History.

Origin.

The park sits on the site of a former berry farm established by Walter Knott and his family. Beginning in the mid 1920s, the Knott family sold berries, berry preserves, and pies from a roadside stand along State Route 39. In 1934, the Knotts began selling fried chicken dinners in a tea room on the property, later called "Mrs. Knott's Chicken Dinner Restaurant." The dinners soon became a major tourist draw, and the Knotts built several shops and other attractions to entertain visitors while waiting for a seat in the restaurant. In 1940, Walter Knott began constructing a replica Ghost Town on the property, the beginning of the present-day theme park. The idea of an amusement park really picked up in the 1950s when Walter Knott opened a "summer-long county fair."  In 1968, for the first time, an admission price was required to get into the park, originally set at 25 cents. The Calico Log Ride (the original name of the Timber Mountain Log Ride) opened in 1969. The park became a popular destination for conservative college students in the 1960s, especially as conservative organizations like the California Free Enterprise Association, the Libres Foundation, and the Americanism Educational League were based there. According to Assistant Professor Caroline Rolland-Diamond of the Paris West University Nanterre La Défense:  On April 12, 1974, Cordelia Knott died. Walter turned his attention toward political causes, Roaring Twenties rethemed Gypsy Camp in the 1970s with the addition of a nostalgic traditional amusement area, Wheeler Dealer Bumper Cars, Knott's Bear-y Tales. Then with the northward expansion of a 1920s-era Knott's Airfield themed area featuring the Cloud 9 Dance Hall, Sky Cabin/Sky Jump and Motorcycle Chase steeplechase roller coaster above the electric guided rail Gasoline Alley car ride.  Sky Tower with the illuminated "K" in logo script at the top was built to support two attractions, the Sky Jump (now closed) and the Sky Cabin. The Sky Jump boarded one or two standing riders anticipating the thrill of the drop into baskets beneath a faux parachute canopy. From the top, eight arms supported the vertical cable tracks of wire rope which lifted the baskets. The Sky Cabin ringed the support pole with a single floor of seats that are enclosed behind windows. Its ring revolves slowly as it rises to the top and back offering a pleasantly changing vista. It is very sensitive to weather and passenger motion, such as walking, which is prohibited during the trip. During winds 25+ mph or rain it is closed. When built, Sky Tower was the tallest structure in Orange County (a distinction briefly held by WindSeeker before its relocation to Worlds of Fun in 2012.)  Motorcycle Chase, modernized steeplechase rollercoaster built in 1976 by Arrow Development, featured single motorbike themed vehicles racing side-by-side, each on one of four parallel tracks, launched together. One or two riders straddled each "Indian motorcycle" attraction vehicle. The tubular steel monorail track closely followed dips and bumps in "the road" and tilted to lean riders about the curves. Gasoline Alley, an electric steel-guiderail car ride below, was built together and intimately intertwined, which enhanced ride-to-ride interaction thrill value. Rider safety concerns of the high center of gravity coupled with the method of rider restraints caused it to be rethemed Wacky Soap Box Racers with vehicles themed to look like soap box racers, each seating two riders, strapped in low (nearly straddling the track), surrounded by the close fitting car sides, and the dips and bumps of the track were straightened flat in 1980. Motorcycle Chase/Wacky Soap Box Racers was removed in 1996 for a dueling loop coaster Windjammer Surf Racers and now Xcelerator, a vertical launch coaster, takes its place.  On December 3, 1981, Walter Knott died, survived by his children who would continue to operate Knott's as a family business for another fourteen years.  In the 1980s, Knott's built the Calico Barn Dance featured Bobbi & Clyde as the house band. It was during the height of the "Urban Cowboy" era. The "Calico Barn Dance" was featured in Knott's TV commercials.  During the 1980s, Knott's met the competition in Southern California theme parks by theming a new land and building two massive attractions:  The Boomerang roller coaster replaced the Corkscrew in 1990 with a lift shuttle train passing to and fro through a cobra roll and a vertical loop for six inversions each trip.  "Mystery Lodge" (1994), inspired by General Motors "Spirit Lodge" pavilion, was a live show augmented with Pepper's ghost and other special effects, which was among the most popular exhibits at Expo 86 in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, which was produced by Bob Rogers of BRC Imagination Arts and created with the assistance of the Kwagulth Native reserve in the village of Alert Bay, British Columbia. Mystery Lodge recreates a quiet summer night in Alert Bay, then guests "move inside" the longhouse and listen to the storyteller weave a tale of the importance of family from the smoke of the bonfire.  The Jaguar! was opened June 17, 1995, to add another roller coaster to the mix of Fiesta Village alongside Montezooma's Revenge.

New owners.

In the 1990s, after Walter and Cordelia died, their children decided to sell off their businesses:  In the late 1990s Cedar Fair acquired the Buena Park Hotel at the corner of Grand Ave. and Crescent. It was then brought up to Radisson standards and branded Radisson Resort Hotel as a franchise. In 2004, the park renamed the Radisson Resort Hotel the Knott's Berry Farm Resort Hotel.  In 1995, the Knott family sold the food specialty business to ConAgra Inc, which later re-sold the brand to The J.M. Smucker Company in 2008.  In 1997, the Knott family sold the amusement park operations to Cedar Fair Entertainment Company. Initially, the Knotts were given an opportunity to sell the park to The Walt Disney Company. The park would have been amalgamated into the Disneyland Resort and converted into Disney's America, which had previously failed to be built near Washington, D.C. The Knotts refused to sell the park to Disney out of fear most of what Walter Knott had built would be eliminated.

Cedar Fair era to present.

Since being acquired by Cedar Fair, the park has seen an aggressive shift towards thrill rides, with the construction of a number of large roller coasters and the addition of a high-performance Shoot-the-Chutes ride Perilous Plunge. Perilous Plunge had the record of being the tallest and steepest water ride in the world until September 2012 when it was closed and removed. Also, in 2013, Knott's Berry Farm announced that the most popular ride at the park, the Timber Mountain Log Ride, would be closed for a major five-month refurbishment, led by Garner Holt Productions, Inc.  On May 25, 2013, Knott's Berry Farm added three new family rides on the site of former Perilous Plunge. They include: Coast Rider (wild mouse roller coaster), Pacific Scrambler (Scrambler ride) and Surfside Gliders. All three of the rides added to the Boardwalk theme. The old bridge which connected the exit of Coast rider and the boardwalk is now used as the entrance to Surfside Gliders and Pacific Scrambler. The HangTime roller coaster was also celebrated for apart of the Boardwalk expansion.  On September 2, 2013, Knott's Berry Farm announced that Windseeker would be removed from the park. The ride was removed and sent to Worlds of Fun for the 2014 season.  On November 22, 2013, Knott's Berry Farm made a major announcement for the 2014 operating season; the famous and historical Calico Mine Ride would be closed for a major six-month refurbishment beginning in January 2014. During the fall of 2019, Knott's Berry Farm announced the return of 4D dark ride.

Annual park events.

The park's annual "Knott's Scary Farm" has drawn crowds since 1973. The idea for this event was presented at one of the regularly scheduled round table meetings for managers by Patricia Pawson. The actual event was created by Bill Hollingshead, Gary Salisbury, Martha Boyd and Gene Witham, along with other members of the Knott's Berry Farm Entertainment Department as documented in the DVD "Season of Screams." Initially fake corpses and other static figures were rented from a Hollywood prop house, but Bud Hurlbut, the creator/concessionaire of the Mine Ride, Log Ride and other rides at Knott's, decided that this wasn't enough. He dressed up in a gorilla suit and started scaring guests on the Mine Ride. Halloween Haunt was an instant hit, and by the next year, the event sold out nightly. During this special ticketed event, the entire park (or major portions of it) re-themes itself into a "haunted house" style attraction in the form of mazes and "scare zones" in the evening. Over a thousand specially employed monsters are also scattered—often hidden out of view—throughout the park at this time. Some of the characters have become well-known, such as the green witch, which has been portrayed by Charlene Parker since 1983, the longest of any performer. Several attractions are decorated for the event including the Timber Mountain Log Ride and Calico Mine Train and there are 13 mazes of various themes. Elvira (actress Cassandra Peterson) was introduced into the Halloween Event in 1982 and was prominently featured in many Halloween Haunt events until 2001. According to postings on her My Space page, Cassandra was released from her contract by the park's new owners due to their wanting a more family friendly appeal, although she returned for one night in 2012 for the 40th anniversary of the event and has returned as a regular performer throughout the run of the event for the last several years. During the month of October, Knott's Scary Farm generates half the revenue for Knott's Berry Farm's fiscal year.  "Season of Screams" is a DVD produced by an independent company which traces the beginnings of Halloween Haunt and the story behind how it all got started back in 1973. Season of Screams also highlights recent Halloween Haunts.  "Winter Coaster Solace" is an event that takes place in the first or second weekend of March every year when roller coaster enthusiasts can come before the park opens and stay after the park closes to ride the rides and eat at the Chicken Dinner Restaurant. It is intended to provide "solace" to visitors from other parts of the country where theme parks and roller coasters are seasonal, not year-round operations like the Southern California parks. Knott's Berry Farm also used to give attendees behind the scenes tours of the rides.  Every year since 1991, Knott's has offered free admission to veterans and their families during the month of November. Though this was originally started as a tribute to returning Gulf War veterans, they subsequently expanded it to include all veterans and have run it every year since.  A Christmas event known as "Knott's Merry Farm" also happens annually. Previous Merry Farm events have included manufactured snow, handcrafts exhibits, and a visit with Santa Claus. This event was originally created by Gary Salisbury in the Fall of 1985.  Praise (festival) has been a Christian themed celebration presented for many years as a mix-in special event of music and comedy on New Year's Eve.

Current areas and attractions.

The park consists of four themed areas:

Ghost Town.

Craftsmen in Ghost Town demonstrate the arts of the blacksmith, woodcarver, glass-blower, sign cutter, and spinner. Demonstrations of narrow gauge railroading and farm equipment hobbyists accompany additional merchant stalls of cottage-craft fairs seasonally at discounted admission which is restricted to Ghost Town only.  Western Trails Museum, relocated between the candy store and the General Store to accommodate Calico River Rapids (former Bigfoot Rapids), still features historical western artifacts large and small, from a hand powered horse-drawn fire engine to miniature replica of a borax hauling "Twenty Mule Team" and utensils necessary to survive the prairie and wilderness.  The Ghost Town area has a few other notable attractions. The Bird Cage Theatre only hosts two seasonal entertainments—during "Knott's Merry Farm," two small productions of "The Gift of the Magi" and "A Christmas Carol," and a Halloween Haunt thrill show. The Calico Stage, a large open-air stage in Calico Square, hosts a variety of shows and acts, big and small, from those of elementary school students, Gallagher, a local band, and the summer-spectacular All Wheels Extreme stunt show featuring youthful performers demonstrating aerial tricks with acrobatics, trampolines, and riding ramps with skates, scooters, skateboards, and freestyle bikes to popular music. Calico Saloon recreates the revelry of music, singing and dancing, with Cameo Kate hosting a variety of acts. Jersey Lily, Judge Roy Bean's combination courthouse/saloon, offers certified comical "genuine illegal hitchin'" alongside pickles, candy, and sports/soft drinks.  Many parts of Ghost Town are forever lost to progress. The conversion of the Silver Dollar Saloon to a shooting gallery, Hunters Paradise shooting gallery to Panda Express and the original Berry Stand, moved several times with its last location now occupied by the Silver Bullet station.  What is left of Ghost Town today was based on Calico ghost town and other real ghost towns in the Western United States such as Prescott, Arizona. Walter Knott inherited his uncle's silver mill and land, then bought more of the actual Calico ghost town in 1951 and developed it. In 1966, he donated that property to the corporate-municipal County of San Bernardino which then made the town of Calico, California into a public historic park, for which it charged an entrance/parking fee. See 'History – Ghost Town – Calico' section above. The park formerly featured a 5th area called the Wild Water Wilderness. Formerly known as Wild Water Wilderness, now part of Ghost Town, that features two major rides: the Pony Express, a horse themed family roller coaster installed in 2008 and Calico River Rapids which opened in 2019. Nearby Pony Express is Rapids Trader, a small merchandise stand. It is also home to Mystery Lodge, a multimedia show based on an Expo 86 pavilion featuring a Native American storyteller.

Fiesta Village.

Fiesta Village was built in 1969 with a pop-culture Mexican theme. It was the second area constructed after the completion of Ghost Town. Stores like Casa California, restaurants like Pancho's Tacos, La Papa Loca, and La Victoria Cantina, games like Shoot If Yucan, and the themed rides like La Revolución, Jaguar!, and Montezooma's Revenge, along with the former attraction Tampico Tumbler, all contribute to the Mexican and Aztec theme of the area. In 2013 colorful string lights were added for the summer season.

The Boardwalk.

Boardwalk Games include physical challenges such as a rock wall, soccer, basketball and a rope ladder crawl. A variety of traditional pitch three balls and win a prize type games, such as squirt gun into clowns mouth, knock off milk bottles, pitch a quarter onto a plate are pitched by hawkers along the Boardwalk Games midway. In September 2012, "Perilous Plunge" closed for an expansion of the Boardwalk. "Perilous Plunge" was noticeably known as one of Knott's major thrill rides. The boardwalk reopened after a year transformation with two flat rides and a new family roller coaster taking the place of "Perilous Plunge". The Boomerang roller coaster also got repainted with a new vibrant green and yellow color scheme. The world's largest Johnny Rockets restaurant franchise is located at Knott's Boardwalk, featuring over of indoor dining space for more than 260 guests.

Camp Snoopy.

Camp Snoopy is home to the park's family and children's rides, with many of the rides and attractions being built specifically for children and guests who cannot ride the park's more aggressive attractions. Its theme is Charles M. Schulz' "Peanuts" comic strip characters. Snoopy has been the mascot of Knott's Berry Farm since 1983, and the characters can now be seen at all of Cedar Fair's parks, except Gilroy Gardens, which is managed by Cedar Fair and owned by the city of Gilroy. The 14 rides include a mini roller coaster called the Timberline Twister, a Zamperla Rockin' Tug called Rapid River Run, and a steel spinning roller coaster called Sierra Sidewinder. For guests who cannot ride the park's more aggressive and thrilling rides, Camp Snoopy contains a good number of rides for guests of all ages including infants, children, and seniors. With the exception of Sierra Sidewinder and Timberline Twister, the rides are relatively tame.  Knott's Berry Farm also built the Mall of America's indoor theme park, which itself was originally called Camp Snoopy. (In fact, Charles M. Schulz hailed from St. Paul.) However, today the park is no longer affiliated with Knott's or Cedar Fair, and is now called Nickelodeon Universe.  On November 22, 2013, Knott's Berry Farm announced major improvements in the area of Camp Snoopy. Camp Snoopy received a makeover for its 30th anniversary. In summer 2014, Knott's Berry Farm opened up new rides in Camp Snoopy.  The narrow gauge Grand Sierra Railroad takes guest on a four-minute train ride through the reflection lake. The ride was made shorter with the construction of Silver Bullet. As part of the 30th Anniversary makeover, the train ride received a series of Peanuts vignettes made by Garner Holt Productions) along the track and narration by the character Linus.

Indian Trails.

Located next to the "Bottle House" in Ghost Town, Indian Trails is a small area sandwiched between Camp Snoopy, Ghost Town, and Fiesta Village, showcasing Native American art, crafts, and dance.

Public area.

Many of the original attractions are outside the gates of the current-day theme park along Grand Ave. at the California Marketplace, mostly things which would no longer be considered interesting to today's audience, or things which were merely there for decoration. Near the restrooms behind Berry Place are the waterfall overshooting the water wheel and historic gristmill grindstone, a replica of George Washington's Mount Vernon estate fireplace hearth, and what remains of the visible beehive. Some attractions still exist, but have been incorporated into backstage areas, such as the Rock Garden, now an employee smoking area. Other attractions have been removed, such as the historic volcano, and the cross-section of giant sequoia with age rings denoting historic events such as Christopher Columbus visiting America.

East property.

The east side of the property, divided by Beach Blvd., features the main parking lot, Knott's Soak City a seasonal water park that requires separate admission, the picnic grounds rental areas, complementary admission to Independence Hall and gift shop, and the Church of Reflections which was moved outside the theme park in 2004 and held non-denominational Sunday services until 2010. A tunnel and pedestrian underpass beneath Beach Blvd. connects the main parking lot to the shops, restaurants and theme park.

Former attractions.

FearVR: 5150 controversy.

For Halloween Haunt in 2016, Knott's Berry Farm introduced "FearVR: 5150", a virtual reality attraction that was met with controversy from the mental health community regarding the negative portrayal of mental illness. The ten-minute-long attraction immersed guests inside of a chaotic mental hospital haunted by a supernatural central character named Katie and zombie-like patients. The initial controversy came from the attraction's name, with 5150 referring to the California law that allows a law enforcement officer or clinician to involuntarily commit a person suspected of having a mental illness and determined "a danger to themselves or others". The backlash was focused on Cedar Fair's use of painful experiences suffered by those dealing with mental illness and to have it "transmogrified into spooky entertainment". In response, Cedar Fair removed "5150" from the name, and after continued opposition, permanently closed the attraction on September 28, 2016, only six days after its debut. A petition was signed by more than 2,000 people hoping Cedar Fair would bring it back, with the petition's organizer stating that Cedar Fair shouldn't be "forced to shut down an attraction based on the words of people who had not even experienced the attraction".

Knott's Soak City.

Knott's Soak City is a water park. It opened on June 17, 2000 as Soak City U.S.A. It requires separate admission from Knott's Berry Farm. In addition to the water park across the street from the main theme park, Cedar Fair also formerly owned two other Knott's Soak City Parks, in Palm Springs and Chula Vista.

Private police force.

For much of the park's early history, Knott's Berry Farm had a unique arrangement with the Orange County Sheriff Department where the park's security officers were sworn special deputies vested with full police powers. The Security Department, however, did not answer to the county sheriff, but rather to the park's Chief of Security (who for many years was Steve Knott, the grandson of Walter Knott). Knott's Berry Farm maintained a completely private police force, vested with full police powers, and overseen by park management.  Before the City of Buena Park was incorporated, Knott's Berry Farm's Security Department even provided police services to the nearby unincorporated area that would eventually become known as Buena Park, including writing traffic tickets. Then, in the early days of the incorporated City of Buena Park, Knott's Berry Farm Security provided vital mutual aid assistance to the Buena Park Police Department (formerly Buena Park Public Safety) during emergencies since Knott's Berry Farm's 34 sworn Special Deputies outnumbered, and were better equipped than the city's four-man Department of Public Safety.  The Orange County Sheriff Department discontinued this arrangement in the late 1980s but Knott's still maintains its own private (albeit un-sworn) security force, and its "Station-K" public safety radio designation.

Food products.

The J.M. Smucker Company continues to sell the jam and preserves made famous by the Knott family; however, other products, such as the syrups, have been discontinued due to low demand.  In November 2013, Knott's Berry Farm began selling their "Berry Market" brand of preserves at the park. The Berry Market brand is all-natural. They are unable to use "Knott's" on the label, since Smucker's owns the rights to the name.

Public transportation.

Knott's Berry Farm can easily be accessed by public transportation. Service is available by the Los Angeles Metro, the Orange County Transportation Authority, and Anaheim Resort Transit. Bus routes serving the park include Metro Express Line 460 which provides direct express service between Downtown Los Angeles and Disneyland OCTA bus routes 29, 38 and 529 and Anaheim Resort Transit route 18.

Knott's Berry Farm is a theme park located in Buena Park, California, owned and operated by Cedar Fair. In 2018, it was the twelfth-most-visited theme park in North America and averages approximately 4 million visitors per year. The park features 40 rides including roller coasters, family rides, dark rides and water rides.

Knott’s Berry Farm ist ein Freizeitpark in Buena Park, Kalifornien, und ein Hersteller von Lebensmittel-Spezialitäten. Zusätzlich betreibt Knott’s drei "Soak City USA" Wasserparks und war Gründer des Camp Snoopy in der Mall of America. Der Freizeitpark wird heute von "Cedar Fair L.P." betrieben und die Lebensmittelsparte ist Teil des Unternehmens "The J.M. Smucker Company". Mit rund 4 Millionen Besuchern (Platz 12) zählte der Park im Jahr 2016 zu den 20 meistbesuchten Vergnügungsparks Nordamerikas. Im Park gibt es ca. 35 Attraktionen, darunter Achterbahnen, Familienattraktionen, Kinderfahrgeschäfte und historische Attraktionen.


Family background and early life.

Casiraghi was born on 8 June 1984 at the Princess Grace Hospital Centre in La Colle, Monaco, to Princess Caroline of Monaco and her husband, the Italian businessman and athlete Stefano Casiraghi.  The eldest grandchild of Rainier III, Prince of Monaco, and his wife, former American actress Grace Kelly, Casiraghi was named after his father's childhood friend, his maternal uncle Prince Albert and his maternal great-grandfather Prince Pierre, Duke of Valentinois. Casiraghi's godparents are his maternal aunt Princess Stéphanie and his paternal uncle, Marco Casiraghi. His sister Charlotte was born on 3 August 1986, and his brother Pierre on 5 September 1987.  On 3 October 1990, Casiraghi's father died in a speedboat accident in Monaco. He was buried several days later in Monaco's Chapel of Peace. Princess Caroline did not know how to tell her children that their father had died, so her father, Prince Rainier, did so. Andrea reportedly suffered nightmares and insomnia after his father's death. To protect her children from excessive media attention, Caroline moved to Saint-Rémy-de-Provence, and later to Paris.  In 1999, his mother married Ernst August, Prince of Hanover, and gave birth to Princess Alexandra of Hanover. Along with a half-sister, Casiraghi gained two stepbrothers, Ernst August, Hereditary Prince of Hanover, and Prince Christian of Hanover.

Education and career.

Growing up mostly in France, Casiraghi earned his international baccalaureate from the International School of Paris in December 2002. Following a period at McGill University in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, he eventually graduated in 2006 with a B.A. degree in visual arts and international politics from the American University of Paris.  He was an intern at the Monegasque embassy to Qatar which, like most of Monaco's embassies, is based in Paris. In 2014, he started a Master of Business Administration at IE Business School (formerly known as Instituto de Empresa) in Madrid.

Philanthropy and social activities.

Since 2004, Casiraghi has been involved, to varying degrees, with the World Association of Children's Friends (AMADE), a philanthropic organization founded in 1963 by his grandmother Grace; it is now presided over by his mother Princess Caroline. He spent eight months teaching children in Senegal, Togo, and Niger. In August 2006, Casiraghi took his involvement deeper and paid a very serious visit to Manila on behalf of a joint venture of AMADE and the Virlanie Foundation. Since 2007, he has been the patron of the Motrice Foundation, which funds research into cerebral palsy. Casiraghi sponsored the Hospices de Beaune charity auction that was held in November 2009.  "In 2011, Andrea bought a pair of loafers from a Tod's boutique in Milan. This shopping trip was well publicized for a reason. The following summer, he donated them to the "Small Steps Project"." The "Small Steps Project" gives celebrity-worn shoes to the poorest children in the world.  Casiraghi regularly attends important social events in Monaco related to the Monegasque Princely Family, such as National Day, the Rose Ball, and the Formula One competition Monaco Grand Prix. In 2011, Casiraghi and his siblings Charlotte and Pierre hosted Monaco's annual Rose Ball, in the absence of Prince Albert, Princess Caroline and Princess Stéphanie who were mourning the sudden death of their aunt Princess Antoinette, Baroness of Massy, a few days earlier. Casiraghi gave the speech at the start of the event. The same year, he attended the wedding of his uncle Prince Albert and Charlene Wittstock, which took place on 1 and 2 July 2011.

Personal and family life.

In July 2012, Princess Caroline released a statement announcing that her son Andrea Casiraghi and Tatiana Santo Domingo became engaged after a seven–year relationship. Prior to their wedding, she had already accompanied Casiraghi at some of most important social events in Monaco, such as the Rose Ball, the enthronement of Prince Albert II, the Monaco Grand Prix and the wedding of Prince Albert and Charlene Wittstock.  On 6 November 2012, his fiancée Tatiana Santo Domingo announced to La Voz Libre that she was expecting a baby. She gave birth to a boy, a son named Alexandre Andrea Stefano "Sasha" Casiraghi, on 21 March 2013, at Portland Hospital in London, England. As his parents were not married at the time of birth, he was not then included in the Monegasque line of succession. However, due to their subsequent marriage their son currently occupies the fifth position in the line of succession to the Monegasque throne.  Casiraghi and Santo Domingo were married in a civil ceremony in the Princely Palace of Monaco on 31 August 2013. A religious ceremony was later held in Gstaad, Switzerland, on 1 February 2014. Their second child, a daughter named India, was born in London on 12 April 2015.  Casiraghi is fluent in French, Italian, English and German as well. His hobbies and interests include reading, football, horse riding, water sports, skiing and collecting Swatch watches.  In September 2017, Casiraghi and Santo Domingo enrolled their son in a pre-preparatory school in Kensington. In November 2017, there was speculation they were expecting their third child, later confirmed. Their third child, a boy named Maximilian Rainier, was born in London on 19 April 2018.

Media.

In December 2011, Casiraghi had his driving licence taken away after he had been caught speeding at 200 km/h near Lyon, France. Casiraghi is regularly tracked by the tabloids and paparazzi. The media nicknamed him as "enfant terrible" and the "rebel angel". In 1999, he was included in the "People Magazine"'s "50 Most Beautiful People" list. In 2003, he was featured in a "Town & Country" article about young royals and was voted the most stylish male royal by "Hello Magazine"'s readers. In 2008, "Forbes" placed him the tenth on their "20 Hottest Young Royals" list.

Andrea Albert Pierre Casiraghi (born 8 June 1984) is the elder son of Caroline, Princess of Hanover, and her second husband Stefano Casiraghi. He is the eldest grandchild of Rainier III, Prince of Monaco, and American actress Grace Kelly. Casiraghi is currently fourth in the line of succession to the Monegasque throne, following his twin cousins and his mother.

Andrea Casiraghi (* 8. Juni 1984 in Monaco; vollständiger Name "Andrea Albert Pierre Casiraghi") ist das älteste Kind von Prinzessin Caroline von Monaco, später auch Prinzessin von Hannover, und ihrem zweiten Ehemann, dem italienischen Unternehmer Stefano Casiraghi. Seine Geschwister sind Charlotte Casiraghi (* 3. August 1986) und Pierre Casiraghi (* 5. September 1987). Alexandra Prinzessin von Hannover (* 20. Juli 1999) ist seine Halbschwester.


Physical description.

The adult female mite is reddish-brown in color, while the male is white. "Varroa" mites are flat, having a button shape. They are 1–1.8 mm long and 1.5–2 mm wide, and have eight legs.

Reproduction, feeding, infection, and hive mortality.

Mites reproduce on a 10-day cycle. The female mite enters a honey bee brood cell. As soon as the cell is capped, the "Varroa" mite lays eggs on the larva. The young mites, typically several females and one male, hatch in about the same time as the young bee develops and leave the cell with the host. When the young bee emerges from the cell after pupation, the "Varroa" mites also leave and spread to other bees and larvae. The mite preferentially infests drone cells, allowing the mite to reproduce one more time with the extra three days it takes a drone to emerge vs a worker bee. This can cause genetic defects such as useless wings or viruses and fungi in the bee.  Adult mites suck on the fat body of both adult bees and bee larvae for sustenance. As the fat body is crucial for many bodily functions such as hormone and energy regulation, immunity, and pesticide detoxification, the bee is left in a severely weakened state. Adult mites live and feed under the abdominal plates of adult bees primarily on the underside of the metasoma region on the left side of the bee. Adult mites are more often identified as present in the hive when on top of the adult bee on the mesosoma region, but research suggests that mites in this location are not feeding, but rather attempting to transfer to another bee. Open wounds left by the feeding become sites for disease and virus infections. The mites are vectors for at least five and possibly up to 18 debilitating bee viruses, including RNA viruses such as the deformed wing virus. With the exception of some resistance in the Russian strains and bees that have "Varroa"-sensitive hygiene (about 10% of colonies naturally have it), European "Apis mellifera" bees are almost completely defenseless against these parasites. (Russian honey bees are one-third to one-half less susceptible to mite reproduction).  The model for the population dynamics is exponential growth when bee broods are available, and exponential decline when no brood is available. In 12 weeks, the number of mites in a western honey bee hive can multiply by (roughly) 12. High mite populations in the autumn can cause a crisis when drone rearing ceases and the mites switch to worker larvae, causing a quick population crash and often hive death. Once infected with a "V. destructor" mite, the honey bee may be damaged two ways. Firstly, the mite's consumption of the fat body weakens both the adult bee and the larva; in particular, it significantly decreases the weight of both the hatching and adult bee. Additionally, infected adult worker bees have a shorter lifespan than ordinary worker bees, and they furthermore tend to be absent from the colony far more than ordinary bees, which could be due to their reduced ability to navigate or regulate their energy for flight. Secondly, the mites are vectors of various viruses, in particular the deformed wing virus.  After the initial developmental stages, when the young bee matures, it leaves the brood cell and takes the mite with it. "V. destructor" then leaves the young bee for an older one, preferably for a nurse bee, because nurse bees spend more time near the brood, giving the mite more ample opportunity to reproduce. In fact, because the nurse bee spends more time around the drone brood rather than the worker brood, many more drones are infected with the mites.  "Varroa" mites have been found on tricial larvae of some wasp species, such as "Vespula vulgaris", and flower-feeding insects such as the bumblebee, "Bombus pennsylvanicus", the scarab beetle, "Phanaeus vindex", and the flower-fly, "Palpada vinetorum". It parasitizes the young larvae and feeds on the internal organs of the hosts. Although the "Varroa" mite cannot reproduce on these insects, its presence on them may be a means by which it spreads short distances (phoresy).

Introduction around the world.

"Varroa" mites originally only occurred in Asia, on the Asian honeybee, "Apis cerana", but this species has been introduced to many other countries on several continents, resulting in disastrous infestations of European honeybees. As of mid-2012, Australia is thought to be free of the mite. In early 2010, an isolated subspecies of bee was discovered in Kufra (southeastern Libya) that appears to be free of the mite. The Hawaiian islands of Maui, Kauai, Molokai, and Lanai are all free of the mite.

Identification.

Until recently, "V. destructor" was thought to be a closely related mite species called "Varroa jacobsoni". Both species parasitize the Asian honey bee, "A. cerana". However, the species originally described as "V. jacobsoni" by Anthonie Cornelis Oudemans in 1904 is not the same species that also attacks "A. mellifera". The jump to "A. mellifera" probably first took place in the Philippines in the early 1960s, where imported "A. mellifera" came into close contact with infected "A. cerana". Until 2000, scientists had not identified "V. destructor" as a separate species. This late identification in 2000 by Anderson and Trueman corrected some previous confusion and mislabeling in the scientific literature.

Varroosis.

The infestation and subsequent parasitic disease caused by "Varroa" mites is called varroosis. Sometimes, the incorrect names varroatosis or varroasis are used. A parasitic disease name must be formed from the taxonomic name of the parasite and the suffix -osis as provided in the Standardised Nomenclature by the World Association for the Advancement of Veterinary Parasitology. For example, the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) uses the name varroosis in the OIE Terrestrial Manual.  Treatments have met with limited success. First, the bees were medicated with fluvalinate, a synthetic pyrethroid, which had about 95% mite falls. However, the last 5% became resistant to it, and later, almost immune. Fluvalinate was followed by coumaphos.

Control or preventive measures and treatment.

Monitoring.

Several methods exist for monitoring levels of "Varroa" mites in a colony. For a powdered sugar roll the sampler collects about 300 bees using a 1/2-cup measuring cup and places them in a jar with a wire mesh screen lid (1/8") along with 2 Tbsp of powdered sugar. They then gently swirl the bees for about a minute before turning the jar upside down and shaking for two minutes over a tray to capture the mites as they fall. Those mites are then counted, and the count is divided by three to find the number of mites per 100 bees. The sugar roll is typically done with the intent to prevent killing the sampled bees, but whether the vigorous shaking causes damage is not known. For an alcohol wash, which is the most effective method, the sampler collects about 300 bees using the same cup. The bees are submerged in alcohol with a concentration of 70% or higher. A lid is placed over the jar to seal it, and the mixture is shaken vigorously for two minutes before it is poured over a 1/8" wire mesh screen into a tray. The mites are then counted, and the resulting number is also divided by three. This method kills all sampled bees. The sticky board method does not kill any bees. For this method, a sticky board with a thick coating of petroleum jelly is placed under the brood chamber under a screened bottom board (or similar 1/8" wire mesh screen). The board is retrieved after three days, and the beekeeper takes a count of the mites on the board. This number is divided by three to find the average 24-hour mite drop. This method does not kill any bees, but takes longer for results.

Chemical measures.

"Varroa" mites can be treated with commercially available acaricides. Acaricides must be applied carefully to minimize the contamination of honey that might be consumed by humans. Proper use of miticides also slows the development of resistance by the mites.

Naturally occurring chemicals.

However, the most effective long-term way of protecting bees against "V. destructor" is by breeding bees that are resistant to these mites.

Physical, mechanical, behavioral methods.

"Varroa" mites can also be controlled through nonchemical means. Most of these controls are intended to reduce the mite population to a manageable level, not to eliminate the mites completely.

Genetic engineering.

Researchers have been able to use RNA interference to knock out genes in the "Varroa" mite. Efforts also have been made to breed for changes in the honey bees. Two strains have been developed in the United States that can detect damaged pupae under cappings and remove them before the infestation spreads further. The “IN”/Indiana strain is under development at Purdue University to develop lines that groom off and bite phoretic "Varroa" to kill the mites.

Varroa destructor ("Varroa" mite) is an external parasitic mite that attacks and feeds on the honey bees "Apis cerana" and "Apis mellifera". The disease caused by the mites is called varroosis.

Die Varroamilbe ("Varroa destructor") ist eine (als adultes Weibchen) ca. 1,1 Millimeter lange und 1,6 Millimeter breite Milbe aus der Familie Varroidae, die als Parasit an Honigbienen ("Apis mellifera" und "Apis cerana") lebt. Die Milbe entwickelt und vermehrt sich in der verdeckelten Brut im Bienenstock. Der Befall von Bienenvölkern durch die Milbenart wird als Varroose (alter Name: Varroatose) bezeichnet. "Varroa destructor" gilt als der bedeutsamste Bienenschädling weltweit.


Biography.

Piëch was born in Vienna, Austria, to Louise ("née" Porsche; Ferdinand's daughter) and Anton Piëch, a lawyer. He studied at the Lyceum Alpinum Zuoz and graduated from the ETH Zurich, Switzerland, in 1962, with a degree in mechanical engineering, having written a master thesis about the development of a Formula One (F1) engine. At the same time, Porsche was involved in F1 and developed an 8-cylinder engine for the Porsche 804.  From 1963 to 1971, he worked at Porsche in Stuttgart, on the development of the Porsche 906 and following models that led to the successful Porsche 917. In 1972, he moved to Audi in Ingolstadt. Starting from 1975, he was manager of technological engineering, being responsible for the concepts of the Audi 80 and Audi 100. He celebrated his 40th birthday on 17 April 1977 with a ball at which guests included Giorgetto Giugiaro and at which the staff of the Porsche Hotel presented him with an Audi 80 that was just long and constructed of marzipan. In 1977 he also initiated the development of a car for the World Rally Championship, resulting in the four-wheel drive Audi Quattro. The engine used in the Quattro model was a turbocharged inline-5 cylinder unit.  Piëch held a small engineering company in the time between leaving Porsche AG and joining Audi, and while there, he developed a 5-cylinder in-line diesel engine for Mercedes-Benz. He picked up the concept again after moving to Audi, because there was a market demand for engines with more than 4 cylinders. At the time, Audi (and the Audi-derived VW Passat/Santana model range) used longitudinally mounted inline engines and front wheel drive. More conservative layouts with 6 cylinders were rejected because of engineering and production costs (V6 engine) or packaging requirements (straight 6 did not fit because front wheel drive required that it be mounted in front of the axle).  In 1993, Piëch moved to Volkswagen AG, parent company of the Volkswagen Group, where he became Chairman of the Board of Management, succeeding Carl Hahn. At that time Volkswagen was only three months from bankruptcy, and he was central to orchestrating its dramatic turnaround. He retired from the Board of Management in 2002, but still served in an advisory capacity as Chairman of the Supervisory Board. In 2000, he was named chairman of Scania AB. He retired from the management board in 2002 and was succeeded as chairman by Bernd Pischetsrieder.  While head of Volkswagen Group, Piëch was known for his aggressive moves into other markets. He drove the Volkswagen and Audi brands upmarket with great success. Piëch also pursued other marques, successfully acquiring Lamborghini for Audi, and establishing Bugatti Automobiles SAS. His purchase of British Rolls-Royce and Bentley was more controversial. After successfully buying the Crewe, England, carbuilding operation, VW was denied the use of the Rolls-Royce brand name. Piëch later claimed that he only really wanted the Bentley brand, but at the time the loss of Rolls to rival BMW was widely seen as a major failure.  What was not a failure, however, was his effort to revitalize Volkswagen in North America. Hahn's previous efforts to regain market share in the United States and Canada — which he had built up as the head of Volkswagen of America from 1958 to 1965 — were unsuccessful, but Piëch helped reverse VW's fortunes by the decision to manufacture the Volkswagen New Beetle, the introduction of which in 1998 gave Volkswagen of America a much needed impulse.  Due to his continued influence in the auto industry, "Automobile Magazine" announced that Piëch has won their Man of the Year award for 2011.

Engineering.

At Porsche, Piëch triggered significant changes in the company's policy. For example, the position of drivers in race cars was moved from the left to the right, as this gives advantages on the predominantly clockwise race tracks. After making mainly small race cars that were supposed to be closely related to road cars, Porsche made a risky investment by unexpectedly building twenty-five Porsche 917, surprising the rule makers at the FIA. Even Ferrari had needed to sell his company to Fiat before making such a move. Always thinking big, Piëch started development of a 16-cylinder engine for the Can-Am series. It is probably no coincidence that his grandfather had developed a famous supercharged 16-cylinder engine for the Auto Union racing cars in the 1930s. Piëch was denied the chance to complete it, as a turbocharged version of the existing 12-cylinder was simpler, more powerful and very successful. Three decades later as CEO of Volkswagen Group, Piëch insisted on the very ambitious Bugatti Veyron, with a turbocharged W16-cylinder, and top speed. Some of these figures are still not higher than those of the Porsche 917/30, but higher than most current racing cars. Piëch was also behind the Volkswagen Phaeton luxury saloon, which was intended as a rival to other German luxury cars, but the sales of the model have been disappointing.

Porsche ownership.

Piëch owned a significant share of Porsche, exactly 10%. In order to prevent discussions among the many family members, a policy was established in early 1972 that no Porsche family member is allowed to be involved in the management of the company. Even company founder Ferry Porsche, Piëch's uncle, only held a seat on the supervisory board of Porsche after the company's legal form was changed from a limited partnership to a private legal company. This made Piëch move to Audi after the foundation of his engineering bureau.

Personal life.

Piëch reportedly had 12 children from four different women, though an obituary published by "The Detroit News" mentioned him having 13 children. He was married to his second wife Ursula Piëch from 1984 to his death, he lived with her in retirement in Salzburg, Austria. One of his sons, Toni Piëch, is the founder of car company Piëch Automotive. He was dyslexic, an atheist, and had a vast car collection that included two Bugatti Veyrons regularly driven by him and his wife.  Piëch collapsed suddenly on 25 August 2019 while having dinner with his wife in Rosenheim, Oberbayern. He was rushed to hospital, where he was pronounced dead shortly thereafter. A specific cause of death wasn't released.

Personality and management style.

An engineer by trade, Ferdinand Piech was both known for his intricate involvement in product development from a technical standpoint, as well as his domineering personality. Piech has been behind the development of multiple significant and influential automobiles, including the Porsche 911, Third generation (C3) Audi 100, Audi Quattro and Bugatti Veyron. Automotive blog "Jalopnik" said of Piech, "He is the mad genius behind much of Porsche and Audi’s racing successes as well as VW’s all-out engineering and luxury push from the early 2000s. That’s what gave us cars like the Bugatti Veyron and the 12-cylinder VW Phaeton." Piech is both noted for turning the Audi brand from an also-ran economy car builder to one of the most respected luxury brands in the world, as well as rescuing Volkswagen as a whole from near-bankruptcy and overseeing its transformation into the massive conglomerate it is today. Fellow automotive executive Bob Lutz described Piech as "one of the most successful leaders in the automotive business" and "the greatest living product guy" in the automobile industry. "Automotive News" described Piech as "a world-class eccentric but a figure of transcendent importance in the history of cars and car companies" who has had "The strangest and possibly most significant automotive industry career this side of Henry Ford". In their obituary, "The Guardian" said of Piech, “His stewardship of VW has been indisputably successful. Piech will go down in history as an automotive legend, in the same class as Gottlieb Daimler, Henry Ford and Kiichiro Toyoda.”  Piech has been described as being socially awkward and having an abrasive personality; some automotive journalists who have encountered Piech described him as being uncomfortable to be around. "Automotive News" once noted, "Many of his CEO peers said they could not hold a normal conversation with him. Discussions could be punctuated with long stretches of unexplained silence." Piech himself has acknowledged that he occasionally struggles to relate to other people and understand their feelings. As Piech rose to the top of Volkswagen in the late 1980s and early 1990s, then-CEO Carl Hahn took notice of Piech's poor social skills and tried to position him as a technocrat kept behind closed doors. Hahn was particularly bothered by how Piech behaved during a meeting with the Emperor of Japan; while the Emperor was showing his collection of vintage swords, Piech examined one and told the Emperor that it was a fake. Subsequently, Hahn presented the Audi Avus quattro concept car himself at the 1991 Tokyo Motor Show and didn't allow Piech to take part, which infuriated Piech due to his extensive personal involvement in the Avus quattro's creation.  Piech was widely interested in pushing technological boundaries in automotive development, especially as the head of Audi. "Automotive News" noted of this, "The company’s slogan “Vorsprung durch Technik” was the personification of Piech — the belief that technology was the answer to all problems in the auto business. Audi was the test bed to prove his theory and the springboard for his ambition." Piech often spearheaded the development of audacious vehicles or oversaw business decision and strategies that baffled analysts, but still proved beneficial for the company as a whole. In recounting some of the extraordinary vehicles Volkswagen put in production under Piech's watch, "Wired" noted that he alone pushed the Bugatti Veyron supercar into production, despite objection from other executives as well as the fact that Volkswagen lost what is believed to be millions on every Veyron sold: "Consider that for a moment. Long past the average retirement age, this gent greenlit one of the largest automotive losses in history and managed to keep his job. Moreover, he was hailed as a hero."  An aggressive and demanding manager, Piëch was known for setting both lofty and extremely specific goals and standards for projects. An example of this is with the development of the Volkswagen Phaeton luxury car, in which Piëch laid out ten parameters the car had to meet, amongst them being that the Phaeton should be capable of being driven all day at with an exterior temperature of whilst maintaining the interior temperature at. Piëch requested this even though the Phaeton's top speed was electronically limited to. Another requirement was that the car should possess torsional rigidity of 37,000 N·m/degree. Piech would often become personally involved in vehicle development, such as how he oversaw the development of the Audi 100's aerodynamics himself, keeping it secret from even Audi's top engineers to prevent any crucial details of the car's aerodynamic capabilities from leaking to competitors. Piech often liked to ride along with automotive journalists during press test drives and would consider their critiques to improve Volkswagen's vehicles. "Car and Driver" writer John Phillips recounted how when he test drove the Volkswagen New Beetle during its launch in 1997, Piech rode along and asked for his opinion on how its chassis and driving dynamics could be improved. Similarly, Piech once demanded that an "Automobile" reviewer take the Volkswagen Phaeton up to its top speed while he rode along in the back seat.  With a leadership style described as "old fashioned", Piech was known for his prolific firing of subordinates throughout his career, particularly how he engineered the ousting of former Volkswagen CEO Bernd Pischetsrieder and Porsche CEO Wendelin Wiedeking. According to Piëch, he fires any subordinate who "makes the same mistake twice". "The Guardian" noted, "Piech was known for his ability to outmanoeuvre competitors by stoking internal rivalries to his own advantage, even if it resulted in turning against his own managers, including the VW chief executive Bernd Pischetsrieder, to side with VW’s labour leaders." Piech has leveraged this reputation to use threats and intimidation to get subordinates to meet his lofty goals; during Piech's induction into the Automotive Hall of Fame in 2014, fellow automotive executive Bob Lutz recounted a conversation he had with Piëch at the Frankfurt Auto Show in the early 1990s, in which he remarked how he was impressed with the fit and finish and tight body tolerances on Volkswagen's new models. Piëch told Lutz that he achieved this by assembling Volkswagen's top body engineers in his office and telling them they would all be fired if all of Volkswagen's vehicles didn't have body tolerances of 3 millimeters within six weeks. "Wired" described Piech as "Machiavellian" and "an autocrat's autocrat". Bob Lutz said of his management style, "It's what I call a reign of terror and a culture where performance was driven by fear and intimidation[...]That management style gets short-term results, but it's a culture that's extremely dangerous. Look at dictators. Dictators invariably wind up destroying the very countries they thought their omniscience and omnipotence would make great. It's fast and it's efficient, but at huge risk." He would also describe Piech as a "mad genius" that while he respected, he would never want to work for or with at any capacity. Lutz, CNBC, the American documentary TV series "Dirty Money", among others, have claimed that the Volkswagen diesel emissions scandal is the result of the ruthless and tyrannical corporate culture Piech installed at the company.

Ferdinand Karl Piëch (; 17 April 1937 – 25 August 2019) was an Austrian business magnate, engineer and executive who was the chairman of the executive board ("Vorstandsvorsitzender") of Volkswagen Group in 1993–2002 and the chairman of the supervisory board ("Aufsichtsratsvorsitzender") of Volkswagen Group in 2002–2015.

Ferdinand Karl Piëch [] (* 17. April 1937 in Wien; † 25. August 2019 in Rosenheim) war ein österreichischer Manager und Großaktionär der Porsche Automobil Holding SE. Von 1993 bis 2002 war er Vorstandsvorsitzender der Volkswagen AG und danach bis 2015 deren Aufsichtsratsvorsitzender.


Early years.

Jorge Alessandri was born in Santiago. He studied at Instituto Nacional General José Miguel Carrera, prestigious public high school of Santiago, and University of Chile, and after graduating in 1919 worked there as a lecturer. After the fall of the parliamentary republic, he lived in European exile with his parents from 1924–1925, but returned to his native land where he was elected to parliament as an independent from a Santiago constituency in 1926.  He withdrew from public life in 1932 to concentrate on business interests, becoming president of the mortgage bank, "Caja de Crédito Hipotecario" until 1938 and running the "Paper and Carton Manufacturing Company". From 1944 to 1947, he was chairman of the Chilean employers' confederation.

Return to politics.

The early years of the Presidency of Gabriel González were marked by serious unrest between left and right-wing supporters, and on 2 August 1947 González named a cabinet of military officers and independents in a supposed attempt to depoliticise the situation. Alessandri was named Minister of Finance, where he reordered the system of administration and pursued a rigorous programme of austerity.  By 1950, he had restored order to the public finances and controlled inflation. However, his freezes of public sector remuneration gradually led to greater industrial unrest. Public sector workers came out on strike at the end of January 1950, which rapidly turned into a broad opposition against the government's economic policies. Along with the rest of the cabinet, Alessandri resigned on 3 February, and returned to his role as president of the employers' confederation.

Senate and presidency.

In 1956, the Liberal Party selected him as a candidate for a Santiago Senate seat, which he won with a substantial majority in 1957. However, Alessandri was seen as rather conservative by the Liberal Party, and in the end it was the moderate wing of the Conservative Party which secured his position as an independent candidate for the Presidency, with his campaign majoring on his economic expertise.  In March 1958, he edged the united left candidate for the Presidency, Salvador Allende by 32.2% to 28.5%, with Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Montalva polling 20.5%. In the event of no candidate securing an overall majority of the popular vote, the choice of president fell to Congress, which duly chose Alessandri, who had a coalition of Conservatives, Liberals and Radical Party congressmen behind him.  Alessandri initially focused, unsurprisingly, on economic issues, particularly on controlling inflation and balancing the state budget, and he liberalised Chile's tariff régime. However, he once again froze public sector pay, unleashing widespread industrial unrest.  In May 1960, a strong earthquake struck the densely populated area between Concepción and Puerto Montt, causing more than US$400 million in damage. Reconstruction and relief soon drowned out other issues. The earthquake effectively interrupted and ended Lota's coal miners march on Concepción as they were demanding higher salaries.  In 1961, elections to Congress saw massive losses for the Conservatives and Liberals, with the Radicals, alone of the coalition parties, doing well. This forced Alessandri to nominate more Ministers from the Radical Party, which in turned moved his government to the left. This tied in with the more activist foreign development policy pursued by John F Kennedy in the wake of the Cuban Revolution of 1959, in the shape of the Alliance for Progress. Together, these unleashed a wave of progressive tax and agricultural reforms. Despite this, distribution of land ownership remained grossly unequal.  Alessandri's period of office ended in 1964, and he was succeeded by his opponent of 1958, the Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Montalva. Alessandri returned to managing his paper factory.

Public life after his government.

On 3 November 1965, in the press published a letter, supported by 900 firms, where directed to Alessandri to analyze the general reality and highlight his public action, thus starting his second presidential candidacy.  Publishing in the press in September 1968, a manifesto to the country -subscribed by Guillermo Feliú Cruz, historian; Hugo Galvez Gajardo, former Minister; Adolfo Silva Henríquez, farmer; Jaime Guzmán Errázuriz, university leader; Eduardo Boetsch G. H., engineer; and Jorge Delano Frederick, reporter requested adhesions to promote the presidential candidacy of Jorge Alessandri.  Although Alessandri kept a low profile for most of the 1964-1970 period, he never explicitly ruled out a return to politics. On one occasion he said of the Chilean people: "I perceived, and necessarily, the rumor growing tide of discontent, despair and anxiety, inevitable product of just awakened but unsatisfied aspirations."

Allende's election and Pinochet's dictatorship.

In 1970, following the end of Frei's period in office, Jorge Alessandri sought election as President once again, with his main opponent Salvador Allende, just as in 1958. After another close contest, Allende emerged in front this time, by the narrow margin of 37.3% to 35.8%, with Christian Democrat Radomiro Tomić polling 27.9% on polling day, 4 September. As in 1958, the election went to Congress, this time on 24 October. Although Congress placed a number of conditions on Allende such as his signature of a "Statute of Constitutional Guarantees", promising not to undermine the Chilean Constitution, Alessandri lost the final vote by a decisive 153-35, with Tomic's Christian Democrats supporting Allende.  After the military coup of 11 September 1973 General Augusto Pinochet seized power and formed a government, and in 1976 Alessandri was named President of a newly formed Council of State, which served as advisor to the Junta in matters of legislation, and which also played a role in the drafting of the new constitution. The Council suggested changes to the draft prepared by the Ortúzar Committee, but many of the most important recommendations were dismissed by the Junta. Alessandri did not agree with some of the Junta's authoritarian amendments and resigned from the Council. The constitution was approved in a national plebiscite held in September 1980 and came into force in March 1981. During the campaign, Alessandri declared he would vote "Yes", despite his disagreements with the Junta.

Final years.

After this, Jorge Alessandri once more withdrew into private life, now for the last time, living rather peacefully in his apartment in the center of Santiago. He continued to be chairman of the board of a paper factory until his death in Santiago in 1986. He did not live to see the end of the junta and the return of Chile to democracy.  His nephew Arturo Alessandri Besa stood as Presidential candidate for the right-wing Alianza in 1993, losing to the Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle of the Concertación center-left coalition.

Jorge Alessandri Rodríguez (; 19 May 1896 – 31 August 1986) was the 27th President of Chile from 1958 to 1964, and was the candidate of the Chilean right in the crucial presidential election of 1970, which he lost to Salvador Allende. He was the son of Arturo Alessandri, who was president from 1920 to 1925 and again from 1932 to 1938.

Jorge Alessandri Rodríguez (* 19. Mai 1896 in Santiago de Chile; † 31. August 1986 ebenda) war ein konservativer chilenischer Politiker und von 1958 bis 1964 Präsident.


Use.

Often in computational theory, the term "algorithm" refers to a deterministic algorithm. A nondeterministic algorithm is different from its more familiar deterministic counterpart in its ability to arrive at outcomes using various routes. If a deterministic algorithm represents a single path from an input to an outcome, a nondeterministic algorithm represents a single path stemming into many paths, some of which may arrive at the same output and some of which may arrive at unique outputs. This property is captured mathematically in "nondeterministic" models of computation such as the nondeterministic finite automaton. In some scenarios, all possible paths are allowed to run simultaneously.  In algorithm design, nondeterministic algorithms are often used when the problem solved by the algorithm inherently allows multiple outcomes (or when there is a single outcome with multiple paths by which the outcome may be discovered, each equally preferable). Crucially, every outcome the nondeterministic algorithm produces is valid, regardless of which choices the algorithm makes while running.  In computational complexity theory, nondeterministic algorithms are ones that, at every possible step, can allow for multiple continuations (imagine a person walking down a path in a forest and, every time they step further, they must pick which fork in the road they wish to take). These algorithms do not arrive at a solution for every possible computational path; however, they are guaranteed to arrive at a correct solution for some path (i.e., the person walking through the forest may only find their cabin if they pick some combination of "correct" paths). The choices can be interpreted as guesses in a search process.  A large number of problems can be conceptualized through nondeterministic algorithms, including the most famous unresolved question in computing theory, P vs NP.

Implementing nondeterministic algorithms with deterministic ones.

One way to simulate a nondeterministic algorithm "N" using a deterministic algorithm "D" is to treat sets of states of "N" as states of "D". This means that "D" simultaneously traces all the possible execution paths of "N" (see powerset construction for this technique in use for finite automata).  Another is randomization, which consists of letting all choices be determined by a random number generator. The result is called a probabilistic deterministic algorithm.

In computer science, a nondeterministic algorithm is an algorithm that, even for the same input, can exhibit different behaviors on different runs, as opposed to a deterministic algorithm. There are several ways an algorithm may behave differently from run to run. A concurrent algorithm can perform differently on different runs due to a race condition. A probabilistic algorithm's behaviors depends on a random number generator. An algorithm that solves a problem in nondeterministic polynomial time can run in polynomial time or exponential time depending on the choices it makes during execution. The nondeterministic algorithms are often used to find an approximation to a solution, when the exact solution would be too costly to obtain using a deterministic one.

Nichtdeterministische Maschinen sind theoretische Modelle und im Allgemeinen nicht praktisch realisierbar. Ihr Zweck in der theoretischen Informatik ist, die Komplexität von Problemen nach oben zu beschränken, das soll heißen, dass ein Problem, für das man einen nichtdeterministischen Algorithmus angeben kann, „leichter“ ist als ein Problem, für das man dies nicht kann. In vielen Fällen ist es leichter, für ein Problem einen nichtdeterministischen Algorithmus zu finden als einen deterministischen (und damit praktisch realisierbaren) Algorithmus. Daher ist es eine wichtige Frage in der theoretischen Informatik, unter welchen Umständen man nichtdeterministische Algorithmen bzw. Maschinen durch deterministische Algorithmen bzw. Maschinen effizient simulieren kann.


Definitions.

Gerbe.

A gerbe on a topological space "X" is a stack "G" of groupoids over "X" which is "locally non-empty" (each point in "X" has an open neighbourhood "U" over which the section category "G"("U") of the gerbe is not empty) and "transitive" (for any two objects "a" and "b" of "G"("U") for any open set "U", there is an open covering {V} of U such that the restrictions of "a" and "b" to each V are connected by at least one morphism).  A canonical example is the gerbe of principal bundles with a fixed structure group "H": the section category over an open set "U" is the category of principal "H"-bundles on "U" with isomorphism as morphisms (thus the category is a groupoid). As principal bundles glue together (satisfy the descent condition), these groupoids form a stack. The trivial bundle "X" x "H" over "X" shows that the local non-emptiness condition is satisfied, and finally as principal bundles are locally trivial, they become isomorphic when restricted to sufficiently small open sets; thus the transitivity condition is satisfied as well.

Examples.

Algebraic geometry.

Let formula_1 be a variety over an algebraically closed field formula_2, formula_3 an algebraic group, for example formula_4. Recall that a "G"-torsor over formula_1 is an algebraic space formula_6 with an action of formula_3 and a map formula_8, such that locally on formula_1 (in étale topology or fppf topology) formula_10 is a direct product formula_11. A G"-gerbe over "M may be defined in a similar way. It is an Artin stack formula_12 with a map formula_13, such that locally on "M" (in étale or fppf topology) formula_10 is a direct product formula_15. Here formula_16 denotes the classifying stack of formula_3, i.e. a quotient formula_18 of a point by a trivial formula_3-action. There is no need to impose the compatibility with the group structure in that case since it is covered by the definition of a stack. The underlying topological spaces of formula_12 and formula_1 are the same, but in formula_12 each point is equipped with a stabilizer group isomorphic to formula_3.

Moduli stack of stable bundles on a curve.

Consider a smooth projective curve formula_24 over formula_2 of genus formula_26. Let formula_27 be the moduli stack of stable vector bundles on formula_24 of rank formula_29 and degree formula_30. It has a coarse moduli space formula_31, which is a quasiprojective variety. These two moduli problems parametrize the same objects, but the stacky version remembers automorphisms of vector bundles. For any stable vector bundle formula_32 the automorphism group formula_33 consists only of scalar multiplications, so each point in a moduli stack has a stabilizer isomorphic to formula_4. It turns out that the map formula_35 is indeed a formula_4-gerbe in the sense above.. It is a trivial gerbe if and only if formula_29 and formula_30 are coprime.

Root stacks.

Another class of gerbes can be found using the construction of root stacks. Informally, the formula_29-th root stack of a line bundle formula_40 over a scheme is a space representing the formula_29-th root of formula_42 and is denotedformula_43.The formula_29-th root stack of formula_42 has the propertyformula_46as gerbes. It is constructed as the stackformula_47sending an formula_48-scheme formula_49 to the category whose objects line bundles of the formformula_50and morphisms are commutative diagrams compatible with the isomorphisms formula_51. This gerbe is banded by the algebraic group of roots of unity formula_52, where on a cover formula_49 it acts on a point formula_54 by cyclically permuting the factors of formula_1 in formula_56. Geometrically, these stacks are formed as the fiber product of stacksformula_57where the vertical map of formula_58 comes from the Kummer sequenceformula_59This is because formula_60 is the moduli space of line bundles, so the line bundle formula_40 corresponds to an object of the category formula_62 (considered as a point of the moduli space).

Root stacks with sections.

There is another related construction of root stacks with sections. Given the data above, let formula_63 be a section. Then the formula_29-th root stack of the pair formula_65 is defined as the lax 2-functorformula_66sending an formula_48-scheme formula_49 to the category whose objects line bundles of the formformula_69and morphisms are given similarly. These stacks can be constructed very explicitly, and are well understood for affine schemes. In fact, these form the affine models for root stacks with sections. Given an affine scheme formula_70, all line bundles are trivial, hence formula_71 and any section formula_72 is equivalent to taking an element formula_73. Then, the stack is given by the stack quotientformula_74withformula_75If formula_76 then this gives an infinitesimal extension of formula_77.

Examples throughout algebraic geometry.

These and more general kinds of gerbes arise in several contexts as both geometric spaces and as formal bookeeping tools:

History.

Gerbes first appeared in the context of algebraic geometry. They were subsequently developed in a more traditional geometric framework by Brylinski. One can think of gerbes as being a natural step in a hierarchy of mathematical objects providing geometric realizations of integral cohomology classes.  A more specialised notion of gerbe was introduced by Murray and called bundle gerbes. Essentially they are a smooth version of abelian gerbes belonging more to the hierarchy starting with principal bundles than sheaves. Bundle gerbes have been used in gauge theory and also string theory. Current work by others is developing a theory of non-abelian bundle gerbes.

In mathematics, a gerbe (; ) is a construct in homological algebra and topology. Gerbes were introduced by Jean Giraud following ideas of Alexandre Grothendieck as a tool for non-commutative cohomology in degree 2. They can be seen as an analogue of fibre bundles where the fibre is the classifying stack of a group. Gerbes provide a convenient, if highly abstract, language for dealing with many types of deformation questions especially in modern algebraic geometry. In addition, special cases of gerbes have been used more recently in differential topology and differential geometry to give alternative descriptions to certain cohomology classes and additional structures attached to them.

Der Begriff Gerbe wird in der algebraischen Topologie für eine bestimmte Art von Stacks über einem topologischen Raum verwendet. Teilweise werden aber auch Spezialfälle solcher Gerben vereinfachend als Gerben bezeichnet, zum Beispiel Bündelgerben oder Hitchin-Gerben. Eine wichtige Charakterisierung von Gerben ist ihr Band.


Attestations.

Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep is well attested by contemporary sources. First, he is mentioned on the Kahun Papyrus IV, now in the Petrie Museum (UC32166). (Ryholt, p. 315) This Kahun Papyrus is "a census of the household of a lector-priest that is dated to the first regnal year" of the king and also records the birth of a son of the lector-priest during a 40th regnal year, "which can only refer to Amenemhat III." This establishes that Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep reigned close in time to Amenemhat III.  Second, a number of architectural elements bearing Sobekhotep's titulary are known: a fragment of a "Hebsed" chapel from Medamud, three lintels from Deir el-Bahri and Medamud, an architrave from Luxor and a doorjamb from Medamud that is now in the Louvre.

Nile Level Records.

Three Nile level records from Semna and Kumna in Nubia are also attributable to Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep, the latest of which is dated to year 4, showing that he reigned for at least three complete years.

Small finds.

Smaller artifacts mentioning Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep comprise a cylinder seal from Gebelein, an adze-blade, a statuette from Kerma and a faience bead, now in the Petrie Museum (UC 13202).

Alleged tomb.

During a 2013 excavation in Abydos, a team of archaeologists led by Josef W. Wegner of the University of Pennsylvania discovered the tomb of a king with the name "Sobekhotep". While Sobekhotep I was named as owner of the tomb on several press reports since January 2014, further investigations made it more likely that the tomb belongs to king Sobekhotep IV instead.

Chronological position.

There is some dispute in Egyptology over the position of this king in the 13th Dynasty. The throne name "Sekhemre Khutawyre" appears in the Turin King List as the 19th king of the 13th Dynasty. However, the Nile level records and his appearance on a papyrus found at Lahun indicate that he might date to the early 13th Dynasty. In both monument types only kings of the late 12th and early 13th Dynasty are mentioned.  In the Turin King List, "Khutawyre" appears as the first 13th Dynasty king; Egyptologist Kim Ryholt maintains that it is possible that the writer of the list confused "Sekhemre Khutawy" with "Khutawyre", the nomen of Wegaf. Furthermore, the identification of any mention of Sekhemre Khutawy is difficult, as at least three kings are known to have had this name: Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep, Sekhemre Khutawy Pantjeny and Sekhemre Khutawy Khabaw.  Based on his name Amenemhat Sobekhotep, it has been suggested that Sobekhotep was a son of the penultimate pharaoh of the 12th Dynasty, king Amenemhat IV. Amenemhat Sobekhotep can be read as Amenemhat's son Sobekhotep. Therefore, Sobekhotep may have been a brother of Sekhemkare Sonbef, the second ruler of the 13th Dynasty. Other Egyptologists read Amenemhat Sobekhotep as a double name, these being common in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Dynasty.

Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep (appears in most sources as Amenemhat Sobekhotep; now believed to be Sobekhotep I; known as Sobekhotep II in older studies) was an Egyptian pharaoh of the 13th Dynasty during the Second Intermediate Period, who reigned for at least three years c. 1800 BC. His chronological position is much debated, Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep being either the founder of the dynasty, in which case he is called Sobekhotep I, or its twentieth ruler, in which case he is called Sobekhotep II. In his 1997 study of the Second Intermediate Period, the Egyptologist Kim Ryholt makes a strong case for Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep as the founder of the dynasty, a hypothesis that is now dominant in Egyptology. His tomb was believed to have been discovered in Abydos in 2013, but its attribution is now questioned.

Sobekhotep II., auch "Sebekhotep II." und mit Doppelnamen Amenemhet Sobekhotep, war ein altägyptischer König (Pharao) der 13. Dynastie (Zweite Zwischenzeit), welcher etwa von 1724 bis 1718 v. Chr. regierte.


Young People's Society of Christian Endeavour

Organizational History.

Formation.

The Young People's Society of Christian Endeavor is an interdenominational Christian youth society which provided a structure for church youth to work together to know God in Jesus Christ. After the Society was described in a magazine article in 1882 the Society grew initially in the United States and then spread throughout the British Empire and beyond. The movement peaked during the last decade of the nineteenth century and then declined as denominational youth societies imitated and adapted the forms of Christian Endeavor. The Society continues in various locations into the twenty-first century.  The first Christian Endeavor Society was formed on Feb 2, 1881 in Portland, Maine, under the direction of Francis E. Clark. Rev. Clark founded the first national church youth organization, Christian Endeavor, the forerunner of the modern denominational "youth fellowship". The society was formed in order to bring youth to accept Christ and work for Him. The youth were shown that the church cared for young people. The Society enabled youth to express themselves while participating in useful tasks. It stressed a devoted, evangelistic spirit that was expressed in the Christian Endeavor pledge:  Christian Endeavor created publications for youth, devised youth programs, and sponsored events. Christian Endeavor was maintained through private donations that often came from youth. Christian Endeavor began as a small group of youth that met at the house of their minister. Within a year, six societies had formed. After two years, the number of societies had grown to fifty-six. The organization expanded rapidly as it grew from a single church society into a world movement. By the end of the 19th century, Christian Endeavor was in the headlines of many major American newspapers. By 1906, 67,000 youth-led Christian Endeavor societies had been organized worldwide, with over four million members. Christian Endeavor took up many causes and was influential in supporting the temperance movement in the 1920s.  Christian Endeavor began extensive publications in 1886. World conventions were held to address major issues. In 1887, Clark was elected president of the United Society, and in 1895 he was chosen as the World President of the Christian Endeavor Union. Clark held this position until his death in 1927. Daniel A. Poling then assumed the presidency. Christian Endeavor societies met at the state level for local control and met in World Conventions at intervals of three to six years. (World Conventions were held in Grand Rapids, Michigan in 1937 and 1951.) The organization's world headquarters moved from Boston, Massachusetts, to Columbus, Ohio, in 1952. Christian Endeavor is still operating today throughout the world; their activities are widely reported on international and state Christian Endeavor Websites. Drawing on ideas taken from other pastors, especially Presbyterian Theodore L. Cuyler from Brooklyn, Clark shaped the concept of "youth ministry" by asking young people in his Williston Congregational Church to sign a two-sentence pledge described in his book published in 1882, The Children and the Church, and the Young People's Society of Christian Endeavor, as a means of Bringing Them Together. Previously youth had been classified with children and not considered capable of active Christian involvement.

Development.

The Christian Endeavor movement began February 2, 1881. The process, pledge(promise), and principles for starting a youth-led, adult-mentored ministry can be found at http://www.CEworks.faith. Churches can take steps to help young people be in ministry today. The Christian Endeavor World office is located in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, USA. The General Secretary (CEO) is Dr. Dave Coryell from the USA. The President is Raffi Messerlian from Lebanon.  People involved in Christian Endeavor gather every four years for a convention. The 29th C.E. World Convention will be held July 2019 in Flensunger Hof, Germany.

Literary References.

Christian Endeavor meetings are described in both "Cloudy Jewel" and "The Girl from Montana", by Christian author Grace Livingston-Hill.

The Young People's Society of Christian Endeavor is a nondenominational evangelical society founded in Portland, Maine, in 1881 by Francis Edward Clark. Its professed object was "to promote an earnest Christian life among its members, to increase their mutual acquaintanceship, and to make them more useful in the service of God."

Entschieden für Christus (EC), im englischen Sprachraum Christian Endeavour (CE), ist eine internationale überkonfessionell-christliche Jugendbewegung evangelikaler Prägung, die in über 60 Ländern arbeitet. Ihre Aufgabe sieht sie in der Weiterverbreitung der christlichen Botschaft im evangelikalen Verständnis. Dies geschieht weitgehend durch die ehrenamtliche Tätigkeit interessierter Jugendlicher und junger Erwachsener, die sich meist wöchentlich in Kleingruppen treffen. Unterstützt werden diese Jugendlichen durch die hauptamtliche Tätigkeit sogenannter Referenten.