Pérez (* 23. Mai 1949 in Lima; † 17. April 2019 ebenda) war ein peruanischer Rechtsanwalt und sozialdemokratischer Politiker (APRA). Er war von 1985 bis 1990 und erneut von 2006 bis 2011 der Staatspräsident Perus.


Channels.

Most of the channels listed are not directly operated by Bloomberg, but are operated by local companies who franchise the Bloomberg brand and may take some of its English-language programming.

United States service.

Bloomberg's U.S. broadcasts are headed by Justin Smith, the CEO of Bloomberg Media Group. Smith replaced Andy Lack, who eventually returned to NBC News. The network also provided funding and studio facilities for the nightly PBS/WNET program "Charlie Rose".

History.

Bloomberg Television first launched in the United States on January 1, 1994 under the name Bloomberg Information TV, before it was shortened to its current name in 1998. Shortly after Bloomberg's launch, the now-defunct American Independent Network carried a simulcast of the channel at various times each weekday from 1995 to 1997, which was picked up by some broadcast stations in early morning periods to provide a "de facto" morning business show. The network's morning pre-opening bell programming was also aired on the USA Network, simulcasted in a paid programming arrangement with the channel until 2004, when that network dropped the simulcast months before the NBC Universal merger was consummated, due to concerns that USA would then air the coverage of a competitor to future sister network CNBC. The simulcast then moved to E! (which became NBCUniversal-owned in January 2011 due to that company's purchase by Comcast), where it remained until the simulcast ended in January 2009, when the network had expanded its reach on digital cable systems enough to discontinue the simulcast. During its time on E!, the 5–8 a.m. block was the most watched period for the network, according to Nielsen Media Research.  Bloomberg Television's U.S. network debuted a new graphics package in January 2009. This current scheme was first used on the network's now-defunct pre-market program, "Starting Bell", before the new graphics expanded to all of the network's programs on February 17, 2009. Also on that date, Bloomberg U.S. revamped its weekday programming lineup (see "Programs on Bloomberg" below).  In October 2009, Bloomberg Television debuted another new graphics package. In 2011, Bloomberg Television announced a strategic relationship with Gas Station TV (GSTV) to deliver personal finance and business news to more than 27 million viewers each month at GSTV pumps.  Bloomberg launched a high definition simulcast feed on May 9, 2011, with Time Warner Cable as the first provider to carry it. In mid-April 2013, DIRECTV started carrying Bloomberg HD.  As of July 2014, Bloomberg Television's standard-definition feed now shows a down-scaled version of its native HD feed, with the 16:9 letterbox picture on its 4:3 SD feed.

International channels.

In February 2009, Bloomberg Television announced that it would cease operating some of the international variations of the channel, placing a greater focus on a more international Bloomberg channel.  On March 9, 2009, the localized channels available in Germany, France, Italy and Spain ceased operations. Today, throughout Europe, the original pan-European version of Bloomberg Europe (International) is available on cable and digital television providers.  Since March 9, 2009, Bloomberg Television utilizes its existing international production teams in Hong Kong (Bloomberg Asia), Europe (Bloomberg Europe) and America (Bloomberg), adding a more global feel to the channel. Bloomberg International provides programming from Hong Kong in the early morning, produced by Bloomberg Asia (International), from London in the late morning, produced by Bloomberg Europe (International), and from its main headquarters in New York City in the afternoon. Each Bloomberg receives localized advertising and a relevant business news ticker on screen.  Bloomberg Japan ceased broadcasting on April 30, 2009. The channel was then replaced by Bloomberg Asia (International). Bloomberg Japan's Japanese language print newsroom and website continue to operate as normal. In June 2009, the Japanese service began running small on-air segments in cooperation with BS-Fuji Television. In October 2009, segments produced with the Tokyo Broadcasting System were added. Bloomberg Brazil and Bloomberg Latin America were integrated into the global Bloomberg channel during 2009.  Bloomberg is an associate member of the Caribbean Cable & Telecommunications Association and the Caribbean Cable Cooperative.  In November 2011, Bloomberg announced the formation of "Bloomberg TV Mongolia" in partnership with Trade and Development Bank of Mongolia (TDB), the oldest and one of the largest commercial banks in Mongolia. The channel offers a mix of locally produced, Mongolian language content as well as English language news from Bloomberg Television.  In February 2015, Bloomberg partnered with Canadian media company Channel Zero to form Bloomberg TV Canada, which featured U.S. Bloomberg Television programming and Canadian-produced studio programs produced from Bloomberg's Brookfield Place studio and other Canadian bureaus. The channel replaced the U.S. service on Canadian television providers. The channel shut down in October 2017, after which Bloomberg entered into a partnership with Bell Media's Business News Network (BNN), to co-brand the channel as BNN Bloomberg, and grant the company rights to distribute its television and radio content in Canada. The co-branded service will augment BNN's existing business day programming with additional Bloomberg programs to handle coverage of international markets, and access to its bureaus.

Programs.

Live weekday shows  Weekday schedule begins Sunday 6pm (ET), 11pm (UK), Monday 12am (CET) and 6am (HK). Weekend schedule begins on Friday/Saturday at the same times.  Weekly shows

Controversy.

In the United Kingdom, Bloomberg Television was severely reprimanded for breach of Ofcom rules during the 2005 UK national (General) election. Bloomberg was found to have shown pro-Labour Party bias. This occurred because of a breach of British law. In the run up to a general election, television channels must provide equal time to all major political parties. Bloomberg covered the release by the Labour Party of their so-called "Business Manifesto", but did not provide counterbalancing air time to the Conservatives or Liberal Democrats.

Datascreen and news ticker.

Bloomberg was well known for using a datascreen format that occupied most of the television screen and the camera shots. Until 1998, Bloomberg did not have a moving ticker. Instead, it had boxes that were dedicated to world news, as well as weather conditions in selected cities, in addition to market data which was confined to the bottom of the screen. This changed gradually to focus more on business news. The data screen was reformatted several times to include a moving stock ticker and accommodate new graphics.  The datascreen format was phased out in late 2007, where the programs were seen almost in full-screen with the ticker and headlines bar confined to the lower part of the screen. However, Bloomberg HD (available in the US only) features more data boxes on the right side of the screen compared to its SD counterpart. This effectively makes on-screen presentation on Bloomberg HD resemble the pre-2007 datascreen.  On Monday September 22, 2014, Bloomberg Television dropped the long-standing live stock ticker as part of the new on screen information format. No reason for this was given.

Other platforms.

The widespread growth of mobile devices and social media have influenced sites such as Bloomberg to expand its news platforms into other areas. Bloomberg Television offers some off-air news updates via social media including Facebook, and Twitter. Rebroadcasts of news and other special programs are additionally aired on the station's official YouTube channel "Bloomberg Television". On mobile devices, Bloomberg Television released an app available for the iPad. Apple TV. It is also available for free viewing on Pluto TV streaming service.  As of February 2019, the audio simulcast of Bloomberg TV is distributed on Entercom's Radio.com website and app.

Bloomberg Television (on-air as Bloomberg) is an American-based pay television network centred towards business and capital market programming, owned by Bloomberg L.P. It is distributed globally, reaching over 310 million homes worldwide. It is headquartered in New York City, with European headquarters in London and Asian headquarters in Hong Kong.

Bloomberg Television ist eine internationale Nachrichtensendergruppe, die sich auf Wirtschafts- und Finanzthemen spezialisiert hat. Sie wird vom Unternehmen Bloomberg L.P. von Michael Bloomberg betrieben.


Overview.

"Nature One" tickets cost approximately 70 euros (as of 2010). But unlike the Love Parade, the only real damage to nature occurs due to the trampling of the grass on the bunker hills and the fields used for camping (the crops have always been harvested by the time the festival starts).  As a special attraction there is a fireworks display on Saturday evening.  The festival lasts for one long weekend each year always on the first weekend of August.  In 2004 the festival had an attendance of roughly 53,000, with over 40,000 using the nearby fields for camping over the weekend (officially allowed and organized by the Nature One staff).  The camping ground has always been the second festival, with many hobby DJs and some commercially organized trucks, loaded with generators and fuel, the equipment rivaling small clubs in turntables, loudspeakers and sometimes even lighting. Some people who are either unwilling or unable to pay for admission to the festival area use this fact to have a cheaper alternative festival weekend.  The festival itself is structured into four "main floors" each for a few thousand: There are also a few smaller areas (in 2012, there are 18 smaller areas), sometimes manned by techno club crews for a few hundred. The whole thing is located at a US missile base called "Pydna", now decommissioned, which has all necessary infrastructure and space for this kind of festival, a total of 100 000 m2 (without camping, which takes up more than 1 km2).  Since 2002 Nature One is supported by eve&rave Münster e.V. with drug-information-desks.

Nature One is one of the largest European open air Electronic music festivals, featuring many renowned DJs from Germany and all over the world. In significance it is not as big as Mayday nor as old, having started 3 years later than the Mayday festival. However attendance has surpassed the Mayday, even when one takes into account that the Mayday only lasts one evening, while the Nature One has 2 main evenings with additional smaller events from Thursday till Sunday.

Die Nature One (Eigenschreibweise "NATURE ONE") ist eines der größten europäischen Festivals der elektronischen Tanzmusik und fand zum ersten Mal im Jahre 1995 statt.


History.

The Seneca tribe of Native Americans lived in and around Rochester until losing claim to most of this land in the Treaty of Big Tree in 1797. Settlement before the Seneca tribe is unknown.  Rochester's development followed the American Revolution, and forced cession of their territory by the Iroquois after Britain's defeat. Allied with the British, four major Iroquois tribes were forced out of New York. As a reward for their loyalty to the British Crown, they were given a large land grant on the Grand River in Canada.  Rochester was founded shortly after the American Revolution by a wave of English-Puritan descended immigrants from New England, who were looking for new agricultural land. They were the dominant cultural group in Rochester for over a century. On November 8, 1803, Colonel Nathaniel Rochester (1752–1831), Major Charles Carroll, and Colonel William Fitzhugh, Jr. (1761–1839), all of Hagerstown, Maryland, purchased a 100-acre (40-ha) tract from the state in Western New York along the Genesee River]]. They chose the site because its three cataracts on the Genesee offered great potential for water power. Beginning in 1811, and with a population of 15, the three founders surveyed the land and laid out streets and tracts. In 1817, the Brown brothers and other landowners joined their lands with the Hundred Acre Tract to form the village of Rochesterville.  By 1821, Rochesterville was the seat of Monroe County. In 1823, it consisted of and 2,500 residents, and the Village of Rochesterville became known as Rochester. Also in 1823, the Erie Canal aqueduct over the Genesee River was completed, and the Erie Canal east to the Hudson River was opened. In the early 20th century, after the advent of railroads, the presence of the canal in the center city was an obstacle; it was rerouted south of Rochester by 1918 when the Barge Canal was completed. By 1830, Rochester's population was 9,200, and in 1834, it was rechartered as a city.  Rochester was first known as "the Young Lion of the West", and then as the "Flour City". By 1838, it was the largest flour-producing city in the United States. Having doubled its population in only 10 years, Rochester became America's first "boom town".  In 1830–31, Rochester experienced one of the nation's biggest Protestant revivalist movements, led by Charles Grandison Finney. The revival inspired other revivals of the Second Great Awakening. A leading pastor in New York, who was converted in the Rochester meetings, gave the following account of Finney's meetings there: "The whole community was stirred. Religion was the topic of conversation in the house, in the shop, in the office, and on the street. The only theater in the city

Geography.

Rochester is located at (43.165496, −77.611504) in Upstate New York. The city is about east-northeast of Buffalo and about west of Syracuse. Albany, the state capital, is to the east; it sits on Lake Ontario's southern shore. The Genesee River bisects the city. Toronto, in Ontario, Canada is northwest and New York City is about to the southeast.  According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, of which are land and are covered by water (3.42%). Rochester's geography was formed by the ice sheets during the Pleistocene epoch. The retreating ice sheets reached a standstill at what is now the southern border of the city, melting at the same rate as they were advancing, depositing sediment along the southern edge of the ice mass. This created a line of hills, including (from west to east) Mt. Hope, the hills of Highland Park, Pinnacle Hill, and Cobb's Hill. Because the sediment of these hills was deposited into a proglacial lake, they are stratified and classified as a "kame delta". A brief retreat and readvance of the ice sheet onto the delta deposited unstratified material there, creating a rare hybrid structure called "kame moraine".  The ice sheets also created Lake Ontario (one of the five freshwater Great Lakes), the Genesee River with its waterfalls and gorges, Irondequoit Bay, Sodus Bay, Braddock Bay, Mendon Ponds, numerous local streams and ponds, the Ridge, and the nearby Finger Lakes.  Rochester has of public streets, of water mains, 44 vehicular and eight pedestrian bridges, 11 public libraries, two police stations (one for the east side, one for the west), and 15 firehouses. The principal source of water is Hemlock Lake, which, with its watershed, is owned by the state of New York. Other water sources include Canadice Lake and Lake Ontario. The 30-year annual average snowfall is just above. The monthly daily average ranges from in January to in July. The high amount of snow Rochester receives can be accounted for by the city's proximity to Lake Ontario (see lake effect).

Neighborhoods.

Rochester has a number of neighborhoods, including the 19th Ward, 14621 Community, Beechwood, Browncroft, Cascade District, Cobbs Hill, Charlotte, Corn Hill, Dewey, Dutchtown, Edgerton, Ellwanger-Barry, German Village, Grove Place, High Falls District, Highland Park, Maplewood (10th Ward), Marketview Heights, Mt. Read, North Winton Village, Neighborhood of the Arts, Lyell-Otis, Park Avenue, Plymouth-Exchange, Southwest, East End, South Wedge, Swillburg, Susan B. Anthony, University-Atlantic, Upper Monroe, and more are all recognized communities with various neighborhood associations. There are also living spaces in downtown Rochester.

Browncroft.

The Browncroft neighborhood is built on the former nursery grounds of the Brown Brothers nursery. The business district situated on Winton

Lyell-Otis.

Historically an Italian-American neighborhood, this area of the City of Rochester is now home to citizens from across the globe. There have recently been efforts to improve the quality of life in this neighborhood, as the area has opportunity for redevelopment and renewal.  The

19th Ward.

The 19th Ward is a southwest neighborhood bordered by Genesee Street, West Avenue, and the Erie Canal, and is across the river from the University of Rochester. Now known by its slogan "Urban by Choice", in the early 19th century, the area was known as Castle Town, after Castle Inn, a tavern run by Colonel Isaac Castle. By the early 1820s, however, the area was overshadowed by developments in the north that would become downtown Rochester. Due to a tumultuous bend in the Genesee, the area was home to skilled boatsmen who assisted boats traveling north to Rochester and the area was consequently known during this time as "The Rapids". In the 1890s, as Rochester expanded, the area became a prosperous residential area that thrived as the city grew. By 1930, it

Charlotte.

Charlotte (shar-LOT) is a lake front community in Rochester bordering Lake Ontario. It is home to Ontario Beach Park, commonly known as Charlotte Beach, which is a popular summer destination for Rochesterians. A new terminal was built in 2004 for the Rochester-to-Toronto ferry service and was later sold

Susan B. Anthony Neighborhood.

This neighborhood is a Preservation District on the National Register of Historic Places, known as the Madison Square-West Main Street Historic District. It encompasses a three-and-one-half block area within walking distance from downtown Rochester, and comprises residential, commercial and industrial buildings. The center of the residential area is Susan B. Anthony Square, a park shown on

Swillburg.

This wedge-shaped piece of the city is bordered by S. Clinton Avenue on the west, Field St on the south, and Interstate 490 on the east. The neighborhood received its moniker when

Marketview Heights.

Running east from Union Street just north of Main Street, Marketview Heights is best known as the location

Homestead Heights.

Homestead Heights is in northeast Rochester. It is bordered on the west by Goodman Street, on the north by Clifford Avenue, on the south by Bay Street, and on the east by Culver Road, which is also the border between the city and the town of Irondequoit. The neighborhood is a mix of residential and commercial. Real estate values are higher on the eastern end of the neighborhood near the Irondequoit border. The neighborhood is approximately 2–2 miles west of the Irondequoit Bay.

Climate.

Rochester lies in the humid continental climate zone (Köppen "Dfa" and "Dfb") and has four distinct seasons, with cold and snowy winters; temperatures drop to on 4.2 nights

Demographics.

According to the 2010 census, the city's population was 43.7% White or White American, 41.7% Black, 0.5% American Indian and Alaska Native, 3.1% Asian, 0.0% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, 6.6% from some other race and 4.4% from two or more races. 16.4% of the total population were Hispanic or Latino of any race, mostly made up of Puerto Ricans. Non-Hispanic Whites were 37.6% of the population in 2010, compared to 80.2% in 1970.  Over the course of the past 50 years Rochester has become a major center for immigration, particularly for arrivals from Eastern and Southeastern Europe, Sub-Saharan Africa and the Caribbean. Rochester had the highest percentage of Puerto Ricans of any major city in the United States in 2013, one of the four largest Turkish American communities, one of the largest Jamaican American communities in any major U.S city and a large concentration of Polish Americans along with nearby Buffalo, New York. In addition, Rochester was ranked number 9 in the nation for the largest Italian population in the United States in 2018.  In 1997, Rochester was reported to have the largest per-capita deaf population in the United States. This is attributed to the fact Rochester is home to the National Technical Institute for the Deaf.  In 2010, were 88,999 households of which 30.0% had children under 18 living with them, 25.1% were married couples living together, 23.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 47.0% were non-families. Of all households, 37.1% were made up of individuals and 9.2% had someone living alone 65 or older. The average household size was 2.36 and the average family size was 3.19. The city population was 28.1% under 18, 11.6% from 18 to 24, 32.2% from 25 to 44, 18.1% from 45 to 64, and 10.0% who were 65 or older. The median age was 31. For every 100 females, there were 91.6 males. For every 100 females 18 and over, there were 87.3 males.  The median income for a city household was $27,123, and the median family income was $31,257. Males had a median income of $30,521, versus $25,139 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,588. About 23.4% of families and 25.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 37.5% of those under age 18 and 15.4% of those age 65 or over.

Religion.

By the 1920s and 1930s, Rochester's population was roughly half Protestant and half Catholic, although a significant Jewish population also was present. In 1938, there were 214 religious congregations, two thirds of which had been founded after 1880. At that time, the city added, on average, 2.6 new

Crime.

In 2012, Rochester had 2,061 reported violent crimes, compared to a national average rate of 553.5 violent crimes in cities with populations larger than 100,000. That same year, Rochester had

Economy.

Rochester is home to a number of "Fortune" 1000 and international businesses, including Eastman Kodak, as well as several national and regional companies, such as Carestream Health. Xerox was founded in Rochester in 1906 as the Haloid Company, and retains a significant presence in Rochester, although its headquarters are now in Norwalk, Connecticut. Bausch & Lomb moved to Bridgewater, New Jersey, in 2014. The Gannett newspaper company and Western Union were founded in Rochester by Frank Gannett and Hiram Sibley, respectively, but have since moved to other cities. The median single-family house price was $135,000 in the second quarter of 2015 in greater Rochester, an increase of 5.4% from a year earlier, according to the National Association of Realtors.  Tech Valley, the technologically recognized area of eastern New York, has spawned a western offshoot into the Rochester and Finger Lakes areas. Since the 2000s, as established companies in Rochester downsized, Rochester and Monroe County's economy has been redirected toward high technology, with new, smaller companies providing the seed capital necessary for business foundation. The Rochester area is important in the field of photographic processing and imaging, as well as incubating an increasingly diverse high-technology sphere encompassing STEM

Government.

Rochester is governed by a mayor serving as chief executive of city government and a city council consisting of four district members and five at-large members. Mayor Lovely A. Warren was first elected mayor in November 2013 defeating incumbent Thomas Richards in both a Democratic primary and general election. Warren took office in January 2014, becoming both the youngest and first female mayor in Rochester history. The city's police department is the Rochester Police Department, headed by Chief of Police La'Ron Singletary.

Neighborhood Service Centers.

Enforcement of property code violations in Rochester had been handled by the Neighborhood Empowerment Team (NET). Rather than using a centralized code-enforcement office, 10 sectors in Rochester were assigned a total of six NET offices by the city government. However, complaints have been made about the lack of consistency in the manner and severity of enforcement between NET offices. On July 16, 2008,

Representation at other levels of government.

Representation at the federal level.

The city is covered by New York's 25th congressional district currently represented by Democrat Joe Morelle of

Representation at the state level.

Representation at the county level.

Rochester is represented by districts 7, 16, and 21–29 in the Monroe County legislature.

Fire department.

Rochester is protected by about 500 professional firefighters in the Rochester Fire Department (RFD). It is the third-largest fire department in the state of New York. It operates from 16 fire stations throughout the city, under the command of two battalion chiefs and a deputy chief per shift. The department operates 13 engines, six ladders, one heavy rescue, two hazardous material units, a

Education.

The City of Rochester is served by the Rochester City School District, which encompasses all public primary and secondary education. The district is governed by a popularly elected seven-member board of education. Also, parochial and private primary and secondary schools are located within the city. Rochester City Schools consistently post below-average results when compared to the rest of New York, although on-time graduation rates have improved significantly during the past three years. However, the high-school graduation rate for African-American males is lower in Rochester than in any city in the United States (9%). Charter schools in the city include Rochester Academy Charter School.

Colleges and universities.

Rochester and the surrounding region host a high concentration of colleges and universities, which drive much of the economic growth in the five-county area. The University of Rochester is the only large research institution primarily within the city limits, although Monroe Community College and SUNY Brockport operate campuses downtown. The Highland Park neighborhood is home to Colgate Rochester Crozer Divinity School (part of whose facility is leased by Ithaca College's Department of Physical Therapy) and an office maintained by the Cornell University School of Industrial and Labor Relations.

University of Rochester.

The University of Rochester is the metropolitan area's oldest and most prominent institution of higher learning, and one of the country's top research centers. It was ranked as the 29th-best university in the nation by "U.S. News & World Report" for 2019 and was deemed "one of the new Ivies" by Newsweek.

Former colleges.

Four institutions began operations in the city and later moved to Rochester's inner-ring suburbs:  Rochester was host of the Barleywood Female University, a short-lived women's college from 1852 to 1853. The Lutheran seminary that became Wagner College was established in the city in 1883 and remained for some 35 years before moving to Staten Island.

Secondary education.

The Rochester City School District operates 13 public secondary schools, each serving grades 7–12. In addition, one charter secondary school operates. Charter schools  Rochester charter schools are free public schools for children in grades K-12. No tests or entrance fees are needed and charter schools

Culture and recreation.

The city of Rochester is home to numerous cultural institutions. These include the Garth Fagan Dance, the Rochester Philharmonic Orchestra, the Rochester City Ballet, George Eastman Museum International Museum of Photography and Film, Memorial Art Gallery, Rochester Contemporary Art Center, Rochester Museum & Science Center, the Rochester Broadway Theater League, Strong National Museum of Play, the Strasenburgh Planetarium, Hochstein School of Music & Dance, the Auditorium Theater, and numerous arts organizations. Geva Theatre Center is the city's largest professional theater.  The East End Theater is on East Main Street in the theater district. The Rochester Association of Performing Arts is a non-profit organization that provides educational theater classes to the community.

Nightlife.

Rochester's East End district, located downtown, is well known as the center of the city's nightlife. It is the stopping point for East Avenue, which along with the surrounding streets is occupied by nightclubs, lounges, coffee shops, bars, and high-end restaurants. The Eastman School of Music, one of the top musical institutes in the nation, and its auditorium are also within the neighborhood. The Eastman Theatre is host to the Rochester Philharmonic Orchestra and other musical/drama events. There are other, smaller enclaves of after-hours activity scattered across the city. "Southeast" is the center of Rochester's prosperous arts scene, particularly in and around the Park Avenue neighborhood (which is known for its many coffee

Park lands.

Rochester's parks include Highland, Cobb's Hill, Durand Eastman, Genesee Valley, Maplewood, Edgerton, Seneca, Turning Point, and Ontario Beach; four of these were designed by landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted. The city's Victorian-era Mt. Hope Cemetery includes the final resting places of Susan B. Anthony, Frederick Douglass,

Festivals.

Rochester hosts a number

Media.

The "Democrat and Chronicle," a Gannet newspaper"," is Rochester's main daily newspaper. There are numerous other publications and magazines that cater to many of the city's different people groups or special interests such

Sports.

Rochester was named the top minor league sports market in the country by "Street & Smith's Sports Business Journal" in July 2005, the number 10 "best golf city" in America by "Golf Magazine" in 2007, and the fifth-best "sports town" in the country by Scarborough Research in September 2008.

Professional sports.

Rochester has several professional sports teams:  In addition, there are numerous other amateur and club sports such as rowing and rugby. Rochester and its surrounding area also has a rich golf

College sports.

Rochester is the largest Metropolitan Statistical Area in the U.S. which does not include at least one college or university participating at the NCAA Division I level in all sports. Almost all area college sports are played at the NCAA Division III level. The only exceptions are the RIT men's and women's ice hockey teams, which compete at the Division I level, and the University of Rochester men's squash team, which is consistently ranked top 5 in Division I. RIT and UR's other sports, as well as both institutions as a whole, are in Division III. The men's team made it to the NCAA Frozen Four in 2010 and the women's team won the Division III national championship in 2012, just before switching over to Division I.  As of the 2014–2015 academic year, the only college in the Rochester area "not" officially classified at the Division III level is Roberts Wesleyan College, which completed its transition from membership in the National Christian College Athletic Association (NCCAA); Roberts Wesleyan was granted full membership in NCAA Division II beginning with the 2014–15 year.

Transportation.

Maritime transport.

There is marine freight service at the Port of Rochester on Lake Ontario, which is connected to the Atlantic Ocean via the Saint Lawrence Seaway.  A short-lived, high-speed passenger/vehicle ferry Spirit of Ontario I built in Australia, nicknamed The Breeze or The Fast Ferry, linked Rochester to Toronto across Lake Ontario. Canadian American Transportation Systems (CATS) was the company in charge of the Fast Ferry operations. The Spirit of Ontario I had a delayed arrival on April 29, 2004 as a result of hitting a pier in New York City on April 5, 2004 and was finally officially christened on June 16, 2004 at the Port of Rochester. The Fast Ferry was bought by the

Air transport.

Rochester is served by the Greater Rochester International Airport (GRIA). Daily scheduled air service is provided by American, Delta, JetBlue, Southwest, and United.  In 2010, the GRIA was ranked the 14th-least expensive airport in the United States by Cheapflights. This was considered a major achievement for the county and the airport authority; as recently as 2003, Rochester's ticket prices were among the highest in the country, ranking as high as fourth in 1999.  FedEx

Rails and mass transit.

Rail service to Rochester is provided by the Louise M. Slaughter Rochester Station, served by Amtrak's "Empire Service" between New York City and Niagara Falls, the "Maple Leaf" between New York City and Toronto, and the "Lake Shore Limited" between New York City/Boston and Chicago. Prior to 1965, Rochester had a smaller station reminiscent of New York City's "Grand Central Terminal". It was among Claude Fayette Bragdon's best works in Rochester, New York. The current station is modeled after Bragdon's work and named in honor of former longtime congresswomen Louise Slaughter.

Major highways and roads.

Three exits off the New York State Thruway (Interstate 90) serve Rochester. Rochester has an extensive system of limited-access highways (called 'expressways' or just 'highways', never 'freeways') which connects all parts of the city and the Thruway.  Rochester's expressway system, conceived in the 1950s, was designed as two concentric circles with feeder expressways from the west, south and east. The system allows for quick travel within the metropolitan area and a lack of the traffic gridlock typically found in cities of comparable size; in part this is

Later expressway proposals.

In the early 1970s, the Genesee Expressway Task Force, City leaders, and NYSDOT studied the feasibility of connecting the outer and inner Loops with a new southern expressway. The proposed route extended north from the I-390 and I-590 interchange in Brighton, cutting through Rochester's Swillburg neighborhood.

Notable people.

Notable individuals who were born in and/or lived in Rochester include American social reformer and women's rights activist Susan B. Anthony, African-American social reformer and abolitionist Frederick Douglass, musician Chuck Mangione, Kodak founder George Eastman, Paychex founder Tom Golisano,

Sister cities.

Rochester has twelve sister cities, as designated by Sister Cities International. They are all dedicated by a branched concrete walkway over the Genesee River, dubbed the Sister Cities Bridge (known as the Frank and Janet Lamb Bridge since October 2006):

Rochester () is a city in the U.S. state of New York, and the third-most populous after New York City and Buffalo. It is the seat of Monroe County, with an estimated population of 205,695 in 2019. The Rochester metropolitan area has a population of just over one million people. Rochester has sufficiency status.

Rochester [] ist eine Stadt im Nordwesten des US-Bundesstaates New York und County Seat des Monroe County. Rochester liegt an der Mündung des Genesee Rivers zum Ontariosee und hatte 210.756 Einwohner (laut der letzten Volkszählung im Jahr 2010, Schätzung 2016: rund 209.000). Im Einzugsgebiet der Stadt leben knapp 1,1 Millionen Personen.


History.

The Estadio Azteca was designed by architects Pedro Ramírez Vázquez and Rafael Mijares Alcérreca and broke ground in 1961. The inaugural match was between Club América and Torino F.C. on 29 May 1966, with a capacity for 107,494 spectators. The first goal was scored by Brazilian Arlindo Dos Santos and the second one by Brazilian José Alves "Zague"; later, the Italians tied the game, which ended in 2–2 draw. Mexican president Gustavo Díaz Ordaz made the initial kick and FIFA president Sir Stanley Rous was the witness.  A modern illumination system was inaugurated on 5 June 1966, with the first night game played between Spanish side Valencia C.F. and Necaxa. The first goal of the match was scored by Honduran José Cardona for Valencia. Roberto Martínez, aka Caña Brava, became the first Mexican to score a goal in the stadium after scoring for Necaxa. The result was a 3–1 victory for Valencia.  In 1978 the stadium hosted the final of the Copa Interamericana between América and Boca Juniors of Argentina, and would host a final again in 1990 between América and Club Olimpia of Paraguay.  The Estadio Azteca is also the site in which Pelé and Diego Maradona (during the 1970 and 1986 FIFA World Cup) lifted the trophy for the last time (The Jules Rimet Trophy and the current FIFA World Cup Trophy, respectively).  Estadio Azteca has also been used for musical performances throughout its history. Michael Jackson (5 sold-out shows in 1993), U2 (in 2006 and 2011), Luis Miguel (in 2002), Elton John, Maná, Juan Gabriel, Gloria Estefan, Jaguares, Lenny Kravitz, *Nsync, Hanson, Ana Gabriel, and The Three Tenors all have become part of the stadium's main spectacle. The stadium has also been used for political events, including Mexican president Felipe Calderón's campaign closure in 2006, as well as religious events, such as Jehovah's Witnesses conventions, and the appearance of Pope John Paul II in 1999.  In April 2017, it was announced that starting July 2018, Cruz Azul would relocate to the Azteca on a temporary basis, due to the impending demolition of the Estadio Azul. According to club owner Guillermo Álvarez, they plan on building a new private stadium, which could take an estimated three-to-four years.  The stadium is scheduled to host games during the 2026 FIFA World Cup that will take place in the United States, Mexico and Canada. It will be the third time Azteca hosts World Cup games as the 1970 and 1986 games took place at the stadium. Additionally, it is currently vying for the inaugural game with SoFi Stadium in Los Angeles as another possible venue for the game.

2015–19 renovation plans.

The stadium has undergone gradual improvements and renovations, including the replacing of seating within the stadium as well as the installation of electronic advertising boards. In May 2015, modern Panasonic LED panels were installed at the north and south ends of the stadium, replacing the phosphorous panels installed in 1998.  In February 2015, a vast renovation plan was unveiled with the intention that the completion of the project coincide with the stadium's 50th anniversary and with Club América's centenary in 2016, as well as the construction of a commercial hub outside the stadium to be completed some time in 2019. It was reported that Grupo Televisa, owners of the stadium, approved a joint-venture bid from private development firms IQ Real Estate and Alhel. The hub, named "Foro Azteca", would reportedly consist of a mall, office spaces, two hotels, new leisure spaces, and parking spaces for 2,500 cars. The renovations to the stadium were planned in two phases: the first saw the demolition of the restaurant and seating at the lower east stand and the construction of a new hospitality area with dining and banqueting spaces, and the second saw the construction of new media boxes and private skyboxes at the upper west stand. The renovations to the stadium were completed in November 2016. The seating capacity was ultimately reduced to 87,000 as a result of the renovations.

Name.

The name "Azteca" is a tribute to the Aztec heritage of Mexico City. The stadium is currently owned by Mexican multimedia conglomerate Televisa, which has a heated media rivalry with the similarly-named TV Azteca. Although there had been little to no confusion between the stadium and television network (which had only come into existence four years before in 1993), Televisa officially changed the stadium's name to Estadio Guillermo Cañedo on 20 January 1997, in tribute to, a top network executive, former Mexican Football Federation president, and a prominent member of the FIFA executive committee who had died that day. As with the similar situation with the defunct Candlestick Park in San Francisco in the United States and its sponsored names, few outside of Televisa itself took up the new name, and most of the general public probably had no thought about the stadium's ownership (much less the Televisa/Azteca rivalry) and continued to refer to the Estadio Azteca by its original (and current) name. After two of Cañedo's sons took a business interest in TV Azteca in 1998, Televisa quietly returned to referring to it solely as Estadio Azteca.  Known colloquially by the nickname "Coloso de Santa Úrsula", which in English translates to "Colossus of Saint Ursula", due to its large structure and Santa Úrsula referring to the suburb where the stadium is located.

Access and entrance.

It is served by the Azteca station on the Xochimilco Light Rail line. This line is an extension of the Mexico City metro system which begins at Metro Tasqueña station and ends in the Xochimilco Light Rail Station.  Tickets are available up until kick-off times from the ticket office which is located at the front of the stadium, located towards the exit ramps from the Azteca station. Prices start from as little as MXN$100 (about US$5 as of 2016), and could cost up to MXN$500 (about US$26 as of 2016) for more high-profile matches.

Monuments and memorials.

A commemorative bronze plaque of the "Game of the Century" played between Italy and West Germany, as well as Diego Maradona's "Goal of the Century" against England.  There is also a commemorative plaque with the names of the first goal scorer in the inaugural match and in the first match played at night.

Notable events.

Estadio Azteca has hosted a variety of international sporting competitions, including:

The Estadio Azteca () is a multi-purpose stadium located in Mexico City. It is the official home of football club Club América, Cruz Azul, and the Mexico national football team. The stadium sits at an altitude of above sea level. With an official capacity of 87,523, it is the largest stadium in Mexico. As of 2018, the stadium also serves as the home of Cruz Azul. The National Football League (NFL) features one game at Estadio Azteca per season as a part of their International Series.

Das Aztekenstadion () ist ein 1966 eröffnetes Fußballstadion in Coyoacán, einem Stadtteil von Mexiko-Stadt. Es bietet momentan 87.000 überdachte Sitzplätze. Es ist eines der weltweit größten Stadien für Fußballspiele. Die Sportstätte war als einzige je zweimal Austragungsort eines Eröffnungs- und Finalspiels der Fußball-Weltmeisterschaft (1970 mit damals max. 107.494 Zuschauern und 1986 mit 114.464 Sitzplätzen) und ist mit 19 Spielen häufigster Austragungsort von WM-Spielen. Michael Jackson füllte es 1993 bei Konzertauftritten fünfmal nacheinander mit 100.000 Zuschauern.


Description.

The giant oceanic manta ray can grow to a disc size of up to across with a weight of about but average size commonly observed is. It is dorsoventrally flattened and has large, triangular pectoral fins on either side of the disc. At the front, it has a pair of cephalic fins which are forward extensions of the pectoral fins. These can be rolled up in a spiral for swimming or can be flared out to channel water into the large, forward-pointing, rectangular mouth when the animal is feeding. The teeth are in a band of 18 rows and are restricted to the central part of the lower jaw. The eyes and the spiracles are on the side of the head behind the cephalic fins, and the gill slits are on the ventral (under) surface. It has a small dorsal fin and the tail is long and whip-like. The manta ray does not have a spiny tail as do the closely related devil rays ("Mobula" spp.) but has a knob-like bulge at the base of its tail.  The skin is smooth with a scattering of conical and ridge-shaped tubercles. The colouring of the dorsal (upper) surface is black, dark brown, or steely blue, sometimes with a few pale spots and usually with a pale edge. The ventral surface is white, sometimes with dark spots and blotches. The markings can often be used to recognise individual fish. "Mobula birostris" is similar in appearance to "Mobula alfredi" and the two species may be confused as their distribution overlaps. However, there are distinguishing features.

Physical distinctions between oceanic manta ray and reef manta ray.

The oceanic manta ray is larger than the reef manta ray, 4 to 5 metres in average against 3 to 3.5 metres. However, if the observed rays are young, their size can easily bring confusion. Only the colour pattern remains an effective way to distinguish them. The reef manta ray has a dark dorsal side with usually two lighter areas on top of the head, looking like a nuanced gradient of its dark dominating back coloration and whitish to greyish, the longitudinal separation between these two lighter areas forms a kind of "Y". While for the oceanic manta ray, the dorsal surface is deep dark and the two white areas are well marked without gradient effect. The line of separation between these two white areas form meanwhile a "T".  Difference can also be made by their ventral coloration, the reef manta ray has a white belly with often spots between the branchial gill slits and other spots spread across trailing edge of pectoral fins and abdominal region. The oceanic manta ray has also a white ventral coloration with spots clustered around lower region of its abdomen. Its cephalic fins, inside of its mouth and its gill slits are often black.

Distribution and habitat.

The giant oceanic manta ray has a widespread distribution in tropical and temperate waters worldwide. In the Northern Hemisphere, it has been recorded as far north as southern California and New Jersey in the United States, Aomori Prefecture in Japan, the Sinai Peninsula in Egypt, and the Azores in the northern Atlantic. In the Southern Hemisphere, it occurs as far south as Peru, Uruguay, South Africa, and New Zealand.  It is an ocean-going species and spends most of its life far from land, travelling with the currents and migrating to areas where upwellings of nutrient-rich water increase the availability of zooplankton. The oceanic manta ray is often found in association with offshore oceanic islands.

Captivity.

There are few public aquariums with giant manta ray in captivity. For a period Marine Life Park, a part of the Resorts World Sentosa in Singapore, was the only one to maintain this species, but since late 2018 it has also been exhibited at Nausicaä Centre National de la Mer in France and Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium in Japan.

Biology.

When traveling in deep water, the giant oceanic manta ray swims steadily in a straight line, while further inshore it usually basks or swims idly around. Mantas may travel alone or in groups of up to 50 and sometimes associate with other fish species, as well as sea birds and marine mammals. About 27% of their diet is based on filter feeding, consuming large quantities of zooplankton in the form of shrimp, krill, and planktonic crabs. An individual manta may eat about 13% of its body weight each week. When foraging, it usually swims slowly around its prey, herding the planktonic creatures into a tight group before speeding through the bunched-up organisms with its mouth open wide. While feeding, the cephalic fins are spread to channel the prey into its mouth and the small particles are sifted from the water by the tissue between the gill arches. As many as 50 individual fish may gather at a single, plankton-rich feeding site.. Research published in 2016 proved about 73% of their diet is mesopelagic (deep water) sources including fish. Earlier assumptions about exclusively filter feeding were based on surface observations.  The giant oceanic manta ray sometimes visits a cleaning station on a coral reef, where it adopts a near-stationary position for several minutes while cleaner fish consume bits of loose skin and external parasites. Such visits occur most frequently at high tide. It does not rest on the seabed as do many flat fish, as it needs to swim continuously to channel water over its gills for respiration.  Males become sexually mature when their disc width is about, while females need to be about wide to breed. When a female is becoming receptive, one or several males may swim along behind her in a "train". During copulation, one of the males grips the female's pectoral fin with his teeth and they continue to swim with their ventral surfaces in contact. He inserts his claspers into her cloaca and these form a tube through which the sperm is pumped. The pair remains coupled together for several minutes before going their own way.  The fertilized eggs develop within the female's oviduct. At first, they are enclosed in an egg case and the developing embryos feed on the yolk. After the egg hatches, the pup remains in the oviduct and receives nourishment from a milky secretion. As it does not have a placental connection with its mother, the pup relies on buccal pumping to obtain oxygen. The brood size is usually one but occasionally two embryos develop simultaneously. The gestation period is thought to be 12–13 months. When fully developed, the pup is in disc width, weighs and resembles an adult. It is expelled from the oviduct, usually near the coast, and it remains in a shallow-water environment for a few years while it grows.  The oceanic manta has one of the largest brains (ten times larger than a whale shark) and the largest brain-to-mass ratio of any cold blooded fish. It heats the blood going to its brain and is one of the few animals (land or sea) that might pass the mirror test, seemingly exhibiting self-awareness.

Status and threats.

Natural predation.

Because of its large size and velocity in case of danger (24 km/h escape speed), the oceanic manta ray has very few natural predators that could be fatal to it. Only large sharks and dolphins, such as the tiger shark ("Galeocerdo cuvier"), the great hammerhead shark ("Sphyrna mokarran"), the bullshark ("Carcharhinus leucas"), the false killer whale ("Pseudora crassidens"), and the killer whale ("Orcinus orca"), are capable of preying on the ray. Nonlethal shark bites are very common occurrences, with a vast majority of adult individuals bearing the scars of at least one attack.

Fishery.

The oceanic manta ray is considered to be vulnerable by the IUCN’s Red List of Endangered Species because its population has decreased drastically over the last twenty years due to overfishing. Whatever the type of fishing (artisanal, targeted or bycatch), the impact on a population which has a low fecundity rate, a long gestation period with mainly a single pup at a time, and a late sexual maturity can only be seriously detrimental to a species that cannot compensate for the losses over several decades. In recent years, fishing for manta rays has been significantly boosted by the price of their gill rakers on the traditional Chinese Medicine market. In June 2018 the New Zealand Department of Conservation classified the giant oceanic manta ray as "Data Deficient" with the qualifier "Threatened Overseas" under the New Zealand Threat Classification System.

The giant oceanic manta ray ("Mobula birostris") is a species of ray in the family Mobulidae, and the largest type of ray in the world. They are circumglobal and are typically found in tropical and subtropical waters, but can also be found in temperate waters. Until 2017, giant mantas were classified in the genus "Manta", along with the smaller reef manta ("Mobula alfredi"). DNA testing revealed that both species are more closely related to rays of the genus "Mobula" than previously thought. As a result, giant mantas were renamed "Mobula birostris" to reflect the new classification.

Der Riesenmanta ("Mobula birostris", Syn.: "Manta birostris") ist eine Rochenart aus der Familie der Teufelsrochen. „Manta“ ist spanisch und bedeutet „Decke“. Die Kopfflossen brachten den Tieren schließlich den Namen „Teufelsrochen“ ein.