Overview.

A talk box is usually an effects pedal that sits on the floor and contains a speaker attached with an airtight connection to a plastic tube; however, it can come in other forms, including homemade, usually crude, versions, and higher quality custom-made versions. The speaker is generally in the form of a compression driver, the sound-generating part of a horn loudspeaker with the horn replaced by the tube connection.  The box has connectors for the connection to the speaker output of an instrument amplifier and a connection to a normal instrument speaker. A foot-operated switch on the box directs the sound either to the talk box speaker or to the normal speaker. The switch is usually a push-on/push-off type. The other end of the tube is taped to the side of a microphone, extending enough to direct the reproduced sound in or near the performer's mouth.  When activated, the sound from the amplifier is reproduced by the speaker in the talk box and directed through the tube into the performer's mouth. The shape of the mouth filters the sound, with the modified sound being picked up by the microphone. The shape of the mouth changes the harmonic content of the sound in the same way it affects the harmonic content generated by the vocal folds when speaking.  The performer can vary the shape of the mouth and position of the tongue, changing the sound of the instrument being reproduced by the talk box speaker. The performer can mouth words, with the resulting effect sounding as though the instrument is speaking. This "shaped" sound exits the performer's mouth, and when it enters a microphone, an instrument/voice hybrid is heard.  The sound can be that of any musical instrument, but the effect is most commonly associated with the guitar. The rich harmonics of an electric guitar are shaped by the mouth, producing a sound very similar to voice, effectively allowing the guitar to appear to "speak."  The effect produced by talk boxes and vocoders are often conflated by listeners. However, they have radically different mechanisms for achieving the effect. Talk boxes send the carrier signal into the singer's mouth, where it is then modulated by the singer themselves. On the other hand, vocoders process both the carrier and the modulator signal integrally, producing the output as a separate electric signal. In addition, they are also more common in different genres: a talk box is often found in rock music due to its typical pairing with a guitar, whereas vocoders are almost always paired with synthesizers, and as such, are ubiquitous in electronic music.

History.

Singing guitar.

In 1939, Alvino Rey, amateur radio operator W6UK, used a carbon throat microphone wired in such a way as to modulate his electric steel guitar sound. The mic, originally developed for military pilot communications, was placed on the throat of Rey's wife Luise King (one of The King Sisters), who stood behind a curtain and mouthed the words, along with the guitar lines. The novel-sounding combination was called "Singing Guitar", and employed on stage and in the movie "Jam Session", as a "novelty" attraction, but was not developed further.  Rey also created a somewhat similar "talking" effect by manipulating the tone controls of his Fender electric guitar, but the vocal effect was less pronounced.

Sonovox.

Another early voice effect using the same principle of the throat as a filter was the Sonovox, invented by Gilbert Wright in 1939. Instead of a throat microphone modulating a guitar signal, it used small transducers attached to the performer's throat to pick up voice sounds. The Sonovox was marketed and promoted by the Wright-Sonovox company, an affiliate of the Free & Peters advertising agency.  The Sonovox was used in many radio station IDs and jingles produced by JAM Creative Productions and the PAMS advertising agency of Dallas, Texas. Lucille Ball made one of her earliest film appearances during the 1930s in a Pathé Newsreel demonstrating the Sonovox.  The first use in music was a score by Ernst Toch in the Paramount Picture "The Ghost Breakers", in June 1940. The Sonovox also appeared in the 1940 film "You'll Find Out" starring Kay Kyser and his orchestra, Bela Lugosi, Boris Karloff, and Peter Lorre. Lugosi uses the Sonovox to portray the voice of a dead person during a seance.  The Sonovox was used in films such as "A Letter to Three Wives" (1949), "Possessed" (1947), "The Secret Life of Walter Mitty" (1947), "The Good Humor Man" (1950), the voice of Casey Junior the train in "Dumbo" (1941) and "The Reluctant Dragon" (1941).  It was heard on the piano in "Sparky's Magic Piano", and the airplane in "Whizzer The Talking Airplane" (1947). The Sonovox was also used to give the impression instruments "talking" in the children's album "Rusty in Orchestraville" (1949).  British rock band The Who included a piece on their 1967 album, "The Who Sell Out", that consisted of the days of the week "spoken" by electric guitar chords using the Sonovox. This recording was in fact a radio jingle created by PAMS.

Talking steel guitar.

Pete Drake, a Nashville-based player of the pedal steel guitar, used a talk box on his 1964 album "Forever", in what came to be called his "talking steel guitar". The following year Gallant released three albums with the box, "Pete Drake & His Talking Guitar", "Talking Steel and Singing Strings", and "Talking Steel Guitar". Drake's device consisted of an 8-inch paper cone speaker driver attached to a funnel from which a clear tube brought the sound to the performer's mouth. It was only loud enough to be useful in the recording studio.  Another prominent use of the talking steel guitar appears in The Ventures' "Christmas Album", released in 1965. In the song "Silver Bells", Red Rhodes spoke through a talk box, distorting the phrase "silver bells".

Kustom Electronics Talk Box (The Bag).

The Kustom Electronics device, "The Bag," was the first mass market talk box and was housed in a decorative bag slung over the shoulder like a wine bottle. It used a 30-watt driver and was released to the mass music market in early 1969, two years before Bob Heil's Talk Box became widely available. The Bag is claimed to have been designed by Doug Forbes, who states that exactly the same concept (speaker attached to a plastic tube and inserted into the mouth) had previously been patented as an artificial larynx.  John Kay of Steppenwolf used the Kustom Electronics Talk Box (The Bag) in studio recordings and live performances beginning in 1969. On the album "Steppenwolf Live" recorded in January 1970, the Kustom Bag talk box can clearly be heard on the tracks "From Here To There Eventually", "Hey Lawdy Mama" and "Twisted". Kay was observed using a Kustom Electronics talk box on stage in Charlotte, North Carolina in June 1970 and at two shows in New Jersey (Wildwood and Cherry Hill) in 1971. Steppenwolf appeared on the live music TV shows "The Midnight Special" and "Don Kirshner's Rock Concert" and lead guitarist Bobby Cochran as well as John Kay used the Kustom Bag. Two other early examples of a Kustom Electronics talk box being used on studio recordings are Sly and the Family Stone's "Sex Machine" from their album "Stand!" and Al Kooper with Shuggie Otis' "One Room Country Shack" from their album "Kooper Session", both released in 1969.  The band Iron Butterfly used a talk box in the song "Butterfly Bleu" from the album "Metamorphosis" in 1970. Alvin Lee used a talk box for the Ten Years After song "I Say Yeah" from the album "Watt" in 1970. Young-Holt Unlimited featured a talk box on their song "Wah-Wah Man", also released in 1970, on the album "Born Again". Stevie Wonder first used a talk box on his album "Music of My Mind" in early 1972. The Osmonds used a talk box on their 1972 track "Hold Her Tight." John Renbourn used a talk box on the song "Back on the Road Again" in 1972 on his "Faro Annie" album. The Crusaders featured a talk box on the album "Southern Comfort" in 1974 – notably on the song "Greasy Spoon". Jeff Beck used the Kustom Bag talk box on "She's A Woman" from his 1975 release "Blow by Blow", and was seen using it for the song on BBC television program "Five Faces of the Guitar" in 1974 in which he also explains its use to the host of the show.

Heil High Powered Talk Box.

The first high-powered Talk Box was developed by Bob Heil. Heil came up with the first "high-powered" Talk Box that could be reliable when used on high-level rock stages. His first Heil Talk Box was built for Joe Walsh's Barnstorm tour. Heil and Walsh, both avid ham radio operators (K9EID and WB6ACU, respectively), along with Walsh's guitar tech "Krinkle", combined a 250-watt JBL driver and suitable hi-pass filter which was used for Walsh's single "Rocky Mountain Way". Walsh gives credit to Bill West, an electrical engineer, Nashville steel guitarist and first husband of country music legend Dottie West, for inventing the talk box for him in the May 2012 issue of "Guitar World" magazine.  Pete Townshend, in his 2012 autobiography "Who I Am", claimed to have invented a version of the Talk Box during a Who tour of the US in 1976. "I built a speaker in a small box, attached a tube and put the tube in my mouth, allowing me to speak music."  In 1988, Heil sold the manufacturing rights to Dunlop Manufacturing, Inc., which currently builds the Heil Talk Box to the exact standards that Heil designed in 1973.  The 1974 hit single "Tell Me Something Good", performed by Rufus and Chaka Khan and written by Stevie Wonder, which peaked at number three on the "Billboard" Hot 100, was among the earliest hits to use the guitar talk box.  In an interview for the 1999 DVD "Live in Detroit", Peter Frampton says he first heard the talk box in 1970 while sitting in on sessions for George Harrison's "All Things Must Pass". While he sat next to Pete Drake in the album sessions at Abbey Road studio, he heard Pete using it with a pedal steel guitar. Frampton said in the same interview that the sound it produced reminded him of an audio effect he loved listening to on Radio Luxembourg in the later 1960s. Frampton acquired one as a Christmas present from Bob Heil in 1974. It was a hand-built Talk Box in a fiberglass box using a 100-watt high-powered driver. This was the Heil Talk Box used for the "Frampton Comes Alive" tour and album. He then promptly locked himself away in a practice space for two weeks, and came out with some mastery of it. Due to the success of the albums "Frampton" and "Frampton Comes Alive!", and particularly the hit singles "Do You Feel Like We Do" and "Show Me the Way", Frampton has become somewhat synonymous with the talk box.  Peter Frampton also now sells his own line of custom-designed "Framptone" products, including a talk box.  In 1972 Todd Rundgren used a Talk Box on the album "Something/Anything?" on the instrumental track, "Breathless". Over a synthesized background his VCS3 synthesizer repeatedly "sings" the words "I am so breathless", which can be taken as a reference to the Talk Box. In 1975, Nazareth lead singer Dan McCafferty used a talk box in the popular single "Hair of the Dog". Aerosmith guitarist Joe Perry used a talk box in the band's highly popular songs "Sweet Emotion" from the album "Toys in the Attic" and the live version of "Walk This Way" from the album "Live! Bootleg". He also used it in the theme song from the Spider-Man 90's cartoon. In 1976, Steely Dan guitarist Walter Becker recorded the talk box effect atop an already-recorded Dean Parks solo in "Haitian Divorce", on the album "The Royal Scam". It was also used in a solo section of "East St. Louis Toodle-Oo", on Steely Dan's 1974 album "Pretzel Logic". Ronnie Montrose used a talk box on the title track from his 1976 album "Jump On It". Also in 1976, the band Ruby (featuring Tom Fogerty) used a talk box on the track "Running Back To Me". David Gilmour of Pink Floyd used the talk box on "Pigs (Three Different Ones)" from their 1977 "Animals" album, and on "Keep Talking" from 1994's "The Division Bell". The band Stillwater used a talkbox on their song "Mind Bender" in 1977. Also from 1977, Johnnie "Guitar" Watson used talk box and the Meters used one on their track "Funkify Your Life". Roger Troutman, lead singer of the R&B group Zapp, used the talk box (first with a Minimoog synthesizer, and later a Yamaha DX100) on the group's first hit single in 1980, "More Bounce to the Ounce", and in numerous other songs including Tupac Shakur's "California Love".  Matthias Jabs, lead guitarist for Scorpions, has used the talk box in many of their songs, most notably the 1980 song "The Zoo". Joe Walsh used a talk box in the song "Space Age Whiz Kids" on the 1983 album "You Bought It You Name It", in "I Broke My Leg" on the 1985 album "The Confessor", and also in "Half of the Time" on the 1987 album "Got Any Gum?". Walsh, along with Don Felder, did a dual talk box guitar solo in the song "Those Shoes" from their 1979 album, "The Long Run". The 1986 Daryl Hall hit "Foolish Pride" features the talk box played by English guitarist Richard Morcombe.  Bon Jovi guitarist Richie Sambora used the Heil Talk box in many of the band's songs, including 1986's "Livin' on a Prayer" from "Slippery When Wet", 2000's "It's My Life" from "Crush", 2002's "Everyday" from "Bounce", 2007's "We Got it Goin' On" ("Lost Highway") and 2009's "Bullet" ("The Circle"). Lead guitarist Slash of the hard rock band Guns N' Roses used a talk box in "Anything Goes" off their album "Appetite for Destruction", released in 1987, and in "Dust and Bones", from their following record, "Use Your Illusion I". Mötley Crüe's Mick Mars used a talk box in "Kickstart My Heart" off their 1989 release, "Dr. Feelgood". NJS musician Teddy Riley used talk box also.  Brian May was asked in an interview whether the song "Delilah" was recorded using a talk box on Queen's 1991 "Innuendo" record. May answered: "Yes, I finally succumbed and used one... I suppose there’s no other way to make the meow sounds, meow, meow, meow." Tom Morello of Rage Against the Machine used a talk box on their song "Wake Up" in 1992. Bob Hartman, from Petra, used the talk box during the 1993 song "Underneath the Blood", from their "Wake-Up Call" album. Metallica used a talk box during the solo on "The House Jack Built", from the 1996 album "Load". The Foo Fighters' Dave Grohl used a talk box during their song "Generator" off their 1999 release, "There Is Nothing Left To Lose"; his use of the device was partly inspired by Grohl's admiration of Peter Frampton and Joe Walsh. Dream Theater guitarist John Petrucci used the talk box for live performances of the song "Home", from the band's 1999 album "". Avenged Sevenfold vocalist M. Shadows used a talk box in their song "Lost" off their 2007 self-titled album, "Avenged Sevenfold". In Godsmack's cover of the Joe Walsh song "Rocky Mountain Way", frontman Sully Erna used a talk box.  Alice in Chains, Adam Jones of Tool, Slash, the Eagles, Chromeo, plus dozens of other groups continue to keep the Heil Talk Box in their song sets.  The talk box was used in Elton John's 1975 album "Rock of the Westies", on the song "Dan Dare (Pilot of the Future)", as played by Davey Johnstone.

ElectroSpit.

Producer Bosko, who played talk box on Big Boi's 2010 album "", conceived an alternative to the cumbersome and unsanitary talk box in mid-2014, imagining a neck-worn electronic system that would be easier to use. Bosko showed the ElectroSpit prototype in 2016, and launched a Kickstarter campaign in June 2018. The device sends sound into the mouth by way of electromagnetic transducers placed against the throat, allowing the user to shape the sounds of a synthesizer, guitar or any other electronic source. Bosko released the ElectroSpit product in 2019, showing it at the NAMM Show. Early users of the ElectroSpit include P-Thugg of Chromeo, Terrace Martin who works with Kendrick Lamar, and Teddy Riley.

Non-musical uses.

A talk box connected to an iPad running an effects program was used to create the voice of the character BB-8 in "".

A talk box is an effects unit that allows musicians to modify the sound of a musical instrument by shaping the frequency content of the sound and to apply speech sounds (in the same way as singing) onto the sounds of the instrument. Typically, a talk box directs sound from the instrument into the musician's mouth by means of a plastic tube adjacent to their vocal microphone. The musician controls the modification of the instrument's sound by changing the shape of the mouth, "vocalizing" the instrument's output into a microphone.

Eine Talkbox ist ein Effektgerät in der Musik zur Veränderung des Klangs eines elektronischen Signals mit Hilfe des Mundraumes. Oft wird sie mit elektronisch abgenommenen Instrumenten wie der E-Gitarre verwendet. Ebenso gibt es Musiker, die sie mit Synthesizern verwenden.


Biography.

Frans Masereel was born in the Belgian coastal town Blankenberge on 31 July 1889. He moved to Ghent in 1896, where at the age of 18 he began to study at the École des Beaux-Arts in the class of Jean Delvin. In 1909, he visited England and Germany, which inspired him to make his first etchings and woodcuts. In 1911 Masereel settled in Paris for four years and then emigrated to Switzerland, where he worked as a graphic artist for journals and magazines.  Masereel could not return to Belgium at the end of World War I because, being a pacifist, he had refused to serve in the Belgian army. Nonetheless, when a circle of friends in Antwerp interested in art and literature decided to found the magazine "Lumière", Masereel was one of the artists invited to illustrate the text and the column headings. The magazine was first published in Antwerp in August 1919. It was an artistic and literary journal published in French. The magazine's title "Lumière" was a reference to the French magazine "Clarté", which was published in Paris by Henri Barbusse. The principal artists who illustrated the text and the column headings in addition to Masereel himself were Jan Frans Cantré, Jozef Cantré, Henri van Straten, and Joris Minne. Together, they became known as 'De Vijf' or 'Les Cinq' ('The Five'). "Lumière" was a key force in generating renewed interest in wood engraving in Belgium. The five artists in the 'De Vijf' group were instrumental in popularizing the art of wood, copper and linoleum engraving and introducing Expressionism in early 20th-century Belgium.  Masereel's woodcut series, mainly of sociocritical content and expressionistic in form, made Masereel internationally known. Among them were the wordless novels "25 Images of a Man's Passion" (1918), "Passionate Journey" (1919), "The Sun" (1919), "The Idea" (1920), "Story Without Words" (1920), and "Landscapes and Voices" (1929). At that time Masereel also drew illustrations for famous works of world literature by Thomas Mann, Émile Zola, and Stefan Zweig. He also produced a series of illustrations for the classic "Legend of Thyl Ulenspiegel and Lamme Goedzak" by his fellow Belgian Charles De Coster; these illustrations followed the book in its translations to numerous languages. In 1921 Masereel returned to Paris, where he painted his famous street scenes, the Montmartre paintings. He lived for a time in Berlin, where his closest creative friend was George Grosz. After 1925 he lived near Boulogne-sur-Mer, where he painted predominantly coast areas, harbour views, and portraits of sailors and fishermen. During the 1930s his output declined. With the Fall of France to the Nazis in 1940 he fled from Paris and lived in several cities in Southern France.  At the end of World War II Masereel was able to resume his artistic work and produced woodcuts and paintings. After 1946 he taught at the in Saarbrücken. In 1949 Masereel settled in Nice. Between 1949 and 1968, he published several series of woodcuts that differ from his earlier "novels in picture'" in comprising variations on a subject instead of a narrative. He also designed decorations and costumes for numerous theatre productions. The artist was honoured in numerous exhibitions and became a member of several academies.  Frans Masereel died in Avignon in 1972 and was entombed in Ghent. The cultural organization Masereelfonds was named after him, as was the Frans Masereel Centre studio facility at Kasterlee.

Influence.

Masereel's woodcuts influenced Lynd Ward and later graphic artists such as George Walker, Clifford Harper, Eric Drooker, and New Yorker cartoonist Peter Arno.

References.

Peter Arno: The Mad, Mad World of The New Yorker's Greatest Cartoonist. Michael Maslin. Regan Arts, New York. 2016

Frans Masereel (31 July 1889 – 3 January 1972) was a Flemish painter and graphic artist who worked mainly in France. He is known especially for his woodcuts. His greatest work is generally said to be the wordless novel "Passionate Journey". He completed over 20 other wordless novels in his career.

Frans Masereel (* 30. Juli 1889 in Blankenberge; † 3. Januar 1972 in Avignon) war ein bedeutender belgischer Grafiker, Zeichner und Maler sowie Pazifist.


Career.

1933–1958: Early years.

Penderecki was born on 23 November 1933 in Dębica, the son of Zofia and Tadeusz Penderecki, a lawyer. Penderecki's grandfather, Robert Berger, was a highly talented painter and director of the local bank at the time of Penderecki's birth; Robert's father Johann, a German Protestant, moved to Dębica from Breslau (now Wrocław) in the mid-19th century. Out of love for his wife, he subsequently converted to Catholicism. Penderecki's grandmother Stefania was an Armenian from Stanislau in Austria-Hungary (present-day Ivano-Frankivsk in Western Ukraine). Penderecki used to go to the Armenian Church in Kraków with her. He was the youngest of three siblings; his sister, Barbara, was married to a mining engineer, and his older brother, Janusz, was studying law and medicine at the time of his birth. Tadeusz was a violinist and also played piano.  In 1939, the Second World War broke out, and Penderecki's family moved out of their apartment as the Ministry of Food was to operate there. After the war, Penderecki began attending grammar school in 1946. He began studying the violin under Stanisław Darłak, Dębica's military bandmaster who organized an orchestra for the local music society after the war. Upon graduating from grammar school, Penderecki moved to Kraków in 1951, where he attended Jagiellonian University. He studied violin with Stanisław Tawroszewicz and music theory with Franciszek Skołyszewski. In 1954, Penderecki entered the Academy of Music in Kraków and, having finished his studies on violin after his first year, focused entirely on composition. Penderecki's main teacher there was Artur Malawski, a composer known for his choral and orchestral works, as well as chamber music and songs. After Malawski's death in 1957, Penderecki took further lessons with Stanisław Wiechowicz, a composer primarily known for his choral works. At the time, the 1956 overthrow of Stalinism in Poland lifted strict cultural censorship and opened the door to a wave of creativity.

1958–1962: First compositions.

On graduating from the Academy of Music in Kraków in 1958, Penderecki took up a teaching post at the Academy. His early works show the influence of Anton Webern and Pierre Boulez (Penderecki was also influenced by Igor Stravinsky). Penderecki's international recognition began in 1959 at the Warsaw Autumn with the premieres of the works "Strophen", "Psalms of David", and "Emanations", but the piece that truly brought him to international attention was "Threnody to the Victims of Hiroshima" (see threnody and atomic bombing of Hiroshima), written in 1960 for 52 string instruments. In it, he makes use of extended instrumental techniques (for example, playing behind the bridge, bowing on the tailpiece). There are many novel textures in the work, which makes extensive use of tone clusters. He originally titled the work "8' 37"", but decided to dedicate it to the victims of Hiroshima.  "Fluorescences" followed a year later; it increases the orchestral density with more wind and brass, and an enormous percussion section of 32 instruments for six players, including a Mexican güiro, typewriters, gongs and other unusual instruments. The piece was composed for the Donaueschingen Festival of contemporary music of 1962, and its performance was regarded as provocative and controversial. Even the score appeared revolutionary; the form of graphic notation that Penderecki had developed rejected the familiar look of notes on a staff, instead representing music as morphing sounds. His intentions at this stage were quite Cagean: 'All I'm interested in is liberating sound beyond all tradition'.  Another noteworthy piece of this period is the "Canon" for 52 strings and 2 tapes. This is in a similar style to other pieces in the late 1950s in its use of sound masses, dramatically juxtaposed with traditional means although the use of standard techniques or idioms is often disguised or distorted. Indeed, the Canon brings to mind the choral tradition and indeed the composer has the players sing, albeit with the performance indication of "bocca chiusa" (with closed mouth) at various points; nevertheless, Penderecki uses the 52 'voices' of the string orchestra to play in massed glissandi and harmonics at times - this is then recorded by one of the tapes for playback later on in the piece. It was performed at the Warsaw Autumn Festival in 1962 and caused a riot although curiously the rioters were young music students and not older concertgoers.

"The St. Luke Passion".

The large-scale "St. Luke Passion" (1963–66) brought Penderecki further popular acclaim, not least because it was devoutly religious, yet written in an avant-garde musical language, and composed within Communist Eastern Europe. Western audiences saw it as a snub to the Soviet authorities. Various different musical styles can be seen in the piece. The experimental textures, such as were employed in the "Threnody", are balanced by the work's Baroque form and the occasional use of more traditional harmonic and melodic writing. Penderecki makes use of serialism in this piece, and one of the tone rows he uses includes the BACH motif, which acts as a bridge between the conventional and more experimental elements. The Stabat Mater section toward the end of the piece concludes on a simple chord of D major, and this gesture is repeated at the very end of the work, which finishes on a triumphant E major chord. These are the only tonal harmonies in the work, and both come as a surprise to the listener; Penderecki's use of tonal triads such as these remains a controversial aspect of the work.  Penderecki continued to write pieces that explored the sacred in music. In the early 1970s he wrote a Dies irae, a Magnificat, and Canticum Canticorum Salomonis (Song of Songs) for chorus and orchestra.

De Natura Sonoris and other pieces in the 1960s and early 1970s.

Penderecki's preoccupation with sound culminated in "De Natura Sonoris I", which frequently calls upon the orchestra to use non-standard playing techniques to produce original sounds and colours. A sequel, "De Natura Sonoris II", was composed in 1971: with its more limited orchestra, it incorporates more elements of post-Romanticism than its predecessor. This foreshadowed Penderecki's renunciation of the avant-garde in the mid-1970s, although both pieces feature dramatic glissandos, dense clusters, use of harmonics, and unusual instruments (the musical saw features in the second piece).  In 1968 Penderecki received the State Prize 1st class. During the jubilee of the People's Republic of Poland he received the Commander's Cross (1974) and Knight's Cross of Order of Polonia Restituta (1964).  Towards the end of the decade, Penderecki received a commission to write for the twenty-fifth anniversary of the founding of the United Nations. The result was "Kosmogonia", a piece of twenty minutes for 3 soloists (soprano, tenor, bass), mixed choir and orchestra. The Los Angeles Philharmonic premiered the piece on 24 October 1970 with Zubin Mehta as conductor and Robert Nagy as tenor. The piece uses texts from ancient writers Sophocles and Ovid in addition to contemporary statements from Soviet and American astronauts to musically explore the idea of the cosmos.

1970s–2020: Later years.

In the mid-1970s, while he was a professor at the Yale School of Music, Penderecki's style began to change. The Violin Concerto No. 1 largely leaves behind the dense tone clusters with which he had been associated, and instead focuses on two melodic intervals: the semitone and the tritone. This direction continued with the Symphony No. 2, "Christmas" (1980), which is harmonically and melodically quite straightforward. It makes frequent use of the tune of the Christmas carol "Silent Night".  Penderecki explained this shift by stating that he had come to feel that the experimentation of the avant-garde had gone too far from the expressive, non-formal qualities of Western music: 'The avant-garde gave one an illusion of universalism. The musical world of Stockhausen, Nono, Boulez and Cage was for us, the young – hemmed in by the aesthetics of socialist realism, then the official canon in our country – a liberation...I was quick to realise however, that this novelty, this experimentation, and formal speculation, is more destructive than constructive; I realised the Utopian quality of its Promethean tone'. Penderecki concluded that he was'saved from the avant-garde snare of formalism by a return to tradition'. Penderecki has written relatively little chamber music. However, compositions for smaller ensembles range in date from the start of his career to the end, reflecting the changes his style of writing has undergone.  In 1975 the Lyric Opera of Chicago had asked him to write a work to commemorate the US Bicentennial in 1976; this became the opera "Paradise Lost." Delays to the project however meant it did not see its premiere until 1978. The music continued to illustrate Penderecki's move away from avant-garde techniques: it is tonal music and the composer explained: 'This is not music by the angry young man I used to be'.  In 1980, Penderecki was commissioned by Solidarity to compose a piece to accompany the unveiling of a statue at the Gdańsk shipyards to commemorate those killed in anti-government riots there in 1970. Penderecki responded with "Lacrimosa", which he later expanded into one of the best-known works of his later period, the "Polish Requiem" (1980–84, 1993, 2005). Later, he tended towards more traditionally conceived tonal constructs, as heard in works such as the Cello Concerto No. 2 and the Credo, which received the Grammy Award for best choral performance for the world-premiere recording made by the Oregon Bach Festival, which commissioned the piece. The same year, Penderecki was awarded the Prince of Asturias Prize in Spain, one of the highest honours given in Spain to individuals, entities, organizations or others from around the world who make notable achievements in the sciences, arts, humanities, or public affairs. Invited by Walter Fink, he was the eleventh composer featured in the annual Komponistenporträt of the Rheingau Musik Festival in 2001. He conducted the Credo on the occasion of the 70th birthday of Helmuth Rilling, 29 May 2003. Penderecki received an honorary doctorate from the Seoul National University, Korea, in 2005 and the University of Münster, Germany, in 2006. His notable students include Chester Biscardi and Walter Mays. In celebration of his 75th birthday, he conducted three of his works at the Rheingau Musik Festival in 2008, among them Ciaccona from the "Polish Requiem".  In 2010, he worked on an opera based on Phèdre by Racine for 2014, which was never realized, and expressed his wish to write a 9th symphony. In 2014, he was engaged in the creation of a choral work to coincide with the Armenian Genocide centennial. In 2018, he conducted Credo in Kyiv at the 29th Kyiv Music Fest, marking the centenary of Polish independence.

Personal life.

Penderecki had three children, first a daughter Beata with pianist Barbara Penderecka ("née" Graca; married 1954, then divorced). He then had a son Łukasz (b. 1966) and daughter Dominika (b. 1971) with his second wife, Elżbieta Penderecka ("née" Solecka), whom he married on 19 December 1965. He lived in the Kraków suburb of Wola Justowska.

Death.

On 29 March 2020, Penderecki died in his home in Kraków, Poland after a long illness.

Legacy.

In 1979, a bronze bust by artist Marian Konieczny honouring Penderecki was unveiled in The Gallery of Composers' Portraits at the Pomeranian Philharmonic in Bydgoszcz. His monument is also located on the Celebrity Alley at the Scout Square ("Skwer Harcerski") in Kielce. A main-belt asteroid – 21059 Penderecki is named in his honor.  Radiohead guitarist Jonny Greenwood is noted for his admiration of the Polish composer's work. He visited Penderecki in 2012 and wrote a work, "48 Responses to Polymorphia", for strings which was conducted by Penderecki himself in various performances throughout Europe.

Works.

Penderecki's compositions include operas, symphonies, choral works, as well as chamber and instrumental music.

Use in film.

Some of Penderecki's music has been adapted for film soundtracks. "The Exorcist" (1973) features his String Quartet and "Kanon For Orchestra and Tape"; fragments of the Cello Concerto and "The Devils of Loudun". Writing about "The Exorcist", the film critic for "The New Republic" wrote that 'even the music is faultless, most of it by Krzysztof Penderecki, who at last is where he belongs'. Stanley Kubrick's "The Shining" (1980) features six pieces of Penderecki's music: "Utrenja II: Ewangelia", "Utrenja II: Kanon Paschy", "The Awakening of Jacob", "De Natura Sonoris No. 1", "De Natura Sonoris No. 2" and "Polymorphia". David Lynch has used Penderecki's music in the soundtracks of the films "Wild at Heart" (1990), "Inland Empire" (2006), and the TV series "Twin Peaks" (2017). In the film "Fearless" (1993) by Peter Weir, the piece "Polymorphia" was once again used for an intense plane crash scene, seen from the point of view of the passenger played by Jeff Bridges. Penderecki's "Threnody for the Victims of Hiroshima" was also used during one of the final sequences in the film "Children of Men" (2006). Penderecki composed music for Andrzej Wajda's 2007 Academy Award nominated film "Katyń", while Martin Scorsese's "Shutter Island" (2010) featured his Symphony No. 3 and "Fluorescences".  Some of Penderecki's oeuvre inspired Jonny Greenwood of Radiohead to release an album, which thereafter appeared in his score for "There Will Be Blood", a 2007 Paul Thomas Anderson film.

Honors and awards.

Penderecki was an honorary doctor and honorary professor of several universities: Georgetown University, Washington, D.C., University of Glasgow, Moscow Tchaikovsky Conservatory, Fryderyk Chopin Music Academy in Warsaw, Seoul National University, Universities of Rochester, Bordeaux, Leuven, Belgrade, Madrid, Poznan and St. Olaf College (Northfield, Minnesota), Duquesne University, Pontifical Catholic University of Peru, University of Pittsburgh (PA), University of St. Petersburg, Beijing Conservatory, Yale University and Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität in Münster (Westphalia) (2006 Faculty of Arts).  He was an honorary member of the following academies and music companies: Royal Academy of Music (London), Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia (Rome), Royal Swedish Academy of Music (Stockholm), Academy of Arts (London), Academia Nacional de Bellas Artes (Buenos Aires), the Society of Friends of Music in Vienna, Academy of Arts in Berlin, Académie Internationale de Philosophie et de l’Art in Bern, and the Académie Nationale des Sciences, Belles-lettres et Arts in Bordeaux. In 2009, he became an honorary citizen of the city of Bydgoszcz.

Krzysztof Eugeniusz Penderecki (; 23 November 1933 – 29 March 2020) was a Polish composer and conductor. Among his best known works are "Threnody to the Victims of Hiroshima", Symphony No. 3, his "St. Luke Passion", "Polish Requiem", "Anaklasis" and "Utrenja". Penderecki composed four operas, eight symphonies and other orchestral pieces, a variety of instrumental concertos, choral settings of mainly religious texts, as well as chamber and instrumental works"."

Krzysztof Eugeniusz Penderecki [ˈkʂɨʂtɔf pɛndɛˈrɛt͡skji] (* 23. November 1933 in Dębica; † 29. März 2020 in Krakau) war ein zeitgenössischer polnischer Komponist, dessen Werk der postseriellen Musik zugeordnet wird und der vor allem durch seine Klangkompositionen Aufsehen erregte. Für diese speziell in der Instrumentalmusik angewandte Technik wurde von Seiten der polnischen Musikwissenschaft, namentlich von Zofia Lissa und Józef Michał Chomiński, der Begriff Sonorismus entwickelt. Er gilt als einer der führenden Komponisten der polnischen Avantgarde,der mit seiner Musik "den Kompositionsstil einer ganzen Ära der zeitgenössischen Musik mitgeprägt" hat. Sein unerschrockenes Eintreten für christliches Gedankengut und Menschlichkeit sowie seine unverwechselbare Tonsprache ließen Penderecki zur Galionsfigur einer "polnischen Schule" der Avantgarde werden.


Life.

As a young man, Rossi acquired a reputation as a talented violinist. He was then hired (in 1587) as a court musician in Mantua, where records of his activities as a violinist survive.  Rossi served at the court of Mantua from 1587 to 1628 as concertmaster where he entertained the ducal family and their highly esteemed guests. The composers Rossi, Monteverdi, Gastoldi, Wert and Viadana provided fashionable music for banquets, wedding feasts, theatre productions and chapel services amongst others. Rossi was so well-thought of at this court that he was excused from wearing the yellow badge that was required of other Jews in Mantua.  Rossi probably died either in the invasion of Austrian troops, who defeated the Gonzagas and destroyed the Jewish ghetto in Mantua, or in the subsequent plague which ravaged the area.  Rossi's sister, Madama Europa, was an opera singer, and possibly the first Jewish woman to be professionally engaged in that area. Like her brother, she was employed at the court in Mantua; she is thought to have performed in the "intermedio" "Il Ratto di Europa," by Gabriello Chiabrera and Gastoldi, during the wedding festivities for Francesco Gonzaga in 1608. She also disappeared after the end of the Gonzaga court and subsequent sack of the ghetto.

Works.

Italian.

His first published work (released in 1589) was a collection of 19 canzonettes, short, dance-like compositions for a trio of voices with lighthearted, amorous lyrics. Rossi also flourished in his composition of more serious madrigals, combining the poetry of the greatest poets of the day (e.g. Guarini, Marino, Rinaldi, and Celiano) with his melodies. In 1600, in the first two of his five madrigal books, Rossi published the earliest continuo madrigals, an innovation which partially defined the beginning of the Baroque era in music; these particular compositions included tablature for chitarrone.  Rossi published 150 secular works in Italian, including:  Canzonette a 3, Libro primo  Madrigali a 5, Libro primo

Instrumental.

In the field of instrumental music Rossi was a bold innovator. He was one of the first composers to apply to instrumental music the principles of monodic song, in which one melody dominates over secondary accompanying parts. His trio sonatas, among the first in the literature, provided for the development of an idiomatic and virtuoso violin technique. They stand midway between the homogeneous textures of the instrumental canzona of the late Renaissance and the trio sonata of the mature Baroque.  Works published, and preserved today include:

Hebrew.

Rossi also published a collection of Jewish liturgical music, השירים אשר לשלמה "(Ha-shirim asher li-Shlomo, The Songs of Solomon)" in 1623. This was written in the Baroque tradition and (almost) entirely unconnected to traditional Jewish cantorial music. This was an unprecedented development in synagogal music. The biblical "Song of Solomon" does not appear within "The Songs of Solomon", hence the name is probably a pun on Rossi's first name (Rikko 1969). Rossi set many Biblical Hebrew texts to music in their original Hebrew language, which makes him unique among Baroque composers. His vocal music resembles that of Claudio Monteverdi and Luigi Rossi, but its lyrics are in Hebrew.  on collections

Salamone Rossi or Salomone Rossi () (Salamon, Schlomo; de' Rossi) (ca. 1570 – 1630) was an Italian Jewish violinist and composer. He was a transitional figure between the late Italian Renaissance period and early Baroque.

Salamone Rossi ( oder ; auch "Salomone Rossi", "Salamon", "Schlomo"; "de’ Rossi"; * um 1570; † um 1630) war ein italienischer Geiger und Komponist des Frühbarock.


Application areas of BfN.

The diversity of species, habitats and landscapes is critical to human survival. Safeguarding this diversity for the long-term future is an increasingly urgent challenge. It requires approaches that integrate the protection, development and sustainable use of our natural resources with a purposeful, consistent course of action. The Federal Agency for Nature Conservation plays a key part in incorporating scientific knowledge into policy decisions and applying that knowledge in practice. BfN is involved and has links with numerous activities to conserve biodiversity and natural ecosystems in Germany and internationally.  Nature conservation can only succeed in the long run if it enjoys support across the whole of society. The Agency therefore maintains an ongoing dialogue with policymakers, business, the scientific community, educators and the media, constantly adapting the nature conservation toolkit to societal change.

Advice.

Furnishing the science to underpin policy and administrative decisions is one of BfN's central tasks. Doing so requires in-depth knowledge of the complex interrelationships in the natural environment and of the short and long-term effects of human activities on ecosystems. It also calls for a thorough grasp of the available options, implementation choices and social and policy needs so that expertise can be provided at the right place in the right form.  Looking to the future is especially important in this regard, because new issues and challenges emerging all the time require a timely response based on scientifically dependable data and knowledge. Topical examples include climate change – which poses huge problems not just for humanity, but for entire regions and much of life on earth – and the sustainable use of renewable energy.  The Federal Agency for Nature Conservation provides the German government – and first and foremost the German Environment Ministry – with the scientific basis for decisions and advice on all aspects of national and international nature conservation, and identifies new areas where policy choices need to be made. BfN performs a key knowledge transfer function for nature conservation by preparing scientific knowledge and rendering it suitable for practical application. As well as providing support for policy-making at national level, the Agency also works in close cooperation with authorities in each of Germany's sixteen states. One aim here is to ensure that approaches and methods developed by BfN – for example with regard to landscape planning, species conservation and protected areas – are applied uniformly and comparably nationwide.  Internationally, BfN is actively involved in various scientific networks and supports the German government in meeting the country's obligations under related international agreements. These include:

Funding.

Ideas and activities to conserve animal and plant species and their habitats and to safeguard the ecosystem services vital for human survival need a sound scientific basis. They must be feasible, tested in practice and continuously refined in light of emerging challenges. Valuable natural and cultural landscapes must also be preserved for the future. BfN plans, funds and supports various forms of projects for these purposes large-scale conservation projects, research projects and pilot projects.  All such projects are carried out jointly with external partners. Close contacts with stakeholders and institutions at regional and local level ensure that projects reflect local interests. The projects generate an understanding of the conservation status of the natural environment and of the socioeconomic needs of the population, enabling BfN to continue giving key impetus to the theory and practice of nature conservation.

Enforcement.

Germany and its constituent states (Länder) have signed a wide range of international nature conservation agreements. They have an obligation to transpose those agreements into national law and put their provisions into practice on an ongoing basis. For some agreements, BfN is the national enforcement agency with specific responsibility for their implementation in Germany.  BfN grants import and export permits for protected species and products derived from them (CITES)  Many animal and plant species are threatened by taking from the wild. The international community responded to this as early as 1973 with the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). As the German enforcement agency for CITES, BfN grants import and export permits for protected species and products derived from them. BfN also develops the scientific basis for decisions in this regard and for the ongoing adaptation and refinement of species conservation law in line with changing needs.

Information and education.

BfN considers itself as the central service provider for all issues relating to nature conservation. Comprehensive information and publicity work is therefore a key part of the Agency's activities.  Information and publications  BfN provides information for practitioners in all areas of nature conservation and for the general public. Children and teenagers are an especially important target group. The Agency develops and refines teaching ideas and materials to introduce young people to nature and conservation, publishes a series of leaflets specially for children and provides a web portal for ‘nature detectives’ www.naturdetektive.de. This unique project uses new media to combine the practical and virtual experience of nature.  Important research findings and work outcomes are published in the BfN-Schriften monograph series. BfN also publishes a journal “Natur und Landschaft”, containing academic articles and news on nature conservation and landscape management.  Library  BfN has one of the largest nature conservation libraries in Europe, with some 120,000 books and media plus over a 1,000 subscribed and archived specialist journals at the Agency's three locations in Bonn, Leipzig and Vilm. The BfN documentation service catalogues this literature in a continuously updated database containing more than 100,000 references.  Press relations work  To serve the general public, BfN publishes booklets, flyers and posters on general and specific nature conservation topics. These activities are supplemented by ongoing press relations work. Exhibitions, events and campaigns likewise serve to raise awareness of nature conservation issues. BfN also receives numerous telephone and written enquiries every day, all of which are answered individually.  International Nature Conservation Academy (INA)  BfN operates its own conference centre, the International Nature Conservation Academy (INA) on the Island of Vilm near Rügen in northern Germany. At the Academy, BfN holds scientific conferences and workshops on a wide range of nature conservation topics. The INA additionally conducts training for capacity-building purposes with regard to implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity and other international commitments. It is also available for use by other institutions for seminars.

History.

1906 Establishment of the State Agency for Natural Heritage Preservation in Danzig (present-day Gdansk) - the beginning of official nature conservation in Prussia.  1935 Establishment of the Reich Agency for Nature Conservation (later placed under the Reich Forestry Office). 1945 Establishment of the Central Office for Nature Conservation (from 1949 onwards the Central Office for Nature Conservation and Landscape Management) in Egestorf. 1952 Establishment of the Federal Institute for Nature Conservation and Landscape Management in Bonn.  1962 Reorganisation to form the Federal Centre for Vegetation Ecology, Nature Conservation and Landscape Management (BAVNL). Integration of the Federal Institute for Vegetation Cartography, established 1950.  1975 Renamed into Federal Research Centre for Nature Conservation and Landscape Ecology (BFANL). 1990 Integration of former GDR institutions such as the Institute for Landscape Research and Nature Conservation (Dölzig branch); Establishment of the International Nature Conservation Academy (Island of Vilm).  1993 Establishment of the German Federal Agency for Nature Conservation. Integration of parts of the Federal Agency for Food and Forestry and part of the Federal Agency for Commerce.  2006 Anniversary: 100 years of nature conservation as a state responsibility.

Organization.

The German Federal Agency for Nature Conservation (, BfN) is the German government's scientific authority with responsibility for national and international nature conservation. BfN is one of the government's departmental research agencies and reports to the German Environment Ministry (BMU).

Das Bundesamt für Naturschutz (BfN) ist eine deutsche Bundesoberbehörde im Geschäftsbereich des Bundesministeriums für Umwelt, Naturschutz und nukleare Sicherheit. Das Bundesamt berät das Ministerium in allen Fragen des nationalen und internationalen Naturschutzes und der Landschaftspflege, fördert Naturschutzprojekte, betreut Forschungsvorhaben und ist Genehmigungsbehörde für die Ein- und Ausfuhr geschützter Tier- und Pflanzenarten. Es gibt in größeren zeitlichen Abständen die Roten Listen gefährdeter Tier- und Pflanzenarten heraus. Es nimmt auch Aufgaben im Vollzug des internationalen Artenschutzes, des Meeresnaturschutzes, des Antarktisvertrags und des Gentechnikgesetzes wahr.


History and origins.

The word "colonel" derives from the same root as the word "column" (Italian: "colonna") and means "of a column", and, by implication, "commander of a column". The word "colonel" is therefore linked to the word "column" in a similar way that "brigadier" is linked to "brigade", although in English this relationship is not immediately obvious. By the end of the late medieval period, a group of "companies" was referred to as a "column" of an army.  Since the word is believed to derive from sixteenth-century Italian, it was presumably first used by Italian city states in that century. The first use of colonel as a rank in a national army was in the French "National Legions" ("Légions nationales") created by King Francis I by his decree of 1534. Building on the military reforms of Louis XII's decree of 1509, he modernized the organization of the French royal army. Each colonel commanded a legion with a theoretical strength of six thousand men.  With the shift from primarily mercenary to primarily national armies in the course of the seventeenth century, a colonel (normally a member of the aristocracy) became a holder (German "Inhaber") or proprietor of a military contract with a sovereign. The colonel purchased the regimental contract — the right to hold the regiment — from the previous holder of that right or directly from the sovereign when a new regiment was formed or an incumbent was killed.  The Spanish equivalent rank of "coronel" was used by the Spanish tercios in the 16th and 17th centuries. Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, nicknamed 'the Great Captain', divided his armies in 'coronelías' or colonelcies, each led by a "coronel" (colonel). However, the Spanish word probably derives from a different origin, in that it appears to designate an officer of the crown ("corona", thus the rank "coronel"), rather than an officer of the column ("columna", which would give the word "columnal"). This makes the Spanish word "coronel" probably cognate with the English word "coroner".  As the office of colonel became an established practice, the colonel became the senior captain in a group of companies that were all sworn to observe his personal authority — to be ruled or regimented by him. This regiment, or governance, was to some extent embodied in a contract and set of written rules, also referred to as the colonel's regiment or standing regulation(s). By extension, the group of companies subject to a colonel's regiment (in the foregoing sense) came to be referred to as his regiment (in the modern sense) as well.  In French usage of this period, the senior colonel in the army or, in a field force, the senior military contractor, was the colonel general and, in the absence of the sovereign or his designate, the colonel general might serve as the commander of a force. The position, however, was primarily contractual and it became progressively more of a functionless sinecure. (The head of a single regiment or demi-brigade would be called a'mestre de camp' or, after the Revolution, a 'chef de brigade'.)  By the late 19th century, colonel was a professional military rank though still held typically by an officer in command of a regiment or equivalent unit. Along with other ranks, it has become progressively more a matter of ranked duties, qualifications and experience and of corresponding titles and pay scale than of functional office in a particular organization.  As European military influence expanded throughout the world, the rank of colonel became adopted by nearly every nation (albeit under a variety of names).  With the rise of communism, some of the large communist militaries saw fit to expand the colonel rank into several grades, resulting in the unique senior colonel rank, which was found and is still used in such nations as China and North Korea.

Colonel-in-chief.

In many modern armies, the'regiment' has more importance as a ceremonial unit or a focus of members' loyalty than as an actual battle formation. Troops tend to be deployed in 'battalions' (commanded by a lieutenant colonel) as a more convenient size of military unit and, as such, colonels have tended to have a higher profile in specialist and command roles than as actual commanders of regiments. However, in Commonwealth armies, the position of the colonel as the figurehead of a regiment is maintained in the honorary role of "colonel-in-chief", usually held by a member of the royal family, the nobility, or a retired senior military officer. The colonel-in-chief wears a colonel's uniform and encourages the members of the regiment, but takes no active part in the actual command structure or in any operational duties.

Colonel of the Regiment.

The title Colonel of the Regiment (to distinguish it from the military rank of colonel) continues to be used in the modern British Army. The ceremonial position is often conferred on retired general officers, brigadiers or colonels who have a close link to a particular regiment. Non-military personnel, usually for positions within the Army Reserve may also be appointed to the ceremonial position. When attending functions as "Colonel of the Regiment", the titleholder wears the regimental uniform with rank insignia of (full) colonel, regardless of their official rank. A member of the Royal Family is known as a Royal Colonel. A Colonel of the Regiment is expected to work closely with a regiment and its Regimental Association.

Colonel and equivalent ranks by country.

Colonel in individual military forces.

The following articles deal with the rank of colonel as it is used in various national militaries.

European equivalent ranks.

Since the 16th century, the rank of regimental commander was adopted by several Central and Eastern European armies, most notably the forces of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Cossacks and then Muscovy. In countries with Slavic and Baltic languages, the exact name of the rank maintains a variety of spellings, all descendant from the Old Slavonic word "plk" or "polk" meaning "unit of standing army" (see The Tale of Igor's Campaign), and include the following:  Other countries have adopted the rank and spelling when they became part of the Russian Empire and later Soviet Union including following:

Arab ranks.

There are two common Arab ranks relevant to the English word "colonel":  In addition, a non-Arab colonel is often referred to as "kūlūnīl" (كولونيل). In the Ottoman Empire, the Ottoman ranks "miralay" and "qaimaqam" were formerly used instead of the current Arab ranks "ʿamīd" and "ʿaqīd".

Asian equivalent ranks.

Turkish and Ottoman ranks.

The Ottomans used a rank of "column chief", which was ""kol ağa"", from "kol" (column in Turkish) and "ağa" (chief in Turkish). However, in authority, this was more equivalent to a European major. The Ottoman army rank of "lieutenant governor" ("kaymakam") was equivalent in authority to a European colonel. "Kol ağa" is no longer used.  The word for a regiment, "alay", can also mean a procession, or be loosely translated as a column of men. "Alay" was in the Ottoman army rank "miralay" ("regimental "emir"") and the Ottoman gendarmerie rank "alaybeyi" ("regimental "bey""). These Ottoman ranks were equivalent to European brigade commanders.  The modern Turkish Army uses the rank of "albay" as its colonel rank (NATO rank OF-5). This is a contraction of the older Turkish word "alaybeyi".

Colonel as highest-ranking officer.

Some military forces have a colonel as their highest-ranking officer, with no 'general' ranks, and no superior authority (except, perhaps, the head of state as a titular commander-in-chief) other than the respective national government. Examples include the following (arranged alphabetically by country name):

Other uses of colonel ranks.

The term "colonel" is also used as a title for auctioneers in the United States; there are a variety of theories or folk etymologies to explain the use of the term. One of these is the claim that during the American Civil War goods seized by armies were sold at auction by the colonel of the division.  Kentucky colonel is the highest title of honor bestowed by the Commonwealth of Kentucky. Commissions for Kentucky colonels are given by the Governor and the Secretary of State to individuals in recognition of noteworthy accomplishments and outstanding service to a community, state or the nation. The sitting governor of the Commonwealth of Kentucky bestows the honor of a colonel's Commission, by issuance of letters patent. Perhaps the best known Kentucky colonel is Harland Sanders of "Kentucky Fried Chicken" fame.  The rank of colonel is also used by some military police forces such as Military Police (Brazil), the Carabineros de Chile and the French National Gendarmerie. The Police of Russia, being a paramilitary organization, also uses this rank.

Colonel (; abbreviated Col., Col or COL and alternatively spelled coronel) is a senior military officer rank below the general officer ranks. However, in some small military forces, such as those of Monaco or the Vatican, colonel is the highest rank. It is also used in some police forces and paramilitary organizations.

Der Oberst ist ein Dienstgrad der Bundeswehr, des Bundesheeres, der Schweizer Armee und weiterer moderner und früherer Streitkräfte. Bei den Wachkörpern Österreichs ist der Oberst eine Verwendungsbezeichnung.


Use.

In Arab countries,'and'(pronunciation varies according to the form of Arabic spoken) is a commonly used manner of addressing any older person respectfully, regardless of whether or not the person in question has actually performed the pilgrimage.  In Malay-speaking countries, and are titles given to Muslim males and females respectively who have performed the pilgrimage. These are abbreviated Hj and Hjh.  The term is also used in the Balkan Christian countries that were once under Ottoman rule (Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Romania) for a Christian who had traveled to Jerusalem and the Holy Lands.  In Cyprus the title became so prevalent as to be permanently integrated into some Greek Christian family names, such as Hajiioannou. This was due to Cyprus being so close to the Holy Lands and Jerusalem, as Cyprus became a place where Christians and Muslims intermixed freely for many centuries.  In Iran the honorific title "Haj" () is sometimes used for IRGC commanders, instead of the title "Sardar" ("General").  The title has also been used in Jewish communities to honor those who made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem or other holy sites in Israel.

Racial slur.

"Hajji", "Haji", "Hadji" or "Hodgie" has become a phrase used as a term for Iraqis, Arabs, Afghans, or West Asian, North African, and South Asian people in general. It is comparable to the term "gook" or "Charlie" used by U.S military personnel during the Vietnam War.

Hajji () (sometimes spelled Hadji, Haji, Alhaji, Al hage, Al-hajj or El-Hajj) is a title which is originally given to a Muslim person who has successfully completed the Hajj to Mecca. It is also often used to refer to an elder, since it can take time to accumulate the wealth to fund the travel (particularly before the advent of mass air travel), and in many Muslim societies as an honorific title for a respected man. The title is placed before a person's name; for example Saif Gani becomes "Hajji Saif Gani". "Hadži" is also used in Orthodox Christianity for people who go on pilgrimage to the grave of Christ in Jerusalem. It can then be added to the pilgrim's first name, e.g., Hadži-Prodan.

Hāddsch (m.) bzw. Hāddscha (w.) (, ) ist ein Ehrentitel einer Person, die den "Haddsch", die islamische Pilgerfahrt nach Mekka, unternommen hat. Das Wort ist in dieser Bedeutung auch Bestandteil von Eigennamen.


History.

Spanish period.

Although Apayao which was then part of Cagayan, was among the earliest areas penetrated by the Spaniards in the Cordilleras, the region, inhabited by the Isneg tribe, remained largely outside Spanish control until late in the 19th century. As early as 1610, the Dominican friars established a mission in what is now the town of Pudtol. In 1684, the friars again made attempts to convert the people and established a church in what is now Kabugao.  The Spanish authorities were then able to establish in Cagayan the "comandancia"s of Apayao and Cabugaoan in 1891, which covered the western and eastern portions of what is now Apayao. The "comandancia"s, however, failed to bring total control and the Spanish government only maintained a loose hold over the area.

American period.

The Americans established the Mountain Province on August 13, 1908, with the enactment of "Act" "No. 1876". Apayao, along with Amburayan, Benguet, Bontoc, Ifugao, Kalinga, and Lepanto, became sub-provinces of this new province.

World War II.

In 1942, Japanese Imperial forces entered Apayao, starting a three-year occupation of the province during the Second World War. Local Filipino troops of the 1st, 2nd, 12th, 15th and 16th Infantry Division of the Philippine Commonwealth Army and the military forces of the USAFIP-NL 11th and 66th Infantry Regiment, supported by the Cordilleran guerrillas, drove out the Japanese in 1945.

Kalinga-Apayao creation and splitting.

On June 18, 1966, the huge Mountain Province was split into four provinces with the enactment of "Republic Act No. 4695". The four provinces were Benguet, Bontoc (renamed "Mountain Province"), Kalinga-Apayao and Ifugao. Kalinga-Apayao, along with Ifugao, became one of the provinces of the Cagayan Valley region in 1972.  On July 15, 1987, the Cordillera Administrative Region was established and Kalinga-Apayao was made one of its provinces.  Finally, on February 14, 1995, Kalinga-Apayao was split into two independent provinces with the passage of "Republic Act No. 7878".

Biosphere Reserve.

The Philippine Eagle Foundation began its search of eagles in Apayao in 2011 after reports of huge eagles were roaming the area for centuries. On March 22, 2013 scientists discovered the stronghold of critically endangered Philippine eagles, the country's national bird, in Luzon island within the vicinity of the Calanasan Lowland Forest. In January 2015, the town of Calanasan initiated a program which protected 3,000 hectares of forests under its jurisdiction. Additionally, the province of Apayao is one of the very few in the country which has an approved forest land use plan (FLUP). The first active Philippine eagle nest in Apayao was discovered in July 2015.  On 9 July 2018, the provincial government of Apayao announced their intent for the province to be a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve. The province, which possesses more than 286,000 hectares of virgin forests, also noted that they have sent four of their personnel to train in the United States under the US Foreign Service to hasten the declaration of the site. On January 16, 2019, the provincial government announced that they are at the 'legwork for the inscription'.

Geography.

Apayao is basically situated within the Cordillera Central mountains, traversed by many rivers. The province covers an area of forming the northern tip of the Cordillera Administrative Region, and is bounded on the north and east by Cagayan, west by Ilocos Norte, southwest by Abra and south by Kalinga.  Plains and valleys are used for farming. Apayao is basically composed of farmlands.

Climate.

The prevailing climate in the province falls under Corona's Type III Classification. It is characterized by relatively dry and wet seasons, from November to April, and wet during the rest of the year. Heaviest rain during December to February while the month of May is the warmest.

Administrative divisions.

Apayao comprises 7 municipalities, all encompassed by a lone legislative district.

Barangays.

The 7 municipalities of the province comprise a total of 133 barangays, with Barangay Malama in Conner as the most populous in 2015, and Eleazar in Calanasan as the least.

Demographics.

The population of Apayao in the was people, with a density of.  Based on the 2000 census survey, Ilocanos comprised of the total provincial population of 97,058, while almost 1/3 of the population were Isnag at. Other ethnic groups in the province were the Malaueg at, Isneg at, Kalinga at, Kankanaey at, Bontoc at, and Ibaloi at.  Two major sub-groups among the Isnag people are known: the Ymandaya, mostly concentrated in the municipality of Calanasan; and the Imallod, with populations distributed among the other towns of the province. Some Isnag populations can also be found in the eastern part of the adjacent Provinces of Ilocos Norte and Cagayan, due to previous displacements from Ilokano migrations.  Isnag, also called Isneg, kinship is bilateral, meaning children are equally related to both the mother and the father. Households consist of interrelated families living close to each other, and extended families of three generations living together in their "balay". The family is the key element in society, the larger the better, headed by the husband. No other society structure exists, though brave men, mengals, lead in hunting and fishing. The bravest, "Kamenglan", is the overall leader. A young man entered their ranks after the first headhunting expedition during the old days. A mengal carries a red kerchief on the head and has tattoos on his arms and shoulders. They are animistic and practice polygamy. However, an influx of Christian religions have destroyed many of Isnag culture. Approximately 9% of Isnag people were converted to Christianity, usually by forced assimilation, during the colonial era up to the present era.

Economy.

Apayao is devoted to agricultural production, particularly food and industrial crops such as palay, corn, coffee, root crops and vegetables. Fruits produced include lanzones, citrus, bananas and pineapples, durian, santol, rambutan, coconut and mangosteen. Rice production totaled 98,489 metric tons in 2011.  Economic activity is also based on livestock and poultry breeding such as swine, carabao, cattle, goat and sheep. Other additional investment includes manufacturing, food processing, furniture, crafts and house wares making.  Updated records of the Department of Trade and Industry Provincial Office reveal that existing industries in the province are furniture, garment craft, food processing, gifts and house wares, and agricultural support.

The contrabassoon, also known as the double bassoon, is a larger version of the bassoon, sounding an octave lower. Its technique is similar to its smaller cousin, with a few notable differences.

Das Kontrafagott ist ein Musikinstrument mit Doppelrohrblatt, der tiefste Vertreter der Holzblasinstrumente im Orchester. Der Name kommt von der "Kontra"-Oktave, deren profunde Töne es erzeugen kann, baulich ist es im Prinzip ein auf das Doppelte verlängertes Fagott (früher auch "Quart-Fagott" und italienisch "Fagotto doppio" genannt; im Englischen gibt es auch die Bezeichnung "double bassoon"). Im Orchester wird es als Nebeninstrument von Fagottisten gespielt, die das Instrument auch abgekürzt „Kontra“ nennen.


Geography.

Sulęcin is located in the center of Lubusz Voivodeship (Lubuskie province), by the river Postomia, tributary of the Warta River, in the historical Lubusz Land. The surrounding landscape is formed by many hillocks on the plateau of Lubusz. The highest of them is the Bukowiec (227 m). The closest big city is Gorzów Wielkopolski (45 km). Over 50% of the area of the Sulecin Commune is occupied by forests.

History.

Middle Ages.

Excavations have shown that the area around Sulęcin was inhabited already in the 2nd century BC. The area formed part of Poland after the establishment of the state in the 10th century. The town developed from a Slavic settlement. The town was mentioned for the first time in documents in 1241 when bishop Henry granted nobleman Mrotsek the right to build a new settlement for Germans. Until the 12th century under dominion of the Silesian line of the Piast dynasty, the town with 10 surrounding villages was handed over by Polish Duke Henry I the Bearded to Mroczko from Pogorzela, who in 1244 gave it to the Knights Templar. In 1249 Zielenzig became a part of the Margraviate of Brandenburg. In 1269 Otto, the Margrave of Brandenburg ordered to build a castle in the town. It was destroyed by the Polish army of Duke Bolesław the Pious in retaliation for a Brandenburg invasion. After disbanding of the Knights Templar Order by Pope Clement V in 1312 Sulęcin was ruled by the Knights Hospitaller. They leased the town in 1318 to the Brandenburg Margrave Woldemar. After a war broke out over control of the region in 1319, the town came under Polish control again, as part of the Duchy of Głogów. Duke Henry IV the Faithful confirmed the rights of the Knights Hospitaller to the town and the castle, by virtue of a document issued in 1322 in nearby Lubniewice. By 1326 the town fell to Brandenburg again. It stayed under the supremacy of the Knights Hospitaller until 1810.  Between 1373 and 1415 it was part of the Lands of the Bohemian (Czech) Crown. In 1419 Sulęcin suffered a severe damage, as the Hussite Wars reached the city.

Modern era.

In 1574 the Polish nobility and clergy of Greater Poland welcomed in Zielenzig the first elected King of Poland, Henry of Valois. In 1591, the first school was established in the town. In 1689, Polish princess Theresa Kunegunda Sobieska stayed in Sulęcin.  From the 18th century the town was part of the Kingdom of Prussia, under the Germanized name "Zielenzig". In 1733 Frederick William I, King of Prussia visited the town. During the Napoleonic Wars, from 1806 to 1812 the town remained under French control.  As a result of the new Prussian district division of 1818 a new district Landkreis Sternberg was established. Zielenzig was its capital of until 1852. In 1873 Sternberg was divided into Landkreis Oststernberg with Zielenzig as a capital and Landkreis Weststernberg. At that time the city's industry was based on textile production and mills. In the middle of the 19th century the number of inhabitants reached 4500. After the discovery of lignite in the vicinity of the city a briquette factory was set up in Zielenzig. This led to the development of infrastructure and resulted in an increase of the population to 5769 inhabitants in 1885. After World War I a number of companies involved in timber processing set up in the town. The number of residents in 1939 according to the last German census was 5867.  On 2 May 1945 Sulęcin was taken by the Red Army. Although there was no resistance, the houses in the city center were plundered by the soldiers and set on fire. As a result, around 50% of Sulęcin was completely destroyed.  After Nazi Germany's defeat in World War II, the town once again became part of Poland, and its German population was expelled in accordance to the Potsdam Agreement. It was initially renamed as "Cielęcin" in 1945 and finally Sulęcin in 1946, it was repopulated mostly by Poles expelled from former eastern Poland annexed by the Soviet Union and settlers from nearby Greater Poland. From 1945 to 1975 it was the capital of its county, at first in Poznan Voivodeship (1946–1950), later Zielona Gora Voivodeship (1950–1975). It was demoted as a borough (gmina) centre in Międzyrzecz county of Gorzow Wielkopolski Voivodeship between 1975 and 1999. It has been a county center in Lubusz Voivodeship since 1999.

Twin towns – sister cities.

See twin towns of Gmina Sulęcin.

External links.

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Sulęcin (; ) is a town in western Poland with 10,117 inhabitants (2019), the capital of Sulecin County, since 1999 in Lubusz Voivodeship.

Sulęcin [] ( "Zielenzig") ist eine Stadt in der polnischen Woiwodschaft Lebus mit Einwohnern. Sie ist Sitz der gleichnamigen Stadt-und-Land-Gemeinde mit Einwohnern (Stand ) und Kreisstadt des Powiats Sulęciński.


Geography.

The municipality has no forests, lakes, or streams, but has an abundance of high-voltage power grids, highways and railroads, as it is on the main line from Malmö to northern Sweden. Like the rest of Scania, much land is used for agriculture and there are several old farms, mills and other sights from the last centuries in the vicinity.

Demography.

The population of Burlöv Municipality increased with almost 1,000 people between 1986 and 2003, but it decreased last year. The largest part of the population increase has been due to high birth rates. Moving rates have played a small part, and is rather equalled, where – as is normal in smaller communities – young people move out and families with children move in.

Urban areas.

There are three urban areas (also called a "tätort" or locality) in Burlöv Municipality, including Arlöv, which statistically is a part of Malmö (*). Malmö is mostly located in Malmö Municipality but a part of it sprawls into Burlöv Municipality.  In the table they are listed according to the size of the population as of December 31, 2005. The municipal seat is in bold characters.  Arlöv is an early industrialized town dominated by multi-storey apartment buildings, with a working class character. Its largest industry is Arlöv Sugar Factory, to which large amounts of sugar beets are transported from all around Scania.  In Arlöv, the Burlöv Center is also located there. It is a large shopping mall in the region, but considered rather expensive.  Åkarp and Burlövs egnahem consist of detached house districts. They have a suburban character from where people commute to commercial centres and work within the metropolitan area of southwestern Scania.

Culture and history.

Arlöv is located in the vicinity of agricultural fields, where the "Old Church of Burlöv" can be found, in the Burlöv Village. One of the oldest churches in Scania, it has mostly remained the way it was built in the 12th century, with its oldest parts concreted out of sandstone.  The coat of arms depict a sugar beet which was the chief industry for a while (e.g. the large "Arlöv's Sugar Factory"), and a star that symbolizes the Hvilan folk high school which was among the first group of folk high schools that were established in 1868.

International relations.

The municipality is twinned with:

Burlöv Municipality (; "Burlövs kommun") is a municipality in Skåne County in South Sweden in southern Sweden, just north of Malmö. Its seat is located in Arlöv, a community which for geographical and statistical purposes is seen as a part of Malmö ("Malmö tätort").

Burlöv ist eine Gemeinde (schwedisch "kommun") in der südschwedischen Provinz Skåne län und der historischen Provinz Schonen. Der Hauptort der Gemeinde ist Arlöv.


Biography.

Family and education.

Ragnar Frisch was born on 3 March 1895 in Christiania as the son of gold- and silversmith Anton Frisch and Ragna Fredrikke Frisch (née Kittilsen). The Frisch family had emigrated from Germany to Kongsberg in Norway in the 17th century and his ancestors had worked for the Kongsberg Silver Mines for generations; Ragnar's grandfather Antonius Frisch had become a goldsmith in Christiania in 1856. His family had thus worked with precious metals like silver and gold for at least 300 years.  Being expected to continue his family business, Frisch became an apprentice in the David Andersen workshop in Oslo. However at his mother's advice, while doing his apprenticeship Frisch also started studying at the Royal Frederick University. His chosen topic was economics, as it seemed to be "the shortest and easiest study" available at the university, and passed his degree in 1919. In 1920 he also passed his handicraftsman tests and became a partner in his father's workshop.

Early career and further education.

In 1921 Frisch received a fellowship from the university which enabled him to spend three years studying economics and mathematics in France and England. After his return to Norway, in 1923, although the family's business was having difficulties, he continued his scientific activity, believing that research, not jewellery, was his real calling. He published a few papers about probability theory, started teaching at the University of Oslo during 1925 and, in 1926, he obtained the Dr. Philos. degree with a thesis in mathematical statistics.  Also in 1926, Frisch published an article outlining his view that economics should follow the same path towards theoretical and empirical quantization that other sciences, especially physics, had followed. During the same year, he published his seminal article "Sur un problème d'économie pure" starting the implementation of his own quantization programme. The article offered theoretical axiomatizations which result in a precise specification of both ordinal and cardinal utility, followed by an empirical estimation of the cardinal specification. Frisch also started lecturing a course on production theory, introducing a mathematization of the subject.  Frisch received a fellowship from the Rockefeller Foundation to visit the United States in 1927. There, seeking other economists interested in the new mathematical and statistical approaches to economics, he associated with Irving Fisher, Wesley Clair Mitchell, Allyn Young and Henry Schultz. He wrote a paper analyzing the role of investment in explaining economic fluctuations. Wesley Mitchell, who had just written a book on business cycles, popularized Frisch's paper which was introducing new advanced methods.

Later career.

Although his fellowship was extended to travel to Italy and France, the next year Frisch had to return to Norway because of his father's death. He spent one year to modernize and recapitalize his family's workshop by selling family assets and to find a jeweller to manage the business for him. Then he resumed academic work, in 1928 being appointed Associate Professor of statistics and economics at the Oslo University. During 1927 and 1928 Frisch published a series of articles on the statistics of time series. In 1929 he published his first important essay on econometric methodology, "Correlation and scatter in statistical variables", followed in the same year by "Statics and dynamics in economic theory", which introduced dynamics in economic analysis.  Frisch became a full Professor at the university in 1931. He also founded at the university the Rockefeller-funded Institute of Economics in 1932 and became its Director of Research.  Ragnar Frisch received the Antonio Feltrinelli prize from the Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei in 1961 and the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1969 (awarded jointly with Jan Tinbergen) for "having developed and applied dynamic models for the analysis of economic processes".  During the occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany Frisch was imprisoned in Bredtveit concentration camp from 17 October 1943, then in Berg concentration camp from 22 November 1943, then in Grini detention camp from 9 December 1943 to 8 October 1944.

Family.

Frisch married Marie Smedal in 1920 and they had a daughter, Ragna (b. 1938). His granddaughter, Nadia Hasnaoui (Ragna's child), became a Norwegian television performer. After his first wife died in 1952, he remarried in 1953 with childhood friend Astrid Johannessen. who died in 1980.

Work.

Frisch was one of the founders of economics as a modern science. He made a number of significant advances in the field of economics and coined a number of new words including econometrics and macroeconomics. His 1926 paper on consumer theory helped set up Neo-Walrasian research. He formalized production theory, especially in addressing nonallocable inputs leading to jointness, meaning less than full control, in production processes (see esp. Chapters 14 and 15).  In econometrics he worked on time series (1927) and linear regression analysis (1934). With Frederick V. Waugh, he introduced the celebrated Frisch–Waugh theorem ("Econometrica" 1933) (sometimes referred to as the Frisch–Waugh–Lovell theorem). In oligopoly theory he developed the conjectural variation approach. Frisch also is credited with introducing the term "model" in its modern economic sense by Paul Samuelson, based on a 1930 Yale University lecture.  His 1933 work on impulse-propagation business cycles became one of the principles of modern New Classical business cycle theory. He also helped introduce econometric modeling to government economic planning and accounting.  He was one of the founders of the Econometric Society and editor of "Econometrica" for over twenty years. The Frisch Medal, so named in his honor, is given every two years for the best paper published in the aforementioned "Econometrica" in the previous five years.  Frisch's most important hobby was bee-keeping, for which Frisch performed genetic studies.

Selected publications.

There is a bibliography of Frisch's writings up to 1960 in and there is a collection of selected essays

Ragnar Anton Kittil Frisch (3 March 1895 – 31 January 1973) was a Norwegian economist and the co-recipient of the first Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1969 (with Jan Tinbergen). He is known for being one of the founders of the discipline of econometrics, and for coining the widely used term pair macroeconomics/microeconomics in 1933.

Ragnar Anton Kittil Frisch (* 3. März 1895 in Christiania, heute Oslo; † 31. Januar 1973) war ein norwegischer Ökonom und ist, gemeinsam mit Jan Tinbergen, Träger des Alfred-Nobel-Gedächtnispreises für Wirtschaftswissenschaften des Jahres 1969.


Australia.

Australian law defines a statutory declaration as a written statement declared to be true in the presence of an authorised witness. The "Statutory Declarations Act 1959" governs the use of statutory declarations in matters involving the law of the Australian Commonwealth, Australian Capital Territory, and other territories but not including the Northern Territory.  Any person within the jurisdiction of this law may make a statutory declaration in relation to any matter. The declaration may be used in connection with matters of law, including judicial proceedings, but what weight is given to the declaration is a matter for the judge to decide.  Statutory declarations must be made in a prescribed form and witnessed by a person as specified in the "Statutory Declarations Regulations (1993)". Prescribed witnesses include legal and medical practitioners, justices of the peace, notaries public, police officers, military officers, registered members of certain professional organisations (i.e. National Tax Accountant's Association and Institution of Engineers Australia), and certain other Commonwealth employees.  Intentionally making a false statement as a statutory declaration is a crime equivalent to perjury, and punishable by fines and/or a prison sentence of up to four years.  The states of Australia each have their own laws regarding statutory declarations.

Canada.

In Canadian jurisdictions, statutory declarations are statements of facts written down and attested to by the declarant before individuals who are authorized to administer oaths except that they are normally used outside of court settings. They have the same effect in law as a sworn statement or affidavit. In federal proceedings, the form is governed by the "Canada Evidence Act". Similar provision is made by the various provinces for use in proceedings within their respective jurisdictions.  A person who makes a false declaration can be charged with perjury under the Criminal Code.

United Kingdom.

Statutory declarations can be used as a method of legally changing one's name. They may be used by UK financial institutions to enable an asset of a relatively small value (usually less than £15,000) to be transferred to the executors of a will or other persons legally entitled to deal with or benefit from the estate of a person who has died.

England and Wales.

Under the Statutory Declarations Act 1835, a declaration can be made before anyone who is authorised by law to hear it (for example, a solicitor or legal executive), or before any justice of the peace. In addition, officers of the armed services with the equivalent rank of major and above, and British diplomatic and consular officers in post abroad, may authenticate a statutory declaration.  The person who hears the declaration need not enquire into the truth of it. That person's function is limited to hearing the declaration, and certifying that he or she has done so by signing it. If the declaration turns out to be untrue, the defendant making it may be punished for perjury.  The form of the statutory declaration is prescribed in the schedule to the Act:  "I (full name), do solemnly and sincerely declare that the contents of this declaration are true. And I make this declaration conscientiously believing the same to be true and by virtue of the provisions of the Statutory Declarations Act 1835."  A standard form is used for a statutory declaration; one copy will be given to the applicant and the other is held on file.

A statutory declaration is a legal document defined under the law of certain Commonwealth nations. It is similar to a statement made under oath, but it is not sworn.

Die Versicherung an Eides statt, nach traditioneller Rechtschreibung "Versicherung an Eides Statt" oder eidesstattliche Versicherung (kurz „E. V.“ oder „EV“), ist


History.

Weissenburg Abbey was founded around 660 AD by the Bishop of Speyer, Dragobodo.  Thanks to donations from the nobility and local landowners the monastery quickly acquired possessions and estates in the Alsace, Electorate of the Palatinate and in the west-Rhine county of Ufgau. As a result, manorial farms and peasant farmsteads were set up and agriculture system introduced to create fertile arable farmland.  Around 1100, it was important for the monastery, which had now become wealthy, to distance itself from the Bishop of Speyer and his influence. To this end a new tradition was established about the origins of the monastery, backed up by forged documents (such forgery was not anything unusual in the Middle Ages). In the case of Weissenburg, the story now ran that the abbey had been founded in 623 by the Merovingian king, Dagobert I. Detailed historic research in recent decades has demonstrated that this was unlikely to have been the case.  Weissenburg developed quickly into one of the wealthiest and culturally most significant abbeys in Germany. As early as 682 it was able to purchase shares in a saltworks in Vic-sur-Seille for the princely sum of 500 solidi; in 760 it was given the Mundat Forest. The Gospel Book ("Evangelienbuch") written around 860 by a monk, Otfrid of Weissenburg, represented a milestone in the development of German language and literature. At that time the abbey was in the charge of Abbot Grimald of Weissenburg, who was also the Abbot of the Abbey of Saint Gall and chancellor to Emperor Louis the German, and thus was one of the most important figures in the whole of the German imperial church.  The abbey lost an important possession, however, when in 985 the Salian Duke Otto appropriated 68 of the parishes belonging to it in the so-called Salian Church Robbery ("Salischer Kirchenraub"). Above all though, it was the transition from a situation in which the abbey managed its monastic estates itself to a feudal system in which the estates were granted as fiefs, that resulted in the loss of most of the abbey's possessions. This was because, over time, their vassal viewed their fiefs as allods, i.e. as freehold properties. Thus the once extensive monastic estates increasingly evaporated. In the 16th century only three estates were left out of the thousands the abbey used to possess: these were Steinfeld, Schweighofen and Koppelhof; in addition, the abbey had tithe rights in Weissenburg and Bergzabern which gave it an annual income of 1,500 gulden.  In 1262–1293, during the time of its decline, Abbot Edelin attempted to halt the loss of the monastic estates and to recover its stolen property by compiling a record of the abbey's possessions in a new register. This index, called the "Codex Edelini" or "Liber Possessionum", is currently held in the Speyer State Archives ("Landesarchiv Speyer"). In 1524, the abbey, now entirely destitute, was turned into a secular collegiate church at the instigation of its last abbot, Rüdiger Fischer, which was then united with the Bishopric of Speyer in 1546.  The princely provost of Weissenberg had an individual vote in the Reichsfürstenrat of the Reichstag of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. In the wake of the French Revolution the foundation was dissolved in 1789.  Part of the monastic library went in the 17th century to the Herzog August Library in Wolfenbüttel, the abbey records largely perished in the confusion of the revolutionary period.

Estates.

In 1764 the secular state of the Princely "Propstei" of Weissenburg comprised the following offices and estates (in today's spelling):  Towards the end of the 18th century the territories of the "Propstei" of Weissenburg covered 28 square miles with 50,000 inhabitants.

List of abbots of Weissenburg.

In his abbey chronicle which first appeared in 1551, the theologian and historian, Kaspar Brusch, left a record of the abbots of Weissenburg, which appears to be partly fictitious (at least for the abbots who presided before Dragobodo - to wit the rather stylized name of the supposed first abbot, "Principius"). In addition Brusch suggests this himself (""Nihil enim de his Abbatibus primis aliud scriptum reperi, quorum seriem etiam ac successionem aliquid erroris habere non dubito"". As the source for the abbots before Adalbertus (No. 23) he discloses that he was given this information by the Bishop of Speyer of that time).  With that ends the series of abbots. The provosts of the collegiate church were identical with the bishops of Speyer.  Source: Caspar Bruschius: Chronologia monasteriorum Gemaniae praecipuorum, Sulzbach, 1681

Historic reference.

In 1592 Bernhart Hertzog wrote about Weissenburg Abbey in the Edelsass Chronicle ("Edelsasser Chronik") as follows:  The name Weißenburg may also have derived from the white limestone of the region.

Weissemburg Abbey (, ), also Wissembourg Abbey, is a former Benedictine abbey (1524–1789: collegiate church) in Wissembourg in Alsace, France.

Kloster Weißenburg ist eine im 7. Jahrhundert gegründete ehemalige Benediktinerabtei (1524–1789: Kollegiatstift) in Weißenburg (franz. "Wissembourg") im Elsass im heutigen Frankreich.