Summary.

Operation Southern Watch began on 27 August 1992 with the stated purpose of ensuring Iraqi compliance with United Nations Security Council Resolution 688 (UNSCR 688) of 5 April 1991, which demanded that Iraq, "...immediately end this repression and express the hope in the same context that an open dialogue will take place to ensure that the human and political rights of all Iraqi citizens are respected." Nothing in the resolution spelled out the Iraqi no-fly zones or Operation Southern Watch.  Following the end of the Gulf War in March 1991, the Iraqi Air Force bombed and strafed the Shi’ite Muslims in Southern Iraq during the remainder of 1991 and into 1992. The U.S. and UK deemed that Saddam Hussein was choosing not to comply with the resolution. Military forces from Saudi Arabia, the United States, the United Kingdom, and France participated in Operation Southern Watch. The commander of JTF-SWA, an aeronautically rated United States Air Force (USAF) Major General, assisted by an aeronautically designated United States Navy (USN) Rear Admiral, reported directly to the Commander, United States Central Command (USCENTCOM).  Military engagements in Southern Watch occurred with regularity, with Coalition aircraft routinely being shot at by Iraqi air defense forces utilizing surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) and anti-aircraft artillery (AAA), although such incidents were usually only reported in the Western press occasionally. An intensification was noted prior to the 2003 invasion of Iraq, though it was said at the time to just be in response to increasing activity by Iraqi air-defense forces. It is now known that this increased activity occurred during an operation known as Operation Southern Focus.

Military operations.

Immediate postwar.

At first, Iraqi forces did not attack Coalition aircraft. However, after the United Nations voted to maintain sanctions against Iraq, Iraqi forces began to fire on the aircraft and American E-3 Sentry AWACS aircraft reported an unusual amount of Iraqi Air Force activity.  On 27 December 1992, a lone Iraqi MiG-25 Foxbat crossed into the no-fly zone and flew towards a flight of USAF F-15 Eagles before turning north and using its superior speed to outrun the pursuing Eagles. Later in the day, several Iraqi fighters dodged back and forth across the 32nd parallel, staying out of missile range of American fighters. However, an Iraqi MiG-25 crossed too far and was trapped inside the 32nd parallel by a flight of USAF F-16 Falcons of the 33rd Fighter Squadron. After intelligence verified the aircraft was hostile, the fighter pilot received clearance to fire. The lead plane piloted by then-Lieutenant Colonel Gary North, USAF, fired a missile which destroyed the Iraqi fighter. This was the first combat kill by an F-16 in USAF service, and the first combat kill using the AIM-120 AMRAAM missile. On 17 January 1993, a USAF F-16C destroyed an Iraqi MiG-23 Flogger with an AMRAAM missile for the second USAF aerial victory.  On 7 January 1993, Iraq agreed to American, British, and French demands to withdraw their surface-to-air missiles from below the 32nd parallel. However, they did not remove all of them, and U.S. President George H. W. Bush ordered U.S. aircraft to bomb the remaining missile sites. On 13 January, more than 100 American, British, and French aircraft attacked Iraqi missile sites near Nasiriyah, Samawah, Najaf, and Al-Amarah. Around half the Iraqi sites south of the 32nd parallel were hit. On 29 June, a USAF F-4G Phantom II destroyed an Iraqi radar which had illuminated it, and a month later, two U.S. Navy EA-6B Prowlers fired AGM-88 HARM missiles at more Iraqi radars.

Operations "Vigilant Warrior" and "Desert Strike".

The first nine months of 1994 were quiet, and the USAF began to withdraw forces from the region. In October, Saddam deployed two divisions of Iraqi Republican Guard troops to the Kuwaiti border after demanding that UN sanctions were to be lifted, precipitating Operation Vigilant Warrior, the rushing of American troops to the Persian Gulf region. Saddam later withdrew the Iraqi Republican Guard out of the Kuwaiti border due to massive American military buildup. This served to increase Coalition resolve to enforce the no-fly zones and contain Iraqi aggression.  On 25 June 1996, terrorists bombed the U.S. base at Khobar Towers in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia which housed personnel at King Abdulaziz Air Base supporting Operation Southern Watch. The attack killed 19 American airmen and injured an additional 372 people. This event led to a re-alignment of American forces in Saudi Arabia from Khobar Towers to Prince Sultan Air Base and Eskan Village, with both installations located away from population centers.  In August 1996, Iraqi forces invaded the Kurdish regions of northern Iraq and American forces responded with Operation Desert Strike against targets in southern Iraq. As a result, the no-fly zone was extended north to the 33rd parallel. This marked renewed conflict with Iraqi air defenses and several more radars were destroyed by F-16 fighters.

Operation "Desert Fox".

On 15 December 1998, France suspended participation in the no-fly zones, arguing that they had been maintained for too long and were ineffective. On 16 December, U.S. President Bill Clinton ordered execution of Operation Desert Fox, a four-day air campaign against targets all over Iraq, citing Iraq's failure to comply with UNSC Resolutions. This resulted in an increased level of combat in the no-fly zones which lasted until 2003.

Last years.

On 30 December 1998, Iraqi SA-6 missile sites fired 6 to 8 surface-to-air missiles at American military aircraft. USAF F-16s responded by bombing the sites.  On 5 January 1999, four Iraqi MiG-25s crossed into the southern no-fly zone, sparking aerial combat with two USAF F-15 Eagles and two USN F-14 Tomcats. The American fighters fired a total of six missiles at the Iraqi aircraft, but the Iraqi aircraft were able to evade all of the missiles and escape back to the north.  On 22 May 2000, it was reported that since execution of Operation Desert Fox in December 1998, there had been 470 separate incidents of AAA or surface-to-air missile fire at Coalition aircraft, while at the same time, Iraqi aircraft had violated the southern no-fly zone 150 times. Over the same time period, American aircraft had attacked Iraqi targets on 73 occasions.  On 16 February 2001, American and British aircraft launched attacks against six targets in southern Iraq, including command centers, radars and communications centers. Only about 40% of the targets were hit. This operation sparked scathing editorials in the foreign press, which reflected growing world skepticism about American-British policy towards Iraq. Incidents of Coalition planes coming under fire, followed by retaliatory air strikes began to happen on a weekly basis.  In late 2001, a Sudanese man with links to al-Qaeda fired a man-portable SA-7 Strela missile at a USAF F-15 Eagle fighter taking off from Prince Sultan Air Base in Saudi Arabia. The missile missed the target and was not detected by the pilot or anyone at the base. Saudi police found the empty launcher in the desert in May 2002, and a suspect was arrested in Sudan a month later. He led police to a cache in the desert where a second missile was buried.  In June 2002, American and British forces stepped up attacks on Iraqi air defense targets all over southern Iraq. It was later revealed that this was part of a pre-planned operation called Southern Focus which had the goal of degrading the Iraqi air-defense system in preparation for the planned invasion of Iraq.  From August 1992 to early 2001, Coalition pilots had flown 153,000 sorties over southern Iraq.  From 1992 to 2003, various Coalition naval assets also supported maritime interdiction operations in the Persian Gulf under the banners of Operation Southern Watch and Operation Northern Watch.

Basing and Withdrawal.

Prior to late February 2003, all USAF, USN, USMC, RAF and French Air Force aircraft based in Saudi Arabia had been "defensive" assets in support of the defense of Saudi Arabia, e.g., with the exception of AGM-88 HARM missiles carried by USAF F-16CJ and USN or USMC EA-6B aircraft as defense against Iraqi surface-to-air missiles, they carried no "offensive" air-to-ground ordnance with which to strike ground targets in Iraq in response to hostile actions against Coalition aircraft in Iraqi airspace enforcing UNSCR 688.  As a result, strike aircraft with offensive ordnance were limited to USAF A-10, F-15E, F-16C, RAF Tornado GR4, and occasionally USMC F/A-18 or AV-8B aircraft based at Ali Al Salem Air Base and Ahmad al-Jaber Air Base in Kuwait, and USN and USMC F-14, F/A-18 and EA-6B aircraft aboard US aircraft carriers and USMC AV-8B aircraft aboard US amphibious assault ships operating in the Persian Gulf.  In addition to USAF E-3 AWACS and E-8 J-STARS command & control aircraft and KC-135 air refueling aircraft based in Saudi Arabia, additional USAF KC-10 and KC-135 air refueling aircraft were also based at Al Dhafra Air Base in the UAE, while RAF VC10 K3 refuelers were based at the U.S. Navy's Aviation Support Unit (ASU) at Bahrain International Airport in Bahrain to support these strike aircraft.  On 27 February 2003, it was announced that the U.S. would be allowed to launch warplanes with offensive ordnance from its bases inside Saudi Arabia to support the Iraq War – and would in turn begin a phased withdrawal from the country.  On 29 April 2003, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld announced that he would be withdrawing U.S. troops from the country, stating that the Iraq War no longer required the support installations within the kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Deputy Secretary of Defense Paul Wolfowitz had earlier said that the continuing U.S. presence in the kingdom was also putting American lives in danger.  All non-Royal Saudi Air Force aircraft and units at Prince Sultan Air Base relocated to other bases in the region, mainly Al Udeid Air Base in Qatar and Al Dhafra Air Base in the UAE. This included the Coalition Air Operations Center (CAOC), which had relocated to PSAB from Eskan Village in September 2001, and which now resides at Al Udeid AB.

Operation Southern Watch was an air-centric military operation conducted by the United States Department of Defense from Summer 1992 to Spring 2003.

Die Operation Southern Watch war eine militärische Operation mit dem Ziel, eine Flugverbotszone im Irak südlich des 33. Breitengrades durchzusetzen. Die Operation fand zwischen dem Ende des Zweiten und dem Beginn des Dritten Golfkriegs, von 1991 bis 2003, statt. Durchgeführt wurde sie von der "Joint Task Force Southwest Asia (JTF-SWA)".


The ten years as tribune of the plebs.

Lucius Sextius and Gaius Licinius proposed these laws in 375 BC when they were elected tribunes of the plebs. They were opposed by the patricians, who prevented the bills from being debated. In retaliation the two men vetoed the election of the military tribunes with consular power (consular tribunes) for five years. They were reelected to the plebeian tribunate each year for nine consecutive years. In 370 BC they allowed the election of the consular tribunes because there was a need to raise an army to fight against the city of Velitrae. In 369 BC, the laws, particularly the one concerning the consulship, were fiercely debated. In 368 BC Marcus Furius Camillus, who opposed the enactment of the bills, was appointed dictator. However, he resigned for unclear reasons. The Plebeian Council passed the laws on interest and on land, but rejected the law about the consulship. However, the two tribunes of the plebs pressed for all the motions to be put to the plebeians collectively and vowed not to stand for re-election if this was not done, arguing that there was reason to reelect them only if the plebeians wanted to enact the measures they proposed together. In 367 BC Lucius Sextius and Gaius Licinius were returned to their office for the tenth time, and the law on the consulship was passed. The two men proposed a law which abolished the Duumviri Sacris Faciundis, a college of two priests, who were patricians, and also the custodians of the sacred Sibylline Books, and replaced it with the Decemviri sacris faciundis, a college of ten priests with the same role. Five of them were to be patricians and five were to be plebeians. The law was passed, and five patrician priests and five plebeian ones were duly elected. According to Livy, "Satisfied with their victory, the plebs gave way to the patricians, and relinquishing for the moment discussion about the consuls, permitted the election of military tribunes [with consular power]."  Still in 367 BC, Marcus Furius Camillus was appointed dictator because of an attack by the Gauls of northern Italy. According to Livy, on his return to Rome after defeating the Gauls, Camillus "was confronted with a fiercer opposition in the City. After desperate struggles the senate and the dictator were beaten, and the measures advocated by the tribunes were adopted. An election of consuls was held, against the wishes of the nobles..." Lucius Sextius Lateranus was elected as one of the two consuls. The patrician senators declared that they would not ratify the election. The bitter dispute almost led to another plebeian secession. Camillus struck a compromise: in exchange for the patricians acknowledging the election of Lucius Sextius, the plebeians made the concession that the patricians might elect from the patricians one praetor to administer justice in the City. In that year the office of the curule aediles was also created.  Little is known about the consulship of Lucius Sextius Lateranus. Livy only wrote that in the year of his consulship one praetor and two curule aediles from the patrician ranks were elected. There were rumours about a gathering of Gallic soldiers and a defection by the Hernici, who were Roman allies. The patrician senators decided to defer any action so as not to give the plebeian consul a military task. The plebeians were unhappy that these three new patrician magistrates had been installed. According to Livy, in response to this, "it was arranged to take the curule aediles from the plebs in alternate years: later the election was thrown open without distinction".

Modern evaluation of the law regarding the consulship.

Some modern historians have pointed out that there is lack of clarity regarding the law which provided that one consul should be a plebeian. Livy saw this law as a breakthrough in the political advancement of the plebeians. T.J. Cornell notes that, according to Livy and his sources, the regular and unbroken sharing of the consulship stemmed from the Lex Genucia proposed by the plebeian tribune Lucius Genucius in 342 BC which, it is claimed, allowed plebeians to hold both consulships. However, the Fasti consulares (a chronicle of yearly events in which the years are denoted by their consuls) suggest that this law made it obligatory for one consulship to be held by a plebeian. Cornell suggests that it might be that it was the Lex Genucia which truly introduced power-sharing between patricians and plebeians (by providing that there should be one consul from each social order) and that the Lex Licinia Sextia may simply have been an administrative adjustment which transferred plebeian access to the highest office from the military tribunes with consular power to the consulship and, thus, Lucius Sextius becoming the first plebeian consul "becomes rather less impressive." K. von Fritz and Sordi also think that the law on the consuls and the praetors was an administrative reform.  Livy wrote that in the military tribunes with consular power were instituted in 444 BC because it was decided to that in some years the consulship should be replaced by the consular tribunes (whose numbers varied from three to six), that this office would be open to plebeians and that it had been created as a concession to the plebeians who wanted access to the consulship. However, from 444 BC to 401 BC, only two such tribunes, out of a total of 100, were plebeians. For the 400-376 BC period, only in 400, 399 and 396 BC were the majority of these tribunes plebeians (4, 5, and 5 out of 6) and in 379 BC there were three plebeians of six. For Cornell, this raises some questions: Why from 444 to 401 BC were there only two plebeians? Why, given the presence of plebeians in the subsequent period, which shows their eligibility to the highest office, was plebeian access to the consulship considered such a landmark for the political promotion of the plebeians? Why was there such resistance to this? The sources seem to see the law as a breakthrough not just because it provided access to the consulship, but it required that one of the two consuls of the year be a patrician. However, for a twelve-year period after passage of the law, from 355 to 343 BC, both consuls were patricians and the consulship became an unbroken line of shared office only after that.

Lucius Sextius Lateranus was a Roman tribune of the plebs and is noted for having been one of two men (the other being Gaius Licinius Stolo) who passed the Leges Liciniae Sextiae of 368 BC and 367 BC. Originally, these were a set of three laws. One law provided that the interest already paid on debts should be deducted from the principal and that the payment of the rest of the principal should be in three equal annual installments. Another one provided restricted individual ownership of public land in excess of 500 iugeras (300 acres) and forbade the grazing of more than 100 cattle on public land. The most important law provided that one of the two consuls be a plebeian. Having been reelected nine times, Lucius Sextius Lateranus and Gaius Licinius Stolo held the plebeian tribunate for ten years. In 368 BC the laws regarding debt and land were passed, but the law regarding the consulship was rejected. In 367 BC this law was passed. In the same year the two tribunes of the plebs proposed a fourth law concerning the priests who were the custodians of the sacred Sibylline Books, and Lucius Sextius Lateranus was elected to serve as consul for the year 366 BC. Livy wrote that he was "the first of the plebeians to attain that honour."

Lucius Sextius Lateranus war von 376 bis 367 v. Chr. achtmal römischer Volkstribun. Gemeinsam mit Gaius Licinius Stolo beantragte er die "Leges Liciniae Sextiae", die den Plebejern den Zugang zum Konsulat ermöglichten. Mit diesem Gesetzesvorschlag wurde auch die Menge an öffentlichem Land "(ager publicus)" begrenzt, die eine Person innehaben konnte. Lateranus wurde im Jahr 366 v. Chr. erster plebejischer Konsul (mit Lucius Aemilius Mamercinus).


Early life.

Mackintosh was born at Aldourie, 7 miles from Inverness, the son of Captain John Mackintosh of Kellachie (Kyllachy, near Tomatin in Inverness-shire). His mother was Marjory MacGillivray, a daughter of Alexander MacGillivray and his wife Anne Fraser, who was a sister to Brigadier-General Simon Fraser of Balnain. Both his parents were from old Highland families. His mother died while he was a child, and his father was frequently abroad, so he was brought up by his grandmother, and then schooled at Fortrose Seminary academy. At age thirteen he proclaimed himself a Whig, and during playtime he persuaded his friends to join him in debates modelled on those of the House of Commons.  He went in 1780 to King's College, University of Aberdeen, where he made a lifelong friend of Robert Hall, later a famous preacher. In 1784 he began to study medicine at Edinburgh University. He participated to the full in the intellectual ferment, became friendly with Benjamin Constant, but did not quite neglect his medical studies, and took his degree in 1787.  In 1788 Mackintosh moved to London, then agitated by the trial of Warren Hastings and the first lapse into insanity of George III. He was much more interested in these and other political events than in his professional prospects. He was also a founder member of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (later the RSPCA).

Marriages and children.

In 1789 he married Catherine Stuart, whose brother Daniel later edited the "Morning Post". His wife's prudence counteracted Mackintosh's own unpractical temperament, and his efforts in journalism became fairly profitable. They had a son, who died in infancy, and three daughters:  In 1797 his wife died, and next year he married Catherine Allen (died 6 May 1830), sister-in-law of Josiah II and John Wedgwood, through whom he introduced Coleridge to the "Morning Post". They had two sons, one of whom died in infancy, and two daughters:

French Revolution.

Mackintosh was soon absorbed in the question of the time, the French Revolution. In April 1791, after long meditation, he published his "Vindiciae Gallicae: A Defence of the French Revolution and its English Admirers", a reply to Edmund Burke's "Reflections on the Revolution in France". It placed the author in the front rank of European publicists, and won him the friendship of some of the most distinguished men of the time. The success of the "Vindiciae" finally decided him to give up the medical for the legal profession. He was called to the bar in 1795 and gained a considerable reputation there as well as a tolerable practice.  "Vindiciae Gallicae" was the verdict of a philosophic liberal on the development of the French Revolution up to the spring of 1791. The excesses of the revolutionaries compelled him a few years later to oppose them and agree with Burke, but his earlier defence of the rights of man is a valuable statement of the cultured Whig's point of view at the time. Mackintosh was the first to see Burke's "Reflections" as "the manifesto of a counter revolution".  Charles James Fox singled out Mackintosh's book as that which did most justice to the French Revolution, and he preferred it over Burke and Thomas Paine. After Paine's "Rights of Man", Mackintosh's book was the most successful reply to Burke and Burke's biographer F. P. Lock considers it "one of the best of the replies to Burke, in some respects superior to "Rights of Man"".  The poet Thomas Campbell claimed that had it not been for Mackintosh's book, Burke's anti-revolutionary opinions would have become universal amongst the educated classes and that he ensured that he became "the apostle of liberalism".  Mackintosh wrote to Burke on 22 December 1796, saying that "From the earliest moments of reflexion your writings were my chief study and delight...The enthusiasm with which I then embraced them is now ripened into solid Conviction by the experience and meditation of more mature age. For a time indeed seduced by the love of what I thought liberty I ventured to oppose your Opinions without ever ceasing to venerate your character...I cannot say...that I can even now assent to all your opinions on the present politics of Europe. But I can with truth affirm that I subscribe to your general Principles; that I consider them as the only solid foundation both of political Science and of political prudence". Burke replied that "As it is on all hands allowed that you were the most able advocate for the cause which you supported, your sacrifice to truth and mature reflexion, adds much to your glory". However, in private Burke was sceptical of what he considered Mackintosh's "supposed conversion". Burke invited Mackintosh to spend Christmas with him at his home in Beaconsfield, where he was struck by Burke's "astonishing effusions of his mind in conversation. Perfectly free from all taint of affectation...Minutely and accurately informed, to a wonderful exactness, with respect to every fact relative to the French Revolution".  When Mackintosh visited Paris in 1802 during the Peace of Amiens, he responded to compliments from French admirers of his defence of their revolution by saying: “Messieurs, vous m’avez si bien refuté”.

Lawyer.

As a lawyer his greatest public efforts were his lectures (1799) at Lincoln's Inn on the law of nature and nations, of which the introductory discourse was published and ran to several editions; the resulting fame helped open doors for him later in life. Mackintosh was also famed for his speech in 1803 defending, a French refugee, against a libel suit instigated by Napoleon – then First Consul (military dictator) of France. Peltier had argued that Napoleon should be killed at a time when Britain and France were at peace. In front of an audience of ambassadors, it took only one minute for the jury to convict Jean-Gabriel, but the sentence was never applied, it was decidedly a political trial. J-G Peltier was no more satisfied with the judgment than Napoleon. The newspapers of France received the defense of praising the pleading under pain of suppression! The speech was widely published in English and also across Europe in a French translation by Madame de Staël, who became a friend of Mackintosh's. In 1803 he was knighted.

Judge of Bombay.

He was appointed Recorder (chief judge) of Bombay, taking up the post in 1804. Within a few months he had established the Bombay Literary Society at his home, where a circle of intellectuals and friends would meet to discuss the history, geography, zoology and botany of the sub-continent as well as its peoples and languages, customs and religions. The group would later evolve into the Asiatic Society of Mumbai.  He was however not at home in India, where he became ill, was disappointed by his literary progress with the mooted "History of England", and was glad to leave for England in November 1811.

Member of Parliament.

Mackintosh declined the offer of Spencer Perceval to resume political life under the wing of the dominant Tory party, despite prospects of office. He entered Parliament in July 1813 as a Whig. He was the member for Nairn until 1818, and afterwards for Knaresborough, till his death. In London society, and in Paris during his occasional visits, he was a recognized favourite. On Madame de Staël's visit to London he was able to keep up in talk with her. A close friend was Richard Sharp MP, known as "Conversation Sharp". and both men belonged to the Whig social group, the King of Clubs. Mackintosh's parliamentary career was marked by his liberalism: he opposed reactionary measures of the Tory government; he supported and later succeeded Samuel Romilly in his efforts to reform the criminal code; and took a leading part both in Catholic emancipation and in the Reform Bill. He was, however, too diffuse and elaborate to be a telling speaker in parliament.

Professor.

From 1818 to 1824 he was professor of law and general politics in the East India Company's College at Haileybury. While there, on 12 August 1823, Mackintosh wrote a two-sheet letter from Cadogan Place, London to James Savage asking for source material for Savage's edition of "The History of Taunton" by Joshua Toulmin.  In the midst of the attractions of London society and of his parliamentary avocations Mackintosh felt that the real work of his life was being neglected. His great ambition was to write a history of England; he also cherished the idea of making some worthy contribution to philosophy. It was not till 1828 that he set about the first task of his literary ambition. This was his "Dissertation on the Progress of Ethical Philosophy", prefixed to the seventh edition of the "Encyclopædia Britannica". The dissertation, written mostly in ill-health and in snatches of time taken from his parliamentary engagements, was published in 1831. It was severely attacked in 1835 by James Mill in his "Fragment on Mackintosh". About the same time he wrote for the "Cabinet Cyclopaedia" a "History of England from the Earliest Times to the Final Establishment of the Reformation."  A privy councillor since 1828, Mackintosh was appointed Commissioner for the affairs of India under the Whig administration of 1830.

"History of the Revolution in England in 1688".

His history of the Glorious Revolution, for which he had done considerable research and collected a large amount of material, was not published till after his death. Mackintosh only completed it to the time of James II's abdication. However his voluminous notes on the Glorious Revolution came into the possession of Thomas Babington Macaulay, who used them for his own "History" of the Revolution. Mackintosh's notes stopped in the year of 1701, where Macaulay's "History" also ends.  Mackintosh's work was published in 1834 and in his review of it, Macaulay said that he had "no hesitation" in proclaiming the book as "decidedly the best history now extant of the reign of James the Second" but lamented that "there is perhaps too much disquisition and too little narrative". He went on to praise Mackintosh: "We find in it the diligence, the accuracy, and the judgment of Hallam, united to the vivacity and the colouring of Southey. A history of England, written throughout in this manner, would be the most fascinating book in the language. It would be more in request at the circulating libraries than the last novel".

Freemasonry.

He was Initiated into Scottish Freemasonry in Lodge Holyrood House (St. Luke's), No.44, (Edinburgh) on 28 November 1785.

Death.

The premature death of Sir James Mackintosh at the age of sixty-six was attributed to a chicken bone becoming stuck in his throat, causing a traumatic choking episode. Although the bone was eventually removed, his suffering continued until he died a month later on 30 May 1832 and he was buried in Hampstead churchyard, having lived for much of his later life at 15 Langham Place, London.

Legacy.

A "Life", by his son R. J. Mackintosh, was published in 1836. An edition of his works, in three volumes, (apart from the "History of England") was published in 1846, containing his ethical and historical dissertations, a number of essays on political and literary topics, reviews, and other contributions to periodical publications, and speeches on a variety of subjects delivered at the bar and in parliament.  The Mackintosh River in Tasmania was named in his honour, by Henry Hellyer in November 1828.

Sir James Mackintosh FRS FRSE (24 October 1765 – 30 May 1832) was a Scottish jurist, Whig politician and historian. His studies and sympathies embraced many interests. He was trained as a doctor and barrister, and worked also as a journalist, judge, administrator, professor, philosopher and politician.

Sir James Mackintosh (* 24. Oktober 1765 in Alldowry, Inverness-shire; † 30. Mai 1832) war einer der hervorragendsten Parlamentsredner des Vereinigten Königreichs.


Structures.

Nucleoproteins tend to be positively charged, facilitating interaction with the negatively charged nucleic acid chains. The tertiary structures and biological functions of many nucleoproteins are understood. Important techniques for determining the structures of nucleoproteins include X-ray diffraction, nuclear magnetic resonance and cryo-electron microscopy.

Viruses.

Virus genomes (either DNA or RNA) are extremely tightly packed into the viral capsid. Many viruses are therefore little more than an organised collection of nucleoproteins with their binding sites pointing inwards. Structurally characterised viral nucleoproteins include influenza, rabies, Ebola, Bunyamwera, Schmallenberg, Hazara, Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever, and Lassa.

Deoxyribonucleoproteins.

A deoxyribonucleoprotein (DNP) is a complex of DNA and protein. The prototypical examples are nucleosomes, complexes in which genomic DNA is wrapped around clusters of eight histone proteins in eukaryotic cell nuclei to form chromatin. Protamines replace histones during spermatogenesis.

Functions.

The most widespread deoxyribonucleoproteins are nucleosomes, in which the component is nuclear DNA. The proteins combined with DNA are histones and protamines; the resulting nucleoproteins are located in chromosomes. Thus, the entire chromosome, i.e. chromatin in eukaryotes consists of such nucleoproteins.  In eukaryotic cells, DNA is associated with about an equal mass of histone proteins in a highly condensed nucleoprotein complex called chromatin. Deoxyribonucleoproteins in this kind of complex interact to generate a multiprotein regulatory complex in which the intervening DNA is looped or wound. The deoxyribonucleoproteins participate in regulating DNA replication and transcription.  Deoxyribonucleoproteins are also involved in homologous recombination, a process for repairing DNA that appears to be nearly universal. A central intermediate step in this process is the interaction of multiple copies of a recombinase protein with single-stranded DNA to form a DNP filament. Recombinases employed in this process are produced by archaea (RadA recombinase), by bacteria (RecA recombinase) and by eukaryotes from yeast to humans (Rad51 and Dmc1 recombinases).

Ribonucleoproteins.

A ribonucleoprotein (RNP) is a complex of ribonucleic acid and RNA-binding protein. These complexes play an integral part in a number of important biological functions that include transcription, translation and regulating gene expression and regulating the metabolism of RNA. A few examples of RNPs include the ribosome, the enzyme telomerase, vault ribonucleoproteins, RNase P, hnRNP and small nuclear RNPs (snRNPs), which have been implicated in pre-mRNA splicing (spliceosome) and are among the main components of the nucleolus. Some viruses are simple ribonucleoproteins, containing only one molecule of RNA and a number of identical protein molecules. Others are ribonucleoprotein or deoxyribonucleoprotein complexes containing a number of different proteins, and exceptionally more nucleic acid molecules. Currently, over 2000 RNPs can be found in the RCSB Protein Data Bank (PDB). Furthermore, the Protein-RNA Interface Data Base (PRIDB) possesses a collection of information on RNA-protein interfaces based on data drawn from the PDB. Some common features of protein-RNA interfaces were deduced based on known structures. For example, RNP in snRNPs have an RNA-binding motif in its RNA-binding protein. Aromatic amino acid residues in this motif result in stacking interactions with RNA. Lysine residues in the helical portion of RNA-binding proteins help to stabilize interactions with nucleic acids. This nucleic acid binding is strengthened by electrostatic attraction between the positive lysine side chains and the negative nucleic acid phosphate backbones. Additionally, it is possible to model RNPs computationally. Although computational methods of deducing RNP structures are less accurate than experimental methods, they provide a rough model of the structure which allows for predictions of the identity of significant amino acids and nucleotide residues. Such information helps in understanding the overall function the RNP.'RNP' can also refer to ribonucleoprotein particles. Ribonucleoprotein particles are distinct intracellular foci for post-transcriptional regulation. These particles play an important role in influenza A virus replication. The influenza viral genome is composed of eight ribonucleoprotein particles formed by a complex of negative-sense RNA bound to a viral nucleoprotein. Each RNP carries with it an RNA polymerase complex. When the nucleoprotein binds to the viral RNA, it is able to expose the nucleotide bases which allow the viral polymerase to transcribe RNA. At this point, once the virus enters a host cell it will be prepared to begin the process of replication.

Anti-RNP antibodies.

Anti-RNP antibodies are autoantibodies associated with "mixed connective tissue disease" and are also detected in nearly 40% of Lupus erythematosus patients. Two types of anti-RNP antibodies are closely related to Sjögren's syndrome: SS-A (Ro) and SS-B (La). Autoantibodies against snRNP are called Anti-Smith antibodies and are specific for SLE. The presence of a significant level of anti-U1-RNP also serves a possible indicator of MCTD when detected in conjunction with several other factors.

Functions.

The ribonucleoproteins play a role of protection. mRNAs never occur as free RNA molecules in the cell. They always associate with ribonucleoproteins and function as ribonucleoprotein complexes.  In the same way, the genomes of negative-strand RNA viruses never exist as free RNA molecule. The ribonucleoproteins protect their genomes from RNase. Nucleoproteins are often the major antigens for viruses because they have strain-specific and group-specific antigenic determinants.

Nucleoproteins are any proteins that are structurally associated with nucleic acids, either DNA or RNA. Typical nucleoproteins include ribosomes, nucleosomes and viral nucleocapsid proteins.

Nukleoproteine sind Proteine, die an Nukleinsäuren (DNA oder RNA) binden. Klassische Beispiele für Nukleoproteine sind die DNA-bindenden Proteine wie die Histone, die Protamine, aber auch die Ribonucleoproteine (z. B. das Ribosom, der RNA-induced silencing complex oder die Telomerase) oder das Nukleoprotein (NP) des Influenzavirus. Die Nukleoproteine besitzen an den Bindungsstellen für die Phosphatgruppen der Nukleinsäuren oftmals basische Aminosäuren zum Ladungsausgleich und zur Komplexierung oder saure Aminosäuren, die den Cofaktor Mg binden können. Über das Mg können die Phosphatgruppen der DNA indirekt gebunden werden.


Career.

Recruited by former "sekiwake" Kiyosegawa, he made his professional debut in September 1956 (in the same tournament as Taihō). Initially fighting under the "shikona" of Wakaikuni, he rose slowly up the ranks, eventually reaching the second highest "jūryō" division in May 1963, after 26 tournaments in "makushita". He was promoted to the top "makuuchi" division in November 1963. In just his second "makuuchi" tournament, ranked at "maegashira" 13, he produced a superb 14–1 record, losing only on the final day and finishing runner-up to "yokozuna" Taihō who won with an unbeaten score. (Because he was ranked so low he was not matched against Taihō during the tournament and so never had the chance to defeat him and force a playoff.) He was awarded the Technique Prize and was promoted straight to "sekiwake", sumo's third highest rank – the biggest jump to "sekiwake" ever recorded in the six tournaments a year era. He defeated "yokozuna" in three consecutive tournaments from September 1964 to January 1965, earning promotion back to the "san'yaku" ranks.  After a year or so of being stuck at the "sekiwake" rank, Kiyokuni was finally promoted to "ōzeki" in May 1969 after his second runner-up performance. Although he had scored only 31 wins in the three tournaments prior to his promotion, below the usual threshold of 33, he immediately dispelled any doubts over his worthiness by taking what was to be his only tournament championship or "yūshō" in his "ōzeki" debut. He defeated Taihō for only the third time in 25 meetings on the final day and then beat "maegashira" Fujinokawa in a playoff after both had finished on 12–3. This was to be the last "yūshō" by a member of the Tatsunami-Isegahama "ichimon" or group of stables until "ōzeki" Asahifuji won his first championship in January 1988.  Kiyokuni was never able to make "yokozuna", partly due to neck and spinal injuries from which he never fully recovered. Nevertheless, he was a strong "ōzeki", remaining there for 28 "basho" and finishing runner-up in May 1971, May 1973 and September 1973. He retired in January 1974, due to a heart complaint.

Retirement from sumo.

Kiyokuni became an "oyakata", or elder of the Japan Sumo Association after his retirement, and in April 1977 he became head coach of Isegahama stable following the death of his second stablemaster, former "yokozuna" Terukuni, who had been in charge since 1961. Initially he had some success, overseeing the late blooming Kurosegawa's rise to "komusubi" in 1980 and also producing Wakasegawa who reached the top division in 1983. However, On August 12, 1985 Isegahama's wife and two children died in the Japan Airlines Flight 123 disaster. He was never the same again and the stable began to deteriorate. He was demoted from his position in the Sumo Association after giving an outspoken interview to the "Shūkan Gendai" in 2004 in which he criticised the attitude of amateur college champions and foreigners in sumo and made allegations of match-fixing and steroid abuse. By the time he reached the mandatory retirement age of sixty-five in November 2006, there were just two active wrestlers in Isegahama stable left, compared with dozens when he took over. Much to his chagrin he had not even been able to persuade his nephews, Tamanoshima and to join, the two eventual "sekitori" opting for Kataonami stable instead. With no long term successor to Kiyokuni available, former "maegashira" Katsuhikari took on the Isegahama name, but he dissolved the stable, which dated back to 1859, on February 1, 2007. Its two remaining wrestlers moved to Kiriyama stable. In an attempt to revive the fortunes of the once prestigious Isegahama name, it was assumed by the former Asahifuji in December of that year, who renamed his existing Ajigawa stable to Isegahama stable.

Fighting style.

Kiyokuni favoured techniques were "hidari-yotsu" (a right hand outside, left hand inside grip on his opponent's "mawashi"), "yorikiri" (force out), and "oshidashi" (push out).

Career record.

Kiyokuni Katsuo (born 20 November 1941 as Tadao Sato) is a former sumo wrestler from Ogachi, Akita, Japan. His highest rank was "ōzeki", which he held from 1969 to 1974. He won one top division "yūshō" or tournament championship and was a runner-up in five other tournaments. He also earned seven special prizes and seven gold stars. After his retirement he was the head coach of Isegahama stable.

Kiyokuni Katsuo (jap. ; * 20. November 1941 in Ogachi (heute: Yuzawa), Präfektur Akita als Satō Tadao ()) ist ein ehemaliger japanischer Sumōringer und Sportfunktionär. Kiyokuni ist ein Onkel des Ringers Tamanoshima.


Playing career.

Kathan began his career in 1994 for his hometown EC Bad Tölz of the 2nd Bundesliga. In his three seasons with the team, he played in 92 regular season games and scored 72 points including 43 goals, 24 of them coming in the 1995-96 season.  During the 1996-97 season, Kathan made his DEL debut for the Berlin Capitals, scoring seven goals in 23 games and also scored twice in the playoffs during the Capitals' series against local rivals the Eisbären Berlin, which they lost three games to one. In 1998, Kathan moved to the Star Bulls Rosenheim where he remained for two seasons, scoring a total of 34 goals. The Star Bulls however missed out on the playoffs in both seasons and despite surviving relegation in 2000, they withdrew from the DEL due to financial issues.  After Rosenheim's departure, Kathan moved to the Kassel Huskies, scoring 25 goals in his two seasons with the team and reaching the playoffs in both seasons, scoring three goals in each campaign. In 2002, he joined the Adler Mannheim, but his tenure with the team was hampered with injury and illness. In the first season for the team, he broke his wrist and in his second season, he suffered with meningitis. The setbacks contributed to a sharp decline in performance, scoring just four goals in his two seasons with Mannheim.  In 2004, Kathan joined the DEG Metro Stars where he bounced back into goal-scoring form. In the 2005-06 season, Kathan led the Metro Stars in goals with 28. The team also reached the playoff finals, losing to the Eisbären Berlin in three games. At the end of the 2007-08 season, Kathan's contract was not renewed at DEG, so he signed a contract with the Hannover Scorpions, winning a DEL championship with the team in 2010.  In 2011, Kathan moved to EHC München. On October 14, 2012, Kathan became the fourth player, and first Bayer, to reach 900 DEL games. In 2013, Kathan returned to Bad Tölz, now known as Tölzer Löwen and playing in the Oberliga. The team were promoted to DEL2 for the 2017-18 season, which would be Kathan's final season before retiring.

International career.

Kathan played for the German national team in five Ice Hockey World Championships as well as the 2002 Winter Olympics. Kathan was the top scorer in the Olympic qualifiers in 2002.

Klaus Kathan (born January 7, 1977) is a German former professional ice hockey winger. He played in the Deutsche Eishockey Liga (DEL) for the Berlin Capitals, Star Bulls Rosenheim, Kassel Huskies, Adler Mannheim, DEG Metro Stars, Hannover Scorpions, EHC München in the during the 2012-13 season.

Nikolaus „Klaus“ Kathan (* 7. Januar 1977 in Bad Tölz) ist ein ehemaliger deutscher Eishockeyspieler. Er ist der Sohn der Eishockeylegende und Bundestrainer der Deutschen Dameneishockeymannschaft Peter Kathan senior. Sein Bruder Peter ist ebenfalls Eishockeyspieler.


History.

The genus "Ehrlichia" is named after German microbiologist Paul Ehrlich.The first ehrlichial disease was recognized in South Africa during the 19th century. Its tick-borne nature was determined in 1900. The organism itself was demonstrated 1925 when it was recognized to be a "Rickettsia". It was initially named "Rickettsia ruminantium", and is currently named "Ehrlichia ruminantium". In 1945, an "infection and treatment" method for livestock was developed. This is still the only commercially available "vaccine" against the disease, which is not a true vaccine, but intentional exposure to the disease with monitoring and antibiotic treatment if needed. In 1985, the organism was first propagated reliably in tissue culture. A new species of "Ehrlichia" was discovered inside the deer tick "Ixodes scapularis". This newly found organism has only been isolated from deer ticks in Wisconsin and Minnesota in the USA. The species is known as "Ehrlichia" Wisconsin HM543746.

Evolution.

The "Ehrlichia" genome contains many different variants of genes that encode outer membrane proteins, which have gone through intense modification over long periods of time. The great diversity in outer membrane protein genes is thought to originate from gene duplication events, followed by the fusion and fission of resulting paralogs of the gene. These duplication, fusion, and fission events form multiple gene copies and fragments, which are able to accumulate mutations. These copies and fragments of membrane proteins can then recombine, through a process called gene conversion, resulting in a new gene variant. This has a profound effect on the fitness of an organism. The survival of "Ehrlichia" depends greatly on the immune response of its host. With a higher range of outer membrane proteins, the parasite can evade the immune system of the host more effectively and establish persistent infection.  The most pronounced evidence of evolution in the genome size of "Erhlichia" is the presence of tandem repeats, which vary highly among individuals and species. Over time, individuals may expand or contract parts of their genes and alleles, which adds genetic variation and may sometimes affect phenotype.  "Ehrlichia" and its closely related genus "Anaplasma" show extreme diversity in the structure and content of their genomes. This diversity is direct result of rare clones with extreme genomes that emerged by chance after repeated bottleneck events, and this diversity persists because of the lack of selective constraints on rapid growth inside the host tissue.

"E. ruminantium".

The evolutionary changes in the outer membrane proteins have led to the emergence of new strains that can infect a larger variety of hosts. Heartwater, caused by "E. ruminantium", is a prevalent tick-borne disease of livestock in Africa and the Caribbean, but also threatens the American mainland. Three strains have arisen from this species due to evolutionary change in their genomes. When sequencing their genomes,e many active genomic modifications have occurred, such as high substitution rates, truncated genes, and the presence of pseudogenes and tandem repeats. When analyzing substitution rates between the three strains in 888 orthologous coding DNA sequences, three coding DNA sequences were biased towards nonsynonymous substitutions that affect phenotype. In contrast, 181 coding DNA sequences were biased towards synonymous substitutions, which do not affect phenotype. This indicates that selection pressure to maintain protein function existed, and this selection acted against the nonsynonymous mutations.

"E. canis".

"E. canis" is a small, obligate-intracellular, tick-transmitted, Gram-negative α-proteobacterium. This species is responsible for the globally distributed canine monocytic ehrlichiosis. "E. canis" also shows evolution in its complex membrane structures and immune evasion strategies. These evolutionary features are derived traits that do not show up in the previous lineages, which may indicate that these features may have contributed to a fitness advantage that kept this lineage going. Unique glycoproteins and major outer membrane proteins can be expressed variously using 25 different genes. The glycoproteins are important targets of the host immune response, attachment to the host cell, and other features in the immune response. The more outer-membrane protein genes that can be expressed, the higher the chance the organism can avoid being recognized by the host's immune system.  Also, reductive evolution is present in "E. canis". The genome has had a severe loss of metabolic pathway enzymes compared to its ancestors. Reductive evolution in obligate intracellar pathogens is usually the direct result of genetic drift in small populations, low recombination rates, and high mutation rates. The host metabolic pathway enzymes take control of the functions lost due to reductive evolution, and this contributes to its need for a host. Natural selection may not be the reason for small genomes.

Epidemiology.

Despite there being multiple strains of ehrlichiosis, only two species, "E. chaffeensis" and "E. ewingii", are currently known to cause the disease in humans.  "Amblyomma americanum" ticks spread "E. chaffeensis" and "E. ewingii" bacterial infection in the Eastern and Southeastern United States, while "A. phagocytophilum" is spread by the "Ixodes scapularis" tick in the Upper Midwest; 1,518 cases of "E. chaffeensis" were recorded in southeastern, south-central and mid-Atlantic areas of the country in 2013. Despite the first cases of "E. ewingii" appearing in the Missouri in the year 1999, this strain was not reportable to health officials until 2008. Since 2008, there have been reported human cases of "E. ewingii" in Oklahoma, Arkansas and Tennessee though it is observed less frequently than "E. chaffeensis."  During 2008-2012, 4,613 cases of "E. chaffeensis" infections were reported through the National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System (NNDSS). The incidence rate (IR) was 3.2 cases per million person-years (PYs). The hospitalization rate (HR) was 57% and the case fatality rate (CFR) was 1%. During that same time, 55 cases of "E. ewingii" infections were reported through NNDSS. The national IR was 0.04 cases per million PY. The HR was 77% and the case fatality rate was 0%.  In Minnesota and Wisconsin, four people reported symptoms that are associated with ehrlichiosis, and upon further research, neither of these cases was found to be "E. chaffeensis" or "E.ewingii", but instead it was revealed as a new species, similar in genetic makeup to "E. muris"."Ixodes Scapularis" ticks are hypothesized to be the transmitting vector of the "E. muris" strain in these states.

Ehrlichia is a genus of Rickettsiales bacteria that are transmitted to vertebrates by ticks. These bacteria cause the disease ehrlichiosis, which is considered zoonotic, because the main reservoirs for the disease are animals.

Ehrlichia ist eine Gattung Gram-negativer, zwischen 0,2 und bis zu 2 μm großer Bakterien. Sie gehören zur Ordnung der Rickettsiales, mit deren anderen Vertretern sie die obligat intrazellulär-parasitierende Lebensweise teilen. Ihr Name wurde ihnen zum Gedenken an den deutschen Mikrobiologen Paul Ehrlich verliehen.


Princess Louise of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg (1800–1831)

Luise von Sachsen-Gotha-Altenburg (1800–1831)

Family.

Princess Louise was the only daughter of Augustus, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg and his first wife Louise Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, daughter of Frederick Francis I, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Princess Louise of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg (her namesake).

Marriage and issue.

On 31 July 1817 in Gotha, sixteen-year-old Louise married her thirty-three-year-old kinsman Ernst III, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, (later Ernst I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha), after he failed to win the hand of a Russian grand duchess. Louise was considered "young, clever, and beautiful".  They had two children: Ernst, who inherited his father's lands and titles, and Albert, who was later the husband of Queen Victoria.  The marriage was unhappy because of Ernst's infidelities and the couple separated in 1824. St. Wendel, in the Principality of Lichtenberg, was assigned as her new residence (it was an exclave of Saxe-Coburg und Gotha; see Sotnick on this period), and Louise was forced to leave her two sons behind. Biographer Lytton Strachey noted in 1921: "The ducal court was not noted for the strictness of its morals; the Duke was a man of gallantry, and it was rumored that the Duchess followed her husband's example. There were scandals: one of the Court Chamberlains, a charming and cultivated man of Jewish extraction, was talked of; at last there was a separation, followed by a divorce."

Post-divorce.

On 31 March 1826 their marriage was officially dissolved. Seven months later, on 18 October 1826, Louise secretly married in St. Wendel her former lover, the Baron Alexander von Hanstein (later created Count of Pölzig and Beiersdorf). In her previous marriage, she had taken great interest in the social life of the principality and was revered as its "Landesmutter" (literally, "mother of the region"). Nevertheless, this happy life ended in February 1831, when her secret marriage to von Hanstein was discovered and she lost her children permanently.  Louise died of cancer on 30 August 1831, when she was only 30 years old. Years after her death, Queen Victoria described Louise in an 1864 memorandum: "The princess is described as having been very handsome, though very small; fair, with blue eyes; and Prince Albert is said to have been extremely like her". Louise was reinterred from her initial burial site at Morizkirche to the ducal mausoleum at "" after it had been completed in 1859.

Princess Louise of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg (Louise Dorothea Pauline Charlotte Fredericka Auguste; 21 December 1800 – 30 August 1831) was the wife of Ernst I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and the mother of Duke Ernst II and Prince Albert, husband of Queen Victoria. She was the paternal grandmother of King Edward VII of the United Kingdom. She is also the paternal great-great-great grandmother of Elizabeth II.

Luise, Prinzessin von Sachsen-Gotha-Altenburg (vollständiger Name: "Prinzessin Luise Pauline Charlotte Friederike Auguste von Sachsen-Gotha-Altenburg", * 21. Dezember 1800 in Gotha; † 30. August 1831 in Paris) war durch Heirat eine Herzogin von Sachsen-Coburg-Saalfeld. Als Mutter von Prinz Albert von Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha ist sie direkte Vorfahrin der britischen Königsfamilie.


Taxonomy.

"Mico" differs from "Callithrix" in dental morphology, genetics and geographic distribution: "Callithrix" species are distributed in eastern Brazil (mainly the Atlantic Forest), while "Mico" species are distributed in the Amazon south of Rio Madeira, though a single species, the black-tailed marmoset, also occurs in the Pantanal and Chaco. Roosmalens' dwarf marmoset ("Callibella humilis") was formerly considered a "Mico" species, but now has its own genus, "Callibella", due mainly to differences in size and genetics. Roosmalens' dwarf marmoset is significantly smaller than the "Mico" species, being about midway between the typical "Mico" species and the pygmy marmoset, "Cebuella pygmaea". "Mico" species differ from the tamarins of the genus "Saguinus" in that "Mico" has enlarged incisor teeth the same size as the canine teeth which are used for gouging holes in trees to extract exudates.  Species level taxonomy within "Mico" has also changed significantly in recent decades. Earlier authorities usually treated all as subspecies of "M. argentatus" (including the bare-eared taxa) or "M. humeralifera" (including the hairy-eared taxa), or even suggested all were subspecies of "M. argentatus". Recent authorities have pointed out that several of the taxa are highly distinctive, and following the phylogenetic species concept all previous subspecies were proposed raised to species status in 2001. This has generally been followed since then. Furthermore, 7 of the 14 currently recognized species were only described to science after 1990.

Ecology.

In general, "Mico" and "Callithrix" species tend to form larger groups and live within smaller home ranges, and thus live in higher population densities, than other callitrichids. But these statistics can vary dramatically among various "Mico" species. "M. argentatus" tends to live in smaller home ranges (as small as 10 hectares or less) than other "Mico" species.  Exudates, such as gum and sap, fruit, nectar and fungus make up the bulk of "Mico's" diet, but it also eats animal prey such as arthropods, young birds, small lizards and frogs. They are specialized for exploiting exudates by their elongated, chisel-like lower incisors and a wide jaw gape that allows them to gouge bark of trees that produce gums. Their intestines also have an enlarged, complex cecum that allows them to digest gums more efficiently than most other animals. "Mico's" ability to feed on exudates allows it to survive in areas where fruit is highly seasonal or not readily available.  "Mico" females generally gives birth to two or more infants at a time. They can ovulate and conceive within two to four weeks after giving birth, and ovulation is not inhibited by lactation. Females generally reach sexual maturity between 12 and 17 months, and males between 15 and 25 months.  Emilia's marmoset, "Mico emiliae", sometimes interacts with the brown-mantled tamarin, "Saguinus fuscicollis".

Mico is a genus of New World monkeys of the family Callitrichidae, the family containing marmosets and tamarins. The genus was formerly considered a subgenus of the genus "Callithrix".

Die Seidenäffchen oder Seidenaffen ("Mico") sind eine Gattung der Krallenaffen (Callitrichidae). Es sind kleine, im Amazonasbecken lebende Primaten. Es werden rund 14 Arten unterschieden.


First generation (1964-1967).

1964.

The 4-4-2 was born out of competition between Pontiac and Oldsmobile divisions of GM. The high performance GTO version of the Pontiac LeMans intermediate had proved an unexpected success midway through the 1964 model year. Oldsmobile's hasty response was to beef up their own popular Cutlass, a task given to a team led by performance enthusiast and Olds engineer John Beltz (later responsible for the distinctive and powerful Toronado), aided by Dale Smith and division Chief Engineer Bob Dorshimer.<ref name="Car Craft, 1/91"></ref>  Introduced in September, 1963 as an option package on the 1964 Tempest LeMans, the GTO package included a 389 cubic inch V-8, technically a violation of GM policy limiting intermediates to 330 CID, although the 1963 Pontiac Tempest/LeMans had already done this in 1963, and even though badged as a 326 the 63 Tempest V-8 was already at 336 CID, 1964 it became a true 326. – the Olds offering was a conservative package. Technically the "B09 Police Apprehender Pursuit" option, it used the four-barrel carbureted 330 CID (5.4 L) V8 with heavy-duty valve gear, and a hotter camshaft, raising rated (SAE gross) output

1965.

With the GTO receiving GM corporate sanction to receive their full-sized car's 389 V-8, Oldsmobile followed suit and replaced the 4-4-2's standard 330 CID with the new 400 CID (6.6 L). The definition of "4-4-2" was then restated as referring to 400 cubic inches, a 4 barrel carburetor (a 515 cfm Rochester 4-Jet), 2 exhausts. Output for the big engine rose to and. The standard transmission became a three-speed manual with column shifter, with a floor shifter four-speed and Oldsmobile's two-speed Jetaway automatic transmission optional. A heavy duty three-speed with Hurst floor shifter was introduced as a mid year option.  Other touches added to the '65 were chrome body side scoops adorned

1966.

The 1966 4-4-2 shared a modest facelift with other Cutlasses. It came with a 400 ci L78 V8 rated at /440 lb•ft with a single four-barrel carburetor. Two new optional 400 ci engines offered even higher performance: the L69, with three two-barrel Rochester 2GC carburetors on a progressive linkage and of torque, which was priced at US$264.54, and the rare W30.  The W30 engine added an outside-air induction system (admitting cool air to the carburetors via tubing from the front grill) and a hotter cam, rated – or, more likely, underrated – the same as the L69. The battery was relocated to the trunk to make room for the air hoses, which prevented the package from being ordered on convertible models. Only 54 W30s were built by the factory, although an additional 97 were produced for dealer installation.  The standard transmission was a three-speed

1967.

For 1967 the 4-4-2's styling and base engine remained the same, save for: minor trim changes and a 1967 4-4-2 only distinctive louvered hood as well as an increase in intake valve size to 2.067 from 1.99. but the automatic three-speed Turbo-Hydramatic with Switch Pitch became available, replacing the two-speed Switch Pitch Jetaway, as was the case with the mid-sized muscle cars from other GM divisions (Pontiac GTO, Chevrolet Chevelle SS396, and Buick GS400). The heavy-duty floor-mounted three-speed manual transmission was now standard with the Muncie M-20 and M-21 four-speeds optional, all with Hurst shifters. Front disc brakes were a new option this year.  A GM policy decision banning multiple carburetors for all vehicles except Ed Cole's beloved Corvette and the Corvair saw the demise of the L69 with its triple carburetors, a rare option for Olds and an icon for Pontiacs since 1957. The W30 remained available, although the

Second generation (1968-1972).

1968.

The 4-4-2 became a separate model from 1968 through 1971. The wheelbase was, and over 33,000 were sold for 1968. Despite the engine displacement staying at 400 CID, the engine was based on the new 455 cranktrain (4.25 stroke) and the bore decreased (to 3.87). Torque now came at 3000–3200 rpm as opposed to the early 400's 3600 rpm peak, mostly due to a milder base cam grind. "Car Life" tested a 1968 4-4-2 with a 3.42:1 rear axle ratio and Hydramatic and attained 0–60 times of 7.0 seconds, and a quarter-mile time of 15.13 seconds at. Top speed was reported as. The base motor was still rated at, but only with

Hurst/Olds.

In 1968 Oldsmobile partnered with Hurst Performance Research Corporation to create the Hurst/Olds rather than just adding Hurst shifters as with earlier models. The limited regular production run of 515 Hurst/Olds (459 Holiday Coupes/56 Sport Coupes) started out as regular 4-4-2s, but were treated to numerous distinct enhancements, both cosmetic and mechanical. All cars were painted Peruvian Silver (a Toronado color) with liberal black striping and white pinstripes, exterior and interior H/O badging (unique to '68), and a real walnut wood dash insert. Mechanically, the cars left the factory with two drive train combinations. Red 455

1969.

1969 4-4-2s were very similar to the 1968 except the division tooth between the grilles, the trunk lid inlets for the tail lights, wing windows deleted on Holiday Coupes and convertibles, steering lock ignition switch on the steering column, standard headrests were added to the front seats, and the paint scheme. Twin hood stripes were now available to highlight the new dual-bulged hood. The 4-4-2 numerals grew to nearly double their previous size. Optional disc brakes now had updated single-piston calipers. The exhaust manifolds featured a new center divider for better performance. Other changes

1970.

1970 was the pinnacle of performance from Oldsmobile. In order to keep up in the horsepower arms-race, General Motors dropped the cap on engine size in 1970, and Oldsmobile responded by making the Olds 455 V8 the standard 4-4-2 engine. Output was and, with a variant available with the "W30" option.  The revised body style and increased performance resulted in the 4-4-2 being awarded pace car duties at the Indianapolis 500 race in 1970. Those seeking to experience the ultimate in performance from Lansing could order a "W-Machine" version of the 4-4-2, dubbed the W-30 package. The 4-4-2 W-30 added a fiberglass hood (option W25) with functional air scoops and low-restriction

1971.

Despite storm clouds on the muscle car horizon, the 4-4-2 returned in 1971 with only minor modifications from the previous year. Engine output was down for 1971 due to a lower compression ratio (8.5:1), which affected all of GM's engines as the result of a corporate policy requiring engines to run on lower-octane regular leaded, low lead, or unleaded gasoline, in preparation for the introduction of the catalytic converter on 1975-model

1972.

By 1972, the muscle car era was unmistakably in decline due to the twin blows of rising insurance rates and soaring gas prices. The 4-4-2 name reverted to an appearance and handling option package (option code W-29) in 1972 on the Cutlass Holiday coupe, Cutlass "S" sport coupe and Holiday coupe, and Cutlass Supreme convertible. The W-29 option was not available on Cutlass Supreme notchback hardtops. The 4-4-2 option package, which carried a modest sticker price of $29, consisted of the "FE2" suspension upgrades (heavy duty springs & shocks, front and rear sway bars, boxed lower rear control arms, and 14- by 7-in [356- by 178-mm] wheels), side striping, fender and decklid badging, faux hood louvers, and a unique grille. The rear bumper sported cutouts for exhaust tips, but only when paired with the optional "L75" 455 CID V8 in place of the standard Oldsmobile 350 V8.  Interior trims differed on each bodystyle for which the 4-4-2 option was offered, much like the early 1964–66 models. For the base Cutlass hardtop coupe, a baseline two-spoke steering wheel, and vinyl or cloth/vinyl bench seat was standard along with

Third generation (1973-1977).

1973.

Originally expected to debut for the 1972 model year, the introduction of the new "Colonnade" body style was delayed until 1973 due to an auto workers strike in 1972. The body was redesigned to feature massive long doors and energy absorbing bumpers. The rear windows were fixed and the roof was reinforced in anticipation of roll-over standards being imposed by the government. These cars were a few hundred pounds heavier and slightly larger than the 1972's.  Consistent with 1972, the 4-4-2 option remained a handling and appearance package, code W-29, and was available on the Cutlass and Cutlass "S". It consisted of a faux louvered hood, FE2 suspension, specific grilles, emblems and stripes. Items such as dual exhaust and super stock wheels had to be ordered "à la-carte". This was all part of the industry-wide weaning of U.S. consumers from large, powerful cars.  The W-30

1974.

The 1974 4-4-2 received the same facelift as other Cutlasses that year including a revised grille and new flush taillights over a newly mandated rear bumper to match the similarly mandated front bumper introduced in '73. It remained a handling and appearance package available on both base Cutlass and Cutlass S Colonnade coupes. Engine offerings included the standard Rocket 350

1975.

The 1975 4-4-2 received revised vertical-bar grilles and continued with vertically stacked taillight lenses. It was once again a handling/appearance package on base Cutlass and Cutlass S coupes with content similar to previous years. Radial tires were now standard equipment, along with a GM High Energy electronic ignition. All engines were mated to catalytic converters, which required use of unleaded gasoline and spelled the end of true dual exhausts. With economy now a selling point following the 1973–74 energy crisis resulting from the Arab Oil Embargo, the '75 4-4-2 and most other Cutlass models no longer included a V8 engine as standard equipment. For the first time since its 1964 introduction, the 4-4-2 came standard with a six-cylinder engine, Chevrolet's

1976.

The 1976 4-4-2 shared a new aerodynamic sloped nose designed for NASCAR with split grilles and new quad rectangular headlights with Cutlass S models, along with revised lower sheetmetal with fewer creases than the 1973–75 models. The 4-4-2 option was offered on Cutlass

1977.

Final year for the 1973-vintage Colonnade body. The 4-4-2 was the only Olds intermediate to feature the NASCAR sloped nose from the '76 model as this year's Cutlass S switched to an upright nose similar to Cutlass Supreme models. Engine offerings were revised with Buick's 231 cubic-inch V6 replacing the Chevy 250 inline-six as base power, with optional powerplants again including the Oldsmobile

Fourth generation (1978-1980).

1978.

Another limited-edition 4-4-2 model was offered from 1978 through 1980 on the downsized A-body Cutlass introduced for the 1978 model year. Engines varied from a base 3.8L V6 to a 305 4bbl. There was no 350 available to any 4-4-2 offered in 1978 or 1979. A special-edition Hurst/Olds was also offered in 1979.  The 1978–9 version of the 4-4-2 was an option package on the semi-fastback "Aeroback" Oldsmobile Cutlass

1979.

The 1979 4-4-2 is based on the Cutlass Salon body style. The Hurst

1980.

The 4-4-2 model moved to the notchback Oldsmobile Cutlass Calais to return to its roots as a performance car as it had a larger 350 V8 engine not available on other Cutlass models. It included W-30 badging on the front fenders above the side marker lights, with less dramatic graphics. Otherwise, the cars shared identical powertrain,(minus the Hurst Shifter), with the '79 H/O. Also available only in gold over white or gold over black paint, a total of 886 were built, 540 in Black, and 346 in White. The MSRP of a Cutlass Calais in 1980 was $6,919.57. Option W-30 4-4-2 Appearance and Handling Package cost $1,255.12. This package consisted of: Gold Accent Paint Scheme (Y71), Painted Grille Face, Applique Pillar Molding, Aluminum Sport Wheels, "W-30"

Fifth generation (1985-1987).

1985–1987.

The 4-4-2 name was revived in 1985 on the rear-wheel drive G-body Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme due to the demise of Oldsmobile and Hurst's official collaboration on the Hurst/Olds but Oldsmobile wanted to continue to offer a performance-oriented Cutlass model to the public. The name was now defined as referring to the car's 4-speed 200r4 automatic transmission, 4-barrel carburetor, and 2 exhausts. This "W42" model replaced the 1983 and 1984 Hurst/Olds model and used the same 5.0 L LG8 V8. The shifter was

Sixth generation (1990-1991).

1990–1991.

The 4-4-2 option was revived on the Quad 4-4-2 front-wheel drive 1990–1991 Cutlass Calais. This model used a 2.3 L "LG0" Quad-4 4-cylinder engine with 4 valves per cylinder and 2 camshafts. The engine was tuned with higher output camshafts which produced more top end power at the expense of idle quality. It used a single exhaust with a dual tipped muffler and produced with a 5-speed manual transmission. This engine was a technological stretch and proved unreliable.  This version of the 4-4-2 also played upon the "W-30" option

The Oldsmobile 4-4-2 (also known as the 442) is a muscle car produced by Oldsmobile between the 1964 and 1987 model years. Introduced as an option package for US-sold F-85 and Cutlass models, it became a model in its own right from 1968 to 1971, spawned the Hurst/Olds in 1968, then reverted to an option through the mid-1970s. The name was revived in the 1980s on the rear-wheel drive Cutlass Supreme and early 1990s as an option package for the new front-wheel drive Cutlass Calais.

Der Oldsmobile 442 war ein von der amerikanischen Automobilmarke Oldsmobile (General Motors) von 1964 bis 1991 (mit Unterbrechungen) produziertes Muscle-Car. Seine Zusatzbezeichnung 442 bezieht sich ursprünglich auf seinen 4-fach-Vergaser, sein 4-Gang-Getriebe und seine 2-Rohr-Auspuffanlage.


Early years.

Tillman was born in Chicago, Illinois, but spent a majority of his youth traveling around the world. His father, Donald Tillman Jr., a sergeant in the United States Army, was frequently stationed in different locations, ranging from United States to Germany. Tillman attended eleven different schools during his youth, but eventually graduated from Copperas Cove High School in Texas. During his time at the school, Tillman was a two-time All-District 8-5A and all-area team selection. The Austin American-Statesman and All-State Class 5A honorable mention named him to the Super Cen-Tex team.

College career.

Tillman attended the University of Louisiana at Lafayette, where he played for the Louisiana Ragin' Cajuns football team from 1999 to 2002. He started for all four years as a left cornerback after being a wide receiver in high school. His Ragin' Cajuns teammates included future Pittsburgh Steelers cornerback Ike Taylor.  Tillman graduated from UL with a bachelor's degree in criminal justice.

Professional career.

Chicago Bears.

The Chicago Bears selected Tillman in the second round (35th overall) in the 2003 NFL Draft. He was the sixth cornerback drafted in 2003.

2003.

On August 1, 2003, the Chicago Bears signed Tillman to a five-year, $4.32 million contract that includes a signing bonus of $2.05 million. Throughout training camp, Tillman competed to be a starting cornerback against Jerry Azumah. Head coach Dick Jauron named Tillman the third cornerback on the depth chart to begin the regular season, behind R. W. McQuarters and Jerry Azumah.  He made his professional regular season debut in the Chicago Bears' season-opener at the San Francisco 49ers and made three solo tackles and forced the first fumble of his career during a 49–7 loss. Tillman forced a fumble by Jimmy Williams during a punt return by Williams in the fourth quarter that was eventually recovered by Chicago Bears' long snapper Patrick Mannelly. On October 5, 2003, Tillman earned his first career start after he supplanted Jerry Azumah for the role. He made six solo tackles and deflected a pass as the Bears defeated the Oakland Raiders 24–21 to earn their first victory of the season. In Week 8, Tillman made eight solo tackles, deflected a pass, and made his first career interception during a 24-16 victory against the Detroit Lions. Tillman intercepted a pass by Lions' quarterback, that was originally intended for wide receiver Az-Zahir Hakim, and returned it for a 32-yard gain during the second quarter. On November 13, 2003, Tillman collected a season-high 11 combined tackles (nine solo), deflected two passes, and intercepted a pass by Marc Bulger in the Bears' 23–21 loss against the St. Louis Rams in Week 11. The following week, he made six solo tackles and made his first career sack as the Bears defeated the Denver Broncos 19-10 in Week 12. Tillman completed his rookie campaign with a total of 83 combined tackles (76 solo), eight pass deflections, four interceptions, and one sack in 16 games and 13 starts. On December 29, 2003, the Chicago Bears organization announced their decision to fire head coach Dick Jauron after they finished the 2003 NFL season with a 5–11 record.

2004.

Head coach Lovie Smith named Tillman and R. W. McQuarters the starting cornerbacks to begin the 2004 NFL season. On September 19, 2004, Tillman collected a season-high 11 combined tackles (nine solo) during a 21–10 victory at the Green Bay Packers in Week 2. Tillman sustained a knee injury and was sidelined for the next eight games (Weeks 3–11). He finished the 2004 NFL season with 39 combined tackles (32 solo), five pass deflections, and one forced fumble in eight games and seven starts.

2005.

In 2005, Tillman and Nathan Vasher were named the starting cornerback duo to begin the regular season. On October 30, 2005, Tillman recorded seven combined tackles (six solo), deflected two passes, and returned an interception for his first career touchdown during a 19–13 overtime victory at the Detroit Lions in Week 8. Tillman intercepted a pass by Lions' quarterback Jeff Garcia, that was intended for wide receiver Mike Williams, and returned it for a 22-yard touchdown to help the Bears defeat the Lions in overtime. On December 11, 2005, Tillman recorded eight combined tackles (five solo), deflected a pass, and made a season-high two forced fumbles during a 21–9 loss at the Pittsburgh Steelers in Week 14. Tillman forced a fumble by Verron Haynes and Cedrick Wilson during the game. Tillman was inactive as a healthy scratch for the Bears' Week 17 loss at the Minnesota Vikings. He finished the season with 93 combined tackles (82 solo), 11 pass deflections, five interceptions, four forced fumbles, one sack, and one touchdown in 15 games and 15 starts.  The Chicago Bears finished atop the NFC North with an 11–5 record in 2005, earning a first round bye. On January 15, 2006, Tillman started his first career playoff game and recorded six solo tackles and a pass deflection as the Bears lost 29–21 against the Carolina Panthers in the NFC Divisional Round. His efforts helped the Bears establish the league's best defense in 2005.

2006-2014.

In 2006, Tillman was the Bears' leading tackler among defensive backs, recording eighty tackles. He also intercepted five passes (tying for a team high with Ricky Manning Jr.) and forced one fumble. One of the low notes for his season came when he missed the team's final games due to a back injury. Tillman was involved in a notable incident with Plaxico Burress before a prime-time game against the New York Giants. Days before the game, Giants' receiver Plaxico Burress claimed that the Bears' secondary was "average" and "very beatable". Tillman responded by holding Burress to only eleven yards and even intercepting a pass during the game. Many Bears' fans believe that Tillman should have been voted to the 2007 Pro Bowl, as he recorded more interceptions and tackles than DeAngelo Hall and Ronde Barber. Tillman helped the Bears reach Super Bowl XLI, but lost 29–17 to the Indianapolis Colts. Tillman had 11 tackles in the losing effort.  The Bears signed Tillman to a six-year deal on July 24, 2007. On December 8, 2007, Tillman was nominated as finalist for the prestigious Walter Payton NFL Man of the Year Award, which recognizes players who have performed extensive charity work.  On November 22, 2009, during a "Sunday Night Football" game against the Philadelphia Eagles, Tillman forced three fumbles in one game, two of which were recovered by the Bears. During the 2009 season, Tillman recorded two interceptions, including one that was returned for a defensive touchdown. He recorded six forced fumbles, the second-most in the League. During a Monday Night Football game against the Minnesota Vikings on December 28, 2009, Tillman collided with Bears safety Craig Steltz while attempting to tackle Visanthe Shiancoe. The impact of the collision cracked some of Tillman's ribs and bruised one of his lungs. He was immediately rushed to the hospital, and released two days later. After the 2011 NFL season, Tillman was voted to his first Pro Bowl.  In Week 5 of the 2012 season against the Jacksonville Jaguars, Tillman passed free safety Mike Brown by setting the Bears franchise record for the most defensive touchdowns in a career with 8 when he returned a Blaine Gabbert interception for a touchdown. Tillman is tied with Donnell Woolford for the most interceptions by a cornerback in team history, trailing only safeties Gary Fencik and Richie Petitbon. He also has forced 36 fumbles, which is the most by a defensive back in the league since 2003.  On November 4, 2012, Tillman forced four fumbles against the Tennessee Titans offense, the most in a game by a single player in league history since the stat began being tracked in 1991. Tillman was considered by various sources as a Defensive Player of the Year candidate, competing with Houston Texans defensive end J. J. Watt. Tillman was named to his second consecutive Pro Bowl on December 26, making him the first Bears defensive back to be named to back-to-back Pro Bowls since Mark Carrier. He was later named to his first All-Pro team, placed on the first team. Tillman finished the season with ten forced fumbles, which led the league, and his three interceptions returned for touchdowns is tied for the lead league with St. Louis Rams' Janoris Jenkins.  In the 2013 season opener against the Cincinnati Bengals, Tillman recorded two interceptions, the second time in his career he had two picks, after 2006 against the New England Patriots. Against the Detroit Lions in Week 10, Tillman tore his right triceps, and was placed on injured reserve with the designation to return, and could return by the playoffs. However, on December 16, Bears head coach Marc Trestman reported that Tillman will miss the entire season, playoffs included. Tillman concluded 2013 with 52.5 tackles, three interceptions and three forced fumbles. In February 2014, the NFL awarded Tillman the Walter Payton Man of the Year to acknowledge his charitable efforts and community outreach programs.  The Bears signed Tillman to a one-year contract extension in the 2014 offseason. Tillman suffered his second consecutive season-ending injury during a week 2 match-up against the San Francisco 49ers, when he re-injured his right triceps. Tillman leads the Bears in career defensive touchdown returns (9) and also owns the record for the most career interceptions (36) among all Bears' cornerbacks.

Carolina Panthers.

On April 9, 2015, Tillman signed a one-year contract with the Carolina Panthers. Tillman recorded his first interception for the Panthers against Andrew Luck during the Panthers 29–26 victory over the Indianapolis Colts. He recorded his first forced fumble for the Panthers during their 37–29 victory over the Green Bay Packers. Tillman left Carolina's regular season finale against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers with a knee injury. MRIs confirmed on January 3 that Tillman suffered a torn ACL and missed the remainder of the season. On February 7, 2016, Tillman's Panthers played in Super Bowl 50. In the game, the Panthers fell to the Denver Broncos by a score of 24–10.

Retirement.

On July 18, 2016 after 13 seasons in the NFL, Tillman announced his retirement from football via a three-minute YouTube video. He signed a ceremonial one-day contract to retire with the Chicago Bears on July 22.

Post-football career.

Tillman has expressed interest in working in law enforcement. In September 2017, the "Chicago Tribune" reported that he was training with federal agents at the FBI Training Academy in Quantico, Virginia. Tillman previously trained with law enforcement officers while playing in the NFL during the offseason. He gained the qualification a day before his 37th birthday.

Personal life.

Tillman often makes appearances on Fox Chicago Sports shows. He also organizes, runs, and advocates numerous charitable functions. Tillman's Aunt Renee nicknamed him "Peanut", since his body resembled the shape of a peanut during infancy. Safety Mike Brown spread the nickname after meeting Tillman during his rookie year. He and his wife, Jackie, have three daughters and a son. In November 2012, Tillman stated that he might miss the Bears game against the Houston Texans in case his wife went into labor, but ended up playing the entire game. On November 13, Tillman and his wife had their third daughter.  Tillman's Cornerstone Foundation mission is to help improve the lives of critically and chronically ill children throughout Chicago. Tillman created the foundation after his second-youngest daughter was diagnosed with dilated cardiomyopathy, which resulted in a heart transplant.  Tillman has worked with United Services Automobile Association (USAA) as part of the insurance company's "Thank You" campaign, highlighting cooperation between the NFL and the military services.  In September 2019, Tillman rowed across Lake Michigan to raise awareness and nearly $200,000 for childhood cancer.

Charles Anthony Tillman (born February 23, 1981), nicknamed Peanut, is a former American football cornerback, who is currently a United States Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) agent. He played college football at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette, and was drafted by the Chicago Bears in the second round of the 2003 NFL Draft.

Charles Anthony „Peanut“ Tillman (* 23. Februar 1981 in Chicago, Illinois) ist ein ehemaliger American-Football-Spieler auf der Position des Cornerbacks. Er spielte für die Carolina Panthers und die Chicago Bears in der National Football League (NFL).


History and typology.

The concept of launching remains into space using conventional rockets was proposed by the science fiction author Neil R. Jones in the novella "The Jameson Satellite", which was published in the pulp magazine "Amazing Stories" in 1931. It was later proposed as a commercial service in the 1965 movie, "The Loved One", and by Richard DeGroot in a "Seattle Times" newspaper article on April 3, 1977. Since 1997, the private company Celestis has conducted numerous space burials flying as secondary payloads.

Maiden flights.

The first space burial occurred in 1992 when the NASA (mission STS-52) carried a sample of Gene Roddenberry's cremated remains into space and returned them to Earth.  The first private space burial, Celestis' "Earthview 01: The Founders Flight", was launched on April 21, 1997. An aircraft departing from the Canary Islands carried a Pegasus rocket containing samples of the remains of 24 people to an altitude of above the Atlantic Ocean. The rocket then carried the remains into an elliptical orbit with an apogee of and a perigee of, orbiting the Earth once every 96 minutes until re-entry on May 20, 2002, northeast of Australia. Famous people on this flight included Gene Roddenberry and Timothy Leary.

Suborbital flights.

Short flights that cross the boundary of space without attempting to reach orbital velocity are a cost-effective method of space burial. The remains do not burn up and are either recovered or lost.

Moon burial.

The first moon burial was that of Dr. Eugene Shoemaker, a portion of whose cremated remains were flown to the Moon by NASA. Shoemaker's former colleague Carolyn Porco, a University of Arizona professor, proposed and produced the tribute of having Shoemaker's ashes launched aboard the NASA's Lunar Prospector spacecraft. Ten days after Shoemaker's passing, Porco had the go-ahead from NASA administrators and delivered the ashes to the Lunar Prospector Mission Director Scott Hubbard at the NASA Ames Research Center. The ashes were accompanied by a piece of brass foil inscribed with an image of Comet Hale-Bopp, an image of a Meteor Crater in northern Arizona, and a passage from William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet. The Lunar Prospector spacecraft was launched on January 6, 1998, and impacted the south polar region of the moon on July 31, 1999.  Missions are proposed by both Elysium Space and Celestis as part of a mission by Astrobotic Technology of Pittsburgh.

Pet burial.

In 2014, Celestis launched Celestis Pets, a pet memorial spaceflight service for animal cremated remains. Prior to then, a Monroe, Washington police dog may have flown on a 2012 memorial spaceflight. When this news broke, Celestis' President said that if dog ashes were on the rocket, the person who supplied the cremated remains likely violated the contract they signed with Celestis.

Dedicated spacecraft.

On May 17, 2017, Elysium Space announced the world's first memorial flight involving a dedicated spacecraft. The cubesat will be placed as a secondary payload on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket as part of a dedicated rideshare mission called SSO-A planned by Spaceflight. The launch will take place from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California.

Samples of cremated remains are not scattered in space so as not to contribute to space debris. Ashes remain sealed in their small capsules until the spacecraft burns up upon re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere or reach their extraterrestrial destinations. Suborbital flights briefly fly ashes into space then return to Earth where they can be recovered. Small samples of remains are launched to minimize the cost of launching mass into space, thereby making such services more affordable.

Als Weltraumbestattung wird das Verbringen von Teilen der Asche eines kremierten Verstorbenen in den Weltraum bezeichnet. Die eigentliche Bestattung findet dabei oft nicht im Weltraum statt, da die Urnen bei preiswerteren Angeboten mitsamt Inhalt wieder zurück zur Erde fallen beziehungsweise in der Atmosphäre verglühen. Manche Anbieter sprechen heute nicht mehr von einer Bestattung, sondern von einem "memorial" (Gedenken).


As nationalism.

In 1945, political theorist Hannah Arendt described the concept thus:

Male chauvinism.

Male chauvinism is the belief that men are superior to women. The first documented use of the phrase "male chauvinism" is in the 1935 Clifford Odets play "Till the Day I Die".

In the workplace.

The balance of the workforce changed during World War II. As men left their positions to enlist in the military and fight in the war, women started replacing them. After the war ended, men returned home to find jobs in the workplace now occupied by women, which "threatened the self-esteem many men derive from their dominance over women in the family, the economy, and society at large." Consequently, male chauvinism was on the rise, according to Cynthia B. Lloyd.  Lloyd and Michael Korda have argued that as they integrated back into the workforce, men returned to predominate, holding positions of power while women worked as their secretaries, usually typing dictations and answering telephone calls. This division of labor was understood and expected, and women typically felt unable to challenge their position or male superiors, argue Korda and Lloyd.

Causes.

Chauvinism is seen by some as an influential factor in the TAT, a psychological personality test. Through cross-examinations, the TAT exhibits a tendency toward chauvinistic stimuli for its questions and has the "potential for unfavorable clinical evaluation" for women.  An often cited study done in 1976 by Sherwyn Woods, Some Dynamics of Male Chauvinism, attempts to find the underlying causes of male chauvinism. Adam Jukes argues that a reason for male chauvinism is masculinity itself:For the vast majority of people all over the world, the mother is a primary carer...There’s an asymmetry in the development of boys and girls. Infant boys have to learn how to be masculine. Girls don’t. Masculinity is not in a state of crisis. Masculinity is a crisis. I don’t believe misogyny is innate, but I believe it’s inescapable because of the development of masculinity.

Female chauvinism.

Female chauvinism is the belief that women are morally superior to men, and is considered anti-feminist.  The term has been adopted by critics of some types or aspects of feminism; second-wave feminist Betty Friedan is a notable example. Ariel Levy used the term in similar, but opposite sense in her book, "Female Chauvinist Pigs", in which she argues that many young women in the United States and beyond are replicating male chauvinism and older misogynist stereotypes.

Chauvinism is a form of extreme patriotism and nationalism and a belief in national superiority and glory. It can also be defined as "an irrational belief in the superiority or dominance of one's own group or people". Moreover, the chauvinist's own people are seen as unique and special while the rest of the people are considered weak or inferior.

Chauvinismus [] ist der Glaube an die Überlegenheit der eigenen Gruppe. Chauvinismus im ursprünglichen Sinn ist ein häufig aggressiver Nationalismus, bei dem sich Angehörige einer Nation aufgrund ihrer Zugehörigkeit zu dieser gegenüber Menschen anderer Nationen überlegen fühlen und sie abwerten.