Album information.

The album was recorded at Bell Sound Studios in New York City, which was owned by the company that owned Buddah Records. Neil Bogart, founder of Casablanca Records, was an executive at Buddah prior to forming Casablanca. Casablanca Records held a party at the Century Plaza Hotel in Los Angeles to celebrate the West Coast release of "Kiss" (February 8) and to introduce the record company to the press and other record industry executives.  In keeping with the Casablanca theme, the party included palm trees and a Humphrey Bogart lookalike. Kiss performed their usual loud and bombastic stage show, which turned Warner Bros. Records (Casablanca's record distributor) against the group. Soon after the show, Warner Bros. contacted Neil Bogart and threatened to end their deal with Casablanca if Kiss did not remove their makeup. With manager Bill Aucoin's backing, Kiss refused. Shortly after the release of "Kiss", Warner Bros. released Casablanca from their contract.  Kiss began their first album tour with a performance at the Northern Alberta Jubilee Auditorium in Edmonton, Alberta on February 5, 1974. A few weeks later, they made their first national TV appearance on ABC's "In Concert", followed by a performance of "Firehouse" on "The Mike Douglas Show". During the interview portion of the show, Gene Simmons declared himself to be "evil incarnate", eliciting nervousness, confused reactions from the studio audience, to which comedian Totie Fields humorously commented, "Wouldn't it be funny if he's just a nice Jewish boy underneath the makeup?" Although neither confirming or denying his Jewish heritage, Simmons replied, "You should only know", to which, Fields countered, "I do. You can't hide the hook", referring to Simmons' nose.  The album's cover showed the group positioned against a black background in a pose visually reminiscent of the Beatles' "With the Beatles" album (Peter Criss stated that this was the visual effect the band was looking for). Gene Simmons has since stated that "Meet The Beatles" was a big inspiration to him. Three of the four band members applied their own makeup for the album cover photo, as they usually did, but Criss' "Catman" makeup was applied by a professional, whose work came out looking quite a bit different from the look Criss had established, and to which he would return immediately afterward. Ace Frehley, wanting to impress the other members of Kiss, dyed his hair with silver hairspray, which easily came out with shampoo. According to Criss, photographer Joel Brodsky thought Kiss were literally clowns, and wanted to place balloons behind the group for the shoot. Brodsky denied this, chalking it up to imagination. As this was also the first album for the group, they still had yet to perfect the look they would come to be known for later on. For example, Simmons' "Demon" makeup, while noticeable as his, appears rough and not in the definitive form he later became known for.

Composition.

With the exception of "Kissin' Time", all of the material for "Kiss" was written before the band entered the studio. Some of the songs were written during Wicked Lester's brief existence, while "Firehouse" was written by Paul Stanley while he was attending the High School of Music & Art in New York City.

Side one.

"Strutter".

"Strutter", which opens the album with a drum fill, is an uptempo rock song that was written before Frehley joined Kiss. Stanley wrote the lyrics, and the music was based on a song Simmons had written years before, "Stanley the Parrot", which he had recorded with former Wicked Lester member Brooke Ostrander in a New Jersey apartment. "Strutter" remains one of the few Kiss songs where Stanley and Simmons share songwriting credits, and was a standard number at Kiss concerts throughout the 1970s. It was released in August 1974 as the third and final single from the album.

"Nothin' to Lose".

"Nothin' to Lose" became the band's first single; it was written by Simmons. Vocals were performed by Simmons and Peter Criss. It chronicles the singer coercing his girlfriend into trying anal sex, and her subsequent enjoyment of it. The B-side was "Love Theme from KISS", the album's instrumental.

"Firehouse".

The North Carolina glam metal band FireHouse takes its name from the song "Firehouse". The song is well known for Simmons fire breathing during live concerts.

"Cold Gin".

This was the first song composed for Kiss by Frehley. Insecure in his own singing ability, Frehley turned over the vocals for the album to Simmons. "Cold Gin" was a concert staple throughout the 1970s. During the Alive/Worldwide Tour, Frehley assisted on lead vocals.  The song refers to the stimulating effect that cold gin supposedly has on the male sex drive. The song credits cold gin as the only thing that keeps the couple together in a troubled relationship.  There was a Kiss tribute band from Los Angeles named after this classic song, featuring Tommy Thayer as Frehley, Jaime St. James as Criss, Chris McLernon as Simmons and Anthony White as Stanley. St. James and Thayer previously played in Black 'N Blue, a band produced by Simmons, and Thayer would eventually join Kiss, taking Frehley's place after the Farewell tour.  "Cold Gin" was covered by the alternative metal group Disturbed at a one-off tribute show to Pantera guitarist "Dimebag" Darrell Abbott, as it was known to be the guitarist's favorite song. That live performance featured members of Drowning Pool and Anthrax, David Draiman on vocals and Vinnie Paul on drums.  Pantera and Skid Row performed the song together live while the bands were on tour together in 1992, with Ace Frehley on guitar as a special guest. The performance was taped and included on Pantera's 2000 home video, "3 Vulgar Videos from Hell". Death Angel covered the song on their 1988 album "Frolic Through the Park".  Frehley noted: "I wrote 'Cold Gin' in a New York subway, in my head, both lyrics and music. I had a spiral notebook with me. I never took a guitar lesson, nobody believes that. I didn't realize it was gonna become a Kiss classic".  A live version of the song was included on Kiss' popular and successful live album "Alive!". When "Alive!" was re-released as part of the "Kiss Alive! 1975–2000" box set, the song was mistakenly credited to Stanley instead of Ace Frehley in the 72-page booklet that accompanied the album.  Weezer vocalist and guitarist Rivers Cuomo has said that this was the first song he ever learned to play on guitar.  "Cold Gin" was named the seventh-best drinking song of all time.  Ace Frehley later rerecorded "Cold Gin" with his own vocals for his cover album, "Origins, Vol. 1".

"Let Me Know".

"Let Me Know" (previously titled "Sunday Driver") was the song Stanley played when he was first introduced to Simmons, and it was later recorded by Wicked Lester. Simmons and Stanley shared lead vocal duties on the song, which was given a bridge and instrumental coda when recorded for "Kiss". During later Kiss concerts, this coda was moved to the end of "She" and before that, "Watchin' You".

Side two.

"Kissin' Time".

"Kissin' Time" was not included on the original album; in fact it was not recorded until two months after the album's February release. By April, the album was clearly not the commercial success the band and Casablanca Records founder Bogart were hoping for. Bogart (who knew that a catchy single could save the album) ordered Kiss back into the studio to record "Kissin' Time", which was a Top 20 hit for Bobby Rydell in 1959. It was released as a single on May 10, but never reached any higher than No. 83. It did, however, boost sales of the album, even though it was not added to the track listing until the album was reissued in July 1974 (against the band's wishes).

"Deuce".

Simmons has stated that he does not know the meaning of the song's lyrics. "Deuce" has been a staple of the band's concerts, opening their shows from 1973–1976 and again for their 1996 reunion.

"Love Theme from Kiss".

This instrumental evolved from a song titled "Acrobat", played during the band's 1973 club shows. It can be found on their 2001 box set. The song is shortened for the album. It is the only Kiss song to feature songwriting credits for all four original members. "Love Theme from Kiss" appeared in the 2010 movie "Somewhere", directed by Sofia Coppola.

"100,000 Years".

"100,000 Years" begins with a bass riff by Simmons. The live version includes a long drum solo by Criss continuing on from the short one found on the album, as heard on "Alive!" The demo version can be heard on the 2001 release of the Kiss box set. There was a lost verse towards the end of the song which never made the final cut.

"Black Diamond".

"Black Diamond" begins with Stanley singing the intro accompanied by a twelve-string acoustic guitar. After he yells out "hit it!", the full band kicks in and Criss assumes lead vocal duties for the two verses. After the chorus, the song slows down for Frehley's guitar solo, after which it gradually slows down further and fades out after a series of distorted chords. After Criss' departure from the band, the vocal duties have fallen to subsequent drummers Eric Carr and Eric Singer.

Later Re-pressings.

In the mid-late 1980s, the album was reissued by Mercury Records on vinyl and cassette with a live version of "Nothin' to Lose" in place of the studio version. The studio version was restored when the album was issued on CD, and on the 2014 vinyl re-issue.

Reception.

Despite the band's promoting and touring, "Kiss" sold approximately 75,000 copies after its initial release without the presence of a hit single. It was certified gold on June 8, 1977, having shipped 500,000 copies. The album was re-released in 1997 (along with most of Kiss' earlier albums) in a remastered version.  In 2003, "Kiss" was included in the "Spin" list of essential glam rock albums.  Gene Simmons has said that "Kiss" is his favorite Kiss album.

Kiss is the debut studio album by American rock band Kiss, released on February 18, 1974. Much of the material on the album was written by Gene Simmons and Paul Stanley, as members of their pre-Kiss band Wicked Lester. Simmons estimated that the entire process of recording and mixing took three weeks, while co-producer Richie Wise has stated it took just 13 days.

Kiss ist das Debütalbum der Hard Rockband Kiss. Es erschien 1974 beim Label "Casablanca Records". Produziert wurde das Album von Kenny Kerner und Richie Wise, aufgenommen in den "Bell Sound Studios" in New York City. Das Album verkaufte sich in den USA über 500.000 mal und bekam dort eine Goldene Schallplatte. In Deutschland wurde das Album im November 1976 veröffentlicht.


Characteristics.

A major difference between tension settings and other settings is that tension settings are only manufactured after they are sold while other settings are often manufactured first and then sold to consumers. There are several reasons for this difference. First, tension settings can not be resized easily, as resizing removes the spring-loading effect. In some designs, they can be resized up or down up to 2 sizes. Sometimes, instead of resizing a tension setting, the manufacturer actually melts down the old setting and creates a new spring-loaded tension setting that is appropriately sized. Second, tension settings are calibrated to the exact specifications of the stone that they hold, therefore they can not be manufactured until the customer has selected a gem. Unlike other settings, which can be manufactured ahead of time regardless of the stone they ultimately hold, each tension setting is designed for a specific stone. The tension setting is calibrated by a computer, using light to identify the exact places the mount must apply pressure on the gemstone to avoid fracturing it through uneven pressure distribution.  Because tension settings place such pressure on the stone, only four types of gemstone can be placed in a tension setting safely: diamonds, rubies, moissanite, and sapphires. Additionally, tension setting manufacturers must be careful which stones they place in tension settings. A stone that either has significant inclusions or is too soft may fracture under the intense pressure of the setting. The Mohs scale is a reliable way to rank a gem's hardness. Generally gems with a Mohs hardness of less than 9.0 are not suitable for tension mounting.  The term "tension setting" is, from the physical science perspective, a misnomer. The stone is not held in tension (a pulling force) but in fact in compression (a pressing force).

Technical information.

A tension ring is a robust assembly, generally exerting around 12,000 pounds per square inch of pressure. To make a tension setting, the manufacturer must harden the metal, use special alloys, and pressure treat the metal to create the strength required for the spring-loaded structure. The jeweler cold-works and hardens the metal before setting the gem.  Some tension rings exert up to 50,000 psi (350 MPa) on the diamond. It is not possible to exert so great a pressure on a stone with a Mohs scale of mineral hardness rating of less than 9.0. Furthermore, to exert this pressure on a gem, particularly one of high importance, the maker must ensure even pressure distribution. This requires careful calculation, and inspection of the gem to ensure that every facet mates perfectly with the ring.  Tension rings are also manufactured using other metals, particularly those that are naturally strong, such as titanium or stainless steel. These materials do not require special alloying or manufacturing processes for the creation of a tension ring. In these cases, a stone can be set as-cast with relative ease. These materials are usually used for "fashion" jewelry, and are set with small diamonds or semi-precious gems such as topaz or tourmaline. However, there is a growing group of artists using titanium to produce high value handmade tension rings

Tension setting security debate.

There are conflicting perspectives regarding the security of tension settings. Many jewelers contend that tension settings are as safe and potentially safer than four and six prong settings, but there are others who contend that prongs are stronger. The reality is that both ring designs have weaknesses that are unique to their engineering process. Prongs can snag on clothes and other loose objects, and they weaken with time and usage. As a result, prongs must be repaired or replaced periodically. On the other hand, tension settings don't lose their spring-loading over time, so the stone doesn't fall out as a result of the setting weakening. Critics do contend that a stone can potentially be dislodged from a tension setting if it is hit hard enough or if the setting is damaged to the point where its spring loading is compromised. Tension manufacturers partially agree with this statement, warning their customers that stones can be lost if the setting suffers a blunt force impact that damages the spring-loading, but they also point out that no stone has ever been lost as a result of a manufacturing defect. There is a risk that the setting can be compromised by a high impact. This, however, is also true of prong settings, and cases of prongs failing and stones falling out are common. Tension settings on the other hand do not need to be replaced, and unless the spring-loading is damaged, are unlikely to lose a gem stone.

Faux tension settings.

Some rings, while advertised as and having the appearance of tension rings, in fact have a bridge holding the ring together underneath the jewel. These are not true examples of a tension set ring, but are a good affordable alternative to true tension settings. Though the wearer knows it is not a true tension setting, it looks like one to the casual observer. This is also a good option for a mass produced ring.

History.

The first tension ring, called the „Niessing Spannring®", was created in 1979 by the German company Niessing. However, the general concept of tension settings has been around for over 40 years as it was developed in the late 1960s by a Niessing employee named Friedrich Becker.  The original Niessing tension ring was constructed out of 18 karat gold (75% pure gold and 25% other alloying metals) and weighed 35 grams. The alloys in the 18 karat blend were non traditional jewelry metals, used to give the ring much greater strength than normal. In 1987, Steven Kretchmer patented a proprietary platinum alloy called "Plat/SK". This has since been licensed to other companies, for example Hoover & Strong, who require a super hard platinum alloy for jewelry such as tension set rings. Steven Kretchmer's advancements in the alloying of metals allowed the modern day tension ring to lose much of its weight without sacrificing strength.  Currently, Steven Kretchmer holds two patents (5,084,108 and 5,188,679) for the tension-set ring. Patent 5,084,108, issued January 28, 1992, is for a method for forming metal compression-spring gemstone mounting. Patent 5,188,679 is for the actual metal compression-spring gemstone mounting, i.e., the outcome of the method patented by Kretchmer. The first online retail jeweler, for Steven Kretchmer's tension set rings, was Pearlman's Jewelers.

A tension ring is a type of finger ring that holds a gemstone in place by pressure rather than prongs, a bezel or other mounting. The metal setting is actually spring-loaded to exert pressure onto the gemstone, and tiny etchings or grooves in the metal create a shelf that supports the gemstone's edges. The gemstone appears to be suspended in the air with nothing holding it in place.

Der Spannring ist eine gestalterisch moderne Fingerringvariante, der durch die Eigenspannung des Ringes selbst, ohne jegliche Fassung, einen Schmuckstein hält. Dieser wird in speziell eingefrästen Einbettungen zwischen beiden Ringenden eingeklemmt.


Early life.

Hajiyev was born in Shaki (then Nukha), a town in the foothills of the Caucasus Mountains in northwestern Azerbaijan. From an early age, he was deeply influenced by the traditional music of folk songs, ashug music (folk minstrel) and mugham (modal music).  In 1924, his family moved to Baku. In 1935, he enrolled in the theoretical composition faculty at Baku Conservatory, studying under Uzeyir Hajibeyov and the Latvian-born Leopold Rudolf, a student of Sergei Taneyev. The following year, Hajiyev composed his single movement "Symphony No. 1", the first symphonic piece ever written by an Azerbaijani composer. This work enabled him to enter Moscow Conservatory in 1938.  In Moscow, World War II interrupted his studies and he had to return to Baku.

Career.

After the war, Hajiyev and fellow student Gara Garayev (1918-1982) returned to Moscow and were profoundly influenced by composer Shostakovich. Hajiyev completed "Symphony No. 3" to graduate in 1947.  During his lifetime, Hajiyev composed eight symphonic works plus the heroic-patriotic opera "Vatan" (Motherland), which he wrote with Gara Garayev in 1944. After the opera's premiere in May 1945, Hajiyev and Garayev were awarded the prestigious Stalin Prize. Hajiyev won a second Stalin Prize in 1952, for his symphonic poem "For Peace".  Hajiyev served briefly as Artistic Director of the Baku Philharmonic Orchestra (1947–48) and was appointed to the staff of the Azerbaijan State Conservatory. He later served as the Conservatory's Rector (1957-1969) and in 1963 was appointed Professor of Composition. He went on to teach at the Conservatory for more than four decades. His students include well-known musicians such as Agshin Alizade, Dadash Dadashov and song composers Eldar Mansurov and Javanshir Guliyev.  It is for his contribution to the development of the symphony in Azerbaijan that Hajiyev will best be remembered. It was to this genre that Hajiyev returned with renewed inspiration in the 1990s, producing a number of works influenced by contemporary events. His last symphonic work entitled, "January 20", composed in 1991, was dedicated to the victims of Black January (1990), when Soviet troops and tanks killed hundreds of Baku civilians.  In 1997, President Heydar Aliyev bestowed upon Hajiyev Azerbaijan's highest recognition, the "Azerbaijan Order of Glory" on the occasion of his 80th Jubilee, commemorating "60 long years of fruitful work which is highly appreciated by the nation and the State". In Aliyev's official citation for this award, Hajiyev was praised as a "well-known composer, innovator, pedagogue, well-known public figure and model for the new generation of musicians." His music was commended for its "deep context, spirit of citizenship and high level of elegance."

Personal life.

Jovdat Hajiyev was married to Amina Dilbazi, well known Azeri ballet-master and folk music dancer. Their two sons, Ismayil Hajiyev and Telman Hajiyev are both composers.

Ahmad Jovdat Ismayil oglu Hajiyev (June 18, 1917 - January 18, 2002) was one of the major Azerbaijani composers of the Soviet period. He is remembered for his monumental orchestral works, having been the first Azerbaijani to compose a symphony (1936). He studied under Azerbaijan's Founder of Composed Music, Uzeyir Hajibeyov and under Russian composer Dmitri Shostakovich.

Əhməd Cövdət İsmayil oğlu Hacıyev (; auch "Gadzhiev"; * in Şəki; † 18. Januar 2002 in Baku) war ein aserbaidschanischer Komponist.


History.

The capital city stadium was built in 1982 to accommodate 6000 spectators, however after 20 years officially became the venue for matches in the first division tournaments FMF. Later, the stadium was remodeled and expanded to have a capacity of 27,500 fans. The stadium was inaugurated in 1984 with the official match between Club America and the extinct Student team Chiapas. The current name stadium stood to honor Victor Manuel Reyna (1910-1973), professor of physical education in Tuxtla Gutierrez, where he created the first state leagues and municipal, that in the 50s. It is distinguished not only by investing much of their salary to equip street children to practice the sport, but also to convey to young broader social values. He is considered the father of football in Chiapas. Throughout its history, the stadium has hosted Zoque liguillas five First Division and tournaments at all levels of Mexican soccer. It has also presented friendly matches Mexico national football team against Ecuador over the selections and Canada. In 2011, the Zoque witnessed official games for ranking and tournament Copa Libertadores.

Facilities.

Courts.

It has a system of computerized irrigation and drainage system that prevents puddles made even under heavy rainfall, characteristic of the city in the summer and fall. The grass varies by climate, therefore has three common varieties like grass, Sahara and 328, which are tolerant to heat and rain.

Gym.

To improve conditions in professional players Jaguares de Chiapas, the gym is equipped with modern appliances like goo bike, glidex 600, adductor, abdominal crunch, vertical traction, extension arm, calf rotary, pulley, lat machine, glute, leg press, lower back, leg curl, leg extension and technogim Ce

Media Room.

For presentations, lectures and interviews, the stadium has a room with 40 seats, tables, local sound, projectors, screens, phones, and other devices to the media.

Parking.

The stadium has three parking to accommodate 1,240 vehicles. Preferential parking has 150 drawers located between Causeway Boulevard and the Ethnic Fidel Velazquez. The South has 190 parking located between Causeway drawers Ethnic and Sport Unit. And the North has 900 parking drawers located in the Northern Bypass in circulation from west to east. In addition, the stadium has an exclusive parking inside for players and officials. The entrance is on the north parking lot 4 and access.

Tribune.

Currently the stadium has the capacity to accommodate 24,000 fans that can be placed in different areas. The zones are North Head (6.702 points), South Head (6.734 points), Preferred (7.733 points), Allocated Preferred (538 numbered seats) VIP Platea (1724 numbered seats), VIP Area (40 numbered seats) and Super Palco ( 37 numbered seats).

Health Care Center.

It is an area of 42 square meters, located under Plateas VIP area. Inside is a clinic, a rehabilitation ward physiotherapy, hydrotherapy baths and a full team of specialists who care for the health of the team's players representative.

Dressing.

It has all the requirements needed for the comfort of the players as custom lockers, hot tub, TVs and a pool area. It also has one dresses himself to the coaching staff, visiting team, referees, assistants and equipment basic forces.

Infrastructure.

The sports complex is linked to the areas of ISSTECH (Institute social security for workers in the state of Chiapas) and features: basketball courts, tennis courts, racquetball, Olympic swimming pool, baseball stadium, the stadium also has track and one of the country's best irrigation systems.

The Estadio Víctor Manuel Reyna is a football stadium located in Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas, México. This facility has a capacity of 29,001 seats and was built in 2003. This sport facility is used mostly for football matches and is currently the home stadium for Chiapas Fútbol Club. It also hosted shows as the final of La Academia Última Generación.

Das Estadio Zoque Víctor Manuel Reyna ist ein Fußballstadion mit Leichtathletikanlage in der mexikanischen Stadt Tuxtla Gutiérrez im Bundesstaat Chiapas. Es dient als Heimspielstätte des mexikanischen Erstligavereins Chiapas FC sowie von Atlético Chiapas aus der dritten Liga. Das Stadion trägt die Spitznamen "La Selva Jaguar" () und "Selva de Chiapas" ().


Biography.

Phelps was born in Litchfield, Connecticut, to John Phelps (1756–1833), an American Revolutionary War soldier and great-great-grandson of William Phelps. Samuel S. Phelps graduated from Yale University in 1811. He studied law at Litchfield Law School and in the office of Horatio Seymour, and was admitted to the bar. He served as a military paymaster during the War of 1812. Following the war, he settled in Middlebury, Vermont and began the practice of law.  Phelps began his political career serving in the Vermont State House from 1821 to 1832. He was a judge on the Vermont Supreme Court from 1832 to 1838, succeeding to the position left vacant by the death of John C. Thompson. In 1839 he was elected as a Whig to the United States Senate, and he served until 1851. He chaired several committees while serving in the Senate, including the Committee on the Militia, Committee on Revolutionary Claims, Committee on Pensions, Committee on Patents and the Patent Office and the Committee on Territories.  Phelps returned to the United States Senate on January 17, 1853, having been appointed to fill the unexpired term of Senator William Upham, who had died. He served until March 16, 1854 when the Senate resolved that he was not entitled to the seat on the grounds that he had been legally appointed by the Governor of Vermont when the Vermont General Assembly was not in session, but that the General Assembly had not acted to fill the vacancy at its subsequent session, as required by law.

Family life.

Phelps was married to Frances Shurtleff Phelps and they had three children together, Edward John Phelps, James Shether Phelps and Charles Henry Phelps. Phelps later married Electa Satterlee Phelps. Phelps' son Edward John Phelps was also a politician and lawyer, as well as a diplomat.

Death.

Phelps died on March 25, 1855 in Middlebury, and is interred at West Cemetery in Middlebury.

Samuel Shethar Phelps (May 13, 1793March 25, 1855) was an American lawyer and politician. He was a United States Senator from Vermont, and a member of the Whig Party.

Samuel Shethar Phelps (* 13. Mai 1793 in Litchfield, Connecticut; † 25. März 1855 in Middlebury, Vermont) war ein US-amerikanischer Jurist und Politiker (Whig Party), der den Bundesstaat Vermont im US-Senat vertrat.


History.

The church stands in a circular churchyard, suggesting that there was an earlier church on the site, or even that the site could be pre-Christian. However, there is no mention of the church in the Domesday Book. The oldest part of the present church is the tower, which is Norman in style, and which may have acted as the original nave. It probably dates from the 12th century. During the following century a small nave was added to the west of the tower, and the chancel was added to its east side. At that time the nave measured by. In 1732 a west gallery was erected; this was approached from the outside of the church by steps and a south doorway. In 1873 the church was restored by Rev W. H. Lowder. At this time the nave was lengthened by. The church was declared redundant on 1 March 1981, and was vested in The Churches Conservation Trust on 27 October 1982.

Architecture.

The church is constructed in stone, with stone slate roofs. At its centre is a Norman tower, the plan of which is an irregular hexagon. To the east of the tower is a chancel, and to the west is a nave with a south porch. The nave now measures in length. The chancel is about long; its width tapers from at the western end to at the east. The tower is divided into three stages by string courses. In the top stage, in each face, is a two-light window under a round-headed arch. On the summit is a pyramidal roof. In the north and south chancel walls are two single-light windows; between those on the north side is a priest's door with a trefoil head. At the east end is a two-light window above which is a gable with a cross at its apex. The windows in the nave are similar in style to those in the chancel, and between the two windows on the north side is a blocked doorway. The south porch is opposite to this and is gabled. Its inner doorway, dating from the 13th century, has two orders and is elaborately carved. Inside the church, the west tower arch is also elaborately carved. The font dates from the 13th century. In the east window are fragments of medieval stained glass, depicting a saint's head. In the southwest window of the tower are four panels of painted Flemish glass dating from the 16th or 17th century. The remainder of the stained glass is from the 19th century.

External features.

In the churchyard are three groups of monuments, each group comprising a Grade II listed building.

St Nicholas of Myra's Church is a redundant Anglican church in the village of Ozleworth, Gloucestershire, England, in the care of The Churches Conservation Trust.. It is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade II* listed building. The church is unusual because it is one of only two churches in Gloucestershire with a hexagonal tower, the other being St Lawrence's Church in Swindon. You can find the church by following signs for 'Historic Church' and for Newark Park nearby. By car, park outside the Ozleworth Estate, near to the gates, and follow a long bridle path downhill and around to the left until you reach the churchyard. Please note - the path can be muddy and slippery.

Die kleine Kirche von St. Nicholas von Myra steht 30 km südlich von Gloucester in dem Dorf Ozleworth in einem Tal der Grafschaft Gloucestershire in England. Seine Gemeinde bestand nie aus mehr als 150 Personen.


Design and construction.

New Zealand, like its neighbour Australia, had no indigenous armoured fighting vehicle industry. It was expected that armoured fighting vehicles would be provided from Britain. Australia and New Zealand did have some heavy industry that could be turned to the production of armour and armoured vehicles but little had been done. The idea of mechanising the New Zealand Army had been suggested before the war but without much progress. The use of the American Disston "Six Ton Tractor Tank", a 1937 vehicle constructed of an armoured box on a Caterpillar Model 35 chassis which had been sold to Afghanistan, was suggested.  New Zealand had built some improvised armoured trucks and unable to get any tracked carriers from Australia were building their own with armour plate imported from Australia. After the Fall of France in mid-1940, and the loss of most British tanks there, there was no likelihood of production being spared for New Zealand. Rather than obtain the armoured superstructures from America, it was felt they could produce their own using local materials and resources.  It was decided that a 'tractor-tank' would be an adequate design; if the need for defense arose, a large tank superstructure could be bolted upon a tractor base within a few hours, allowing for quick transformation and deployment of the tanks.  The first (mild steel) prototype was built on a Caterpillar D8 crawler tractor, a type which was readily available. The Public Works Department had 81 D8s, and another 19 were available. A lack of weapons meant that it was equipped with six Bren machine guns — one in each side, two facing the front, one in the turret and one at the rear. The vehicle was very tall at 12 ft (3.5 m) and performance was poor. Due to the lack of armour plate, corrugated (manganese) plating was used in the expectation it would deflect bullets. The crew of eight included one gunner who had to lie on a mattress on top of the engine to fire his Bren gun.  The tanks were constructed without the use of any formal plans or blueprints. Working from an American postcard depicting the conversion of a tractor to a 'tractor-tank', Bob Semple and TG Beck (Christchurch District Works Engineer), improvised the design of the tanks. Using resources available to Bob Semple as Minister of Public Works, the first tank was quickly produced in the PWD's Temuka workshops. The additional two were built at the NZR Addington Workshops. The first cost £5,902, and the second and third together cost £4,323, for a total cost of £10,225 (although the Army was only billed £3,414).  The intention was to disperse the hulls at locations ready in case of a Japanese invasion at which point they would be mounted on tractors for use. The idea was discarded after the tanks attracted public ridicule; however, Bob Semple stood by his design and even stated "I don’t see anyone else coming up with any better ideas."

Handling and performance.

Due to the limitations of requirements and resources, the tank was a functional failure. By using a large tractor as a base, and bolting on a hastily designed and poorly constructed tank superstructure, the resultant tanks were inadequately armored, extremely heavy (20–25 ton), unstable, restricted by tractor gearing to slow speeds, and had to stop to change gears. Furthermore, due to the shape of the underlying tractor and undue vibrations, shooting from the tank was both difficult and inevitably inaccurate. All of these limitations have often caused the Bob Semple Tank to be regarded as "the worst tank ever built".

Final result.

In the end, due to their impracticality, the tanks were disposed of by the Army. They had been given Army serial numbers NZ6292 (held at Papakura) and NZ3494 & NZ 3495 (held at Burnham). One went to the Pacific in 1944, after being stripped of its armour.

The Bob Semple tank was a tank designed by New Zealand Minister of Works Bob Semple during World War II. Originating out of the need to build military hardware from available materials, the tank was built from corrugated iron on a tractor base. Designed and built during a period of uncertainty in which New Zealand feared having to defend itself from Japanese invasion without external assistance, these tanks were a civilian effort to design and create a means to protect New Zealand.

Der Bob Semple Tank war ein vom neuseeländischen Ministry of Works konzipierter und nach dessen damaligem Minister Bob Semple benannter Panzer aus der Zeit des Zweiten Weltkriegs. Da man mit vorhandenem Material auskommen musste, ergänzte man vorhandene Raupenschlepper mit einer Panzerung aus Wellblech und Stahlplatten. Das ohne Planung oder Zeichnungen gebaute Fahrzeug hatte zahlreiche Konstruktionsmängel und Einsatzprobleme. Es wurde nie in die Massenproduktion übernommen und sah keinen Kampfeinsatz. Dennoch wurde es eine Ikone für die neuseeländische Do-it-yourself-Mentalität.


Playing career.

A point guard or shooting guard, Petrović had achieved prominence in the 1980s and early 1990s. The pro clubs he played for included: Šibenka, Cibona, Scavolini Pesaro, Novi Zagreb and Racing Luxembourg. He was among the 105 player nominees for the 50 Greatest EuroLeague Contributors list.

Coaching career.

Between 1991 and 1995, Petrović started his club head coaching career with Cibona. Between 1995 and 1997, he coached the Spanish ACB League club Caja San Fernando, before returning to Cibona for the 1997–98 season.  In the 2001–02 season, he went to Poland to coach Anwil Włocławek. In 2004 he was again in Spain with Caprabo Lleida. In 2006 he took over at the Italian League club Carifac Fabriano, before switching to Eurorida Scafati. In the 2007–08 season, he took over the Croatian club Zadar. He then became the head coach of Cedevita. He was named the EuroCup Coach of the Year in 2011.  Following the departure of Božidar Maljković, Petrović once again took charge over Cedevita on 26 November 2012. After Cedevita was eliminated from the EuroLeague and the Croatian Cup, and left without any chance of qualifying for the ABA League Final Four, Petrović offered his resignation to the club, which was accepted on 3 March 2013.

National team coaching career.

In February 2012, Petrović was appointed as the head coach of the senior men's Bosnia and Herzegovina national team, leading them at EuroBasket 2013 held in Slovenia. In November 2013, the Basketball Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (KSBiH) sacked him.  Petrović has coached the senior Croatian men's national team on three occasions: in 1995, when they finished third in Eurobasket, between 1999 and 2001, when they finished 7th in EuroBasket 2001, and during Croatia's run to the Olympics in Rio 2016.  On 23 March 2016, Petrović was named the head coach for the senior men's Croatia national team for the third time in his head coaching career. In August 2016, Croatia reached the 2016 Olympic tournament by surprisingly winning an Olympic Qualifying Tournament held in Torino. At the tournament, Croatia beat Spain, but lost in the quarterfinal of the tournament from Serbia. On 15 September 2017, following a loss to Russia in the round of 16 at Eurobasket, Petrović resigned.  In October 2017, a month after leaving Croatia, he was named the head coach of the Brazil national team, which he led at the 2019 World Cup held in China.

Personal life.

Petrović was born in Šibenik as the first child in the family of Jovan "Jole", and Biserka (née Mikulandra) Petrović. His father, of Serb ethnicity, was born in 1939 in Trebinje, then Kingdom of Yugoslavia, present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina. Her mother, of Croat ethnicity, was born in 1941, in the village of Bilice, a municipality based few kilometers away from his hometown. His younger brother Dražen, born in 1964, was also the professional basketball player who died in a car accident in June 1993, in Denkendorf, Germany.  Petrović's cousin is the prominent Serbian former professional basketball player Dejan Bodiroga. Aleksandar's paternal grandfather and Bodiroga's paternal grandmother were siblings.

Aleksandar "Aco" Petrović, commonly known as Aco Petrović, (born 16 February 1959) is a Croatian professional basketball coach and former player. He currently serves as a head coach for the Brazil national team.

Aleksandar „Aca“ Petrović (* 16. Februar 1959 in Šibenik, SR Kroatien) ist ein kroatischer Basketballtrainer und ehemaliger jugoslawischer -spieler. Petrović, älterer Bruder des in seiner Heimat besonders verehrten Dražen Petrović, gewann mit KK Cibona aus Zagreb zweimal den Europapokal der Landesmeister sowie mit der jugoslawischen Nationalmannschaft Bronze bei Olympia 1984 und bei den Weltmeisterschaften 1982 und 1986. Als Trainer gewann Petrović bei der Europameisterschaft 1995 mit der kroatischen Nationalmannschaft erneut eine Bronzemedaille und wurde als "Trainer des Jahres" im zweitwichtigsten europäischen Vereinswettbewerb Eurocup 2010/11 ausgezeichnet. Seit Beginn des Jahres 2012 ist er leitender Trainer der Auswahl Bosnien-Herzegowinas.


Background.

During the latter half of the eighth century, the Northumbrian succession included a long series of murdered and deposed kings, as several royal lines contended for the throne. The main lines were those of Eadberht, Æthelwald Moll and Alhred. In the eight years before Eardwulf's accession, all three of these dynastic lines were involved in the struggle for kingship: on 23 September 788, King Ælfwald I, grandson of Eadberht, was murdered by the "patricius" Sicga near Hexham, and Ælfwald's cousin Osred became king. Osred, who was of Alhred's line, was deposed after a year, and Æthelred, son of Æthelwald Moll, who had been deposed in 778 at a young age, was restored to the kingship, resuming the title Æthelred I.  Some Anglo-Saxon kings are known to have been killed by their households or in open warfare against rivals, but overall the record is very sparse. The evidence as regards the deposition of kings is equally limited. Only two eighth-century depositions offer any context, those of Æthelwald Moll in Northumbria and Sigeberht of Wessex. In both cases the decision is presented as that of some form of council.  This record of disputed succession was by no means unique to Northumbria, and the kingdoms of Mercia and Wessex experienced similar troubles during the eighth and ninth centuries. In Wessex, from the death of Centwine in 685 to Egbert's seizure of power in 802, the relationships between successive kings are far from clear and few kings are known to have been close kinsmen of their predecessors or successors. The same may be true of Mercia from the death of Ceolred in 716 until the disappearance of the Mercian kingdom in the late ninth century.  Kings did not rule alone, but rather governed together with the leading churchmen and nobles. While Northumbria lacks the body of charters which shed light on the institutions of the southern Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, sufficient evidence survives for historians to reconstruct some aspects of Northumbrian political life. The evidence for Northumbria survives largely in Latin documents, and these use the words "dux" and "patricius" to describe the leading noblemen of the kingdom. The word "dux" is usually translated by the Old English word ealdorman. The historian Alan Thacker estimates that there were about eight men holding the title of "dux" in late Northumbria. The title "patricius" is usually translated as patrician, which ultimately means noble, but in the latter days of the Roman Empire represented a high-ranking position, second only to the emperor. The meaning of the title in Northumbria is unclear, but it appears that there was only one "patricius". While it may be simply an alternative to "dux", it might represent a position approximating to that of the Mayor of the Palace in late Merovingian Francia.  The church in Northumbria was one of the major landowners, perhaps second only to the king. At the head of the Northumbrian church was the Archbishop of York, an office held by Eanbald I to 796, Eanbald II until some time after 808, and then by Wulfsige to around 830. Immediately below the archbishop were three bishops: the bishop of Lindisfarne, the bishop of Hexham and the bishop of Whithorn. The typically long term of office of senior clerics meant that kings often had to work with men appointed by their predecessors, with whom their relations might be difficult.

Relations with other states.

Northumbria's southern neighbour Mercia was, under the rule of kings Æthelbald, Offa and Coenwulf, the dominant kingdom in Anglo-Saxon England. Offa, the greatest of the three, ruled Mercia until 796, followed soon after by Coenwulf. Offa's dominance was secured in part by marriage alliances with the other major kingdoms: Beorhtric of Wessex and Æthelred of Northumbria were married to his daughters. Further afield, Charlemagne, the pre-eminent ruler in the Christian West, appears to have taken an active interest in Northumbrian affairs. Charlemagne initially ruled Francia and parts of Italy, but by 796 had become master of an empire which stretched from the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Hungarian Plain. He was a staunch defender of the Papacy, and in the popes and the church hierarchy he had allies whose influence extended to Northumbria and beyond. Events in southern Britain to 796 have sometimes been portrayed as a struggle between Offa and Charlemagne, but the disparity in their power was enormous, and Offa and then Coenwulf were clearly minor figures by comparison.  Early evidence of friendly relations between Charlemagne and Offa is tempered by signs of strain. Charlemagne sheltered two exiles from England at his court: Odberht of Kent (probably Eadberht Praen) and Egbert of Wessex. Eadberht Praen ruled the Kingdom of Kent for a short time after Offa's death, but was deposed by Coenwulf. Egbert was more successful, taking and holding the throne of Wessex in 802. It is clear that Mercian and Frankish interests could not always be reconciled and Frankish policy then moved towards support for Offa's opponents. To Charlemagne this primarily meant Northumbria: according to Patrick Wormald, "Charlemagne... saw England as if it were ruled by two kings only: Æthelred ruling Northumbria and Offa ruling everything to the south". Frankish support for Northumbria thus appears to have been driven by a desire to counter Mercian influence in southern Britain, an area with long-standing ties to Francia. It has also been suggested that Charlemagne's interest in Northumbria was motivated by a desire for co-operation against Viking raiders, who had first appeared in Northumbria in the early 790s. Alternatively it may be that Charlemagne's conception of the sphere of his authority included Britain, which had once been part of the Roman Empire.  Initially, both Charlemagne and Offa appear to have shared a common interest in supporting King Æthelred, Offa's son-in-law. Shortly before Æthelred was murdered in 796, an embassy from Francia delivered gifts for the king and his bishops. When Charlemagne learned of Æthelred's killing he was enraged, called the Northumbrians "that treacherous, perverse people...who murder their own lords", and threatened retribution. His ambassadors, who had travelled on to Ireland and were then returning home, were ordered back to Northumbria to recover the presents. Charlemagne in time became a supporter of Eardwulf. Eardwulf is said by the early 12th-century "Annals of Lindisfarne and Durham" to have married one of Charlemagne's daughters, information not found in other sources. If this is correct she must have been illegitimate, as the marriages of all the legitimate daughters are known. Coenwulf, on the other hand, who became king of Mercia shortly after Eardwulf's accession, is recorded as having fought with Eardwulf in 801.

Early life and accession.

Eardwulf was not, so far as is known, connected to any of the factions that had been warring for the throne up to the mid-790s. Nothing is definitely known of his background, though Symeon of Durham's "History of the Kings", an early twelfth-century work based on the lost late tenth-century chronicle of Byrhtferth, records that his father's name was also Eardwulf, and both father and son are given the title "dux". Historian Barbara Yorke has proposed that he was a descendant of one Eanwine who (according to Symeon of Durham) was killed in 740 on the orders of King Eadberht. This Eanwine may be identified with King Eadwulf's son of the same name. Eardwulf's father may have been one of the two Eardwulfs whose deaths are recorded by Symeon of Durham in 774 and 775.  Eardwulf appears to have been an enemy of Æthelred I. He first appears in the historical record circa 790, when Symeon of Durham reports that:"Eardulf was taken prisoner, and conveyed to Ripon, and there ordered by the aforesaid king [Æthelred] to be put to death without the gate of the monastery. The brethren carried his body into the church with Gregorian chanting, and placed it out of doors in a tent; after midnight he was found alive in the church." A letter from Alcuin to Eardwulf suggests that this fortunate recovery was seen as being miraculous.  Eardwulf's whereabouts after his recovery are not known. In surviving King Æthelred's anger he was more fortunate than Ælfwald's sons, who were drowned on Æthelred's orders in 791. Osred returned from exile but was betrayed, and killed by Æthelred's command on 14 September 792. Æthelred himself was assassinated on 18 April 796, perhaps at Corbridge, by conspirators led by the "dux" Ealdred. Æthelred was followed as king by Osbald, whose antecedents are unknown; he was deposed after twenty-seven days and fled to the land of the Picts with a few supporters.

King.

Eardwulf became king on 14 May 796. The "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" records that he was consecrated by Eanbald I, Archbishop of York, and Bishops Æthelberht, Beadwulf and Hygebald, at York Minster on 26 May 796.  Eardwulf was evidently married before he became king, as Alcuin reproached him for abandoning his wife for a concubine soon after his coronation. This strained relations with the new Archbishop Eanbald II—Eanbald I had died in the year of Eardwulf's coronation. Alcuin, while condemning secular oppression of the church, affected surprise that while the Archbishop Eanbald was travelling he was accompanied by a large retinue, including soldiers, and that he received and protected the king's enemies. Eanbald was presumably in conflict with Eardwulf over property, but it is likely that he also supported rivals for Eardwulf's throne.  Although Æthelred had been Eardwulf's enemy, Æthelred's killers proved to be equally hostile to Eardwulf. In 798 a "dux" named Wada, who was one of those who had killed King Æthelred, fought with Eardwulf on Billington Moor, near Whalley, Lancashire. Wada was put to flight and may have gone into exile in Mercia. He may have hoped to restore Osbald to the throne. The evidence for Osbald's continued ambition is a letter that Alcuin wrote to him, probably in 798, in which Alcuin attempted to dissuade Osbald from further interventions in Northumbrian affairs. Alcuin's arguments appear to have succeeded, since Osbald is known to have become an abbot by 799 (when his death is recorded), implying that he had given up his ambitions.  Two further challenges to Eardwulf are recorded within the next two years, both apparently from among the noble lines that had been fighting for the throne over the previous decades. In 799, a "dux" named Moll was killed by Eardwulf's "urgent command". Moll's name has suggested that he was a kinsman of the late King Æthelred, whose father was Æthelwald Moll. The following year, Ealhmund, "the son of King Alhred, as some say", was killed by Eardwulf's men. Ealhmund was remembered at Derby, in the neighbouring kingdom of Mercia, as a saint.  King Coenwulf of Mercia may have supported the unfortunate Ealhmund, and Symeon of Durham wrote that in 801:"Eardwulf, king of the Northumbrians, led an army against Coenwulf, king of Mercians, because he had given asylum to his enemies. He also, collecting an army, obtained very many auxiliaries from other provinces, having made a long expedition among them. At length, with the advice of the bishops and chiefs of the Angles on either side, they made peace through the kindness of the king of the Angles."  This settlement ended open warfare, but Eardwulf was deposed in 806, in unknown circumstances. Letters between Charlemagne and Pope Leo III suggest that Coenwulf had a hand in Eardwulf's removal. According to the thirteenth-century chronicler Roger of Wendover, Eardwulf was replaced by King Ælfwald II, about whom nothing else is known from the written sources, although coins issued in his reign have survived.  As the case of Ælfwald shows, while the written sources for later Northumbria are few and often written down centuries after the events they describe, archaeological evidence from coinage is independent of the surviving annals. Anglo-Saxon coins usually named the king on whose orders they were issued and sometimes named the mint where they were struck—Northumbrian coinage names York as the place of issue—and the moneyer who produced them. Their weight and silver content can be compared with other reigns, providing a hint of the prevailing economic conditions, and the style and size may also throw light on cultural influences when the coins are compared with those of neighbouring kingdoms and with other forms of art. The evidence of Northumbrian coinage is particularly valuable in the ninth century, when contemporary written evidence all but disappears.  From the 740s until the end of the Northumbrian kingdom, coins were issued by most kings, although in variable quantities. Until recently no coins from Eardwulf's reign were known, which suggested that it may have been a time of instability, or perhaps that the kingdom was impoverished by the payment of tribute to Offa and Coenwulf of Mercia. It is now known that the issue of new coins continued during Eardwulf's reign, as two of his coins were identified in the 1990s. Issues of new currency appear to have been limited under Eardwulf, and significant numbers of Northumbrian coins are not again attested until the reign of Eardwulf's son Eanred.

Exile and return.

Like many of his predecessors, Eardwulf took to exile when he was deposed. Unlike kings with ties to Lindisfarne, who appear to have chosen exile among the Picts, Eardwulf was linked to Ripon and chose a southerly exile. The next reports of Eardwulf are in Frankish sources:"Meanwhile the king of the Northumbrians from the island of Britain, Eardwulf by name, being expelled from his kingdom and native land, came to the emperor while he was still at Nijmegen, and after he had made known the reason for his coming, he set out for Rome; and on his return from Rome he was escorted by envoys of the Roman pontiff and of the lord emperor back into his kingdom. At that time Leo III ruled over the Roman church, and his messenger, the deacon Ealdwulf from that same Britain, a Saxon by race, was sent to Britain, and with him two abbots, Hruotfrid the notary and Nantharius of St. Omer, sent by the emperor."  A surviving letter of Leo III to Charlemagne confirms that Eardwulf visited Rome and stayed at Charlemagne's court.  The Frankish source is clear that Eardwulf was "returned to his kingdom", but surviving Anglo-Saxon sources have no record of a second reign. Historians disagree as to whether Ælfwald was replaced by Eardwulf, who would thus have reigned a second time from 808 to 811 or 812, or whether the reign of Eardwulf's son Eanred began in 808.  Recent studies, based on the discovery of a penny of Eanred for which a date no earlier than c. 850 is proposed, suggest a very different dating for ninth-century Northumbrian kings. From this, it is argued that Eardwulf's second reign ended circa 830, rather than in the years soon after 810, and that the reigns of subsequent kings should be re-dated accordingly: Eanred from 830 to 854, Æthelred II from 854 to 862, Rædwulf in 858, and Osberht from 862 to 867. Eardwulf is identified by historians with the Saint Hardulph or Hardulf, to whom the Mercian royal church of Saint Mary and Saint Hardulph at Breedon on the Hill is dedicated. The connection, though unproven, has been made by several historians and is uncontroversial. Supporting evidence comes from a twelfth-century list of the burial places of saints compiled at Peterborough. This calls the Saint Hardulph to whom Breedon was dedicated ""Hardulfus rex""—King Eardwulf—and states that he was buried at Breedon.  A panelled stone structure in the church, carved with processions of bearded and robed figures under arches, seems to reproduce details found in the "Book of Cerne", a work associated with Bishop Æthelwold of Lichfield (818–830). The panels, which may originally have been the outer part of a sarcophagus built to hold the remains of a high status person such as Saint Hardulph, are dated by their similarity to the illustrations in the "Book of Cerne" to the first third of the ninth century. According to a medieval calendar of saints, the Benedictine monks at Breedon celebrated Hardulph's feast day on 21 August.  The death of Eardwulf is not recorded. Although he had faced considerable opposition and had been driven into exile, he succeeded in founding a dynasty. His son Eanred and grandson Æthelred (II) ruled Northumbria for most of its remaining existence as an independent kingdom.

Eardwulf (fl. 790 – c. 830) was king of Northumbria from 796 to 806, when he was deposed and went into exile. He may have had a second reign from 808 until perhaps 811 or 830. Northumbria in the last years of the eighth century was the scene of dynastic strife between several noble families: in 790, the then-king Æthelred I attempted to have Eardwulf assassinated. Eardwulf's survival may have been viewed as a sign of divine favour. A group of nobles conspired to assassinate Æthelred in April 796 and he was succeeded by Osbald: Osbald's reign lasted only twenty-seven days before he was deposed and Eardwulf became king on 14 May 796.

Eardwulf (auch Eardulf, Eardulfus, Earduulfus, Ardulfus, Ardwulfus, St. Hardulph etc.; † um 810 oder um 830) war von 796 bis zu seinem Tod König des angelsächsischen Königreiches Northumbria. Die Zeit von 806 bis 808 verbrachte er, seines Amtes enthoben, im Exil. Er gilt als Heiliger.


Description.

Thunderbolt controllers multiplex one or more individual data lanes from connected PCIe and DisplayPort devices for transmission via two duplex Thunderbolt lanes, then de-multiplex them for use by PCIe and DisplayPort devices on the other end. A single Thunderbolt port supports up to six Thunderbolt devices via hubs or daisy chains; as many of these as the host has DP sources may be Thunderbolt monitors.  A single Mini DisplayPort monitor or other device of any kind may be connected directly or at the very end of the chain. Thunderbolt is interoperable with DP-1.1a compatible devices. When connected to a DP-compatible device, the Thunderbolt port can provide a native DisplayPort signal with four lanes of output data at no more than 5.4 Gbit/s per Thunderbolt lane. When connected to a Thunderbolt device, the per-lane data rate becomes 10 Gbit/s and the four Thunderbolt lanes are configured as two duplex lanes, each 10 Gbit/s comprising one lane of input and one lane of output.  Thunderbolt can be implemented on PCIe graphics cards, which have access to DisplayPort data and PCIe connectivity, or on the motherboard of new computers with onboard video, such as the MacBook Air.  The interface was originally intended to run exclusively on an optical physical layer using components and flexible optical fiber cabling developed by Intel partners and at Intel's Silicon Photonics lab. It was initially marketed under the name Light Peak, and after 2011 as Silicon Photonics Link. However, it was discovered that conventional copper wiring could furnish the desired 10 Gbit/s per channel at lower cost.  This copper-based version of the Light Peak concept was co-developed by Apple and Intel. Apple registered "Thunderbolt" as a trademark, but later transferred the mark to Intel, which held overriding intellectual-property rights.  Thunderbolt was commercially introduced on Apple's 2011 MacBook Pro, using the same Apple-developed connector as Mini DisplayPort, which is electrically identical to DisplayPort, but uses a smaller, non-locking connector.  Sumitomo Electric Industries started selling up to optical Thunderbolt cables in Japan in January, 2013, and Corning, Inc., began selling up to optical cables in the U.S. in late September, 2013.

History.

Introduction.

Intel introduced Light Peak at the 2009 Intel Developer Forum (IDF), using a prototype Mac Pro logic board to run two 1080p video streams plus LAN and storage devices over a single 30-meter optical cable with modified USB ends. The system was driven by a prototype PCI Express card, with two optical buses powering four ports. Jason Ziller, head of Intel's Optical I/O Program Office showed the internal components of the technology under a microscope and the sending of data through an oscilloscope. The technology was described as having an initial speed of 10 Gbit/s over plastic optical cables, and promising a final speed of 100 Gbit/s. At the show, Intel said Light Peak-equipped systems would begin to appear in 2010, and posted a YouTube video showing Light Peak-connected HD cameras, laptops, docking stations, and HD monitors.  On 4 May 2010, in Brussels, Intel demonstrated a laptop with a Light Peak connector, indicating that the technology had shrunk enough to fit inside such a device, and had the laptop send two simultaneous HD video streams down the connection, indicating that at least some fraction of the software/firmware stacks and protocols were functional. At the same demonstration, Intel officials said they expected hardware manufacturing to begin around the end of 2010.  In September 2010, some early commercial prototypes from manufacturers were demonstrated at Intel Developer Forum 2010.

Copper vs. optical.

Though Thunderbolt was originally conceived as an optical technology, Intel switched to electrical connections to reduce costs and to supply up to 10 watts of power to connected devices.  In 2009, Intel officials said the company was "working on bundling the optical fiber with copper wire so Light Peak can be used to power devices plugged into the PC." In 2010, Intel said the original intent was "to have one single connector technology" that would let "electrical USB 3.0... and piggyback on USB 3.0 or 4.0 DC power." Light Peak aimed to make great strides in consumer-ready optical technology, by then having achieved "[connectors rated] for 7,000 insertions, which matches or exceeds other PC connections... cables [that were tied] in multiple knots to make sure it didn't break and the loss is acceptable," and, "You can almost get two people pulling on it at once and it won't break the fibre." They predicted that "Light Peak cables will be no more expensive than HDMI."  In January 2011, Intel's David Perlmutter told "Computerworld" that initial Thunderbolt implementations would be based on copper wires. "The copper came out very good, surprisingly better than what we thought," he said. A major advantage of copper is the ability to carry power. The final Thunderbolt standard specifies 10 W DC on every port. "See comparison section below."  Intel and industry partners are still developing optical Thunderbolt hardware and cables. The optical fiber cables are to run "tens of meters" but don't supply power, at least not initially. The version from Corning contains four 80/125 μm VSDN (Very Short Distance Network) fibers to transport an infrared signal up to. The conversion of electrical signal to optical is embedded into the cable itself, so the current MDP connector is forward compatible. Eventually, Intel hopes for a purely optical transceiver assembly embedded in the PC.  The first such optical Thunderbolt cable was introduced by Sumitomo Electric Industries in January 2013. It is available in lengths of,, and. However, those cables are retailed almost exclusively in Japan, and the price is 20 to 30 times higher than copper Thunderbolt cables.  German company DeLock also released optical Thunderbolt cables in lengths of,, and in 2013, priced similarly to the Sumitomo ones, and retailed only in Germany.  In September 2013, US glass company Corning Inc. released the first range of optical Thunderbolt cables available in the Western marketplace outside Japan, along with optical USB 3.0 cables, both under the brand name "Optical Cables". Half the diameter of and 80% lighter than comparable copper Thunderbolt cables, they work with the 10 Gbit/s Thunderbolt protocol and the 20 Gbit/s Thunderbolt 2 protocol, and thus are able to work with all self-powered Thunderbolt devices (unlike copper cables, optical cables cannot provide power). The cables extend the current maximum length offered by copper to a new maximum of. This lets peripheral Thunderbolt devices be farther from their host device(s).

Thunderbolt 1.

CNET's Brooke Crothers said it was rumored that the early-2011, MacBook Pro update would include some sort of new data port, and he speculated it would be Light Peak (Thunderbolt). At the time, there were no details on the physical implementation, and mock-ups appeared showing a system similar to the earlier Intel demos using a combined USB/Light Peak port. Shortly before the release of the new machines, the USB Implementers Forum (USB-IF) announced they would not allow such a combination port, and that USB was not open to modification in that way. Other implementations of the technology began in 2012, with desktop boards offering the interconnection now available.  Apple stated in February 2011 that the port was based on Mini DisplayPort, not USB. As the system was described, Intel's solution to the display connection problem became clear: Thunderbolt controllers multiplex data from existing DP systems with data from the PCIe port into a single cable. Older displays that using DP 1.1a or earlier must be located at the end of a Thunderbolt device chain, but native displays can be anywhere along the line. Thunderbolt devices can go anywhere on the chain. In that respect, Thunderbolt shares a relationship with the older ACCESS.bus system, which used the display connector to support a low-speed bus.  Apple states that up to six daisy-chained peripherals are supported per Thunderbolt port, and that the display should come at the end of the chain, if it does not support daisy chaining.  In February 2011, Apple introduced its new line of MacBook Pro notebook computers and announced that the technology's commercial name was "Thunderbolt", with MacBook Pros being the first machines to feature the new I/O technology.  In May 2011, Apple announced a new line of iMacs that include the Thunderbolt interface.  The Thunderbolt port on the new Macs is in the same location relative to other ports and maintains the same physical dimensions and pinout as the prior MDP connector. The main visible difference on Thunderbolt-equipped Macs is a Thunderbolt symbol next to the port.  The DisplayPort standard is partially compatible with Thunderbolt, as the two share Apple's physically compatible MDP connector. The Target Display mode on iMacs requires a Thunderbolt cable to accept a video-in signal from another Thunderbolt-capable computer. A DP monitor must be the last (or only) device in a chain of Thunderbolt devices.  Intel announced they would release a developer kit in the second quarter of 2011, while manufacturers of hardware-development equipment have indicated they will add support for the testing and development of Thunderbolt devices. The developer kit is being provided only on request.  In July 2011, Sony released its Vaio Z21 line of notebook computers that had a "Power Media Dock" that uses optical Thunderbolt (Light Peak) to connect to an external graphics card using a combination port that behaves like USB electrically, but that also includes the optical interconnect required for Thunderbolt.

Thunderbolt 2.

In June 2013, Intel announced that the next generation of Thunderbolt, based on the controller code-named "Falcon Ridge" (running at 20 Gbit/s), is officially named "Thunderbolt 2" and entered production in 2013. The data-rate of 20 Gbit/s is made possible by joining the two existing 10 Gbit/s-channels, which does not change the maximum bandwidth, but makes using it more flexible. Apple announced Thunderbolt 2 in June 2013 at their developer-conference (WWDC) and said it would ship in the next Mac Pro generation. Thunderbolt 2 shipped in the 2013 MacBook Pro, released on 22 October 2013.  At the physical level, the bandwidth of Thunderbolt 1 and Thunderbolt 2 are identical, and Thunderbolt 1 cabling is thus compatible with Thunderbolt 2 interfaces. At the logical level, Thunderbolt 2 enables channel aggregation, whereby the two previously separate 10 Gbit/s channels can be combined into a single logical 20 Gbit/s channel.  Intel says Thunderbolt 2 will be able to transfer a 4K video while simultaneously displaying it on a discrete monitor.  Thunderbolt 2 incorporates DisplayPort 1.2 support, which allows for video streaming to a single 4K video monitor or dual QHD monitors. Thunderbolt 2 is backwards compatible, which means that all Thunderbolt cables and connectors are compatible with Thunderbolt 1.  The first Thunderbolt 2 product for the consumer market was Asus's Z87-Deluxe/Quad motherboard, announced on 19 August 2013, and the first system released with Thunderbolt 2 was Apple's late 2013 Retina MacBook Pro, on 22 October 2013.

Thunderbolt 3.

Thunderbolt 3 is a hardware interface developed by Intel. It shares USB-C connectors with USB, and can require special "active" cables for maximum performance for cable lengths over 0.5 meters (1.5 feet). Compared to Thunderbolt 2, it doubles the bandwidth to 40 Gbit/s (5 GB/s), allowing up to 4-lane PCIe 3.0, 8-lane DisplayPort 1.2, and USB 3.1 10 Gbit/s.  Intel's Thunderbolt 3 controller (codenamed "Alpine Ridge," or the new "Titan Ridge") halves power consumption, and simultaneously drives two external 4K displays at 60 Hz (or a single external 4K display at 120 Hz, or a 5K display at 60 Hz when using Apple's implementation for the late-2016 MacBook Pros) instead of just the single display previous controllers can drive. The new controller supports PCIe 3.0 and other protocols, including DisplayPort 1.2 (allowing for 4K resolutions at 60 Hz). Thunderbolt 3 has up to 15 watts of power delivery on copper cables and no power delivery capability on optical cables. Using USB-C on copper cables, it can incorporate USB Power Delivery, allowing the ports to source or sink up to 100 watts of power. This eliminates the need for a separate power supply from some devices. Thunderbolt 3 allows backwards compatibility with the first two versions by the use of adapters or transitional cables.  Intel offers three varieties for each of the controllers:  This follows previous practice, where higher-end devices such as the second-generation Mac Pro, iMac, Retina MacBook Pro, and Mac Mini use two-port controllers; while lower-end, lower-power devices such as the MacBook Air use the one-port version.  Support was added to Intel's Skylake architecture chipsets, shipping during late 2015 into early 2016.  Devices with Thunderbolt 3 ports began shipping at the beginning of December 2015, including notebooks running Microsoft Windows (from Acer, Asus, Clevo, HP, Dell, Dell Alienware, Lenovo, MSI, Razer, and Sony), as well as motherboards (from Gigabyte Technology), and a 0.5 m Thunderbolt 3 passive USB-C cable (from Lintes Technology).  In October 2016, Apple announced the updated MacBook Pro, which features two or four Thunderbolt 3 ports depending on the model. In June 2017, Apple announced new iMac models that feature two Thunderbolt 3 ports, as well as the iMac Pro, which featured four ports when released in December 2017.  On 8 January 2018, Intel announced a product refresh (codenamed Titan Ridge) with "enhanced robustness" and support for DisplayPort 1.4. The new peripheral controller can now act as a USB sink (compatible with regular USB-C ports).  Intel offers a single port (JHL7340) and double port (JHL7540) version of this host controller and a peripheral controller supporting two Thunderbolt 3 ports (JHL7440).

USB4.

The USB4 specification was released on 29 August 2019 by USB Implementers Forum, based on the Thunderbolt 3 protocol specification.  It supports 40 Gbit/s (5 GB/s) throughput, is compatible with Thunderbolt 3, and backwards compatible with USB 3.2 and USB 2.0. The architecture defines a method to share a single high-speed link with multiple end device types dynamically that best serves the transfer of data by type and application.

Thunderbolt 4.

Thunderbolt 4 will arrive with new CPU-integrated Thunderbolt 4 Tiger Lake mobile processors, destined for thin-and-light laptops later in 2020, as per Intel's CES 2020 keynote.  Intel's 2020 CES announcement stated that it would be four times faster than USB 3, leading many to believe they meant 80 Gbps, given Thunderbolt 3, with a bandwidth of 40 Gbps, is already up to eight times faster than three versions of USB 3.2 (USB 3.2 Gen 1x1, 2x1, and 2x2 which have rates of 5, 10, and 20 Gbps); however, Intel later clarified that the version of USB they referred to was USB 3.2 2x1, which can only reach speeds of up to 10 Gb/s, meaning that Thunderbolt 4 will carry the same speeds as Thunderbolt 3.  Intel hasn't been clear yet on the key differences between Thunderbolt 4 and Thunderbolt 3 but it is likely to be based on PCI Express 4.0 since the Tiger Lake architecture will support it.

Royalty situation.

On 24 May 2017, Intel announced that Thunderbolt 3 would become a royalty-free standard to OEMs and chip manufacturers in 2018, as part of an effort to boost the adoption of the protocol. The Thunderbolt 3 specification was later released to the USB-IF on 4 March 2019, making it royalty-free, to be used to form USB4. Intel says it will retain control over certification of all Thunderbolt 3 devices, though it will not be mandatory.  Before March 2019, there were no AMD chipsets or computers with Thunderbolt support released or announced due to the certification requirements (Intel did not certify non-Intel platforms). However, the YouTuber Wendell Wilson from Level1 Techs was able to get Thunderbolt 3 support on an AMD computer with a Threadripper CPU and Titan Ridge add-in card working by modifying the firmware, indicating that the lack of Thunderbolt support on non-Intel systems is not due to any hardware limitations. As of May 2019, it is possible to have Thunderbolt 3 support on AMD using add-in card without any problems, and motherboards like ASRock X570 Creator already have Thunderbolt 3 port.  In January 2020 Intel certified ASRock X570 Phantom Gaming ITX/TB3 and now vendors are freely allowed to produce Thunderbolt controller silicon (even though those ASRock motherboards used Intel Titan Ridge).

Peripheral devices.

Apple released its first Thunderbolt-equipped computer in early 2011 with the MacBook Pro. The first Thunderbolt peripheral devices appeared in retail stores only in late 2011, with the relatively expensive "Pegasus R4" (4-drive) and "Pegasus R6" (6-drive) RAID enclosures by Promise Technology aimed at the prosumer and professional market, initially offering up to 12 TB of storage, later increased to 18 TB. Sales of these units were hurt by the 2011 floods in Thailand (who manufacture much of the world's supply of hard-drives) resulting in a cut to worldwide hard-drive production and a subsequent driving-up of storage costs, hence the retail price of these Promise units increased in response, contributing to a slower take-up of the devices.  It also took some time for other storage manufacturers to release products: most were smaller devices aimed at the professional market, and focused on speed rather than high capacity. Many storage devices were under 1 TB in size, with some featuring SSDs for faster external-data access rather than standard hard-drives.  Other companies have offered interface products that can route multiple older, usually slower, connections through a single Thunderbolt port. In July 2011, Apple released its Apple Thunderbolt Display, whose gigabit Ethernet and other older connector types made it the first hub of its type. Later, companies such as Belkin, CalDigit, Other World Computing, Matrox, StarTech, and Elgato have all released Thunderbolt docks.  As of late 2012, few other storage devices offering double-digit TB capacity had appeared. Exceptions included Sonnet Technologies' highly priced professional units, and Drobo's 4- and 5-drive enclosures, the latter featuring their own BeyondRAID proprietary data-handling system.  Backwards compatibility with non-Thunderbolt-equipped computers was a problem, as most storage devices featured only two Thunderbolt ports, for daisy-chaining up to six devices from each one. In mid-2012, LaCie, Drobo, and other device makers started to swap out one of the two Thunderbolt ports for a USB 3.0 connection on some of their low-to-mid end products. Later models had the USB 3.0 added "in addition" to the two Thunderbolt ports, including those from LaCie on their "2big" range.  The late 2013 Retina MacBook Pro was the first product to have Thunderbolt 2 ports, following which manufacturers started to update their model offerings to those featuring the newer, faster, 20 Gbit/s connection throughout 2014. Again, among the first was Promise Technology, who released updated "Pegasus 2" versions of their R4 and R6 models along with an even larger R8 (8-drive) RAID unit, offering up to 32 TBs of storage. Later, other brands similarly introduced high capacity models with the newer connection type, including G-Technology (with their "G-RAID Studio" models offering up to 24 TB) and LaCie (with their "5big", and rack mounted "8big" models, offering up to 48 TB). LaCie also offering updated designed versions of their "2big" mainstream consumer models, up to 12 TB, using new 6 TB hard-drives.  Thunderbolt 3 was introduced in late 2015, with several motherboard manufacturers and OEM laptop manufacturers including Thunderbolt 3 with their products. Gigabyte and MSI, large computer component manufacturers, entered the market for the first time with Thunderbolt 3 compatible components.  Dell was the first to include Thunderbolt 3 ports in laptops with their XPS Series and their Dell Alienware range.  Apple Mac machines with Thunderbolt 3 include: iMac Pro, iMac 2017, Mac Mini 2018, MacBook Pro 2016 onwards, MacBook Air 2018.  Although Thunderbolt has initially had poor hardware support outside of Apple devices and has been relegated to a niche gadget port, the adoption of the Thunderbolt 3 using USB-C connector standard into a wide array of hardware bodes well for market acceptance of the standard, besides that it will become part of USB4 standard.

Security Vulnerabilities.

Vulnerability to DMA attacks.

Thunderbolt — like many high-speed expansion buses, including PCI Express, PC Card, ExpressCard, FireWire, PCI, and PCI-X — is potentially vulnerable to a direct memory access (DMA) attack. If users extend the PCI Express bus (the most common high-speed expansion bus in systems ) with Thunderbolt, it allows very low-level access to the computer. An attacker could physically attach a malicious device, which, through its direct and unimpeded access to system memory and other devices, would be able to bypass almost all security measures of the operating system, allowing the attacker to read and write system memory, potentially exposing encryption keys or installing malware. Such attacks have been demonstrated, modifying inexpensive commodity Thunderbolt hardware. An IOMMU, if present, bug-free, and correctly integrated into and configured by the operating system, can close a computer's vulnerability to DMA attacks, but only if a malicious device can't alter the code that configures the IOMMU before the code is executed. As of 2019, the major OS vendors had not taken into account the variety of ways in which a malicious device could take advantage of complex interactions between multiple emulated peripherals, exposing subtle bugs and vulnerabilities. Some UEFI implementations offer Kernel DMA Protection.  This vulnerability is not present when Thunderbolt is used as a system interconnection ( supported on OS X Mavericks), because the IP implementation runs on the underlying Thunderbolt low-latency packet-switching fabric, and the PCI Express protocol is not present on the cable. That means that if IPoTB networking is used between a group of computers, there is no threat of such DMA attack between them.

Vulnerability to Option ROM attacks.

When a system with Thunderbolt boots, it loads and executes Option ROMs from attached devices. A malicious Option ROM can allow malware to execute before an operating system is started. It can then invade the kernel, log keystrokes, or steal encryption keys. The ease of connecting Thunderbolt devices to portable computers makes them ideal for evil-maid attacks.  Some systems load Option ROMs during firmware updates, allowing the malware in a Thunderbolt device's Option ROM to potentially overwrite the SPI flash ROM containing the system's boot firmware. In February 2015, Apple issued a Security Update to Mac OS X to eliminate the vulnerability of loading Option ROMs during firmware updates, although the system is still vulnerable to Option ROM attacks during normal boots.  Firmware-enforced boot security measures, such as UEFI Secure Boot (which specifies the enforcement of signatures or hash whitelists of Option ROMs) are designed to mitigate this kind of attack.

Vulnerability to data exposure attacks (Thunderspy).

In May 2020, the Thunderspy seven major security flaws were discovered in the Thunderbolt protocol, which allow a malicious party to access all data stored in a computer, even if the device is locked, password-protected, and has an encrypted hard drive. These vulnerabilities affect all Thunderbolt 1, 2 and 3 ports and cannot be fixed with a software update.

Cables.

In June 2011, the first two-meter Thunderbolt cable from Apple cost US$49. As an active cable, it contains circuitry in its connectors.  In June 2012, Apple began selling a Thunderbolt-to-gigabit Ethernet adaptor cable for US$29. In the third quarter of 2012, other manufacturers started providing cables of varying lengths up to the maximum supported length of three meters, while some storage-enclosure builders began including a Thunderbolt cable with their devices.  In January 2013, Apple reduced the price of their 2-meter cable to US$39 and added a half-meter cable for US$29.  Several other brands have released copper Thunderbolt cables, with some going up to the maximum allowable for copper Thunderbolt cables. Initially, most devices did not come with an included Thunderbolt cable to keep selling cost lower, hence the mass usage of Apple's cables or third-party cables, especially if a user wanted 3m length, but most devices eventually began including some length of copper Thunderbolt cable with the product.  With the introduction of Thunderbolt 3, Intel announced that otherwise-standard passive USB-C cables would be able to connect Thunderbolt devices at lower speeds than full active Thunderbolt cables, but still faster than USB 3.1. This allows for cheaper connections to new Thunderbolt devices, with inexpensive USB-C cables costing significantly less than active Thunderbolt cables.

Controllers.

Intel Thunderbolt Controllers

Thunderbolt is the brand name of a hardware interface developed by Intel (in collaboration with Apple) that allows the connection of external peripherals to a computer. Thunderbolt 1 and 2 use the same connector as Mini DisplayPort (MDP), whereas Thunderbolt 3 re-uses the USB-C connector from USB. It was initially developed and marketed under the name Light Peak, and first sold as part of an end user product on 24 February 2011.

Am 4. März 2019 gab die Standardisierungsorganisation USB-IF bekannt, dass USB4 auf der Basis von Thunderbolt 3 entwickelt werden soll.