Early life.

Astor was born in Quincy, Illinois, the only child of Otto Ludwig Langhanke (October 2, 1871 – February 3, 1943) and Helen Marie de Vasconcellos (April 19, 1881 – January 18, 1947). Both of her parents were teachers. Her German father emigrated to the United States from Berlin in 1891 and became a naturalized U.S. citizen; her American mother was born in Jacksonville, Illinois, and had Portuguese roots. They married on August 3, 1904, in Lyons, Kansas.  Astor's father taught German at Quincy High School until the U.S. entered World War I. Later on, he took up light farming. Astor's mother, who had always wanted to be an actress, taught drama and elocution. Astor was home-schooled in academics and was taught to play the piano by her father, who insisted she practice daily. Her piano talents came in handy when she played piano in her films "The Great Lie" and "Meet Me in St. Louis".  In 1919, Astor sent a photograph of herself to a beauty contest in "Motion Picture Magazine", becoming a semifinalist. When Astor was 15, the family moved to Chicago, Illinois, with her father teaching German in public schools. Astor took drama lessons and appeared in various amateur stage productions. The following year, she sent another photograph to "Motion Picture Magazine", this time becoming a finalist and then runner-up in the national contest. Her father then moved the family to New York City, in order for his daughter to act in motion pictures. He managed her affairs from September 1920 to June 1930.  A Manhattan photographer, Charles Albin, saw her photograph and asked the young girl with haunting eyes and long auburn hair, whose nickname was "Rusty", to pose for him. The Albin photographs were seen by Harry Durant of Famous Players-Lasky and Astor was signed to a six-month contract with Paramount Pictures. Her name was changed to Mary Astor during a conference among Paramount Pictures chief Jesse Lasky, film producer Walter Wanger, and gossip columnist Louella Parsons.

Silent movie career.

Astor's first screen test was directed by Lillian Gish, who was so impressed with her recitation of Shakespeare that she shot a thousand feet of her. She made her debut at age 14 in the 1921 film "Sentimental Tommy", but her small part in a dream sequence wound up on the cutting room floor. Paramount let her contract lapse. She then appeared in some movie shorts with sequences based on famous paintings. She received critical recognition for the 1921 two-reeler "The Beggar Maid". Her first feature-length movie was "John Smith" (1922), followed that same year by "The Man Who Played God". In 1923, she and her parents moved to Hollywood.  After appearing in several larger roles at various studios, she was again signed by Paramount, this time to a one-year contract at $500 a week. After she appeared in several more movies, John Barrymore saw her photograph in a magazine and wanted her cast in his upcoming movie. On loan-out to Warner Bros., she starred with him in "Beau Brummel" (1924). The older actor wooed the young actress, but their relationship was severely constrained by Astor's parents' unwillingness to let the couple spend time alone together; Mary was only seventeen and legally underage. It was only after Barrymore convinced the Langhankes that his acting lessons required privacy that the couple managed to be alone at all. Their secret engagement ended largely because of the Langhankes' interference and Astor's inability to escape their heavy-handed authority, and because Barrymore became involved with Astor's fellow WAMPAS Baby Star Dolores Costello, whom he later married. In 1925, Astor's parents bought a Moorish style mansion with of land known as "Moorcrest" in the hills above Hollywood. The Langhankes not only lived lavishly off of Astor's earnings, but kept her a virtual prisoner inside Moorcrest. Moorcrest is known not only for its ornate style, but its place as the most lavish residence associated with the Krotona Colony, a utopian society founded by the Theosophical Society in 1912. Built by Marie Russak Hotchener, a Theosophist who had no formal architectural training, the house combines Moorish and Mission Revival styles and contains such Arts and Crafts features as art-glass windows (whose red lotus design Astor called "unfortunate"), and Batchelder tiles. Moorcrest, which has since undergone a multimillion-dollar renovation, remains standing. Before the Langhankes bought it, it was rented by Charlie Chaplin, whose tenure is memorialized by an art glass window featuring the Little Tramp. Astor's parents were not Theosophists, though the family was friendly with both Marie Hotchener and her husband Harry, prominent Theosophical Society members. Marie Hotchener negotiated Astor's right to a $5 a week allowance (at a time when she was making $2,500 a week) and the right to go to work unchaperoned by her mother. The following year when she was 19, Astor, fed up with her father's constant physical and psychological abuse as well as his control of her money, climbed from her second floor bedroom window and escaped to a hotel in Hollywood, as recounted in her memoirs. Hotchener facilitated her return by persuading Otto Langhanke to give Astor a savings account with $500 and the freedom to come and go as she pleased. Nevertheless, she did not gain control of her salary until she was 26 years old, at which point her parents sued her for financial support. Astor settled the case by agreeing to pay her parents $100 a month. Otto Langhanke put Moorcrest up for auction in the early 1930s, hoping to realize more than the $80,000 he had been offered for it; it sold for $25,000.  Astor continued to appear in movies at various studios. When her Paramount contract ended in 1925, she was signed at Warner Bros. Among her assignments was another role with John Barrymore, this time in "Don Juan" (1926). She was named one of the WAMPAS Baby Stars in 1926, along with Mary Brian, Dolores Costello, Joan Crawford, Dolores del Río, Janet Gaynor, and Fay Wray. On loan to Fox Film Corporation, Astor starred in "Dressed to Kill" (1928), which received good reviews, and the sophisticated comedy "Dry Martini" (also 1928). She later said that, while working on the latter, she "absorbed and assumed something of the atmosphere and emotional climate of the picture." She said it offered "a new and exciting point of view; with its specious doctrine of self-indulgence, it rushed into the vacuum of my moral sense and captivated me completely." When her Warner Bros. contract ended, she signed a contract with Fox for $3,750 a week. In 1928, she married director Kenneth Hawks at her family home, Moorcrest. He gave her a Packard automobile as a wedding present and the couple moved into a home high up on Lookout Mountain in Los Angeles above Beverly Hills. As the film industry made the transition to talkies, Fox gave her a sound test, which she failed because the studio found her voice to be too deep. Though this result was probably due to early sound equipment and inexperienced technicians, the studio released her from her contract and she found herself out of work for eight months in 1929.

New beginnings.

Astor took voice training and singing lessons in her time off with Francis Stuart, an exponent of Francesco Lamperti, but no roles were offered. Her acting career was then given a boost by her friend, Florence Eldridge (wife of Fredric March), in whom she confided. Eldridge, who was to star in the stage play "Among the Married" at the Majestic Theatre in Downtown Los Angeles, recommended Astor for the second female lead. The play was a success and her voice was deemed suitable, being described as low and vibrant. She was happy to work again, but her happiness soon ended. On January 2, 1930, while filming sequences for the Fox movie "Such Men Are Dangerous", Kenneth Hawks was killed in a mid-air plane crash over the Pacific. Astor had just finished a matinee performance at the Majestic when Florence Eldridge gave her the news. She was rushed from the theatre to Eldridge's apartment; a replacement, Doris Lloyd, stepped in for the next show. Astor remained with Eldridge at her apartment for some time, then soon returned to work. Shortly after her husband's death, she debuted in her first talkie, "Ladies Love Brutes" (1930) at Paramount, in which she co-starred her friend Fredric March. While her career picked up, her private life remained difficult. After working on several more movies, she suffered delayed shock over her husband's death and had a nervous breakdown. During the months of her illness, she was attended to by Dr. Franklyn Thorpe, whom she married on June 29, 1931. That year, she starred as Nancy Gibson in "Smart Woman", playing a woman determined to retrieve her husband from a gold-digging flirtation.  In May 1932, the Thorpes purchased a yacht and sailed to Hawaii. Astor was expecting a baby in August, but gave birth in June in Honolulu. The child, a daughter, was named Marylyn Hauoli Thorpe: her first name combined her parents' names and her middle name is Hawaiian. When they returned to Southern California, Astor freelanced and gained the pivotal role of Barbara Willis in MGM's "Red Dust" (1932) with Clark Gable and Jean Harlow. In late 1932, Astor signed a featured player contract with Warner Bros. Meanwhile, besides spending lavishly, her parents invested in the stock market, which often turned out unprofitable. While they remained in Moorcrest, Astor dubbed it a "white elephant", and she refused to maintain the house. She had to turn to the Motion Picture Relief Fund in 1933 to pay her bills. She appeared as the female lead, Hilda Lake, niece of the murder victims, in "The Kennel Murder Case" (1933), co-starring with William Powell as detective Philo Vance. Film critic William K. Everson pronounced it a "masterpiece" in the August 1984 issue of "Films in Review".  Soon unhappy with her marriage, due to Thorpe having a short temper and a habit of listing her faults, Astor wanted a divorce by 1933. At a friend's suggestion, she took a break from movie-making in 1933 and visited New York alone. While there, enjoying a whirlwind social life, she met the playwright George S. Kaufman, who was in a strong but open marriage. She documented their affair in her diary. Thorpe, by now making use of his wife's income, had discovered Astor's diary. He indicated her liaisons with other men, including Kaufman, would be used to claim she was an unfit mother in any divorce proceedings.

Custody case.

Dr. Franklyn Thorpe divorced Astor in April 1935. A legal battle drew press attention to Astor in 1936 when a custody battle resulted over their four-year-old daughter, Marylyn. Astor's diary was never formally offered as evidence during the trial, but Thorpe and his lawyers constantly referred to it, and its notoriety grew. Astor admitted that the diary existed and that she had documented her affair with Kaufman, but maintained that many of the parts that had been referred to were forgeries, following the theft of the diary from her desk. The diary was deemed inadmissible as a mutilated document because Thorpe had removed pages referring to himself and had fabricated content. The trial judge, Goodwin J. Knight, ordered it sealed and impounded. Florabel Muir, then with the "New York Daily News" is known to have invented fabricated diary passages to her articles.  News of the diary became public when Astor's role in "Dodsworth" (1936), as Edith Cortwright, was beginning to be filmed. Producer Samuel Goldwyn was urged to fire her, as her contract included a morality clause, but Goldwyn refused. With Walter Huston in the title role, "Dodsworth" received rave reviews on release, and the public's acceptance assured the studios that casting Astor remained a viable proposition. Ultimately, the scandals caused no harm to Astor's career, which was actually revitalized because of the custody fight and the publicity it generated.  In 1952, by court order, Astor's diary was removed from the bank vault where it had been sequestered for 16 years and destroyed.

Mid-career.

In 1937, she returned to the stage in well-received productions of Noël Coward's "Tonight at 8.30", "The Astonished Heart", and "Still Life". She also began performing regularly on radio. Over the next few years, she had roles in "The Prisoner of Zenda" (1937), John Ford's "The Hurricane" (1937), "Midnight" (1939) and "Brigham Young" (1940). In John Huston's "The Maltese Falcon" (1941), Astor played scheming temptress and murderer Brigid O'Shaughnessy. The film also starred Humphrey Bogart and featured Peter Lorre and Sydney Greenstreet. For her performance in "The Great Lie" (also 1941) she won an Oscar as Best Supporting Actress in the 14th Academy Awards. As Sandra Kovak, the self absorbed concert pianist who relinquishes her unborn child, her intermittent love interest was played by George Brent, but the film's star was Bette Davis. Davis wanted Astor cast in the role after watching her screen test and seeing her play Tchaikovsky's Piano Concerto No. 1. She then recruited Astor to collaborate on rewriting the script, which Davis felt was mediocre and needed work to make it more interesting. Astor further followed Davis's advice and sported a bobbed hairdo for the role.  The soundtrack of the movie in the scenes where she plays the concerto, with violent hand movements on the piano keyboard, was dubbed by pianist Max Rabinovitch. Davis deliberately stepped back to allow Astor to shine in her key scenes. In her Oscar acceptance speech, Astor thanked Bette Davis and Tchaikovsky. Astor and Davis became good friends.  Astor was not propelled into the upper echelon of movie stars by these successes, however. She always declined offers of starring in her own right. Not wanting the responsibility of top billing and having to carry the picture, she preferred the security of being a featured player. She reunited with Humphrey Bogart and Sydney Greenstreet in John Huston's "Across the Pacific" (1942). Though usually cast in dramatic or melodramatic roles, Astor showed a flair for comedy as The Princess Centimillia in the Preston Sturges film, "The Palm Beach Story" (also 1942) for Paramount. In February 1943, Astor's father, Otto Langhanke, died in Cedars of Lebanon Hospital as a result of a heart attack complicated by influenza. His wife and daughter were at his bedside. That same year, Astor signed a seven-year contract with MGM, a regrettable mistake. She was kept busy playing what she considered mediocre roles she called "Mothers for Metro". After "Meet Me in St. Louis" (1944), the studio allowed her to debut on Broadway in "Many Happy Returns" (1945). The play was a failure, but Astor received good reviews. On loan-out to 20th Century Fox, she played a wealthy widow in "Claudia and David" (1946). She was also loaned to Paramount to play Fritzi Haller in "Desert Fury" (1947) playing the tough owner of a saloon and casino in a small mining town. Before Helen Langhanke died of a heart ailment in January 1947, Astor said she sat in the hospital room with her mother, who was delirious and did not know her, and listened quietly as Helen told her all about terrible, selfish Lucile. After her death, Astor said she spent countless hours copying her mother's diary so she could read it and was surprised to learn how much she was hated. Back at MGM, Astor continued being cast in undistinguished, colorless mother roles. One exception was when she played a prostitute in the film noir "Act of Violence" (1948). The last straw came when she was cast as Marmee March in "Little Women" (1949). Astor found no redemption in playing what she considered another humdrum mother and grew despondent. She later described her disappointment with her cast members and the shoot in her memoir "A Life on Film":  The studio wanted to renew her contract, promising better roles, but she declined the offer.

Middle years.

At the same time, Astor's drinking was growing troublesome. She admitted to alcoholism as far back as the 1930s, but it had never interfered with her work schedule or performance. She hit bottom in 1949 and went into a sanitarium for alcoholics.  In 1951, she made a frantic call to her doctor and said that she had taken too many sleeping pills. She was taken to a hospital and the police reported that she had attempted suicide, this being her third overdose in two years, and the story made headline news. She maintained it had been an accident.  That same year, she joined Alcoholics Anonymous and converted to Roman Catholicism. She credited her recovery to a priest, Peter Ciklic, also a practicing psychologist, who encouraged her to write about her experiences as part of therapy. She also separated from her fourth husband, Thomas Wheelock (a stockbroker she married on Christmas Day 1945), but did not actually divorce him until 1955.  In 1952, she was cast in the leading role of the stage play "The Time of the Cuckoo", which was later made into the movie "Summertime" (1955), and subsequently toured with it. After the tour, Astor lived in New York for four years and worked in the theater and on television. During the 1952 presidential election, Astor, a lifelong Democrat, supported the campaign of Adlai Stevenson.  Her TV debut was in "The Missing Years" (1954) for "Kraft Television Theatre". She acted frequently in TV during the ensuing years and appeared on many big shows of the time, including "The United States Steel Hour", "Alfred Hitchcock Presents", "Rawhide", "Dr. Kildare", "Burke's Law", and "Ben Casey". In 1954, she appeared in the episode "Fearful Hour" of the Gary Merrill NBC series "Justice" in the role of a desperately poor and aging film star who attempts suicide to avoid exposure as a thief. She also played an ex-film star on the Boris Karloff-hosted "Thriller", in an episode titled "Rose's Last Summer."  She starred on Broadway again in "The Starcross Story" (1954), another failure and returned to Southern California in 1956. She then went on a successful theatre tour of "Don Juan in Hell" directed by Agnes Moorehead and co-starring Ricardo Montalbán.  Astor's memoir, "My Story: An Autobiography", was published in 1959, becoming a sensation in its day and a bestseller. It was the result of Father Ciklic urging her to write. Though she spoke of her troubled personal life, her parents, her marriages, the scandals, her battle with alcoholism, and other areas of her life, she did not mention the movie industry or her career in detail. In 1971, a second book was published, "A Life on Film", where she discussed her career. It, too, became a bestseller. Astor also tried her hand at fiction, writing the novels "The Incredible Charley Carewe" (1960), "The Image of Kate" (1962), which was published in 1964 in a German translation as "Jahre und Tage", "The O'Conners" (1964), "Goodbye, Darling, be Happy" (1965), and "A Place Called Saturday" (1968).  She appeared in several movies during this time, including "A Stranger in My Arms" (1959). She made a comeback in "Return to Peyton Place" (1961) playing Roberta Carter, the domineering mother who insists the "shocking" novel written by Allison Mackenzie should be banned from the school library, and received good reviews for her performance. According to film scholar Gavin Lambert, Astor invented memorable bits of business in her last scene of that film, where Roberta's vindictive motives are exposed.

Final years and death.

After a trip around the world in 1964, Astor was lured away from her Malibu, California home, where she was gardening and working on her third novel, to make what she decided would be her final film. She was offered the small role as a key figure, Jewel Mayhew, in the murder mystery "Hush...Hush, Sweet Charlotte" (1964), starring her friend Bette Davis. She filmed her final scene with Cecil Kellaway at Oak Alley Plantation in southern Louisiana. In "A Life on Film", she described her character as "a little old lady, waiting to die". Astor decided it would serve as her swan song in the movie business. After 109 movies in a career spanning 45 years, she turned in her Screen Actors Guild card and retired.  Astor later moved to Fountain Valley, California, where she lived near her son, Anthony del Campo (from her third marriage to Mexican film editor Manuel del Campo), and his family, until 1971. That same year, suffering from a chronic heart condition, she moved to a small cottage on the grounds of the Motion Picture & Television Country House, the industry's retirement facility in Woodland Hills, Los Angeles, where she had a private table when she chose to eat in the resident dining room. She appeared in the television documentary series "Hollywood: A Celebration of the American Silent Film" (1980), co-produced by Kevin Brownlow, in which she discussed her roles during the silent film period. After years of retirement, she had been urged to appear in Brownlow's documentary by a former sister-in-law Bessie Love who also appeared in the series.  Astor died on September 25, 1987, at age 81, of respiratory failure due to pulmonary emphysema while in the hospital at the Motion Picture House complex. She is interred in Holy Cross Cemetery in Culver City, California. Astor has a motion pictures star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6701 Hollywood Boulevard.

Mary Astor (born Lucile Vasconcellos Langhanke; May 3, 1906 – September 25, 1987) was an American actress. She may be best remembered for her performance as Brigid O'Shaughnessy in "The Maltese Falcon" (1941). She won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her portrayal of concert pianist Sandra Kovak in "The Great Lie" (1941).

Mary Astor (* 3. Mai 1906 als "Lucile Vasconcellos Langhanke" in Quincy, Illinois; † 25. September 1987 in Woodland Hills, Kalifornien) war eine US-amerikanische Schauspielerin und Schriftstellerin. Für ihren Auftritt in "Vertauschtes Glück" erhielt sie 1942 den Oscar als beste Nebendarstellerin. Zu ihren bekanntesten Filmen gehört der Film-noir-Klassiker "Die Spur des Falken" (1941).


History.

The first monitored election was that of an 1857 plebiscite in Moldavia and Wallachia (current Romania) that was monitored by most of the major European powers. Election monitoring was uncommon until after World War II. Election observation activities have expanded significantly following the end of the Cold War, along with the development of international standards on the conduct of democratic elections and the process of monitoring elections by both international and domestic observing organizations.  In the 1990s, international election observation focused on elections in countries with weak democracies or democracies in transition. In recent years, however, there has been an increasing number of observer mission monitoring elections in long-standing democracies, including the United States, France, the United Kingdom and Switzerland.

Organizations.

International organizations such as the Organization of American States, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the European Union, the Commonwealth Secretariat, the Council of Europe, and the African Union regularly deploy monitoring teams. The United Nations no longer provides monitoring services, instead it focuses on electoral assistance. Individual governments also participate in monitoring efforts, generally under the umbrella of an international organization. These national efforts are normally managed by the local electoral commission. A wide array of NGOs also participate in monitoring efforts. The Carter Center, for example, played a key role—with the United Nations Electoral Assistance Division and the National Democratic Institute—in building consensus on a common set of international principles for election observation.  International observation is complemented in many countries by domestic observer groups.

International election monitoring.

Standard international election observation missions, as deployed by, for the example, the European Commission or the OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR), monitor the entire electoral process. Election experts and long-term observers begin their work weeks before the actual election day, looking at candidate registration, the legal framework, the media situation, the work of the election administration, and the campaign environment. On election day, short-term observers monitor the opening of polling stations, the vote cast, and the counting and tabulation of results. After election day, observers remain in the country for another few weeks to monitor how possible election-related shortcomings and complaints are dealt with by the election administration and the judiciary. The findings of the observers are made public in reports issued after election day.

Long-term observers.

Most observation missions send a small number of long-term monitors (known as LTOs) for a period of six to eight weeks. A larger number of short-term observers (known as STOs) then join the mission for the final week of the campaign. STOs provide mostly quantitative observation of polling station and count procedures, with LTOs supplying qualitative analysis and contextual information about the wider political situation.  In some cases, the objectivity of some international observers is questioned.

Domestic election monitoring.

In addition to international organizations monitoring elections, citizen organizations—or coalitions of organizations —also monitor elections in their own country. Free and Fair Election Network (FAFEN) in Pakistan is a coalition of 42 national civil society organizations working together to promote fair elections in Pakistan. The most common type of domestic election monitoring comes by way of party poll-watchers, who are partisan individuals that are looking out for the interests of their party. Election day activities of partisan observation groups often included scrutinizing the accreditation, voting, counting, and tabulations processes at polling units throughout election day.  There are, however, also numerous domestic nonpartisan observer groups in many countries.

Local and regional election monitoring.

Though most international observer organizations have a mandate to observe parliamentary elections, the Congress of the Council of Europe, in cooperation with the Venice Commission, is specifically mandated to monitor local and regional elections and is unique in this regard. Since 1990, over 50 election processes have been observed by the Congress.  The Congress Strategy on election observation is based on three lines of action:

Election monitoring is the observation of an election by one or more independent parties, typically from another country or a non-governmental organization (NGO), primarily to assess the conduct of an election process on the basis of national legislation and international election standards. There are national and international election observers. Monitors do not directly prevent electoral fraud, but rather record and report such instances. Election observation increasingly looks at the entire electoral process over a longer period of time, rather than at election-day proceedings only. The legitimacy of an election can be affected by the criticism of monitors, provided that they are themselves seen as unbiased. A notable individual is often appointed honorary leader of a monitoring organization in an effort to enhance its own legitimacy.

Der Wahlbeobachter ist eine unabhängige Person, die eine Wahl beobachtet und dadurch auf ihre rechtmäßige Durchführung hin überprüft und Wahlfälschung verhindern soll. Die Wahlbeobachtung erstreckt sich, um wirksam zu sein, sowohl auf die Vorbereitung der Wahlen (Wählerlisten, Stimmzettel, Wahllokale usw.) als auch – unter Wahrung des Wahlgeheimnisses – auf die Wahlhandlung selbst (mögliche Behinderungen oder Beeinflussungen), auf die Stimmauszählung und Protokollierung des Wahlergebnisses. International ist es üblich, dass auch ausländische Wahlbeobachter, zum Beispiel von der OSZE, am Ort sind und ihre Erkenntnisse ungehindert veröffentlichen können.


Taxonomy.

This species was discovered by the fly geneticist Alfred Sturtevant in 1919, when he noticed that the flies used in Thomas Hunt Morgan's laboratory at the Columbia University were actually two distinct species: "D. melanogaster" and "D. simulans". Males differ in the external genitalia, while trained observers can separate females using colour characteristics. "D. melanogaster" females crossed to "D. simulans" males produce sterile F1 females and no F1 males. The reciprocal cross produces sterile F1 males and no female progeny.  "Drosophila simulans" was found later to be closely related to two island endemics, "D. sechellia" and "D. mauritiana". "D. simulans" will mate with these sister species to form fertile females and sterile males, a fact that has made "D. simulans" an important model organism for research into speciation. "D. simulans" are monomorphic in their pheromone profiles where both males and females largely produce the cuticular hydrocarbon pheromone 7-tricosene (7-T). The ability of males within the "D. melanogaster" subgroup to discriminate between conspecific and heterospecific females is due in part to the differential valence of the cuticular hydrocarbon 7,11-heptacosadiene (7,11-HD), which is produced by "D. melanogaster" and "D. sechellia" females. Perfuming a "D. simulans" female with 7,11-HD is sufficient to suppress "D. simulans" male courtship.  Studies have provided evidences that paternal leakage is an integral part of the inheritance of this species.  "Wolbachia" infections give insight into how certain species of "Drosophila" are related. Through the analysis of cytoplasmic incompatibility and similar mitochondrial DNA, it has been shown that "D. simulans" and "D. mauritiana" are more closely related to each other than to "D. sechellia." Cytoplasmic incompatibility causes egg and sperm cells to fail in creating viable offspring, a common feature in "Wolbachia"-infected "D. simulans" and "D. mauritiana" individuals. "Drosophila sechellia" has significantly distinct mitochondrial DNA, further emphasizing the evolutionary differences between the three species.

Relationship with "Wolbachia".

Infections of "Wolbachia", a commonly infectious strain of bacteria observed in many insects such as "Trichogramma" and "Muscidifurax uniraptor" wasps, are transmitted between generations of "Drosophila simulans." "Wolbachia" is inherited through maternal heredity. The infection is maintained through a process involving cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI) in which "Wolbachia" hinders uninfected individuals from producing offspring.  "Wolbachia" has formed a symbiotic relationship with "D. simulans". "Wolbachia" infects the cytoplasm of a cell; once infected, a female fly will pass the infection to all resulting offspring through the cytoplasm of her eggs.  Two separate "Wolbachia" infection events have occurred in the ancestors of "D. simulans," suggesting the evolutionary advantage of "Wolbachia" infections to "D. simulans."

Effects of "Wolbachia" infection.

"Wolbachia" infections have significantly decreased virus-induced mortality in "D. simulans." While the mechanism for the decreased virus-induced mortality is still unknown, "Wolbachia" provides antiviral properties, potentially perpetuated by outcompeting the virus. Furthermore, different strains of "Wolbachia" have varying levels of antiviral properties; for example, some strains can protect against DCV (Drosophila C virus) while other strains cannot.

Benefits of "Wolbachia" studies.

"Drosophila simulans" has also played an important role in sequencing the genomes for certain Wolbachia strains. "D. simulans" eggs were infected with the wRi "Wolbachia" strain in order to better understand how "Wolbachia" recombines. Further studies can help understand how "Wolbachia" strains coexist with "D. simulans" individuals. Studying "Wolbachia" strains and their mechanisms of infection can provide insight into the complex phylogenetic relationships of arthropods.

Drosophila simulans is a species of fly closely related to "D. melanogaster", belonging to the same "melanogaster" species subgroup. Its closest relatives are "D. mauritiana" and "D. sechellia".

Drosophila simulans ist eine "Drosophila"-Art aus der Familie der Taufliegen. Sie ist eng verwandt mit "Drosophila melanogaster", der Taufliege, die als Modellorganismus in der Genetik, Entwicklungs- und Zellbiologie benutzt wird. Die Art wurde von Alfred Sturtevant 1919 zum ersten Mal beschrieben und in den frühen 1920er Jahren für vergleichende genetische Studien herangezogen. "Drosophila simulans" und "D. melanogaster" ähneln sich äußerlich sehr, der einzige "auffällige" Unterschied sind die männlichen Genitalien. Die beiden Spezies haben sich vor 2–3 Millionen Jahren auseinanderentwickelt, bis dahin hatten sie einen gemeinsamen Vorläufer.


History.

The office of the Attorney General was established by the Judiciary Act of 1789 as a part-time job for one person, but grew with the bureaucracy. At one time, the Attorney General gave legal advice to the U.S. Congress, as well as the President; however, in 1819, the Attorney General began advising Congress alone to ensure a manageable workload. Until March 3, 1853, the salary of the Attorney General was set by statute at less than the amount paid to other Cabinet members. Early attorneys general supplemented their salaries by running private law practices, often arguing cases before the courts as attorneys for paying litigants.  Following unsuccessful efforts in 1830 and 1846 to make attorney general a full-time job, in 1867, the U.S. House Committee on the Judiciary, led by Congressman William Lawrence, conducted an inquiry into the creation of a "law department" headed by the Attorney General and also composed of the various department solicitors and United States attorneys. On February 19, 1868, Lawrence introduced a bill in Congress to create the Department of Justice. President Ulysses S. Grant signed the bill into law on June 22, 1870.  Grant appointed Amos T. Akerman as Attorney General and Benjamin H. Bristow as America's first solicitor general the same week that Congress created the Department of Justice. The Department's immediate function was to preserve civil rights. It set about fighting against domestic terrorist groups who had been using both violence and litigation to oppose the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to the Constitution.  Both Akerman and Bristow used the Department of Justice to vigorously prosecute Ku Klux Klan members in the early 1870s. In the first few years of Grant's first term in office, there were 1000 indictments against Klan members with over 550 convictions from the Department of Justice. By 1871, there were 3000 indictments and 600 convictions with most only serving brief sentences while the ringleaders were imprisoned for up to five years in the federal penitentiary in Albany, New York. The result was a dramatic decrease in violence in the South. Akerman gave credit to Grant and told a friend that no one was "better" or "stronger" than Grant when it came to prosecuting terrorists. George H. Williams, who succeeded Akerman in December 1871, continued to prosecute the Klan throughout 1872 until the spring of 1873, during Grant's second term in office. Williams then placed a moratorium on Klan prosecutions partially because the Justice Department, inundated by cases involving the Klan, did not have the manpower to continue prosecutions.  The "Act to Establish the Department of Justice" drastically increased the Attorney General's responsibilities to include the supervision of all United States attorneys, formerly under the Department of the Interior, the prosecution of all federal crimes, and the representation of the United States in all court actions, barring the use of private attorneys by the federal government. The law also created the office of Solicitor General to supervise and conduct government litigation in the Supreme Court of the United States.  With the passage of the Interstate Commerce Act in 1887, the federal government took on some law enforcement responsibilities, and the Department of Justice tasked with performing these.  In 1884, control of federal prisons was transferred to the new department, from the Department of Interior. New facilities were built, including the penitentiary at Leavenworth in 1895, and a facility for women located in West Virginia, at Alderson was established in 1924.  In 1933, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued an executive order which gave the Department of Justice responsibility for the "functions of prosecuting in the courts of the United States claims and demands by, and offsenses ["sic"] against, the Government of the United States, and of defending claims and demands against the Government, and of supervising the work of United States attorneys, marshals, and clerks in connection therewith, now exercised by any agency or officer..."

Headquarters.

The U.S. Department of Justice building was completed in 1935 from a design by Milton Bennett Medary. Upon Medary's death in 1929, the other partners of his Philadelphia firm Zantzinger, Borie and Medary took over the project. On a lot bordered by Constitution and Pennsylvania Avenues and Ninth and Tenth Streets, Northwest, it holds over of space. The sculptor C. Paul Jennewein served as overall design consultant for the entire building, contributing more than 50 separate sculptural elements inside and outside.  Various efforts, none entirely successful, have been made to determine the original intended meaning of the Latin motto appearing on the Department of Justice seal, "Qui Pro Domina Justitia Sequitur" (literally "Who For Lady Justice Strives"). It is not even known exactly when the original version of the DOJ seal itself was adopted, or when the motto first appeared on the seal. The most authoritative opinion of the DOJ suggests that the motto refers to the Attorney General (and thus, by extension, to the Department of Justice) "who prosecutes on behalf of justice (or the Lady Justice)".  The motto's conception of the prosecutor (or government attorney) as being the servant of justice itself finds concrete expression in a similarly-ordered English-language inscription ("THE UNITED STATES WINS ITS POINT WHENEVER JUSTICE IS DONE ITS CITIZENS IN THE COURTS") in the above-door paneling in the ceremonial rotunda anteroom just outside the Attorney General's office in the Department of Justice Main Building in Washington, D.C. The building was renamed in honor of former Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy in 2001. It is sometimes referred to as "Main Justice".

Organization.

Law enforcement agencies.

Several federal law enforcement agencies are administered by the Department of Justice:

Other offices and programs.

In March 2003, the United States Immigration and Naturalization Service was abolished and its functions transferred to the United States Department of Homeland Security. The Executive Office for Immigration Review and the Board of Immigration Appeals, which review decisions made by government officials under Immigration and Nationality law, remain under jurisdiction of the Department of Justice. Similarly the Office of Domestic Preparedness left the Justice Department for the Department of Homeland Security, but only for executive purposes. The Office of Domestic Preparedness is still centralized within the Department of Justice, since its personnel are still officially employed within the Department of Justice.  In 2003, the Department of Justice created LifeAndLiberty.gov, a website that supported the USA PATRIOT Act. It was criticized by government watchdog groups for its alleged violation of U.S. Code Title 18 Section 1913, which forbids money appropriated by Congress to be used to lobby in favor of any law, actual or proposed. The website has since been taken offline.

Finances and budget.

The Justice Department authorized the budget for 2015 United States federal budget. The budget authorization is broken down as follows:

The United States Department of Justice (DOJ), also known as the Justice Department, is a federal executive department of the United States government responsible for the enforcement of the law and administration of justice in the United States of America, and is equivalent to the justice or interior ministries of other countries. The department was formed in 1870 during the Ulysses S. Grant administration, and administers several federal law enforcement agencies, including the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), the United States Marshals Service (USMS), the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF), and the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). The department is responsible for investigating instances of financial fraud, representing the United States government in legal matters (such as in cases before the Supreme Court), and running the federal prison system. The department is also responsible for reviewing the conduct of local law enforcement as directed by the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994.

Das Justizministerium der Vereinigten Staaten (, "DOJ") ist ein Bundesministerium der Vereinigten Staaten, dessen Hauptverantwortung in der Rechtspflege und der Strafverfolgung liegen. Dem Justizministerium steht der United States Attorney General vor.


Types of stunt effects.

Practical effects.

One of the most-frequently used practical stunts is stage combat. Although contact is normally avoided, many elements of stage combat, such as sword fighting, martial arts, and acrobatics required contact between performers in order to facilitate the creation of a particular effect, such as noise or physical interaction. Stunt performances are highly choreographed and may be rigorously rehearsed for hours, days and sometimes weeks before a performance. Seasoned professionals will commonly treat a performance as if they have never done it before, since the risks in stunt work are high, every move and position must be correct to reduce risk of injury from accidents. Examples of practical effects include tripping and falling down, high jumps, extreme sporting moves, acrobatics and high diving, spins, gainer falls, "suicide backflips," and other martial arts stunts. Stunt airbags (or "stunt mats"), large deep airbags that may be the size of a small swimming pool, are typically used by professional stunt performers to cushion their landings from staged falls from heights.

Mechanical effects.

A physical stunt is usually performed with help of mechanics. For example, if the plot requires the hero to jump to a high place, the film crew could put the actor in a special harness, and use aircraft high tension wire to pull him up. Piano wire is sometimes used to fly objects, but an actor is never suspended from it as it is brittle and can break under shock impacts. "Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon" (2000) is a kung-fu film that was heavily reliant on wire stunts.

Vehicular stunts.

Performers of vehicular stunts require extensive training and may employ specially adapted vehicles. Stunts can be as simple as a handbrake turn, also known as the bootleg turn, or as advanced as car chases, jumps and crashes involving dozens of vehicles. Rémy Julienne is a well known pioneering automotive stunt performer and coordinator. Another well known vehicular stunt specialist is Englishman Ian Walton, who was the helicopter stunt pilot and stunt designer for many 1980s films, notably the Bond film "Never Say Never Again". A Guinness Book of World Records holder stunt driver, Bobby Ore, performed in numerous movies and events and holds a World Record for longest distance driven on two wheels in a London double decker bus (810 feet). Streetbike stunts, also known as "stunting" gained widespread popularity in the early 2000s and continues to grow. It is based on wheelies but now goes much further than that.

Computer-generated effects.

In the late 20th century stunt men were often placed in dangerous situations less and less as filmmakers turned to relatively inexpensive (and much safer) computer graphics effects using harnesses, fans, blue- or green screens, and a huge array of other devices and digital effects. "The Matrix" (1999) is an example for a film that extensively "enhanced" real stunts through CGI post production. The "Lord of the Rings" film series and the "Star Wars" prequel films often display stunts that are entirely computer generated. Examples of computer-generated effects include face replacement and wire removal.

Hong Kong action cinema.

In 1982, Jackie Chan began experimenting with elaborate stunt action sequences in "Dragon Lord", which featured a pyramid fight scene that holds the record for the most takes required for a single scene, with 2900 takes, and the final fight scene where he performs various stunts, including one where he does a back flip off a loft and falls to the lower ground. In 1983, "Project A" saw the official formation of the Jackie Chan Stunt Team and added elaborate, dangerous stunts to the fights and typical slapstick humor (at one point, Chan falls from the top of a clock tower through a series of fabric canopies).  "Police Story" (1985) contained many large-scale action scenes, including an opening sequence featuring a car chase through a shanty town, Chan stopping a double-decker bus with his service revolver and a climactic fight scene in a shopping mall. This final scene earned the film the nickname "Glass Story" by the crew, due to the huge number of panes of sugar glass that were broken. During a stunt in this last scene, in which Chan slides down a pole from several stories up, the lights covering the pole had heated it considerably, resulting in Chan suffering second-degree burns, particularly to his hands, as well as a back injury and dislocation of his pelvis upon landing. Chan performed similarly elaborate stunts in numerous other films, such as several "Police Story" sequels, "Project A Part II", the "Armor of God" series, "Dragons Forever", "Drunken Master II", "Rumble in the Bronx", and the "Rush Hour" series, among others.  Other Hong Kong action movie stars who became known for performing elaborate stunts include Chan's Peking Opera School friends Sammo Hung and Yuen Biao, as well as "girls with guns" stars such as Michelle Yeoh and Moon Lee. Other Asian cinema stars also known for performing elaborate stunts including Thai actor Tony Jaa, Indonesian actors Iko Uwais and Yayan Ruhian, and Indian actors Jayan, Akshay Kumar, Vidyut Jammwal and Tiger Shroff.

Stunt-based television shows.

Reality competition television shows such as "Fear Factor" and "Going Straight" have required contestants to complete stunts to win prize money.

Recognition of stunt performers.

Films such as "Hooper" and "The Stunt Man" and the 1980s television show "The Fall Guy" sought to raise the profile of the stunt performer and debunk the myth that film stars perform all their own stunts. Noted stunt coordinators Hal Needham, Craig R. Baxley, and Vic Armstrong went on to direct the action films "The Cannonball Run", "Action Jackson", and "Joshua Tree". Vic Armstrong became the first stuntman to win both an Academy Award (for developing a descender rig as a safe alternative to airbags) and a BAFTA award (for lifetime achievement in film). But the status of stuntmen in Hollywood is still low; despite the fact that few films of any genre or type could be made without them, stunt performers are still seen as working mainly in action films. Repeated campaigns for a "Best Stunts" Academy Award have been rejected.  In 2001, the first "World Stunt Awards" were presented in Los Angeles by actor Alec Baldwin. The event had A-list stars presenting the statues to Hollywood's unsung heroes. Arnold Schwarzenegger was presented with the first "Lifetime Achievement" award. He presented the awards in 2001. The awards show hands out eight awards: Best Fight, Best Fire Stunt, Best High Work, Best Overall Stunt by a Stunt Man, Best Overall Stunt by a Stunt Woman, Best Speciality Stunt, Best Work with a Vehicle and Best Stunt Coordinator and/or 2nd Unit Director.

Equality in stunts.

In past Hollywood films it was common for men to double for women and White American stunt performers to double for African-American performers. Veteran stunt man Dave Sharpe, a man of shorter than average height, often doubled for women in film serials of the 1930s and '40s. It is now against union rules for stunt performers to double an actor of a different gender or race unless the stunt is so dangerous that there are no other volunteers, for example when B.J. Worth doubled for the black Jamaican actress Grace Jones who parachuted off the Eiffel Tower in "A View to a Kill". The rise of action heroines like Angelina Jolie and African-American stars like Will Smith has offered wider opportunities for stunt performers from diverse backgrounds.

The future of stuntwork.

A backlash against dangerous stunts following the fatal 42 foot backward fall of Sonja Davis off a building on the set of "Vampire in Brooklyn", coinciding with developments in computer-generated imagery (CGI) that make such stunts unnecessary threatens to reduce stunt performers to the status of body doubles. And yet a backlash against films that resemble video games could lead to a resurrection in pure stuntwork. Films such as "The Matrix" and "" have shown how CGI and stunts can be integrated for maximum effect. But—if for no other reason than safety—it is doubtful that the records established by "Hooper" and "Sharky's Machine" will be broken anytime soon. A new subgenre of eastern martial arts films exists which emphasize the actors performing their own stunts, deliberately using wide angles and unbroken shots to show each stunt in its entirety. Examples of actors doing their own stunts include Jackie Chan and Tony Jaa.

A stunt is an unusual and difficult physical feat or an act requiring a special skill, performed for artistic purposes usually on television, theaters, or cinema. Stunts are a feature of many action films. Before computer generated imagery special effects, these effects were limited to the use of models, false perspective and other in-camera effects, unless the creator could find someone willing to jump from car to car or hang from the edge of a skyscraper: the stunt performer or stunt double.

Stunt kommt aus dem Englischen und heißt so viel wie „besonders geschicktes oder gewagtes Kunststück“. Das Wort ist jedoch schon eingedeutscht und wird vorrangig für Filmaufnahmen und Showdarbietungen verwendet, bei denen die gefährlichen Szenen, die den Stars nicht zugemutet werden sollen bzw. von ihnen nicht leistbar sind, durch "Stuntmen" oder "Stuntwomen" erledigt werden.


Incorporation and enhancement to unitary authority.

The borough was formed on 1 April 1974 as one of six standard districts or boroughs within Berkshire, under the Local Government Act 1972, from minor parts of Berkshire and Buckinghamshire which remained for more than two decades Administrative Counties, and such that Berkshire assumed the high-level local government functions for the resultant area. The change merged the boroughs of Maidenhead and Windsor (formally the "Royal Borough of New Windsor"), the rural districts of Cookham and Windsor, and in Buckinghamshire, north of the River Thames (on the left bank): Eton urban district and the parishes of Datchet, Horton and Wraysbury in its rural district. The area immediately inherited by law royal borough status from the town of Windsor which contains Windsor Castle.  The local authority is its Council. Its area became a unitary authority area on 1 April 1998 with virtually full local government powers as Berkshire County Council was abolished. A minority of the area in terms of population has a lower level of local government, the civil parish.

River Thames.

The borough straddles the River Thames. Approximately half of its flow through the borough has a bypass and seasonally-variable flood relief channel, the Jubilee River. Further flood relief channels are planned for the reaches below the Borough to benefit many other settlements including Datchet and Wraysbury in the Borough which were the settlements most widely affected by the UK storms of January-February 2014.

Towns and villages.

The Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead contains the following towns and villages:

Politics.

Westminster.

The Royal Borough is represented at Westminster by two members of parliament of the Conservative Party: Adam Afriyie (for Windsor) and Theresa May (for Maidenhead). Maidenhead has been held by the Conservative Party since its creation in 1997. Windsor has been held by the same party since 1874 with varying representation from its 1484 creation including more than 350 initial years with two MPs. Small parts of wards of other seats, notably the Slough unitary area and Wokingham have intermittently been included in each seat to prevent malapportionment which is a definition of boundaries which causes any MP to serve a significantly different number of potential voters (electors) than the others.  The irregular, elongated shape of the Windsor seat being the south-east half of the Borough has been criticised by academics who noted the net changes which the Heath administration led through Parliament in 1972, implemented in 1974, intensified difference. They frequently grouped right-leaning suburban areas within urban historic centres and more modern, urban left-leaning areas such as the bulk of Slough. This ostensibly amounted to nationwide gerrymandering or homogenisation to install a greater number safe seats at the expense of marginal seats however also reflected the majority of social associations of people in each area.

Local government.

Elections for councillors to the Royal Borough take place every four years; the last took place in 2019. The local authority is controlled a cabinet. The Royal Borough is currently under a Conservative administration, with Cllr Andrew Johnson the leader of the council.  The borough's Mayor is Cllr Sayonara Luxton, and Mayor's Consort Ian Luxton.  41 councillors represent the electorate of 19 wards. The political control of the Royal Borough is as follows:

Parish and town councils.

There are 14 parish councils and 1 town council in the borough: The towns of Maidenhead and Windsor are unparished.

Education.

The Windsor and Maidenhead LEA provides a comprehensive system, with a three-tier successive school system in Windsor, and two-tier education elsewhere. Colleges and sixth forms are available in the main two towns as across its borders in Egham, Slough and Wokingham.

Freedom of the Borough.

The following people and military units have received the Freedom of the Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead.

Twin towns.

The Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead is twinned with the following Towns:

The Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead is a Royal Borough of Berkshire, in South East England. It is home to Windsor Castle, Eton College, Legoland Windsor and Ascot Racecourse. It is one of four boroughs entitled to be prefixed "Royal" and is one of six unitary authorities in its county, which has historic and ceremonial status.

The Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead ist ein Borough der Grafschaft Berkshire in England. Seit am 1. April 1996 der Rat von Berkshire aufgelöst wurde, gilt es als Unitary Authority.


Early examples.

It is widely debated when time capsules were first used, but the concept is fairly simple, and the idea and first use of time capsules could be much older than is currently documented. The term "time capsule" appears to be a relatively recent coinage dating from 1938.  Around 1761, some dated artifacts were placed inside the hollow copper grasshopper weathervane, itself dating from 1742, atop historic Faneuil Hall in Boston.  A time capsule dating to 1777 was discovered within a religious statue in Sotillo de la Ribera. A time capsule was discovered in November 30, 2017, in Burgos, Spain. A wooden statue of Jesus Christ had hidden inside it a document with economic, political and cultural information, written by Joaquín Mínguez, chaplain of the Cathedral of Burgo de Osma in 1777.  A Revolutionary-era time capsule, dating to 1795 and credited to Samuel Adams and Paul Revere, was temporarily removed in 2014 from the cornerstone of the Massachusetts State House in Boston. It had been previously opened in 1855, and some new items had been added before it was reinstalled. It was ceremonially reopened in January 2015 at the Museum of Fine Arts Boston, with specific restrictions on media coverage, to preserve the fragile artifacts. The contents were displayed there briefly, and then reinstalled in their original location. It is the oldest known time capsule in the United States.

20th century.

In 1901, a time capsule was placed inside the head of the copper lion ornamenting the Old State House in Boston. It was opened in 2014, during repairs to the sculpture and building, with plans to add new artifacts and reinstall it in its original location.  The Detroit Century Box, a brainchild of Detroit mayor William C. Maybury, was created on December 31, 1900, and scheduled to be opened 100 years later. It was filled with photographs and letters from 56 prominent residents describing life in 1900 and making predictions for the future, and included a letter by Maybury to the mayor of Detroit in 2000. The capsule was opened by city officials on December 31, 2000, in a ceremony presided over by mayor Dennis Archer.  The Crypt of Civilization (1936) at Oglethorpe University, intended to be opened in 8113, is claimed to be the first "modern" time capsule, although it was not called one at the time. George Edward Pendray is responsible for coining the term "time capsule". During the socialist period in the USSR, many time capsules were buried with messages to a future communist society.  The 1939 New York World's Fair time capsule was created by Westinghouse as part of their exhibit. It was 90 inches (2.3 metres) long, with an interior diameter of 6.5 inches (16 cm), and weighed 800 pounds (360 kg). Westinghouse named the copper, chromium, and silver alloy "cupaloy", claiming it had the same strength as mild steel. It contained everyday items such as a spool of thread and doll, a book of record (description of the capsule and its creators), a vial of staple food crop seeds, a microscope, and a 15-minute RKO Pathé Pictures newsreel. Microfilm spools condensed the contents of a Sears Roebuck catalog, dictionary, almanac, and other texts.  The 1939 time capsule was followed in 1965 by a second capsule at the same site, but to the north of the original. Both capsules are buried below Flushing Meadows Park, site of the Fair. Both the 1939 and 1965 Westinghouse Time Capsules are meant to be opened in 6939. More recently, in 1985, Westinghouse created a smaller, Plexiglas shell to be buried beneath the New York Marriott Marquis hotel, in the heart of New York's theater district. However, this time capsule was never put in place.  There is documentation of at least three physical time capsules at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in Cambridge, Massachusetts, as well as a "virtual" or digital time capsule. , four time capsules are "buried" in space. The two Pioneer Plaques and the two Voyager Golden Records have been attached to spacecraft for the possible benefit of spacefarers in the distant future. A fifth time capsule, the KEO satellite, was scheduled to be launched in 2015–16. However, it has been delayed several times and an actual launch date has not been given. After launch, it will carry individual messages from Earth's inhabitants addressed to earthlings around the year 52,000, when it is due to return to Earth., the satellite had not been launched.  The International Time Capsule Society was created in 1990 to maintain a global database of all known time capsules.

Criticism.

According to time capsule historian William Jarvis, most intentional time capsules usually do not provide much useful historical information: they are typically filled with "useless junk", new and pristine in condition, that tells little about the people of the time. Many time capsules today contain only artifacts of limited value to future historians. Historians suggest that items which describe the daily lives of the people who created them, such as personal notes, pictures, and documents, would greatly increase the value of the time capsule to future historians.  If time capsules have a museum-like goal of preserving the culture of a particular time and place for study, they fulfill this goal very poorly in that they, by definition, are kept sealed for a particular length of time. Subsequent generations between the launch date and the target date will have no direct access to the artifacts and therefore these generations are prevented from learning from the contents directly. Therefore, time capsules can be seen, in respect to their usefulness to historians, as dormant museums, their releases timed for some date so far in the future that the building in question is no longer intact.  Historians also concede that there are many preservation issues surrounding the selection of the media to transmit this information to the future. Some of these issues include the obsolescence of technology and the deterioration of electronic and magnetic storage media (known as the digital dark age), and possible language problems if the capsule is dug up in the distant future. Many buried time capsules are lost, as interest in them fades and the exact location is forgotten, or they are destroyed within a few years by groundwater.  Archives and archival materials, including videos, might be the best types of time capsules, as long as the medium can still be used, or the data can be read by the latest technologies and software.

Cultural references.

The 1947 docudrama "The Beginning or the End" is a semi-historical account of the creation of the first atomic bomb during World War II. The film begins with staged newsreel footage of the scientists and officers involved in the project (played by actors) burying a time capsule in Redwood National Forest in California. The capsule contained a copy of the film, along with a projector to view it on, and instructions for its operation set on a metal sheet. The purpose of the capsule was in line with the film's title, about whether humanity will destroy itself now that it has the ability to, or whether it will rise above war as a whole and come together to use nuclear power for greater purposes. The film can be seen as an example of Cold War propaganda.  The 2009 dramatic film "Knowing" involves a time capsule being placed in the ground by an elementary school in 1959. After staring into the sun, a girl begins to hear voices and later begins to frantically write an incoherent set of numbers down onto a page that she is supposed to be writing a letter to a student in the future with. The capsule is sealed and opened in 2009 where the character John Koestler realizes that the list of numbers correlates to the dates and death tolls of major disasters, such as the September 11 attacks, the Lockerbie bombing, and other events resulting in mass death which occurred after the time capsule was buried, after his son Caleb Koestler receives the letter and brings it home.  Artists such as Andy Warhol, Christian Boltanski, and Louise Bourgeois are known for compiling collections of everyday artifacts that they associate with memories of the past, which are preserved in museums and archives.

Personal and domestic time capsules.

Commercially-manufactured sealable containers are sold for protection of personal time capsules; some of the more durable waterproof containers used for geocaching may also be suitable. Many underground time capsules are destroyed by groundwater infiltration after short periods of time; caches stored within the wall cavities of buildings can survive as long as the building is used and maintained.  In 2016, the art collective Ant Farm displayed a show, "The Present Is the Form of All Life: The Time Capsules of Ant Farm and LST", at the art center Pioneer Works, in Brooklyn, New York. The artists had previous experiences with failed time capsules, and were now exploring "digital time capsules" as a more durable form of preservation. They have said, "We’ve come to understand that the best way to preserve digital media is to distribute it." Researchers have started to study methods of preserving digital data in forms that will still be usable in the distant future.

A time capsule is a historic cache of goods or information, usually intended as a deliberate method of communication with future people, and to help future archaeologists, anthropologists, or historians. The preservation of holy relics dates back for millennia, but the practice of preparing and preserving a collection of everyday artifacts and messages to the future appears to be a more recent practice. Time capsules are sometimes created and buried during celebrations such as a world's fair, a cornerstone laying for a building, or at other ceremonies.

Eine Zeitkapsel ist ein Behälter zur Aufbewahrung von Dingen, der erst nach Ablauf eines bestimmten Zeitintervalls von Personen geöffnet wird oder werden darf, mit dem Zweck, zeittypische Dinge für nachfolgende Generationen zu bewahren und zu dokumentieren.


Muslim tax farming before the Iqta‘.

As with other feudal-like tax farming systems, Iqta' evolved from the tribal practices. It originated from the need to secure one's self by paying taxes to the most powerful leader, but later developed into something exchangeable by the landowners like with the fiefdoms of Europe.

The Buyids reform of Iqta‘.

The Buyids codified the already existent system of tax farming. They united the Amirs of Persia and reorganized their land into Iqtas, whose borders remained largely similar to the predecessor states. Contrary to most other forms of Iqta, it was hereditary, but the land was divided when there were more sons of age.

Iqta‘ in the Seljuq era.

In the Seljuk Empire, the move toward the iqta' system was facilitated by the Persian bureaucrat Nizam al-Mulk "who developed and systemized the trend towards feudalism that was already inherent in the tax-farming practices of the immediately preceding period," It is made clear that muqtis hold no claim on the peasants/subjects other than that of collecting from them in a proper manner the due land tax that has been assigned to them. When the revenue has been realized from them, those subjects should remain secure from any demands of the muqtis in respect of their persons, wealth, families, lands and goods. The muqtis can't hold any further claims on them. The subjects can go to the King and address their grievances in case they are being subjugated by the muqtis. It is thus clear that the muqtis only hold the land under the king, the land in truth belongs to the Sultan. Nizam al-Mulk emphasizes an important element in the iqta- muqti's right to collect and appropriate taxes. Of course, the muqtis also had certain obligations to the Sultan. They had to maintain the troops and furnish them at call. The revenues they got from the iqtas were meant to be resources for him to do the same. The revenue was meant for the muqti's own expenses, payment and maintenance of the troops and the rest had to be sent back to the king. The muqti was thus a tax collector and army paymaster rolled into one.

Iqta‘ in the Mamluk sultanate of Delhi.

Shamsa ud-din Iltutmish established the "Iqta‘ system" based on Mohammad Gori's ideas. It was very close to the original form of Iqta' as its main function was only to collect taxes by Muqtis/Iqtedars in India. They had no other right to the subjects apart from the taxes as long as taxes were paid. The money was used to pay for the landowner's army, which could be called by the Sultan at any time, making up for a relatively quick mobilisation and highly professional soldiers. A small part of the money was to be given to the Sultan, but the percentage was usually insignificant compared to the other expenses. Iqtas were given for exceptional military service or loyalty and were, unlike the original, usually hereditary. The Iqta‘ system was later reorganized by Balban, who divided his empire into small pieces of land and opposed making Iqta hereditary. His absolutist rule concentrated on limiting the power of the estates (mainly the nobility and merchants) and securing his supreme authority as the king. He also dissolved the Council of Forty - Chahalgani, a form of sharing power between the highest nobles and the king. His rule was supported by the strengthened espionage and counter-espionage system and his personal secret police, called "barids". The Iqta' system was revived by Firuz Shah Tughlaq of the Tughlaq dynasty, having also made the assignments hereditary to please the nobles.

Iqta‘ and feudalism.

Although there are similarities between the Iqta‘ system and the common fief system practiced in the west at similar periods, there are also considerable differences.  The Iqta‘ holders generally did not technically own the lands, but only assume the right to the revenue of the land, a right that the government typically reserved the right to change. Many Iqta‘ holders did not hold their Iqta' for life, and at least in most cases they were not subject to inheritance to the next generation.  Although the subjects attached to the Iqta‘ were still technically free men, in real practice the end result often end up with them functioning like serfs.  There are significant variances in the actual implementation of Iqta' systems throughout the different periods and in different area, so it is difficult to completely generalize them.

Iqta‘ () was an Islamic practice of tax farming that became common in Muslim Asia during the Buyid dynasty. The prominent Orientalist Claude Cahen described the Iqta‘ as follows: a form of administrative grant, often (wrongly) translated by the European word "fief". The nature of the iḳṭāʿ varied according to time and place, and a translation borrowed from other systems of institutions and conceptions has served only too often to mislead Western historians, and following them, even those of the East.

Iqtaʿ () ist eine Form des Militärlehens, das vor allem in Persien, dem Irak und Syrien Verbreitung fand. Mit zunehmenden Kosten für das Heer aus Berufssoldaten gingen die Abbasiden seit dem Ende des 9. Jahrhunderts dazu über, Offizieren statt einer Besoldung „Konzessionen“ (Pachtverträge) zu überlassen. Diese berechtigten in den zugewiesenen Landstrichen zur Eintreibung von Steuern, Zöllen und anderen Abgaben auf eigene Rechnung. Dafür mussten die Offiziere eine bestimmte Anzahl von Soldaten unterhalten und ausrüsten. Als die Erträge zurückgingen, erhielten sie die gepachteten Ländereien als Eigentum. So entstand eine grundbesitzende Offiziersschicht. Die Machtstellung der Militärs wurde durch die Einrichtung des Atabeg noch verstärkt.


Definition.

The Knudsen number is a dimensionless number defined as  where  The representative length scale considered, formula_3, may correspond to various physical traits of a system, but most commonly relates to a "gap length" over which thermal transport or mass transport occurs through a gas phase. This is the case in porous and granular materials, where the thermal transport through a gas phase depends highly on its pressure and the consequent mean free path of molecules in this phase. For a Boltzmann gas, the mean free path may be readily calculated, so that  where  For particle dynamics in the atmosphere, and assuming standard temperature and pressure, i.e. 0 °C and 1 atm, we have formula_2 ≈ (80 nm).

Relationship to Mach and Reynolds numbers in gases.

The Knudsen number can be related to the Mach number and the Reynolds number.  Using the dynamic viscosity  with the average molecule speed (from Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution)  the [mean free path] is determined as follows:  Dividing through by "L" (some characteristic length), the Knudsen number is obtained:  where  The dimensionless Mach number can be written as  where the speed of sound is given by  where  The dimensionless Reynolds number can be written as  Dividing the Mach number by the Reynolds number:  and by multiplying by formula_21 yields the Knudsen number:  The Mach, Reynolds and Knudsen numbers are therefore related by

Application.

The Knudsen number can be used to determine the rarefaction of a flow : This regime classification is empirical and problem dependent but has proven useful to adequately model flows.  Problems with high Knudsen numbers include the calculation of the motion of a dust particle through the lower atmosphere and the motion of a satellite through the exosphere. One of the most widely used applications for the Knudsen number is in microfluidics and MEMS device design where flows range from continuum to free-molecular. Movements of fluids in situations with a high Knudsen number are said to exhibit Knudsen flow, also called free molecular flow.  Airflow around an aircraft such as an airliner has a low Knudsen number, making it firmly in the realm of continuum mechanics. Using the Knudsen number an adjustment for Stokes' law can be used in the Cunningham correction factor, this is a drag force correction due to slip in small particles (i.e. "d" < 5 μm). The flow of water through a nozzle will usually be a situation with a low Knudsen number.  Mixtures of gases with different molecular masses can be partly separated by sending the mixture through small holes of a thin wall because the numbers of molecules that pass through a hole is proportional to the pressure of the gas and inversely proportional to its molecular mass. The technique has been used to separate isotopic mixtures, such as uranium, using porous membranes, It has also been successfully demonstrated for use in hydrogen production from water.  The Knudsen number also plays an important role in thermal conduction in gases. For insulation materials, for example, where gases are contained under low pressure, the Knudsen number should be as high as possible to ensure low thermal conductivity.

The Knudsen number (Kn) is a dimensionless number defined as the ratio of the molecular mean free path length to a representative physical length scale. This length scale could be, for example, the radius of a body in a fluid. The number is named after Danish physicist Martin Knudsen (1871–1949).

Die Knudsen-Zahl formula_1 (nach dem dänischen Naturwissenschaftler Martin Knudsen) ist eine dimensionslose Kennzahl zur Abschätzung des Strömungsverhaltens einer Gasströmung. Sie zeigt das Verhältnis der mittleren freien Weglänge formula_2 der Gasmoleküle zu einer charakteristischen Länge formula_3 des Strömungsfeldes (z. B. Durchmesser eines durchströmten Rohres). Sie zeigt, ob die Bewegung eines Gases als Kontinuum strömungsmechanisch oder als Bewegung der einzelnen Teilchen beschrieben werden kann.


History.

Benton County was created on December 23, 1847 by an act of the Provisional Government of Oregon. The county was named after Democratic Senator Thomas Hart Benton of Missouri, an advocate of the doctrine of Manifest Destiny and the belief that the American government should control the whole of the Oregon Country. At the time of its formation the county included all the country west of the Willamette River, south of Polk County and running all the way to the California border in the south and the Pacific Ocean in the west.  The county was created out of lands originally inhabited by the Klickitat, who rented it from the Kalapuyas for use as hunting grounds. All aboriginal claims to land within Benton County were ceded in the Treaty of Dayton in 1855. Portions of Benton County were taken to form Coos, Curry, Douglas, Jackson, Josephine, Lane and Lincoln Counties, leaving Benton County in its present form.  The city of Marysville, later renamed Corvallis, was made the county seat in 1851. The city briefly was the capital of Oregon. In 1862 Corvallis became the site of the Oregon State Agricultural College, known today as Oregon State University.

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which is land and (0.4%) is water. It is the fourth-smallest county in Oregon by land area and third-smallest by total area.

Demographics.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 78,153 people, 30,145 households, and 18,237 families residing in the county. The population density was 116 people per square mile (45/km2). There were 31,980 housing units at an average density of 47 per square mile (18/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 89.16% White, 0.84% Black or African American, 0.79% Native American, 4.49% Asian, 0.24% Pacific Islander, 1.92% from other races, and 2.56% from two or more races. 4.66% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 18.2% were of German, 11.6% English, 8.9% Irish and 7.0% American ancestry. 91.1% spoke English, 4.1% Spanish and 1.0% Chinese as their first language.  There were 30,145 households out of which 28.40% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.40% were married couples living together, 7.20% had a female householder with no husband present, and 39.50% were non-families. 26.10% of all households were made up of individuals and 6.70% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.43 and the average family size was 2.95.  In the county, the population was spread out with 21.30% under the age of 18, 20.20% from 18 to 24, 26.70% from 25 to 44, 21.40% from 45 to 64, and 10.30% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females there were 99.10 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.80 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $41,897, and the median income for a family was $56,319. Males had a median income of $42,018 versus $29,795 for females. The per capita income for the county was $21,868. About 6.80% of families and 14.60% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10.60% of those under age 18 and 4.90% of those age 65 or over.  Benton County has the lowest church attendance per capita of any county in the nation (25% attendance).

2010 census.

As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 85,579 people, 34,317 households, and 19,256 families residing in the county. The population density was. There were 36,245 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the county was 87.1% white, 5.2% Asian, 0.9% black or African American, 0.7% American Indian, 0.2% Pacific islander, 2.3% from other races, and 3.6% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 6.4% of the population. In terms of ancestry, 22.6% were German, 16.1% were English, 13.5% were Irish, and 3.6% were American.  Of the 34,317 households, 24.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.3% were married couples living together, 7.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 43.9% were non-families, and 28.2% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 2.87. The median age was 32.1 years.  The median income for a household in the county was $48,012 and the median income for a family was $71,763. Males had a median income of $50,282 versus $35,387 for females. The per capita income for the county was $26,177. About 7.7% of families and 19.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13.6% of those under age 18 and 5.5% of those age 65 or over.

Politics and government.

For a long time Benton County strongly favored the Republican Party. Along with Riverside County in California it was one of only two counties in the Pacific States to be held by Herbert Hoover in 1932. As late as 1960 Benton was the most Republican county in the traditionally Republican state of Oregon, which at that point had never supported a Democrat other than FDR for President except for 1912 when the Republican Party was divided and a very narrow victory in 1868. Up to 1984 Benton County had voted for a Democratic Presidential candidate only four times, in the above-mentioned 1868 election plus the national Democratic landslides of 1912, 1936 and 1964. In 1964, Lyndon Johnson became the first Democrat to win an absolute majority of the county's vote since Horatio Seymour.  The Republican edge in the county narrowed from the 1970s onward, culminating when it swung from a five-point victory for Ronald Reagan in 1984 to a nine-point victory for Michael Dukakis in 1988. Since then, Benton County has become a strongly Democratic county, and is usually the second-strongest Democratic bastion in the state, behind only Multnomah County (Portland). This is largely due to the leanings of Oregon State's student body and staff, closely tracking with Democratic gains in other counties influenced by college towns. No Republican has come within nine percentage points of carrying Benton County since 1988, and Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton have won the county by over thirty percentage points during each of the last three presidential elections.  Since 1972, Benton County has been a home rule county, meaning that the citizens have full control over the county charter, rather than using a standard charter issued by the state. The voters have chosen to eliminate the traditional elected county offices of Assessor, Treasurer, Surveyor, Justice of the Peace, and Clerk. Currently, they only elect three County Commissioners and a Sheriff.  The three current Benton County Commissioners are Chair Ann Schuster, Vice-Chair Xanthippe Augerot, and Annabelle Jaramillo. They are all members of the Democratic Party and have served since 2015, 2017, and 2001; respectively. Jaramillo and Augerot's current terms expire in January 2021, while Schuster's is up in January 2019.  The current Benton County Sheriff is Scott Jackson. He was appointed to the office as of July 1, 2013 to fill the remainder of the term of retiring sheriff Diana Simpson, the first elected female sheriff in Oregon. He faces reelection in the November 2018 General Election.

Economy.

Along with Oregon State University, agriculture, lumber, wood products, and some printing technology research and development form the economic base of the county. A substantial portion of the nation's research in forestry, agriculture, engineering, education and the sciences takes place at OSU.

Benton County is a county in the U.S. state of Oregon. As of the 2010 census, the population was 85,579. Its county seat is Corvallis. The county was named after Thomas Hart Benton, a U.S. Senator who advocated American control over the Oregon Country.

Benton County ist ein County im US-Bundesstaat Oregon der Vereinigten Staaten. Bei der Volkszählung im Jahr 2000 hatte das County 78.153 Einwohner und eine Bevölkerungsdichte von 45 Einwohnern pro Quadratkilometer. Der Verwaltungssitz (County Seat) ist Corvallis. Benannt ist das County nach dem Senator Thomas Hart Benton.


Jung's persona.

Identification.

The development of a viable social persona is a vital part of adapting to, and preparing for, adult life in the external social world. "A strong ego relates to the outside world through a flexible persona; identifications with a specific persona (doctor, scholar, artist, etc.) inhibits psychological development... Thus for Jung "the danger is that [people] become identical with their personas—the professor with his textbook, the tenor with his voice." The result could be "the shallow, brittle, conformist kind of personality which is 'all persona', with its excessive concern for 'what people think'"—an unreflecting state of mind 'in which people are utterly unconscious of any distinction between themselves and the world in which they live. They have little or no concept of themselves as beings distinct from what society expects of them'. The stage was set thereby for what Jung termed enantiodromia—the emergence of the repressed individuality from beneath the persona later in life: 'the individual will either be completely smothered under an empty persona or an enantiodromia into the buried opposites will occur'.

Disintegration.

"The breakdown of the persona constitutes the typically Jungian moment both in therapy and in development"—the "moment" when "that excessive commitment to collective ideals masking deeper individuality—the persona—breaks down... disintegrates." Given Jung's view that "the persona is a semblance... the dissolution of the persona is therefore absolutely necessary for individuation." Nevertheless, its disintegration may well lead initially to a state of chaos in the individual: "one result of the dissolution of the persona is the release of fantasy... disorientation." As the individuation process gets under way, "the situation has thrown off the conventional husk and developed into a stark encounter with reality, with no false veils or adornments of any kind."

Negative restoration.

One possible reaction to the resulting experience of archetypal chaos was what Jung called "the regressive restoration of the persona", whereby the protagonist "laboriously tries to patch up his social reputation within the confines of a much more limited personality... pretending that he is as he was "before" the crucial experience." Similarly in treatment there can be "the "persona-restoring" phase, which is an effort to maintain superficiality"; or even a longer phase designed not to promote individuation but to bring about what Jung caricatured as "the negative restoration of the persona"—that is to say, a reversion to the "status quo".

Absence.

The alternative is to endure living with the absence of the persona—and for Jung "the man with no persona... is blind to the reality of the world, which for him has merely the value of an amusing or fantastic playground." Inevitably, the result of "the streaming in of the unconscious into the conscious realm, simultaneously with the dissolution of the 'persona' and the reduction of the directive force of consciousness, is a state of disturbed psychic equilibrium." Those trapped at such a stage remain "blind to the world, hopeless dreamers... spectral Cassandras dreaded for their tactlessness, eternally misunderstood."

Restoration.

Recovery, the aim of individuation, "is not only achieved by work on the inside figures but also, as "conditio sine qua non", by a readaptation in outer life"—including the recreation of a new and more viable persona. To "develop a stronger persona... might feel inauthentic, like learning to "play a role"... but if one cannot perform a social role then one will suffer". Thus one goal for individuation is for people to "develop a more realistic, flexible persona that helps them navigate in society but does not collide with nor hide their true self". Eventually, "in the best case, the persona is appropriate and tasteful, a true reflection of our inner individuality and our outward sense of self."

Later developments.

The persona has become one of the most widely adopted aspects of Jungian terminology, passing into almost common parlance: "a mask or shield which the person places between himself and the people around him, called by some psychiatrists the "persona"." For Eric Berne, "the persona is formed during the years from six to twelve, when most children first go out on their own... to avoid unwanted entanglements or promote wanted ones." He was interested in "the relationship between ego states and the Jungian "persona"", and considered that "as an "ad hoc" attitude, persona is differentiated also from the more autonomous "identity" of Erikson." Perhaps more contentiously, in terms of life scripts, he distinguished "the Archetypes (corresponding to the magic figures in a script) and the Persona (which is the style the script is played in)".  Post-Jungians would loosely call the persona "the "social" archetype of the "conformity" archetype", though Jung himself was always concerned to distinguish the persona as an external function from those images of the unconscious he called archetypes. Thus whereas Jung recommended conversing with archetypes as a therapeutic technique he himself had employed—"For decades I always turned to the anima when I felt my emotional behavior was disturbed, and I would speak with the anima about the images she communicated to me"—he stressed that "It would indeed be the height of absurdity if a man tried to have a conversation with his persona, which he recognized merely as a psychological means of relationship."

Jordan Peterson.

University of Toronto psychology professor Jordan Peterson, well-known as an admirer of Jung’s work, uses Jungian terminology but reconfigures it into a model that divides the psychological world into the domains of ‘nature’ and ‘culture.’ The Great Father of culture is an archetypal force that shapes the potential of chaos into the actuality of order. In this framework, the persona would be the aspect of the personality that has been adapted to culture, more specifically to the social dominance hierarchy. People who refuse to submit to this social discipline or carry the responsibility inherent in having a role in the world remain as undifferentiated potential, known in more Jungian terms as peter pan syndrome, or the negative aspect of the puer aeternus.  Though Jung doesn’t use this framework exactly, it is broadly in accordance with his conception of the persona as defined in his Two Essays on Analytical Psychology:  “We can see how a neglected persona works, and what one must do to remedy the evil. Such people can avoid disappointments and an infinity of sufferings, scenes, and social catastrophes only by learning to see how men behave in the world. They must learn to understand what society expects of them; they must realize that there are factors and persons in the world far above them; they must know that what they do has a meaning for others.”

The persona, for Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung, was the social face the individual presented to the world—"a kind of mask, designed on the one hand to make a definite impression upon others, and on the other to conceal the true nature of the individual".

Als Persona wird in der Psychologie die nach außen hin gezeigte Einstellung eines Menschen bezeichnet, die seiner sozialen Anpassung dient und manchmal auch mit seinem Selbstbild identisch ist. Der Begriff entspricht dem griechischen "πρόσωπον/prosopon" = Gesicht, der sich wie auch das lateinische "persona" bereits in der Antike auf die Bedeutungen 'Schauspielermaske' (wie im antiken Theater), 'Rolle' (im Schauspiel oder Leben), 'Amtsstellung' und allgemein 'Person'/'Persönlichkeit' auffächerte. Das Wort 'Persona' wurde auch als das 'Hindurchtönen' ("personare" = hindurchtönen, klingen lassen) der Stimme des Schauspielers durch seine Maske, die seine Rolle typisierte, verstanden. - In jüngster Zeit wird "Persona" auch für im Internet gezeigte Schein-Identitäten verwendet.