Definition.

Since it is difficult to distinguish between those who knowingly promote unproven medical therapies and those who are mistaken as to their effectiveness, United States courts have ruled in defamation cases that accusing someone of quackery or calling a practitioner a "quack" is not equivalent to accusing that person of committing medical fraud. To be both quackery and fraud, the quack must know they are misrepresenting the benefits and risks of the medical services offered (instead of, for example, promoting an ineffective product they honestly believe is effective).  In addition to the ethical problems of promising benefits that can not reasonably be expected to occur, quackery also includes the risk that patients may choose to forego treatments that are more likely to help them, in favor of ineffective treatments given by the "quack".  Stephen Barrett of Quackwatch defines quackery "as the promotion of unsubstantiated methods that lack a scientifically plausible rationale" and more broadly as:  Paul Offit has proposed four ways in which alternative medicine "becomes quackery":

Quacksalver.

Unproven, usually ineffective, and sometimes dangerous medicines and treatments have been peddled throughout human history. Theatrical performances were sometimes given to enhance the credibility of purported medicines. Grandiose claims were made for what could be humble materials indeed: for example, in the mid-19th century "revalenta arabica" was advertised as having extraordinary restorative virtues as an empirical diet for invalids; despite its impressive name and many glowing testimonials it was in truth only ordinary lentil flour, sold to the gullible at many times the true cost.  Even where no fraud was intended, quack remedies often contained no effective ingredients whatsoever. Some remedies contained substances such as opium, alcohol and honey, which would have given symptomatic relief but had no curative properties. Some would have addictive qualities to entice the buyer to return. The few effective remedies sold by quacks included emetics, laxatives and diuretics. Some ingredients did have medicinal effects: mercury, silver and arsenic compounds may have helped some infections and infestations; willow bark contained salicylic acid, chemically closely related to aspirin; and the quinine contained in Jesuit's bark was an effective treatment for malaria and other fevers. However, knowledge of appropriate uses and dosages was limited.

Criticism of quackery in academia.

The science-based medicine community has criticized the infiltration of alternative medicine into mainstream academic medicine, education, and publications, accusing institutions of "diverting research time, money, and other resources from more fruitful lines of investigation in order to pursue a theory that has no basis in biology." R.W. Donnell coined the phrase "quackademic medicine" to describe this attention given to alternative medicine by academia. Referring to the Flexner Report, he said that medical education "needs a good Flexnerian housecleaning."  For example, David Gorski criticized Brian M. Berman, founder of the University of Maryland Center for Integrative Medicine, for writing that "There [is] evidence that both real acupuncture and sham acupuncture [are] more effective than no treatment and that acupuncture can be a useful supplement to other forms of conventional therapy for low back pain." He also castigated editors and peer reviewers at the "New England Journal of Medicine" for allowing it to be published, since it effectively recommended deliberately misleading patients in order to achieve a known placebo effect.

History in Europe and the United States.

With little understanding of the causes and mechanisms of illnesses, widely marketed "cures" (as opposed to locally produced and locally used remedies), often referred to as patent medicines, first came to prominence during the 17th and 18th centuries in Britain and the British colonies, including those in North America. Daffy's Elixir and Turlington's Balsam were among the first products that used branding (e.g. using highly distinctive containers) and mass marketing to create and maintain markets. A similar process occurred in other countries of Europe around the same time, for example with the marketing of Eau de Cologne as a cure-all medicine by Johann Maria Farina and his imitators. Patent medicines often contained alcohol or opium, which, while presumably not curing the diseases for which they were sold as a remedy, did make the imbibers feel better and confusedly appreciative of the product.  The number of internationally marketed quack medicines increased in the later 18th century; the majority of them originated in Britain and were exported throughout the British Empire. By 1830, British parliamentary records list over 1,300 different "proprietary medicines," the majority of which were "quack" cures by modern standards.  A Dutch organisation that opposes quackery,'(VtdK) was founded in 1881, making it the oldest organisation of this kind in the world. It has published its magazine'("Dutch Magazine against Quackery") ever since. In these early years the played a part in the professionalisation of medicine. Its efforts in the public debate helped to make the Netherlands one of the first countries with governmental drug regulation. In 1909, in an attempt to stop the sale of quack medicines, the British Medical Association published "Secret Remedies, What They Cost And What They Contain". This publication was originally a series of articles published in the "British Medical Journal" between 1904 and 1909. The publication was composed of 20 chapters, organising the work by sections according to the ailments the medicines claimed to treat. Each remedy was tested thoroughly, the preface stated: "Of the accuracy of the analytical data there can be no question; the investigation has been carried out with great care by a skilled analytical chemist." The book did lead to the end of some of the quack cures, but some survived the book by several decades. For example, Beecham's Pills, which according to the British Medical Association contained in 1909 only aloes, ginger and soap, but claimed to cure 31 medical conditions, were sold until 1998.  British patent medicines lost their dominance in the United States when they were denied access to the Thirteen Colonies markets during the American Revolution, and lost further ground for the same reason during the War of 1812. From the early 19th century "home-grown" American brands started to fill the gap, reaching their peak in the years after the American Civil War. British medicines never regained their previous dominance in North America, and the subsequent era of mass marketing of American patent medicines is usually considered to have been a "golden age" of quackery in the United States. This was mirrored by similar growth in marketing of quack medicines elsewhere in the world. In the United States, false medicines in this era were often denoted by the slang term snake oil, a reference to sales pitches for the false medicines that claimed exotic ingredients provided the supposed benefits. Those who sold them were called "snake oil salesmen," and usually sold their medicines with a fervent pitch similar to a fire and brimstone religious sermon. They often accompanied other theatrical and entertainment productions that traveled as a road show from town to town, leaving quickly before the falseness of their medicine was discovered. Not all quacks were restricted to such small-time businesses however, and a number, especially in the United States, became enormously wealthy through national and international sales of their products.  In 1875, the "Pacific Medical and Surgical Journal" complained:  One among many examples is William Radam, a German immigrant to the USA, who, in the 1880s, started to sell his "Microbe Killer" throughout the United States and, soon afterwards, in Britain and throughout the British colonies. His concoction was widely advertised as being able to "cure all diseases", and this phrase was even embossed on the glass bottles the medicine was sold in. In fact, Radam's medicine was a therapeutically useless (and in large quantities actively poisonous) dilute solution of sulfuric acid, coloured with a little red wine. Radam's publicity material, particularly his books, provide an insight into the role that pseudoscience played in the development and marketing of "quack" medicines towards the end of the 19th century.  Similar advertising claims to those of Radam can be found throughout the 18th, 19th, 20th and 21st centuries. "Dr." Sibley, an English patent medicine seller of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, even went so far as to claim that his Reanimating Solar Tincture would, as the name implies, "restore life in the event of sudden death". Another English quack, "Dr. Solomon" claimed that his Cordial Balm of Gilead cured almost anything, but was particularly effective against all venereal complaints, from gonorrhoea to onanism. Although it was basically just brandy flavoured with herbs, the price of a bottle was a half guinea (£sd system) in 1800, equivalent to over £ ($) in 2014.  Not all patent medicines were without merit. Turlingtons Balsam of Life, first marketed in the mid-18th century, did have genuinely beneficial properties. This medicine continued to be sold under the original name into the early 20th century, and can still be found in the British and American pharmacopoeias as "Compound tincture of benzoin". In these cases, the treatments likely lacked empirical support when they were introduced to the market, and their benefits were simply a convenient coincidence discovered after the fact.  The end of the road for the quack medicines now considered grossly fraudulent in the nations of North America and Europe came in the early 20th century. 21 February 1906 saw the passage into law of the Pure Food and Drug Act in the United States. This was the result of decades of campaigning by both government departments and the medical establishment, supported by a number of publishers and journalists (one of the most effective was Samuel Hopkins Adams, who wrote "The Great American Fraud" series in "Collier's" in 1905). This American Act was followed three years later by similar legislation in Britain and in other European nations. Between them, these laws began to remove the more outrageously dangerous contents from patent and proprietary medicines, and to force quack medicine proprietors to stop making some of their more blatantly dishonest claims. The Act, however, left advertising and claims of effectiveness unregulated as the Supreme Court interpreted it to mean only that ingredients on labels had to be accurate. Language in the 1912 Sherley Amendment, meant to close this loophole, was limited to regulating claims that were false and fraudulent, creating the need to show intent. Throughout the early 20th century, the American Medical Association collected material on medical quackery, and one of their members and medical editors in particular, Arthur J. Cramp, devoted his career to criticizing such products. The AMA's Department of Investigation closed in 1975, but their only archive open to non-members remains, the American Medical Association Health Fraud and Alternative Medicine Collection.  "Medical quackery and promotion of nostrums and worthless drugs were among the most prominent abuses that led to formal self-regulation in business and, in turn, to the creation of the" Better Business Bureau.

Contemporary culture.

"Quackery is the promotion of false and unproven health schemes for a profit. It is rooted in the traditions of the marketplace", with "commercialism overwhelming professionalism in the marketing of alternative medicine". "Quackery" is most often used to denote the peddling of the "cure-alls" described above. Quackery continues even today; it can be found in any culture and in every medical tradition. Unlike other advertising mediums, rapid advancements in communication through the Internet have opened doors for an unregulated market of quack cures and marketing campaigns rivaling the early 20th century. Most people with an e-mail account have experienced the marketing tactics of spamming – in which modern forms of quackery are touted as miraculous remedies for "weight loss" and "sexual enhancement", as well as outlets for medicines of unknown quality.

United States.

While quackery is often aimed at the aged or chronically ill, it can be aimed at all age groups, including teens, and the FDA has mentioned some areas where potential quackery may be a problem: breast developers, weight loss, steroids and growth hormones, tanning and tanning pills, hair removal and growth, and look-alike drugs.  In 1992, the president of The National Council Against Health Fraud, William T. Jarvis, wrote in "Clinical Chemistry" that:  For those in the practice of any medicine, to allege quackery is to level a serious objection to a particular form of practice. Most developed countries have a governmental agency, such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the US, whose purpose is to monitor and regulate the safety of medications as well as the claims made by the manufacturers of new and existing products, including drugs and nutritional supplements or vitamins. The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) participates in some of these efforts. To better address less regulated products, in 2000, US President Clinton signed Executive Order 13147 that created the White House Commission on Complementary and Alternative Medicine. In 2002, the commission's final report made several suggestions regarding education, research, implementation, and reimbursement as ways to evaluate the risks and benefits of each. As a direct result, more public dollars have been allocated for research into some of these methods.  Individuals and non-governmental agencies are active in attempts to expose quackery. According to John C. Norcross et al. less is consensus about ineffective "compared to effective procedures" but identifying both "pseudoscientific, unvalidated, or 'quack' psychotherapies" and "assessment measures of questionable validity on psycho-metric grounds" was pursued by various authors. The evidence-based practice (EBP) movement in mental health emphasizes the consensus in psychology that psychological practice should rely on empirical research. There are also "anti-quackery" websites, such as Quackwatch, that help consumers evaluate claims. Quackwatch's information is relevant to both consumers and medical professionals.

China.

Zhang Wuben, a quack who posed as skilled in traditional Chinese medicine in the People's Republic of China, based his operation on representations that raw eggplant and mung beans were a general cure-all. Zhang, who has escaped legal liability as he portrayed himself as a nutritionist, not a doctor, appeared on television in China and authored a best-selling book, "Eat Away the Diseases You Get from Eating". Zhang, who charged the equivalent of $450 for a 10-minute examination, had a two-year waiting list when he was exposed. Investigations launched after a run on mung beans revealed that contrary to his representations, he did not come from a family of accomplished traditional practitioners (中医世家) and never had the medical degree from Beijing Medical University he claimed to have. His only education was a brief correspondence or night school course, completed after he was laid off from a textile factory. Zhang, despite negative publicity on the national level, continues to practice but has committed himself to finding a cheaper cure-all than mung beans. His clinic, Wuben Hall, adjacent to Beijing National Stadium, was torn down as an illegal structure. Much of Zhang Wuben's success was due to the efforts of Chinese entrepreneurs, including one government-owned company, who promoted him.  Hu Wanlin, who did hold himself out as a doctor, was exposed in 2000 and sentenced to 15 years in prison. He adulterated his concoctions with sodium sulfate, Glauber's salt, a poison in large doses. That case resulted in creating a system of licensing medical doctors in China.  In 1992, Li Hongzhi, a former grain clerk from Jilin introduced a new version of Falun gong exercises which soon turned into a cult with a mass following. One of its controversial tenets was its quack belief that its followers need not take any medicines for any diseases and illnesses. As a number of followers began to refuse medical treatment, fall ill and die, the government began to pay more attention to it. Falun gong was banned in China, but Li escaped to the United States, with his followers. Falun gong continued to thrive in the United states as an alternative therapy.

Presence and acceptance.

There have been several suggested reasons why quackery is accepted by patients in spite of its lack of effectiveness:

Information Age quackery.

A form of quackery common in the 21st Century is laypeople using online sites, such as WebMD to find diagnoses. The best way to avoid falling victim to this is to make an appointment with a certified physician at a local hospital. Writing in "The New York Times Magazine", Virginia Heffernan criticized WebMD for biasing readers toward drugs that are sold by the site's pharmaceutical sponsors, even when they are unnecessary. She wrote that WebMD "has become permeated with pseudomedicine and subtle misinformation."

Quackery, often synonymous with health fraud, is the promotion of fraudulent or ignorant medical practices. A quack is a "fraudulent or ignorant pretender to medical skill" or "a person who pretends, professionally or publicly, to have skill, knowledge, qualification or credentials they do not possess; a charlatan or snake oil salesman". The term "quack" is a clipped form of the archaic term "", from a "hawker of salve". In the Middle Ages the term "quack" meant "shouting". The quacksalvers sold their wares on the market shouting in a loud voice.

Quacksalber ist ein volkstümlicher Ausdruck für jemanden, der ohne die nötige Qualifikation und Befugnis die Heilkunde ausübt, das heißt einen "Pfuscher" (bzw. Medikaster) oder Kurpfuscher; auch jemanden mit dubiosen Heilmitteln und -methoden.


Biography.

Early years.

Respighi was born on 9 July 1879 at 8 Via Guido Reni, an apartment building to the side of Palazzo Fantuzzi. He was the youngest child of Giuseppe and Ersilia ("née" Putti) Respighi. His brother Alberto died aged nine, and he had one sister, Amelia. His parents came from artistic families; his maternal grandfather and great-grandfather were distinguished sculptors and his paternal grandfather was a cathedral organist. Giuseppe was an accomplished pianist and teacher who encouraged his son's musical inclinations, giving basic tuition in piano and violin from an early age. To his father's initial disappointment, Respighi showed little interest in music until he was almost eight. Shortly after Respighi began formal violin tuition, he quit abruptly after his teacher whacked him on the hand with a ruler when he had played a passage incorrectly. He resumed lessons several weeks later, this time with a more patient teacher. His piano skills, too, were a hit-and-miss affair initially, but his father arrived home one day surprised to find his son performing the "Symphonic Studies" by Robert Schumann; Respighi had learned to play the piece in secret. Respighi quickly took to other instruments; he learned to play the harp in the course of several days.

Life in Bologna, 1890–1913.

Respighi was schooled at Ginnasio Guinizelli in Bologna for two years from October 1890. In 1891, he enrolled at the Liceo Musicale di Bologna, where he studied the violin and viola for the next seven years with his teacher, Federico Sarti. Among Respighi's earliest completed and dated compositions at this time were "Piccola Ouverture" and "Preludio" for orchestra. Four years into his course at the Liceo Musicale, Respighi began classes in musical composition with Giuseppe Martucci, the Liceo's director, and music history with Luigi Torchi. By the time he reached twenty, Respighi was performing in the orchestra at the Teatro Comunale di Bologna. Marticci, a proponent of Bologna's musical life and composer of non-operatic Italian music, became an influential figure on the young Respighi. In 1899, he received a diploma in the violin. By this time, Respighi had developed a fondness for languages, demonstrated by his large collection, which contained atlases and dictionaries. In his life Respighi became fluent in eleven languages and read literature in all of them.  In the winter of 1900, Respighi accepted the role of principal violist in the orchestra of the Russian Imperial Theatre in Saint Petersburg during its season of Italian opera. While there he met Russian composer Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, who Respighi greatly admired, and studied orchestration and composition with him over the course of five months. Respighi returned to Russia in the winter of 1902 for further performances and received further tuition from Rimsky-Korsakov; both meetings heavily influenced his orchestrations. Respighi finalised his studies at the Liceo Musicale with an advanced course in composition, for which he completed "Preludio, corale e fuga" ("Prelude, Chorale and Fugue"), written under Rimsky-Korsakov's guidance. The piece was first performed as part of Respighi's final examination in June 1901, to a resounding success. The 21-year-old Respighi then received his diploma in composition and Martucci spoke of the composer: "Respighi is not a pupil, Respighi is a master." In 1902, Respighi travelled to Berlin where he received brief tuition from composer Max Bruch. Despite sources incorrectly stating that he studied with Bruch in 1908, Respighi's wife would later state that Respighi in fact did not study with Bruch at all. From 1903 to 1908, while his local reputation as a composer grew, Respighi's principal activity was first violinist in the Mugellini Quintet, a touring five-piece founded by composer Bruno Mugellini. Respighi would remain with the group until he moved to Rome in 1913.  In 1906, Respighi completed his first of many transcriptions of pieces by 17th and 18th century composers; his version of "Lamento d'Arianna" by Claudio Monteverdi for voice and orchestra became his first international success during his visit to Berlin two years later. This second stay in Germany lasted for almost one year from September 1908 after Hungarian soprano Etelka Gerster invited him to work as an accompanist at her singing school, which influenced his vocal compositions. The composer met Arthur Nikisch, then conductor of the Berlin Philharmonic who arranged to conduct the Monteverdi transcription on stage with famed singer Julia Culp as soloist. The critical success of the performance encouraged Respighi to have his other transcriptions of older works performed in Berlin and it is considered to be a milestone in the rediscovery of Monteverdi's output.  The musical influence from Respighi's stay in Germany is discerned in his second operatic work, "Semirâma". The opera premiered in Bologna in November 1910 to considerable success; two years later, critic Giannotto Bastianelli wrote that the piece marked a transition in Respighi's style from verismo to Decadentism and praised his use of rich polyphony. Working on the opera, however, left Respighi exhausted and he wrote each individual score by hand to save money. At the post-performance banquet, the composer fell asleep. It is thought that Respighi's inconsistent sleeping patterns throughout his life may have been caused by narcolepsy.  In 1910, Respighi was involved in a short lived group named the lega dei Cinque, which also formed of Ildebrando Pizzetti, Gian Francesco Malipiero, Giannotto Bastianelli, and Renzo Bossi.

Life in Rome, 1913–1918.

In January 1913, Respighi left Bologna to become professor of composition at the Liceo Musicale di Santa Cecilia in Rome, a position that held for almost a decade. Composers Vittorio Rieti and Daniele Amfitheatrof were among his students during this time. The busy atmosphere of Rome unnerved Respighi, however, and composing and teaching became increasingly difficult. He became withdrawn, suffered from irregular sleep, and wished to return to Bologna. Later in 1913, Respighi returned to Germany for performances and upon returning to Rome, turned his attention primarily on composition.  In 1915, composer Alfredo Casella returned to Rome after living in France for many years. He joined the staff at the Liceo Musicale and wished to modernise Italian music as a result from his travels. Despite showing little interest, Respighi had small involvement in Casella's new organisation, the Società Italiana di Musica Moderna. When Italy entered World War I in May 1915 Respighi, aged 36, was eligible to join the army, though his position at the Liceo Musicale granted him temporary exoneration from military service. After a holiday in more peaceful surroundings for the summer, Respighi returned to Rome to continue teaching. One of his new students in his fugue and composition class was Elsa Olivieri-Sangiacomo; the two started a relationship and Elsa, at fourteen years his junior, married the composer in January 1919. Their friend, librettist Claudio Guastalla, spoke of their marriage: "It functioned on an almost transcendental level of human and spiritual harmony."  Respighi was deeply saddened by his mother's death in March 1916. Upon hearing that she had become ill he delayed his departure from Rome and by the time he arrived in Bologna, she had already died from pneumonia. Respighi returned to Rome and went back to work, but this would not last and he returned to Bologna. Elsa recalled Respighi retiring to bed and refusing to eat or see anyone. He recovered in Eremo di Tizzano, a religious retreat in the country hills some 20 km south of Bologna. While there, he composed the short piece "Preludio" for organ. In a letter to his friend, singer Chiarina Fino Savio, from January 1917, Respighi wrote: "I am alone, sad and sick."  In the midst of such difficult times, a turning point in Respighi's career arrived on 11 March 1917 when the first of his Roman trilogy of tone poems, "Fountains of Rome", premiered in Rome with conductor Antonio Guarnieri. The premiere was originally scheduled in late 1916, but an audience riot during the first half of the concert due to their distaste for German music caused the show to end early. Respighi's disappointment with the lukewarm response from the audience fuelled his effort to start on a follow-up.  Following the premiere, Respighi underwent a short tour of Italy and Switzerland with a group of musicians, including violinist Arrigo Serato, pianist Ernesto Consolo, and Fino Savio. Upon returning to Rome, he resumed work at the Liceo Musicale until the end of that academic year. While on vacation in Bologna in the summer of 1916, Respighi visited Viareggio to meet Russian ballet impresario Sergei Diaghilev, operator of the Ballets Russes, who wished to stage new productions based on the baroque and classical periods. Respighi accepted a sum of 1,500 lire from Diaghilev and contributed orchestrations of the piano works from "Péchés de vieillesse" by Gioachino Rossini which formed the basis of the music to a new ballet, "La Boutique fantasque".  The commission for Diaghilev may have inspired Respighi to gather scores for what would become Suite No. 1 of his "Ancient Airs and Dances", a trilogy of orchestral suites transcribed from lute pieces by 16th century Italian composers. Suite No. 1 premiered in December 1917 in Rome, after which the full score was somehow lost and Respighi was forced to re-write it using individual orchestral parts.

Rise to fame, 1918–1925.

An important milestone in Respighi's career took place when Arturo Toscanini asked the composer to have one of his compositions performed in a series of twelve concerts in Milan in February 1918. Respighi reluctantly picked "Fountains of Rome", which had only been performed at its 1917 premiere. The concert was a huge success and placed Respighi at the forefront of one of the leading Italian composers of the early 20th century, prompting the start of a longterm, though sometimes tumultuous, relationship with Toscanini. Two months after the concert, Respighi allowed Casa Ricordi to publish the score in a deal that granted the composer 40% of the rental and performance rights of the work. Respighi succumbed to illness soon after with a mild case of Spanish flu. By the summer of 1918, Respighi had entered negotiations to translate and publish Italian versions of "Theory of Harmony" (1922) by composer Arnold Schoenberg and a book on musical counterpoint by Sergei Taneyev, but the project never materialised.  In the summer of 1919, Respighi reconnected with Diaghilev in Naples to discuss another commission for the Ballets Russes. This time, Diaghilev wished to stage a revised version of "Le astuzie femminili" by Domenico Cimarosa, which concluded with a series of dances based on Russian musical themes. Respighi accepted, and provided new arrangements of the ballet score which premiered in Paris in 1920. Respighi was also commissioned to score for a revival of "La serva padrona" by Giovanni Paisiello, which also had a Russian connection. He delivered the finished manuscript one month late, in March 1920. However, Diaghilev had decided against a full stage production and used the music as part of a series of different songs and dance numbers. The score was shelved and considered lost until it was rediscovered 90 years later, after which it was performed in full in August 2014 in Bologna.  In January 1921, Respighi and Elsa began their first tour as joint performers, marking Elsa's debut as a performing concert artist. They were joined by violinist Mario Corti. The tour saw dates across Italy, followed by Prague, Brno, and Vienna. The time away from his teaching duties at the Liceo Musicale in Rome led to his employers issuing a letter suggesting he return to fulfil them for the remaining months of the academic year. By 1921, Respighi had begun a lifelong friendship with the writer and journalist Claudio Guastalla, who encouraged him to compose a new opera and offered to write its libretto. This created a spell of productivity and Respighi eagerly completed "Belfagor", his first opera in a decade, without the spells of depression that had usually affected him once he had finished a work. Guastalla would exclusively write the libretto for all of Respighi's future operas, and influence the conception or programmes for some of his non-operatic compositions.  In October 1921, Respighi and Elsa relocated to a flat in Palazzo Borghese in Rome which they named I Pini (The Pines). In the following January, despite the possibility of further objections from the Liceo Musicale, they went on another tour, this time performing in Czechoslovakia. When Benito Mussolini came to power later in 1922, Respighi steered a neutral course in his Fascist dictatorship. His growing international fame allowed the composer some level of freedom, but at the same time encouraged the regime to exploit his music for political purposes. Respighi vouched for more outspoken critics such as Toscanini, allowing them to continue to work under the regime. In 1923, Respighi became the first director of the now state-funded Conservatorio di Santa Cecilia in Rome. He disliked the time consuming administrative duties that the position required; by 1926, he resigned to dedicate more time to compose. Respighi continued to teach an advanced composition course at the conservatory until 1935. In 1925, he collaborated with Sebastiano Arturo Luciani on an elementary textbook entitled "Orpheus".

International recognition, 1925–1936.

By the mid-1920s, Respighi's growing worldwide fame encouraged the composer to travel extensively, conducting his own pieces, or performing as soloist for his piano compositions. He made his first visit to America in December 1925 to perform and conduct a series of concerts; his first took place at Carnegie Hall on 31 December as soloist for the premiere of his piano and orchestral work, "Concerto in modo misolidio" ("Concerto in the Mixolydian Mode").  In May 1927, Respighi and Elsa travelled to Brazil to engage in a concert series of his own music in Rio de Janeiro. The musical style and local custom inspired Respighi, who told the press of his intention to return in the following year with a five-part orchestral suite based on his visit. Respighi did return to Rio, in June 1928, but the composition was finalised in the form of an orchestral work in three movements entitled "Impressioni Brasiliane" ("Brazilian Impressions"). In November 1928, Respighi returned to America for the premiere of his piano and orchestral work, "Toccata per pianoforte e orchestra" ("Toccata for Piano and Orchestra"). It took place that month at Carnegie Hall with Willem Mengelberg conducting the New York Philharmonic Orchestra with the composer as soloist. By the year's end Respighi had completed his third Roman tone poem, "Roman Festivals", which took nine days to complete. It premiered on 21 February 1929 at Carnegie Hall in New York City with Arturo Toscanini conducting the New York Philharmonic. The Italian premiere followed on 17 March.  At the end of 1929, Respighi had conductor Serge Koussevitzky forward a proposal to Sergei Rachmaninoff which involved permission to orchestrate a selection of pieces from his two "Études-Tableaux" sets for piano. An enthusiastic Rachmaninoff accepted the offer and supplied Respighi with the program descriptions behind five pieces which were previously kept secret. Koussevitzky conducted Respighi's orchestrations, entitled "Cinq Études-Tableaux", for the premiere with the Boston Symphony Orchestra in November 1931. He wrote that Respighi's arrangements were "very good" and demanding of the orchestra, which required eight rehearsals. Rachmnainoff thanked Respighi for his work and in particular, for being faithful to the original scores. Later in 1930, Respighi completed a commission piece to commemorate the fiftieth anniversary of the Boston Symphony Orchestra. The result was "Metamorphoseon, Modi XII", an orchestral piece containing a theme and eight variations.  In 1932, the Fascist government honoured Respighi with a membership to the Reale Accademia d'Italia, one of the highest honours awarded to the best of Italian science and culture. From 1933 until his death, Respighi completed no new compositions.  Respighi's opera "La fiamma" ("The Flame") premiered at the Teatro dell'Opera di Roma in January 1934, with the composer as conductor. In June 1934, Respighi and Elsa made the month-long voyage to Argentina where Respighi conducted the premiere of "La fiamma" in the country in the following month. This was followed by a visit to Uruguay, where several orchestral concerts were arranged for radio broadcast.  By May 1935, Respighi cancelled several engagements due to ill health, including a scheduled trip to conduct a series of concerts at the Hollywood Bowl in Los Angeles. By November, he had completed a piano draft and the majority of the orchestral arrangements of his next opera, "Lucrezia". He had planned to work on a transcription of an opera by Francesco Cavalli that was to be staged alongside "Lucrezia" during the 1936–37 season at the La Scala in Milan, but Respighi's declining health caused him to stop work. Both works were not completed in Respighi's lifetime; Elsa finished "Lucrezia" posthumously with Respighi's former pupil Ennio Porrino, in 1937.

Death and legacy.

While working on his opera "Lucrezia" at the end of 1935, Respighi became ill with a fever and fatigue. Subsequent medical checks in January 1936 revealed samples of "S. viridans" bacteria in his blood, leading to the diagnosis of subacute bacterial endocarditis, a heart infection still untreatable at the time and likely brought on by his recent throat infection and oral surgery. Respighi's health deteriorated over the next four months, during which he received three blood transfusions and experimental treatment with sulphonamides imported from Germany. Elsa made a conscious effort to hide the severity of the illness to others, except a select few. Respighi died on 18 April in Rome, aged 55, from complications of blood poisoning. Elsa and several friends were by his side. A funeral was held two days later. His body lay in state at Santa Maria del Popolo until the spring of 1937, when the remains were re-interred at the Certosa di Bologna, next to poet Giosuè Carducci. Inscribed on his tomb are his name and crosses; dates of his birth and death are missing.  Elsa survived her husband for nearly 60 years, unfailingly championing her husband's works and legacy. A few months after Respighi's death, Elsa wrote to Guastalla: "I live because I can truly still do something for him. And I shall do it, that is certain, until the day I die." However, the Italian governments following Mussolini's death in 1943 distanced themselves from nationalistic composers, placing Respighi in a group among those including Malpiero, Ildebrando Pizzetti, and Pietro Mascagni and newspapers protested honours bestowed upon Elsa. Despite this, in 1961, the twenty-fifth anniversary of Respighi's death, Elsa donated a collection of unpublished and incomplete manuscripts to the Liceo Musicale in Bologna, now the Conservatorio G. B. Martini, where Respighi had studied. In 1969, she helped establish the Fondo Ottorino Respighi, a foundation at the Fondazione Cini in Venice which included a large number of letters and photographs documenting her husband's career. Elsa was also at the forefront of the Respighi centenary celebrations in 1979 to commemorate the 100th anniversary of Respighi's birth, though it was opposed by political opposition. She later said that "musical progressives with left-wing political sympathies" tried to discredit Respighi's legacy. The commemoration saw a number of long-neglected works of his performed and recorded for the first time. Elsa died in 1996, one week short of her 102nd birthday.  In 1993, Swiss conductor Adriano founded the Respighi Society in London in an effort to make Respighi's "life and works [...] better known and understood by the dissemination of accurate and impartial information." It has since been dissolved.  In March 2000, a commemorative plaque was unveiled on Via Guido Reni in Bologna, Respighi's birthplace.

References.

Sources

Ottorino Respighi (,, ; 9 July 187918 April 1936) was an Italian composer, violinist, and teacher who was one of the leading Italian composers of the early 20th century. His compositions include operas, ballets, orchestral suites, choral songs, and chamber music, including transcriptions of pieces from Italian composers of the 16th-, 17th-, and 18th-centuries, plus those from Bach and Rachmaninoff. Among his best known and most performed works are his three Roman tone poems which brought him international fame: "Fountains of Rome" (1916), "Pines of Rome" (1924), and "Roman Festivals" (1928). All three demonstrate Respighi's use of rich orchestral colours.

Ottorino Respighi (* 9. Juli 1879 in Bologna; † 18. April 1936 in Rom) war ein italienischer Komponist. Er gilt als führender Vertreter der neueren italienischen Instrumentalmusik.


Operation.

Quadraphonic audio reproduction on vinyl records was problematic. Some systems used a demodulator to decode discrete sound channels. This allowed for full channel separation, although such systems were prone to reduced record life. Other systems used matrix decoding to recover four channels from the two channels cut on the record. Matrix systems do not have full channel separation, and some information can be lost between the encoding and decoding processes. Both discrete and matrix quadrophonic recordings could be played in two channels on conventional stereo record players.  There were less sophisticated "derived" solutions that only provided back ambience channels, not a defined placement of individual instruments.  Quadraphonic systems based on tape were also introduced, based on new equipment capable of playing four discrete channels. These recordings were released in reel-to-reel and 8-track cartridge formats.  A full, four-channel (quadraphonic) system will reproduce the left front, left back, right front, and right back audio signals in each of four separate speakers. Regardless of discrete or matrix formats, in four-channel stereo the rear speakers should be of the same or almost-same size or quality and have the same or almost-same frequency range as the front speakers.

Discrete (4-4-4) formats.

Discrete reproduction is the only true quadraphonic system. As its name suggests, with "discrete" formats the original four audio channels are passed through a four-channel transmission medium and presented to a four-channel reproduction system and fed to four speakers. This is defined as a 4–4–4 system.

Matrix (4-2-4) formats.

With matrix formats, the four channels are converted (encoded) down to two channels. These are then passed through a two-channel transmission medium (usually an LP record) before being decoded back to four channels and presented to four speakers. To transmit four individual audio signals in a stereo-compatible manner, there must be four simultaneous linear equations to reproduce the original four audio signals at the output. The term "compatible" indicates that:  The original systems (DY and EV-4) were basic and suffered from low front left-right separation (around 12 dB) and a poor rear left-right separation of 2 dB. The decoders were designed more to give an effect rather than accurate decoding, which was mainly due to limitations in both systems, although as both systems were very closely related mathematically, users only needed one decoder of either system to play back albums of both systems.  The poor decode performance of these matrix formats was the main reason for their disappearance once the improved matrix systems arrived based on the work by Peter Scheiber. His basic formula utilized 90° phase-shift circuitry to enable enhanced 4-2-4 matrix systems to be developed, of which the two main leaders were Columbia's SQ and Sansui's QS Systems. With Scheiber and Martin Willcocks, Jim Fosgate developed the Tate II 101 SQ decoder, which produced a very accurate sound field by using gain riding and the Haas effect to mask decoding artifacts. It used custom, hand-assembled and ‐calibrated circuitry with components sorted to 1%, for exact performance. Sansui's QSD-series decoders and QRX-series receivers were very good, even synthesizing left-right stereo into a ⋂ horseshoe topology. However, all these came too late in the game and were too expensive or difficult to procure for public purchase, to rescue matrix quad.  The differences between the original systems and the new were so vast, it made decoding DY/EV-4 with either SQ or QS decoders with any accuracy, impossible; the results being just a form of artificial quad.

Derived (2-2-4) formats.

Derived (2-2-4) formats were inexpensive electronic solutions that provided back ambience channels from regular stereo records. There was no deliberate placement of individual instruments on the back channels.

History.

Discrete tape formats.

Quadraphonic open reel tape (Q4).

The first medium for four-channel sound was reel-to-reel tape, used first in European electronic-music studios by 1954, an outstanding example of which was the tape part of Karlheinz Stockhausen's piece, "Kontakte" (1958–60), and was introduced to the American market by the Vanguard Recording Society in June 1969 as "Quadraphonic open reel tape (Q4)" tapes. All available four tracks were used in one direction on the tape, running at twice the speed of the regular four-track reel-to-reel tapes.

Quadraphonic 8-Track Tape (Q8).

RCA Records followed, in April 1970, with its announcement of a four-channel version of the 8-track tape, named "Quad-8" or "Quadraphonic 8-Track Tape" (later shortened to just Q8). These eventually appeared in Sept. 1970. There were automobile players as well as home versions.  The format was almost identical in appearance to stereo 8-tracks, except for a small sensing notch in the upper left corner of the cartridge. This signaled a quadraphonic 8-track player to combine the odd tracks as audio channels for program 1, and the even tracks as channels for program 2. The format was not backward-compatible with stereo or mono players; although quadraphonic players would play stereo 8-tracks, playing quadraphonic tapes on stereo players resulted in hearing only one-half the channels at a time.  The last release in the quadraphonic 8-track format was in 1978, although most had stopped appearing by the end of 1976.

Matrix vinyl formats.

Quadraphonic records did not remain restricted to the discrete-channel format used in reel-to-reel or 8-track tapes. Quadraphonic vinyl albums appeared, using several different and incompatible recording modes.

EV-4/Stereo-4 and Dynaco (DY).

The first of these were basic systems with poor performance developed by Electro-Voice ("EV-4/Stereo-4") and Dynaco ("Dynaquad (DY)"). A so-called "matrix" format, it utilized four sound channels which were "encoded" into two stereo album tracks. These were then "decoded" back into the original four sound channels, but with poor decode performance which failed to match the discrete formats.

QS Regular Matrix and SQ Quadraphonic.

Improved systems based on Peter Scheiber's work on utilizing 90-degree phase-shift circuitry came later, namely the "QS" and "SQ" systems.  The first of these, known as "QS," was developed by Sansui Electric. A so-called matrix format, it utilized 4 sound channels, which were "encoded" into two stereo album tracks. These were then "decoded" back into the original four sound channels. The QS system debuted in the United States in March 1971 and was improved by their "Vario-Matrix" system in 1973.  The second, "SQ", was developed and marketed by Columbia Records and Sony and entered the US market in April 1971. The "SQ" format was also used by companies such as EMI in Great Britain, who pressed several "SQ" album releases. The sound separation of the "SQ" system was greatly improved by the introduction of "SQ Full Logic" decoding in 1975 using the Motorola chips MC1312, MC1314 & MC1315.

Discrete vinyl formats.

CD-4 or Quadradisc.

The third major format for four-channel vinyl LPs, known as "CD-4" or "Quadradisc", was devised by the Japanese JVC Corporation along with its US counterpart RCA Records.  This quadraphonic format was first marketed in the United States in May 1972. A fully discrete sound mode, it eschewed the previous matrix systems in favor of a more complex method of four-channel reproduction. It encoded surround information in ultrasonic sound above 20 kHz, requiring a special cartridge with a Shibata stylus, then used its own demodulator and decoder to retrieve the original sound field.

UD-4 / UMX / BMX.

"UD-4/UMX" was developed by Nippon/Columbia (Denon). This is a hybrid discrete/matrix system. Only 35 to 40 items are encoded in this format and it was marketed only in the UK, Europe, and Japan.  The system suffered from incompatibility with regular stereo playback due to phase differences between the left and right channels.  UD-4 was less critical in its setup than CD-4 because the carriers did not have to handle frequencies as high as those found in the CD-4 system.

Radio broadcast formats.

There were some experiments done with radio broadcasts (e.g., a Cliff Richard concert by the BBC, whose earliest quadraphonic broadcast was in July 1974), but they were short-lived.  One radio series, "Double Exposure", was briefly syndicated throughout the United States to various FM stations; it was made up of jazz, rock and pop music which had been commercially released in one of the quadraphonic record or tape systems.  One of the longest-lived radio broadcasts was WQSR-FM "Quad 1021⁄2" in Sarasota, Florida. Throughout most of the 1970s this station broadcast a signal which could be tuned as two separate stations with conventional stereo receivers.  In addition, San Francisco classical music station KKHI broadcast the San Francisco Opera in "compatible" (that is, matrix-encoded) quadraphonic format during the 1970s, as did Chicago station WFMT's live "Chicago Lyric Opera" broadcasts..  KRMH-FM ("Good Karma Radio")(San Marcos/Austin, Texas) broadcast in "Quad Stereo" in the early 1970s from its studios and transmitter near Buda, Texas.  KEXL-FM ("KEXL 104.5") (San Antonio, Texas) broadcast in "Quadraphonic" in the early to mid 1970s from its studios in a high-rise office building off Main Plaza.  Sacramento station KWOD 106.5, named after the format, broadcast briefly beginning in 1977.  Regional station of Polskie Radio in Wroclaw had two experimental broadcasts a week at the end of the 1970.

Matrix H.

"Matrix H" was developed by BBC engineers to carry quadraphonic sound via FM radio in a way which would be most compatible with existing mono and stereo receivers.  Quadraphonic test programmes were made for BBC Radio 3 and BBC Radio 4, including plays and The Proms.  The existing matrix formats were tested first. The "H" has no meaning; they called the first matrix assessed Matrix A, and then worked through the alphabet. Matrix H emerged as the best solution for mono compatibility and radio transmission, yet there was no specific commercially available decoder for it.  The BBC later cooperated with the developers of Ambisonics to produce "BBC/NRDC System HJ". This was based on tolerance zones designed to include modified versions of both "Matrix H" and the prototype two-channel encoding of Ambisonics, known as "System 45J". Subsequently, the Nippon-Columbia "UMX" matrix was brought into the standard, leading to the final "UHJ" name now associated with Ambisonics.

Universal SQ.

In 1976, Ben Bauer integrated matrix and discrete systems into "USQ", or "Universal SQ" (others had also done this with their quad systems).  It was a hierarchical 4-4-4 discrete matrix which used the SQ matrix as the baseband for discrete quadraphonic FM broadcasts using additional difference signals called "T" and "Q". For a USQ FM broadcast, the additional "T" modulation was placed at 38 kHz in quadrature to the standard stereo difference signal and the "Q" modulation was placed on a carrier at 76 kHz.  For standard two-channel SQ Matrix broadcasts, CBS recommended that an optional pilot-tone be placed at 19 kHz in quadrature to the regular pilot-tone to indicate SQ encoded signals and activate the listener's logic decoder. CBS argued that the SQ system should be selected as the standard for quadraphonic FM because, in FCC listening tests of the various four-channel broadcast proposals, the 4:2:4 SQ system, decoded with a CBS Paramatrix decoder, outperformed 4:3:4 (without logic) as well as all other 4:2:4 (with logic) systems tested, approaching the performance of a discrete master tape within a very slight margin. At the same time, the SQ "fold" to stereo and mono was preferred to the stereo and mono "fold" of 4:4:4, 4:3:4 and all other 4:2:4 encoding systems.

Live concerts.

In 1967 the rock group Pink Floyd performed the first-ever surround-sound rock concert at “Games for May”, a lavish affair at London’s Queen Elizabeth Hall, where the band debuted its custom-made quadraphonic speaker system. The control device they had made, the Azimuth Co-ordinator, is now displayed at London's Victoria and Albert Museum, as part of their Theatre Collections gallery.

Format comparisons.

In 1976, Mike Thorne created the vinyl album "Quadrafile", with the same music recorded on all four sides, but in four different quadraphonic formats (QS, SQ, CD-4, and UD-4).

Current situation.

The rise of home theatre products in the late 1980s and early 1990s brought multi-channel audio recording back into popularity, although ultimately in new digitally based formats. Many of the 1970s quadraphonic recordings have been reissued in modern surround sound systems such as DTS, Dolby Digital, DVD-Audio and Super Audio CD.

Quadraphonic (or "Quadrophonic" and sometimes "Quadrasonic") sound – equivalent to what is now called 4.0 surround sound – uses four channels in which speakers are positioned at the four corners of the listening space, reproducing signals that are (wholly or in part) independent of one another. Quadraphonic audio was the earliest consumer product in surround sound and thousands of quadraphonic recordings were made during the 1970s.

Quadrofonie (auch: Quadrophonie oder Vierkanalstereofonie) ist eine Form der Mehrkanalaufzeichnung und -wiedergabe, die hauptsächlich Ende der 1960er bis Anfang der 1980er Jahre anzutreffen war. Sie ist bedeutend als Vorläufertechnik der heutigen Dolby-Surround-Technik und ihrer Nachfolger, sowie auch Raumklang mit 5.1-Kanalkonfiguration.


Origin.

The origin of the term "roguelike" came from USENET newsgroups around 1993, as this was the principal channel the players of roguelike games of that period were using to discuss these games, as well as what the developers used to announce new releases and even distribute the game's source code in some cases. With several individual groups for each game, it was suggested that with rising popularity of "Rogue", "Hack", "Moria", and "Angband", all which shared

Gameplay and design.

General gameplay.

Deriving from the concepts of tabletop role-playing games such as "Dungeons & Dragons", nearly all roguelikes give the player control of a character, which they may customize by selecting a class, race, and gender, and adjusting attributes points and skills. At the start of the game, the character is placed at the top-most level of a dungeon, with basic equipment such as a simple weapon, armor, torches, and food. Following along the role-playing concept of a dungeon crawl, the player moves the character through the dungeon, collecting treasure which can include new weapons, armors, magical devices, potions, scrolls, food, and in-game money, while having to fight monsters that roam the dungeon. Most combat is performed simply by attempting to move the character into the same space as the monster. The game then calculates the damage that the character and monster deal. Other types of attacks, such as firing an arrow or performing an offensive magic spell, can often be performed as well.  Defeating monsters earns the character experience points, and after earning enough points, the character will gain an experience level, improving their hit points, magic capability,

Key features.

What gameplay elements explicitly define a "roguelike" game remains a point of debate within the video game community. There is broad agreement that roguelike games incorporate gameplay elements popularized by the text-based game "Rogue" (1980), which bore out many variations due to its success; As of 2015, several hundred games claiming to be roguelikes were available through the Steam game catalog, and the user-run wiki RogueBasin tracks hundreds of roguelikes and their development.  Some players and developers sought a more narrow definition for "roguelike" as variations on "Rogue" introduced new concepts or eschewed other principles that they felt moved the games away from the flavor of what "Rogue" was. At the International Roguelike Development Conference 2008 held in Berlin, Germany, players and developers established a definition for roguelikes known as the "Berlin Interpretation". The Berlin Interpretation

Early roguelikes.

Early roguelikes were developed to be played on text-based user interfaces, commonly UNIX-based computer mainframes and terminals used at colleges and universities before transitioning to personal computers. Games used a mix of ASCII or ANSI characters to visually represent elements of the dungeon levels, creatures, and items on the level as in ASCII art. These games typically included one or two text lines presenting the player's current status at the bottom of the screen, and text-based menu screens to manage inventory, statistics, and other details.  The player's character was nearly always represented by the codice_3 character across text-based roguelikes, which had been chosen by the developers of "Rogue" to stand for "where you're at". Other common examples would include codice_4 for monetary treasure and codice_5 for a dragon. Later games would take advantage of colour-based text graphics to increase the

Roguelike-likes and procedural death labyrinths.

With computers and video game consoles capable of more advanced graphics and gameplay, numerous games have emerged that are loosely based on the classic roguelike design but diverge in one or more features. Many of these games use the concepts of procedurally generated maps and permadeath, while moving away from tile-based movement and turn-based gameplay, often using another gameplay genre such as action games or platformers. Other titles deriving from roguelike games are based on the observation that the traditional roguelikes are difficult with a steep learning curve, and a player may never complete these games over numerous play sessions, making these titles difficult to sell to a broader audience. These new games would include elements to reduce the difficulty as to draw in a larger audience. Many games with some of the Berlin Interpretation elements call themselves "roguelike", but bear little resemblance to the original "Rogue", causing confusion and dilution of the term.  As such, the term "roguelike-like" or "rogue-lite" has been used to distinguish these games that possess some, but not all, of the Berlin Interpretation features from those that exactly meet the Berlin roguelike definition. The phrase "procedural death labyrinth" has also been

History.

Early history (1975–1980).

The creation of roguelike games came from hobbyist programmers and computer hackers, attempting to create games for the nascent computer field in the early 1980s, particularly influenced by the 1975 text adventure game "Colossal Cave Adventure" (often simply titled "Adventure"), and from the high fantasy setting of the tabletop game "Dungeons & Dragons". Some elements of the roguelike genre were present in dungeon crawlers written for the PLATO system. This includes "pedit5" (1975) believed to be the first dungeon crawl game, and featured random monster encounters, though only used a

Concurrent variants.

Though the term "roguelike" derives from the 1980 game "Rogue", the first known game with the core roguelike gameplay elements was "Beneath Apple Manor" (1978), written by Don Worth for the Apple II; "Beneath Apple Manor" is also recognized as the first commercial roguelike game. The game, inspired by Worth's enjoyment of "Dungeons & Dragons" roleplaying, included procedural generation using a modification of the random maze generator from the game "Dragon Maze", role-playing elements for the characters, tile-based movement and turn-based combat. Though "Beneath Apple Manor" predated "Rogue", it was not as popular as "Rogue": "Rogue" had advantage of being distributed over ARPANET which many college students had easy access to, while "Beneath Apple Manor" was packaged and sold by hand by Worth either at local stores or through mail fulfillment.  Another early roguelike whose development pre-dated "Rogue" was "Sword of Fargoal" (1982), developed by

"Rogue".

"Rogue" was written by Glenn Wichman and Michael Toy in 1980 while students at the University of California, Santa Cruz. The game was inspired by Toy's prior experience in playing the 1971 "Star Trek" game and programming clones of it for various other computer systems. It was also inspired by interactive fiction "Adventure". While looking for a way to randomize the experience of "Adventure", they came across Ken Arnold's curses library that enabled them to better manipulate characters on the terminal screen, prompting Toy and Wichman to create a graphical-like randomized adventure game. They created the story of the game by having the player seek out the "Amulet of Yendor", "Yendor" being "Rodney" spelled backwards, the name of the

Following evolution (1980–1995).

The popularity of "Rogue" led developers to create their own versions of the game, though their efforts were originally limited by the lack of access to "Rogue"s source, which was not released until BSD v4.3 in 1986. These developers resorted to building games from scratch similar to "Rogue" but with features that they wanted to see. These versions would be distributed with source code, and along with the original "Rogue" source, other developers were able to create software forks of the games, adding in new monsters, items, and gameplay features, creating several dozen variants. This process was aided by switching code to languages with better data typing, including object-oriented and scripting languages, and cleaning up and modularizing the code so that contributors can better follow where changes can be made.  While there are some direct variants of "Rogue", such as "Brogue", most variants of "Rogue" could be classified into two branches based on two key games, "Moria" and "Hack", that were developed in the spirit of "Rogue".

"Moria"-based.

"Moria" (1983) was developed by Robert Alan Koeneke while a student at University of Oklahoma, inspired by both "Adventure" and "Rogue". Having access to a VAX-11/780, but without the source to "Rogue" due to computer administrator restrictions, he began trying to recreate "Rogue" but specifically flavored with the complex cave maze of the same name in J.R.R. Tolkien's Middle Earth stories. Following Tolkien's fiction, the player's goal was to descend to the depths of Moria to defeat the Balrog, akin

"Hack"-based.

"Hack" (1982) was developed by Jay Fenlason with help from Kenny Woodland, Mike Thome, and Jonathan Payne, students at Lincoln-Sudbury Regional High School at the time, while participating in the school's computer lab overseen by Brian Harvey. Harvey had been able to acquire a PDP-11/7 minicomputer for the school and instituted a course curriculum that allowed students to do whatever they wanted on the computers, including playing games, as long as they had completed assignments by the end of each semester. Fenlason, Woodland, Thome, and Payne met through these courses and became a close group of friends and competent programmers. Harvey had invited the group to the computer labs at UC Berkeley where they had

Other variants.

Not all early roguelikes were readily classified as "Hack" or "Moria" descendants. "Larn" (1986), developed by Noah Morgan, borrowed concepts from both "Hack" (in that there are persistent and fixed levels) and "Moria" (in the availability of a shop level and general difficulty increasing with dungeon level), but while these two games have spiraled in size to take multiple play sessions to complete, "Larn" was aimed to be completed in a single session. "Larn" also uses a fixed-time feature, in that the player had only so many turns to complete a goal,

"Mystery Dungeon" games (1993–onward).

Through 1993, roguelikes primarily existed in computer space, and no home console variants had yet existed. Two of the earliest-known attempts were Sega's "Fatal Labyrinth" (1990) and "Dragon Crystal" (1990), but which lacked the depth of a typical computer-based roguelike. Neither proved to be successful games.  Chunsoft had gained success by developing the "Dragon Quest" series, a series which established fundamental aspects of the computer role-playing game genre, popular for Western computer audiences, into a more streamlined approach better suited for Japanese players that preferred consoles.

Continued development in Western markets (2002–onward).

Though new classical roguelike variants would continue to be developed within the Western market, the genre languished as more advanced personal computers capable of improved graphics capabilities and games that utilized these features became popular. However, some of these new graphical games drew influence for roguelike concepts, notably action role-playing games like Blizzard Entertainment's "Diablo" (1996). "Diablo"s creator, David Brevik, acknowledged that games like "Rogue", "NetHack", "Telengard" and other roguelikes influenced the design of "Diablo", including the nature of randomly generated dungeons and loot.  Existing roguelikes continue to be developed: a sequel to "ADOM" successfully received crowd funding in 2012, while "NetHack"s first major release in ten years in 2015 is set to help the DevTeam expand the game further. New roguelikes

Growth of the rogue-lite (2005-onward).

The roguelike genre saw a resurgence in Western markets after 2000 through independent developers that created a new subgenre designated "rogue-lite", but have also been named as "roguelike-likes". Indie developers began to incorporate roguelike elements into genres not normally associated with roguelikes, creating games that would form the basis of this new subgenre. Two of the earliest cited examples of roguelites are "Strange Adventures in Infinite Space" (2002) and its sequel "" (2005) by Digital Eel, both space exploration games that included randomly generated planets and encounters, and permadeath. Digital Eel based their work on the space exploration game "Starflight" along with roguelikes like "NetHack" but wanted to provide a shorter experience that would be easier to replay, akin to

Community.

The roguelike genre has developed with the expansion of both classical roguelikes and roguelite titles, a dedicated fan community has come about to not only discuss games within it but to craft their own tales of near-death adventures or amusing stories in roguelikes. Within this community, there is strong interest in developing roguelikes. The 7 Day Roguelike challenge (7DRL) was born out of a USENET newsgroup in 2005 for roguelike developers, informally challenging them to create the core of a novel roguelike within 7 days to be submitted for judging and play by the public. The competition has continued annually each year, since growing from 5–6 entries in 2005 to over 130 in 2014. In the spirit of the 2008 International Roguelike Conference, the "Roguelike Celebration" was held for the first time in September 2016 in San Francisco where several past and present roguelike developers gathered to discuss the history and future direction of the genre., it has since been organized again in 2017 and 2018.

Roguelike (or rogue-like) is a subgenre of role-playing video games characterized by a dungeon crawl through procedurally generated levels, turn-based gameplay, tile-based graphics, and permanent death of the player character. Most roguelikes are based on a high fantasy narrative, reflecting their influence from tabletop role playing games such as "Dungeons & Dragons".

Als Rogue-like bezeichnet man eine Untergruppe der Computer-Rollenspiele, die durch prozedural generierte Level, die fehlende Lademöglichkeit eines Speicherstandes bei Tod der Spielfigur (sog. "permanent death", permanenter Tod) sowie oftmals durch kachel- oder auch textbasierten Karten und rundenbasierte Spielweise gekennzeichnet sind. "Rogue-like" werden diese Spiele genannt, da sie in Aufbau, Stil und Spielprinzip an das in den 1980er-Jahren an der Universität von Berkeley (Kalifornien) entwickelte Computerspiel "Rogue" angelehnt sind.


Early life.

Rauschning was born in Thorn, German Empire (now Toruń, Poland) to a Prussian Army officer in the province of West Prussia. He attended the Prussian Cadet Corps institute at Potsdam and in 1911, he obtained a doctorate from Berlin University. He fought in World War I as a lieutenant and was wounded in action. After the war, he settled in the area around the Free City of Danzig (now Gdańsk, Poland), where he owned land.

Political career.

He lived in Posen (now Poznań) and was prominent in its historical society. In 1930, he published a work under the title "Die Entdeutschung Westpreußens und Posens" (The Degermanisation of West Prussia and Posen). According to Rauschning, Germans in those areas were constantly put under pressure to leave Poland.  In 1932, he moved to a new estate in Warnow (now Warnowo, Poland) and became the leader of the Danzig Land League. Previously affiliated with the German National People's Party, he then joined the Nazi Party as he believed it to offer the only way out of Germany's troubles, including the return of Danzig to Germany. He became the agricultural advisor to the local Gau in January. In February, he became leader of the Danziger Landbund, a movement that supported the taking over of the Senate by the Nazis. He became President of the Danzig Teachers' Association in 1932. Before, in 1930, the Nazis in the Danzig popular elections became the second strongest force, as the electoral potential of the rural population in Danzig was discovered. Rauschning saw this as a powerful tool to reorganize the Danzig NSDAP. The President of the Senate, Ernst Ziehm, viewed Rauschning with a strong dislike. In the summer of 1932, Rauschning and the local Gauleiter met with Adolf Hitler in Obersalzberg to discuss happenings in Danzig. After Hitler came to power in Germany in 1933, the Nazis in Danzig won control of the Free City's government and Rauschning became the President of the Senate of Danzig on 20 June 1933, starting the Rauschning Senate.  In foreign affairs, Rauschning did not conceal his personal desire to turn neighbouring Poland into a vassal state of Germany. As a conservative nationalist, Rauschning was not typical of Nazi members and the Nazis' violent antisemitism was alien to him. He was a bitter rival of Albert Forster, the future Gauleiter of Danzig.  There has been some debate over the importance of Rauschning to Hitler and the party. One of the reasons cited for Hitler's interest in Rauschning was his citizenship and political leadership in the Free City of Danzig. One of the first questions that Hitler asked Rauschning was "whether Danzig had an extradition agreement with Germany," which drew Hitler’s attention over the possibility of being forced to go underground. Hitler feared that the Weimar Republic might move against the party and ban it. Since Danzig retained an independent status under the League of Nations, Hitler apparently felt that the free port "might well offer a useful asylum."

Fall from power.

On 23 November 1934, he resigned from the Senate and the party. In the April 1935 Danzig elections, he supported "constitutionalist" candidates against the Nazis and wrote articles supporting co-operation with the Poles, which angered the Nazis. Rauschning found himself in personal danger.  He sold his farming interests and fled to Poland in 1936. He moved on to Switzerland in 1937, France in 1938 and the United Kingdom in 1939. Rauschning joined German émigrés, left-wing Germans opposed his right-wing views and the fact that as a member of the Nazi Party, he had been instrumental in the takeover of Danzig. Rauschning represented "one of the most conservative poles of the emigration" and enjoyed celebrity status through his lectures. He sought to play a leading role in the more conservative émigré German Freedom Party, run by Carl Spiecher, later of the Centre Party, but he fell out with Spiecher, who thought Rauschning was motivated by self-interest, rather than the interest of the party.

Later life.

Between 1938 and 1942, he wrote a number of works in German on the problem of the Nazis that were translated to a number of languages, including English. His "Gespräche mit Hitler" ("Conversations with Hitler)" was a huge bestseller but its credibility would later be severely criticised, and it now has no standing as an accurate document on Hitler for historians. However, as anti-Nazi propaganda it was taken seriously by the Nazi regime. At the beginning of the war, the French dropped leaflets on the Western Front containing excerpts from Rauschnings writings but with little response.  In 1941, Rauschning moved to the United States, becoming an American citizen in 1942 and purchasing a farm near Portland, Oregon, where he died in 1982. He remained politically active after the war and opposed the policies of Konrad Adenauer.

Writings.

Rauschning's writings that were translated into English deal with Nazism, the conservative revolutionaries' relation to it, and their role and responsibility for Hitler gaining power. By conservative revolution, Rauschning meant "the prewar monarchic-Christian revolt against modernity that made a devil's pact with Hitler during the Weimar period." Rauschning came "to the bitter conclusion that the Nazi regime represented anything other than the longed-for German revolution."  In "Die Revolution des Nihilismus" ("The Revolution of Nihilism"), he wrote that "the National Socialism that came to power in 1933 was no longer a nationalist but a revolutionary movement" and as the book's title states a nihilistic revolution that destroyed all values and traditions. He believed that the only alternative to Nazism was the restoration of the monarchy. His book went through 17 printings in the United States. The book was directed at conservatives in Nazi Germany, whom he hoped to warn of the alleged anti-Christian nature of the Nazi revolution. He would reiterate the anti-Christian nature of Nazism in "Gespräche mit Hitler".  His success with the publication of his "Die Revolution des Nihilismus" book ("The Revolution of Nihilism") in early 1938 made Rauschning financially able to pursue his German edition of "Gespräche mit Hitler" ("Conversations with Hitler") and the other early versions and translations in 1939 and 1940. The first edition of "The Revolution of Nihilism" was printed in German under a Zürich, Switzerland, publishing house (Europa), which was "rapidly followed by ever renewed editions." Its English translation was published in 1939 and became "the third best-seller on the non-fiction list."  Rauschning's ideas of conservative Christian resistance to Hitler met with increasing scepticism and were of no interest to Winston Churchill and his doctrine of uncompromising total war. He fared little better in the United States, where "Jewish extremists, like Henry Morgenthau argued for the radical dismemberment of the entire German nation."  At the Nuremberg Trials, the Soviet Union presented as evidence (USSR-378) two extracts from "The Voice of Destruction". Dr Pelckmann, for the defence, asked for Rauschning to be called as a witness on the matter of the party programme relating to the solution of the Jewish question and Hitler's "principle to deceive the Germans about his true intentions" so that the prosecution would have to prove that the SS "knew what Hitler actually wanted," but Rauschning was not called.

Authenticity of Hitler Speaks.

Criticism by historians.

According to an article by "The Spectator", Rauschning had taken immediate "notes made by him at the time" during his years with Hitler, which have been considered "not a mere transcript of the notes, but an attempt to reconstruct the conversations noted."  Although Rauschning had written his book more than six years after his conversations with Hitler, German historian Theodor Schieder remarked that it— ...is not a document in which one can expect to find... stenographic records of sentences or aphorisms spoken by Hitler, despite the fact that it might appear to meet that standard. It is a [work] in which objective and subjective components are mixed and in which alterations in the author's opinions about what he recounts become mingled with what he recounts. It is, however, a [source] of unquestioned value, since it contains views derived from immediate experience.  Historian Hugh Trevor-Roper's initial view that the conversations recorded in "Hitler Speaks" were authentic also wavered as a result of the Hänel research. For example, in the introductory essay he wrote for "Hitler's Table Talk" in 1953, he said:  "Hitler's own table talk in the crucial years of the Machtergreifung (1932–34), as briefly recorded by Hermann Rauschning, so startled the world (which could not even in 1939 credit him with either such ruthlessness or such ambitions) that it was for long regarded as spurious. It is now, I think, accepted. If any still doubt its genuineness, they will hardly do so after reading the volume now published. For here is the official, authentic record of Hitler's Table-Talk almost exactly ten years after the conversations recorded by Rauschning."  Trevor-Roper stated that Rauschning's account "has been vindicated by the evidence of Hitler's views which has been discovered since its publication and that it is an important source for any biography of Hitler."  In the third edition, published in 2000, he wrote a new preface in which he revised but did not reverse his opinion of the authenticity of "Hitler Speaks": "I would not now endorse so cheerfully the authority of Hermann Rauschning which has been dented by Wolfgang Hänel, but I would not reject it altogether. Rauschning may have yielded at times to journalistic temptations, but he had opportunities to record Hitler's conversations and the general tenor of his record too exactly foretells Hitler's later utterances to be dismissed as fabrication."  In his biography of Hitler, Ian Kershaw wrote: "I have on no single occasion cited Hermann Rauschning's "Hitler Speaks", a work now regarded to have so little authenticity that it is best to disregard it altogether." Historian Richard Steigmann-Gall, in "The Holy Reich: Nazi Conceptions of Christianity", also contends "Hitler Speaks" to be an overall fake.

Criticism by Holocaust deniers.

The authenticity of the discussions that Rauschning claimed to have had with Hitler between 1932 and 1934, which formed the basis of his book "Hitler Speaks", was challenged shortly after Rauschning's death by an obscure Swiss researcher, Wolfgang Hänel. Hänel investigated the memoir and announced his findings at a conference of the negationist association "Zeitgeschichtliche Forschungsstelle Ingolstadt" (ZFI) in 1983.  The ZFI is a historical revisionist association that, according to one of its leaders, Stephen E. Atkins, is a Holocaust denial institution that is based in Germany. Its conferences and meetings have speakers attempting to trivialize Nazism and denying the guilt for Nazi Germany's part in World War II and other culpable activities by Nazis, in close collaboration with periodicals such as "Europa Vorn", "Nation und Europa", and "Deutschland in Geschichte und Gegenwart", who promoted similar viewpoints and goals. Not long after the ZFI conference in 1983, Mark Weber, from the Institute for Historical Review (IHR), considered the mainstay of the international Holocaust denial movement, published an article condemning the "Rauschning memoir as fraudulent," which led to the Holocaust denial and neo-Nazi community campaign to deny Rauschning's writings. As director of IHR, Mark Weber has referred to the Holocaust as a "hoax" and was the former news editor of "National Vanguard", a neo-Nazi publication of the National Alliance.  The Hänel research was reviewed in the West German newspapers "Der Spiegel" and "Die Zeit" in 1985.  In an effort to undercut the accuracy of Rauschning's early account of Hitler's anti-Semitic diatribes to "remove millions of an inferior race that breeds like vermin," Weber wrote:  Considered one of the first former Nazi insiders to criticize Hitler's plan for world domination and the expulsion of Jews, many of Rauschning's most skeptical adversaries have been led by "revisionist historians gathered around David Irving," who by 1988 was regarded as a proponent of Holocaust denial. In an unsuccessful 2000 libel case, Irving was discredited after he had falsified historical facts in an effort to advance his theory that the Holocaust never happened, where Judge Charles Gray concluded that Irving was "an active Holocaust denier; that he is anti-Semitic and racist and that he associates with right wing extremists who promote neo-Nazism."  "The Encyclopedia of the Third Reich" also considers that "the research of the Swiss educator Wolfgang Hänel has made it clear that the 'conversations' were mostly free inventions."  Other historians have not been convinced by Hänel′s research. David Redles criticized Hänel′s method, which he said consisted of point[ing] out similarities in phrasing of quotations from other individuals in Rauschning's other books... and those attributed to Hitler in "The Voice of Destruction" [i.e. "Hitler Speaks"]. If the two are even remotely similar Hänel concludes that the latter must "be" concoctions. However, the similarities, which are mostly slight, could be for a number of reasons... [they] need not stem from Rauschning's attempt at forgery.

Hermann Rauschning (7 August 1887 – February 8, 1982) was a German conservative reactionary who briefly joined the Nazi movement before breaking with it. He was the President of the Free City of Danzig from 1933-1934, during which he led the Senate of the Free City of Danzig. In 1934, he renounced Nazi Party membership and in 1936 emigrated from Germany. He eventually settled in the United States and began openly denouncing Nazism. Rauschning is chiefly known for his book "Gespräche mit Hitler" ("Conversations with Hitler", American title: "Voice of Destruction", British title: "Hitler Speaks") in which he claimed to have had many meetings and conversations with Adolf Hitler.

Hermann Adolf Reinhold Rauschning (* 7. August 1887 in Thorn; † 8. Februar 1982 in Portland, Oregon, USA) war ein deutscher Politiker und Autor. Seit 1932 war er Mitglied der Nationalsozialistischen Deutschen Arbeiterpartei (NSDAP), lehnte aber deren Methoden bald ab, trat 1934 aus der Partei aus und wurde zum Kritiker des NS-Regimes und Faschismustheoretiker. 1933/1934 war Rauschning Senatspräsident (Regierungschef) der Freien Stadt Danzig. 1935 musste er Danzig verlassen und lebte seit 1939/41 in den USA. Aufsehen erregte sein Buch "Gespräche mit Hitler", die sich später großteils als Erfindung herausstellten: Rauschning hatte kaum jemals mit Hitler gesprochen.