Business models for open-source software

Not selling code.

Professional services.

Open-source software can also be commercialized from selling services, such as training, technical support, or consulting, rather than the software itself.  Another possibility is offering open-source software in source code form only, while providing executable binaries to paying customers only, offering the commercial service of compiling and packaging of the software. Also, providing goods like physical installation media (e.g., DVDs) can be a commercial service.  Open-source companies using this business model successfully are, for instance RedHat, IBM, SUSE, Hortonworks (for Apache Hadoop), Chef, and Percona (for open-source database software).

Branded merchandise.

Some open-source organizations such as the Mozilla Foundation and the Wikimedia Foundation sell branded merchandise articles like t-shirts and coffee mugs. This can be also seen as an additional service provided to the user community.

Software as a service.

Selling subscriptions for online accounts and server access to customers is one way of adding value to open-source software. Another way is combining desktop software with a service, called software plus services. Most open core companies that use this approach also provide the software in a fashion suitable for on-premises, do-it-yourself deployment. To some customers, however, there is significant value in a “plug and play” hosted product. Open source businesses that use this model often cater to small and medium enterprises who do not have the technology resources to run the software. Providing cloud computing services or software as a service (SaaS) without the release of the open-source software is not an open source deployment.  The FSF called the server-side use-case without release of the source-code the "ASP loophole in the GPLv2" and encourage therefore the use of the Affero General Public License which plugged this hole in 2002. In 2007 the FSF contemplated including the special provision of AGPLv1 into GPLv3 but ultimately decided to keep the licenses separate.

Voluntary donations.

There were experiments by Independent developers to fund development of open-source software donation-driven directly by the users, e.g. with the Illumination Software Creator in 2012. Since 2011, SourceForge allows users to donate to hosted projects that opted to accept donations, which is enabled via PayPal.  Larger donation campaigns also exist. In 2004 the Mozilla Foundation carried out a fundraising campaign to support the launch of the Firefox 1.0 web browser. It placed a two-page ad in the December 16 edition of "The New York Times" listing the names of the thousands who had donated.  In May 2019, GitHub, a Git-based software repository hosting, management and collaboration platform owned by Microsoft, launched a Sponsors program that allows people who support certain open source projects hosted on GitHub money to developers who contribute and maintain the project.

Crowdsourcing.

Crowdsourcing is a type of participative online activity in which an individual, an institution, a nonprofit organization, or company proposes to a group of individuals of varying knowledge, heterogeneity, and number, the voluntary undertaking of a task via a flexible open call. The undertaking of the task, of variable complexity and modularity, and in which the crowd should participate, bringing their work, money, knowledge and/or experience, always entails mutual benefit. The user will receive the satisfaction of a given type of need, be it economic, social recognition, self-esteem, or the development of individual skills, while the crowdsourcer will obtain and use to their advantage that which the user has brought to the venture, whose form will depend on the type of activity undertaken. Caveats in pursuing a Crowdsourcing strategy are to induce a substantial market model or incentive, and care has to be taken that the whole thing doesn't end up in an open source anarchy of adware and spyware plagiates, with a lot of broken solutions, started by people who just wanted to try it out, then gave up early, and a few winners. Popular examples for Crowdsourcing are Linux, Google Android, the Pirate Party movement, and Wikipedia.

Selling users.

Partnership with funding organizations.

Other financial situations include partnerships with other companies. Governments, universities, companies, and non-governmental organizations may develop internally or hire a contractor for custom in-house modifications, then release that code under an open-source license. Some organizations support the development of open-source software by grants or stipends, like Google's Summer of Code initiative founded in 2005.

Advertising-supported software.

In order to commercialize FOSS (free and open-source software), many companies (including Google, Mozilla, and Canonical) have moved towards an economic model of advertising-supported software. For instance, the open-source application AdBlock Plus gets paid by Google for letting whitelisted "Acceptable Ads" bypassing the browser ad remover. As another example is SourceForge, an open-source project service provider, has the revenue model of advertising banner sales on their website. In 2006, SourceForge reported quarterly takings of $6.5 million and $23 million in 2009.

Pre-selling code.

Bounty driven development.

The users of a particular software artifact may come together and pool money into an open-source bounty for the implementation of a desired feature or functionality. Offering bounties as funding has existed for some time. For instance, Bountysource is a web platform which has offered this funding model for open source software since 2003.  Another bounty source is companies or foundations that set up bounty programs for implemented features or bugfixes in open-source software relevant to them. For instance, Mozilla has been paying and funding freelance open-source programmers for security bug hunting and fixing since 2004.

Pre-order/crowdfunding/reverse-bounty model.

A newer funding opportunity for open-source software projects is crowdfunding, which shares similarities with the pre-order or Praenumeration business model, as well as the reverse bounty model, typically organized over web platforms like Kickstarter, Indiegogo, or Bountysource (see also comparison of crowd funding services). One example is the successfully funded Indiegogo campaign in 2013 by Australian programmer Timothy Arceri, who offered to implement an OpenGL 4.3 extension for the Mesa library in two weeks for $2,500. Arceri delivered the OpenGL extension code which was promptly merged upstream, and he later continued his efforts on Mesa with successive crowdfunding campaigns. Later, he found work as an employee in this domain with Collabora and in 2017 with Valve. Another example is the June 2013 crowdfunding on Kickstarter of the open source video game which raised the payment of a full-time developer for 3.5 months. Patreon funding has also become an effective option, as the service gives the option to pay out each month to creators, many of whom intend to develop free and open-source software.

Selling intellectual property.

Dual-licensing or Open Core.

In a dual licensing model, the vendor develops software and offers it under an open-source license but also under separate proprietary license terms. The proprietary version can be licensed to finance the continued development of the free open-source version. Customers may prefer a no-cost and open-source edition for testing, evaluation, proof of concept development, and small scale deployment. If the customer wishes to deploy the software at scale, or in proprietary distributed products, the customer then negotiates for a commercial license to an enterprise edition. Further, customers will learn of open-source software in a company's portfolio and offerings but generate business in other proprietary products and solutions, including commercial technical support contracts and services. A popular example is Oracle's MySQL database which is dual-licensed under a commercial proprietary license as also under the GPLv2. Another example is the Sleepycat License. Flask developer Armin Ronacher stated that the AGPLv3 was a "terrible success" as "vehicle for dual commercial licensing" and noted that MongoDB, RethinkDB, OpenERP, SugarCRM as well as WURFL utilizing the license for this purpose.  Dual license products are generally sold as a “community version” and an “enterprise version.” In a pure dual licensing model, as was common before 2010, these versions are identical but available under a choice of licensing terms. Added proprietary software may help customers analyze data, or more efficiently deploy the software on their infrastructure or platform. Examples include the IBM proprietary Linux software, where IBM contributes to the Linux open-source ecosystem, but it builds and delivers (to IBM's paying customers) database software, middleware, and other software that runs on top of the open-source core. Other examples of proprietary products built on open-source software include Red Hat Enterprise Linux and Cloudera's Apache Hadoop-based software.

Selling certificates and use of trademark.

Another financing approach is innovated by Moodle, an open source learning management system and community platform. The business model revolves around a network of commercial partners who are certified and therefore authorised to use the Moodle name and logo, and in turn provide a proportion of revenue to the Moodle Trust, which funds core development.

Re-licensing under a proprietary license.

If a software product uses only own software and open-source software under a permissive free software licence, a company can re-license the resulting software product under a proprietary license and sell the product without the source code or software freedoms. For instance, Apple Inc. is an avid user of this approach by using source code and software from open-source projects. For example, the BSD Unix operating system kernel (under the BSD license) was used in Apple's Mac PCs that were sold as proprietary products.

Selling proprietary additives.

Selling optional proprietary extensions.

Some companies sell proprietary but optional extensions, modules, plugins or add-ons to an open-source software product. This approach is a variant of the freemium business model. The proprietary software may be intended to let customers get more value out of their data, infrastructure, or platform, e.g., operate their infrastructure/platform more effectively and efficiently, manage it better, or secure it better. Examples include the IBM proprietary Linux software, where IBM contributes to the Linux open-source ecosystem, but it builds and delivers (to IBM's paying customers) database software, middleware, and other software that runs on top of the open-source core. Other examples of proprietary products built on open-source software include Red Hat Enterprise Linux and Cloudera's Apache Hadoop-based software. Some companies appear to re-invest a portion of their financial profits from the sale of proprietary software back into the open source infrastructure.  The approach can be problematic with many open source licenses ("not license conform") if not carried out technically sufficiently carefully. For instance, mixing proprietary code and open-source licensed code in statically linked libraries or compiling all source code together in a software product might violate open-source licenses, while keeping them separated by interfaces and dynamic-link libraries might often adhere to license conform.

Selling required proprietary parts of a software product.

A variant of the approach above is the keeping of required data content (for instance a video game's audio, graphic, and other art assets) of a software product proprietary while making the software's source code open-source. While this approach is completely legitimate and compatible with most open-source licenses, customers have to buy the content to have a complete and working software product. Restrictive licenses can then be applied on the content, which prevents the redistribution or re-selling of the complete software product. Examples for open-source developed software are Kot-in-Action Creative Artel video game "Steel Storm", engine GPLv2 licensed while the artwork is CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0 licensed, and "Frogatto & Friends" with an own developed open-source engine and commercialization via the copyrighted game assets for iPhone, BlackBerry and MacOS.  Other examples are "Arx Fatalis" (by Arkane Studios) and "Catacomb 3-D" (by Flat Rock Software) with source code opened to the public delayed after release, while copyrighted assets and binaries are still sold on gog.com as digital distribution.  Doing so conforms with the FSF and Richard Stallman, who stated that for art or entertainment the software freedoms are not required or important.  The similar product bundling of an open-source software product with hardware which prevents users from running modified versions of the software is called tivoization and is legal with most open-source licenses except GPLv3, which explicitly prohibits this use-case.

Selling proprietary update systems.

Another variant of the approach above, mainly use for data-intensive, data-centric software programs, is the keeping of all versions of the software under a free and open-source software license, but refraining from providing update scripts from a "n" to an "n"+1 version. Users can still deploy and run the open source software. However, any update to the next version requires either exporting the data, reinstalling the new version, then reimporting the data to the new version, or subscribing to the proprietary update system, or studying the two versions and recreating the scripts from scratch.  This practice does not conform with the free software principles as espoused by the FSF. Richard Stallman condemns this practice and names it "diachronically trapped software".

Other.

Obfuscation of source code.

An approach to allow commercialization under some open-source licenses while still protecting crucial business secrets, intellectual property and technical know-how is obfuscation of source code. This approach was used in several cases, for instance by Nvidia in their open-source graphic card device drivers. This practice is used to get the open-source-friendly propaganda without bearing the inconveniences. There has been debate in the free-software/open-source community on whether it is illegal to skirt copyleft software licenses by releasing source code in obfuscated form, such as in cases in which the author is less willing to make the source code available. The general consensus was that while unethical, it was not considered a violation.  The Free Software Foundation is against this practice. The GNU General Public License since version 2 has defined "source code" as "the preferred form of the work for making modifications to it." This is intended to prevent the release of obfuscated source code.

Delayed open-sourcing.

Some companies provide the latest version available only to paying customers. A vendor forks a non-copyleft software project then adds closed-source additions to it and sells the resulting software. After a fixed time period the patches are released back upstream under the same license as the rest of the codebase. This business model is called version lagging or time delaying.  For instance, 2016 the MariaDB Corporation created for business compatible "delayed open-sourcing" the source-available "Business source license" (BSL) which automatically relicenses after three years to the FOSS GPL. This approach guarantees licensees that they have source code access (e.g. for code audits), are not locked into a closed platform, or suffer from planned obsolescence, while for the software developer a time-limited exclusive commercialization is possible. In 2017 followed version 1.1, revised with feedback also from Bruce Perens.  However, this approach works only with own software or permissive licensed code parts, as there is no copyleft FOSS license available which allows the time delayed opening of the source code after distributing or selling of a software product.

Open sourcing on end-of-life.

An extreme variant of "delayed open-sourcing" is a business practice popularized by id Software and 3D Realms, which released several software products under a free software license after a long proprietary commercialization time period and the return of investment was achieved. The motivation of companies following this practice of releasing the source code when a software reaches the commercial end-of-life, is to prevent that their software becomes unsupported Abandonware or even get lost due to digital obsolescence. This gives the user communities the chance to continue development and support of the software product themselves as an open-source software project. Many examples from the video game domain are in the list of commercial video games with later released source code.  Popular non-game software examples are the Netscape Communicator which was open-sourced in 1998 and Sun Microsystems's office suite, StarOffice, which was released in October 2000 at its commercial end of life. Both releases formed the basis of important open-source projects, namely Mozilla Firefox and OpenOffice.org/LibreOffice. However, Firefox eventually gained a more-than-self-sustaining revenue model, so Firefox was not an example of a commercial end-of-life release.

Funding.

Unlike proprietary off-the-shelf software that come with restrictive licenses, open-source software is distributed freely, through the web and in physical media. Because creators cannot require each user to pay a license fee to fund development this way, a number of alternative development funding models have emerged.  An example of those funding models is when bespoke software is developed as a consulting project for one or more customers who request it. These customers pay developers to have this software developed according to their own needs and they could also closely direct the developers' work. If both parties agree, the resulting software could then be publicly released with an open-source license in order to allow subsequent adoption by other parties. That agreement could reduce the costs paid by the clients while the original developers (or independent consultants) can then charge for training, installation, technical support, or further customization if and when more interested customers would choose to use it after the initial release.  There also exist stipends to support the development of open source software, such as Google's Summer of Code and Outreachy.  Another approach to funding is to provide the software freely, but sell licenses to proprietary add-ons such as data libraries. For instance, an open-source CAD program may require parts libraries which are sold on a subscription or flat-fee basis. Open-source software can also promote the sale of specialized hardware that it interoperates with, some example cases being the Asterisk telephony software developed by PC-telephony hardware manufacturer Digium and the Robot Operating System (ROS) robotics platform by Willow Garage and Stanford AI Labs. Many open source software projects have begun as research projects within universities, as personal projects of students or professors, or as tools to aid scientific research. The influence of universities and research institutions on open-source shows in the number of projects named after their host institutions, such as BSD Unix, CMU Common Lisp, or the NCSA HTTPd which evolved into Apache.  Companies may employ developers to work on open-source projects that are useful to the company's infrastructure: in this case, it is developed not as a product to be sold but as a sort of shared public utility. A local bug-fix or solution to a software problem, written by a developer either at a company's request or to make his/her own job easier, can be released as an open-source contribution without costing the company anything. A larger project such as the Linux kernel may have contributors from dozens of companies which use and depend upon it, as well as hobbyist and research developers.  A new funding approach for open-source projects is crowdfunding, organized over web platforms like Kickstarter, Indiegogo, or Bountysource.

Challenges.

Open-source software can be sold and used in general commercially. Also, commercial open-source applications have been a part of the software industry for some time. While commercialization or funding of open-source software projects is possible, it is considered challenging.  Since several open-source licenses stipulate that authors of derivative works must distribute them under an open-source (copyleft) license, ISVs and VARs have to develop new legal and technical mechanisms to foster their commercial goals, as many traditional mechanisms are not directly applicable anymore.  Traditional business wisdom suggests that a company's methods, assets, and intellectual properties should remain concealed from market competitors (trade secret) as long as possible to maximize the profitable commercialization time of a new product. Open-source software development minimizes the effectiveness of this tactic; development of the product is usually performed in view of the public, allowing competing projects or clones to incorporate new features or improvements as soon as the public code repository is updated, as permitted by most open-source licenses. Also in the computer hardware domain, a hardware producer who provides free and open software drivers reveals the knowledge about hardware implementation details to competitors, who might use this knowledge to catch up.  Therefore, there is considerable debate about whether vendors can make a sustainable business from an open-source strategy. In terms of a traditional software company, this is probably the wrong question to ask. Looking at the landscape of open source applications, many of the larger ones are sponsored (and largely written) by system companies such as IBM who may not have an objective of software license revenues. Other software companies, such as Oracle and Google, have sponsored or delivered significant open-source code bases. These firms' motivation tends to be more strategic, in the sense that they are trying to change the rules of a marketplace and reduce the influence of vendors such as Microsoft. Smaller vendors doing open-source work may be less concerned with immediate revenue growth than developing a large and loyal community, which may be the basis of a corporate valuation at merger time

FOSS and economy.

According to Yochai Benkler, the Berkman Professor for Entrepreneurial Legal Studies at Harvard Law School, free software is the most visible part of a new economy of commons-based peer production of information, knowledge, and culture. As examples, he cites a variety of FOSS projects, including both free software and open source.  This new economy is already under development. In order to commercialize FOSS, many companies, Google being the most successful, are moving towards an economic model of advertising-supported software. In such a model, the only way to increase revenue is to make the advertising more valuable. Facebook has recently come under fire for using novel user tracking methods to accomplish this.  This new economy is not without alternatives. Apple's App Stores have proven very popular with both users and developers. The Free Software Foundation considers Apple's App Stores to be incompatible with its GPL and complained that Apple was infringing on the GPL with its iTunes terms of use. Rather than change those terms to comply with the GPL, Apple removed the GPL-licensed products from its App Stores. The authors of VLC, one of the GPL-licensed programs at the center of those complaints, recently began the process to switch from the GPL to the LGPL and MPL.

Examples.

Much of the Internet runs on open-source software tools and utilities such as Linux, Apache, MySQL, and PHP, known as the LAMP stack for web servers. Using open source appeals to software developers for three main reasons: low or no cost, access to source code they can tailor themselves, and a shared community that ensures a generally robust code base, with quick fixes for new issues.  Despite doing much business in proprietary software, some companies like Oracle Corporation and IBM participated in developing free and open-source software to deter from monopolies and take a portion of market share for themselves. See Commercial open-source applications for the list of current commercial open-source offerings. Netscape's actions were an example of this, and thus Mozilla Firefox has become more popular, getting market share from Internet Explorer.

Companies whose business center on the development of open-source software employ a variety of business models to solve the challenge of how to make money providing software that is by definition licensed free of charge. Each of these business strategies rests on the premise that users of open-source technologies are willing to purchase additional software features under proprietary licenses, or purchase other services or elements of value that complement the open-source software that is core to the business. This additional value can be, but not limited to, enterprise-grade features and up-time guarantees (often via a service-level agreement) to satisfy business or compliance requirements, performance and efficiency gains by features not yet available in the open source version, legal protection (e.g., indemnification from copyright or patent infringement), or professional support/training/consulting that are typical of proprietary software applications.</onlyinclude>

Geschäftsmodelle für Open-Source-Software entstehen dadurch, dass Open-Source-Software sowohl als eigenständige Anwendung als auch als Komponente in Nicht-Open-Source-Anwendungen weit verbreitet ist. Kunden können bereit sein, offene Technologien zu kommerziellen Bedingungen zu nutzen (und damit für Open-Source-Software zu bezahlen), wenn ein zusätzlicher Wert geschaffen wird. Dies kann der Fall sein durch angebotenen Rechtsschutz (z. B. Haftungsfreistellung von Urheberrechts- oder Patentverletzungen), professionelle Qualitätssicherung oder professionellen Support/Training/Beratung, die sonst typisch für kommerzielle Software sind. In diesem Fall können Kunden weiterhin von den Vorteilen von Open-Source-Software wie eine einer feinkörnigen Steuerung und einen fehlenden Lock-in-Effekt profitieren. Open-Source-Software wird weiterhin als Komponente innerhalb von proprietären, kommerziellen Produkten und Dienstleistungen von vielen unabhängigen Softwareanbietern (ISVs), Value-Added-Resellern (VARs) und Hardwareanbietern (OEMs oder ODMs) in Frameworks, Modulen und Bibliotheken verwendet.


Vehicles.

The 1904 "Four-Cylinder Premier" was a touring car model. Equipped with a tonneau, it could seat six passengers and sold for US$ 5,000. The vertically mounted water-cooled straight-4, situated at the front of the car, produced 40 hp (30 kW). A three-speed sliding transmission was fitted as on "Système Panhard" cars from Europe. The pressed steel-framed car weighed 2250 lb (1021 kg) and used semi-elliptic springs. A "Double-Cylinder Premier" model sold for US$ 2,500. It had a 2-stroke straight-twin engine producing 20 hp (15 kW).  During 1906, the Model "F" and Model "L" were on the market with prices that ranged from $1,250 to $2,250. The cars were advertised as summer and winter vehicles that had a "powerful motor, easy but substantial clutch, buoyant springs and luxurious upholstering."  During the First World War demand for the FWD Model B all wheel drive truck was too great for the Four Wheel Drive Auto Company to meet, so Premier was engaged along with the Peerless Motor Company, Kissel Motor Car Company and Mitchell Motor Car Company to build the Model B under license. One Model B was assembled by Premier in Indianapolis using parts from all four manufacturers to demonstrate that all parts were truly interchangeable. Premier also built 500 FWDs for the British Army in 1916.  Remaining examples of Premier automobiles are rather rare. A 1905 Premier is on display in the Speedway Museum in Indianapolis and a 1918 Premier is on display at Space Farms Zoo and Museum in Sussex, New Jersey. A 1916 Premier is on display at the Auburn Cord Duesenberg Automobile Museum in Auburn, Indiana.

The Premier Motor Manufacturing Company was organized in 1903 by George A. Weidely and Harold O. Smith in Indianapolis, Indiana. The company built automobiles with air-cooled engines.

Premier Motors Inc., vorher Premier Motor Manufacturing Company, Premier Motor Car Company und Premier Motor Corporation, war ein US-amerikanischer Hersteller von Automobilen.


History.

The Royal Greenland Trading Department was founded in 1774 as a successor to the failed General Trade Company ("") which had previously managed the Dano-Norwegian whaling stations and Lutheran and Moravian missions in Greenland.  At first, it possessed a monopoly on trade near the Danish trading stations and missions but, in 1776, this was expanded to a monopoly on all trade in Greenland whatsoever between the 60th and 73d parallels north. The change in protection led to a sharp downturn in new settlements and, after a brief abortive attempt to manage a government-owned Scandinavian whaling fleet, led the company to focus on trade with the local Inuit hunters. The Instruction of 1782 divided the colony into northern and southern halves, forbade senior management from intermarriage with native or racially mixed women and lower-ranking employees from intermarriage with native or European women, and banned further attempts to urbanize the Inuit or alter their traditional way of life through improved employment opportunities or sales of luxury items. Large premiums were charged on goods such as sugar and coffee in order to prevent the Inuit from'softening' and abandoning their demanding work.  Repeated attempts to end the department's monopoly on trade were defeated, notably by an impassioned defense of the company's practices by its director Hinrich Rink, but local councils were established in 1857 with authority over one-fifth of each station's profits and the valuable trade in cryolite extracted from Ivigtut was granted to a different company in 1864. In 1908, the Ministry of the Interior took over general administration and, in 1912, the entire trading operation was brought under its supervision as well.

Fleet.

The Royal Greenland Trading Department began with a gift of three ships from the king: the large frigate "Kongens Gave" ("King's Gift"), the smaller frigate "Holsteinsborg", and the galiot "Den Gloende". In 1776, its fleet consisted of the "Bernstorff", the "Eichsted", the "Godthaab", the "Holsteinsborg", the "Island", the "Kongenshaab", the "Krag Juul Wind", the "Lovisenborg", the "Mariakirke", the "Sankt Croix", the "Sankt Peter", the "Schack Rathlau", the "Schimmelmann, Skatmester", the "Strat Davis", and the "Taasinge Slot". The next year, only 10 vessels returned: the "Bernstorff", the "Eichsted", the "Gregers Juul", the "Guldberg", the "Holsteinsborg", the "Kongenshaab", the "Krag Juul Wind", the "Schack Rathlau", the "Schack", and the "Schimmelmann, Skatmester".  In 1781, a royal order granted a number of privileges to crew members of the Royal Greenland fleet. They were made exempt from regular military service except for times of utter need. Furthermore, crew members were freed from any civil obligations, which included tax-free trading for personal provisioning before and after a voyage and a deferral of heritage fees for the families of crew members deceased during a voyage.  The Department began purchasing its own trading vessels again in 1790. Ships operated by the trading department included the "Mariane", "Tjalfe", "Godthaab", "Gertrud Rask", "Gustav Holm", and "Ceres". From 1792, the armed vessel "Dorothea" served as a coastal patrol in northern Greenland in order to prevent illegal trading between the Inuit and foreign ships and to discourage whaling by other nations in the area. The department also operated the commercial whaler s/s "Sonja" between 1924 and 1958, with a six-year hiatus during World War II.

Disestablishment.

The company's monopoly was finally ended in 1950, as the two halves of Greenland were reunited in preparation for the island's full integration with the Kingdom of Denmark, which occurred in 1953. The Home Rule Government was introduced in 1979 and gained control of the company in 1986, renaming it Kalaallit Niuerfiat (Kalallisut: "Greenland Trade"). In 1992, it was reorganized into the KNI conglomerate. The Royal Greenland fishing company was spun off in 1990, the Royal Arctic Line shipping company in 1993, and the Pisiffik retail chain in 2001.

The Royal Greenland Trading Department (, KGH) was a Danish state enterprise charged with administering the realm's settlements and trade in Greenland. The company managed the government of Greenland from 1774 to 1908 through its Board of Managers in Copenhagen and a series of Royal Inspectors and Governors in Godthaab and Godhavn on Greenland. The company was headquartered at Grønlandske Handels Plads at Christianshavn.

Den Kongelige Grønlandske Handel war ein dänisches Staatsunternehmen, das 200 Jahre lang als Monopolist den Handel mit Grönland betrieb und die Siedlungen auf der Insel verwaltete. Über mehr als 130 Jahre regierte es die dänischen Kolonien auf Grönland durch Inspektoren, Landsfogeder und Landshøvdinge.


Background.

In 1979, at the age of 24, Kiranjit left her home of Chak Kalal in Punjab to travel to the United Kingdom after marrying her husband, Deepak—a man she had only met once. She stated that she had suffered from domestic abuse for ten years, including physical violence, food deprivation, and marital rape.  When Kiranjit looked to her family for help, they reprimanded her, saying it was a matter of family honour that she remain with her husband. She ultimately tried running away from home, but was found by her husband and brought back. During her marriage, Kiranjit had two sons who she claimed often bore witness to the violence she endured. However, neither boy gave evidence supporting this in court or police interviews prior to the trial.  One evening in the spring of 1989, Kiranjit was allegedly attacked by her husband. She later accused him of trying to break her ankles and burn her face with a hot iron, apparently trying to extort money from her extended family. Later that night, while her husband lay sleeping, Kiranjit fetched some petrol and caustic soda mixture from the garage and mixed it to create napalm. She poured it over the bed and set it alight, and ran into a garden with her three-year-old son.  In a later interview she stated: "I decided to show him how much it hurt. At times I had tried to run away, but he would catch me and beat me even harder. I decided to burn his feet so he couldn't run after me." She also claimed: "I wanted to give him a scar like those he had given me, to have him suffer pain as I had."  Deepak suffered severe burns over 40% of his body and died 10 days later in hospital from complications of severe burns and subsequent sepsis. Kiranjit, who could only speak broken English at the time, was arrested and ultimately charged with murder.

Trial and conviction.

Kiranjit was convicted of murder in December 1989. At the trial, the prosecution argued that although on the night of the event she had been threatened with a hot poker, the fact that she waited until her husband had gone to sleep was evidence that she had time to "cool off" and weigh to a nicety her actions. In addition the prosecution claimed her prior knowledge to mix caustic soda with petrol to create napalm was not common knowledge and was proof that she had planned her husband's murder. Her counsel did not make any claims about the violence she later claimed she had endured, while the prosecution suggested that Kiranjit was motivated by jealousy due to her husband's repeated affairs. She was found guilty of murder and sentenced to life in prison.

Appeal and release.

Her case eventually came to the attention of the Southall Black Sisters who pressed for a mistrial. Kiranjit's conviction was overturned on appeal in 1992 on grounds of insufficient counsel—Kiranjit had not been aware that she could plead guilty to manslaughter on the grounds of diminished responsibility. In addition, it was brought to light that she was suffering from severe depression when she lashed back at her husband, which her new counsel argued had altered her decision-making abilities at the time. After the mistrial was declared, the Crown Prosecution Service did not attempt another prosecution.

Impact.

Kiranjit's case helped raise awareness of domestic violence in families of non-English speaking immigrants to Western countries, as well as changing the laws for domestic abuse victims in the United Kingdom.  Her case, known in British legal textbooks as "R v Ahluwalia", changed the definition of the word "provocation" in cases of battered women, so as to reclassify her crime as manslaughter instead of murder, and in the same year as her appeal, lead to the freeing of Emma Humphreys and Sara Thornton.  Kiranjit was honored in 2001 at the first Asian Women Awards in recognition of her "strength, personal achievements, determination and commitment" in helping to bring to light the subject of domestic violence.  She wrote an autobiography with co-author Rahila Gupta, Circle of Light.  Gita Sahgal made a film called "Unprovoked" for the British television investigative documentary programme "Dispatches" on the subject of Kiranjit's experience.  The story was fictionalised in the film "Provoked", which was screened at the 2007 Cannes Film Festival. Naveen Andrews played Deepak and Aishwarya Rai played the role of Kiranjit. During the screening at Cannes, Kiranjit sat next to Rai, holding her hand and sobbing during the most violent scenes.

Kiranjit Ahluwalia (born 1955) is an Indian woman who came to international attention after burning her husband to death in 1992 in the UK. She claimed it was in response to ten years of physical, psychological, and sexual abuse. After initially being convicted of murder and sentenced to life in prison, Ahluwalia's conviction was later overturned on grounds of inadequate counsel and replaced with voluntary manslaughter. Although her submission of provocation failed (under "R v Duffy" the loss of control needed to be sudden, which this was not), she successfully pleaded the partial defence of diminished responsibility under s.2 Homicide Act 1957 on the grounds that fresh medical evidence (which was not available at her original trial) may indicate diminished mental responsibility.

Kiranjit Ahluwalia (* 1955 in Chak Kalal, Punjab (Indien)) ist eine in Großbritannien lebende Inderin, die ihren Ehemann, der sie viele Jahre gequält haben soll, tötete, und deren Leben im Jahr 2006 verfilmt wurde.


Construction and design.

The British Admiralty ordered the first two ships of the new s under the 1913–14 Construction Programme. Flotilla Leaders were large destroyer-type vessels intended to lead flotillas of smaller destroyers in action. The two ships, and "Marksman", were intended to lead the 1st and 3rd Destroyer Flotillas, and so had names to match the L and M-class destroyers that would equip these flotillas.  The "Marksman"-class ships were long overall, at the waterline and between perpendiculars. They had a beam of and a draught of. The design displacement was normal and full load, with a displacement of stated for "Marksman" in 1919. Three sets of Brown-Curtis steam turbines were fed by four Yarrow three-drum boilers, rated at, which gave a speed of. Cruising turbines were fitted to the outer shafts. Four funnels were fitted. Up to 515 tons of oil fuel could be carried, giving a range of at.  The ship's main gun armament consisted of four QF Mk IV guns mounted on the ships centreline, with two of the guns positioned between the ship's funnels. An anti-aircraft armament of two 1-pounder (37 mm) "pom-pom" autocannons was planned, but during construction the 1-pounder pom-poms were diverted to the British Expeditionary Force when it deployed to France at the start of the First World War, and the ship completed with two 2-pounder (40-mm) "pom-pom"s instead. Torpedo armament consisted of two twin 21-inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes. The ship's crew was 104 officers and men.  "Marksman" was laid down at Hawthorn Leslie's Newcastle upon Tyne shipyard on 20 July 1914, was launched on 12 May 1915 and completed on 18 November 1915.

Service.

On commissioning, "Marksman" joined the newly established 12th Destroyer Flotilla of the Grand Fleet as leader. By May 1916, the arrival of saw "Marksman" being relegated to second in command of the Flotilla, with the Captain (D) transferring to "Faulknor".  "Marksman" was still part of the 12th Destroyer Flotilla at the Battle of Jutland on 31 May-1 June 1916, operating in support of the Grand Fleet. During the night of the battle, the flotilla was still largely intact, with "Faulknor" leading eight destroyers and "Marksman" following with a further four (,, and ). At about 01:43 hr Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) (02:43 CET), "Faulknor" spotted a group of German battleships and manoeuvred to set up a torpedo attack. While doing so, "Faulknor" carried out a 180 degree turn which resulting in steering towards "Marksman" and her destroyers. In avoiding collision, "Marksman" lost touch both with the enemy and her four destroyers, and so did not take place in the flotilla's torpedo attack, which resulted in the German pre-dreadnought battleship being sunk. "Marksman" later (at between 02:15 and 02:25 GMT) joined up with the cruiser and some destroyers of the 13th Flotilla, and at about 03:25 got into a brief exchange of fire with four German destroyers, during which several torpedoes fired at the British ships missed, while one of the German destroyers () was damaged by "Champion"s fire. "Marksman" picked up a single survivor, the ship's captain, from the sunken destroyer, with two more picked up by the destroyer. At 06:00 the badly damaged destroyer was encountered and "Marksman" attempted to take her under tow, but this failed. After taking off "Sparrowhawk"s crew, "Marksman" scuttled "Sparrowhawk" with gunfire.  In mid-July 1916, in response to an intelligence report that a German commerce raider was about to set out on a raid, a large scale operation was launched by the Royal Navy to prevent a breakout into the Atlantic involving 14 cruisers, 13 armed merchant cruisers and 18 destroyers. As part of these operations, "Marksman" and sister ship patrolled the Fair Isle channel between the Orkneys and Shetland Islands from 11 to 13 July. Nothing was found by these operations.  "Marksman" remained part of the 12th Flotilla well into 1917, transferring to the 6th Destroyer Flotilla, part of the Dover Patrol, on 26 August 1917. Large destroyers and leaders like "Marksman" tended to be employed on patrols along two routes to protect the Dover Barrage, the West Barrage Patrol and the East Barrage Patrol. On the night of 14/15 February 1918, "Marksman" and were on the West Barrage Patrol while a further four destroyers formed the East Barrage Patrol, when seven German torpedo boats (equivalent to British destroyers) attacked the Dover Barrage. None of the defensive forces managed to interfere with the German attack, which sank one trawler and seven drifters while severely damaging a further one trawler, five drifters and one minesweeper.  On 23 March 1918, "Marksman" left the 6th Destroyer Flotilla and rejoined the Grand Fleet as part of the 11th Destroyer Flotilla. In July 1918, "Marksman" transferred to the Northern Patrol and on 12 July 1918 she led a major operation to intercept the homewards bound German cruiser submarine between the Shetland and Faeroe Islands. The submarine was detected by hydrophones of the force near the island of Suðuroy and the destroyer dropped depth charges twice, but "U-151" escaped unharmed. "Marksman" remained with the Northern Patrol force until the end of the war. On 1 November 1918, "Marksman" collided with the Naval trawler off Kirkaldy, Scotland. "Charles Hammond" sank early in the morning of the next day, while "Marksman" was under repair at Leith until 31 December 1918.

Disposal.

"Marksman" was paid off at Devonport on 25 November 1919, and was sold for scrap on 8 November 1921 and broken up in Germany.

HMS "Marksman" was a of the British Royal Navy. Construction at Hawthorn Leslie's Newcastle upon Tyne shipyard began in 1914, shortly before the outbreak of the First World War, and the ship was launched and completed in 1915. She took part in the Battle of Jutland in 1916 and survived the war. She was sold for scrap in 1921.

HMS "Marksman" war einer der beiden ersten Flottillenführer, die von der Royal Navy Ende 1913 bestellt wurden. Das bei Hawthorn, Leslie & Co. in Hebburn bestellte Schiff sollte Flottillenführer der gleichzeitig bestellten Zerstörer der M-Klasse werden. Der Neubau mit der BauNr. 473, der am 12. Mai 1915 vom Stapel lief, erhielt daher den mit M beginnenden Namen "Marksman", so wie das bei White als Flottillenführer für die L-Klasse entstehende Schwesterschiff den Namen "Lightfoot" erhielt. Der Neubau war das erste Schiff für die Royal Navy mit dem Namen "Marksman", den ursprünglich ein Zerstörer der M-Klasse erhalten sollte, der mit zwei anderen geplanten Schiffen vor Auftragsvergabe gestrichen wurde, um Mittel für den Bau der beiden Flottillenführer freizustellen. Die "Marksman" war einer von sieben Flottillenführern der nach ihr oder der gleichzeitig bestellten "Lightfoot" benannten Klasse.


Success in London.

Carlo had moved to London by 1847 at the latest, and lived in the Italian community in Holborn. At first, he ran a stall selling waffles and chestnuts. In 1849, he began to run a café and restaurant with partners. They specialised in selling chocolate and ice cream. They put a chocolate-making machine in the window to attract business, and took ice for the ice cream from Regent's Canal under a contract with the Regent's Canal Company. Their shop was the first to sell ice cream to the public; previously, ice cream was an expensive treat confined to rich people with access to an ice house.  Gatti exhibited his chocolate-making machine, imported from France, at the Great Exhibition in 1851. Also in 1851, Gatti opened a stand in Hungerford Market, near Charing Cross, to sell pastries and ice cream. A portion of ice cream was sold for one penny served in a shell, perhaps the origin of the penny lick.  Gatti built a large ice warehouse, capable of storing tons of ice in two large ice wells, in the Battlebridge Basin off the Regent's Canal, near King's Cross. He began importing ice from Norway from around 1860, shipping the ice from Norway, up the Thames, then transferring it to canal barges at the Regent's Canal Dock (today the Limehouse Basin) and via the canal to his ice warehouse. Starting with a single ice well in 1857, he built a second ice well around 1862, and became the largest ice importer in London. Today the ice warehouse houses the London Canal Museum. He began to run a fleet of delivery carts, supplying ice for domestic iceboxes.  Hungerford Market was damaged when the adjoining Hungerford Hall burned down in 1854, but Gatti was insured, and used the proceeds to build a music hall, known as Gatti's, which opened in 1857. He sold the music hall to South Eastern Railway in 1862, and the site became Charing Cross railway station.  With the proceeds from selling his first music hall, Gatti acquired a restaurant in Westminster Bridge Road, opposite the Canterbury Music Hall. He converted the restaurant into a second Gatti's music hall, known as "Gatti's-in-the-Road", in 1865. It later became a cinema. The building was badly damaged in the Second World War, and was demolished in 1950.  In 1867, he acquired a public house in Villiers Street named "The Arches", under the arches of the elevated railway line leading to Charing Cross station. He opened it as another music hall, known as "Gatti's-in-The-Arches".  Members of his family were involved in his businesses, and he spent most of his time in Switzerland after 1871. He married a second wife, aged only 23. He is buried in Switzerland.  His family continued to operate the music hall, known for a period after Gatti's death the Hungerford or Gatti's Hungerford Palace of Varieties. It became a cinema in 1910, and the Players' Theatre in 1946.

Carlo Gatti (1817–1878) was a Swiss entrepreneur in the Victorian era. He came to England in 1847, where he established restaurants and an ice importing business. He is credited with first making ice cream available to the general public. He moved into music halls. He returned to Switzerland in 1871, leaving his businesses in the hands of members of his family. He died a millionaire.

Carlo Giuseppe Nazaro Gatti (geboren am 27. Juli 1817 im Weiler Marogno (damals Teil von Dongio, heute von Acquarossa); gestorben am 6. September 1878 ebenda) war ein schweizerisch-britischer Unternehmer und liberaler Politiker aus dem italienischsprachigen Kanton Tessin. Er war ein Pionier der Speiseeisproduktion in England.


History.

After Poland regained independence in autumn 1918, and the symbolic wedding ceremony with the Baltic Sea by units of the Polish Army under General Józef Haller de Hallenburg (Puck, 10 February 1920), Polish military authorities began preparations of a fortified army garrison along the coast. As early as 22 July 1920 General Kazimierz Sosnkowski ordered construction of a strategic rail line which ran from Puck, through Wladyslawowo, to Hel. The line was completed in 1921, together with telegraph connection, by the logistics units of the Polish Army. A road was constructed along the line.  In 1931, Polish Army began the construction of the naval base in Hel. At the same time, the tip of the peninsula, from Jurata to Hel, was placed under military administration. Construction of new houses and tourist facilities was forbidden, movement of civilians was strictly limited. These regulations were strengthened by the decree of President Ignacy Moscicki, signed on 21 August 1936, which officially created the Hel Fortified Area.  Soon afterwards large-scale works began. A network of rail connections, mostly narrow-gauge, was built, together with concrete-strengthened artillery positions. Armaments and military equipment were brought. The Army started modernization of the naval base at Hel. The base, designed by Wlodzimierz Szawernowski, had been built in 1931, by a Polish-French Enterprise in a location known as Stary Hel (Old Hel). An underground power plant was placed some 1.5 kilometers north of the port, also in adjacent forests, shelters for ammunition, mines and torpedoes were built. An underground petroleum storage reservoir was constructed, with a pipeline to the port. Even though the Hel Fortified Area was not officially created until 1936, Polish Army had been purchasing equipment for it earlier. In July 1935, four Swedish-made Bofors guns (152 mm) were bought and brought to Gdynia aboard transport ship ORP "Wilia". Transported to Hel by train, the guns were mounted in October 1935.

World War II and postwar.

Units of the Wehrmacht approached the peninsula on 9 September 1939. Hel, manned by some 2000 Polish soldiers, was the longest-defended pocket of the Polish Army during the whole campaign. Cut off from the mainland on 14 September and shelled with 280 millimeter guns, it surrendered on 1 October 1939 after a fierce defense, during which many German planes were shot down. Some sources, such as "Dictionary of Battles and Sieges", put the date of surrender on 2 October 1939.  During the German occupation of Poland, Hel, reverting to its German name of Hela, was a major training facility of U-boat crews. Almost immediately after cessation of hostilities, the Germans began further construction work on the base. Among others, the Schleswig-Holstein battery was built for three 40.6 cm SK C/34 guns ("Adolf guns"). These guns fired shells of up to 1030 kilograms, and their range was up to 56 kilometers. Toward the end of the war, the Germans began construction of an airfield, but it was never completed. The Wehrmacht also installed Würzburg-Riese radar stations, as Hela was supposed to defend the main naval port of Gdynia, renamed "Gotenhafen". On the night of 3–4 April 1945, the Germans carried out Operation Walpurgisnacht, during which thousands of soldiers and refugees were transported from Gdynia to Hela. The German soldiers on the peninsula repelled several Soviet attacks and surrendered on 14 May 1945, six days after Germany had capitulated.  In the People's Republic of Poland, Hel did not lose its strategic importance. The peninsula was among the most protected military bases of the country. The base was rebuilt and strengthened, with Soviet-made guns of 130 mm. As time went on, new military doctrine reduced the value of coastal artillery. Because of that, all coastal batteries in Poland were decommissioned. Everything that remained was in 1999 designated as military monuments.

Currently.

Entry to some areas of the Hel Fortified Area is restricted by the military, but most places are open to tourists. Among the most notable monuments are:  In 1999, the fortifications of Hel were added to the Polish military monuments register.

The Hel Fortified Area () was a set of Polish fortifications, constructed on the Hel Peninsula in northern Poland, in close proximity to the interwar border of Poland and the Third Reich. It was created in 1936, upon a decree of President Ignacy Moscicki. It covered most part of the peninsula, and during Polish September Campaign, it was the last place of Poland to surrender to the invading Wehrmacht (for more information, see Battle of Hel). During World War II, the naval base in Hel was used as a major training facility for U-boat crews.

Das befestigte Gebiet Hela (polnisch: Rejon Umocniony Hel) war eine polnische Befestigungszone, die auf der Putziger Nehrung (auch als Halbinsel Hela bezeichnet) im nördlichen Westpreußen lag. Dies Gebiet wurde 1918 vom deutschen Reich abgetrennt und ein Teil des neuerrichteten polnischen Staates. Das befestigte Gebiet Hela lag in unmittelbarer Nähe der Grenze zum Deutschen Reich in der polnischen Zwischenkriegszeit (1918 bis 1939). Es wurde 1936 nach einem Erlass von Präsident Ignacy Mościcki errichtet. Es deckte den größten Teil der Halbinsel ab und war während des Überfalls auf Polen einer der letzten Orte, an dem sich Polen der einmarschierenden Wehrmacht ergaben. Während des Zweiten Weltkriegs diente der Marinestützpunkt Hela als Hauptübungsplatz für U-Boot-Besatzungen. Am Kriegsende lief über die Häfen der Halbinsel die Massenevakuierung der deutschen Bevölkerung Westpreußens, Ostpreußens und Danzigs im Rahmen der Verwundeten- und Flüchtlingstransporte über die Ostsee 1945 bis in den Mai 1945. Die Halbinsel Hela zählte zu den Gebieten an der Ostseeküste, neben Teilen des Weichseldeltas, die bis zur Kapitulation am 9. Mai 1945 von deutschen Truppen gehalten wurden.


Synopsis.

The story centres on a family of priests that traces its roots in the Church of Denmark (the Danish national church) back more than 250 years.  Johannes (Lars Mikkelsen) is a senior priest and Area Dean, married to Elisabeth (Ann Eleonora Jørgensen). The first episode follows Johannes (with the support of his staff and family) through the election process for the new Bishop of Copenhagen. Johannes, a traditionalist candidate, is narrowly beaten by the progressive female candidate in the final round of the election. Many subsequent themes are predicated upon Johannes's disappointment and frustration at his failure to become the first bishop in the clerical family.  The couple have two sons, August (Morten Hee Andersen), and Kristian (Simon Sears). August is also a priest, serving in a Copenhagen suburban parish church, and as a military chaplain in the Royal Danish Army. Kristian also trained for ordination as a priest, but dropped out of his seminary in his final year. Kristian, whose behaviour can be reckless, and often a disappointment to his father, is found in the first episode completing an academic dissertation, at which he is discovered to have cheated.  Johannes is God-like to his sons – he gives, loves, and punishes. His favouritism for August and his disappointment with Kristian forces both into making desperate choices in order either to gain his love or to break free from him. Their path will lead us into war and encounters between different religions, seen through the intimate lens of a family drama.

Herrens Veje "()", entitled Ride Upon the Storm in the English-language subtitled version, is a 2017 Danish drama television series created by Adam Price, produced by Camilla Hammerich and starring Lars Mikkelsen.

Die Wege des Herrn (dänisch "Herrens Veje", engl. "Ride Upon the Storm") ist eine 20-teilige dänische Fernsehserie des Drehbuchautors Adam Price mit Lars Mikkelsen in einer der Hauptrollen, für die er mit dem International Emmy Award ausgezeichnet wurde.


Early years.

Williams attended his freshman year and played varsity at El Cajon Valley High School. Over the next three years, he played high school football at Mira Mesa Senior High School.

College career.

Williams was originally expected to play college football at Arizona State but did not meet the ACT test score requirement. So he played at Arizona Western College before transferring to the University of Oklahoma in 2012. In November 2013, he was dismissed from Oklahoma after violating team rules. In two seasons with the Sooners, he rushed for 1,499 yards with 18 touchdowns, including a 95-yard touchdown run against Texas in 2012.

Professional career.

Miami Dolphins.

2014 season: Rookie year.

Williams was signed by the Miami Dolphins after going undrafted in the 2014 NFL Draft. Williams made his NFL debut in the 2014 season opener against the New England Patriots. He had one kick return for 19 yards in the 33–20 victory. In the next game, a 29–10 loss to the Buffalo Bills, he had five carries for 19 yards. In Week 16, against the Minnesota Vikings, he had six receptions for 50 yards and his first professional touchdown. Overall, he finished the 2014 season with 36 carries for 122 yards and 21 receptions for 187 yards and a touchdown.

2015 season.

During Week 2, in a 23–20 loss to the Jacksonville Jaguars, Williams had a receiving touchdown. He finished the 2015 season with 21 receptions for 142 yards and a touchdown.

2016 season.

In 2016, Williams played in 15 games, rushing for 115 yards and three touchdowns while recording 23 receptions for 249 yards and three touchdowns. The Dolphins made the playoffs and faced off against the Pittsburgh Steelers in the. In the 30–12 defeat, he had a four-yard receiving touchdown.

2017 season.

Set to be a restricted free agent in 2017, the Dolphins tendered Williams at the lowest level. After reportedly wanting a larger contract than the $1.797 million tender for 2017, he officially signed the tender on May 11, 2017.  Williams entered the 2017 season second on the Dolphins running back depth chart behind Jay Ajayi. After Ajayi was traded to the Philadelphia Eagles, he was named the starting running back ahead of Kenyan Drake. Williams started four games before suffering a shoulder injury in Week 12. He was diagnosed with a dislocated shoulder and was expected to be out for two to three weeks. He ended up missing the rest of the season as Kenyan Drake emerged as a key contributor for the Dolphins, starting the final six games with two 100 rushing-yard games.  Williams finished the season with 46 carries for 181 rushing yards along with 20 receptions for 155 yards and a receiving touchdown.

Kansas City Chiefs.

2018 season.

Williams signed with the Kansas City Chiefs on March 22, 2018.  Williams's role increased after the release of former starter, Kareem Hunt. On December 27, 2018, the Chiefs signed Williams to a two-year, $8.1 million contract extension.  Williams finished the 2018 season with 256 rushing yards, four rushing touchdowns, 23 receptions, 160 receiving yards, and two receiving touchdowns. He was called upon in the playoffs as the Chiefs' feature back. In the Divisional Round victory over the Indianapolis Colts, he had 129 rushing yards and a rushing touchdown to go along with five receptions for 25 receiving yards. In the AFC Championship against the New England Patriots, he had 30 rushing yards, a rushing touchdown, five receptions, 66 receiving yards, and two receiving touchdowns in the 37–31 overtime loss.

2019 season.

During Week 9 against the Minnesota Vikings, Williams rushed 12 times for 125 yards and a 91-yard touchdown in the 26–23 win. This was his first game with at least 100 rushing yards of the season. The 91-yard run tied Jamaal Charles for the longest touchdown run in franchise history. In the regular-season finale against the Los Angeles Chargers, Williams rushed 12 times for 124 yards and two touchdowns, including an 84-yard touchdown, and caught four passes for 30 yards during the 31–21 win.  Williams finished the 2019 season with 498 rushing yards and five rushing touchdowns to go along with 30 receptions for 213 receiving yards and two receiving touchdowns. In the Divisional Round of the playoffs against the Houston Texans, he rushed 12 times for 47 yards and two touchdowns and caught two passes for 21 yards and a touchdown during the 51–31 win. In the AFC Championship Game against the Tennessee Titans, Williams rushed 17 times for 45 yards and a touchdown and caught 5 passes for 44 yards during the 35–24 win. In Super Bowl LIV against the San Francisco 49ers, Williams rushed 17 times for 104 yards, including a 38-yard touchdown, and caught four passes for 29 yards and a touchdown during the 31–20 win. His receiving touchdown gave the Chiefs the lead while his rushing touchdown sealed the win. He is the first player in Super Bowl history with at least 100 rushing yards while recording a rushing and receiving touchdown.

Personal life.

Williams has several tattoos, which have ripped skin design.

Damien Williams (born April 3, 1992) is an American football running back for the Kansas City Chiefs of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Oklahoma. He was signed by the Miami Dolphins as an undrafted free agent in 2014.

Damien Williams (* 3. April 1992 in San Diego, Kalifornien) ist ein US-amerikanischer American-Football-Spieler auf der Position des Runningbacks. Er spielt derzeit bei den Kansas City Chiefs in der National Football League (NFL). Mit den Chiefs gewann er den Super Bowl LIV.


Early life and career.

Sinha was born in Ambedkar Nagar near Lucknow in Uttar Pradesh. Her father was an engineer in Indian Army and her mother was a supervisor in health department. She had an elder sister and a younger brother. Her father died when she was 3 and her sister's husband started to take care of her family.  Arunima liked cycling, football and also was a national volleyball player. She wanted to join paramilitary forces. She got a call letter from CISF and faced her life changing accident while travelling to Delhi in its response.

Train accident.

Sinha, a former national volleyball and football player, boarded the Padmavati Express train at Lucknow for Delhi on 12 April 2011, to take an examination to join the CISF. She was pushed out of a general coach of the train by robbers wanting to snatch her bag and gold chain. Recounting the incident, she said:  Immediately, as she fell on the railway track, another train on a parallel track crushed her leg below the knee. She was rushed to the hospital with serious leg and pelvic injuries, and lost her leg after doctors amputated it to save her life.  She was offered compensation of by the Indian Sports Ministry. Following national outrage, the Minister of State for Youth Affairs and Sports Ajay Maken announced an additional Rs. compensation as medical relief, together with a recommendation for a job in the CISF. Indian Railways also offered her a job.  On 18 April 2011, she was brought to the All India Institute of Medical Sciences for further treatment, spending four months at the Institute. She was provided a prosthetic leg free of cost by a private Delhi-based Indian company.  An inquiry by the police into the incident threw her version of the accident into doubt. According to the police, she was either attempting suicide or met with an accident while crossing the railway tracks. Arunima claimed that the police were lying. Contrary to the police claims the Lucknow bench of Allahabad high court ordered Indian Railways to pay a compensation of to Arunima Sinha.

Mount Everest ascent.

Planning and training.

While still being treated in the All India Institute of Medical Sciences, she resolved to climb Mount Everest. She was inspired by cricketer Yuvraj Singh (who had successfully battled cancer) and other television shows, "to do something" with her life. She excelled in the basic mountaineering course from the Nehru Institute of Mountaineering, Uttarkashi, and was encouraged by her elder brother Omprakash to climb Everest. She climbed Mt Everest with a prosthetic leg, which was arranged by raising funds with the help of a swami of Ramakrishna Mission, Vadodara.  She contacted Bachendri Pal, the first Indian woman to climb Mount Everest, in 2011 https://getyourmotivationalquotestory.blogspot.com/2020/03/arunima-sinha-untold-story-of-woman-on.html When she meet Bachendri pal and Arunima told her story to Bachendri pal then Bachendri pal said to Arunima :-  And after that Arunima join basic Mountaineering course from NEHRU INSTITUTE OF MOUNTAINEERING and TATA Steel Adventure (TSAF) 2012, in Uttarkashi (India) and she was encouraged or motivated by her elder brother Omprakash to climb Mount Everest.  Sinha climbed Island Peak (6150 metres) in 2012 as preparation for her ascent of Everest  Sinha and Susan Mahout, a USAF instructor, who had together climbed Mount Chaser Sangria () in 2012 under the guidance of Hendrick Pal started their ascent of Mount Everest. After a hard toil of 17 hours, Sinha reached the summit of Mount Everest at 10:55 am on 21 May 2013, as part of the Tata Group-sponsored "Eco Everest Expedition", becoming the first female amputee to scale Everest. She took 52 days to reach the summit. She wrote a small message thanking the Almighty on a wrapped cloth and pressed it in the snow. Recounting the incident, she said:

After the climb.

Uttar Pradesh then-incumbent chief minister Akhilesh Yadav honored Arunima sinha and handed over two cheques for an amount of Rs. 25 lakh in a function organised at her residence in Lucknow. This included a cheque of Rs. 20 lakh from the state government and a cheque of Rs. 5 lakh on behalf of the Samajwadi Party. Chief minister said Sinha by her hard work and determination had climbed the Mount Everest and created history. She was congratulated by the Indian Sports Minister Jitendra Singh on her achievement.  Arunima Sinha is now dedicated towards social welfare and wants to open a free sports academy for the poor and differently abled people. She is donating all the financial aids she is getting through awards and seminars for the same cause. The academy would be named Shaheed Chandra Shekhar Vikalang Khel Academy.  She wrote the book "Born again on the mountain", launched by Prime minister of India Narendra Modi in December 2014.  She was awarded Padma Shri, the fourth highest civilian award of India, in 2015. She was Awarded Tenzing Norgay Highest Mountaineering Award in India same as Arjun Award.

Antarctic Expedition.

After climbing the Mount Everest Arunima Sinha's next goal was to climb all the seven highest peaks in all seven continents. She covered six peaks, i.e. in Asia, Europe, South America, Australia, Africa and North America by 2014. She summited Mt. Elburs of Russia (Europe) Elevation 5,642 m (18,510 ft), Prominence 4,741 m (15,554 ft) and Kilimanjaro of Tanzania(Africa)Elevation 5,895 m (19,341 ft) and Prominence 5,885 m (19,308 ft). On 4 January 2019, she climbed the seventh peak on Antarctica and became world's first female amputee to climb Mount Vinson.

References.

https://getyourmotivationalquotestory.blogspot.com/2020/03/arunima-sinha-untold-story-of-woman-on.html ARUNIMA SINHA'S LIFE : AFTER THE CLIMB

Arunima Sinha is an Indian mountain climber and sportswoman. She is a seven time Indian volleyball player, mountaineer and the World's first female amputee to scale Mount Everest, Mount Kilimanjaro (Tanzania), Mount Elbrus (Russia), Mount Kosciusko (Australia), Mount Aconcagua (South America), Carstensz Pyramid (Indonesia) and Mount Vinson.

Arunima Sinha (* 1988) ist eine indische Volleyballspielerin und Bergsteigerin. 2013 war sie die erste Frau mit einer Amputation, die den Mount Everest bestieg.


Definition.

Solo diving is defined as a dive planned to be conducted entirely or partly without a buddy. It may also apply to dives that begin with a buddy but continue after separation, and to dives where other divers are nearby but are neither responsible for the safety of the solo diver, nor competent to deal with the consequences of a foreseeable contingency. The term has also been used to define dives where buddies are insufficiently attentive or close enough to function effectively as a buddy pair, a situation more commonly referred to as "same ocean buddy diving".

History.

The history of solo diving stands in stark contrast to the relatively new concept of buddy diving that was developed for recreational diving in the early to mid-20th century. Artifacts dating back some 4,500 years provide evidence of solo diving for food and commerce by the ancient people of Mesopotamia. There are written accounts from 2nd century BC that describe commercial sponge fishing, including notes about sponge divers, their lifestyle and fear of predatory sharks. In 350 BC, Aristotle wrote about "an 'elephant nose-like tube' that allowed sponge fishermen to breathe during diving", and in 8th–6th century BC, there are references to solo diving in the writings of Homer.  Freedivers traditionally dove alone or with an attendant on the surface to assist with the harvest; many of the early diving bells were only large enough for a single occupant. When surface supplied diving was first developed, it was common to have only one diver unless the work required more. Those early traditions continue and customarily include a standby diver, and a working diver who is in constant communication with the surface control crew. The sport of scuba diving is rooted in a multitude of small enthusiastic snorkeling and spearfishing clubs that date back to the decades just before and after World War II. In the late 1940s, after the invention of the Aqua-lung by Cousteau and Gagnan, the first retail underwater breathing apparatus for sport was commercially marketed. As the sport expanded through the 1950s, several sporting organisations – notably the Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) – began scuba training programmes for swimming enthusiasts, thus began the codification of what was believed to be proper practices for the expanding amateur sport of scuba diving. The buddy system was thought to be a useful corollary to the "never swim alone" edicts of the YMCA swimming and lifesaving programmes. Cousteau independently implemented a buddy system after a number of harrowing diving incidents that date back to the earliest days of exploratory diving. The buddy system's useful aspects have long been established, including the cross-checking of equipment before dives, the facilitating of assistance for possible entanglement problems or equipment failures, and enhancement of the social nature of diving. The YMCA was a substantial influence in the development of diver certification during the first 50 years of the sport. As various scuba programmes were adopted by emerging scuba certification agencies, such as the National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI), Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI), and British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC), the practise of buddy diving inspired one of the two main mantras of recreational scuba: "never hold your breath" and "never dive alone".  By the early to mid-1990s, solo divers became more visible and increasingly open about their alternative dive safety philosophy, despite the recreational industry's established adherence to the buddy system. It wasn't until 2001 that Scuba Diving International (SDI) initiated formal certification training specifically for solo diving. Several other agencies eventually followed suit with certificates titled Self-reliant Diver and variations of that theme; all with the intention of improving diver competence without necessarily going solo, and recognising that the buddy system does not always comply with the ideal. At the 2012 "Rebreather Forum 3", a significant minority of attendees were of the opinion that, in some circumstances, it would be acceptable to dive solo on rebreathers.

Reasons for solo scuba diving.

The intention of using the buddy system when scuba diving is to improve the chances of avoiding or surviving accidents in or underwater. Diving together in close groups of two or sometimes three divers, and co-operating with each other to help or perform a rescue in an emergency situation may save a life; however, it is most effective when each buddy is competent in all the relevant skills and remain consistently and sufficiently aware in order to respond in time.  Some divers, such as instructors, are effectively acting as self-sufficient divers because they dive with students who may not yet be trained in or capable of rescue. Others, such as underwater photographers and videographers, dive solo as it allows them to focus more on capturing selected images rather than relying on buddies to remain close at hand. Photographers or videographers who dive with buddies are often effectively "same ocean" buddies, implying they may be far enough apart physically, or sufficiently focused on their camera-related tasks, to be ineffective as a designated dive buddy. This practice has led to many highly experienced underwater photographers diving solo since they don't commit to provide timely support to a buddy nor expect such support from a buddy. Underwater hunters often elect to dive solo in order to focus on their prey.  Solo diving was considered technical diving by most recreational diver certification agencies and discouraged as more dangerous than buddy diving, but many experienced divers and some certification agencies consider it an acceptable practice for suitably trained, equipped, and competent recreational divers; some others consider it occasionally inevitable. In place of relying on the buddy diving safety system, solo divers try to be self-sufficient and are willing to take responsibility for their own safety while diving. The first training agency to offer a Solo Diving certification was SDI in 1999. In 2011, the Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI) started offering a solo specialty called "Self-Reliant Diver", which in many respects (entry requirements, for example) is very similar to the course offered by SDI.  In professional diving, solo diving is normal procedure when one diver is sufficient to perform the required task, particularly on surface supplied equipment, to the extent that it is not even noted as an exception. However, a standby diver is required at the surface or at the bell, and the working diver must be in communication with the supervisor at the surface. Procedures for the dive are based on assessed risk.  In recreational diving, solo diving is an option chosen by the diver, for any combination of several reasons.

Disadvantages of the buddy system.

Scuba diving is done in a hostile environment for which humans are not adapted, breathing from a portable and limited capacity life support system. Under these conditions fatality is always a possible outcome, as even simple equipment or procedural problems can be mishandled. In dealing with this reality a number of major concerns about potentially inherent flaws or negative impacts that can exist within the buddy system have been identified. Few, if any, of these problems are defects in the concept of the buddy system, they are problems with the application of the system.  The amount of discipline, effort and attention needed from both divers in a buddy pair, and the even greater input required in a three diver team, is unattractive to a confident diver who has other things to do during a straightforward, low risk, recreational dive, and the system is undermined when any one of the divers fails to put in the effort, putting the burden on the remaining diver who takes the responsibilities more seriously. Familiarity with the environment, and the very low incidence of life-threatening accidents is likely to lead to a confidence that there will not be a problem on any given dive, so the divers may pay less attention to good buddy practices, and this may become habitual. This may be exacerbated by the divers being strangers thrown together by chance and the whims of the divemaster, who have no real interest in each other, and whose reasons to dive may be incompatible. Pairing an explorer with a macro photographer will annoy at least one, probably both, if they comply with recommended buddy diving practices. Many nominally buddy dives effectively become solo dives soon after entering the water, with the buddies occasionally checking for the presence of each other and often being beyond direct view of each other. In spite of this, very few of these divers die as a consequence.  Critics of the buddy system state that the proponents project the image of a "totally reliable buddy" that does not generally exist in reality. Some buddies lack skills or experience and some are unfit, and some personality types are outright dangers; these types have been described as "the untrained diver", "the high-flyer", "the falsely confident diver", "the angry diver", "the buddy from hell" and several others. The bad buddy problem is compounded by training that pressurises the diver to "stick with his buddy" at all times, leading to the situation that the bad buddy sets the criteria of how (badly) the dive is carried out. The solo diver avoids this problem altogether.

Risks and their mitigation.

The generic risks of recreational diving include: These risks can be reduced and the consequences mitigated by correct application of knowledge, skills, fitness and equipment. Where a single point of failure is likely to seriously compromise safety, redundant equipment can be carried, and the skills learned to effectively use the equipment without undue delay.  There has been much disagreement over the relative safety and merits of solo diving. Up to 2003, very few statistics existed regarding the impact of solo diving on safety, as the subject had not been specifically studied. A 2006 report from the British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC) concluded that "BSAC currently takes the view that based on evidence from available statistics and risk assessment, the increased risk attendant to allowing planned solo diving is unacceptable". The data underlying the statistics which are used to point to the dangers of solo diving are questionable: for example, divers who end up dying alone but originally had started out as part of a buddy pair are often considered to be "diving solo" in such statistics, but whether the separation was a consequence of the triggering incident rather than a cause is not analyzed.  In actuality, studies show that with fatal buddy diving incidents, 57% of deaths happened after the buddy pair had separated from one another during the emergency. Again, these cases could be attributed to failure of the buddy system rather than failure of any solo diving/self sufficient diving system. A further complication in such statistics is that certain more dangerous diving practices (e.g. cave diving) are frequently carried out solo. Therefore, it is questionable whether a death in these circumstances should be attributed to solo diving or to cave diving. Analysis of the figures used by BSAC to categorise solo diving as dangerous shows that during 2001–2008 all but one of these "solo diving deaths" were actually paired buddy divers that became separated during or before the fatal incident (75%) or else were divers diving far outside of the limits set by both SDI and PADI for the practice of solo diving (20%) (i.e. actually deep divers, rebreather tech-divers, and/or cave divers). Two further "solo-diving deaths" were not scuba divers at all, but snorkelers.  In almost all circumstances, two highly competent, totally self-sufficient divers diving a specific dive profile as a buddy pair are at lower risk than those same two divers diving exactly the same profile separately, but this raises the question "how often do normal buddy divers both really fit into this particular description?" When considering the risks in solo diving the alternative risks found predominantly in buddy diving need also be considered. The greatest danger to sports divers is inexperience – 60% of all diving fatalities involve divers having less than 20 completed dives. The buddy system itself can be a source of risk – a 2006 survey showed that 52% of buddy divers were at some time actually endangered by a buddy's behavior or actions.  While there are hazards specifically associated with solo diving, most of these can be planned for and their consequences mitigated by the use of appropriate equipment. In technical diving, where redundancy of critical equipment is standard policy, self-sufficiency is emphasised and taught more extensively than in recreational diving. This philosophy should also be followed by solo divers. A solo diver operating beyond the range for acceptable risk for a controlled emergency swimming ascent needs to carry a second, independent source of suitable breathing gas, which includes a regulator and preferably a submersible pressure gauge. This emergency gas supply typically takes the form of a pony bottle, or for more demanding diving, a twin tank set with the capability of independent operation of each tank. Additional equipment carried may include a backup dive computer, a backup dive light and a backup dive mask. The diver must be familiar with the equipment configuration used and be able to access the equipment easily if it is needed. A solo diver needs to be particularly aware of overall personal fitness and health and the limitations it may impose on their ability to manage an emergency. Finally, the solo diver may dive a more conservative dive plan than he or she might dive with an equally competent buddy diver.  As part of mitigating risks in solo diving the following specific practices have been adopted by SDI for solo diving or are key recommendations by Robert von Maier—author of the 1991 book "Solo Diving: The Art of Underwater Self-Sufficiency":

Self sufficiency.

The core objective in training to be a solo diver is to become as self-sufficient and self-reliant as possible, to be able to deal with any reasonably foreseeable problems without assistance, and to have the competence, fitness, discipline, skills and equipment that will achieve this result. This requires competence at risk-assessment and the ability to plan dives and select equipment that limit the risks. An additional benefit of these disciplines is that they will improve the safety of buddy diving whenever the competent solo diver pairs up with another diver in a buddy team by reducing the risk of the second diver being exposed to an emergency which they may not be capable of managing. Agencies training solo divers also recommend the self-sufficiency training in their courses for all divers as their diving experience grows, so as to achieve greater safety in all diving—buddy and solo.

Training and equipment.

To be safe, solo divers must be self-sufficient, well trained, prepared and practised. They should have a completely redundant set of all life support equipment – a complete, self-contained backup breathing gas supply sufficient to return to the surface from any point of the planned dive profile. In addition, the responsible solo divers adhere to a very conservative dive profile, both in depth and level of difficulty. Unlike the buddy system, which encourages divers to rely on others in the event of an emergency, solo diving encourages divers to prepare themselves to overcome emergencies by their own means. The divers who engage in solo diving are typically those who are experienced and equipped enough to handle problems themselves. Solo divers must feel totally comfortable and relaxed in doing this sort of diving, and nobody should ever think of doing diving solo if they are not both competent and comfortable in doing so.  Solo divers are trained to extend their experience gradually, and to ensure that they remain within their personal comfort zone where possible. This reduces the risk of excessive task loading and possible panic reaction to an otherwise manageable contingency. This is not unique to solo diver training, it is a common training practice for any hazardous activity, but when exposing oneself to circumstances where there is no backup it is more important. This means that changes to environment, depth, or equipment are best made one at a time, so that the diver can become familiar with a small change in circumstances before adding another. Simulating emergencies for practice and ensuring that one's response is prompt, appropriate and effective will reduce the risk of inappropriate response if the real emergency occurs.  Qualifications for formal solo diving training as provided by SDI emphasises the need for experience and maturity in diving. In particular the student prerequisites for the solo diving certification course are:  Most of the equipment needed for solo diving is the same as that which would be used for buddy diving the same profile at the same place. The single most important item of additional equipment is the redundant breathing gas supply, which must be sufficient to get the diver safely to the surface from any point of the planned dive. There is more than one way to achieve this, and they each have their advantages and disadvantages. Other more complex arrangements of three or more cylinders are possible, but not usually of any advantage for recreational solo diving. Arrangements using H- and Y-valved back gas cylinders with two first stages may be useful if there is a risk of regulator freezing, but do not provide full redundancy. For solo diving an octopus regulator is not needed – it is intended for supplying gas to another diver. Another item which is very useful for the solo diver is the delayed surface marker buoy (DSMB) with a reel or spool suited to the depth of the planned dive.

Self-reliance skills.

Besides competence in the standard set of scuba skills, there are a few more advanced self-reliance and self-rescue skills required by some of the training agencies. The diver should be able to select and correctly use all equipment needed for the dive, including self-extrication gear for cutting loose from entanglement. A solo diver needs to be able to prepare, dress in and check all equipment used without buddy assistance.  The diver must have an acceptable alternative air configuration, redundant gauges and/or computers, DSMB and reel, compass, and (depending on training centre) signalling device and line cutting device. During the course tests are conducted on swimming skills and swimming endurance, scuba skills associated with solo diving (e.g. use of redundant air and bailout to emergency gas supply), navigation skills and dive planning skills (including breathing gas management).  The CMAS Self-Rescue Diver training includes the deployment of colour-coded DSMBs – red for position indication, and yellow to indicate a problem – the use of a ratchet dive reel to control ascent rate in the event of unplanned positive buoyancy due to loss of weights, and the use of a backup mask.

Legal status.

In most countries there is no government regulation of recreational diving and solo diving is at the discretion of the diver in publicly accessible waters. There are some exceptions:

Solo diving is the practice of underwater diving without a "dive buddy", particularly with reference to scuba diving, but the term is also applied to freediving. Surface supplied diving and atmospheric suit diving are single diver underwater activities but are accompanied by an on-surface support team dedicated to the safety of the diver, and not considered solo diving in its truest sense.

Solotauchen ist das Tauchen ohne einen Buddy, besonders beim Gerätetauchen, aber auch beim Apnoetauchen. Manche Taucher ziehen das Solotauchen dem Tauchen im Buddysystem vor und betrachten sich damit als eigenverantwortlich für ihre Sicherheit.


Life and career.

Chauncy was born into the elite Puritan merchant class that ruled Boston, Massachusetts. His great-grandfather, Charles Chauncy, after whom he was named, was the second president of Harvard College. His father was a successful Boston merchant. Chauncy was educated at the Boston Latin School and at Harvard, where he received both his undergraduate degree and his master's in theology. In 1727, Chauncy was ordained as an assistant minister of Boston's First Church, the oldest Congregational church in the city and one of the most important in New England. In 1762, Chauncy became pastor of First Church. He served the congregation for 60 years until his death.  Chauncy was an opponent of the First Great Awakening, which split the Congregational churches between Old Light and New Light factions. As a leader of the Old Lights, Chauncy spoke out against religious enthusiasm stirred up by revival preachers. Chauncy was also a leader of the opposition against appointing an Anglican bishop for the American colonies. During the American Revolution, he supported the Patriot cause through sermons and pamphlets. According to religious studies scholars Norman and Lee Gibbs, Chauncy deserves the title "theologian of the American Revolution".  Chauncy was a charter member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1780) and was granted an honorary Doctor of Divinity degree from the University of Edinburgh. He was recognized by the Massachusetts Historical Society (when his portrait was hung there) as "eminent for his talents, learning, and lover of liberty, civil and religious."

Theology.

Despite his Puritan heritage, Chauncy opposed Calvinism and its doctrine of total depravity. He held liberal Arminian views on free will, believing that human beings have God-given "natural powers" that were meant to be nurtured toward "an actual likeness to God in knowledge, righteousness, and true holiness". Chauncy and fellow liberal Congregationalists Jonathan Mayhew and Ebenezer Gay were influenced by Enlightenment thought. They called for a "supernatural rationalism" that affirmed both reason and divine revelation as contained in the Bible.  The traditional view among scholars has been that Chauncy deviated from orthodox Trinitarian theology and that his Christology was Arian. Norman and Lee Gibbs, however, argue that Chauncy's views have been misunderstood and misrepresented. They argue Chauncy's theology was Trinitarian, not Arian, and that he had a kenotic theology in regards to the Incarnation.  In 1785 (two decades after completion), Chauncy anonymously published his major theological work, "The Mystery Hid from Ages and Generations". In it, Chauncy presented 400 pages of biblical support for universal salvation, the belief that God wills and ensures the salvation of all humanity. Chauncy is seen as an important figure in the development of the American Unitarian tradition and Liberal Protestantism.

Charles Chauncy (1 January 1705 – 10 February 1787) was an American Congregational clergyman. He is known for his opposition to the First Great Awakening and his contributions to the development of Unitarianism and Liberal Protestantism, particularly his insistence on rational religion and defense of universal salvation.

Charles Chauncy (* 1. Januar 1705 in Boston; † 10. Februar 1787 ebenda.) war ein US-amerikanischer kongregationalistischer Pastor und eine der einflussreichsten Persönlichkeiten seiner Zeit in Neuengland. Er war ein erklärter Gegner von Jonathan Edwards sowie der von diesem unterstützten Erweckungsbewegung des First "Great Awakening".


Career.

Born in Kaiserslautern, Koch first studied music and German pedagogy, graduating with a focus on organ playing and choral conducting. He continued his studies at the Musikhochschule Frankfurt, organ with Daniel Roth, and orchestral conducting. He trained as a conductor with the "Dirigentenwerkstatt Interaktion" in Berlin with players of the Berliner Philharmoniker, among others. In 2005, he was a finalist of the Bad Homburg international conducting competition. He was an assistant of Wojciech Rajski and the Polish Chamber Philharmonic Orchestra Sopot. Koch was a lecturer of orchestral conducting at the Frankfurt University of Music and Performing Arts from 2003 to 2013.  From 2003, Koch has been the church musician at the Protestant Unionskirche in Idstein, responsible for the deanery as Dekanatskantor. He has conducted the concert choir Idsteiner Kantorei since, and founded in 2003 the orchestra Nassauische Kammerphilharmonie for choral and orchestral concerts. The historic church features an organ buit in 1912 by Walcker, retaining the case ("Prospekt") of a from 1783.

Concerts.

In the Idstein region, Koch has conducted symphonic concerts at the Unionskirche, regularly on the "Tag des offenen Denkmals" (European Heritage Day), including a cycle of all Beethoven symphonies. The cycle was completed in 2012 with the Ninth Symphony, celebrating the 40th anniversary of the Idsteiner Kantorei, and the centenary of the organ. Koch has conducted choral concerts, two to three per year at the Unionskirche, and others also at St. Martin, Idstein, and in smaller churches in the deanery. In 2010, he conducted Verdi's "Messa da Requiem" at St. Martin in an ecumenical project of three choirs. In 2015, he conducted the same joined choirs in and by Karl Jenkins. In an international collaboration also with the Belgian choir De Wase Kantorij from the sister town Zwijndrecht, he conducted Haydn's "Die Schöpfung" in 2016, both in Idstein and in Zwijndrecht. In 2017, his first concert back in the Unionskirche after extended restoration work included Ola Gjeilo's "Sunrise Mass" and Eric Whitacre's "Five Hebrew Love Songs". In 2018, he shared Bach's "Christmas Oratorio" with his colleague, Franz Fink of St. Martin, in concerts at the Unionskirche.

Carsten Koch (born 1975) is a German organist, choral conductor and academic. He is the church musician at the Unionskirche in Idstein, Hesse, conducting the concert choir Idsteiner Kantorei and the orchestra Nassauische Kammerphilharmonie that he founded. He lectured orchestral conducting at the Frankfurt University of Music and Performing Arts.

Carsten Koch (* 1975 in Kaiserslautern) ist ein deutscher Organist und Chorleiter. Er ist Kantor an der Unionskirche in Idstein, Hessen, und leitet dort den Konzertchor Idsteiner Kantorei und die von ihm gegründete Nassauische Kammerphilharmonie. Er lehrt Orchesterdirigat an der Hochschule für Musik und Darstellende Kunst Frankfurt am Main.