Pre-Black Lace (1973–1975).

Terry Dobson and school friend Ian Howarth formed The Impact, as a five-piece pop group in 1969, with Alan Barton, Steve Scholey and Nigel Scott. The group also performed under the names Penny Arcade and Love or Confusion.  Howarth left the band for a short while but returned to the line-up in 1974, and Dobson also left to be replaced briefly by Neil Hardcastle. Dobson then re-joined and Scott left in 1975; that same year the band adopted the name Black Lace. Howarth left the band for good in 1976, and was replaced by Colin Gibb (born Colin Routh, 8 December 1953).

Black Lace (1976–1981).

After turning professional at the beginning of 1976, the band toured the majority of the UK, managed by Keith Mills, commencing their first summer season at the Skegness Bier Garten. The following year their summer season would take them to Butlins in Filey, North Yorkshire and Skegness, Lincolnshire. An EP was recorded and produced by comedian Freddie 'Parrotface' Davis at his studio, which was to be sold at their shows. The group were voted Yorkshire Band of the Year by BBC Radio Leeds, and best clubland group playing at the Winter Gardens, Blackpool.  In 1979, Black Lace recorded their first single, "Mary Ann", for ATV music and a recording contract followed with EMI. As the song required a more 'throaty' vocal, Alan Barton was switched to being lead singer, with Steve Scholey moving to backing vocals for the band's recordings, but remained as lead singer on live performances. The song won the BBC Television's and the band went on to represent the UK At the 1979 [[Eurovision Song Contest held in Israel, the band finished seventh. Other television appearances around this time included "[[Nationwide (TV programme)|Nationwide]]", "[[Multi-Coloured Swap Shop]]", "[[Top of the Pops]]" and "[[Juke Box Jury]]". "Mary Ann" reached No. 42 in the [[UK Singles Chart]].  The band's follow-up single, "So Long Suzy Baby", failed to chart in the UK (as EMI couldn't decide on which track should be used and delayed on the planned release date), but achieved success in Europe. Black Lace found great success with live performances and TV shows, notably the 'Sopot International music festival' in Poland and the 'Golden Orpheus festval' in Bulgaria, and on TV in East Germany, West Germany and Spain.  The band toured Denmark in 1980, supporting [[Suzi Quatro]] and working with [[Tommy Seebach]], a Danish entertainer. Black Lace and Seebach recorded "Hey Hey Jock McRay" for the Danish singles market, but an intended 1980 tour of Poland was called off because of political unrest in the country.

Chart success (1981–1987).

In 1981, the band split. Dobson joined the Castleford rock band Stormer who had a recording contract with [[Ringo Starr]]. Scholey departed, leaving the others to settle huge debts incurred whilst touring. The band became a duo of Gibb and Barton. It was this line-up that would give the band its biggest [[Record chart|chart]] success.  The duo played the Northern club circuit using pre-recorded backing tracks, which was controversial at the time. Initially they used the name 'Lace' but soon reverted to 'Black Lace' and recruited a new manager, John Wagstaff. They recorded an instrumental single based on the "[[Chicken Dance]]", released as "Birds Dance" in 1981 (using the name 'Busby' instead of Black lace). However, the record was beaten to the charts by another version of the song by The Tweets released as "The Birdie Song". "Birds Dance" has since been retitled "The Birdie Song" and included on Black Lace albums.  Black Lace's 1983 "Superman" single was their first one under their own name on the Flair label, and a promotional [[Music video|video]] was shot at Casanova's [[nightclub]] in Wakefield. One of the hired dancers was the then unknown singer [[Jane McDonald]]. "Superman" reached No. 9 in the UK chart, but an attempt at a follow-up single "Hey You!" failed to chart despite being [[BBC Radio One]]'s 'Record of the Week'. Black Lace received a [[Music recording sales certification|silver disc]] for sales of "Superman". They proceeded to tour Denmark with Danish stars '[[Laban (artist)|Laban]]' and 'Snapshots'  The band's biggest success came in 1984 with the single "[[Agadoo]]", selling over one million copies worldwide and reaching No. 2 in the UK chart. "Agadoo" was a hit in Europe, South Africa and Australia. Having been presented with a gold disc for sales in the UK. In a radio interview, presenter, Richard Whiteley forgets Gibb's name and refers to him as 'Mr Agadoo' (the name, Dean Michaels latter adopts for himself, although having no connection with the actual record) The duo recorded their first album "Black Lace" at Stuck Ranch studios in Denmark. Around this time their record distribution company 'Pinicle' went into receivership, leading to Black Lace and their record company losing an estimated quarter of a million pounds in unpaid [[royalties]] for "Agadoo".  The band's follow-up single, "Do The Conga", reached No. 10 in the UK chart, and the accompanying album "Party Party – 16 Great Party Icebreakers" sold over 650,000 copies in the first five weeks, reaching double platinum status and leading to the band doing TV shows in Germany, Luxembourg, France and Denmark.  In 1985 another single, "El Vino Collapso", was released, with the video shot in Skegness. It failed to reach the top 40, stalling at No. 42 in the UK Singles Chart due to it being 'banned' by the BBC in the wake of the [[Heysel Stadium disaster]], as it had references to "drinking whilst abroad" and deemed unsuitable for radio play. Further releases "I Speaka Da Lingo" and "Hokey Cokey" reached No. 49 and No. 31, respectively.  Black Lace also participated in the recording of the UK No. 1 hit "[[You'll Never Walk Alone]]" as part of the charity ensemble, [[The Crowd (band)|The Crowd]] (which included members of [[10cc]], [[Thin Lizzy]], [[Motörhead]], [[The Hollies]], [[Argent (band)|Argent]], [[The Who]], [[The Nolans]], [[The Searchers (band)|The Searchers]], [[Smokie (band)|Smokey]], [[Gerry and the Pacemakers]], plus many more) to raise funds for the families of the victims of the [[Bradford City stadium fire]].  Black Lace's second album "Party Party 2" was released for Christmas 1985, and television appearances included a Black Lace special on the [[BBC Two|BBC 2]] rock show "[[The Old Grey Whistle Test]]", plus "[[3-2-1]]", "[[ITV Telethon]]", "Miss Yorkshire Television", "International Disco Dance Championship", "[[Pebble Mill at One]]", and "Top of the Pops" Christmas Special. Because of such a demanding work schedule, Barton and Gibb found it necessary to charter a private aircraft to meet the deadlines, but the band's success led to a tax demand in excess of £100,000.  In 1986, Dene Michael replaced Gibb, who took time out of live work with Black Lace (remaining an official member of the band) to concentrate on other projects including: promoting pop act 'Party Party' and participating in two tours of Germany, concentrating on a part time photography business, setting up a food retail outlet, and a music equipment retail and installation business.  Another single, "Wig Wam Bam", (featuring Barton, Gibb and Michael) reached No. 63 in the UK chart, but "Viva La Mexico", which was released to capitalise on the [[1986 FIFA World Cup]] football competition, flopped when [[England national football team|England]] was knocked out. Black Lace (Barton and Michael) appeared as themselves in the filming of the 1987 film "[[Rita, Sue and Bob Too]]", which featured "Gang Bang" and "Have a Screw", which had been recorded by Barton and Gibb the previous year. The pair where also immortalised as caricatures in the TV show '[[Spitting Image]]' and the hit single '[[The Chicken Song]]'. The band had a UK hit with their album "Party Crazy".

Later career (1987–present).

September 1987 saw a switch round, Gibb returned ‘full time’ with the band whilst Barton left to join [[Smokie (band)|Smokie]]. Michael became a full-time member of Black Lace and he and Gibb released the single "Jammin' the Sixties" under the name Barracuda. The record was BBC Radio One's Record of the Week, but failed to chart. Summer seasons at the [[Blackpool Tower]] followed in 1989 and 1990, plus performances at the 'BBC Radio One Roadshow' in the town, along with the release of the single [[The Music Man (song)|"I Am The Music Man]]" which peaked at No. 52 in the UK. In 1991, due to personal issues, Michael was forced to leave the band to be replaced by Rob Hopcraft. The pair released the single "Penny Arcade", penned by close friend Sammy King, which had originally been a hit for [[Roy Orbison]] in 1979. The band appeared on the BBC's "[[Children in Need]]" programme. Under an agreement with Gibb and Wagstaf, not to use the 'Black lace' name, Michael forms new band and uses the name ‘'Barracuda'’ but shortly disband. 1992 Black Lace toured Australia, but Hopcraft was unhappy with a hits album released by an Australian record company as it featured a photograph of his predecessor Dene Michael.  1994 saw the release of the single "Bullshit (Cotton Eyed Joe)", but the race for the charts was won by the Swedish band [[Rednex]] with another version of the same song. An album, "Saturday Night", followed.  In 1995, Barton died as a result of a coach crash in Germany while touring with Smokie. Also in that year Black Lace shot a promotional video for the single "Electric Slide" in [[Benidorm]], the first video not to be filmed in the UK, and played on British breakfast station [[GMTV]] live from [[Torremolinos]] in Spain.  Black Lace played one-off shows in 1996 at DJ conventions in Canada and [[Atlantic City, New Jersey]], United States. They released the "Action Party" and "Best Of" albums. Gibb was presented with a special Agadoo guitar to celebrate the band's 20th anniversary, but in 1996 Gibb was also made bankrupt by the [[Inland Revenue]].  15 August 1997 was deemed Agadoo Day. Black Lace played 20 shows in 24 hours in Manchester, London, Watford, Northampton, Sheffield, Barnsley, Wakefield, and Leeds, finishing at the Frontier Club, Batley. The event raised over £25,000 for [[Marie Curie Cancer Care]]. [[Peugeot]] used "Agadoo" in a TV advertisement for the new [[Peugeot 106|106]] car, and Black Lace re-recorded the track renaming it 'Agadoo 106 mix', donating all their royalties to 'Marie Curie Cancer Care'. The record spent one week in the UK chart.  A 1999 Black Lace charity reunion concert was organised by their former drummer, Terry Dobson, to celebrate 20 years since the band represented the UK in the Eurovision Song Contest. Live television interviews took place with ITV's "[[ITV News Calendar|Calendar]]", and the BBC's regional news programmes, on the day of the event. The late Alan Barton's son, Dean, took Alan's place in the band, but original member Steve Scholey declined to attend.  2000. Black Lace become the first band to play at the Ill fated [[Millennium Dome]].  2001, a totally different line up style as Hopcraft is replaced by female vocalist/dancer, Camille Wagstaff and release the single 'Follow the leader' before disbanding.  In 2002, Colin Gibb took the original Black Lace show to [[Tenerife]], playing the now internationally famous 'party shows' in hotels and restaurants on the island, occasionally visiting the UK for TV appearances. In 2003, an adult-themed album called "Blue" (originally recorded in the UK years previously by Gibb and Michael, and 'banned' by their own record label) was released. In 2004, Gibb took the Black Lace show to mainland Spain to appear alongside Elvis tribute artiste Mike Young and other guest acts at 'The King Lives On' cabaret bar on the [[Costa Blanca]], returning to Tenerife for contracted shows in 2005. In 2007, Gibb married in the UK his long-time girlfriend Sue Kelly. In 2008, Gibb was invited to play bass with the Tenerife-based five-piece rock band 'The Phoenix', along with the duos 'To The Limit' and Just one more'. More recently, he played in the blues rock band Traveler, in addition to performing the Black Lace Show.  In 2007, Michael started performing again as Black Lace (in contradiction to an agreement with Gibb and record company/management NOW Music, stating he would never use the title 'Black Lace') alongside a new addition, the Liverpudlian singer Ian Robinson. They released a new mambo version of "Agadoo". In the accompanying video, [[Bruce Jones (actor)|Bruce Jones]] played a cameo role and directed the event. [[Roy "Chubby" Brown]] and [[Kevin Kennedy (actor)|Kevin Kennedy]] also made cameo appearances in the video, as did several members of the cast of the ITV situation comedy "[[Benidorm (TV series)|Benidorm]]". On 4 November 2009, the 'new' incarnation of Black Lace was filmed by the British airline [[easyJet]], performing a re-written version of "Agadoo" for release on the video-sharing website [[YouTube]], launching a new air service between [[Gatwick Airport]] and [[Agadir]] in Morocco. Dobson's book, "And Then Came Agadoo", was published by Authorhouse in November 2009.  Michael and Robinson recorded a new version of "I Am The Music Man" for the BBC "Children in Need" appeal in 2009. In 2010, they recorded yet another version of "I Am The Music Man", this time entitled "We Are The England Fans", as an unofficial England supporters' song to coincide with the [[2010 FIFA World Cup]], which also included the future Black Lace member Craig Harper. In 2011, Michael and Robinson recorded a television advertisement for [[Trainline|Thetrainline.com]] which led to a new recording of "Do The Conga". In December that year, Michael teamed up with [[Crissy Rock]] and recorded a Christmas single called "Christmas Time" and an accompanying video. In 2012, Michael recorded two solo records, "Life Force" and "The First Christmas Light".  In 2014, to celebrate the 30th anniversary of "Agadoo", a limited edition "Black Lace Live" album was released, which was recorded and mixed in [[Tenerife]].  In 2015, a television advertisement for [[Walkers (snack foods)|Walkers crisps]] was shown on British TV, featuring Michael and Robinson (under the name 'Old Lace') performing alongside [[Gary Lineker]] singing along to "Agadoo".  In 2016, Gibb, celebrating 40 years since Black Lace was formed, teamed up with guitarist and vocalist Gordon King for live shows, keeping the style and tradition of the original format: loud guitars, even louder shirts, cheesy dance routines and that 'tongue in cheek' and sometimes 'risky' comedy.  In 2016, Dene Michael was charged with fraud and jailed for six months for claiming £25,000 in disability allowances.  In 2018, Dene Michael teamed up with Craig Harper (runner up of series two of "[[Britain's Got Talent]]" back in 2008) to form the new look group Black Lace a.k.a Black Lace's Conga Party. They played many of the mainstream '80s festivals and can be seen regularly performing at [[Butlins]] '80s weekenders, [[Pontins]] 48-hour party weekenders, and the [[Lets Rock 80's]] festival.  Black Lace (Gibb and King) were nominated at the [[Tenerife]] Entertainment Awards for Best Group.  In 2019, Black Lace (Gibb and King) became associated with UK dressage team The Agadoo Girls, consisting of 7 members with Gibb's cousin Debbie Cox, as team captain. They came top at their debut Team Quest competition at Richmond Equestrian Centre in June.  The Original Black Lace (Gibb/King) concluded 2019 having performed 278 shows in 221 days.  2020, 8th May, Rob Hopcraft dies, thought to be the result of a fall.

In popular culture.

The group were famously lampooned in the UK No. 1 chart single "The Chicken Song", recorded as part of the "Spitting Image" programme. A parody of Black Lace's style, it contained a specific reference to the band members "Barton/ Gibb" with the line "those two wet gits with their girly curly hair".  Black Lace (Barton and Gibb) have also been voted in the top five all time 'Best Party' songs, 'Best Holiday' songs, and 'Worst Records of all time'  Both Gibb and the late Alan Barton's estate are still owed royalties, with regard to many 'licensed' albums released by independent record companies around the world, and to date, have not received any royalty payments, for repeated BBC "Top of the Pops"/"Top of the Pops 2" appearances, of which there have been several hundred, dating back to the mid-1990s.  [[Category:Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 1979]]

External links.

[[Category:English pop music groups]] [[Category:British novelty song performers]] [[Category:Eurovision Song Contest entrants for the United Kingdom]] [[Category:Music in Yorkshire]]

Black Lace are a British pop band, best known for novelty party records, including their biggest hit, "Agadoo". The band first came to the public eye after being selected to represent the UK in the 1979 Eurovision Song Contest, in which they finished seventh with the song "Mary Ann". With numerous line-up changes (the only original member being Colin Gibb), Black Lace went on to have success with novelty party anthems such as "Superman" and "Do the Conga".

Ein Serienbrief ist ein Dokument, das an viele Empfänger versendet wird. Er ist damit eine Kategorie der Kommunikationslogistik. Adresse, Anrede und Teile des Inhalts sind meist personalisiert und können den Anschein eines persönlichen Anschreibens erwecken.


Name.

The English name "Tutelo" comes from the Algonquian variant of the name that the Iroquois used for all the Virginia Siouan tribes: Toderochrone (many variant spellings). The Tutelo autonym (name for themselves) was Yesan, Yesah or Yesang. This is also connected with the name Nahyssan, as well as earlier colonial-era spellings, such as Monahassanough (John Smith).

History.

The Tutelo historic homeland was said to include the area of the Big Sandy River on the West Virginia-Kentucky border, which they called the "Totteroy River." The Iroquois drove them from this region during the later Beaver Wars (c. 1670), after which the Iroquois established the Ohio Valley as their hunting ground by right of conquest.  Although previously known to the Virginia colonists by their other names, a form of "Tutelo" first appeared in Virginia records in 1671, when the Batts and Fallam expedition noted their visit to "Totero Town" near what is now Salem, Virginia. A few years later, the Tutelo / Nahyssan joined the Saponi to live on islands located where the Dan and Staunton rivers join to become the Roanoke River. It was just above the territory of the Occaneechi. For a time, the Tutelo had a settlement in what is now Floyd County, VA on the banks of the New River. Many of the sherds collected there and the small triangular points, suggest a mid- to late 16th-century or an early 17th-century date.  In 1701, they were noted as living at the headwaters of the Yadkin River in North Carolina. After 1714, collectively known as the Saponi-Tutelo, they resided at Junkatapurse around Fort Christanna in Brunswick County, Virginia, near the border with North Carolina.  Over the 1730s, remnants of the Saponi, Tutelo, and Occaneechi Indians moved north to Shamokin, Pennsylvania and sought the protection of the Oneida viceroy, "Shickellamy". They moved further north into present-day western New York, where they settled.  These Siouan remnants were formally adopted by the Cayuga nation of New York in 1753. Their village of "Coreorgonel" was located near present-day Ithaca, New York and Buttermilk Falls State Park. There they lived under the protection of the Cayuga until Coreorgonel, along with many other Iroquois towns, was destroyed during the American Revolutionary War by the Sullivan Expedition of 1779. It was retaliating for British-Iroquois raids against the American rebels.  The Tutelo went with the Iroquois to Canada, where the British offered land for resettlement at what became known as the Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation. They continued to live among the Cayuga and were eventually absorbed by them through intermarriage. The last known full-blooded Tutelo speaker, Nikonha or Waskiteng ("Old Mosquito") died in 1870 at the age of 105. He had given extensive linguistic material to the scholar Horatio Hale, who confirmed the Tutelo language as Siouan.

The Tutelo (also Totero, Totteroy, Tutera; Yesan in Tutelo) were Native American people living above the Fall Line in present-day Virginia and West Virginia. They spoke a Siouan dialect of the Tutelo language thought to be similar to that of their neighbors, the Monacan and Manahoac nations. Under pressure from English settlers and Seneca Iroquois, they joined with other Virginia Siouan tribes in the late 17th century and became collectively known as the Tutelo-Saponi. By 1740, they had largely left Virginia and migrated north to seek protection from their former Iroquois opponents. They were adopted by the Cayuga tribe of New York in 1753.

Die Tutelo waren ein nordamerikanischer Indianerstamm aus der Sioux-Sprachfamilie. Sie waren sprachlich und kulturell mit den Stämmen der Saponi, Occaneechi, Monacan, Manahoac, Shakori und anderen östlichen Völkern der Sioux verwandt, deren traditioneller Lebensraum oberhalb der Falllinie der Appalachen in den heutigen Bundesstaaten North Carolina und Virginia lag. Das Zentrum des einstigen Stammesgebiets der Tutelo lag bei der heutigen Ortschaft Salem am Big Sandy River im US-Bundesstaat Virginia. Im späten 17. Jahrhundert litten sie unter ständigem Druck durch englische Kolonisten und feindliche Irokesen aus dem Norden, so dass sie sich mit ihren nächsten Nachbarn vereinigten und als Tutelo-Saponi bezeichnet wurden. Um 1740 verließen sie Virginia und zogen nach Norden, um Schutz bei ihren früheren Feinden zu suchen. Im Jahr 1753 wurden sie von den Cayuga aus der Irokesenliga im heutigen US-Bundesstaat New York aufgenommen und verloren ihre Identität als separater Stamm. Heute gelten die Tutelo als ausgestorben.


History.

Origin.

In the geographic monographs of the "Book of Han", the word Goguryeo () made its first appearance in 113 BC in the name of Gaogouli County under the jurisdiction of Xuantu Commandery. In the "Old Book of Tang" (945), it is recorded that Emperor Taizong refers to Goguryeo's history as being some 900 years old. According to the 12th-century "Samguk sagi" and the 13th-century "Samgungnyusa", a prince from the Buyeo kingdom named Jumong fled after a power struggle with other princes of the court and founded Goguryeo in 37 BC in a region called Jolbon Buyeo, usually thought to be located in the middle Yalu and Tongjia River basin, overlapping the current China-North Korea border.  In 75 BC, a group of Yemaek who may have originated from Goguryeo made an incursion into China's

Jumong and the foundation myth.

The earliest mention of Jumong is in the 4th-century Gwanggaeto Stele. Jumong is the modern Korean transcription of the hanja "Jumong", "Chumo", or "Jungmo".  The Stele states that Jumong was the first king and ancestor of Goguryeo and that he was the son of the prince of Buyeo and daughter of Habaek (), the god of the Amnok River or, according to an alternative interpretation, the sun god Haebak (). The "Samguk sagi" and "Samgungnyusa" paint additional detail and names Jumong's mother as Yuhwa (). Jumong's biological father was said to be a man named Haemosu () who is described as a "strong man" and "a heavenly prince." The river god chased Yuhwa away to the Ubal River () due to her pregnancy, where she met and became the concubine of Geumwa.  Jumong was well known for his exceptional archery skills. Eventually, Geumwa's sons became jealous of him, and Jumong was forced to leave

Centralization and early expansion (mid-first century).

Goguryeo developed from a league of various Yemaek tribes to an early state and rapidly expanded its power from their original basin of control in the Hun River drainage. In the time of Taejodae in 53 AD, five local tribes were reorganized into five centrally ruled districts. Foreign relations and the military were controlled by the king. Early expansion might be best explained by ecology; Goguryeo controlled territory in what is currently central and southern Manchuria and northern Korea, which are both very mountainous and lacking in arable land. Upon centralizing, Goguryeo might have been unable to harness enough resources from the region to feed its population and thus, following historical pastoralist tendencies, would have sought to raid and exploit neighboring societies for their land and resources. Aggressive military activities may have also

Goguryeo–Wei Wars.

In the chaos following the fall of the Han Dynasty, the former Han commanderies had broken free of control and were ruled by various independent warlords. Surrounded by these commanderies, who were governed by aggressive warlords, Goguryeo moved to improve relations with the newly created dynasty of Cao Wei in China and sent tribute in 220. In 238, Goguryeo entered into a formal alliance with Wei to destroy the Liaodong commandery.  When Liaodong was finally conquered by Wei,

Revival and further expansion (300 to 390).

In only 70 years, Goguryeo rebuilt its capital Hwando and again began to raid the Liaodong, Lelang and Xuantu commandaries. As Goguryeo extended its reach into the Liaodong Peninsula, the last Chinese commandery at Lelang was conquered and absorbed by Micheon in 313, bringing the remaining northern part of the Korean peninsula into the fold. This conquest resulted in the end of Chinese rule over territory in the northern Korean peninsula, which had spanned 400 years. From that point on, until the 7th century, territorial control of the peninsula would be contested primarily by the Three Kingdoms of Korea.  Goguryeo met major setbacks and defeats during the reign of Gogukwon in the 4th century. In the early 4th century, the nomadic proto-Mongol Xianbei people occupied northern China; during the winter of 342, the Xianbei of Former Yan, ruled by the Murong clan, attacked and destroyed Goguryeo's capital,

Zenith of Goguryeo's Power (391 to 531 AD).

Goguryeo experienced a golden age under Gwanggaeto the Great and his son Jangsu. During this period, Goguryeo territories included three fourths of the Korean Peninsula, including what is now Seoul, almost all of Manchuria, parts of Inner Mongolia, and parts of Russia. There is archaeological evidence that Goguryeo's maximum extent lay even further west in present-day Mongolia, based on discoveries of Goguryeo fortress ruins in Mongolia.  Gwanggaeto the Great (r. 391–412) was a highly energetic emperor who is remembered for his rapid military expansion of the realm. He instituted the era name of "Yeongnak" or "Eternal Rejoicing", affirming that Goguryeo was on equal standing with the dynasties in the Chinese mainland. Gwanggaeto conquered 64 walled cities and 1,400 villages during his campaigns. To the west, he destroyed neighboring Khitan tribes and invaded Later Yan, conquering the entire Liaodong Peninsula; to the north and east, he annexed much of Buyeo and conquered the Sushen, who were Tungusic ancestors of the Jurchens and Manchus; and to the south,

Internal strife (531 to 551).

Goguryeo reached its zenith in the 6th century. After this, however, it began a steady decline. Anjang was assassinated, and succeeded by his brother Anwon, during whose reign aristocratic factionalism increased. A political schism deepened as two factions advocated different princes for succession, until the eight-year-old Yang-won was finally crowned. But

Conflicts of the late 6th and 7th centuries.

In the late 6th and early 7th centuries, Goguryeo was often in military conflict with the Sui and Tang dynasties of China. Its relations with Baekje and Silla were complex and alternated between alliances and enmity. A neighbor in the northwest were the Eastern Göktürk which was a nominal ally of Goguryeo.

Goguryeo's loss of the Han River Valley.

In 551 AD, Baekje and Silla entered into an alliance to attack Goguryeo and conquer the Han River valley, an important strategic area close to the center of the peninsula and a very rich agricultural region. After Baekje exhausted themselves with a series of costly assaults on Goguryeo fortifications, Silla troops, arriving on the pretense of offering assistance, attacked and took possession of the entire Han River valley in 553. Incensed by this betrayal, Seong launched a retaliatory strike against Silla's western border in the following

Goguryeo–Sui War.

Goguryeo's expansion conflicted with Sui China and increased tensions. In 598, Goguryeo made a preemptive attack on Liaoxi, leading Emperor Wen to launch a counterattack by land and sea that ended in disaster for Sui.  Sui's most disastrous campaign against Goguryeo was in 612, in which Sui, according to the History of the Sui Dynasty, mobilized 30 Division armies, about 1,133,800 combat troops. Pinned along Goguryeo's line of fortifications on the Liao River, a detachment of nine division armies, about 305,000 troops, bypassed the main defensive lines and headed towards the Goguryeo capital of Pyongyang to link up with Sui naval forces, who had reinforcements and supplies.  However, Goguryeo was able to defeat the Sui navy, thus when the Sui's nine division armies finally reached Pyongyang, they didn't have the

Goguryeo–Tang War and the Silla–Tang alliance.

In the winter of 642, King Yeongnyu was apprehensive about Yeon Gaesomun, one of the great nobles of Goguryeo, and plotted with other officials to kill him. However, Yeon Gaesomun caught news of the plot and killed Yeongnyu and 100 officials, initiating a coup d'état. He proceeded to enthrone Yeongnyu's nephew, Go Jang, as King Bojang while wielding de facto control of Goguryeo himself as the generalissimo (). Yeon Gaesomun took an increasingly provocative stance against Silla and Tang China. In 643, under pressure from the Goguryeo–Baekje alliance, Silla requested military aid from Tang. In 644, Tang began preparations for a major campaign against Goguryeo.  In 645, Emperor Taizong, who had a personal ambition to defeat Goguryeo and was determined to succeed where Emperor Yang had failed, personally led an attack on Goguryeo. The Tang army captured a number of Goguryeo fortresses, including the important Yodong/Liaodong Fortress (遼東城, in modern Liaoyang, Liaoning), and

Fall.

In the summer of 666, Yeon Gaesomun died of a natural cause and Goguryeo was thrown into chaos and weakened by a succession struggle among his sons and younger brother. He was initially succeeded as "Dae Mangniji", the highest position newly made under the ruling period of Yeon Gaesomun, by his oldest son Yeon Namsaeng. As Yeon Namsaeng subsequently carried out a tour of Goguryeo territory, however, rumors began to spread both that Yeon Namsaeng was going to kill his younger brothers Yeon Namgeon and Yeon Namsan, whom he had left in charge at Pyongyang, and that Yeon Namgeon and Yeon Namsan

Revival movements.

After the fall of Goguryeo in 668, many Goguryeo people rebelled against the Tang and Silla by starting Goguryeo revival movements. Among these were Geom Mojam, Dae Jung-sang, and several famous generals. The Tang Dynasty tried but failed to establish several commanderies to rule over the area.  In 677, Tang crowned Bojang as the "King of Joseon" and put him in charge of the Liaodong commandery of the Protectorate General to Pacify the East. However, Bojang continued to foment rebellions against Tang in an attempt to revive Goguryeo, organizing Goguryeo refugees and allying with the Mohe tribes. He was eventually exiled to Sichuan in 681, and died the following year.  The Protectorate General to Pacify the East was installed by the Tang government to rule and keep control over the former territories of the fallen Goguryeo. It was first put under the control of Tang General Xue Rengui, but was later replaced by Bojang due the negative responses of the Goguryeo people. Bojang was sent into exile for assisting Goguryeo revival movements, but was succeeded by his descendants. Bojang's descendants declared independence from Tang during the same period as the An Lushan Rebellion and Li Zhengji (Yi Jeong-gi in Korean)'s rebellion in Shandong. The Protectorate General to Pacify the East was renamed "Little Goguryeo" until its eventual absorption into Balhae under the reign of Seon.

Military.

Goguryeo was a highly militaristic state. Goguryeo has been described as an empire by Korean scholars. Initially, there were four partially autonomous districts based on the cardinal directions, and a central district led by the monarch; however, in the first century the cardinal districts became centralized and administrated by the central district, and by the end of the 3rd century, they lost all political and military authority to the monarch. In the 4th century, after suffering defeats against the Xianbei and Baekje during the reign of Gogukwon, Sosurim instituted military reforms that paved the way for Gwanggaeto's conquests. During its height, Goguryeo was able to mobilize 300,000 troops. Goguryeo often enlisted semi-nomadic vassals, such as the Mohe people, as foot soldiers. Every man in Goguryeo was required to serve in the military, or could avoid conscription by paying extra grain tax. A Tang treatise of 668 records a total of 675,000 displaced personnel and 176 military garrisons after the surrender of Bojang.

Equipment.

The main projectile weapon used in Goguryeo was the bow. The bows were modified to be more composite and increase throwing ability on par with crossbows. To a lesser extent, stone-throwing machines and crossbows were also used. Polearms, used against the cavalry and in open order, were mostly spears. Two types of swords were used by Goguryeo warriors. The first was a shorter double-edged variant mostly used for throwing. The other was longer single-edged sword with minimal hilt and ring pommel, of eastern Han influence. The helmets were similar to helmets used by Central Asian peoples, decorated with wings, leathers and horsetails. The shield was the main protection, which covered most of the soldier's body. The cavalry were called "Gaemamusa" (개마무사, 鎧馬武士), and similar in type to the Cataphract.

Hwandudaedo.

Goguryeo used a sword called Hwandudaedo.It looks like the sword drawing in the following picture which is 2000 years old from an old Goguryeo tomb. As Korean swords changed from Bronze Age to Iron Age, the sword shapes changed. There are many archaeological finds on ancient Korean iron swords particularly the swords with a ring at the end.

Fortifications.

The most common form of the Goguryeo fortress was one made in the shape of the moon, located between a river and its tributary. Ditches and ground walls between the shores formed an extra defense line. The walls were extensive in their

Organization.

Two hunts per year, led by the king himself, maneuvers exercises, hunt-maneuvers and parades were conducted to give the Goguryeo soldier a high level of individual training.  There were five armies in the capital, mostly cavalry that were personally led by the king, numbering approximately 12,500. Military units varied in number from 21,000 to 36,000 soldiers, were located in the provinces, and were led by the governors. Military colonies near the boundaries consisted mostly

Strategy.

The military formation had the general and his staff with guards in the middle of the army. The archers were defended by axemen. In front of the general were the main infantry forces, and on the flanks were rows of heavy cavalry ready to counterattack in case of a flank attack by the enemy. In the very front and rear was the light cavalry, used for intelligence, pursuit, and for weakening the enemy's strike. Around the main troops were small groups of heavy cavalrymen and infantry.

Foreign relations.

The militaristic nature of Goguryeo frequently drew them into conflicts with the dynasties of China. In the times when they are not in war with China, Goguryeo occasionally sent tributes to some of the Chinese dynasties as a form of trade

Culture.

The culture of Goguryeo was shaped by its climate, religion, and the tense society that people dealt with due to the numerous wars Goguryeo waged. Not much is known about Goguryeo culture, as many records have been lost.

Lifestyle.

The inhabitants of Goguryeo wore a predecessor of the modern hanbok, just as

Festivals and pastimes.

Common pastimes among Goguryeo people were drinking, singing, or dancing. Games such as wrestling attracted curious spectators.  Every October, the Dongmaeng Festival was held. The Dongmaeng Festival was practiced to worship the gods. The ceremonies

Religion.

Goguryeo people worshipped ancestors and considered them to be supernatural. Jumong, the founder of Goguryeo, was worshipped and respected among the people. There was even a temple in Pyongyang dedicated to Jumong. At the annual Dongmaeng Festival, a religious rite was performed for Jumong, ancestors, and gods.  Mythical beasts and animals were also considered to be sacred in Goguryeo. The phoenix and dragon were both worshipped, while the Samjogo, the three-legged crow that represented the sun, was considered the most powerful of the three. Paintings

Cultural linkage.

Goguryeo art, preserved largely in tomb paintings, is noted for the vigour of its imagery. Fine detail can be seen in Goguryeo tombs and other murals.

Legacy.

Remains of walled towns, fortresses, palaces, tombs, and artifacts have been found in North Korea and Manchuria, including ancient paintings in a Goguryeo tomb complex in Pyongyang. Some ruins are also still visible in present-day China, for example at Wunü Mountain, suspected to be the site of Jolbon fortress, near Huanren in Liaoning province on the present border with North Korea. Ji'an is also home to a large collection of Goguryeo era tombs, including what Chinese scholars consider to be the tombs of Gwanggaeto and his son Jangsu, as well as perhaps the best-known Goguryeo artifact, the Gwanggaeto Stele, which is one of the primary sources for pre-5th-century Goguryeo history.

World Heritage Site.

UNESCO added Capital Cities and Tombs of the Ancient Koguryo Kingdom in

Name.

The modern English name "Korea" derives from Goryeo (also spelled as Koryŏ) (918–1392), which regarded itself as the legitimate successor of Goguryeo.

Language.

There have been some academic attempts to reconstruct the Goguryeo words based on the fragments of toponyms, recorded in the "Samguk sagi", of the areas once possessed by Goguryeo. However, the reliability of

Controversies.

Goguryeo was traditionally viewed in China as a Korean kingdom, but in modern times, the government of the People's Republic of China began to claim Goguryeo as a part of the Chinese empire rather than an independent Korean kingdom. This received heated criticisms from Korean scholars, Goguryeo experts from various countries and also some moderate Chinese scholars.  Both South Korea and North Korea officially condemned China's attempt to rewrite the history of Northeast-Asia. Online discussion regarding this topic has increased. The Internet has provided a platform for a broadening participation in the discussion of Goguryeo in both South Korea and China. Thomas Chase points out that despite the growing online discussion on this subject, this has not led to a more objective treatment of this history, nor a more critical evaluation of its relationship to national identity.

Goguryeo (;, 37 BC–668 AD), also called Goryeo (; ), was a Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula and the southern and central parts of Manchuria. At its peak of power, Goguryeo controlled most of the Korean peninsula, large parts of Manchuria and parts of the Russian Far East and eastern Mongolia.

Goguryeo war eines der Drei Reiche von Korea, das von 37 v. Chr. bis 668 n. Chr. existierte. Während seiner größten Ausdehnung erstreckte es sich von der südlichen Mandschurei bis weit in die Koreanische Halbinsel hinein; des Weiteren wurden Goguryeo-Festungen in der heutigen östlichen Mongolei gefunden, was auf eine weitaus größere Ausdehnung Richtung Norden hinweist.


Plot.

A team of researchers funded by a New York pharmaceutical firm Wexel Hall, including Dr. Jack Byron, Gordon Mitchell, Sam Rogers, Gail Stern, Cole Burris, and Dr. Ben Douglas, leave for a jungle in Borneo to search for a flower called "Perrinnia Immortalis", which they believe can be used as a type of fountain of youth. Though their guide Captain Bill Johnson and his partner Tran Wu have misgivings, Jack convinces them to take an unsafe path. The team goes over a waterfall and has to wade through the river. A giant anaconda emerges from the water and swallows Ben whole, but the rest of the team escape from the river. Bill assures them that it was the largest snake he has ever seen and that it should take weeks for it to grow hungry again. However, most of the team demand that the expedition be called off. They travel to Bill's friend, John Livingston, who lives on the river, to see if Bill can borrow his boat, but they find Livingston dead and his boat wrecked.  They find themselves in a small native village consisting of thatched huts and a disemboweled anaconda with a pair of human legs hanging out of the snake's abdomen. The team realizes that the snakes are unusually large in size because their lives have been extended through the orchids, which are a part of the local food chain. Jack says that since they must be close to the orchids, they should press on, though the others contend that there is no evidence that the orchids will have the same effect on humans. Wanting to leave, they start building an escape raft.  Gordon discovers Livington's radio and gun and realizes they could have called for help long ago. Jack is unable to convince him to allow the expedition to continue, so he paralyzes him using a venomous spider. As Jack joins the others at the raft, Sam discovers Gordon and the spider bite. An anaconda drops down from the rafters and swallows Gordon alive soon after she leaves the building. The others arrive just as it finishes, so Bill sets the building on fire in hopes of killing the anaconda, but notices that it already made its escape. Jack uses the commotion to steal the raft.  With no more material to make another raft, they hack through the jungle to beat Jack to the orchids and retrieve their raft. On the way they fall into a cave trying to escape from an anaconda. Cole gets lost and panics after finding a skeleton. He runs into Bill's partner, Tran, and as they return to the others, Tran gets pulled under and Cole tries to find him, but all he sees is Tran's lost flashlight floating. Tran is eaten by an anaconda underwater. Bill tries to find Cole and Tran, but also notices Tran's lost flashlight floating with his blood surrounding it. The terrified Cole escapes from the caves behind the group, seconds ahead of the snake, which follows him through the hole and gets stuck. Sam uses a machete to behead it, but another snake captures Cole. The team follows and find him being constricted, but still alive. Bill throws his knife and impales the snake through the head, killing it and freeing Cole.  The group finds the raft just as Jack finds the blood orchids, hanging precariously above a pit in which a ball of male anacondas are mating with the queen. Jack shoots Bill in the arm and forces the party to accompany him to the orchids. He has Sam cross the pit via a thin log to fill a backpack with orchids. As she returns, the log cracks. Jack orders her to throw him the backpack, but Sam threatens to drop the flowers into the pit unless he drops the gun. The log breaks, and she falls, hanging by her leg halfway down the pit. As the others try to help her, Jack attempts to retrieve the backpack. The spider he used to paralyze Gordon escapes from its jar and bites him. Jack falls into the pit and is devoured. The vine holding Sam also gives away and she too falls into the pit, but is alive. She climbs out just in time as one of the anacondas tries to get her feet.  The female anaconda notices them, but Gail tricks it into biting their fuel container. Bill tries to shoot the snake, but the gun is empty. Cole shoots it with a flare, causing a chain reaction that sets the anaconda on fire and kills the other snakes, also destroying the blood orchids. The survivors, Bill, Sam, Cole and Gail, make it back to the raft, heading to Kota Bharu.

Soundtrack.

The soundtrack for the film was composed by Nerida Tyson-Chew and released by Varèse Sarabande.

Reception.

Box office.

"Anacondas: The Hunt for the Blood Orchid" debuted at second place in the box office, earned $32,238,923 in the United States and the international gross of $38,753,975, bringing a worldwide total of $70,992,898.

Critical reception.

Rotten Tomatoes reports that the film received a 26% based on 120 reviews, with an average rating of 4.21 out of 10. The site's critics consensus reads, "A cheesy monster B-movie."  Metacritic reported the film had an average score of 40 out of 100 based on 28 reviews. Roger Ebert awarded the film two out of four stars, a rating less than that he gave the original film. Ebert, however, praised Matthew Marsden's performance as being "suitably treacherous". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.  The film was nominated for a Razzie Award for Worst Remake or Sequel, but lost to "".

Anacondas: The Hunt for the Blood Orchid (also known as Anaconda 2) is a 2004 American adventure horror film directed by Dwight H. Little. It is a stand-alone sequel to the film "Anaconda" (1997) and the second installment of the "Anaconda" franchise. The film follows a team of researchers set for an expedition into the Southeast Asian tropical island of Borneo - Indonesia, to search for a sacred flower for which they believe will bring humans to a longer and healthier life, but soon become stalked and hunted by the deadly anacondas inhabiting the island.

Anacondas: Die Jagd nach der Blut-Orchidee (Originaltitel: "Anacondas: The Hunt for the Blood Orchid") ist ein US-amerikanischer Horrorfilm aus dem Jahr 2004. Der Film ist die Fortsetzung von "Anaconda" aus dem Jahr 1997.


Definition.

Foreign exchange reserves include foreign banknotes, foreign bank deposits, foreign treasury bills, and short and long-term foreign government securities, as well as gold reserves, special drawing rights (SDRs), and International Monetary Fund (IMF) reserve positions.  Foreign exchange reserves are called reserve assets in the balance of payments and are located in the capital account, and are usually an important part of the international investment position of a country. The reserves are labeled as reserve assets under assets by functional category. In terms of financial assets classifications, the reserve assets can be classified as gold bullion, unallocated gold accounts, special drawing rights, currency, reserve position in the IMF, interbank position, other transferable deposits, other deposits, debt securities, loans, equity (listed and unlisted), investment fund shares and financial derivatives, such as forward contracts and options. There is no counterpart for reserve assets in liabilities of the International Investment Position. Usually, when the monetary authority of a country has some kind of liability, this will be included in other categories, such as Other Investments. In the Central Bank's Balance Sheet, foreign exchange reserves are assets, along with domestic credit.

Purpose.

Reserves assets allow a central bank to purchase the domestic currency, which is considered a liability for the central bank (since it prints the money or fiat currency as IOUs). Thus, the quantity of foreign exchange reserves can change as a central bank implements monetary policy, but this dynamic should be analyzed generally in the context of the level of capital mobility, the exchange rate regime and other factors. This is known as trilemma or impossible trinity. Hence, in a world of perfect capital mobility, a country with fixed exchange rate would not be able to execute an independent monetary policy.  A central bank which chooses to implements a fixed exchange rate policy may face a situation where supply and demand would tend to push the value of the currency lower or higher (an increase in demand for the currency would tend to push its value higher, and a decrease lower) and thus the central bank would have to use reserves to maintain its fixed exchange rate. Under perfect capital mobility, the change in reserves is a temporary measure, since the fixed exchange rate attaches the domestic monetary policy to that of the country of the base currency. Hence, in the long term, the monetary policy has to be adjusted in order to be compatible with that of the country of the base currency. Without that, the country will experience outflows or inflows of capital. Fixed pegs were usually used as a form of monetary policy, since attaching the domestic currency to a currency of a country with lower levels of inflation should usually assure convergence of prices.  In a pure flexible exchange rate regime or floating exchange rate regime, the central bank does not intervene in the exchange rate dynamics; hence the exchange rate is determined by the market. Theoretically, in this case reserves are not necessary. Other instruments of monetary policy are generally used, such as interest rates in the context of an inflation targeting regime. Milton Friedman was a strong advocate of flexible exchange rates, since he considered that independent monetary (and in some cases fiscal) policy and openness of the capital account are more valuable than a fixed exchange rate. Also, he valued the role of exchange rate as a price. As a matter of fact, he believed that sometimes it could be less painful and thus desirable to adjust only one price (the exchange rate) than the whole set of prices of goods and wages of the economy, that are less flexible.  Mixed exchange rate regimes ('dirty floats', target bands or similar variations) may require the use of foreign exchange operations to maintain the targeted exchange rate within the prescribed limits, such as fixed exchange rate regimes. As seen above, there is an intimate relation between exchange rate policy (and hence reserves accumulation) and monetary policy. Foreign exchange operations can be sterilized (have their effect on the money supply negated via other financial transactions) or unsterilized.  Non-sterilization will cause an expansion or contraction in the amount of domestic currency in circulation, and hence directly affect inflation and monetary policy. For example, to maintain the same exchange rate if there is increased demand, the central bank can issue more of the domestic currency and purchase foreign currency, which will increase the sum of foreign reserves. Since (if there is no sterilization) the domestic money supply is increasing (money is being 'printed'), this may provoke domestic inflation. Also, some central banks may let the exchange rate appreciate to control inflation, usually by the channel of cheapening tradable goods.  Since the amount of foreign reserves available to defend a weak currency (a currency in low demand) is limited, a currency crisis or devaluation could be the end result. For a currency in very high and rising demand, foreign exchange reserves can theoretically be continuously accumulated, if the intervention is sterilized through open market operations to prevent inflation from rising. On the other hand, this is costly, since the sterilization is usually done by public debt instruments (in some countries Central Banks are not allowed to emit debt by themselves). In practice, few central banks or currency regimes operate on such a simplistic level, and numerous other factors (domestic demand, production and productivity, imports and exports, relative prices of goods and services, etc.) will affect the eventual outcome. Besides that, the hypothesis that the world economy operates under perfect capital mobility is clearly flawed.  As a consequence, even those central banks that strictly limit foreign exchange interventions often recognize that currency markets can be volatile and may intervene to counter disruptive short-term movements (that may include speculative attacks). Thus, intervention does not mean that they are defending a specific exchange rate level. Hence, the higher the reserves, the higher is the capacity of the central bank to smooth the volatility of the Balance of Payments and assure consumption smoothing in the long term.

Reserve accumulation.

After the end of the Bretton Woods system in the early 1970s, many countries adopted flexible exchange rates. In theory reserves are not needed under this type of exchange rate arrangement; thus the expected trend should be a decline in foreign exchange reserves. However, the opposite happened and foreign reserves present a strong upward trend. Reserves grew more than gross domestic product (GDP) and imports in many countries. The only ratio that is relatively stable is foreign reserves over M2. Below are some theories that can explain this trend.

Theories.

Signaling or vulnerability indicator.

Credit risk agencies and international organizations use ratios of reserves to other external sector variables to assess a country’s external vulnerability. For example, Article IV of 2013 uses total external debt to gross international reserves, gross international reserves in months of prospective goods and nonfactor services imports to broad money, broad money to short-term external debt, and short-term external debt to short-term external debt on residual maturity basis plus current account deficit. Therefore, countries with similar characteristics accumulate reserves to avoid negative assessment by the financial market, especially when compared to members of a peer group.

Precautionary aspect.

Reserves are used as savings for potential times of crises, especially balance of payments crises. Original fears were related to the current account, but this gradually changed to also include financial account needs. Furthermore, the creation of the IMF was viewed as a response to the need of countries to accumulate reserves. If a specific country is suffering from a balance of payments crisis, it would be able to borrow from the IMF. However, the process of obtaining resources from the Fund is not automatic, which can cause problematic delays especially when markets are stressed. Therefore, the fund only serves as a provider of resources for longer term adjustments. Also, when the crisis is generalized, the resources of the IMF could prove insufficient. After the 2008 crisis, the members of the Fund had to approve a capital increase, since its resources were strained. Moreover, after the 1997 Asian crisis, reserves in Asian countries increased because of doubt in the IMF reserves. Also, during the 2008 crisis, the Federal Reserve instituted currency swap lines with several countries, alleviating liquidity pressures in dollars, thus reducing the need to use reserves.

External trade.

Countries engaging in international trade, maintain reserves to ensure no interruption. A rule usually followed by central banks is to hold in reserve at least three months of imports. Also, an increase in reserves occurred when commercial openness increased (part of the process known as globalization). Reserve accumulation was faster than that which would be explained by trade, since the ratio has increased to several months of imports. Furthermore, the ratio of reserves to foreign trade is closely watched by credit risk agencies in months of imports.

Financial openness.

The opening of a financial account of the balance of payments has been important during the last decade. Hence, financial flows such as direct investment and portfolio investment became more important. Usually financial flows are more volatile that enforce the necessity of higher reserves. Moreover, holding reserves, as a consequence of the increasing of financial flows, is known as Guidotti–Greenspan rule that states a country should hold liquid reserves equal to their foreign liabilities coming due within a year. For example, international wholesale financing relied more on Korean banks in the aftermath of the 2008 crisis, when the Korean Won depreciated strongly, because the Korean banks' ratio of short-term external debt to reserves was close to 100%, which exacerbated the perception of vulnerability.

Exchange rate policy.

Reserve accumulation can be an instrument to interfere with the exchange rate. Since the first General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) of 1948 to the foundation of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995, the regulation of trade is a major concern for most countries throughout the world. Hence, commercial distortions such as subsidies and taxes are strongly discouraged. However, there is no global framework to regulate financial flows. As an example of regional framework, members of the European Union are prohibited from introducing capital controls, except in an extraordinary situation. The dynamics of China's trade balance and reserve accumulation during the first decade of the 2000 was one of the main reasons for the interest in this topic. Some economists are trying to explain this behavior. Usually, the explanation is based on a sophisticated variation of mercantilism, such as to protect the take-off in the tradable sector of an economy, by avoiding the real exchange rate appreciation that would naturally arise from this process. One attempt uses a standard model of open economy intertemporal consumption to show that it is possible to replicate a tariff on imports or a subsidy on exports by closing the capital account and accumulating reserves. Another is more related to the economic growth literature. The argument is that the tradable sector of an economy is more capital intense than the non-tradable sector. The private sector invests too little in capital, since it fails to understand the social gains of a higher capital ratio given by externalities (like improvements in human capital, higher competition, technological spillovers and increasing returns to scale). The government could improve the equilibrium by imposing subsidies and tariffs, but the hypothesis is that the government is unable to distinguish between good investment opportunities and rent seeking schemes. Thus, reserves accumulation would correspond to a loan to foreigners to purchase a quantity of tradable goods from the economy. In this case, the real exchange rate would depreciate and the growth rate would increase. In some cases, this could improve welfare, since the higher growth rate would compensate the loss of the tradable goods that could be consumed or invested. In this context, foreigners have the role to choose only the useful tradable goods sectors.

Intergenerational savings.

Reserve accumulation can be seen as a way of "forced savings". The government, by closing the financial account, would force the private sector to buy domestic debt in the lack of better alternatives. With these resources, the government buys foreign assets. Thus, the government coordinates the savings accumulation in the form of reserves. Sovereign wealth funds are examples of governments that try to save the windfall of booming exports as long-term assets to be used when the source of the windfall is extinguished.

Costs.

There are costs in maintaining large currency reserves. Price fluctuations in exchange markets result in gains and losses in the purchasing power of reserves. In addition to fluctuations in exchange rates, the purchasing power of fiat money decreases constantly due to devaluation through inflation. Therefore, a central bank must continually increase the amount of its reserves to maintain the same power to manipulate exchange rates. Reserves of foreign currency provide a small return in interest. However, this may be less than the reduction in purchasing power of that currency over the same period of time due to inflation, effectively resulting in a negative return known as the "quasi-fiscal cost". In addition, large currency reserves could have been invested in higher yielding assets.  Several calculations have been attempted to measure the cost of reserves. The traditional one is the spread between government debt and the yield on reserves. The caveat is that higher reserves can decrease the perception of risk and thus the government bond interest rate, so this measures can overstate the cost. Alternatively, another measure compares the yield in reserves with the alternative scenario of the resources being invested in capital stock to the economy, which is hard to measure. One interesting measure tries to compare the spread between short term foreign borrowing of the private sector and yields on reserves, recognizing that reserves can correspond to a transfer between the private and the public sectors. By this measure, the cost can reach 1% of GDP to developing countries. While this is high, it should be viewed as an insurance against a crisis that could easily cost 10% of GDP to a country. In the context of theoretical economic models it is possible to simulate economies with different policies (accumulate reserves or not) and directly compare the welfare in terms of consumption. Results are mixed, since they depend on specific features of the models.  A case to point out is that of the Swiss National Bank, the central bank of Switzerland. The Swiss franc is regarded as a safe haven currency, so it usually appreciates during market's stress. In the aftermath of the 2008 crisis and during the initial stages of the Eurozone crisis, the Swiss franc (CHF) appreciated sharply. The central bank resisted appreciation by buying reserves. After accumulating reserves during 15 months until June 2010, the SNB let the currency appreciate. As a result, the loss with the devaluation of reserves just in 2010 amounted to CHF 27 Billion or 5% of GDP (part of this was compensated by the profit of almost CHF6 Billion due to the surge in the price of gold). In 2011, after the currency appreciated against the Euro from 1.5 to 1.1, the SNB announced a ceiling at the value of CHF 1.2. In the middle of 2012, reserves reached 71% of GDP.

History.

Origins and Gold Standard Era.

The modern exchange market as tied to the prices of gold began during 1880. Of this year the countries significant by size of reserves were Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Canadian Confederation, Denmark, Grand Duchy of Finland, German Empire and Sweden-Norway.  Official international reserves, the means of official international payments, formerly consisted only of gold, and occasionally silver. But under the Bretton Woods system, the US dollar functioned as a reserve currency, so it too became part of a nation's official international reserve assets. From 1944–1968, the US dollar was convertible into gold through the Federal Reserve System, but after 1968 only central banks could convert dollars into gold from official gold reserves, and after 1973 no individual or institution could convert US dollars into gold from official gold reserves. Since 1973, no major currencies have been convertible into gold from official gold reserves. Individuals and institutions must now buy gold in private markets, just like other commodities. Even though US dollars and other currencies are no longer convertible into gold from official gold reserves, they still can function as official international reserves.  Central banks throughout the world have sometimes cooperated in buying and selling official international reserves to attempt to influence exchange rates and avert financial crisis. For example, in the Baring crisis (the "Panic of 1890"), the Bank of England borrowed GBP 2 million from the Banque de France. The same was true for the Louvre Accord and the Plaza Accord in the post gold-standard era.

Post Gold Standard Era.

Historically, especially before the 1997 Asian financial crisis, central banks had rather meager reserves (by today's standards) and were therefore subject to the whims of the market, of which there was accusations of hot money manipulation, however Japan was the exception. In the case of Japan, forex reserves began their ascent a decade earlier, shortly after the Plaza Accord in 1985, and were primarily used as a tool to weaken the surging yen. This effectively granted the United States a massive loan as they were almost exclusively invested in US Treasuries, which assisted the US to engage the Soviet Union in an arms race which ended with the latter's bankruptcy, and at the same time, turned Japan into the world's largest creditor and the US the largest debtor, as well as swelled Japan's domestic debt (Japan sold its own currency to fund the buildup of dollar based assets). By end of 1980, foreign assets of Japan were about 13% of GDP but by the end of 1989 had reached an unprecedented 62%. After 1997, nations in Southeast and East Asia began their massive build-up of forex reserves, as their levels were deemed too low and susceptible to the whims of the market credit bubbles and busts. This build-up has major implications for today's developed world economy, by setting aside so much cash that was piled into US and European debt, investment had been crowded out, the developed world economy had effectively slowed to a crawl, giving birth to contemporary negative interest rates.  By 2007, the world had experienced yet another financial crisis, this time the US Federal Reserve organized central bank liquidity swaps with other institutions. Developed countries authorities adopted extra expansionary monetary and fiscal policies, which led to the appreciation of currencies of some emerging markets. The resistance to appreciation and the fear of lost competitiveness led to policies aiming to prevent inflows of capital and more accumulation of reserves. This pattern was called currency war by an exasperated Brazilian authority, and again in 2016 followed the commodities collapse, Mexico had warned China of triggering currency wars.

Adequacy and excess reserves.

The IMF proposed a new metric to assess reserves adequacy in 2011. The metric was based on the careful analysis of sources of outflow during crisis. Those liquidity needs are calculated taking in consideration the correlation between various components of the balance of payments and the probability of tail events. The higher the ratio of reserves to the developed metric, the lower is the risk of a crisis and the drop in consumption during a crisis. Besides that, the Fund does econometric analysis of several factors listed above and finds those reserves ratios are generally adequate among emerging markets.  Reserves that are above the adequacy ratio can be used in other government funds invested in more risky assets such as sovereign wealth funds or as insurance to time of crisis, such as stabilization funds. If those were included, Norway, Singapore and Persian Gulf States would rank higher on these lists, and United Arab Emirates' estimated $627 billion Abu Dhabi Investment Authority would be second after China. Apart from high foreign exchange reserves, Singapore also has significant government and sovereign wealth funds including Temasek Holdings (last valued at US$177 billion) and GIC Private Limited (last valued at US$320 billion).

Foreign exchange reserves (also called forex reserves or FX reserves) are cash and other reserve assets held by a central bank or other monetary authority that are primarily available to balance payments of the country, influence the foreign exchange rate of its currency, and to maintain confidence in financial markets. Reserves are held in one or more reserve currencies, nowadays mostly the United States dollar and to a lesser extent the euro.

Währungsreserven (auch Devisenreserven oder Valutareserven) sind die von einer Noten- oder Zentralbank auf der Aktivseite in ausländischer Währung, Edelmetallen, Sonderziehungsrechten und Reservepositionen im Internationalen Währungsfonds gehaltenen Mittel zu Devisenmarktinterventionen und zur Finanzierung von Außenhandelsdefiziten. Währungsreserven werden in der Zahlungsbilanz (Unterkonto: Kapitalbilanz, Devisenbilanz) eines Landes oder einheitlichen Währungsraumes erfasst. Sie liegen meist in Form von Einlagen auf kurze Sicht beziehungsweise auf liquiden Mitteln vor. Sie entstehen durch Leistungsbilanzüberschüsse eines Staates oder Wirtschaftsraumes. Prinzipiell handelt es sich um Nettowährungsreserven, wenn die Auslandsverbindlichkeiten der eigenen Währungsbehörde von den gesamten Währungsreserven, also Bruttowährungsreserven, subtrahiert wurden.


Variants.

A way of closing the breech or chamber is an essential part of any breech-loading weapon or firearm. Perhaps the simplest way of achieving this is a break-action, in which the barrel, forestock and breech pivot on a hinge that joins the front assembly to the rear of the firearm, incorporating the rear of the breech, the butt and usually, the trigger mechanism. A breechblock is a separate component and is not a feature of the break-action. A breechblock must close against the breech for firing but be able to be retracted or otherwise moved for loading or unloading or to remove a spent cartridge.  This article primarily addresses the matter of breechblock design, as opposed to the action, which relates more with how the mechanism is operated, even if the distinction is not always clear.

Rotating bolt.

Usually referred to as a bolt rather than a breechblock, a rotating bolt is perhaps the most common variant. It is so called, because its operation is similar to a pad bolt or barrel bolt. The bolt slides in the receiver along the axis of the barrel and is rotated in the same axis to lock or unlock it against a closed breech. It is the basis for the bolt action, in which the bolt is rotated and retracted by an handle attached to the bolt. In some designs, the handle (sometimes called a cocking handle) rotates to lock against a shoulder in the receiver or body of the firearm. This type of locking is usually reserved for low-pressure applications such as the.22 cal rimfire series. More often, the bolt locks closed with two or more lugs that operate like a bayonet mount. Multiple lugs permit a smaller degree of rotation to lock and unlock the breech. Most types are front-locking and have the lugs mounted near the breech face. A notable exception is the rear-locking system used in the Lee–Enfield.  Rotating bolts can be adapted to automatic or semi-automatic designs and lever or pump actions. In these cases, the bolt is held by a bolt carrier. With the breech locked, an initial rearward movement of the bolt carrier causes the bolt to rotate and unlock. Similarly, when closing the breech, the final forward movement of the carrier causes the bolt to rotate and lock the breech. This action is commonly achieved by a slot cut in the carrier that engages a pin through the bolt perpendicular to the axis of the barrel. It is a type of linear cam.  Straight-pull bolt-action firearms do not require the operator to rotate the cocking handle to cycle the action. Some straight-pull designs may use a rotating bolt but other breech-locking mechanisms can be employed.

Sliding block.

The breechblock in a sliding block slides across the face of the breech to close it. The sliding action is perpendicular to the axis of the barrel. When the breechblock slides down to expose the breech, it is referred to as a falling block, as used in the Sharps rifle. A sliding block is common in artillery. A vertical sliding block rises and falls while an horizontal sliding block slides to one side. It is a strong design. The breechblock is well supported by the receiver within which it slides and the mechanisms for opening and closing the breech do not have to act to any extent against the forces generated on firing.

Side-hinged breechblock.

A side hinged breechblock is used in the Snider-Enfield and the Warner carbine. The breechblock is hinged parallel to the axis of the barrel and swings away to the side to expose the breech. Firing force is contained by the rear of the breechblock bearing on the receiver.

Trapdoor breechblock.

Commonly associated with the Springfield rifle, the breechblock is hinged above the breech face and lifts up like a trapdoor to expose the breech. The breech is locked by a catch operating at the end of the breechblock furthest from the hinge. It is similar in principle to a break-action.

Rolling block.

A rolling block can be described as a quadrant which is hinged below the breech. The quadrant rotates through approximately 90° to provide access to the breech or close the breech. In the closed position, a number of different devices can be used to lock the quadrant and prevent it from opening. In the Remington Rolling Block rifle most closely associated with this type of breechblock, the hammer also has a quadrant which cams behind the breechblock and locks it. The Spencer repeating rifle also uses a rolling block.

Peabody-Martini.

Initially used in the Peabody rifle, it saw more widespread use in the Martini–Henry and the subsequent Martini–Enfield. It employs a breechblock with a rear hinged falling block design, in which the breech is opened by permitting the front of the breechblock to drop down while pivoting on its hinge. Firing force is transmitted through the knuckle of the hinge and does not act directly on the hinge pin. The breechblock design as has been called a falling or tilting block but in omitting the role of the hinge can lead to ambiguities. It is also used in the Krag–Petersson rifle.

Tilting block.

As a tilting breechblock closes on the breech, it is tilted up at the rear but it drops into a recess at the end of its forward travel - thus locking the breech closed. Firing forces are transmitted to the locking shoulder at the rear of the recess. To unlock the breech, a slide or carrier moving rearward uses a wedge like arrangement acting on the sides of the breechblock to tilt it up at the rear and lift it clear of the locking shoulder. The breechblock is then pulled rearward by the slide or carrier to expose the breech. In the closed position. the slide or carrier can also help locate the breechblock in its locking recess. The carrier or slide can be operated by lever or pump actions or by gas, for automatic and semiautomatic fire.

In-line.

The breech is opened by the breechblock moving in-line with the axis of the barrel and is locked in the closed position by an obstruction such as a cam, wedge, paw or over-centre levers. A roller lock is commonly associated with firearms produced by Heckler & Koch. This type of breechblock can be adapted to cycle by lever, cocking handle or gas. The mechanism is usually designed so that a single action unlocks and then withdraws the breechblock using either a slide or levers.  The M1895 Lee Navy is of this general type, even if the travel of the breechblock is not strictly in-line with the axis of the barrel.

Blowback.

Blowback actions use an in-line breechblock in which the breech is never locked and is held closed by spring tension alone. They are used in semiautomatic and automatic firearms using low-powered cartridges. It is common in semiautomatic rifles and pistol chambered for.22 cal rimfire cartridges and many submachine guns. A variation is blow forward operation, in which the breechblock is fixed and the barrel moves.

Floating actions.

In most longarms, the barrel is firmly attached to the receiver and does not move relative to the receiver during operations. Most semiautomatic pistols firing the higher powered pistol cartridges use a locked-breech design. The action is manually cycled by moving the slide rearward. The slide contains the breechblock and is initially locked to the barrel so that the combined assembly move together. A short movement trips the mechanism to unlock the barrel from the slide assembly, allowing the breech to open. When fired, recoil results in the same action. In many instances, the barrel and breechblock remain in-line. In the Browning Hi-Power and Colt's M1911 pistol, the barrel is tilted slightly to release it from interlocking ribs, so in this respect, it may be likened to a tilting breechblock, even though it is the barrel and not the breechblock that tilts.  This type of breechblock configuration and recoil operation is not confined to pistols and may be found in machine guns and auto-firing cannons.

Interrupted screw.

Perhaps a variation on the rotating bolt, an interrupted screw provides greater strength than simple lugs while requiring only a partial rotation to release the breechblock. The Welin breechblock is such a design and is used on weapons with calibres from about 4 inches up to 16 inches or more.

Falling screwed breechblock.

The Ferguson rifle used a tapered screw plug inserted perpendicular to the axis of the barrel. It was charged with ball and powder and required only one rotation to permit loading. While novel and effective, cost was a factor for its limited acceptance.

Split breech.

A less common type of breech is the split-breech design known as the "nutcracker". This type of breech consists of two counter-rotating sprockets, with a temporary breech being formed where they touch. Relatively few guns have used this design. The prototype Fokker-Leimberger multiple-barreled machine gun used this design, but it had numerous problems with ruptured cases. Another "Fokker Split Breech Rotary Machine Gun, ca. 1930" was donated to Kentucky Military Treasures; according to the museum record it "proved unsuccessful because of its inability to seal breech cylinders". A couple of 1920s US patents by other inventors also proposed to use this principle. The British also experimented with the design in the 1950s for aircraft guns, without success. It has only been used successfully in low-pressure applications, such as the Mk 18 Mod 0 grenade launcher.  In artillery the forces are much greater, but similar methods are used. The Welin breech block uses an interrupted screw and is used on weapons with calibres from about 4 inches up to 16 inches or more. Other systems use a horizontal or vertical sliding block, in which a solid block is slid across the open breech from the side or bottom to seal the opening.

A breechblock (or breech block) is the part of the firearm action that closes the breech of a weapon (whether small arms or artillery) at the moment of firing.

Der Verschluss ist eine Baugruppe eines Hinterladers und schließt den Lauf nach hinten ab. Der Verschluss verhindert das Austreten von Treibladungsgasen nach hinten. Er muss dabei stabil genug sein, um dem Druck dieser Gase standzuhalten. Bei Waffen für Patronen- oder Kartuschenmunition werden die Patronen bzw. Kartuschen durch den Verschluss im Lauf fixiert und die Abdichtung wird durch Liderung des Hülsenmaterials erreicht.


Biography.

Gregor von Rezzori was born in Czernowitz, Bukovina, part of Austria-Hungary at the time (1914). He originated from a Sicilian aristocratic family from the Province of Ragusa who had settled in Vienna by the mid-18th century. His father was an Austrian civil servant based in Czernowitz. The family remained in the region after it became part of the Romanian Kingdom in 1919, and the young Gregor von Rezzori became a Romanian citizen.  After World War I von Rezzori studied in colleges in Braşov, Fürstenfeld and Vienna. He began studying mining at the University of Leoben, then architecture and medicine at the University of Vienna, where he eventually graduated in arts.  In mid-1930 he moved to Bucharest, took up military service in the Romanian Army, and made a living as an artist. In 1938 he moved to Berlin, where he became active as a novelist, journalist, writer in radio broadcasting, and film production. Given his Romanian citizenship, von Rezzori was not drafted into the Wehrmacht during World War II.  Until the mid-1950s, he worked as an author at the broadcasting company Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk. He regularly published novels and stories, as well as working in film production as a screenplay author and actor (starring alongside actors such as Brigitte Bardot, Jeanne Moreau, Anna Karina, Marcello Mastroianni or Charles Aznavour). Beginning in the early 1960s, Rezzori lived between Rome and Paris, with sojourns in the United States, eventually settling in Tuscany.  Besides writing and performing, he and his spouse Beatrice Monti della Corte were significant art collectors, and together founded the Santa Maddalena Retreat for Writers. He died in Santa Maddalena, part of Florence's Donnini "frazione".

Literary works.

Rezzori began his career as a writer of light novels, but he first encountered success in 1953 with the "Maghrebinian Tales", a suite of droll stories and anecdotes from an imaginary land called "Maghrebinia", which reunited in a grotesque and parodic key traits of his multicultural Bukovinian birthplace, of extinct Austria-Hungary and of Bucharest of his youth. Over the years, Rezzori published further "Maghrebinian Tales", which increased his reputation of language virtuosity and free spirit, writing with wit, insight and elegance.  Other books, such as "The Death of My Brother Abel", "Oedipus at Stalingrad", or "The Snows of Yesteryear", recording the fading world at the time of the World Wars, have been celebrated for their powerful descriptive prose, nuance and style.  Rezzori first came to the attention of English-speaking readers with the 1969 publication of the story "Memoirs of an Anti-Semite" in "The New Yorker," On this occasion, Elie Wiesel, who was born in Bukovina's neighboring Maramureş, wrote: "Rezzori addresses the major problems of our time, and his voice echoes with the disturbing and wonderful magic of a true storyteller."  The novel-length version of "Memoirs of an Anti-Semite" was published in Germany in 1979, with the English translation following in 1981"." It received enthusiastic reviews from Christopher Lehmann-Haupt and Stanley Kaufmann when originally published. It was reissued by New York Review Books in 2007, and Christopher Hitchens wrote in a retrospective review, "Gregor von Rezzori could claim the peculiar distinction of being one of the few survivors to treat this ultimate catastrophe in the mild language of understatement. This is what still gives his novel the power to shock."  Reissues of "The Snows of Yesteryear" and "An Ermine in Czernopol" followed in 2008 and 2012, respectively. However, in 2019 NYRB published "The Death of My Brother Abel" and its sequel "Cain" as a single volume. Elie Wiesel wrote of "The Death of My Brother Abel", "If a great novel can be recognized by its obsessions, its characters and, above all, its tone, then "The Death of My Brother Abel" is unquestionably great. Rezzori addresses the major problems of our time, and his voice echoes with the disturbing and wonderful magic of the true storyteller."  Though not often heralded as the man behind the quote, it was his controversial "The only convincing love story of our century", attributed simply to "Vanity Fair", the magazine which published in English his original review of the book, that adorned the cover of the Second Vintage International edition of Vladimir Nabokov's "Lolita".  In his "Guide for Idiots through German Society", von Rezzori also used his noted taste for satire. Although he was not unanimously perceived as a major author in the German-speaking area, his posthumous reception has arguably confirmed him among the most important modern German-language authors.

Gregor von Rezzori (; May 13, 1914 – April 23, 1998), born Gregor Arnulph Hilarius d'Arezzo, was an Austrian-born, Romanian, German-language novelist, memoirist, screenwriter and author of radio plays, as well as an actor, journalist, visual artist, art critic and art collector. He was fluent in German, Romanian, Italian, Polish, Ukrainian, Yiddish, French, and English; during his life, von Rezzori was successively a citizen of Austria-Hungary, Romania, and the Soviet Union, before becoming a stateless person and spending his final years as a citizen of Austria. He married Beatrice Monti della Corte.

Gregor Arnulph Herbert Hilarius von Rezzori d’Arezzo (* 13. Mai 1914 in Czernowitz in der Bukowina, Österreich-Ungarn; † 23. April 1998 in Donnini, Toscana, Italien) war ein deutschsprachiger Schriftsteller und Filmschauspieler.


Early years.

B.K.S. Iyengar was born into a poor Sri Vaishnava Iyengar family in Bellur, Kolar district, Karnataka, India. He was the 11th of 13 children (10 of whom survived) born to Sri Krishnamachar, a school teacher, and Sheshamma. When Iyengar was five years old, his family moved to Bangalore. Four years later, the 9-year-old boy lost his father to appendicitis.  Iyengar's home town, Bellur, was in the grip of the influenza pandemic at the time of his birth, and an attack of that disease left the young boy sickly and weak for many years. Throughout his childhood, he struggled with malaria, tuberculosis, typhoid fever, and general malnutrition. "My arms were thin, my legs were spindly, and my stomach protruded in an ungainly manner," he wrote. "My head used to hang down, and I had to lift it with great effort."

Education in yoga.

In 1934, his brother-in-law, the yogi Sri Tirumalai Krishnamacharya, asked the 15-year-old Iyengar to come to Mysore, so as to improve his health through the practice of yoga asanas. Krishnamacharya had Iyengar and other students give asana demonstrations in the Maharaja's court at Mysore, which had a positive influence on Iyengar. Iyengar considers his association with his brother-in-law a turning point in his life saying that over a two-year period "he (Krishnamacharya) only taught me for about ten or fifteen days, but those few days determined what I have become today!" K. Pattabhi Jois has claimed that he, and not Krishnamacharya, was Iyengar's guru. In 1937, Krishnamacharya sent Iyengar to Pune at the age of eighteen to spread the teaching of yoga.  Though Iyengar had very high regard for Krishnamacharya, and occasionally turned to him for advice, he had a troubled relationship with his guru during his tutelage. In the beginning, Krishnamacharya predicted that the stiff, sickly teenager would not be successful at yoga. He was neglected and tasked with household chores. Only when Krishnamacharya's favorite pupil at the time, Keshavamurthy, left one day did serious training start. Krishnamacharya began teaching a series of difficult postures, sometimes telling him to not eat until he mastered a certain posture. These experiences would later inform the way he taught his students.  Iyengar reported in interviews that, at the age of 90, he continued to practice asanas for 3 hours and pranayamas for an hour daily. Besides this, he mentioned that he found himself performing non-deliberate pranayamas at other times.

International recognition.

In 1952, Iyengar befriended the violinist Yehudi Menuhin. Menuhin gave him the opportunity that transformed Iyengar from a comparatively obscure Indian yoga teacher into an international guru. Because Iyengar had taught the famous philosopher Jiddu Krishnamurti, he was asked to go to Bombay to meet Menuhin, who was known to be interested in yoga. Menuhin said he was very tired and could spare only five minutes. Iyengar told him to lie down in Savasana (on his back), and he fell asleep. After one hour, Menuhin awoke refreshed and spent another two hours with Iyengar. Menuhin came to believe that practising yoga improved his playing, and in 1954 invited Iyengar to Switzerland. At the end of that visit, he presented his yoga teacher with a watch on the back of which was inscribed, "To my best violin teacher, BKS Iyengar". From then on Iyengar visited the west regularly. In Switzerland he also taught Vanda Scaravelli, who went on to develop her own style of yoga.  He taught yoga to several celebrities including Krishnamurti and Jayaprakash Narayan. He taught sirsasana (head stand) to Elisabeth, Queen of Belgium when she was 80. Among his other devotees were the novelist Aldous Huxley, the actress Annette Bening, the film maker Mira Nair and the designer Donna Karan, as well as prominent Indian figures, including the cricketer Sachin Tendulkar and the Bollywood actress Kareena Kapoor.  Iyengar made his first visit to the United States in 1956, when he taught in Ann Arbor, Michigan and gave several lecture-demonstrations; he came back to Ann Arbor in 1973, 1974, and 1976.  In 1966, Iyengar published his first book, "Light on Yoga". It became an international best-seller., it had been translated into 17 languages and sold three million copies. It was followed by 13 other books, covering pranayama and aspects of yoga philosophy.  In 1967, the Inner London Education Authority (ILEA) called for classes in "Hatha Yoga", free of yoga philosophy, but including asanas and "pranayamas (sic)" suitable especially for people aged over 40. The ILEA's Peter McIntosh watched some of Iyengar's classes, was impressed by "Light on Yoga", and from 1970 ILEA-approved yoga teacher training in London was run by one of Iyengar's pupils, Silva Mehta. Iyengar was careful to comply with the proscription of yoga philosophy, and encouraged students to follow their own religious traditions, rather than trying to follow his own family's Visistadvaita, a qualified non-dualism within Hinduism.  In 1975, Iyengar opened the Ramamani Iyengar Memorial Yoga Institute in Pune, in memory of his late wife. He officially retired from teaching in 1984, but continued to be active in the world of Iyengar Yoga, teaching special classes, giving lectures, and writing books. Iyengar's daughter, Geeta, and son, Prashant, have gained international acclaim as teachers.  Iyengar attracted his students by offering them just what they sought – which tended to be physical stamina and flexibility. He conducted demonstrations and later, when a scooter accident dislocated his spine, began exploring the use of props to help disabled people practice Yoga. He drew inspiration from Hindu deities such as Yoga Narasimha and stories of yogis using trees to support their asanas. He was however thought by his students to be somewhat rough with his adjustments when setting people into alignment; the historian of yoga Elliott Goldberg records that, as well as being known for barking orders and yelling at students, he was nicknamed, based on his initials B. K. S., "Bang, Kick, Slap". In Goldberg's view, Iyengar "rationalized his humiliation of his followers as a necessary consequence of his demand for high standards", but this was consistent with his childhood response to the rough and abusive treatment he received from Krishnamacharya, taking offence quickly, being suspicious of other people's intentions, and belittling others: "In other words, he sometimes behaved like Krishnamacharya". Goldberg concludes, however, that Iyengar hid "a compassion of which Krishnamacharya was never capable", and his students remembered his playfulness as well as his unpredictable temper.

Philanthropy and activism.

Iyengar supported nature conservation, stating that it is important to conserve all animals and birds. He donated Rs. 2 million to Chamarajendra Zoological Gardens, Mysore, thought to be the largest donation by an individual to any zoo in India. He also adopted a tiger and a cub in memory of his wife, who died in 1973.  Iyengar helped promote awareness of multiple sclerosis with the Pune unit of the Multiple Sclerosis Society of India.  Iyengar's most important charitable project involved donations to his ancestral village of Bellur, in the Kolar district of Karnataka. Through the Bellur Trust fund which he established, he led a transformation of the village, supporting a number of charitable activities there. He built a hospital, India's first temple dedicated to Patanjali, a free school that supplies uniforms, books, and a hot lunch to the children of Bellur and the surrounding villages, a secondary school, and a college.

Family.

In 1943, Iyengar married 16-year-old Ramamani in a marriage that was arranged by their parents in the usual Indian manner. He said of their marriage: "We lived without conflict as if our two souls were one." Together, they raised five daughters and a son. Ramamani died in 1973 aged 46; Iyengar named his yoga institute in Pune, the Ramamani Iyengar Memorial Yoga Institute, after her.  Both Iyengar's eldest daughter Geeta (1944-2018) and his son Prashant have become internationally-known teachers in their own right. His other children are Vanita, Sunita, Suchita, and Savita. Geeta, having worked extensively on yoga for women, published "Yoga: A Gem for Women" (2002); Prashant is the author of several books, including "A Class after a Class: Yoga, an Integrated Science (1998)", and "Yoga and the New Millennium" (2008). Since Geeta's death, Prashant has served as the director of the Ramamani Iyengar Memorial Yoga Institute (RIMYI) in Pune. Iyengar's granddaughter, Abhijata Sridhar Iyengar, trained for a number of years under his tutelage, and is now a teacher both at the Institute in Pune and internationally.  Iyengar died on 20 August 2014 in Pune, aged 95.

Legacy.

3 October 2005 was declared as "B.K.S. Iyengar Day" by the San Francisco Board of Supervisors. Anthropologist Joseph S. Alter of the University of Pittsburgh stated that Iyengar "has by far had the most profound impact on the global spread of yoga." In June 2011, he was presented with a commemorative stamp issued in his honour by the Beijing branch of China Post. At that time there were over thirty thousand Iyengar yoga students in 57 cities in China.  The noun "Iyengar", short for "Iyengar Yoga", is defined by Oxford Dictionaries as "a type of Hatha yoga focusing on the correct alignment of the body, making use of straps, wooden blocks, and other objects as aids in achieving the correct postures."  On 14 December 2015, what would have been Iyengar's 97th birthday, he was honoured with a Google Doodle. It was shown in India, North America, much of Europe, Russia, and Indonesia.

Bellur Krishnamachar Sundararaja Iyengar (14 December 1918 – 20 August 2014), better known as B.K.S. Iyengar, was the founder of the style of yoga as exercise known as "Iyengar Yoga" and was considered one of the foremost yoga teachers in the world. He was the author of many books on yoga practice and philosophy including "Light on Yoga", "Light on Pranayama", "Light on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali", and "Light on Life". Iyengar was one of the earliest students of Tirumalai Krishnamacharya, who is often referred to as "the father of modern yoga". He has been credited with popularizing yoga, first in India and then around the world.

B. K. S. Iyengar ("Bellur Krishnamachar Sundararaja Iyengar;" * 14. Dezember 1918 in Bellur, Karnataka; † 20. August 2014 in Pune) war ein indischer Yoga-Lehrer und Gründer des Iyengar Yoga, einer Form des Hatha Yoga. Iyengar ordnete die Asanas systematisch. Er galt als einer der führenden Yoga-Lehrer weltweit und praktizierte und lehrte Yoga über mehr als 75 Jahre. Er schrieb zahlreiche Bücher über Praxis und Philosophie des Yoga. Seine bekanntesten Werke sind „Licht auf Yoga“, „Licht auf Pranayama“ und „Light on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali“.


Description.

It grows in tufts from a short rhizome. The fronds are long and narrow, gradually tapering towards the tip. They are simply divided into small, yellow-green to dark-green pinnae. The stipe and rachis of the frond are dark all along their length. The fronds can reach 40 cm in length but are more commonly 8–20 cm. They bear long, narrow sori which contain the spores.

Distribution and habitat.

It is widespread in temperate and subarctic areas and also occurs in mountainous regions in the tropics. Its range includes most of Europe and much of Asia south to Turkey, Iran and the Himalayas with a population in Yemen. It occurs in northern, southern and parts of eastern Africa and also in eastern Indonesia, south-east Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand and Hawaii. It is found in North America and Central America and Cuba, and the northern and western regions of South America such as Chile.  It grows in rocky habitats such as cliffs, scree slopes, walls and mine waste, the type of rock used as a substrate depending on the subspecies. It grows from sea-level up to 3000 metres in North America while in the British Isles it reaches 870 metres.

Cultivation.

"Asplenium trichomanes" is valued in cultivation for its hardiness (down to ), its evergreen foliage and its ability to colonise crevices in stone walls. It prefers a fully or partially shaded aspect. It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit.

Subspecies.

"Asplenium trichomanes" has diploid, tetraploid and hexaploid cytotypes, which it has been argued should be recognised as distinct species. A triploid cytotype (a sterile hybrid between the diploid and tetraploid cytotype) is also known. Within these cytotypes several subspecies are recognised, including

Asplenium trichomanes (commonly known as maidenhair spleenwort) is a small fern in the spleenwort genus "Asplenium". It is a widespread and common species, occurring almost worldwide in a variety of rocky habitats. It is a variable fern with several subspecies.

Der Braunstielige Streifenfarn ("Asplenium trichomanes") ist eine Art aus der Gattung der Streifenfarne ("Asplenium") in der Familie der Streifenfarngewächse (Aspleniaceae).