Uses.

People use net for many different occupations. Netting is one of the key components to fishing in mass quantities. This textile is used because of its sturdy yet flexible origin, which can carry weight yet, still be lightweight and compactable. Fisherman use netting when trawling, because it is sturdy enough to carry large amounts of weight as fish are trapped, pulled, then lifted out of water. Oftentimes, the filaments that make up the yarn are coated with wax or plastic. This coating adds a waterproof component to the textile that provides even more reliability.  Net is also used in medical practices to provide fabric insulation and wrapping under an industry standard sling. In the medical practice, netting provides cushion and protection, when used in layers, but still allows the skin to breathe under the fabric. Depending on what the netting is being used for, a different wax or plastic coating can be applied in order to cover the filaments that use up the yarn. Filaments can be made from synthetic or natural fibres, but that is all up to the manufacturer when deciphering what the textiles future entails. When netting is going to be exposed to water or heat often, manufacturers consider that and apply what best fits that textile.  Net is commonly used in camping tents. Air can easily pass through the holes, which allows breathability that doesn’t trap bacteria, and remain impermeable to pests and insects. Netting is often used for luggage bags to create transparent, breathable compartments that allow people to store items. Netting has many similar components to mesh, as they both allow air to pass through easily, and share a lot of the same uses. Bigger woven knits have varying different uses, and smaller, tighter woven knits are varied as well.

Types.

Hand-made netting.

Hand-made or machine-made net is used as the foundation fabric for many kinds of needlework, including Filet lace and tambour lace. Netting can be used for many things. This includes adding fullness to a dress. Most commonly wedding and prom dresses. It is also used for many costumes, including fairy outfits. Netting can also be used to make tutus for dancing costumes. Netting can also be referred to when considering the handmade craft. Using either the Lace-maker or the Net-maker method to tie the netting knot, you can create several types of netting. Diamond mesh netting goes back and forth, in rows. This technique is used for bags, hammocks, headbands and scarves. Another type is square mesh netting which also goes back and forth in rows but is worked in the diagonal. This type of net is used for trawling. The first row starts at one corner and the last row finishes the corner diagonal to the first corner. This is often used as a foundation for lacis or net embroidery. Spiral netting is a type of netting that goes around and around in a similar manner to knitting or crochet. There’s no beginning or ending to specific rounds since the pattern is continuous and just keeps going.

Knotless netting.

Different weaving patterns can be used for different kinds of netting. Depending on the use of the textile, size of the holes in the net will vary. Weaving patterns, opposed to knitting patterns, are more often used for knotless netting. Jason Mills states that, as there are no knots used to produce this kind of netting, it is usually less sturdy and movable. Each strand, when used for a knotless netting weave, can sometimes be coated before being woven to ensure more durability. If a weave is coated after being woven it can show to be more durable when exposed to heat or pressure- depending on the type of coat

Net or netting is any textile in which the yarns are fused, looped or knotted at their intersections, resulting in a fabric with open spaces between the yarns. Net has many uses, and comes in different varieties. Depending on the type of yarn or filament that is used to make up the textile, its characteristics can vary from durable to not durable.

Ein Netz ist ein großmaschiges textiles Flächengebilde mit regelmäßigen Maschen oder Öffnungen. Die Maschen bzw. Öffnungen können beispielsweise rhombisch, quadratisch oder sechseckig ausgebildet sein.


History.

Origins.

Established in May 1972 with 35 employees, it grew to 400 employees by 1988, and is currently an integral part of BMW's market presence. The first racing project was BMW's 3.0 CSL.  After the success of BMW M products like "BMW 3.0 CSL" in racing venues and the growing market for high performance sports cars, M introduced cars for sale to the public. The first official M-badged car for sale to the public was the M1, revealed at the Paris Motor Show in 1978. The M1, however, was more of a racecar in domestic trim than an everyday driver. The direction of the M cars changed with the 1979 release of the M535i, which was a high performance version of BMW's popular 5 Series mid-size sedan.  In 1993, BMW Motorsport GmbH changed their name to BMW M GmbH.  BMW Motorsport GmbH supplied the 6.1-litre V12 DOHC 48 valve engine that powers the McLaren F1, which, like its engine supplier and manufacturer, has enjoyed plenty of racing success, famously winning the 24 Hours of Le Mans in 1995, the first year of competition for the GTR racing variant.

Recent history.

At present, BMW M has offered modified versions of nearly every BMW nameplate, except for the Z1, 7 Series flagship luxury sedan and the X1 compact crossover SUVs. There is no BMW M version of the 7 Series, as BMW did not want its flagship saloon to be powered by a high-revving engine, and as the recent top-performing versions (usually the BMW 760Li) have V12 engines which while powerful are considered too heavy for a sporty offshoot. So far the unofficial "BMW M7" is the Alpina B7, which is produced on BMW's assembly line though its engine and finishing touches are done by auto tuner Alpina. However, as BMW M shifted to turbocharged engines, there are rumors that there is an in-house BMW M7 in the works, and it is speculated that its performance may exceed that of the BMW 760Li and Alpina B7.  The BMW X5 and X6 sport activity vehicles received M derivatives for the 2010 model year onwards. These are the first M vehicles with xDrive four-wheel drive and automatic transmissions, and also the first M-badged SUV models. However, the E70 and E71 X5 and X6 M were actually developed by BMW Group rather than by BMW M.  Although these are considered the most well known in-house tuning divisions, BMW M has a considerably different philosophy than Mercedes-AMG. BMW M has emphasized tuning only vehicles with "Lateral agility" (which has long been the 3 Series, 5 Series, and roadsters), while AMG has created high-performance versions of many of its nameplates, including flagship sedans and SUVs. Accordingly, "an M car has to be responsive and fundamentally keen on turning as well as accelerating. The M5's technical spec is all about connecting the driver to a car that reacts blindingly fast, whatever request the driver hands down." Until the 2010 model year, BMW M has also never used supercharging or turbocharging, unlike Mercedes-AMG or Audi; for instance the E39 and E60 iterations of the BMW M5 (using naturally-aspirated engines) competed against the Mercedes-Benz E55 AMG (with a supercharged V8) and the Audi RS6 (twin-turbo).  BMW M vehicles typically used manuals and semi-automatic transmissions (the most recent type being a dual clutch transmission), in contrast to Mercedes-AMG which largely has automatic transmissions (the 7-speed AMG SpeedShift MCT, which is multi-clutch, but not a dual clutch transmission, was used on new models from 2009 onward). However, the North American market E36 M3s in sedan and convertible form were the first M-vehicles offered with a traditional torque-converter automatic transmission.  BMW M engines were traditionally large displacement naturally aspirated high revving engines, particularly the S85 V10 in the E60 M5 and E63 M6 and the related S65 V8 in the E90 M3. These are the most powerful engines BMW has ever built (not including the BMW S70/2) without supercharging or turbocharging, with an output of 100 hp per liter of displacement, and each has won numerous International Engine of the Year Awards. As late as the early 2000s, BMW regarded forced-induction (supercharging or turbocharging) as low-tech shortcuts to boosting horsepower, stating that this adds weight and complexity while reducing throttle response. BMW purists have noted that while forced induction and/or large displacement does produce more torque for better day-to-day driving, most of them like the "character" and sound of low displacement naturally aspirated engines with high redlines.  However, the late 2000s international regulations trends on reducing CO2 emissions and fuel consumption are cited as the reasons not to continue further development on naturally aspirated high redline engines. The N54 twin-turbo inline-6 which debuted in the 2007 BMW 335i (E90) gives almost equivalent performance to the E46 and E90 iterations of the BMW M3, while being much more practical and fuel-efficient as a daily driver. Starting with the X5 M and X6 M, and featured in the F10 M5, BMW used the twin-turbocharged S63 which not only produces more horsepower and torque, but is also more efficient than the S85 V10. Also unlike the S85 and S65 which do not share a design with non-M BMW engines, the S63 has significant parts commonality with the base N63 V8 engine (which is also has twin turbochargers) making them less expensive to build. BMW has not yet considered supercharging.  From 2013, the BMW M3 (E92/E93) is the only "traditional" M car left, as the rest of the list features turbocharged engines, and the next iteration of the M3 (F80) and M4 (F82/F83) features a twin-turbocharged straight-6 engine.

M-Cars vs. M-badged cars.

Apart from the pinnacle M versions of each model, BMW Motorsport also offers "M Sport" accessories upgrades to cars in its lineup. This single purchase option, which is superior to the standards Sports Package, includes a more sporty suspension, sports steering wheel and gearshift, fully-adjustable sport seats, sports wheels and a sports aerodynamic package. Cars with the "M Sport" option, while not being the pinnacle M model of each series are considerably sportier than the stock model.  Vehicles with the "M Sport" upgrade feature smaller "M" badges on the wheels, front fenders, steering wheel, gearshift and door sills, whilst fully fledged M cars have larger "M" badges on the grille and/or trunk, wheels, steering wheel, gearshift and door sills with the model number (e.g., "M4" or "M5"). Two exceptions are the M Roadster and M Coupe models, both Z3, Z4 and 1 Series variants, which only have an "M" badge with no number displayed on the boot. However, these cars are still proper M cars.  BMW has offered these 'M Sport' options on their standard vehicles since the late 1970s which explains why these vehicles carry 'M' badges straight from the factory. In comparison, vehicle maker Audi also employs this same type of nomenclature. There are fully fledged 'S' models (S4, S5, S6, S7 and TTS), as well as an optional 'S'-line package that can be equipped to their standard vehicle lineup.  An example of 'M'-badged vehicles in recent times include the E60 BMW 550i and E63 BMW 650i. The standard BMW 5 Series and 6 Series only had a choice of either a manual or automatic transmission, but the 'M' Sport package had an optional Sequential Sport Gearbox (SSG) (a gearbox similar to the M5 and M6 (SMG)) until after the 2007 model year.

M Performance models.

BMW has recently introduced a new category for 'M' cars, which is branded as 'M' Performance. They are the first M-branded diesel cars that has BMW produced.  To date this includes the M550d in touring and saloon variants, the X6 M50d and X5 M50d which all share a 284 kW 740NM triple turbo diesel engine, the former pair are only LHD drive markets currently due to the xDrive layout in the F10 series not being compatible with RHD markets (a RWD F10 M550d was mentioned by Auto Express but has not been confirmed). The M550d xDrive drives from 0–100 km/h in 4.7 seconds and has an electronically-limited top speed of 250 km/h. The first petrol M Performance car is the M135i which has a power output of 240 kW. M135i is available with rear- or all-wheel drive.  The M550d is available in both the saloon and touring chassis, with a ZF 8HP eight-speed sport automatic transmission including auto start/stop function. Manual and non-sport automatic gearboxes are not available. Unique features on the M550d are the twin trapezial exhausts in dark chrome and both wing mirrors and air-intake bars in ferric grey. Other 5 Series models have wing mirrors in the same colour as the rest of the vehicle. The front fog lamps, standard on all other F10/F11 5 Series models are removed, to make space for additional air-intakes. The door-sill plates are also unique on this vehicle, having a "M550d" inscription. In addition, the F11 Touring model features air suspension on the rear axle, with automatic self-levelling.  Nothing yet has been announced as regards the F30 3 Series M Performance line up but BMW have trademarked (amongst many other monikers) M335, M340 and M350. Further to this M President Friedrich Nitschke has confirmed that the new triple turbo diesel engine will "easily fit" within the F30 engine bay but did not elaborate any further.

List of Cars.

M-badged cars.

All these cars are true BMW Motorsport models, not M-line sport models that bear BMW Motorsport features such as sport body kits, and interior specs.

M-engined cars.

In the late 1980s, due to prohibitive taxes for cars above 2.0-litres of engine displacement in Italy and Portugal, BMW decided to build the E30 320is as an alternative to the 2.3-litre M3. This car was equipped with a shorter stroke S14 engine and produced 192 PS. BMW produced a total of 3648 units between 9/1987 and 11/1990 of which a majority of 2542 units were made available in two door form (code name AK95). No catalytic converters were installed on this limited version. The steering rack, springs, shock absorbers, and brakes were similar to the normal E30 6-cylinder models (i.e. 325i) with sports suspension. The engine was mated to a Getrag 265 5-speed transmission in dog-leg configuration.

Competition.

Audi's RS models, Mercedes-Benz's AMG models, and Lexus F models are often reviewed in direct competition to a similarly-sized BMW M car, such as the Lexus IS-F vs. Audi RS4 vs. Mercedes C63 AMG vs. BMW M3.  In contrast to aftermarket tuners, Alpina BMW-based cars are currently mostly built by BMW on its production lines and are more comfort-oriented. Alpina is recognized as an car manufacturer and works very closely with BMW, sometimes participating in the development of BMW models and engines. Some Alpina models are even sold in North-America by BMW and either compete with the BMW M6 Gran Coupé, in the case of the Alpina B6 Gran Coupé, or replace them, in the case of the Alpina B7 as there is no M7 variant of the 7 Series to compete with the model.  BMW M also faces competition from several independent companies offering their own performance versions of BMW models; some performance packs can be retrofitted to existing cars while others are applied to new cars bought directly from BMW AG and converted prior to first registration. Such companies include Hamann Motorsport, Dinan Cars, G-Power, AC Schnitzer and Hartge.

BMW M GmbH, formerly known as BMW Motorsport GmbH, is a high-performance subsidiary of BMW AG that manufactures high-performance cars.

Die BMW M GmbH ist ein 1972 als "BMW Motorsport GmbH" gegründetes Tochterunternehmen des Automobil- und Motorradherstellers BMW. Es ist verantwortlich für die Entwicklung und Produktion der leistungsstarken BMW M-Automobile, die Individualisierung aller BMW-Modelle ("BMW Individual") sowie für die Veranstaltung der BMW-Fahrertrainings.


Early life and education.

Mary Frances Dorothea Dickenson was born in Dublin, Ireland, to a well-connected Irish family. Her mother was Mary Frances MacDonnell, the daughter of Hercules Henry Graves MacDonnell, a rector of Trinity College and cofounder of the Royal Irish Academy of Music. Her great-grandfather was Richard MacDonnell, a provost of Trinity College, and her great-uncles included Major-General Arthur Robert MacDonnell and Richard Graves MacDonnell, a governor of South Australia. Her father was Augustus Maximilian Newton Dickenson, a doctor of medicine.  Her father died in 1883, and her mother moved the family to Wiesbaden, Germany, where she received her first violin lessons at the age of six. Against the wishes of her family, she moved to London around 1897–98, where she briefly studied with composer Samuel Coleridge-Taylor at the Croydon Conservatory of Music and performed his "Gypsy Suite", Op. 20 (1898). She may also have studied composition with him, and he dedicated at least one of his subsequent works to her.  On returning to Dublin, she worked briefly as an assistant at the Royal Irish Academy of Music. She then returned to London, still against her family's wishes, to study at the Royal Academy of Music for three years, with the violinist and composer Émile Sauret as her primary teacher. She took her final exams in 1902 in violin and organ performance and in composition. To strengthen her left-hand technique, she then moved to Prague to study for two years with the Czech violinist Otakar Ševčík.

Career as performer and composer.

In 1905, Dickenson-Auner made her debut with the Czech Philharmonic. This launched her on a career lasting most of a decade as a touring concert player who performed all around Europe. She also had her first compositions published under the pseudonym Frank Donnell.  In 1909 she settled in Vienna, Austria, living at first with her mother and then with her husband, the diplomat Michael Auner, whom she married in 1913. They moved to Transylvania and had two children, Moira and Michael. In 1917, towards the end of World War I, when Auner was drafted into the army, the couple fled with their children to Bussum in the Netherlands. There her playing was well received by Dutch music critics. Throughout this period, she gave music lessons to help support the family; one of her pupils was the American author Helen Nearing.  In 1920, Dickenson-Auner and her family were able to move back to Vienna, and in 1922, she played the world premiere of Béla Bartók's Violin Sonata No. 1, Op. 21 with pianist Eduard Steuermann at the Konzerthaus there. Her performance was well-received, and that same summer, she presented the work with Bartók himself at the newly founded International Chamber Music Performances in Salzburg. She also joined Arnold Schoenberg's private music performance group and gave concerts under his direction.  In 1925, Dickenson-Auner developed an educational concept for a new kind of 'listening lesson' ("Hörstunden") to help train the ears of children through a practical and theoretical introduction to the world of selected composers. It was tested in cooperation with the Vienna School Board, and by 1938 had extended to 17 schools. However, when the Nazis seized power in 1938, Dickenson-Auner was banned from these activities due to her British citizenship. Now almost 60 and amicably divorced from Auner (since 1934), she decided to devote herself exclusively to composing music.  Over the next quarter-century, Dickenson-Auner wrote six symphonies, four operas, and two oratorios, as well as numerous songs and chamber music works. From 1946 to 1962, her chamber works were presented in twelve concerts. Three of her symphonies had their world premiere broadcast by the Austrian Broadcasting Corporation.  Dickenson-Auner wrote polyphonic compositions that combined her love of Johann Sebastian Bach with the 12-tone music of Schoenberg. In choosing musical motifs, however, she often reached back to the Irish folk tunes of her early years, terming the resulting compositions "Celtic Impressionism". She wrote some of her lyrics herself, but she also used selections from the Irish poet William Butler Yeats and from writers influenced by the ideas of the Theosophical Society, of which she had been a member since 1938.  She died in Vienna.

Mary Dickenson-Auner (24 October 1880 – 25 May 1965) was an Irish violinist, composer, and music teacher. She wrote symphonies, oratorios, operas, and chamber works, with some of her early works appearing under the pseudonym Frank Donnell. During her career as a professional violinist, she performed the world premiere of Béla Bartók's "Violin Sonata No. 1" and also worked with Arnold Schoenberg.

Mary Frances Dickenson-Auner, geb. Dickenson (* 24. Oktober 1880 in Dublin, Irland; † 25. Mai 1965 in Wien, Österreich) war eine irische Violinistin, Pädagogin und Komponistin. Sie hat Symphonien, Oratorien, Opern und Kammermusikwerke komponiert.


Social activist.

He is the current chairperson of the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan, and the Dean of School of Media and Communication at Beaconhouse National University, Lahore. He is one of Pakistan's more prominent communication experts, with a specialization in political analysis.  One of the few media historians of Pakistan, Mehdi Hasan is a regular commentator and panellist for TV news channels and radio stations where he brings his academic research into social context.  His book "The Political History of Pakistan" is a widely used source of reference by journalists and producers. His long-held personal view is that distortion of facts by news media is distorting our history.  A long-time human rights activist and member of the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan's Governing Council, Dr. Mehdi Hasan has written many papers, and participated in multiple seminars. In 2015, addressing a public event at University of Gujrat, Pakistan, Dr Mehdi Hasan emphasized the urgent need to promote honest and impartial reporting and said that bad journalism is distorting the history of Pakistan. He added that all citizens of Pakistan have equal rights under the law regardless of their religions.

Education.

He holds a Ph.D. degree in mass communication, from the Punjab University, "Role of Press in Formation in Public Opinion 1857-1947", an M.A. degree in journalism, Punjab University, and was a Fulbright Scholar (1990) at the University of Colorado at Boulder, where he conducted research on "Coverage of Third World Countries in the American Mass Media". He has published research papers in the United States and Pakistan.

Journalist and news media personality.

As a journalist, his activities include:

Mehdi Hasan (born 1937) is a Pakistani left-wing journalist, media historian, and professor of Journalism and Mass communication at the Beaconhouse National University.

Mehdi Hasan (* 1937) ist ein pakistanischer Medienhistoriker und Journalist. Er ist Dekan der Fakultät für Medienwissenschaft an der Beaconhouse National University in Lahore.


St. Charles Borromeo Roman Catholic Church (Detroit, Michigan)

St. Charles Borromeo Roman Catholic Church (Detroit)

History.

In the late 1850s, Belgian Catholics immigrated to Detroit and settled in the eastside neighborhoods near Gratiot and Baldwin. In 1886, a parish dedicated to St. Charles Borromeo was established to minister to this congregation. A wood-frame church was constructed for the parish, and quickly expanded. As Detroit grew, the parish grew along with it, with French, German, Irish, Scotch, and English immigrant congregants in addition to the original Belgians. By 1920, the congregation numbered over 3000. By the 1930s, the school's population also included many Catholic children of Syrian and Italian immigrants.  In 1912, the two-story rectory and school was designed and built by Van Leyen & Schilling. In 1918, Peter Dederichs was awarded a contract to build an "edifice of Romanesque style for religious use". Just four years after the church was completed, it was expanded to meet the needs of the growing congregation.  The church is still used today, although the congregation has altered. The rectory serves its original function, and the school is leased by the Church of Messiah.

Description.

The St. Charles Borromeo parish complex consists of four buildings, three of which are historically significant: the church itself, the rectory, and the school.  The church is built with red-brown tapestry brick on a white Bedford stone foundation, with trim of the same stone. The church is built in a Latin Cross plan, 92 feet across and 180 feet in depth. The design is Romanesque with Arts and Crafts elements. The front facade is flanked by asymmetric towers with red tiled hip-roofs. The entranceway is within a two-story arched structure with columns on each side, above which is a large rose window. Rosettes are in the spandrels above the entrance arches, and green tile fills the spandrels and pediments of the front and side facades. The decorative brick pilasters around the central arch are derived from Prairie School or Arts and Crafts models.  The main altar is Baroque in style. The organ was built in two sections to clear the rose window above the main entrance.  The school and rectory were designed in the Prairie style with some Byzantine elements.

St. Charles Borromeo Roman Catholic Church is a church located at the corner of Baldwin Avenue and St. Paul Avenue in Detroit, Michigan. The church address is 1515 Baldwin Street; ancillary buildings are located at 1491 Baldwin Street (Rectory) and 1480 Townsend Street (School Building). The complex was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1989.

St. Charles Borromeo Roman Catholic Church ist eine Kirche an der Ecke von Baldwin Avenue und St. Paul Avenue in Detroit, Michigan.


Writing and recording.

On May 27, 2009, Megadeth frontman and guitarist Dave Mustaine confirmed twelve songs were complete and the group was currently mixing and mastering the record. The first preview from "Endgame" was a six-minute video featuring Sneap describing the process of mixing "Head Crusher" at his studio in Derbyshire, England. In the video, he called the upcoming album "old-school". "Endgame" was recorded at the band's studio, "Vic's Garage", in San Marcos, California. The track listing was initially revealed on July 2, 2009, although several track titles were later shortened for the final release. The album was produced by Andy Sneap, who also produced Megadeth's previous album, "United Abominations".  Mustaine said of the album: "It is fast, it is heavy, there is singing, yelling, speaking, and guest voices (maybe not singing – more like in "Captive Honour"), the soloing is insane." He described it as a riff-oriented album, less melodic than the band's mid-to-late 90s material. Mustaine had saved a number of old rehearsal tapes, which were used as the album's starting point. The band members had online chats with fans on their website while recording, which according to Mustaine, helped lift the band's enthusiasm.

Release and promotion.

Megadeth finished recording the album on May 19, and on June 18, the album title was announced to be "Endgame". The cover artwork was released online on July 27, 2009. John Lorenzi, who designed the cover for "United Abominations", returned for the album cover for "Endgame" The release date for "Endgame" was announced on the Megadeth official website as September 15, 2009, and "Metal Hammer" was the first to review the album track by track. A week after its release, the album had sold 45,000 copies in the United States and 8,200 copies in Canada, debuting at number nine on the "Billboard" 200, one place lower than the debut of "United Abominations" in 2007. The album placed first on the Hard Rock Albums chart and second on the Rock Albums chart.  On May 10, 2009, Mustaine announced on TheLiveLine that some music from Megadeth would appear in the film "Land of the Lost" to help promote "Endgame". Whether the music was to be from the album was not clear. During the message Mustaine left on TheLiveLine, it was stated there was new music playing in the background of the message. Ultimately, parts of the song "The Right To Go Insane", can be heard near the end of the film. Another song from the album, "This Day We Fight!", was used as a playable song on "". As promotion for "Endgame", Megadeth performed "Head Crusher" on the September 17, 2009, edition of "Late Night with Jimmy Fallon".  Megadeth toured in support of the album, beginning in Grand Rapids, Michigan, in November 2009 and ending on December 13, in Las Vegas, Nevada. The tour featured Machine Head, Suicide Silence, Warbringer, and Arcanium. Megadeth, Slayer, and Testament were set to embark on the American Carnage tour on January 18, but it was postponed until summer due to Slayer frontman Tom Araya's undergoing back surgery.

Songs.

"Endgame"'s lyrical themes are diverse. "This Day We Fight!" drew inspiration by Aragorn's plea to his fighters from the "Lord of the Rings" trilogy. "44 Minutes" is about the North Hollywood shootout of 1997 and the title is derived from the film "" based on the event. "1,320" was written about nitro fuel funny cars. Mustaine said "Bite the Hand" was written "about the greed of the fiduciary leaders of the financial world and how they just didn't care about the responsibility they had to the public." The title track was written "about a bill that ex-President George W. Bush signed into law that gave him the power to put American citizens in detention centers here in the United States".  "The Hardest Part of Letting Go...Sealed With a Kiss" is a two-part song which Mustaine wrote for his wife. PopMatters reviewer Adrien Begrand called it a "twisted love song". "Head Crusher", describes the medieval torture device of the same name. Mustaine said "How The Story Ends" was inspired by the teachings of Sun Tzu. Begrand describes "The Right to Go Insane" as "[Mustaine's] usual 'I’m slowly going nuts' shtick"; however, Mustaine stated the song was "about having been wiped out, like so many Americans, from the recession and potential depression years of 2000 [sic]".

Singles.

The album's lead single was "Head Crusher". According to Roadrunner Records' website, a download of "Head Crusher" was available for 24 hours on July 7, starting at 11:00 AM Eastern Time Zone. The availability of the download ended the morning of July 8. The track was previously available for listening by calling Dave Mustaine's number through the TheLiveLine.com, a service he launched that enables musicians to connect to their audience over the phone. The song was nominated for "Best Metal Performance" at the 52nd annual Grammy Awards – the band's first Grammy nomination since the 1997 song "Trust" – and received a music video directed by Bill Fishman.  The second single, "The Right to Go Insane", was released eight months later. A music video for it was released in April 2010 and featured then-recently returned bass player David Ellefson. The video's plot is roughly based on the story of Shawn Nelson, an unemployed plumber who rampaged through San Diego in a stolen M60 Patton tank. The video premiered at a show in Austin, Texas on March 26 during the anniversary tour for "Rust in Peace". The song hit position 34 on the Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks.

Critical reception.

"Endgame" received generally positive reviews from critics. Stephanie Burkett from BBC Music said the album is "their most reliable and proficient album since "Rust in Peace"." She also noted that Megadeth "are once again asserting their right to be considered one of the best and most consistent heavy metal groups on the planet." Chad Bowar of About.com awarded four and a half stars saying, "Megadeth is still at the top of their game. "Endgame" has some old-school moments, but also modern ones. 2007’s "United Abominations" garnered a lot of critical praise and was on many year-end best of lists that year... "Endgame" is even better." AllMusic's Eduardo Rivadavia said "Megadeth's second release for Roadrunner, "Endgame", whose title apparently refers to "coming full circle" rather than any sort of goodbye, and finds the latest iteration of Megadeth – debuting new guitarist Chris Broderick (ex-Nevermore, Jag Panzer) – working primarily within their technical thrash comfort zone (think "Peace Sells" through "Rust in Peace"), with only a few latter-day elements and rare experimental diversions."  Adrien Begrand of Popmatters noted "not a moment is wasted on "Endgame"" and said "it's all due to Mustaine sticking to his strengths, and with the extraordinarily talented Broderick as his new wingman, the record positively scorches with an intensity we haven’t heard since "Rust in Peace". With its furious back-and-forth solos, opening instrumental 'Dialectic Chaos' wastes no time in showcasing that dynamic between Mustaine and Broderick, and combined with the pure speed of 'This Day We Fight!', longtime fans will be instantly reminded of the bracing 'Into the Lungs of Hell'/'Set the World Afire' one-two punch that kicks off 1988's great "So Far, So Good... So What!"." Mark Eglinton of "The Quietus" described the album as "a return to form" for Megadeth. Rock guitarist Slash gave a favorable review to "Endgame" via Twitter. Also, "Q" gave the album three stars out of five and said: ""Endgame" starts with an instrumental before hitting the kind of rhythms that once earned Megadeth the tag'state-of-the-art speed-metal-band'."  "Endgame" has since been regarded as a high point of the band's later career. It follows upon two well-received predecessors, while the band started to change its musical direction on the following two albums. In 2013, WhatCulture included "Endgame" as number five on its "Top 5 Megadeth albums" list, behind "Killing is My Business... and Business is Good!".

Personnel.

Production and performance credits are adapted from the album liner notes.

Endgame is the twelfth studio album by American heavy metal band Megadeth. It was produced by Dave Mustaine and Andy Sneap and released through Roadrunner Records on September 15, 2009. "Endgame" was the first album to feature guitarist Chris Broderick, following Glen Drover's departure in 2008, and was the band's last studio album with bassist James LoMenzo; original bassist David Ellefson rejoined the band several months after the album's release.

Endgame (englisch für: „"Endspiel"“) ist das zwölfte Studioalbum der US-amerikanischen Thrash-Metal-Band Megadeth. Es erschien im September 2009 auf Roadrunner Records. Es ist das erste Megadeth-Album mit Chris Broderick an der Gitarre. Musikalisch wurde es sowohl in der Tradition von härteren Megadeth-Alben wie "Rust in Peace" wie auch neueren Veröffentlichungen wie "The System Has Failed" gesehen.


Background.

"Wanna Be Startin' Somethin" was written, composed and co-produced by Michael Jackson, and produced by Quincy Jones. It was originally written for his sister La Toya Jackson about her troubled relationship with her sisters-in-law, but Michael ended up recording the song, and La Toya sometimes performs the song at her concerts. The song was originally recorded in 1978 for the inclusion on the "Off the Wall" album, but was later re-recorded in fall 1982, in Los Angeles, California. "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin" was one of the four songs that Jackson received writing credits on for his sixth studio album "Thriller" in 1982. The song was released by Epic Records as the fourth single from the album. Unlike "Thriller"s previous singles, "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin" did not have a film or a music video released to promote it.  Aside from "Thriller", "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin" has appeared on multiple compilation and greatest hits albums by Jackson since the song's release. "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin" appeared on the first disc of Jackson's two-disc compilation album "" in 1995 as well as the 25th anniversary edition of "Thriller", entitled "Thriller 25", and the greatest hits album "King of Pop"; both albums were released in 2008. The song is also included on the box set collection released in 2004, "The Ultimate Collection", the greatest hits album "The Essential Michael Jackson", the compilation album "This Is It", and the special box set "The Collection" released days after Jackson's death. Some versions of the 1995 "Earth Song" CD single included the "Brothers in Rhythm Mix" and "Tommy D's Main Mix" as B-sides. The song was also remixed to the "Immortal" album in 2011. The demo version of the song was also released in "This Is It" (2009).

Composition.

A post-disco and funk song, "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin" was viewed as a nod to the disco sound of Jackson's material on his previous studio album, "Off the Wall", released in 1979. Arranged by Jackson himself and played by percussionist Paulinho da Costa, the song's rhythm was regarded as a "complex interweaving of drum-machine patterns and work", while the horn section, arranged by Jerry Hey, was described as both "brassy and precise". "Slant Magazine" commented that the song was a "complicated tapestry of colliding hooks and pop references." The song's lyrics, "Too high to get over, too low to get under", has strong similarities to Funkadelic's opening salvo for "One Nation Under a Groove".  The lyrics pertain to the media and press, as well as gossip and people trying to start arguments or problems for no reason, which he states in the lyrics, "Someone's always tryin' to start my baby crying," and then goes to a more "quasi paranoia" yield in the "near-bitterness" chorus, 'You're a vegetable, you're a vegetable/ You're just a buffet, you're a vegetable/ They'll eat off you, you're a vegetable.'" In "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin", Jackson's vocal range spans from G#3 to E5. Played in the key of E major, the song is moderately bright with a tempo of 122 beats per minute. It has a basic sequence of D/E–E–D/E–E as its chord progression. The coda at the end of the song, which comes directly from Cameroonian saxophonist Manu Dibango's 1972 disco song "Soul Makossa", is "Mama-say mama-sah ma-ma-coo-sah". Makossa is a Cameroonian music genre and dance. Dibango sued Jackson and, in 1986, settled out of court for one million French francs, agreeing thereby to waive future rights to this recording but not future use of the material.

Critical reception.

Christopher Connelly, a writer for "Rolling Stone", described "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin" as being "Thriller"s "most combative track". Connelly noted that in the "hyperactive" song, Jackson's "emotions are so raw that the song nearly goes out of control". He further commented that the song has a "tune that's almost as exciting as seeing Jackson motivate himself across a concert stage – and a lot more unpredictable". Remarking that while the song's lyrics "won't keep Elvis Costello awake nights", they "do show that Jackson has progressed past the hey-let's-hustle sentiments that dominated "Off the Wall"". He added that Jackson's "raw ability and conviction make material like", citing "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin", as well as other of "Thriller"s songs, "into first-class cuts".  Stephen Thomas Erlewine, a writer for AllMusic, listed "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin", along with "Beat It", "Billie Jean", and "Human Nature", as being the best songs from "Thriller". He also described the song as the "freshest funk on the album". Eric Herderson, a writer for "Slant Magazine", commented that with "three quick rimshots", he felt that "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin" was like a "court fanfare". Robert Christgau, a music critic, commented that he'd "expect to bear more" of "Thriller"s "Wanna Be Startin' Something" and "Thriller" on the "dancefloor" rather than in his "living room". "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin" received one Grammy Award nomination; it was nominated for "Best R&B Song" at the 1984 Grammy Awards, but lost to "Billie Jean," another of Jackson's singles from "Thriller."  "Pitchfork" ranked this song No. 2 on its list of "The 200 Best Songs of the 1980s", saying that "if you're going to become the biggest star in the world, it helps to make the biggest song".

Chart performance.

In 1983, "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin" had a good chart performance worldwide. The song entered the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart top ten positions on July 2, 1983, at number nine, having moved up six places from the song's previous week. On July 16, "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin" charted at number five, which was the song's peak position on the chart. The song's peak position made "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin" "Thriller"s fourth consecutive single to peak within the top ten on the "Billboard" Hot 100. It was more commercially successful than "Thriller"s follow-up single "Human Nature" on the "Billboard" Hot 100, with the song peaking on the chart at number seven. The song also peaked within the top ten, at number five, on the Black Singles Chart.  Internationally, the song was commercially successful, mainly charting within the top 20 and top 30 on music charts. In the United Kingdom, on June 11, 1983, the song entered the chart's top 40 positions at number 38. The following week, the song moved up 24 positions to number 14, and on June 25, the song peaked within the top ten at number eight. The song remained on the charts for a total of nine weeks in 1983. In New Zealand, on July 24, 1983, "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin" entered the charts at number 47. The following week, the song peaked at number 35, which was its peak position, and remained in the top 50 of the chart for three weeks. "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin" entered the Dutch charts on July 9, 1983, charting within the top five at number four. The following week, the song charted at number three, which was its peak position, for three consecutive weeks. The song charted within the top ten for several weeks, and remained in the top 20 for ten weeks in 1983.  In 2008, after the release of "Thriller 25" the song re-entered music charts worldwide. "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin" entered the Italian music charts on February 21, 2008, charting at number 14; it remained on the chart for only one week. The song entered the Danish music charts on February 28, charting within the top 30 at number 29. The following week, it peaked at number 22. In Switzerland, the song entered the top 50 at number 47 on February 24, 2008. The following week, the song peaked at number 30. After a total of six weeks on the chart the song, fell out of the top 100, and after four weeks re-entered the chart at number 83, before falling off the chart again.  Following Jackson's death in June 2009, his music experienced a surge in popularity. "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin" re-entered the United Kingdom charts on July 4, 2009 and peaked at number 57 the following week. On July 12, "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin" re-entered Switzerland music charts for the second time. The song charted at number 37, which was its peak position, and remained on the charts for three weeks, before charting out of the top 100 positions.

Live performances.

"Wanna Be Startin' Somethin" was one of the songs released as a single without an accompanying video. It nonetheless has attained a popularity rivaling its sister compositions on the album, and became Jackson’s song of choice for opening live concerts, although not being as strictly associated with a specific dance routine as those others has arguably allowed for more flexibility in performances and staging.  Three notable occurrences during live performances are the physically complicated "stop/start" dance technique that brings Jackson and his dancers to a frozen stop several times, the sing-along between performer and audience during the bridge, and him singing "Hard To Get Over, Hard To Get Under" instead of "Too High To Get Over, Too Low To Get Under" in the studio version.  "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin", along with "Thriller", "Beat It" and "Billie Jean", was also used on every set list of Jackson’s tours, from the Victory Tour in 1984, right the way through to the HIStory Tour in 1997. Unlike most of the other songs performed live, "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin" has never been lip-synced during any of Jackson’s tours.  The song was first performed by Jackson as both a member of The Jacksons as well as a solo artist during world concert tours. It was performed by Jackson during the Jacksons final world concert series, including the Victory Tour in 1984, for which it was the tour's opening song. Similar to the Victory Tour, "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin" was the Bad World Tour opening song on both tour legs. The concert series lasted from 1987 to 1989. A version was released on the 2012 DVD "Live at Wembley July 16, 1988".  "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin" was also performed during Jackson's Dangerous World Tour from June 1992 to November 1993. The next, and what would be the last performance of the song, was during Jackson's world concert tour, HIStory World Tour, from 1996 to 1997.  Since March 2009, Jackson was preparing to perform "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin" during his This Is It concert series from 2009 to 2010. During rehearsals for the This Is It concerts, Jackson's performance of "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin" contained an a cappella snippet of "Speechless", from Jackson's studio album "Invincible" (2001). Following Jackson's death in June of the same year, video footage of Jackson rehearsing the song was used as the opening song in the 2009 concert documentary, "Michael Jackson's This Is It".

Manu Dibango controversy.

After Barbadian pop singer Rihanna sampled the song in her 2007 hit single "Don't Stop the Music", she and Jackson were both sued in February 2009 by Cameroonian musician Manu Dibango, who claimed that both songs stole the "mama-say mama-sa mama-coo-sa" hook from his 1972 single "Soul Makossa" without permission. According to Agence France-Presse, Jackson admitted that he borrowed the line for "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin and settled out of court. When Rihanna asked Jackson in 2007 for permission to sample the line, he allegedly approved the request without contacting Dibango beforehand. Dibango's attorneys brought the case before a court in Paris, demanding €500,000 in damages and for Sony BMG, EMI and Warner Music to be "barred from receiving'mama-say mama-sa'-related income until the matter is resolved".

Wanna Be Startin' Somethin' 2008.

"Wanna Be Startin' Somethin" was re-recorded for the 2008 re-issue of "Thriller", entitled "Thriller 25". Similar to "Beat It 2008", the song was titled on the CD sleeve as "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin' 2008 with Akon". Recorded in 2007, the 2008 version contains remix elements and additional vocals from Akon. The 2008 version was written and produced by Akon. The single of that song was the last one released during Jackson's lifetime.  "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin" received mixed reviews from contemporary music critics, with critics having felt that while the 2008 version was good, it was not better than the original, but was better than other re-issues on "Thriller 25". Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic commented that "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin" was turned into a "moody piano murk". He further commented that while the song is not great, "it is better than Fergie parroting the lyrics of "Beat It" back to a recorded Jackson, and it's better than will.i.am turning "The Girl Is Mine" into a hapless dance number." Rob Sheffield, a writer for "Rolling Stone", commented that "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin" is "actually kind of great" and praised the song's composition.  The song was released by Epic Records and Legacy Recordings in January 2008, as the second single from the re-issue album. It was commercially a modest success internationally, charting within the top 20 in several countries, as well charting within the top ten in four territories. The song charted at number three in Sweden, number four in New Zealand, number eight in Australia and number ten in France. "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin' 2008" charted at number 15 in Belgium's Flanders and Wallonia charts. and also charted at number 20 in Italy. In the US, "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin' 2008" peaked at number 81 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, giving the song its lowest charting position. The song also charted on the Pop charts at number 48, as well as number 47 on the Pop Hot 100 Airplay.  Other charting positions include number 47 on the "Billboard" Hot Digital Songs and the Hot Canadian Digital Singles Chart at number 33. It also peaked at number 2 on the Dance Club Songs chart. "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin' 2008" also reached number 19 on the year-end chart of Dance Club Play Song. A music video to promote the single and album consisted of a montage of previous Michael Jackson music videos and concert footage, and also clips of Akon singing his parts.

Cover versions and uses in popular culture.

"Wanna Be Startin' Somethin" has been covered and sampled by multiple recording artists since its release.

"Wanna Be Startin' Somethin" is a song by American singer Michael Jackson recorded for his sixth studio album "Thriller" (1982). It is the opening track of the album and was released as its fourth single on May 8, 1983 by Epic Records. It was written by Jackson and produced by Jackson and Quincy Jones. The lyrics pertain to strangers spreading rumors to start an argument for no good reason. "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin" evokes the disco sound of Jackson's previous studio album, "Off the Wall", released in 1979. The song is characterized by a complex rhythm arrangement and a distinctive horn arrangement.

Wanna Be Startin' Somethin' ist ein Lied von Michael Jackson, das von ihm geschrieben wurde und auf dem Album Thriller im Jahr 1982 erschien.


Background.

The outbreak of hostilities in Europe in August 1914 had been anticipated and government officials of South Africa were aware of the significance of their common border with the German colony. Prime Minister Louis Botha informed London that South Africa could defend itself and that the Imperial Garrison might depart for France; when the British government asked Botha whether his forces would invade German South West Africa, the reply was that they could and would.  South African troops were mobilised along the border between the two countries under the command of General Henry Lukin and Lt Col Manie Maritz early in September 1914. Shortly afterwards another force occupied the port of Lüderitz.

Boer Revolt.

There was considerable sympathy among the Boer population of South Africa for the German cause. Only twelve years had passed since the end of the Second Boer War, in which Germany had offered the two Boer republics moral support against the British Empire. Lieutenant-Colonel Manie Maritz, heading commando forces on the border of German South West Africa, declared that  Maritz and several other high-ranking officers rapidly gathered forces with a total of about 12,000 rebels in the Transvaal and Orange Free State, ready to fight for the cause in what became known as the Boer Revolt (also sometimes referred to as the Maritz Rebellion).  The government declared martial law on 14 October 1914 and forces loyal to the government under the command of Generals Louis Botha and Jan Smuts proceeded to destroy the rebellion. Maritz was defeated on 24 October and took refuge with the Germans; the rebellion was suppressed by early February 1915. The leading Boer rebels received terms of imprisonment of six and seven years and heavy fines; two years later they were released from prison, as Botha recognised the value of reconciliation.

Combat between German and South African forces.

A first attempt to invade German South West Africa from the south failed at the Battle of Sandfontein, close to the border with the Cape Colony, where on 26 September 1914 the German fusiliers inflicted a serious defeat on the British troops, although the survivors were left free to return to British territory.  To disrupt South African plans to invade South West Africa, the Germans launched a pre-emptive invasion of their own. The Battle of Kakamas, between South African and German forces, took place over the fords at Kakamas, on 4 February 1915. It was a skirmish for control of two river fords over the Orange River between contingents of the German invasion force and South African armed forces. The South Africans succeeded in preventing the Germans gaining control of the fords and crossing the river.  By February 1915, with the home front secure, the South Africans were ready to begin the complete occupation of the German territory. Botha in his military capacity as a senior and experienced military commander took command of the invasion. He split his command in two with Smuts commanding the southern forces while he took direct command of the northern forces.  Botha arrived at the coastal German colonial town of Swakopmund, on 11 February to take direct command on the northern contingent, and continued to build up his invasion force at Walfish Bay (or Walvis Bay)—a South African enclave about halfway along the coast of German South West Africa (see the map). By March he was ready to invade. Advancing from Swakopmund along the Swakop valley with its railway line, his forces took Otjimbingwe, Karibib, Friedrichsfelde, Wilhelmsthal and Okahandja and entered the capital Windhuk on 5 May 1915.  The Germans then offered terms under which they would surrender but they were rejected by Botha and the war continued. On 12 May Botha declared martial law and having cut the colony in half, divided his forces into four contingents under Coen Brits, Lukin, Manie Botha and Myburgh. Brits went north to Otjiwarongo, Outjo and Etosha Pan which cut off German forces in the interior from the coastal regions of Kunene and Kaokoveld. The other three columns fanned out into the north-east. Lukin went along the railway line running from Swakopmund to Tsumeb. The other two columns advanced on Lukin's right flank, Myburgh to Otavi junction and Manie Botha to Tsumeb and the line's terminus. The men who commanded these columns, having gained their military experience fighting in Boer commandos, moved very rapidly. The German forces in the north-west made a stand at Otavi on 1 July but were beaten and surrendered at Khorab on 9 July 1915.  While events were unfolding in the north, Smuts landed with another South African force at the South West Africa colony's naval base at Luderitzbucht (now called Angra Pequena). Having secured the town Smuts advanced inland, capturing Keetmanshoop on 20 May. Here he met up with two other columns that had advanced over the border from South Africa, one from the coastal town of Port Nolloth and the other from Kimberley. Smuts advanced north along the railway line to Berseba and after two days fighting captured Gibeon on 26 May. The Germans in the south were forced to retreat northwards towards their capital and into the waiting arms of Botha's forces. Within two weeks the German forces in the south, faced with certain destruction, surrendered.  When the Germans provided lists of the names of approximately 2,200 troops under their command, Botha told the German delegation that he had been tricked, as he knew that the Germans had 15,000 men. Victor Franke, the German commander, replied, "If we had 15,000 men then you wouldn't be here and we wouldn't be in this position."

Combat between German and Portuguese forces.

Before an official declaration of war between Germany and Portugal (March 1916), German and Portuguese troops clashed several times on the border between German South West Africa and Portuguese Angola. The Germans won most of these clashes and were able to occupy the Humbe region in southern Angola until Portuguese control was restored a few days before the successful South African campaign defeated the Germans.

Aftermath.

South African casualties were died of injury or illness and German casualties were field guns and 22 machine-guns captured. After defeating the German force in South West Africa, South Africa occupied the colony and then administered it as a League of Nations mandate territory from 1919.  Although the South African government desired to incorporate South West Africa into its territory, it never officially did so, although it was administered as the de facto 'fifth province', with the white minority having representation in the whites-only Parliament of South Africa, as well as electing their own local administration the SWA Legislative Assembly. The South African government also appointed the SWA administrator, who had extensive powers. Following the League's supersession by the United Nations in 1946, South Africa refused to surrender its earlier mandate and the U.N. General Assembly revoked it. In 1971 the International Court of Justice issued an "advisory opinion" declaring South Africa's continued administration to be illegal.

The South West Africa Campaign was the conquest and occupation of German South West Africa (modern Namibia) by forces from the Union of South Africa acting on behalf of the British Imperial Government at the beginning of the First World War.

Der Krieg in Südwestafrika war ein kolonialer Nebenkriegsschauplatz des Ersten Weltkrieges in der Zeit von August 1914 bis Juli 1915. Dabei kam es zu Kampfhandlungen um die deutsche Kolonie Deutsch-Südwestafrika (heute Namibia). Die Kämpfe erstreckten sich auch auf die Südgrenze Portugiesisch-Westafrikas (heute Angola) sowie auf Teile der Südafrikanischen Union (heute Südafrika). Nach kurzen Grenzgefechten und der Besetzung von Küstenplätzen erfolgte die Eroberung durch Unionstruppen von Süden nach Norden. Mitte 1915 kapitulierte die deutsche Schutztruppe. Das „Schutzgebiet“ "Deutsch-Südwest" wurde nach dem Ende des Krieges in Europa zu einem Mandatsgebiet des Völkerbundes unter südafrikanischer Verwaltung.


Career.

He began his professional career in 2005 and he set a personal best time of 2:11:26 to finish third in the Dubai Marathon. He returned to the race the following year and came one place further to winning, although he would have won if Joseph Ngeny Kiprotich, initially brought in as a pacemaker, hadn't decided to continue and finish the race instead. He competed in Asia for a second time that year and took fifth place at the Nagano Marathon, although he was leading the race throughout right until the 30 km mark. He failed to make much progression in the 2007 and 2008; years which were highlighted by a 13th-place finish at the Amsterdam Marathon and a fourth place at the Nagano Marathon, respectively.  He took part in the Frankfurt Marathon for the first time in 2009 and although he finished in ninth position, he set a personal best of 2:10:41. Gena began to make his mark on the road running circuit in 2010 as he began the year with a second-place finish behind Denis Ndiso at the Mumbai Marathon (an IAAF Gold Label Road Race). His first ever marathon win soon followed: he ran his fastest ever time (2:08:39) to gain victory at the Rome City Marathon. The event was made more special by the fact that it was in honour of the 50th anniversary of Ethiopian Abebe Bikila's Olympic gold in the 1960 Rome Olympic marathon, in which he became the first black African to win an Olympic gold medal. Gena marked the occasion by removing his shoes to run barefoot for the last 300 metres, mirroring the shoe-less running style of Bikila and earning a 5000€ bonus in the process.  Gena won his second marathon of 2010 in October at the Beijing International Marathon. Cold, wet weather severely affected the race, leaving him shivering as he crossed the line in 2:15:45, but his coach (former runner Haji Adillo) said he thought Gena could run around the 2:06 mark in good conditions. He was one of the favourite for the 2011 Xiamen Marathon in January, but he finished in fifth place. He attempted to retain his title in Rome in March 2011 but had to settle for second place, thirty seconds adrift of winner Dickson Chumba. He ran a half marathon best of 1:02:36 hours at the Göteborgsvarvet, and the Frankfurt Marathon in October saw him improve his marathon best to 2:08:31 hours (finishing in eighth).  On November 17, 2013, Gena finished second at the Istanbul Marathon in a time of 2:13:19 hours behind French athlete Abraham Kiprotich. He was subsequently promoted to first place following Kiprotich's disqualification for a doping offence.

Siraj Amda Gena, also known as Giday Amha and Siraj Amda Bene, (born 12 November 1984) is an Ethiopian long distance runner who specialises in the marathon. He won his first race in 2010, beating all-comers at the Rome City Marathon to set a personal best of 2:08:39.

Siraj Gena (* 12. November 1984) ist ein äthiopischer Marathonläufer. 2005 wurde er Dritter beim Dubai-Marathon. Im darauffolgenden Jahr wurde er Zweiter in Dubai und Dritter beim Nagano-Marathon. Einem 13. Platz beim Amsterdam-Marathon 2007 folgten 2008 und 2009 jeweils ein vierter Platz in Nagano. Zum Saisonabschluss 2009 wurde er mit seiner bis dahin besten Zeit von 2:10:41 h Neunter beim Frankfurt-Marathon.


History.

Foundation.

Chieti was founded in 1922 as Calcio Chieti with a capital of 50 cents. The First World War had just ended, the football came from the distant echo of the successes of Pro Vercelli, Novese, Milan, Inter, Juventus, Genoa and so on. One day in the Villa Comunale, Nicola De Cesare tossed with some friends, the idea of forming a football team. It joined other people with the sum of £0.50 was paid the dues and was born RISS. The RISS played in the first few games against teams in the central Civitella military. The enthusiasm for sport was rising huge. Existed in the same year the Sport Club Chieti, who for many years not doing any sport, it was decided therefore to a large rise in Chieti association football. There was a meeting between the RISS, Novell and Sport Cub Chieti and Chieti was formed with the U. S. President Carlo Massangioli.  Chieti played 2005/2006 in Serie C1/B, ending last-placed and being therefore relegated to Serie C2 for the next season. The team was however cancelled by the federation because of financial troubles.

Refoundation.

A new club, named "A.S.D. Chieti", asked to be admitted to play Promozione (7th level of Italian football), claiming Article 52 of N.O.I.F.. Chieti gained promotion to Serie D in 2008. Since 2010–11 season, S.S. Chieti Calcio plays in Lega Pro Seconda Divisione.  In 2012–13, the team was playing at the fourth tier of Italian football, managing to get to the promotion playoffs, after securing a draw in the last matchday against Arzanese. The goalscorer that sealed the qualification of the team to the playoffs was Massimiliano Barbone, a defender

Colors and badge.

The team's colours are green and black.  The choice of black and green Theatines date back to 1919, the year in which the first soccer team representing the City did not have their uniforms, so in lack of money to buy it was necessary to the seals of Venezia Calcio found in a crate from the Venice along with many other documents containing the registry office and more, transferred to Chieti to Edict of King Vittorio Emanuele III to prevent the seizure by the Austro-Hungarian troops in case of invasion of the Veneto after Kobarid. The pennant team has undergone various tweaks over the years. Was recently identified by a crest style AC Milan, then under the leadership of President Antonio Buccilli, we moved to a more modern pennant depicting two strips (one black and one green) cross the words "DC 1922" i.e. Chieti Calcio 1922. In 2006, following the failure of the pennant 'ASD Chieti rudimentary style has been reinvented AS Roma. The last change was made in the summer of 2008 when the previous emblem was added to one side the 'Achilles' horse, symbol of the city of Chieti and just, therefore, also the local team.

Stadium.

The stadium Stadio Guido Angelini was designed in 1969 and became operational in May 1970 with a friendly Chieti-Milan arbitrated by the great Concetto Lo Bello, all with a frame of about 11,000 spectators. In the first 9 years of the stadium has been named "Marrucino".

Società Sportiva Chieti Calcio is an Italian association football club, based in Chieti, Abruzzo. Currently it plays in Serie D.

Calcio Chieti (offiziell: "SSD Chieti Calcio") ist ein italienischer Fußballverein aus Chieti, einer Stadt aus der Region Abruzzen. Die Vereinsfarben sind Schwarz und Grün. Als Stadion dient dem Verein das Stadio Guido Angelini in Chieti, es bietet Platz für 12.750 Zuschauer.


History.

The "Canadian Historical Review" was founded at the University of Toronto in 1920 as a continuation of a previous journal, the "Review of Historical Publications Relating to Canada", itself founded by George Wrong, in 1897. The initiative to digitize the "CHR"s holdings includes material from this previous journal, and papers from as early as 1897 are available to subscribers online as a result.  The "Canadian Historical Review"s entries have changed as history and historiography itself have progressed. Marlene Shore's "The Contested Past: Reading Canada's History – Selections from the Canadian Historical Review", tracks these changes, tracing major themes of the "CHR" chronologically: "Nation and Diversity, 1920-1939; War, Centralization; and Reaction, 1940-1965; The Renewal of Diversity, 1966 to present; and Reflections." "The Contested Past" also suggests that the key themes in Canadian history reflected by the "CHR" are "Native-European contact, society and war, the nature of Canadian and Quebec nationalism, class-consciousness, and gender politics."

Editors.

The "CHR"s editors are Matthew Hayday and Jeffrey McNairn. Hayday, a professor at the University of Guelph since 2007, focuses on Canadian political history, particularly issues related to language policy, education, social movements, nationalism and identity politics. McNairn teaches nineteenth-century Canadian history at Queen's University, with special interest in the history of print, liberalism, British imperialism and state-civil society relations.  The Editorial Board comprises Harold Bérubé from Université de Sherbrooke, Jarvis Brownlie from the University of Manitoba, Kevin Brushett from the Royal Military College of Canada, Jordan Stanger-Ross from the University of Victoria and Shirley Tillotson from Dalhousie University. The Book Review Editor is Donald Wright from the University of New Brunswick.

"Canadian Historical Review" Prize.

Each year "CHR" awards a prize for best article of the year, known as the "Canadian Historical Review Prize". The winner for 2017 was Jan Noel, who won for her article "A Man of Letters and Gender Troubles of 1837", which appeared in the September 2017 issue.

The Canadian Historical Review (CHR) is a scholarly journal in Canada, founded in 1920 and published by the University of Toronto Press. The "CHR" publishes articles about the ideas, people, and events important to Canadian history, as well as book reviews and detailed bibliographies of recent Canadian historical publications. The "CHR" covers all topics of Canadian history, ranging from Indigenous issues to liberalism to the First World War. The "CHR" has two major objectives: "to promote high standards of research and writing in Canada... and to foster the study of Canadian history."

Die Canadian Historical Review (CHR) ist die bedeutendste Zeitschrift zur kanadischen Geschichtswissenschaft. Ihre Vorgängerin wurde 1896 von George MacKinnon Wrong unter dem Titel "Review of Historical Publications Relating to Canada" in Toronto gegründet und besprach in ihrer ersten Ausgabe von 1897 Publikationen der beiden Vorjahre zur kanadischen Geschichte. Seit 1920 erscheint sie vierteljährlich unter dem heutigen Namen.


Administrative divisions.

The town has a main population centre and five smaller villages within its administrative perimeter:

Economy.

Traditional local agriculture was based on the produce of the numerous olive, almond and carob trees of the area, as well as fruit and vegetable crops.  Leaving aside the agricultural activities, the furniture, construction and service sectors are also of relative importance.  In recent years the quarrying of the stone of Ulldecona, a type of high quality marble, from the Serra de Godall hills has become a major income earner for the town. Quarried since ancient times, the stone of Ulldecona has been used in the construction of important public works in Spain, such as the Pedrera in Barcelona, the Town Hall in Zaragoza and the airport of Madrid. Presently it is also exported to different countries, such as the US (Hilton Hotel in Los Angeles), France, Switzerland (Town Hall of Geneva), South Korea, Saudi Arabia and China.

Culture and social life.

The most important customs of the people of Ulldecona are related to the staging of processions with gegants, musical bands and pubilles, as well as traditional dances and the releasing of bulls in the streets (bous).  The Passió d'Ulldecona is a yearly festival reenacting the Passion of Christ staged by local people, including a live donkey and real palm and olive branches.

Sports.

One of the most important sports in Ulldecona is football. Ulldecona has its own football club, the Club de Futbol Ulldecona, with ten teams and 200 players. The first team plays nowadays in the 1a Regional League. Other important sports are five-a-side football, basketball, twirling and table tennis. On the other hand, it is also very important the support that trial has in Ulldecona, bearing in mind that Adam Raga, from Ulldecona, has been the World Indoor Trial Champion in 2003, 2004 and 2005.  Current Southampton F.C. player and Champions League Winner 2012 UEFA Champions League Final Oriol Romeu is a native of Ulldecona.  Spain international Aleix García Serrano of Manchester City also hails from the town.

Medieval Castle.

The Medieval Castle, declared a Castle of Cultural Interest, can be found on the top of a hill known as Mount of the Castle, which is part of the Serra de Godall. The visibility and the fertility and wealth of the land were features that increased the strategic value of this area. The oldest remains that have been discovered show that that area was already populated during the Iberian era, between the 5th and the 1st centuries before Christ. Arabic peoples settled there during the 9th century and they started to build some of the buildings whose remains can be seen nowadays in the area. Ramón Berenguer IV conquered the south of the current territory of Catalonia in the 12th century and the medieval buildings started to be built. The castle was inhabited until the end of the 13th century, when the people from Ulldecona started to settle in the plain. In 1986, the Town Council bought the Castle.

Ulldecona is a town in the South of Catalonia, in Montsià (Terres de l'Ebre), near the Senia River. Ulldecona is part of the Taula del Sénia free association of municipalities. It has got town privileges since 1273.

Ulldecona ist eine Gemeinde im Südosten Kataloniens in Spanien. Ulldecona ist eine der zwei südlichsten Gemeinden der Comarca (Kreis) Montsià, der Provinz Tarragona und ganz Kataloniens.


Dead center.

A dead center (one that does not turn freely, i.e., "dead") may be used to support the workpiece at either the fixed or rotating end of the machine. When used in the fixed position, a dead center produces friction between the workpiece and center, due to the rotation of the workpiece. Lubrication is therefore required between the center and workpiece to prevent friction welding from occurring. Additionally the tip of the center may have an insert of cemented carbide which will reduce the friction slightly and allow for faster speeds. Dead centers are typically fully hardened to prevent damage to the important mating surfaces of the taper and to preserve the 60° angle of the nose. As tungsten carbide is much harder than steel, a carbide-tipped center has greater wear resistance than a steel center.

Soft center.

Soft centers are a special version of the dead center in which the nose is deliberately left soft (unhardened) so that it may be readily machined to the correct angle prior to usage. This operation is performed on the headstock center to ensure that the center's axis is aligned with the spindle's axis.

Live or revolving center.

A revolving center, also known as a live center in some countries, is constructed so that the 60° center runs in its own bearings and is used at the non-driven or tailstock end of a machine. It allows higher turning speeds without the need for separate lubrication, and also greater clamping pressures. CNC lathes use this type of center almost exclusively and they may be used for general machining operations as well. Spring-loaded centers are designed to compensate for center variations, without damage to the work piece or center tip. This assures the operator of uniform constant tension while machining. Some live centers also have interchangeable shafts. This is valuable when situations require a design other than a 60° male tip. A live center, which may be hard or soft, is a plain center placed in the revolving mandrel; it moves and is therefore live.

Pipe center.

A pipe center, also known as a bull nose center is a type of live center which has a large diameter conical nose rather than a sharp point. This allows the center to be used in the bore of a pipe or other workpiece with a large interior diameter. While a pipe center ensures the workpiece remains concentric, its main advantage is that it supports the workpiece securely, and can be used for parts whose larger inner diameter prevents the use of a normal pointed center. Thin-walled material such as pipes easily collapses if excessive force is used at the chuck end.

Cup center.

There are two types of cup centers. The woodworking variety is a variation of the traditional live center. This type of cup center has a central point like a normal live center and also has a ring surrounding it. The ring supports the softer material around the center point and prevents the wood from splitting under pressure from the central point. A different variety of cup center is used for metalworking. The metalworking variety of cup center has a tapered hole rather than a conical point. It supports the part by making contact with the outside diameter of the end of the part, rather than using a center hole.

Drive center.

A drive center, also known as a grip center, is used in the driving end of a machine (headstock). It is often used in woodworking or where softer materials are machined.  It consists of a dead center surrounded by hardened teeth, which bite into a softer workpiece allowing the workpiece to be driven directly by the center. This allows the full diameter of the workpiece to be machined in a single operation, in contrast with the usual requirement where a carrier is attached to the workpiece at the driven end. The use of modified shell end mills in a drive center, instead of hardened pins, enables better gripping and prevents breakdown time due to pin stop.

Spring center.

A spring center is a metalworking lathe center for maintaining a cutting tool like a reamer or a tap, in axial alignment with a hole being worked on. It consists of a point backed by a spring to push the cutting tool into the workpiece.

A lathe center, often shortened to center, is a tool that has been ground to a point to accurately position a workpiece on an axis. They usually have an included angle of 60°, but in heavy machining situations an angle of 75° is used.

Zentrierspitzen werden hauptsächlich bei Drehmaschinen zur Unterstützung von langen, schlanken Werkstücken genutzt, um die Durchbiegung durch die Schnittkräfte zu mindern oder auch die Gefahr des Umherschlagens durch Unwucht zu vermeiden.


Life and work.

Perelman and his family emigrated from Warsaw to Antwerp, Belgium in 1925. He began his undergraduate studies at the Université Libre de Bruxelles, where he would remain for the duration of his career. He earned a doctorate in law in 1934, and after completing a dissertation on the philosopher and mathematician Gottlob Frege, earned a second doctorate in 1938. In the same year, Perelman was appointed lecturer at Brussels in the Faculty of Philosophy and Letters. By the end of the war, he became the youngest full professor in the history of that university.  Perelman's friend Mieczysław Maneli wrote: "Perelman was a Belgian, a Jew, a Pole and an authentic cosmopolitan...If one prefers to call Perelman a Polish Jew, then only in the sense suggested by Czeslaw Milosz...[he belonged to] a special category of Jewish-European intellectual, different from all the other Jewish and non-Jewish intellectuals...Perelman was uniquely able to combine his nationality and his humanity in his writings. He was an ardent Belgian patriot and he preserved close ties with Polish scholars and Polish culture at the same time".  Perelman's initial research in law and philosophy was carried out under the aegis of logical positivism. In 1944, he completed an empiricist study of justice and concluded that since applications of the law always involve value judgments – and since values cannot be subjected to the rigors of logic – the foundations of justice must be arbitrary. Upon completing the study, Perelman considered its conclusion untenable since value judgments form an integral part of all practical reasoning and decision making, and to claim that these judgments lack any logical basis was to deny the rational foundations of philosophy, law, politics, and ethics.  As a result of his empiricist study of justice, Perelman rejected positivism in favour of regressive philosophies that provided a rationale for value judgments. In 1948, he met Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca, who had also attended the Université Libre de Bruxelles, and began collaborating on a project that would eventually establish ancient rhetoric as the foundation for a logic of value judgments.  In 1958, Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca published their study of informal reasoning as "Traité de l'argumentation: la nouvelle rhétorique". Undertaken in the spirit of Fregian observation and synthesis, the work analyzed a wide range of actual arguments from the realms of philosophy, law, politics, ethics, and journalism. The result was a theory of argumentation that was grounded in considerations of value and audience and that outlined points of departure and general techniques for argument.  In 1962, Perelman was invited by Henry W. Johnstone and Robert Oliver to take a position at Pennsylvania State University as a distinguished visiting professor. The collaboration between Johnstone and Perelman in particular, which had begun prior to the publication of "la nouvelle rhétorique", proved fruitful. Johnstone created the influential journal "Philosophy and Rhetoric", and Perelman became established in the United States as a leading argumentation theorist.  Throughout the next two decades, Perelman continued publishing works related to or derived from "The New rhetoric". He also made significant contributions to studies in law as director of the National Center for Research in Logic at the Université Libre de Bruxelles, and through continued publications on legal philosophy and argument. In 1973 he was one of the signers of the Humanist Manifesto II. Perelman's friend, Mieczysław Maneli, wrote about his attitude towards Judaism: "He very consciously rejects any theology or earthly or heavenly salvation, any monism of values, any absolutistic interpretations of human needs and forms of freedoms. Any form of theology is unacceptable towards him".  In recognition of his academic and civic accomplishments, Perelman was appointed to the baronage by the Belgian legislature in December 1983. In 1962 Chaïm Perelman was awarded the Francqui Prize for Human Sciences. He died at his home in Brussels from a heart attack on 22 January 1985.

Perelmanian philosophy.

After completing, Perelman rejected the usefulness of logical positivism beyond its applications to pure science. In published five years later, he further outlined the limits of first philosophies or metaphysics. Because these approaches relied on a series of self-evident and mutually supporting axioms, any perceived error would disable the entire philosophy and its claims to reveal universal and absolute truths. Prevalent alternatives, especially the relativism of Jean-Paul Sartre, were also untenable for Perelman since the absolutes of metaphysics were merely replaced in these approaches by absolute skepticism.  During his research with Olbrechts-Tyteca, Perelman would develop a philosophy that avoided the absolutes of both positivism and radical relativism. After encountering an excerpt of Brunetto Latini in the appendix of Jean Paulhan's, Perelman began researching ancient Greco-Latin approaches to argumentation. He found that while a specific logic of value judgments had never been established, an approach to the problem was apparent in the works of Aristotle. In the "Posterior analytics", Aristotle establishes the principles of demonstration or analytics, which rely on the accepted premises and necessary conclusions of the syllogism. In the "Topics" and elsewhere, Aristotle opposes the demonstrative approach to dialectics, or rhetorical reasoning, which relies on premises that are acceptable in a given situation and are thus contingent. With Aristotle's distinctions, Perelman was able to perceive the contradiction of first philosophies: while claiming to reveal universal and absolute truths according to demonstrative methods, philosophy was in reality more concerned with persuading specific audiences to accept its claims. For Perelman, then, a viable philosophy – capable of establishing aspects of being and inducing reasonable action – must be constructed according to probabilities and must be able to withstand impositions of value and other contingencies stemming from its reception by particular audiences. Perelman’s approach, which he termed regressive philosophy, thus sought to incorporate socially constructed truths and to remain amenable to changes should those truths be modified.  While rhetoric and argumentation provided the core of Perelman’s philosophy, his regressive approach also shaped his treatise on non-formal argumentation. In the conclusion of the, Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca state that in opposition to the absolutes common in philosophy, their project acknowledges that "men and groups of men adhere to opinions of all sorts with a variable intensity" and that "these beliefs are not always self-evident, and they rarely deal with clear and distinct ideas." To uncover the logic that governs these beliefs and ideas, Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca rely on a regressive philosophy that accounts for the variability of particular situations and particular values. Perelman would employ this same approach in future developments of the New Rhetoric and in subsequent writings on law and justice.

The New Rhetoric.

Overview.

Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca began research on the logic of non-formal arguments in 1948. Following Frege's comprehensive approach to the study of mathematics, they collected a wide range of writing from academic, professional, religious, and popular realms to devise and apply their theory. After encountering Latini and "rediscovering" the Greco-Latin rhetorical tradition, both the project and its philosophical basis took a definitive shape. Perelman hypothesized that the rationale governing non-formal argument could be derived from the principles of rhetorical theory and from considerations of audience and values in particular. These considerations in turn affected the specific structure of arguments, including the bases of agreement and the availability of specific appeals. Perelman's analysis also produced an overview of the various techniques apparent across the diverse group of arguments collected in the course of research.  The following discussion of the "New rhetoric" is organized according to the three sections of the book, and covers the major concepts contained in each.

The framework of argumentation.

The "New Rhetoric" is founded on the idea that "since argumentation aims at securing the adherence of those to whom it is addressed, it is, in its entirety, relative to the audience to be influenced" (1969, p. 19). Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca rely in particular for their theory of argumentation on the twin concepts of universal and particular audiences: while every argument is directed to a specific individual or group, the orator decides what information and what approaches will achieve the greatest adherence according to an ideal audience. This ideal, Perelman explains, can be embodied, for example, "in God, in all reasonable and competent men, in the man deliberating or in an elite" (2001, p. 1393). Like particular audiences, then, the universal audience is never fixed or absolute but depends on the orator, the content and goals of the argument, and the particular audience to whom the argument is addressed. These considerations determine what information constitutes "facts" and "reasonableness" and thus help to determine the universal audience that, in turn, shapes the orator's approach.  The adherence of an audience is also determined by the orator's use of values, a further key concept of the "New Rhetoric". Perelman's treatment of value and his view of epideictic rhetoric sets his approach apart from that of the ancients and of Aristotle in particular. Aristotle's division of rhetoric into three genres – forensic, deliberative, and epideictic – is largely motivated by the judgments required for each: forensic or legal arguments require verdicts on past action, deliberative or political rhetoric seeks judgment on future action, and epideictic or ceremonial rhetoric concerns values associated with praise or blame and seeks no specific decisions. For Aristotle, the epideictic genre was of limited importance in the civic realm since it did not concern facts or policies. Perelman, in contrast, believes not only that epideictic rhetoric warrants more attention, but that the values normally limited to that genre are in fact central to all argumentation. "Epideictic oratory, " Perelman argues, "has significance and importance for argumentation because it strengthens the disposition toward action by increasing adherence to the values it lauds" (1969, p. 50). These values, moreover, are central to the persuasiveness of arguments in all rhetorical genres since the orator always attempts to "establish a sense of communion centered around particular values recognized by the audience" (1969, p. 51).

The starting points of argumentation.

All argumentation, according to Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca, must proceed from a point of agreement; contentious matters in particular cannot be introduced until sufficient agreement on prior or related issues has already been established. The bases of agreement are divided into two categories: the first deals with facts, truths, and presumptions; the second with values, hierarchies, and "loci of the preferable".  Both facts and truths are normally established prior to argument; these are aspects of reality that would be agreed to, for instance, by the universal audience as conceived by the orator. Neither facts nor truths provide opportunity for dispute; as Perelman explains, "if we presuppose the coherence of reality and of our truths taken as a whole, there cannot be any conflict between facts and truths on which we would be called to make a decision" (2001, p. 1394). Presumptions, like facts and truths, need not be defended. Should the argument require opposing presumptions, however, the orator may overturn previous opinion by proving an opposite case.  Values, both concrete and abstract, may also constitute starting points, although none should be treated as universal. Establishing and reinforcing common values is necessary, according to Perelman, because they influence action and determine acceptable behaviour (2001, p. 1394). Values, moreover, are normally arranged in hierarchies that can also serve as starting points for argument. An audience will value both justice and utility, for example, but an argument may require a determination of preference between the two. Like values, hierarchies can be abstract or concrete; they may also be homogeneous, in the case of degrees, or heterogeneous, in the example of honesty and truthfulness. Both values and hierarchies can be justified by the final point of agreement, which Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca term "loci of the preferable". These "loci" or commonplaces are derived from the third book of Aristotle's "Topics" and allow agreement according to the determination of which, between two "loci", is more preferred. Thus, an argument may begin from the determination that an intrinsic quality, such as health, is preferred over a contingent quality, such as beauty.  The final aspect of argument starting points discussed in the "New rhetoric" is the creation of "presence. " From the body of ideas that are agreed upon by a given audience, the orator may choose to emphasize or lend presence to certain elements while deemphasizing others. As Perelman explains, "things present, things near to us in space and time, act directly on our sensibility, " yet if things distant – from the past or future – are more relevant to the argument, they may be lent presence through specific rhetorical figures, such as "hypotyposis" or "anaphora" (2001, p. 1395). All points of agreement, moreover, may be distinguished as primary or secondary according to the purpose of the argument and the composition of the particular audience. This is accomplished, Perelman notes, by linguistic categories that allow the orator to mount arguments "under the guise of a descriptive narrative" (ibid).

Argument techniques.

Because non-formal argument is concerned with the adherence of an audience – rather than the mere demonstration of propositions proper to formal logic – the orator must ensure that the audience adheres to each successive element of an argument. Perelman outlines two ways the orator may achieve this acceptance or adherence: the first involves associations according to quasi-logical arguments, appeals to reality, and arguments that establish the real; the second approach responds to incompatible opinions through the dissociation of concepts.  Quasi-logical arguments, Perelman explains, are "similar to the formal structures of logic and mathematics" (2001, p. 1396). Definition is a common quasi-logical approach that is used not only for establishing the meaning of a term but also for emphasizing certain features of an object for persuasive purposes. Other quasi-logical arguments include relations of division, arguments of reciprocity, and arguments of probability. While these techniques appear to share the qualities of formal demonstrations, Perelman notes that for all quasi-logical approaches, "complementary, nonformal hypotheses are necessary to render the argument compelling" (2001, p. 1398).  The remaining associative techniques involve appealing to reality and establishing the real. Arguments of the former category can be further divided into those conveying succession and those dealing with coexistence. Relations of succession include causes and effects, such as the consequences of a particular action, or means and ends, such as the projected outcome of an event or process. Relations of coexistence, on the other hand, associate a person or essence to a specific act, and include arguments from authority. Like appeals to the real, arguments that establish the structure of reality can be divided into two categories: arguments from example or model, and arguments by analogy. The former rely on generalizations derived from a single situation, in the case of example, or on the conformation of a single situation to an accepted practice or ethos, in the case of models. Appeals to the real that rely on analogy are common and, according to Perelman, are "typical to Plato, Plotinus, and all those who establish hierarchies within reality" (2001, p. 1399). These appeals establish the relation between two terms by noting their similarity to another, more familiar set of terms; for example, "truth is to Socrates what gold is to a miser. " Metaphor, another common aspect of argumentation, is a form of condensed analogy.  When orators seek to reconcile incompatible opinions, they may gain adherence by a dissociation of concepts. The final technique discussed by Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca is a common approach in metaphysics that opposes appearances to reality. As Perelman explains, reality is normally perceived "through appearances that are taken as signs referring to it. When, however, appearances are incompatible – an oar in water looks broken but feels straight to the touch – we must admit...that some appearances are illusory and may lead us to error regarding the real" (2001, p. 1400). This recognition in turn fosters a conception of reality by which appearances may be judged; those aspects conforming to the real are considered valuable, while those not consistent with reality are dismissed as illusive. The dissociation of ideas can be extended to any realm where the tenets of an argument are incompatible with accepted opinion; "real democracy, " for instance, can be opposed to "apparent democracy, or formal or nominal democracy, or quasi-democracy" (ibid. ). In the process of this opposition, adherence to "real democracy" is achieved not on the basis of its merit as an idea, but rather through the devaluation of opposing terms.

Responses to Perelman and the New Rhetoric.

The most common criticisms of the "New Rhetoric" focus on Perelman's concept of a universal audience. Prominent criticisms by Jürgen Habermas, Henry Johnstone Jr., and John Ray challenge the practicality and applicability of Perelman's concept. In response, Perelman and Crosswhite both offer support for the concept of the universal audience. The work has been translated, in whole or in part, into nine languages and has been described variously as "groundbreaking," by J. Robert Cox, a "bombshell," by Michael Leff, and as "one of the most influential modern formulations of rhetorical theory," by Brian Vickers. The "New Rhetoric" and its later developments have been foundational for argumentation theory in the last thirty years, and Perelman's work has influenced studies ranging from justice and reason to social psychology and political geography.  Crosswhite discusses Jürgen Habermas's theory of truth in relation to the concept of a universal audience. However, when he tries to distinguish between rational consensus and de facto consensus (or truth from agreement), there is limited relevance to the "ideal speech situation." Because the universal audience requires there to be equality for all speakers, ideas, and audience members, it is not a realistic representation of a situation that would ever occur and thus the idea of a universal audience is not practical.  Perelman's theory of a universal audience includes reasonable people of all time, thus removing the argument or speech out of the context of history. Perelman's theory requires the speaker to understand universal values and ideals throughout history. Henry Johnstone Jr., argues the philosophical and cultural changes over time are sometimes so great, that arguments cannot be universally effective and understood. Simply due to the differences in circumstance, it is impossible for a universal audience to exist. People of a certain time and place, the particular audience, are the limits of persuasive capacities.  John Ray critiques the concept of a universal audience as irrelevant because it lacks structure and content. Ray claims a universal audience is disorganized because it is different for each speaker based on his or her purpose. While the construction of a universal audience does require setting aside "all the particular, local features of the audience and consider only those features of the audience one considers universal," the concept of a universal audience will vary based on the motives, goals, and experiences of the speaker. When abiding by the universal audience, it is difficult to construct a persuasive argument, as the speaker must use general and vague language to be cognizant of all the audience-members values and ideals. Ray is concerned that when forced to follow such constraints, the speaker will not only fail to be persuasive, but will also fail to remain valid in specific situations. James Crosswhite addresses concerns about the validity of universal claims in formal argument. One way to construct this universal audience is to discover its universal character. The speaker must set aside any conflicting ideas or values, but because this process of creating a universal audience is specific to the circumstances, it can yield different and conflicting ideals as universal. Perelman makes the distinction that when creating a universal audience you should only eliminate conflicting concepts and values that are relevant. Additionally, because the idea of a universal audience itself is empirical, the speaker forms the imagined universal audience based on past experiences and pre-existing notions of how the universal audience should be defined. While the concept of the universal audience has been criticized for trying to create complete agreement, Perelman claims its main purpose is to steer the speakers towards reasonableness. And in regards to validity of arguments formed around the universal audience, the creation of a universal audience is a tool and constraint for the speaker. It is meant to be a moral standard when addressing any audience, but will still allow for persuasion and specificity.

Influence.

The German philosopher Hans-Georg Gadamer cites Perelman's work on rhetoric as an influence on the hermeneutical philosophy he presented in "Truth and Method".

Personal life.

He married Fela Perelman in 1935.

Bibliography.

"Selected French bibliography"  Articles  Books  With Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca  "Selected English bibliography"  Articles  Books  With Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca

Chaïm Perelman (born Henio (or Henri) Perelman; sometimes referred to mistakenly as Charles Perelman) (20 May 1912, Warsaw – 22 January 1984, Brussels) was a Polish-born philosopher of law, who studied, taught, and lived most of his life in Brussels. He was among the most important argumentation theorists of the twentieth century. His chief work is the "Traité de l'argumentation – la nouvelle rhétorique" (1958), with Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca, translated into English as "The New Rhetoric: A Treatise on Argumentation", by John Wilkinson and Purcell Weaver (1969).

Chaïm Perelman (* 20. Mai 1912 in Warschau, Generalgouvernement Warschau, Russisches Kaiserreich; † 22. Januar 1984 in Uccle bei Brüssel, Belgien) war ein polnisch-belgischer Jurist, Moral- und Rechtsphilosoph jüdischer Herkunft.