History.

Burials began in 1717 when Natalya Alexeyevna, the sister of Peter the Great, was interred in the burial vault of the Church of St Lazarus, from which the cemetery took its name. During the early years of its existence it required the Emperor's permission to allow burials in the cemetery, making it the chosen location for the burial plots of St Petersburg's elite. By the end of the eighteenth century burial was extended to the wealthy merchant class, in exchange for the payment of large sums of money. The wealthy and powerful commissioned tombstones and monuments from the most prominent Russian sculptors. The cemetery includes funerary monuments by Ivan Martos, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Vasily Demut-Malinovsky, Andrey Voronikhin, Fedot Shubin, Fyodor Tolstoy and other masters.  By the nineteenth century the cemetery was becoming overcrowded, and the first of the new cemeteries in the Lavra, the Tikhvin Cemetery, was opened in 1823. Burials in the Lazarevskoe Cemetery became less frequent in the nineteenth century, and in the twentieth century occurred in only exceptional cases. One of the last people to be interred was Count Sergei Witte in 1915, and in 1919 the cemetery was closed to new burials.  During the Soviet period the cemetery was closed and placed under state protection, administered by the society "Old Petersburg" (). The People's Commissariat for Education proposed in the early 1920s that the cemetery become a museum displaying the sculpture of funerary monuments, a proposal that the Leningrad city administration, agreed to. Work began on studying and recording the details of the memorials, and in 1932 it was declared a museum and part of the, but remained generally closed to visitors. The head of its administration from 1932 was the historian N. V. Uspensky. A group of Soviet writers visited the cemetery in 1934, and with the support of Maxim Gorky, declared it of great cultural and historical significance.  From 1935 Lensovet proposed that the Museum of Urban Sculpture collect the most significant pieces of memorial sculpture into the cemetery. During the 1930s the Soviet authorities "sought to establish a formal pantheon of dead Russian cultural heroes modelled after the national pantheon in Paris." The Lazarevskoe and Tikhvin Cemeteries, as well as the Volkovo Cemetery, were designated as the sites for development. Those memorials thought to have low historical or artistic interest were cleared away, while those considered to have higher historical or artistic interest were brought from other cemeteries across the city, quite often without the remains that they commemorated. One such example is Agustín de Betancourt, originally interred in the Smolensky Lutheran Cemetery with a columnar monument designed by Auguste de Montferrand. Betancourt's remains and monument were transferred to the Lazarevskoe Cemetery in 1979, where the monument has undergone restoration. The remains and funerary monuments of architect Jean-François Thomas de Thomon and mathematician Leonhard Euler had been transferred from the Smolensky Lutheran Cemetery in 1940 and 1956 respectively. During the Second World War the museum carried out inspections of the city's monuments and carried out some repair and restoration work. Large scale restoration work was carried out after the ending of the Siege of Leningrad, with the museum opening to the public in 1952.

Cemetery church.

The Church of St Lazarus () was built in 1717, and is located along the banks of the. Peter the Great's sister, Natalya Alexeyevna, had died in 1716, but Peter delayed her burial until his return from a journey abroad. The stone octahedral church, the first stone building of the Monastery, was built behind the Lavra's Annunciation Church, and was probably consecrated on 17 October 1717, shortly after Peter's return, and at the time of the transfer of the relics of St Lazarus. On 23 December 1718 court physician Robert Erskine was interred in the crypt, and on 26 April Peter's infant son, Tsarevich Peter Petrovich, was buried there. In 1723, the remains of Peter the Great's relatives were transferred to stone tombs in the Annunciation Church.  In 1719 Peter's close associate Count Boris Sheremetev was buried in the cemetery, beginning a long association with the Sheremetev family. Other military compatriots of Peter were also interred here, including Adam Veyde and Avtonom Golovin. By the middle of the eighteenth century the Lazarevskoe Cemetery contained about 5,000 burials. The church was rebuilt and expanded between 1787 and 1789, with the addition of a small sacristy at the northern end, and refectory on the western end. Most of the funding was provided by Ivan Yelagin, a prominent figure of Catherine the Great's reign, with further funding of 1,600 rubles from Count Nikolai Sheremetev to include the grave of Borish Sheremetev and to bring the church to its present dimensions. Sheremetev, who had scandalised society by marrying Praskovia Zhemchugova, an actress and opera singer of serf origins, arranged for a lavish funeral on her death in 1803, and for requiem services in the following years. On his own death in 1809 he was interred next to her in the church.  Numerous other members of the Sheremetev family were interred in the vaults over the years, as were those of other important Russian noble houses. Between 1835 and 1836 the church was completely rebuilt by architect L. Ya. Tiblen at the commission of Count D. N. Sheremetev. The roof and floors were replaced, the foundations redone and the walls rebuilt to an increased height. By the completion of the work in May 1836 the church had been fundamentally redesigned, only retaining the floorplan of the original. Further repair works in 1845 and 1867 altered the iconostasis and renewed the paintings. Burials continued to take place in the church vaults, with the last being Ekaterina Vasilyevna Dashkova, the widow of the writer and statesman of the Arzamas Society, in 1890.  The church was closed with the rest of the cemetery in 1923, and for a time served as a warehouse for storing monuments and gravestones brought from other cemeteries that were being demolished. With the establishment of the necropolis museum in 1932, the church interior was heavily remodelled. The iconostasis was dismantled and the walls and ceiling were painted over. Most of the icons were removed, though many of the historical monuments were retained. With the demolition of the Lavra's Dukhovskaya Church in 1937, a number of monuments were transferred to the museum, and over the next few years the remains of several famous historical figures were transferred and interred in the Church of St Lazarus, including; Prince Ioane of Georgia, Viktor Kochubey and Ekaterina Ilyinichna Kutuzova, the wife of Mikhail Kutuzov. Other monuments were brought from the Feodorovskaya Lavra Church, the Smolensky Armenian Church and the Catholic Church in Tsarskoye Selo. The remains of Count, the father-in-law of Decembrist Prince Sergei Petrovich Trubetskoy were reburied in the church, but his monument was never installed.  The church was damaged several times during the siege of Leningrad, with repair work beginning in 1944. It reopened several years later, and serves as an exhibition hall for funerary monuments of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Eighty-two monuments are now located in the Church of St Lazarus, thirty-three of which have been brought from other locations.

Burials.

Many of the early burials were those of the associates of Peter the Great. These included military figures such as Field Marshal Boris Sheremetev and General Adam Veyde, and the Court Physician Robert Erskine. The cemetery's exclusivity made it a desirable burial site, and many of the leading figures and families of St Petersburg acquired plots. Among them were the academics Mikhail Lomonosov and Stepan Krasheninnikov; playwrights Denis Fonvizin and Yakov Knyazhnin; architects Ivan Starov, and Andrey Voronikhin; statesmen and politicians Alexander Stroganov, Nikolay Mordvinov, Mikhail Muravyov-Vilensky and Sergei Witte; and military officers such as Vasily Chichagov. The family vaults of the Beloselsky-Belozersky, Trubetskoy, Volkonsky and Naryshkin ancient noble houses were located here, as were those of some of the prominent merchant dynasties such as the Demidovs and Yakovlevs. Art historian wrote "It was as if all those who had once formed a close circle of court society gathered here after death. A whole epoch, a whole world of obsolete ideas, almost all the court society of Elizabeth, Catherine and Paul were buried in the small space of the Lazarevskoe cemetery".  The remains and monuments of Jean-François Thomas de Thomon, mathematician Leonhard Euler and engineer Agustín de Betancourt, all originally interred in the Smolensky Lutheran Cemetery, were transferred to the Lazarevskoe Cemetery in 1940, 1956 and 1979 respectively.

References.

Citations References

Lazarevskoe Cemetery () is a historic cemetery in the centre of Saint Petersburg, and the oldest surviving cemetery in the city. It is part of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra, and is one of four cemeteries in the complex. Since 1932 it has been part of the, which refers to it as the Necropolis of the XVIII century (). It covers 0.7 hectares.

Der Lazarus-Friedhof ( / Lasarewskoje kladbischtsche; wiss. Transliteration; ""), eigentlich: Nekropol XVIII weka / Некрополь XVIII века / "Nekropole des 18. Jahrhunderts"; (engl. "Necropolis of the 18th Century") befindet sich am Alexander-Newski-Kloster in Sankt Petersburg (Russland). Seine Geschichte beginnt 1717. Auf ihm sind zahlreiche Persönlichkeiten der Oberschicht Sankt Petersburgs und des Russischen Reiches begraben. Auf ihm befinden sich die Gräber von Mitarbeitern des Zaren, hohen Staatsbeamten, Wissenschaftlern, Dichtern, Architekten, Ingenieuren und Adelsfamilien. Der Lazarus-Friedhof ist seit 1932 Teil des Staatlichen Skulpturenmuseum der Stadt.


Description.

At time of inauguration in 1930 the transmitter, which had a power of 60 kW, used a T-type antenna spun between two 100 m high wooden lattice towers placed 310 m apart. As this antenna produced large amounts of skywave, the area of undistorted fading-free reception - was in spite of its high transmission power - at night not as large as planned and so it was planned to replace this antenna by an aerial with better skywave suppression. So in 1933-34, a 190 m high wooden tower - the tallest structure ever built of wood - was built, in which a vertical wire antenna, which was electrically enlengthened by a metal ring with 10.6 metres diameters on the top of the tower, was hung up. At this time transmission power was also increased from 60 kW to 100 kW. After inauguration of this antenna, the two original wooden towers were dismantled. One of them was rebuilt at Koblenz, the other at Frankfurt-Heiligenstock. In 1939/1940 a second 100 kW transmitter was installed. It used as antenna a system of 3 T-antennas, which were mounted on 3 50 metres tall guyed masts arranged in a triangle. In opposite to the first transmitter, it was including its aerial designed for a quick change of broadcasting frequency, which was done in case of air attacks in order to form a single frequency network with other transmitters, which hindered hostile aircraft using the signals for navigation purpose. On April 6, 1945, the wooden tower and the masts carrying the system of T-antennas were blown up by the SS to prevent its capture by the Allies in World War II.  Today, the most important aerial mast in Mühlacker is a 273 m high guyed steel tube mast with a diameter of 1.67 m, located at. This mast, which was built in 1950, is used as a transmitter for the mediumwave frequency 576 kHz and is therefore insulated against ground. It is designed as an antifading aerial and is therefore double-feedable and insulated. The mast is topped with a butterfly aerial for FM-broadcasting transmitters.  There are flight safety lamps near the ground end of the guy ropes, to make the span of the guy ropes more visible.  Two other radio masts, with heights of 130 m and 80 m, were located at the Mühlacker site.  The three masts are arranged in a nearly straight line on the site. A T-type aerial for shortwave transmission is fixed between two small guyed steel framework masts, but was shut down on October 19, 2004. It was later dismantled.  In 1948, a 110 m tall guyed steel framework mast was built on the site at This served as a transmission aerial for the American Forces Network (AFN) until 1963. From 1963 until its demolition in November 1993, the mast was used as part of a directional aerial for a mediumwave transmitter. It also served as a spare FM transmitter with a butterfly aerial installed on top. The mast was demolished because it was in poor repair and was deemed no longer necessary. Plans for a new mast have not been realized.  Also located here at was a 50 m steel framework mast insulated against ground. It was part of the directional aerial for the AFN transmitter described above. After 1963, it was only used as an aerial for the internal mobile radio service of the transmission facility. It was demolished in April, 2004 and replaced in the summer of 2004 with a 93 m high freestanding steel framework tower carrying aerials for directional services.

The Mühlacker Broadcasting Transmission Facility is a radio transmission facility near Mühlacker, Germany, first put into service on November 21, 1930. It uses two guyed steel tube masts as aerials and one guyed steel framework mast, which are insulated against ground. It has two transmission aerials for shortwave and one free standing steel framework tower for directional radio services. The shortwave transmitter was shut off on October 19, 2004. The medium wave transmitter was switched off in January 2012.

Der Sender Mühlacker ist eine Sendeeinrichtung für Rundfunk bei Mühlacker im Enzkreis, die aus einem gegen Erde isolierten Stahlrohrmast und einem freistehenden Stahlfachwerkturm besteht. Sie wird vom SWR, der Eigentümer der Anlage ist, zur Verbreitung von Hörfunkprogrammen auf UKW sowie für Richtfunk genutzt. Eine Ausstrahlung im DAB+ Modus wurde am 25. November 2019 aufgenommen. Der zu dieser Anlage gehörende Kurzwellensender, über den zuletzt das Programm SWR3 verbreitet wurde, wurde am 19. Oktober 2004 stillgelegt.


Biography.

Yepes was born into a family of humble origin in Lorca, Region of Murcia. His father gave him his first guitar when he was four years old, and took the boy five miles on a donkey to and from lessons three days a week. Yepes took his first lessons from Jesús Guevara, in Lorca. Later his family moved to Valencia when the Spanish Civil War started in 1936.  When he was 13, he was accepted to study at the Conservatorio de Valencia with the pianist and composer Vicente Asencio. Here he followed courses in harmony, composition, and performance. Yepes is credited by many with developing the A-M-I technique of playing notes with the ring (Anular"), middle (Medio"), and index ("Indice") fingers of the right hand. Guitar teachers traditionally taught their students to play by alternating the index and middle fingers, or I-M. However, since Yepes studied under teachers who were "not" guitarists, they pushed him to expand on the traditional technique. According to Yepes, Asencio "was a pianist who loathed the guitar because a guitarist couldn't play scales very fast and very legato, as on a piano or a violin. 'If you can't play like that,' he told me, 'you must take up another instrument.'" Through practice and improvement in his technique, Yepes could match Asencio's piano scales on the guitar. "'So,' he [Asencio] said, 'it's possible on the guitar. Now play that fast in thirds, then in chromatic thirds.'" Allan Kozinn observed that, "Thanks to Mr. Asencio's goading, Mr. Yepes learned "to play music the way "I" want, not the way the "guitar" wants." Similarly, the composer, violinist, and pianist George Enescu would also push Yepes to improve his technique, which also allowed him to play with greater speed.  On 16 December 1947 he made his Madrid début, performing Joaquín Rodrigo's "Concierto de Aranjuez" with Ataúlfo Argenta conducting the Spanish National Orchestra. The overwhelming success of this performance brought him renown from critics and public alike. Soon afterwards, he began to tour with Argenta, visiting Switzerland, Italy, Germany, and France. During this time he was largely responsible for the growing popularity of the "Concierto de Aranjuez", and made two early recordings, both with Argenta – one in mono with the Madrid Chamber Orchestra (released between 1953 and 1955), and the second in stereo with the Orquesta Nacional de España (recorded in 1957 and released in 1959).  In 1950, after performing in Paris, he spent a year studying interpretation under the violinist George Enescu, and the pianist Walter Gieseking. He also studied informally with Nadia Boulanger. This was followed by a long period in Italy where he profited from contact with artists of every kind.  On 18 May 1951, as he leant on the parapet of a bridge in Paris and watched the Seine flow by, Yepes unexpectedly heard a voice inside him ask, "What are you doing?" He had been a nonbeliever for 25 years, perfectly content that there was no God or transcendence or afterlife. But that existential question, which he understood as God's call, changed everything for him. He became a devout Catholic, which he remained for the rest of his life.  In 1952 a work ("Romance"), Yepes claims to have written when he was a young boy, became the theme to the film "Forbidden Games" ("Jeux interdits") by René Clément.  Despite Yepes's claims of composing it, the piece ("Romance") has often been attributed to other authors; indeed published versions exist from before Yepes was even born, and the earliest known recording of the work dates from a cylinder from around 1900. In the credits of the film "Jeux Interdits", however, "Romance" is credited as "Traditional: arranged – Narciso Yepes." Yepes also performed other pieces for the "Forbidden Games" soundtrack. His later credits as film composer include the soundtracks to "La Fille aux yeux d'or" (1961) and "La viuda del capitán Estrada" (1991). He also starred as a musician in the 1967 film version of "El amor brujo".  In Paris he met Maria Szumlakowska, a young Polish philosophy student, the daughter of Marian Szumlakowski, the Ambassador of Poland in Spain from 1935 to 1944. They married in 1958 and had two sons, Juan de la Cruz (deceased), Ignacio Yepes, an orchestral conductor and flautist, and one daughter, Ana Yepes, a dancer and choreographer.  In 1964, Yepes performed the "Concierto de Aranjuez" with the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra, premièring the ten-string guitar, which he invented in collaboration with the renowned guitar maker José Ramírez III. The instrument made it possible to transcribe works originally written for baroque lute without deleterious transposition of the bass notes. However, the main reason for the invention of this instrument was the addition of string resonators tuned to C, A#, G#, F#, which resulted in the first guitar with truly chromatic string resonance – similar to that of the piano with its sustain/pedal mechanism.  After 1964, Yepes used the ten-string guitar exclusively, touring all six inhabited continents, performing in recitals as well as with the world's leading orchestras, giving an average of 130 performances each year. He recorded the "Concierto de Aranjuez" for the first time with the ten-string guitar in 1969 with Odón Alonso conducting the Orquesta Sinfonica R.T.V. Española.  Apart from being a consummate musician, Yepes was also a significant scholar. His research into forgotten manuscripts of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries resulted in the rediscovery of numerous works for guitar or lute. He was also the first person to record the complete lute works of Bach on period instruments (14-course baroque lute). In addition, through his patient and intensive study of his instrument, Narciso Yepes developed a revolutionary technique and previously unsuspected resources and possibilities.  He was granted many official honours including the Gold Medal for Distinction in Arts, conferred by King Juan Carlos I; membership in the Academy of "Alfonso X el Sabio" and an Honorary Doctorate from the University of Murcia. In 1986 he was awarded the Premio Nacional de Música of Spain, and he was elected unanimously to the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando.  In the 1980s, Yepes formed Trio Yepes with his son Ignacio Yepes on flute and recorder and his daughter Ana dancing to her own choreography.  After 1993, Narciso Yepes limited his public appearances due to illness. He gave his last concert on 1 March 1996 in Santander (Spain).  He died in Murcia in 1997, after a long battle with lymphoma.

Press quotes.

As one writer has observed, "His [Yepes'] taking advantage of the instrument's flexibility has opened Yepes to some criticism," citing Bach's Chaconne in D Minor as an example. Yepes responded that, "There are three versions of the Chaconne and I analyzed all three. The version I play is the one I think Bach would have written if he'd composed the piece for guitar or lute."  Guitarist and teacher Ivor Mairants noted that after a Yepes concert at Wigmore Hall in 1961, some in the audience were split about Yepes' phrasing. Mairants, who had started as a jazz guitarist but took up the classical guitar and had two lessons with Segovia, met with Yepes afterwards and questioned him about his phrasing, which was very different from Segovia's. In his memoir, Mairants wrote, "I exclaimed 'Do you think it necessary to play that section (of Villa Lobos' "Prelude No. 1") as slowly as you do?' 'Why, yes' he (Yepes) said, 'Look at the paper (music) and you will see it written that way'. When I again mentioned that Segovia did not play it that way, he had no doubt had enough of my comparisons and answered, somewhat heatedly 'I have a great admiration for Segovia and everything he has done for the guitar and its history, but I do not have to put on a record of Segovia and play the music exactly as he does. No, I don't think so!'" Elsewhere, Yepes was quoted as saying, "Segovia is a very beautiful player, but it is not necessary to imitate him. Why should Rostropovich imitate Casals?"  "Yepes is, of course, a thoroughly accomplished performer, but in this repertory he seems a bit too cool and, at times, even mechanical. Certainly his account of the famous "Chaconne", if more rhythmically stable than Segovia's, has none of the rich panoply of colors that Segovia produced. Then, too, the three-note figurations that comprise the E Prelude are plucked out with a stiff rigidity lacking the nuance and legato phrasing that Julian Bream [...]"

Recordings (partial).

Recordings at Deutsche Grammophon Gesellschaft

Narciso Yepes (14 November 19273 May 1997) was a Spanish guitarist. He is considered one of the finest virtuoso classical guitarists of the twentieth century.

Narciso García Yepes (* 14. November 1927 in Lorca; † 3. Mai 1997 in Murcia) war ein spanischer klassischer Gitarrist, Lautenist, Arrangeur und Komponist. Mit Andrés Segovia und Miguel Llobet gehört er zu den größten Gitarristen Spaniens. Er spielte auf einer zehnsaitigen Gitarre, welche er mit dem Gitarrenbauer José Ramírez III entwickelte. 1952 arrangierte er die Musik zum Oscar-prämierten Film "Verbotene Spiele" ("Jeux interdits").


Early life.

Kirchherr was born in 1938 in Hamburg, Germany, and was the daughter of a former executive of the German branch of the Ford Motor Company. During World War II, she was evacuated to the safety of the Baltic Sea where she remembered seeing dead bodies on the shore (after the ships "Cap Arcona" and the SS "Deutschland" had been bombed and sunk) and the destruction in Hamburg when she returned.  After her graduation, Kirchherr enrolled in the Meisterschule für Mode, Textil, Grafik und Werbung in Hamburg, as she wanted to study fashion design but demonstrated a talent for black-and-white photography. Reinhard Wolf, the school's main photographic tutor, convinced her to switch courses and promised that he would hire her as his assistant when she graduated. Kirchherr worked for Wolf as his assistant from 1959 until 1963.  In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Kirchherr and her art school friends were involved in the European existentialist movement whose followers were later nicknamed "Exis" by Lennon. In 1995, she told BBC Radio Merseyside: "Our philosophy then, because we were only little kids, was wearing black clothes and going around looking moody. Of course, we had a clue who Jean-Paul Sartre was. We got inspired by all the French artists and writers, because that was the closest we could get. England was so far away, and America was out of the question. So France was the nearest. So we got all the information from France, and we tried to dress like the French existentialists... We wanted to be free, we wanted to be different, and tried to be cool, as we call it now."

The Beatles.

Kirchherr, Voormann and Vollmer were friends who had all attended the Meisterschule, and shared the same ideas about fashion, culture and music. Voormann became Astrid's boyfriend, and moved into the Kirchherr home, where he had his own room. In 1960, after Kirchherr and Vollmer had had an argument with Voormann, he wandered down the Reeperbahn (in the St. Pauli district of Hamburg) and heard music coming from the Kaiserkeller club. Voormann walked in and watched a performance by a group called the Beatles: Lennon, McCartney, Harrison, Sutcliffe and Best, their drummer at the time. Voormann asked Kirchherr and Vollmer to listen to this new music, and after being persuaded to visit the Kaiserkeller (which was in the rough area of the Reeperbahn), Kirchherr decided that all she wanted to do was to be as close to the Beatles as she could. The trio of friends had never heard rock n' roll before, having previously listened to only trad jazz, with some Nat King Cole and The Platters mixed in. The trio then visited the Kaiserkeller almost every night, arriving at 9 o'clock and sitting by the front of the stage. Kirchherr later said: "It was like a merry-go-round in my head, they looked absolutely astonishing... My whole life changed in a couple of minutes. All I wanted was to be with them and to know them."  Kirchherr later said that she, Voormann and Vollmer felt guilty about being German, and about Germany's recent history. Meeting the Beatles was something very special for her, although she knew that English people would think that she ate sauerkraut, and would comment on her heavy German accent, but they made jokes about it together. Lennon would make sarcastic remarks from the stage, saying "You Krauts, we won the war", knowing that very few Germans in the audience spoke English, but any English sailors present would roar with laughter.  Sutcliffe was fascinated by the trio, but especially Kirchherr, and thought they looked like "real bohemians". Bill Harry later said that when Kirchherr walked in, every head would immediately turn her way, and that she always captivated the whole room. Sutcliffe wrote to a friend that he could hardly take his eyes off her and had tried to talk to Kirchherr during the next break, but she had already left the club. Sutcliffe managed to meet them eventually, and learned that all three had attended the Meisterschule, which was the same type of art college that Lennon and Sutcliffe had attended in Liverpool. (Note: Meisterschule für Mode, Textil, Grafik und Werbung [Master Craftspeople College for Fashion, Textile, Graphics, and Advertising], although it is now called the University of Applied Sciences).

Photographs.

Kirchherr asked the Beatles if they would mind letting her take photographs of them in a photo session, which impressed them, as other groups had only snapshots that were taken by friends. The next morning Kirchherr took photographs with a Rolleicord camera, at a fairground in a municipal park called "Hamburger Dom" which was close to the Reeperbahn, and in the afternoon she took them all (minus Best, who decided not to go) to her mother's house in Altona. Kirchherr's bedroom (which was all in black, including the furniture, with silver foil on the walls and a large tree branch suspended from the ceiling), was decorated especially for Voormann, with whom she had a relationship, although after the visits to the Kaiserkeller their relationship became purely platonic. Kirchherr started dating Sutcliffe, although she always remained a close friend of Voormann.  Kirchherr later supplied Sutcliffe and the other Beatles with Preludin, which, when taken with beer, made them feel euphoric and helped to keep them awake until the early hours of the morning. The Beatles had taken Preludin before, but it was only possible at the time to obtain Preludin with a doctor's prescription note. Kirchherr's mother received them from a local chemist, who supplied them without asking questions. After meeting Kirchherr, Lennon filled his letters to Cynthia Powell (his girlfriend at the time) with "Astrid said this, Astrid did that", which made Powell jealous, until she read that Sutcliffe was in a relationship with Kirchherr. When Powell visited Hamburg with Dot Rhone (McCartney's girlfriend at the time) in April 1961, they stayed at Kirchherr's house. In August 1963, Kirchherr met Lennon and Cynthia in Paris while they were both there for a belated honeymoon, as Kirchherr was there with a girlfriend for a few days' holiday. The four of them went from wine bar to wine bar and finally ended up back at Kirchherr's lodgings, where all four fell asleep on Kirchherr's single bed.  The Beatles met Kirchherr again in Hamburg in 1966 when they were touring Germany, and Kirchherr gave Lennon the letters he had written to Sutcliffe in 1961 and 1962. Lennon said it was "the best present I've had in years". All of the Beatles wrote many letters to Kirchherr: "I only have a couple from George [Harrison], which I'll never show anyone, but he wrote so many. So did the others. I probably threw them away. You do that when you're young – you don't think of the future." Harrison later asked Kirchherr to arrange the cover of his "Wonderwall Music" album in 1968.

The Beatles haircut and clothes.

Kirchherr is credited with inventing the Beatles' moptop haircut although she disagreed, saying: "All that rubbish people said, that I created their hairstyle, that's rubbish! Lots of German boys had that hairstyle. Stuart [Sutcliffe] had it for a long while and the others copied it. I suppose the most important thing I contributed to them was friendship." In 1995, Kirchherr told BBC Radio Merseyside: "All my friends in art school used to run around with this sort of what you call Beatles haircut. And my boyfriend then, Klaus Voormann, had this hairstyle, and Stuart liked it very very much. He was the first one who really got the nerve to get the Brylcreem out of his hair and asking me to cut his hair for him. Pete [Best] has really curly hair and it wouldn't work." Kirchherr says that after she cut Sutcliffe's hair, Harrison asked her to do the same when she was visiting Liverpool, and Lennon and McCartney had their hair cut in the same style while they were in Paris, by Kirchherr's friend, Vollmer, who was living there at the time as an assistant to photographer William Klein.  After moving into the Kirchherr family's house, Sutcliffe used to borrow her clothes, as he was the same height as Kirchherr. He wore her leather pants and jackets, collarless jackets, oversized shirts, and long scarves. He also borrowed a corduroy suit with no lapels that he wore on stage, which prompted Lennon to sarcastically ask if his mother had lent him the suit.

Stuart Sutcliffe.

Sutcliffe wrote to friends that he was infatuated with Kirchherr, and asked her friends which colours, films, books and painters she liked, and whom she fancied. Best later commented that the beginning of their relationship was, "like one of those fairy stories". Kirchherr says that she immediately fell in love with Sutcliffe, and referred to him as "the love of my life". Kirchherr and Sutcliffe got engaged in November 1960, and exchanged rings, as is the German custom. Sutcliffe later wrote to his parents that he was engaged to Kirchherr, which they were shocked to learn, as they thought he would give up his career as an artist, although he told Kirchherr that he would like to be an art teacher in London or Germany in the future.  Kirchherr and Sutcliffe went to Liverpool in the summer of 1961, as Kirchherr wanted to meet Sutcliffe's family (and to see Liverpool) before their marriage. Everybody was expecting a strange beatnik artist from Hamburg, but Kirchherr turned up at the Sutcliffes' house at 37 Aigburth Drive, Liverpool, bearing a single long-stemmed orchid in her hand as a present, and dressed in a round-necked cashmere sweater and tailored skirt.  In February 1962, Sutcliffe collapsed in the middle of an art class in Hamburg. He was suffering from intense headaches, and Kirchherr's mother had German doctors perform checks on him, although they were unable to determine the cause of his headaches. While living at the Kirchherrs' house in Hamburg, his condition deteriorated. On 10 April 1962, Kirchherr's mother phoned her daughter at work and told her Sutcliffe had collapsed again, was brought back to the house and an ambulance had been called for. Kirchherr rushed home and rode with Sutcliffe in the ambulance, but he died in her arms before it reached the hospital.  Three days later Kirchherr met Lennon, McCartney and Best at the Hamburg airport (they were returning to Hamburg to perform) and told them Sutcliffe had died of a brain haemorrhage. Harrison and manager Brian Epstein arrived on another plane sometime later with Sutcliffe's mother, who had been informed by telegram. Harrison and Lennon were helpful towards the distraught Kirchherr, with Lennon telling her one day that she definitely had to decide if she wanted to "Live or die, there is no other question."

Freelance photographer.

In 1964, Kirchherr became a freelance photographer, and with her colleague Max Scheler she took "behind the scenes" photographs of the Beatles during the filming of "A Hard Day's Night", as an assignment for the German "Stern" magazine. Epstein had forbidden any publicity photographs to be taken without his permission, but Kirchherr phoned Harrison, who said he would arrange it, but added, "Only if they pay you." "Stern" phoned Bill Harry at his Mersey Beat newspaper and asked if he could arrange a photograph of all the groups in Liverpool, so Harry suggested Kirchherr be the photographer, although Kirchherr later said she placed an advertisement in the "Liverpool Echo" newspaper. Kirchherr and Scheler said that any group who wanted their photograph taken in front of St. George's Hall would be paid per musician, but over 200 groups turned up on the day, which meant Kirchherr and Scheler soon ran out of money. Kirchherr didn't publish the photographs until 1995, in a book called "Liverpool Days", which is a limited-edition collection of black-and-white photographs. In 1999, a companion book called "Hamburg Days" was published (a two-volume limited edition), containing a set of photographs by Kirchherr and "memory drawings" by Voormann. The drawings are recollections of places and situations that Voormann clearly remembers, but Kirchherr had never photographed, or had lost the photographs.  Kirchherr described how difficult it was to be accepted as a female photographer in the 1960s: "Every magazine and newspaper wanted me to photograph the Beatles again. Or they wanted my old stuff, even if it was out of focus, whether they were nice or not. They wouldn't look at my other work. It was very hard for a girl photographer in the 60s to be accepted. In the end I gave up. I've hardly taken a photo since 1967." Kirchherr was quoted as saying that "When We Was Fab" (Genesis Publications 2007), would be her last book of photographs: "I have decided it is time to create one book in which I am totally involved so that it contains the pictures I like most, printed the way I would print them, even down to the text and design... This book is me and that is why it will be the last one. The very last one."  Kirchherr expressed respect for other photographers, such as Annie Leibovitz (because of the humour in her work), Irving Penn, Richard Avedon, Jim Rakete and Reinhard Wolf (German Wikipedia), and French film-makers François Truffaut, and Jean Cocteau. Kirchherr said that her favourite photos are the ones she took of Sutcliffe by the Baltic sea, and of Lennon and Harrison in her attic room at 45a Eimsbütteler Strasse. She expressed reservations about digital photography, saying that a photographer should concentrate on the art of photography and not on the technical results, although admitting that she knew nothing about computers and was "afraid of the internet".  Kirchherr admitted she was not good at business because of insufficient organisation, and had never really looked after the negatives of her photographs to prove ownership. Her business partner Ulf Krüger—a songwriter and record producer—successfully found many of Astrid's negatives and photographs and had them copyrighted, although he believes that Kirchherr lost over the years because of people using her photographs without permission. In July 2001, Kirchherr visited Liverpool to open an exhibition of her work at the Mathew Street art gallery, which is close to the former site of The Cavern Club. She appeared as a guest at the city's Beatles Week Festival during the August Bank Holiday. Kirchherr's work has been exhibited internationally in places, such as Hamburg, Bremen, London, Liverpool, New York City, Washington D.C., Tokyo, Vienna, and at the Rock 'n' Roll Hall of Fame.

Later life.

In 1967, Kirchherr married English drummer Gibson Kemp (born Gibson Stewart Kemp, 1945, Liverpool, Lancashire), who had replaced Ringo Starr in Rory Storm and the Hurricanes. The marriage ended in divorce after seven years. She then worked as a barmaid, as an interior designer, and then for a music publishing firm, getting married for a second time to a German businessman. Kirchherr worked as an advisor in 1994 on the film "Backbeat", which portrayed Kirchherr, Sutcliffe and the Beatles during their early days in Hamburg. She was impressed with Stephen Dorff (who played Sutcliffe in the film), commenting that he was the right age (19 years old at the time), and his gestures, the way he smoked, and talked were so like Sutcliffe's that she had goose pimples. Kirchherr was portrayed in the film by Sheryl Lee.  Starting in the mid-1990s, Kirchherr and business partner Krüger operated the K&K photography shop in Hamburg, offering custom vintage prints, books and artwork for sale. K&K periodically helped arrange Beatles' conventions and other Beatles' events in the Hamburg area. She had no children, and lived alone. She commented in 1995: "My [second] marriage ended in 1985... I regretted I had no children. I just couldn't see me have any. But now I am pleased when I see the situation the world is in. I live alone and am very happy."  Kirchherr died on 12 May 2020 in Hamburg, following "a short, serious illness", a week prior to her 82nd birthday. News of her death was first announced by Beatles historian Mark Lewisohn via Twitter. He praised her involvement with the band as "immeasurable", and credited her as an "intelligent, inspirational, innovative, daring, artistic, awake, aware, beautiful, smart, loving and uplifting friend to many".

Astrid Kirchherr (20 May 1938 – 12 May 2020) was a German photographer and artist known for her association with the Beatles (along with her friends Klaus Voormann and Jürgen Vollmer) and her photographs of the band's original members – John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison, Stuart Sutcliffe and Pete Best – during their early days in Hamburg.

Astrid Kirchherr (* 20. Mai 1938 in Hamburg; † 12. Mai 2020 ebenda) war eine deutsche Fotografin und Künstlerin. Ihre Fotos der Beatles sind weltweit in Buchveröffentlichungen zu finden.


History.

The name is thought to derive from Tullamareena, a young member of the Wurundjeri (who later in 1838 escaped from the first Melbourne Gaol, burning it down in the process) according to Reverend Langhorne, an advisor to the first government surveyor, Robert Hoddle. Forty years ago the area was named as Toolimerin.  Tullamarine Village was on Bulla or Lancefield Road, which is now Melrose Drive. It was positioned at the intersection of three municipal boundaries (Broadmeadows, Bulla and Keilor), which came together at Victoria Street and Melrose Drive. The primary school was on land now in the airport (south of Victoria Street) and the post office was near the present day Tullamarine Reserve. Originally Tullamarine extended westwards to the Organ Pipes National Park, and the nearby area bounded by the Maribyrnong River, Jacksons Creek and Deep Creek was called Tullamarine Island because of the difficulties faced by inhabitants in getting across the watercourses during wet weather.  When the land in the Tullamarine Parish was subdivided into farm lots in 1842 only one lot sold, and the rest were sold by selection in 1850. A Wesleyan school was opened in 1855 and two other schools in 1859 and 1864. The Wesleyan one continued until the State primary school was opened in 1884. Tullamarine Post Office opened on 4 March 1859. By 1865 Tullamarine had a hotel and a district population of about 200 persons.  In 1988, Anthony Rowhead of F.A.C. developed a scheme to rename roadways within the airport after aborigines, and pioneers of Tullamarine and aviation. It was fully developed when it was cancelled at the last moment with no reason given, with Gowrie Park Drive the only named road. It was named after the farm owned by James Lane in the 1920s when it was used as a landing ground by those daring young men who would visit the Inverness Hotel (near the north end of the runway). When Donovans had the farm during World War II, planes were parked there overnight in case a bombing raid struck Essendon Aerodrome.  Section 1 of the parish of Tullamarine was just over the river from Keilor. Its most noted occupants were Edward Wilson, editor of "The Argus", and an acclimatation enthusiast, and Robert McDougall, a famed breeder of the Booth strain of Shorthorns. Section 2, Annandale, gave Annandale Road its name. Its most noted occupant was Bill Parr. Section 3 was granted to William Foster and became known as the Springs. His younger brother J.F.L.Foster took it, and section 21 Doutta Galla (south of Sharps Road) over later while he was acting Governor and the homestead on 21DG was called the Governor's House by locals. Section 21 became James Sharp's "Hillside" and the Crotty family's dairy farm called Broomfield. The southern part of Section 3 became the Reddans' "Brightview" and Tommy Loft's "Dalkeith". The Wesleyan School was near the bend in Cherie Street and the Methodist Church was on the south corner of Post office Lane at the northern boundary of Section 3. Also on Section 3 was the Junction Hotel (which later became The Greens Corner store run by Cec and Lily Green.) A 7-Eleven now stands on this site. Between there and Derby Street was "Broombank" farmed by John Cock, Keith Williams' parents and Ray Loft, on which stood David Niall's Lady of the Lake Hotel when Burke and Wills passed by.  Between Broadmeadows-Mickleham Rd and the Moonee Moonee Ponds was section 4, the southern half of which became E. E. Kenny's "Camp Hill" because diggers bound for the goldfields camped on his property. Eventually the part west of Bulla Rd (Melrose Drive) was sold off and became (Samuel) Mansfield's Triangle. The northern half of section 4 became Edmond Dunn's "Viewpoint". It was between Mickleham Road and the creek, north of Camp Hill Park to the Lackenheath Drive corner. North of Viewpoint was "Stewarton" whose occupant (1846–1855) was Peter McCracken, who later had a dairy in Kensington and built Ardmillan in Moonee Ponds. He was followed by John Kerr and, from 1892, by John Cock. A later prominent owner was Jim Barrow who had the first tractor in the district. Stewarton was renamed Gladstone and now, with Viewpoint, comprises the of Gladstone Park.  On the west side of Broadmeadows Road (now Mickleham Road) was section 6. This and section 15 (north to the Westmeadows Football Ground) were granted to John Carre Riddell, after whom Riddells Creek was named. The land from Freight Road to the creek was a farm called Chandos (after which a street was named in nearby Attwood) but in the early 1900s John Cock divided it into three farms; from the north, Judd's Chandos, Lockhart's "Springburn" and Wright's "Strathconnan".  Section 7 was to the west and was granted to John Pascoe Fawkner. As Bulla Road bisected sections 6 and 7, Fawkner and Riddell swapped land so that Fawkner's was now to the south west and Riddell's to the north east. Fawkner divided his land into blocks to enable his beloved yeoman farmers to obtain a block. James Henry Parr consolidated many of the blocks to form his farm "The Elms". Nearer to Grants Lane was the Loves' dairy farm. Riddell's land became Wallace Wright's "Sunnyside" (later Heaps) and Charles Nash's "Fairview". The area bounded by Derby Street as far north of Springbank was called Hamilton Terrace after Riddell's partner and subdivided into acre blocks. At the suggestion of Alec Rasmussen, the Tullamarine Progress Association bought Noah Holland's 6 acres and donated what is now called Tullamarine Reserve to Broadmeadows Shire in late 1929. A triangular part of section 15, now containing the airport terminal, later became the Paynes' "Scone".  Most of the airport is now on Section 14, "Gowrie Park", owned by the Ritchies of Aucholzie, James Lane and Donovan during most of the years until airport acquisitions began. Gowrie Park Drive recalls this farm. Section 8, east of McNabs Road and south of Grants Lane, was granted to John Grant and the McNabs. Grant's farm, the northern half, was called "Seafield" and the McNabs had two farms, Victoria Bank and Oakbank but the middle farm was absorbed into Oakbank. The two families are credited with introducing Ayrshire cattle into Australia. The Seafield School was where the runway crosses the line of Grants Lane.  Across McNabs Road was Fox's Barbiston and on the North of Barbiston Rd, the McNabs' second Victoria Bank (later owned by journalist Cornelius Percy Blom) and the Ritchies' Aucholzie. On both sides of Mansfields Road were farms owned by the descendants of David Mansfield. North of these farms was "Glenara" owned by Alister Clark, the breeder of the Black Rose and first Chairman of the Moonee Valley Racing Club until his death.  The three great leaders in Tullamarine's history were Alec Rasmussen, Major Murphy and Leo Dineen. The Spring Street Reserve was renamed after Leo because of his efforts to establish various sporting clubs and facilities. Alec Rasmussen was responsible for the progress association purchasing the Melrose Drive Reserve and donating it to Council. Walter Murphy moved two war memorials and Ann Greene's church as well as leading fire risk lessening burn offs (sources below).  The Tullamarine Methodist Church (just north of Trade Park Drive) was built in 1870 and managed to reach its centenary plus about two decades. It's stained glass windows were incorporated into the Uniting Church in Carrick Drive, Gladstone Park. Tullamarine State School 2613 was on the north corner of Conders Lane (Link Rd) but was relocated onto "Dalkeith" circa 1961 and given a new number. The Progress Association was formed in 1924 at a meeting convened by Tom Loft of Dalkeith (See The Argus 19 8 1924 page 13.). Tennis was played at the Johnson's Glendewar (east of the Airport Terminal buildings) until they moved to Cumberland (See The Argus 23 7 1914, page 4.). An application to play Sunday tennis at Tullamarine (Argus 1 9 1939 page 15) was refused but there is no evidence in newspapers of organised tennis apart from the above. By the 1930s, there was less demand for hay so pig farmers such as Heaps, Lacy and Payne (on the Airport Terminal site) became more common.  By the 1930s the Tullamarine Village also had a church, tennis and football clubs and a progress association. The chief activities were hay production and grazing. During the mid-1950s Tullamarine Village became an agricultural and residential township. Later in that decade the Federal Government announced that it was examining a site north and west of the township for a new airport, and land acquisition began in the early 1960s. The school was moved to a new site in 1961.  In 1955 the Village Drive-In was opened with one screen and a capacity of 862 Cars. The drive-in closed in 1984 and the site was developed into a housing estate with streets named after famous film studios such as Forum and Paramount.  Between 1967 and 1970 Tullamarine Freeway was built, dividing Tullamarine from its eastern area, which is Gladstone Park. The part west of the freeway has housing, a large industrial estate and is skirted by the Western Ring Road with interchanges where it crosses the freeway.

Present day.

Sharps Road, which runs east-west near the southern border of Tullamarine, was until the late 1980s a single carriageway road. On its southern side was a line of tall pine trees hiding a small pony club. Today, Sharps Road is a bustling dual-carriageway road providing an alternative route from the Western Ring Road to Melbourne Airport.  In 1987 the median house price in Tullamarine was 97% of the median for metropolitan Melbourne, and in 1996 it was 82% of the metropolitan median.  Tullamarine had census populations of 82 (1891), 190 (1921) and 204 (1947). Later population estimates were 385 (1955) and 1,666 (1966). The current population of Tullamarine is 8,758 as at September 2005.

Climate.

Tullamarine's climate is generally the same as Melbourne's, with some slight variation.

Sport.

Australian rules football.

Tullamarine has one football club, the Tullamarine Demons, who are competing in the Essendon District Football League. The club was formed in 1974 as a result of a merger between two existing Essendon District Football League clubs Essendon Baptist St John's and Ascot Vale Presbyterians and becoming known as Essendon-Tullamarine. In 1981 it changed its name to Tullamarine Football Club. It is situated at the Leo Dineen Reserve in Spring Street, Tullamarine.  The Hangar, the training ground and administrative headquarters of Australian Football League team Essendon Football Club since 2013 is in Tullamarine.

Cricket.

The Tullamarine Cricket Club (TCC) was formed in the season of 1968/69 and is situated at the Spring Street Reserve, and affiliated with the North West Cricket Association. It is a relatively young club with over one hundred members that are either players or social members.

Soccer.

The Tullamarine Jets FC Soccer Club was formed in 2005 but moved to its current home ground, Tullamarine Reserve on Melrose Drive in 2008. The club has approximately 100 members, either playing or social, and fields the City of Hume's only open age Women's team. The club is affiliated with Football Federation Victoria and had its most successful season in 2009 with its First, Seconds and Under 18's all winning runners up flags.

Tennis.

The Tullamarine Tennis Club has approximately 200 members and caters the needs of both social and competition players. Non-members are also welcome to the club. Competitions available to members include Pennant, Juniors and Seniors. It has six synthetic grass courts, a clubroom with bath/shower, kitchen facilities, and an undercover barbecue area used for social and tennis events

Horse racing.

A horse by the name of Tullamarine took part in the 1988 Grand National at Aintree in England. His odds of 200/1 were justified when he fell at the first fence.  Netball Tullamarine Demons Netball Club.

Economy.

As there is an industrial area located in the suburb and its proximity to the state's largest airport a handful of global aerospace businesses have local offices located here.  When OzJet, an airline, existed, its head office was in Tullamarine.  Melbourne newspaper The Age had its Print Centre facility in Tullamarine; an iconic building which, in the early 2000s, cost $220 million to develop and which was sold in 2015 to Zagame Automotive for $16 million.  The head office of Schweppes Australia is located on Beverage Drive.

Transport.

There are five public bus routes that run through Tullamarine.  Railway stations nearest to Tullamarine are Broadmeadows and Jacana, both on the Craigieburn line.  There are various roads that run through Tullamarine- linking to residential homes, motorways, city and airport.

Tullamarine is a suburb of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, 15 km north-west of Melbourne's central business district. It is split between three local government areas—the cities of Brimbank, Hume and Moreland. As of the, Tullamarine had a population of 6,605.

Tullamarine ist ein Vorort von Melbourne im Bundesstaat Victoria, Australien. Nach der Volkszählung von 2016 hatte er 6605 Einwohner. Er liegt 17 km außerhalb des Stadtzentrums und ist ein Teil der Stadtverwaltung von Hume City.


History.

Darwin.

Sexual selection was first proposed by Charles Darwin in "The Origin of Species" (1859) and developed in "The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex" (1871), as he felt that natural selection alone was unable to account for certain types of non-survival adaptations. He once wrote to a colleague that "The sight of a feather in a peacock's tail, whenever I gaze at it, makes me sick!" His work divided sexual selection into male-male competition and female choice.  These views were to some extent opposed by Alfred Russel Wallace, mostly after Darwin's death. He accepted that sexual selection could occur, but argued that it was a relatively weak form of selection. He argued that male-male competitions were forms of natural selection, but that the "drab" peahen's coloration is itself adaptive as camouflage. In his opinion, ascribing mate choice to females was attributing the ability to judge standards of beauty to animals (such as beetles) far too cognitively undeveloped to be capable of aesthetic feeling.

Ronald Fisher.

Ronald Fisher, the English statistician and evolutionary biologist developed a number of ideas about sexual selection in his 1930 book "The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection" including the sexy son hypothesis and Fisher's principle. The Fisherian runaway describes how sexual selection accelerates the preference for a specific ornament, causing the preferred trait and female preference for it to increase together in a positive feedback runaway cycle. In a remark that was not widely understood for another 50 years he said:  This causes a dramatic increase in both the male's conspicuous feature and in female preference for it, resulting in marked sexual dimorphism, until practical physical constraints halt further exaggeration. A positive feedback loop is created, producing extravagant physical structures in the non-limiting sex. A classic example of female choice and potential runaway selection is the long-tailed widowbird. While males have long tails that are selected for by female choice, female tastes in tail length are still more extreme with females being attracted to tails longer than those that naturally occur. Fisher understood that female preference for long tails may be passed on genetically, in conjunction with genes for the long tail itself. Long-tailed widowbird offspring of both sexes inherit both sets of genes, with females expressing their genetic preference for long tails, and males showing off the coveted long tail itself.  Richard Dawkins presents a non-mathematical explanation of the runaway sexual selection process in his book "The Blind Watchmaker". Females that prefer long tailed males tend to have mothers that chose long-tailed fathers. As a result, they carry both sets of genes in their bodies. That is, genes for long tails and for preferring long tails become linked. The taste for long tails and tail length itself may therefore become correlated, tending to increase together. The more tails lengthen, the more long tails are desired. Any slight initial imbalance between taste and tails may set off an explosion in tail lengths. Fisher wrote that:  The female widowbird chooses to mate with the most attractive long-tailed male so that her progeny, if male, will themselves be attractive to females of the next generation—thereby fathering many offspring that carry the female's genes. Since the rate of change in preference is proportional to the average taste amongst females, and as females desire to secure the services of the most sexually attractive males, an additive effect is created that, if unchecked, can yield exponential increases in a given taste and in the corresponding desired sexual attribute.  Since Fisher's initial conceptual model of the 'runaway' process, Russell Lande and Peter O'Donald have provided detailed mathematical proofs that define the circumstances under which runaway sexual selection can take place.

Theory.

Reproductive success.

The reproductive success of an organism is measured by the number of offspring left behind, and their quality or probable fitness.  Sexual preference creates a tendency towards assortative mating or homogamy. The general conditions of sexual discrimination appear to be (1) the acceptance of one mate precludes the effective acceptance of alternative mates, and (2) the rejection of an offer is followed by other offers, either certainly or at such high chance that the risk of non-occurrence is smaller than the chance advantage to be gained by selecting a mate. The conditions determining which sex becomes the more limited resource in intersexual selection have been hypothesized with Bateman's principle, which states that the sex which invests the most in producing offspring becomes a limiting resource for which the other sex competes, illustrated by the greater nutritional investment of an egg in a zygote, and the limited capacity of females to reproduce; for example, in humans, a woman can only give birth every ten months, whereas a male can become a father numerous times in the same period. More recently, researchers have doubted whether Bateman was correct. Hubbell and Johnson suggested that variance in reproductive success can be influenced by the time and allocations of mating. In 2005, Gowaty and Hubbell suggested that mating tendencies depend on the choice of strategy; in some cases, males can be more selective than females, whereas Bateman suggested that his paradigm would be "almost universal" among sexually reproducing species. Critics proposed that females might be more subject to sexual selection than males, but not in all circumstances.

Modern interpretation.

Darwin's ideas on sexual selection were met with scepticism by his contemporaries and not considered of great importance until in the 1930s biologists decided to include sexual selection as a mode of natural selection. Only in the 21st century have they become more important in biology; the theory is now seen as generally applicable and analogous to natural selection.  A ten-year study, experimentally varying sexual selection on flour beetles with other factors held constant, showed that sexual selection protected even an inbred population against extinction.  The handicap principle of Amotz Zahavi, Russell Lande and W. D. Hamilton, holds that the fact that the male is able to survive until and through the age of reproduction with such a seemingly maladaptive trait is taken by the female to be a testament to his overall fitness. Such handicaps might prove he is either free of or resistant to disease, or that he possesses more speed or a greater physical strength that is used to combat the troubles brought on by the exaggerated trait. Zahavi's work spurred a re-examination of the field and several new theories. In 1984, Hamilton and Marlene Zuk introduced the "Bright Male" hypothesis, suggesting that male elaborations might serve as a marker of health, by exaggerating the effects of disease and deficiency. In 1990, Michael Ryan and A.S. Rand, working with the Túngara frog, proposed the hypothesis of "Sensory Exploitation", where exaggerated male traits may provide a sensory stimulation that females find hard to resist. Subsequently, the theories of the "Gravity Hypothesis" by Jordi Moya-Larano et al. (2002), invoking a simple biomechanical model to account for the adaptive value for smaller male spiders of speed in climbing vertical surfaces, and "Chase Away" by Brett Holland and William R. Rice have been added. In the late 1970s, Janzen and Mary Willson, noting that male flowers are often larger than female flowers, expanded the field of sexual selection into plants.  In the past few years, the field has exploded to include other areas of study, not all of which fit Darwin's definition of sexual selection. These include cuckoldry, nuptial gifts, sperm competition, infanticide (especially in primates), physical beauty, mating by subterfuge, species isolation mechanisms, male parental care, ambiparental care, mate location, polygamy, and homosexual rape in certain male animals.  Focusing on the effect of sexual conflict, as hypothesized by William Rice, Locke Rowe and Göran Arnvist, Thierry Lodé argues that divergence of interest constitutes a key for evolutionary process. Sexual conflict leads to an antagonistic co-evolution in which one sex tends to control the other, resulting in a tug of war. Besides, "the sexual propaganda theory" only argued that mates were opportunistically led, on the basis of various factors determining the choice such as phenotypic characteristics, apparent vigour of individuals, strength of mate signals, trophic resources, territoriality, etc., but and could explain the maintenance of genetic diversity within populations.  Several workers have brought attention to the fact that elaborated characters that ought to be costly in one way or another for their bearers (e.g., the tail of the swordfish "Xiphophorus montezumae") do not always appear to have a cost in terms of energetics, performance or even survival. One possible explanation for the apparent lack of costs is that "compensatory traits" have evolved in concert with the sexually selected traits.

Toolkit of natural selection.

Sexual selection may explain how certain characteristics (such as feathers) had distinct survival value at an early stage in their evolution. Geoffrey Miller proposes that sexual selection might have contributed by creating evolutionary modules such as "Archaeopteryx" feathers as sexual ornaments, at first. The earliest proto-birds such as China's "Protarchaeopteryx", discovered in the early 1990s, had well-developed feathers but no sign of the top/bottom asymmetry that gives wings lift. Some have suggested that the feathers served as insulation, helping females incubate their eggs. But perhaps the feathers served as the kinds of sexual ornaments still common in most bird species, and especially in birds such as peacocks and birds-of-paradise today. If proto-bird courtship displays combined displays of forelimb feathers with energetic jumps, then the transition from display to aerodynamic functions could have been relatively smooth.  Sexual selection sometimes generates features that may help cause a species' extinction, as has been suggested for the giant antlers of the Irish elk ("Megaloceros giganteus") that became extinct in Pleistocene Europe. However, sexual selection can also do the opposite, driving species divergence—sometimes through elaborate changes in genitalia—such that new species emerge.

Sexual dimorphism.

Sex differences directly related to reproduction and serving no direct purpose in courtship are called primary sexual characteristics. Traits amenable to sexual selection, which give an organism an advantage over its rivals (such as in courtship) without being directly involved in reproduction, are called secondary sex characteristics.  In most sexual species the males and females have different equilibrium strategies, due to a difference in relative investment in producing offspring. As formulated in Bateman's principle, females have a greater initial investment in producing offspring (pregnancy in mammals or the production of the egg in birds and reptiles), and this difference in initial investment creates differences in variance in expected reproductive success and bootstraps the sexual selection processes. Classic examples of reversed sex-role species include the pipefish, and Wilson's phalarope. Also, unlike a female, a male (except in monogamous species) has some uncertainty about whether or not he is the true parent of a child, and so is less interested in spending his energy helping to raise offspring that may or may not be related to him. As a result of these factors, males can be expected to be more willing to mate than females, while females are expected to be the ones doing the choosing (except in cases of forced copulations, which can occur for example in certain primates and ducks). The effects of sexual selection are thus often more pronounced in males than in females.  Differences in secondary sexual characteristics between males and females of a species are referred to as sexual dimorphisms. These can be as subtle as a size difference (sexual size dimorphism, often abbreviated as SSD) or as extreme as horns and colour patterns. Sexual dimorphisms abound in nature. Examples include the possession of antlers by only male deer, the brighter coloration of many male birds in comparison with females of the same species, or even more distinct differences in basic morphology, such as the drastically increased eye-span of the male stalk-eyed fly. The peacock, with its elaborate and colourful tail feathers, which the peahen lacks, is often referred to as perhaps the most extraordinary example of a dimorphism. Male and female black-throated blue warblers and Guianan cock-of-the-rocks also differ radically in their plumage. Early naturalists even believed the females to be a separate species. The largest sexual size dimorphism in vertebrates is the shell dwelling cichlid fish "Neolamprologus callipterus" in which males are up to 30 times the size of females. Many other fish such as guppies are sexually dimorphic. Extreme sexual size dimorphism, with females larger than males, is quite common in spiders and birds of prey.

Male intrasexual competition.

Male-male competition occurs when two males of the same species compete for the opportunity to mate with a female. Sexually dimorphic traits, size, sex ratio, and the social situation may all play a role in the effects male-male competition has on the reproductive success of a male and the mate choice of a female. Larger males tend to win male-male conflicts due to their sheer strength and ability to ward off other males from taking over their females. For instance, in the fly "Dryomyza anilis", size shows the strongest correlation to the outcome of male-male conflicts over resources like territory and females.

Influencing factors.

Sex ratio.

There are multiple types of male-male competition that may occur in a population at different times depending on the conditions. Competition variation occurs based on the frequency of various mating behaviours present in the population. One factor that can influence the type of competition observed is the population density of males. When there is a high density of males present in the population, competition tends to be less aggressive and therefore sneak tactics and disruptions techniques are more often employed. These techniques often indicate a type of competition referred to as scramble competition. In Japanese medaka, "Oryzias latipes", sneaking behaviours refer to when a male interrupts a mating pair during copulation by grasping on to either the male or the female and releasing their own sperm in the hopes of being the one to fertilize the female. Disruption is a technique which involves one male bumping the male that is copulating with the female away just before his sperm is released and the eggs are fertilized.  However, all techniques are not equally successful when in competition for reproductive success. Disruption results in a shorter copulation period and can therefore disrupt the fertilization of the eggs by the sperm, which frequently results in lower rates of fertilization and smaller clutch size.

Resource value and social ranking.

Another factor that can influence male-male competition is the value of the resource to competitors. Male-male competition can pose many risks to a male's fitness, such as high energy expenditure, physical injury, lower sperm quality and lost paternity. The risk of competition must therefore be worth the value of the resource. A male is more likely to engage in competition for a resource that improves their reproductive success if the resource value is higher. While male-male competition can occur in the presence or absence of a female, competition occurs more frequently in the presence of a female. The presence of a female directly increases the resource value of a territory or shelter and so the males are more likely to accept the risk of competition when a female is present. The smaller males of a species are also more likely to engage in competition with larger males in the presence of a female. Due to the higher level of risk for subordinate males, they tend to engage in competition less frequently than larger, more dominant males and therefore breed less frequently than dominant males. This is seen in many species, such as the Omei treefrog, "Rhacophorus omeimontis," where larger males obtain more mating opportunities and mate with larger females.

Winner–loser effects.

A third factor that can impact the success of a male in competition is winner-loser effects. Burrowing crickets, "velarifictorous aspersus," compete for burrows to attract females using their large mandibles for fighting. Female burrowing crickets, are more likely to choose winner of a competition in the 2 hours after the fight. The presence winning male suppresses mating behaviours of the losing males because the winning male tends to produce more frequent and enhanced mating calls in this period of time.

Effect on female fitness.

Male-male competition can both positively and negatively affect female fitness. When there is a high density of males in a population and a large number of males attempting to mate with the female, she is more likely to resist mating attempts, resulting in lower fertilization rates. High levels of male-male competition can also result in a reduction in female investment in mating. Many forms of competition can also cause significant distress for the female negatively impacting her ability to reproduce. An increase in male-male competition can affect a females ability to select the best mates, and therefore decrease the likelihood of successful reproduction.  However, group mating in Japanese medaka has been shown to positively affect the fitness of females due to an increase in genetic variation, a higher likelihood of paternal care and a higher likelihood of successful fertilization.

In different taxa.

Sexual selection has been observed to occur in plants, animals and fungi. In certain hermaphroditic snail and slug species of molluscs the throwing of love darts is a form of sexual selection. Certain male insects of the order Lepidoptera cement the vaginal pores of their females.  Today, biologists say that certain evolutionary traits can be explained by intraspecific competition—competition between members of the same species—distinguishing between competition before or after sexual intercourse.  Before copulation, "intrasexual selection"—usually between males—may take the form of "male-to-male combat". Also, "intersexual selection", or "mate choice", occurs when females choose between male mates. Traits selected by male combat are called secondary sexual characteristics (including horns, antlers, etc.), which Darwin described as "weapons", while traits selected by mate (usually female) choice are called "ornaments". Due to their sometimes greatly exaggerated nature, secondary sexual characteristics can prove to be a hindrance to an animal, thereby lowering its chances of survival. For example, the large antlers of a moose are bulky and heavy and slow the creature's flight from predators; they also can become entangled in low-hanging tree branches and shrubs, and undoubtedly have led to the demise of many individuals. Bright colourations and showy ornamenations, such as those seen in many male birds, in addition to capturing the eyes of females, also attract the attention of predators. Some of these traits also represent energetically costly investments for the animals that bear them. Because traits held to be due to sexual selection often conflict with the survival fitness of the individual, the question then arises as to why, in nature, in which survival of the fittest is considered the rule of thumb, such apparent liabilities are allowed to persist. However, one must also consider that intersexual selection can occur with an emphasis on resources that one sex possesses rather than morphological and physiological differences. For example, males of "Euglossa imperialis", a non-social bee species, form aggregations of territories considered to be leks, to defend fragrant-rich primary territories. The purpose of these aggregations is only facultative, since the more suitable fragrant-rich sites there are, the more habitable territories there are to inhabit, giving females of this species a large selection of males with whom to potentially mate.  After copulation, male–male competition distinct from conventional aggression may take the form of sperm competition, as described by Parker in 1970. More recently, interest has arisen in "cryptic" female choice, a phenomenon of internally fertilised animals such as mammals and birds, where a female can get rid of a male's sperm without his knowledge.  Finally, sexual conflict is said to occur between breeding partners, sometimes leading to an evolutionary arms race between males and females. Sexual selection can also occur as a product of pheromone release, such as with the stingless bee, "Trigona corvina".  Female mating preferences are widely recognized as being responsible for the rapid and divergent evolution of male secondary sexual traits. Females of many animal species prefer to mate with males with external ornaments - exaggerated features of morphology such as elaborate sex organs. These preferences may arise when an arbitrary female preference for some aspect of male morphology—initially, perhaps, a result of genetic drift—creates, in due course, selection for males with the appropriate ornament. One interpretation of this is known as the sexy son hypothesis. Alternatively, genes that enable males to develop impressive ornaments or fighting ability may simply show off greater disease resistance or a more efficient metabolism, features that also benefit females. This idea is known as the good genes hypothesis.  Bright colors that develop in animals during mating season function to attract partners. It has been suggested that there is a causal link between strength of display of ornaments involved in sexual selection and free radical biology. To test this idea, experiments were performed on male painted dragon lizards. Male lizards are brightly conspicuous in their breeding coloration, but their color declines with aging. Experiments involving administration of antioxidants to these males led to the conclusion that breeding coloration is a reflection of innate anti-oxidation capacity that protects against oxidative damage, including oxidative DNA damage. Thus color could act as a “health certificate” that allows females to visualize the underlying oxidative stress induced damage in potential mates.  Darwin conjectured that heritable traits such as beards and hairlessness in different human populations are results of sexual selection in humans. Geoffrey Miller has hypothesized that many human behaviours not clearly tied to survival benefits, such as humour, music, visual art, verbal creativity, and some forms of altruism, are courtship adaptations that have been favoured through sexual selection. In that view, many human artefacts could be considered subject to sexual selection as part of the extended phenotype, for instance clothing that enhances sexually selected traits. Some argue that the evolution of human intelligence is a sexually selected trait, as it would not confer enough fitness in itself relative to its high maintenance costs.

Sexual selection is a mode of natural selection in which members of one biological sex choose mates of the other sex to mate with (intersexual selection), and compete with members of the same sex for access to members of the opposite sex (intrasexual selection). These two forms of selection mean that some individuals have better reproductive success than others within a population, either because they are more attractive or prefer more attractive partners to produce offspring. For instance, in the breeding season, sexual selection in frogs occurs with the males first gathering at the water's edge and making their mating calls: croaking. The females then arrive and choose the males with the deepest croaks and best territories. In general, males benefit from frequent mating and monopolizing access to a group of fertile females. Females can have a limited number of offspring and maximize the return on the energy they invest in reproduction.

Die sexuelle Selektion ( ‚Auslese‘) ist eine innerartliche Selektion, die auf körperliche Merkmale wirkt und durch Varianz im Fortpflanzungserfolg zwischen Mitgliedern desselben Geschlechts entsteht. Diese „geschlechtliche Zuchtwahl“ erkannte Charles Darwin als eine der drei Selektionsarten der Evolutionstheorie. Damit wird die Entstehung sexualdimorpher Merkmale, d. h. der sekundären Geschlechtsmerkmale im Erscheinungsbild der Geschlechter einer Art, evolutionär erklärt.


Development.

Based on the stretched fuselage Bell 205, the Bell 212 was originally developed for the Canadian Forces as the "CUH-1N" and later redesignated as the "CH-135". The Canadian Forces took delivery of 50 starting in May 1971. At the same time the United States military services ordered 294 Bell 212s under the designation UH-1N. By 1971, the 212 had been developed for commercial applications. Among the earliest uses of the 212 in civil aviation was by Helicopter Service AS of Norway to be used in support of offshore oil rigs. Today the 212 can be found used in logging operations, maritime rescue and resupply in the Arctic on the Distant Early Warning Line or North Warning System.  The 212's main rotor is powered by a Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6T-3 Twin-Pac made up of two coupled PT6 power turbines driving a common gearbox. They are capable of producing up to 1,800 shp (1,342 kW). Should one power section fail the remaining section can deliver 900 shp (671 kW) for 30 minutes, or 765 shp (571 kW) continuously, enabling the 212 to maintain cruise performance at maximum weight.  Early 212s configured with an Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) package were required to have a large and very obvious fin attached to the roof of the aircraft, above and slightly behind the cockpit. This fin was initially determined necessary to alter the turning performance of the aircraft during complex instrument flight maneuvers, but is no longer required due to revised stipulations of the type certificate. Many aircraft still fly with the modification.  In 1979, with the purchase of eight by the Civil Air Authority, the 212 became the first U.S. helicopter sold in the People's Republic of China.  The ICAO designator for this aircraft as used in a flight plan is "B212". Bell developed the Model 212 further with the Bell 412; the major difference being the composite four-blade main rotor. The last Bell 212 was delivered in 1998.

Operators.

Civil and government operators.

The Bell 212 is used by many private and commercial operators, it is particularly popular in the oil industries and for law enforcement use.

The Bell 212 (also known as the "Twin Two-Twelve") is a two-blade, medium helicopter that first flew in 1968. Originally manufactured by Bell Helicopter in Fort Worth, Texas, United States, production was moved to Mirabel, Quebec, Canada in 1988, along with all Bell commercial helicopter production after that plant opened in 1986.

Die Bell 212 ist ein Mehrzweckhubschrauber des Unternehmens Bell Helicopter Textron Inc., dessen militärische Variante auch "Twin-Huey" genannt und als Bordhubschrauber eingesetzt wird.


From powder.

The granulation process combines one or more powder particles and forms a granule that will allow tableting to be within required limits. It is the process of collecting particles together by creating bonds between them. Bonds are formed by compression or by using a binding agent. Granulation is extensively used in the pharmaceutical industry, for manufacturing of tablets and pellets. This way predictable and repeatable process is possible and granules of consistent quality can be produced.  Granulation is carried out for various reasons, one of which is to prevent the segregation of the constituents of powder mix. Segregation is due to differences in the size or density of the components of the mix. Normally, the smaller and/or denser particles tend to concentrate at the base of the container with the larger and/or less dense ones on the top. An ideal granulation will contain all the constituents of the mix in the correct proportion in each granule and segregation of granules will not occur.  Many powders, because of their small size, irregular shape or surface characteristics, are cohesive and do not flow well. Granules produced from such a cohesive system will be larger and more isodiametric (roughly spherical), both factors contributing to improved flow properties.  Some powders are difficult to compact even if a readily compactable adhesive is included in the mix, but granules of the same powders are often more easily compacted. This is associated with the distribution of the adhesive within the granule and is a function of the method employed to produce the granule.  For example, if one were to make tablets from granulated sugar versus powdered sugar, powdered sugar would be difficult to compress into a tablet and granulated sugar would be easy to compress. Powdered sugar’s small particles have poor flow and compression characteristics. These small particles would have to be compressed very slowly for a long period of time to make a worthwhile tablet. Unless the powdered sugar is granulated, it could not efficiently be made into a tablet that has good tablet characteristics such as uniform content or consistent hardness.  Two types of granulation technologies are employed: wet granulation and dry granulation.

Wet granulation.

In wet granulation, granules are formed by the addition of a granulation liquid onto a powder bed which is under the influence of an impeller (in a high-shear granulator), screws (in a twin screw granulator) or air (in a fluidized bed granulator). The agitation resulting in the system along with the wetting of the components within the formulation results in the aggregation of the primary powder particles to produce wet granules. The granulation liquid (fluid) contains a solvent or carrier material which must be volatile so that it can be removed by drying, and depending on the intended application, be non-toxic. Typical liquids include water, ethanol and isopropanol either alone or in combination. The liquid solution can be either aqueous based or solvent-based. Aqueous solutions have the advantage of being safer to deal with than other solvents.  Water mixed into the powders can form bonds between powder particles that are strong enough to lock them together. However, once the water dries, the powders may fall apart. Therefore, water may not be strong enough to create and hold a bond. In such instances, a liquid solution that includes a binder (pharmaceutical glue) is required. Povidone, which is a polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP), is one of the most commonly used pharmaceutical binders. PVP is dissolved in water or solvent and added to the process. When PVP and a solvent/water are mixed with powders, PVP forms a bond with the powders during the process, and the solvent/water evaporates (dries). Once the solvent/water has been dried and the powders have formed a more densely held mass, then the granulation is milled. This process results in the formation of granules.  The process can be very simple or very complex depending on the characteristics of the powders, the final objective of tablet making, and the equipment that is available. In the traditional wet granulation method the wet mass is forced through a sieve to produce wet granules which are subsequently dried.  Wet granulation is traditionally a batch process in the pharmaceutical production, however, the batch type wet granulations are foreseen to be replaced more and more by continuous wet granulation in the pharmaceutical industry in the future. The shift from batch to continuous technologies has been recommended by the Food and Drug Administration. This continuous wet granulation technology can be carried out on a twin-screw extruder into which solid materials and water can be fed at various parts. In the extruder the materials are mixed and granulated due to the intermesh of the screws, especially at the kneading elements.

Dry granulation.

The dry granulation process is used to form granules without a liquid solution because the product granulated may be sensitive to moisture and heat. Forming granules without moisture requires compacting and densifying the powders. In this process the primary powder particles are aggregated under high pressure. A swaying granulator or a roll compactor can be used for the dry granulation.  Dry granulation can be conducted under two processes; either a large tablet (slug) is produced in a heavy duty tabletting press or the powder is squeezed between two counter-rotating rollers to produce a continuous sheet or ribbon of material.  When a tablet press is used for dry granulation, the powders may not possess enough natural flow to feed the product uniformly into the die cavity, resulting in varying density. The roller compactor (granulator-compactor) uses an auger-feed system that will consistently deliver powder uniformly between two pressure rollers. The powders are compacted into a ribbon or small pellets between these rollers and milled through a low-shear mill. When the product is compacted properly, then it can be passed through a mill and final blend before tablet compression.  Typical roller compaction processes consist of the following steps: convey powdered material to the compaction area, normally with a screw feeder, compact powder between two counter-rotating rolls with applied forces, mill resulting compact to desired particle size distribution. Roller compacted particle are typically dense, with sharp-edged profiles.

From solids.

In plastic recycling, granulation is the process of shredding plastic objects to be recycled into flakes or pellets, suitable for later reuse in plastics extrusion. In the first stage, plastic objects to be recycled are fed to an electric motor-powered cutting chamber, which continually cuts the material using one of several types of cutting systems. Some systems use a scissor-like cutting motion, chevron or V-type rotor helical rotor or fly knives. The material is ground into all the smaller flakes until they became fine enough to fall through a mesh screen. In wet-granulation lines, water is continually sprayed in the cutting chamber to remove the debris and impurities, and acts as a lubricant of the steel blades; in dry-granulation lines, water is not present, but such technology generally produces output of lower quality than the wet technology. While the process is relatively simple, it must be carefully parametrized, as the high temperatures resulting from friction can damage the material and affect its plasticity. Regular maintenance and sharpening of the scissor blades are essential, as well as close monitoring of the process due to potential clogging and jamming.  In many cases, granulation may be the only step required before the plastics can be reused for manufacturing of new products. In other, the new or recycled plastic material must be remade into pellets. The material is molten and extruded into thin rods, which are then cooled in a water tank and finely chopped into small cylindrical pellets.

Granulation is the process of forming grains or granules from a powdery or solid substance, producing a granular material. It is applied in several technological processes in the chemical and pharmaceutical industries. Typically, granulation involves agglomeration of fine particles into larger granules, typically of size range between 0.2 and 4.0 mm depending on their subsequent use. Less commonly, it involves shredding or grinding solid material into finer granules or pellets.

Als Granulieren oder Granieren (zu lat. "granum", "Korn", "Körnen") bezeichnet man das Verwandeln von entweder großen Partikeln oder von sehr kleinen Partikeln mit unterschiedlicher Partikelgröße (Pulver) in ein Haufwerk mit Partikeln enger Partikelgröße. Granulieren ist eine Technik, die in vielen Bereichen Anwendung findet und immer dazu dient, den Stoff besser verarbeiten zu können.