Etymology.

The origins of the word "caterpillar" date from the early 16th century. They derive from Middle English "catirpel", "catirpeller", probably an alteration of Old North French "catepelose": "cate", cat (from Latin "cattus") + "pelose", hairy (from Latin "pilōsus").  The inchworm, or looper caterpillars from the family Geometridae are so named because of the way they move, appearing to measure the earth (the word "geometrid" means "earth-measurer" in Greek); the primary reason for this unusual locomotion is the elimination of nearly all the prolegs except the clasper on the terminal segment.

Description.

Caterpillars have soft bodies that can grow rapidly between moults. Their size varies between species and instars (moults) from as small as 1 mm up to 14 cm. Some larvae of the order Hymenoptera (ants, bees and wasps) can appear like the caterpillars of the Lepidoptera. Such larvae are mainly seen in the sawfly suborder. However while these larvae superficially resemble caterpillars, they can be distinguished by the presence of prolegs on every abdominal segment, an absence of crochets or hooks on the prolegs (these are present on lepidopteran caterpillars), one pair of prominent ocelli on the head capsule, and an absence of the upside-down Y-shaped suture on the front of the head.  Lepidopteran caterpillars can be differentiated from sawfly larvae by:

Fossils.

In 2019, a geometrid moth caterpillar dating back to the Eocene epoch, approximately 44 million years ago, was found preserved in Baltic amber. It was described under "Eogeometer vadens". Previously, another fossil dating back approximately 125 million years was found in Lebanese amber.

Defenses.

Many animals feed on caterpillars as they are rich in protein. As a result, caterpillars have evolved various means of defense.  Caterpillars have evolved defenses against physical conditions such as cold, hot or dry environmental conditions. Some Arctic species like "Gynaephora groenlandica" have special basking and aggregation behaviours apart from physiological adaptations to remain in a dormant state.

Appearance.

The appearance of a caterpillar can often repel a predator: its markings and certain body parts can make it seem poisonous, or bigger in size and thus threatening, or non-edible. Some types of caterpillars are indeed poisonous or distasteful and their bright coloring is aposematic. Others may mimic dangerous caterpillars or other animals while not being dangerous themselves. Many caterpillars are cryptically colored and resemble the plants on which they feed. An example of caterpillars that use camouflage for defence is the species "Nemoria arizonaria". If the caterpillars hatch in the spring and feed on oak catkins they appear green. If they hatch in the summer they appear dark colored, like oak twigs. The differential development is linked to the tannin content in the diet. Caterpillars may even have spines or growths that resemble plant parts such as thorns. Some look like objects in the environment such as bird droppings. Some Geometridae cover themselves in plant parts, while bagworms construct and live in a bag covered in sand, pebbles or plant material.

Chemical defenses.

More aggressive self-defense measures are taken by some caterpillars. These measures include having spiny bristles or long fine hair-like setae with detachable tips that will irritate by lodging in the skin or mucous membranes. However some birds (such as cuckoos) will swallow even the hairiest of caterpillars. Other caterpillars acquire toxins from their host plants that render them unpalatable to most of their predators. For instance, ornate moth caterpillars utilize pyrrolizidine alkaloids that they obtain from their food plants to deter predators. The most aggressive caterpillar defenses are bristles associated with venom glands. These bristles are called urticating hairs. A venom which is among the most potent defensive chemicals in any animal is produced by the South American silk moth genus "Lonomia". Its venom is an anticoagulant powerful enough to cause a human to hemorrhage to death (See Lonomiasis). This chemical is being investigated for potential medical applications. Most urticating hairs range in effect from mild irritation to dermatitis. Example: brown-tail moth.  Plants contain toxins which protect them from herbivores, but some caterpillars have evolved countermeasures which enable them to eat the leaves of such toxic plants. In addition to being unaffected by the poison, the caterpillars sequester it in their body, making them highly toxic to predators. The chemicals are also carried on into the adult stages. These toxic species, such as the cinnabar moth ("Tyria jacobaeae") and monarch ("Danaus plexippus") caterpillars, usually advertise themselves with the danger colors of red, yellow and black, often in bright stripes (see aposematism). Any predator that attempts to eat a caterpillar with an aggressive defense mechanism will learn and avoid future attempts.  Some caterpillars regurgitate acidic digestive juices at attacking enemies. Many papilionid larvae produce bad smells from extrudable glands called osmeteria.

Defensive behaviors.

Many caterpillars display feeding behaviors which allow the caterpillar to remain hidden from potential predators. Many feed in protected environments, such as enclosed inside silk galleries, rolled leaves or by mining between the leaf surfaces.  Some caterpillars, like early instars of the tomato hornworm and tobacco hornworm, have long "whip-like" organs attached to the ends of their body. The caterpillar wiggles these organs to frighten away flies and predatory wasps. Some caterpillars can evade predators by using a silk line and dropping off from branches when disturbed. Many species thrash about violently when disturbed to scare away potential predators. One species ("Amorpha juglandis") even makes high pitched whistles that can scare away birds.

Social behaviors and relationships with other insects.

Some caterpillars obtain protection by associating themselves with ants. The Lycaenid butterflies are particularly well known for this. They communicate with their ant protectors by vibrations as well as chemical means and typically provide food rewards.  Some caterpillars are gregarious; large aggregations are believed to help in reducing the levels of parasitization and predation. Clusters amplify the signal of aposematic coloration, and individuals may participate in group regurgitation or displays. Pine processionary ("Thaumetopoea pityocampa") caterpillars often link into a long train to move through trees and over the ground. The head of the lead caterpillar is visible, but the other heads can appear hidden. Forest tent caterpillars cluster during periods of cold weather.

Predators.

Caterpillars suffer predation from many animals. The European pied flycatcher is one species that preys upon caterpillars. The flycatcher typically finds caterpillars among oak foliage. Paper wasps, including those in the genus" Polistes" and "Polybia" catch caterpillars to feed their young and themselves.

Behavior.

Caterpillars have been called "eating machines", and eat leaves voraciously. Most species shed their skin four or five times as their bodies grow, and they eventually enter a pupal stage before becoming adults. Caterpillars grow very quickly; for instance, a tobacco hornworm will increase its weight ten-thousandfold in less than twenty days. An adaptation that enables them to eat so much is a mechanism in a specialized midgut that quickly transports ions to the lumen (midgut cavity), to keep the potassium level higher in the midgut cavity than in the hemolymph.  Most caterpillars are solely herbivorous. Many are restricted to feeding on one species of plant, while others are polyphagous. Some, including the clothes moth, feed on detritus. Some are predatory, and may prey on other species of caterpillars (e.g. Hawaiian "Eupithecia"). Others feed on eggs of other insects, aphids, scale insects, or ant larvae. A few are parasitic on cicadas or leaf hoppers (Epipyropidae). Some Hawaiian caterpillars ("Hyposmocoma molluscivora") use silk traps to capture snails.  Many caterpillars are nocturnal. For example, the "cutworms" (of the family Noctuidae) hide at the base of plants during the day and only feed at night. Others, such as gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) larvae, change their activity patterns depending on density and larval stage, with more diurnal feeding in early instars and high densities.

Economic effects.

Caterpillars cause much damage, mainly by eating leaves. The propensity for damage is enhanced by monocultural farming practices, especially where the caterpillar is specifically adapted to the host plant under cultivation. The cotton bollworm causes enormous losses. Other species eat food crops. Caterpillars have been the target of pest control through the use of pesticides, biological control and agronomic practices. Many species have become resistant to pesticides. Bacterial toxins such as those from "Bacillus thuringiensis" which are evolved to affect the gut of Lepidoptera have been used in sprays of bacterial spores, toxin extracts and also by incorporating genes to produce them within the host plants. These approaches are defeated over time by the evolution of resistance mechanisms in the insects.  Plants evolve mechanisms of resistance to being eaten by caterpillars, including the evolution of chemical toxins and physical barriers such as hairs. Incorporating host plant resistance (HPR) through plant breeding is another approach used in reducing the impact of caterpillars on crop plants.  Some caterpillars are used in industry. The silk industry is based on the silkworm caterpillar.

Human health.

Caterpillar hair can be a cause of human health problems. Caterpillar hairs sometimes have venoms in them and species from approximately 12 families of moths or butterflies worldwide can inflict serious human injuries ranging from urticarial dermatitis and atopic asthma to osteochondritis, consumption coagulopathy, kidney failure, and brain bleeding. Skin rashes are the most common, but there have been fatalities. "Lonomia" is a frequent cause of envenomation in Brazil, with 354 cases reported between 1989 and 2005. Lethality ranging up to 20% with death caused most often by intracranial hemorrhage.  Caterpillar hair has also been known to cause kerato-conjunctivitis. The sharp barbs on the end of caterpillar hairs can get lodged in soft tissues and mucous membranes such as the eyes. Once they enter such tissues, they can be difficult to extract, often exacerbating the problem as they migrate across the membrane.  This becomes a particular problem in an indoor setting. The hair easily enter buildings through ventilation systems and accumulate in indoor environments because of their small size, which makes it difficult for them to be vented out. This accumulation increases the risk of human contact in indoor environments.  Caterpillars are a food source in some cultures. For example, in South Africa mopane worms are eaten by the bushmen, and in China silkworms are considered a delicacy.

In popular culture.

In the Old Testament of the Bible caterpillars are feared as pest that devour crops. They are part of the "pestilence, blasting, mildew, locust" because of their association with the locust, thus they are one of the plagues of Egypt. Jeremiah names them as one of the inhabitants of Babylon. The English word caterpillar derives from the old French "catepelose" (hairy cat) but merged with the "piller" (pillager). Caterpillars became a symbol for social dependents. Shakespeare's Bolingbroke described King Richard's friends as "The caterpillars of the commonwealth, Which I have sworn to weed and pluck away". In 1790 William Blake referenced this popular image in The Marriage of Heaven and Hell when he attacked priests: "as the caterpillar chooses the fairest leaves to lay her eggs on, so the priest lay his curse on the fairest joys".  The role of caterpillars in the life stages of butterflies was badly understood. In 1679 Maria Sibylla Merian published the first volume of "The Caterpillars' Marvelous Transformation and Strange Floral Food", which contained 50 illustrations and a description of insects, moths, butterflies and their larvae. An earlier popular publication on moths and butterflies, and their caterpillars, by Jan Goedart had not included eggs in the life stages of European moths and butterflies, because he had believed that caterpillars were generated from water. When Merian published her study of caterpillars it was still widely believed that insects were spontaneously generated. Merian's illustrations supported the findings of Francesco Redi, Marcello Malpighi and Jan Swammerdam.  Butterflies were regarded as symbol for the human soul since ancient time, and also in the Christian tradition. Goedart thus located his empirical observations on the transformation of caterpillars into butterflies in the Christian tradition. As such he argued that the metamorphosis from caterpillar into butterfly was a symbol, and even proof, of Christ's resurrection. He argued "that from dead caterpillars emerge living animals; so it is equally true and miraculous, that our dead and rotten corpses will rise from the grave." Swammerdam, who in 1669 had demonstrated that inside a caterpillar the rudiments of the future butterfly's limbs and wings could be discerned, attacked the mystical and religious notion that the caterpillar died and the butterfly subsequently resurrected. As a militant Cartesian, Swammerdam attacked Goedart as ridiculous, and when publishing his findings he proclaimed "here we witness the digression of those who have tried to prove Resurrection of the Dead from these obviously natural and comprehensible changes within the creature itself."  Since then the metamorphoses of the caterpillar into a butterfly has in Western societies been associated with countless human transformations in folktales and literature. There is no process in the physical life of human beings that resembles this metamorphoses, and the symbol of the caterpillar tends to depict a psychic transformation of a human. As such the caterpillar has in the Christian tradition become a metaphor for being "born again".  Famously, in Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland a caterpillar asks Alice "Who are you?". When Alice comments on the caterpillar's inevitable transformation into a butterfly, the caterpillar champions the position that in spite of changes it is still possible to know something, and that Alice is the same Alice at the beginning and end of a considerable interval. When the Caterpillar asks Alice to clarify a point, the child replies "I'm afraid I can't put it more clearly... for I can't but understand it myself, to begin with, and being so many different sizes in a day is very confusing". Here Carroll satirizes René Descartes, the founder of Cartesian philosophy, and his theory on innate ideas. Descartes argued that we are distracted by urgent bodily stimuli that swamp the human mind in childhood. Descartes also theorised that inherited preconceived opinions obstruct the human perception of the truth.  More recent symbolic references to caterpillars in popular media include the "Mad Men" season 3 episode "The Fog", in which Betty Draper has a drug-induced dream, while in labor, that she captures a caterpillar and holds it firmly in her hand. In "The Sopranos" season 5 episode "The Test Dream", Tony Soprano dreams that Ralph Cifaretto has a caterpillar on his bald head that changes into a butterfly.

Gallery.

Click left or right for a slide show.

Caterpillars are the larval stage of members of the order Lepidoptera (the insect order comprising butterflies and moths). As with most common names, the application of the word is arbitrary, since the larvae of sawflies are commonly called caterpillars as well. Both lepidopteran and symphytan larvae have eruciform body shapes.

Als Raupen bezeichnet man die Larven der Schmetterlinge bzw. einiger anderer Insekten (siehe auch Afterraupe). Die Raupe ist das eigentliche Fressstadium des Schmetterlings. Bei manchen ist dieses Stadium das einzige, in dem sie überhaupt Nahrung zu sich nehmen. Die Falter dieser Arten leben dann nur für die Fortpflanzung und sterben schon bald nach ihrem Schlupf. Dadurch, dass sich das Körpervolumen der Raupen stark vergrößert, müssen sie sich mehrmals häuten, bis sie ihre endgültige Größe erreicht haben. Sie bilden von Zeit zu Zeit eine neue größere Haut, die unter der alten wächst. Zur Häutung schwillt die Raupe an, bis die alte Haut platzt und durch Muskelbewegungen nach hinten weggeschoben werden kann.


Col de Restefond.

The passage over the Col de la Bonette is often mistakenly referred to as the Col de Restefond, and in the 2008 Tour de France the summit was referred to as the Cime de la Bonette-Restefond. Stage 16 of the tour approached the summit from Saint-Étienne-de-Tinée (south-east), and after reaching the Col de la Bonette, took a loop round the Cime de la Bonette reaching the summit of, which is the highest point reached by the Tour de France, before re-passing the Col de la Bonette. On the descent to Jausiers, the actual Col de Restefond was then passed on the right approximately 1 km from the summit.

“Highest road in Europe”.

The two kilometre long teardrop shaped loop around the Cime de la Bonette peak () from either side of the pass is the highest paved through route in the Alps.  A signpost at the foot of the climb makes the claim ""Col de la Bonette – Restefond, 2802 m above sea level, highest road in Europe"". This claim is incorrect for various reasons. The actual Col de la Bonette rises to, but there are three Alpine road passes whose altitudes are higher: Col de l'Iseran (), Stelvio Pass () and Col Agnel (). There is also the road to Veleta (Sierra Nevada), Spain (near Granada) which reaches but it is not a through road.  The road around the Cime de la Bonette reaches an altitude of, but this is not a "pass", but merely a scenic loop. It is, however, the highest asphalted road in France and is the highest through road in Europe.

Details of the climb.

From the south, the climb starts at Saint-Etienne-de-Tinée and is long. Over this distance, the climb is (an average percentage of 6.4%). On the climb to the actual Col de la Bonette, there is one short section at over 10%, but on the loop around the Cime de la Bonette, the gradient reaches 15%.  From the north, the climb starts at Jausiers and is long. Over this distance, the climb is (an average percentage of 6.6%), with the steepest sections at 9%.  On both sides mountain pass cycling markers are placed every kilometre. They indicate the current height, the distance from the start, the distance to the summit, the average slope in the following kilometre, the number of the street, as well as the distances to villages and cities connected by the pass. They provide information for cyclists going up- and downhill.

Tour de France.

The pass has featured in the Tour de France four times (1962, 1964, 1993 and 2008). In 1962 and 1964, the race was led over the summit in both years by Federico Bahamontes, approaching from the south in 1962 and from the north in 1964. Robert Millar led over the summit (from the north) in 1993.  In 2008 John-Lee Augustyn led over the mountain, before falling on the descent to Jausiers. He did, however, receive 5,000 Euros for being the leader over the highest point of the Tour, known as the "Souvenir Henri Desgrange".

Col de la Bonette (el. ) is a high mountain pass in the French Alps, near the border with Italy. It is situated within the Mercantour National Park on the border of the departments of Alpes-Maritimes and Alpes-de-Haute-Provence. The road over the col is the seventh highest paved road in the Alps.

Der Col de la Bonette ist ein hoher Gebirgspass in den französischen Seealpen in der Region Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur nahe der italienischen Grenze.


Life.

La Boétie was born in Sarlat, in the Périgord region of southwest France, in 1530 to an aristocratic family. His father was a royal official of the Périgord region and his mother was the sister of the president of the Bordeaux Parliament (assembly of lawyers). Orphaned at an early age, he was brought up by his uncle and namesake, the curate of Bouilbonnas, and received his law degree from the University of Orléans in 1553. His great and precocious ability earned La Boétie a royal appointment to the Bordeaux Parliament the following year, despite his being under the minimum age. There he pursued a distinguished career as judge and diplomatic negotiator until his untimely death in 1563 at the age of thirty-two. La Boétie was also a distinguished poet and humanist, translating Xenophon and Plutarch, and being closely connected with the leading young Pleiade group of poets, including Pierre Ronsard, Jean Dorat and Jean-Antoine de Baif. La Boétie was favorable to the conciliation of Catholicism and Protestantism; "warned of the dangerous and divisive consequences of permitting two religions, which could lead to two opposed states in the same country. The most he would have allowed the Protestants was the right to worship in private, and he pointed out their own intolerance of Catholics. His policy for religious peace was one of conciliation and concord through reforms in the church that would eventually persuade the Protestants to reunite with Catholicism". He served with Montaigne in the Bordeaux "parlement" and is immortalized in Montaigne's essay on friendship.

Writings.

La Boétie's writings include a few sonnets, translations from the classics and an essay attacking absolute monarchy and tyranny in general, "Discours de la servitude volontaire ou le Contr'un" ("Discourse on Voluntary Servitude, or the Anti-Dictator"). The essay asserts that tyrants have power because the people give it to them. Liberty has been abandoned once by society, which afterward stayed corrupted and prefers the slavery of the courtesan to the freedom of one who refuses to dominate as he refuses to obey. Thus, La Boétie linked together obedience and domination, a relationship which would be later theorised by latter anarchist thinkers. By advocating a solution of simply refusing to support the tyrant, he became one of the earliest advocates of civil disobedience and nonviolent resistance. Murray N. Rothbard summarizes La Boétie's political philosophy as follows: To him, the great mystery of politics was obedience to rulers. Why in the world do people agree to be looted and otherwise oppressed by government overlords? It is not just fear, Boetie explains in "The Discourse on Voluntary Servitude," for our consent is required. And that consent can be non-violently withdrawn.  It was once thought following Montaigne's claims that La Boétie wrote the essay in 1549 at the age of eighteen, but recent authorities argue that it is "likely that the "Discourse" was written in 1552 or 1553, at the age of twenty-two, while La Boétie was at the university". Some Montaigne scholars have argued that the essay was in fact the work of Montaigne himself. The essay was circulated privately and not published until 1576 after La Boétie's death. He died in Germignan near Bordeaux in 1563. His last days are described in a long letter from Montaigne to his own father.

Influence.

In the 20th century, many European anarchists began to cite La Boétie as an influence, including Gustav Landauer, Bart de Ligt and Simone Weil. Autonomist Marxist thinker John Holloway also cites him in his book "Crack Capitalism" in order to explain his idea of "breaking with capitalism". Gene Sharp, the leading theorist of nonviolent struggle, cites his work frequently in both "The Politics of Nonviolent Action" and "From Dictatorship to Democracy".

Étienne or Estienne de La Boétie ( ; ; 1 November 1530 – 18 August 1563) was a French judge, writer and "a founder of modern political philosophy in France". He is best remembered as the great and close friend of the eminent essayist Michel de Montaigne "in one of history's most notable friendships", as well as an earlier influence for anarchist thought.

Étienne de La Boétie [] (* 1. November 1530 in Sarlat; † 18. August 1563 in Germignan) war ein französischer Hoher Richter, Gelegenheitsautor und enger Freund von Michel de Montaigne.


Education.

Andrés del Río studied analytical chemistry and metallurgy in Spain, where he was born. He received his bachelor's degree from the University of Alcalá de Henares in 1780 at the age of fifteen. The government gave him a scholarship to enter the Royal Academy of Mines in Almadén, Spain, as of June 1782. He showed great aptitude. In 1783 he was given a travel grant by the Spanish Ministry of Mines. He used it to study in Paris, with the chemist Jean Darcet at the Collège de France.  Del Río continued his studies at the Mining Academy in Freiberg, Germany, under the direction of Abraham Gottlob Werner in 1789. In Freiberg he got to know Baron Alexander von Humboldt. Del Río went on to study at the Austrian Imperial-Royal Mining Academy at Schemnitz, Hungary, with Anton von Rupprecht, as well as in England.  Del Rio returned to Paris in 1791 where he was a colleague ("asociados") of Antoine Lavoisier, who is considered the founder of modern chemistry, and Abbé René Just Haüy, who is considered the founder of crystallography. As a result of the French Revolution, a warrant for Lavoisier's arrest was issued on 4 November 1793. Lavoisier was executed on the guillotine on 8 May 1794. After Lavoisier's arrest, Del Río escaped to England.

Mining in New Spain.

In 1792, the Real Seminario de Minería (College of Mines) was founded in New Spain by a decree of King Charles III of Spain, with the object of reforming the study of mining and metallurgy in the colony. The institution was initially headed by Fausto Elhúyar (1755–1833), the discoverer of tungsten. In 1793, Elhúyar offered Del Río a position as chair at the newly organized college. Del Rio refused the chair of chemistry, but accepted that of mineralogy. Del Río arrived at the port of Veracruz on 20 October 1794, on the ship "San Francisco de Alcántara" out of Cádiz.  Once in his new position, del Río dedicated himself to teaching and scientific investigation. On 27 April 1795 he opened the first course in mineralogy ever presented in New Spain. He made important studies of minerals and developed innovative methods in mining. He also wrote the first textbook of mineralogy to be published anywhere in America, "Elementos de Orictognosía", and the first in Spanish rather than German or English. Volume I appeared in 1795, and volume II in 1805. Santiago Ramírez, his student and later his biographer, described it as "a monumental work, which... will be an object of veneration and consultation".  German naturalist, Alexander von Humboldt, making a survey of resources in Spanish-held colonies for Spain, reported favorably that it was in Mexico where the best work of mineralogy in Spanish had been published, the "Elementos de Orictognosia" of Señor Del Rio. Humboldt spent the period from March 1803 to March 1804 in Mexico City, renewing his friendship with del Rio and actively participating in the investigations of the College of Mining. He organized excursions to Chapultepec, to the basaltic zone of Pedregal de San Ángel, the lava fields of the Xitle volcano, and to the hot springs of Peñón de los Baños, a rocky outcrop close to the modern Mexico City International Airport, accumulating data and samples of minerals and rocks that were then submitted to chemical tests for identification.  In 1820 del Río was named a deputy to the Spanish Cortes. He was a liberal who argued for the independence of New Spain. He was in Madrid when Mexico gained its independence. Invited to remain in Spain, he nevertheless returned to Mexico (in 1821), which he considered his homeland.  In 1829, after the turbulent period of war with Spain, the government of independent Mexico expelled the Spaniards resident in the country, with some notable exceptions. Del Río was one of the exceptions. The expulsion had a major impact on the work of the College of Mining. The director, Fausto Elhúyar, was forced to resign and leave the country.  Indignant over the expulsion of his colleagues, del Río showed solidarity by himself entering voluntary exile in Philadelphia for four years. There he was highly honored. He took part in the scientific activities of the American Philosophical Society and was elected president of the Geological Society of Philadelphia. John Hurtel of Philadelphia published a new edition of del Rio's book in 1832. Del Rio returned to Mexico in 1834 and again occupied the chair of mineralogy at the College. He was also given the chair of geology.

The discovery of vanadium.

In 1801, while examining mineral samples sent to him by the Purísima del Cardenal mine in Zimapán in the State of Hidalgo, del Río arrived at the conclusion that he had found a new metallic element. He prepared various compounds of the element, and observing their diverse colors, he named the element "panchromium" (Greek: παγχρώμιο "all colors"). Later, on observing that the compounds changed color to red on heating, he substituted the name "erythronium" (Greek: ερυθρός "red").  The following year he gave samples containing the new element to Alexander von Humboldt, who sent them on to Hippolyte Victor Collet-Descotils in París for his analysis. Collet-Descotils's analysis found (mistakenly) that the samples contained only chromium. Humboldt, in turn, rejected del Río's claim of the discovery of a new element, and del Río himself concluded his discovery had been an error.  In 1830, 27 years after its initial discovery, Professor Nils Gabriel Sefström of Sweden rediscovered the element in a sample of iron of Taberg. He gave it its current name, "vanadium", in honor of the Scandinavian goddess of love and beauty, Vanadis. In the same year, Friedrich Wöhler, the German chemist who had synthesized urea, analyzed some of del Río's samples of brown lead ore of Zimapán and demonstrated that Sefström's vanadium and del Rio's erythronium were the same.  In 1831 the U.S. geologist George William Featherstonhaugh proposed without success that the element should be named "rionium", in honor of its original discoverer. An extensive analysis of the publication history of papers relating to the discovery of the element suggests that the intervention of J. J. Berzelius on behalf of his students Sefström and Wöhler, was highly instrumental in influencing the element's attribution and naming, reflecting patterns of scientific prestige and control of discourse in the first half of the nineteenth century.  In 1867 the English chemist Henry Enfield Roscoe isolated the pure metal for the first time. He used hydrogen to get rid of the chloride around the pure vanadium.

Later life.

In 1805 del Río established an ironworks at Coalcomán. After overcoming numerous obstacles, he produced the first iron in Mexico, on 29 April 1807. Four years later, during the Mexican War of Independence, the royalists destroyed the ironworks. The iron he produced was superior to the celebrated imported iron from Biscay (Vizcaya), Spain.  Del Rio was bitter about Humboldt's mistake in not confirming the discovery of vanadium, and strongly reproached him. He continued to teach at the College of Mines until his death, a course that "could well have been taught at the Polytechnic school in Paris", according to Michel Chevalier, who visited del Río shortly before the latter's death.

Death and recognition.

Andrés Manuel del Río died at 84 in 1849, after a long and productive academic career. His work and his liberal politics were important to the building of an independent Mexican nation. He was the founding professor of mineralogy at the College of Mines, which laid the base for the current Institute of Geology of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM).  He was a member of the Spanish Royal Academy of Sciences in Madrid, the Wernerian Natural History Society of Edinburgh, the Royal Academy of Sciences of France, the Economic Society of Leipzig, the Linnean Society of Leipzig, the Royal Academy of Saxony and the Philosophical Society of Philadelphia. He was also president of the Geological Society of Philadelphia and the Lyceum of Natural History of New York. His extensive scientific work, besides the first identification of vanadium, included the discovery and description of various minerals and the invention of methods of extraction of minerals for use in the mining industry. After his death, the important mining district that includes Batopilas in Chihuahua was named in his honor.  The Chemical Society of Mexico instituted the prestigious National Chemistry Prize "Andrés Manuel Del Río" in 1964, with the object of giving public recognition to the work done by chemical professionals who have made extraordinary contributions to raise the level and prestige of the profession. It is awarded with a medal containing the likeness of del Río and a commemorative plaque. Andrés Manuel Del Río, Luis E. Miramontes, inventor of the first oral contraceptive, and Mario J. Molina, winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1995, are the three Mexican chemists of outstanding world significance. Miramontes won the "Andrés Manuel Del Río" Prize in 1986.

Bibliography.

A short biography of Andrés Manuel del Río is found in "Oxford Dictionary of Scientists" by Oxford University Press, 1999.

Andrés Manuel del Río y Fernández (10 November 1764 – 23 March 1849) was a Spanish–Mexican scientist, naturalist and engineer who discovered compounds of "vanadium" in 1801. He proposed that the element be given the name "panchromium", or later, "erythronium", but his discovery was not credited at the time, and his names were not used.

Andrés Manuel del Río (* 10. November 1764 in Madrid; † 23. März 1849 in Mexiko-Stadt) war ein spanischer Mineraloge und Chemiker. 1801 entdeckte er das Element Vanadium.


Biography.

Early life.

Powell was born in Mount Morris, New York, in 1834, the son of Joseph and Mary Powell. His father, a poor itinerant preacher, had emigrated to the U.S. from Shrewsbury, England, in 1831. His family moved westward to Jackson, Ohio, then Walworth County, Wisconsin, before settling in rural Boone County, Illinois.  As a young man he undertook a series of adventures through the Mississippi River valley. In 1855, he spent four months walking across Wisconsin. During 1856, he rowed the Mississippi from St. Anthony, Minnesota, to the sea. In 1857, he rowed down the Ohio River from Pittsburgh to the Mississippi River, traveling north to reach St. Louis. In 1858, he rowed down the Illinois River, then up the Mississippi and the Des Moines River to central Iowa. In 1859, at age 25, he was elected to the Illinois Natural History Society.

Education.

Powell studied at Illinois College, Illinois Institute (which would later become Wheaton College), and Oberlin College, over a period of seven years while teaching, but was unable to attain his degree. During his studies Powell acquired a knowledge of Ancient Greek and Latin. Powell had a restless nature and a deep interest in the natural sciences. This desire to learn about natural sciences was against the wishes of his father, yet Powell was still determined to do so. In 1861 when Powell was on a lecture tour he decided that the Civil War was inevitable; he decided to study military science and engineering to prepare himself for the imminent conflict.

Civil War and aftermath.

Powell's loyalties remained with the Union and the cause of abolishing slavery. On May 8, 1861, he enlisted at Hennepin, Illinois, as a private in the 20th Illinois Infantry. He was described as "age 27, height 5′ ′′ tall, light complected, gray eyes, auburn hair, occupation teacher." He was elected sergeant-major of the regiment, and when the 20th Illinois was mustered into the Federal service a month later, Powell was commissioned a second lieutenant. He enlisted in the Union Army as a cartographer, topographer and military engineer.  During the Civil War, he served first with the 20th Illinois Volunteers. While stationed at Cape Girardeau, Missouri, he recruited an artillery company that became Battery ‘F’ of the 2nd Illinois Light Artillery, with Powell as captain. On November 28, 1861, Powell took a brief leave to marry the former Emma Dean. At the Battle of Shiloh, he lost most of his right arm when struck by a minie ball while in the process of giving the order to fire. The raw nerve endings in his arm would continue to cause him pain for the rest of his life.  Despite the loss of an arm, he returned to the Army and was present at Champion Hill, Big Black River Bridge on the Big Black River and in the siege of Vicksburg. Always the geologist he took to studying rocks while in the trenches at Vicksburg. He was made a major and commanded an artillery brigade with the 17th Army Corps during the Atlanta Campaign. After the fall of Atlanta he was transferred to George H. Thomas’ army and participated in the battle of Nashville. At the end of the war he was made a brevet lieutenant colonel, but preferred to use the title of “Major”.  After leaving the Army, Powell took the post of professor of geology at Illinois Wesleyan University. He also lectured at Illinois State Normal University for most of his career. Powell helped expand the collections of the Museum of the Illinois State Natural History Society, where he served as curator. He declined a permanent appointment in favor of exploration of the American West.

Geologic research.

Expeditions.

After 1867, Powell led a series of expeditions into the Rocky Mountains and around the Green and Colorado rivers. One of these expeditions was with his students and his wife, to collect specimens all over Colorado. Powell, William Byers, and five other men were the first white men to climb Longs Peak in Colorado in 1868.  In 1869, he set out to explore the Colorado River and the Grand Canyon. Gathering nine men, four boats and food for 10 months, he set out from Green River, Wyoming, on May 24. Passing through dangerous rapids, the group passed down the Green River to its confluence with the Colorado River (then also known as the Grand River upriver from the junction), near present-day Moab, Utah, and completed the journey on August 30, 1869.  The members of the first Powell expedition:  The expedition's route traveled through the Utah canyons of the Colorado River, which Powell described in his published diary as having ... wonderful features—carved walls, royal arches, glens, alcove gulches, mounds and monuments. From which of these features shall we select a name? We decide to call it Glen Canyon.  One man (Goodman) quit after the first month, and another three (Dunn and the Howland brothers) left at Separation Canyon in the third. This was just two days before the group reached the mouth of the Virgin River on August 30, after traversing almost. The latter three disappeared; some historians have speculated they were killed by the Shivwitz band of the Southern Paiute or by Mormons in the town of Toquerville.  Powell retraced part of the 1869 route in 1871–1872 with another expedition that traveled the Colorado River from Green River, Wyoming to Kanab Creek in the Grand Canyon. This trip resulted in photographs (by John K. Hillers), an accurate map and various papers. At least one Powell scholar, Otis R. Marston, noted the maps produced from the survey were impressionistic rather than precise. In planning this expedition, he employed the services of Jacob Hamblin, a Mormon missionary in southern Utah and northern Arizona, who had cultivated excellent relationships with Native Americans. Before setting out, Powell used Hamblin as a negotiator to ensure the safety of his expedition from local Indian groups.

After the Colorado.

In 1889, the intellectual gatherings Powell hosted in his home were formalized as the Cosmos Club. The club has continued, with members elected to the club for their contributions to scholarship and civic activism.  In 1881, Powell was appointed the second director of the U.S. Geological Survey, a post he held until his resignation in 1894, being replaced by Charles Walcott.  In 1875, Powell published a book based on his explorations of the Colorado, originally titled "Report of the Exploration of the Columbia River of the West and Its Tributaries". It was revised and reissued in 1895 as "The Exploration of the Colorado River and Its Canyons".  In the early 1900s the journals of the crew began to be published starting with Dellenbaugh’s "A Canyon Voyage" in 1908, followed in 1939 by the diary of Almon Harris Thompson, who was married to Powell’s sister, Ellen Powell Thompson. Finally, Bishop, Steward, W.C. Powell, and Jones’ diaries were all published in 1947. These diaries made it clear Powell’s writings contained some exaggerations and recounted activities that occurred on the second river trip as if they occurred on the first. They also revealed that Powell, who had only one arm, wore a life jacket, though the other men did not have them.

Anthropologic research.

Powell became the director of the Bureau of Ethnology at the Smithsonian Institution in 1879 and remained so until his death. Under his leadership, the Smithsonian published an influential classification of North American Indian languages. In 1898, Powell was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society.  As an ethnologist and early anthropologist, Powell was a follower of Lewis Henry Morgan. He classified human societies into ‘savagery’, ‘barbarism’, and ‘civilization’. Powell's criteria were based on consideration of adoption of technology, family and social organization, property relations, and intellectual development. In his view, all societies were to progress toward civilization. Powell is credited with coining the word “acculturation”, first using it in an 1880 report by the U.S. Bureau of American Ethnography. In 1883, Powell defined “acculturation” as psychological changes induced by cross-cultural imitation.  Powell published extensive anthropological studies on the Ute people inhabiting the canyon lands around the Colorado River. His views towards these populations, along with his scientific approach, was built on social Darwinist thought; he focused on defining what features distinguished Native Americans as ‘barbaric’, placing them above ‘savagery’ but below ‘civilized’ white Europeans. Indeed, the study of ethnology was a way for scientists to demarcate social categories in order to justify government-sponsored programs that exploited newly appropriated land and its inhabitants. Powell advocated for government funding to be used to ‘civilize’ Native American populations, pushing for the teaching of English, Christianity, and Western methods of farming and manufacture.  In his book "The Exploration of the Canyons of the Colorado", Powell is motivated to conduct ethnologic studies because "these Indians are more nearly in their primate condition than any others on the continent with whom I am acquainted." As Wallace Stegner posits in "Beyond the 100th Meridian", by 1869, many Native American tribes had been pushed to extinction, and those that were known were considered corrupted by intercultural exchange. Even in 1939, Julian Steward, an anthropologist compiling photographs from Powell’s 1873 expedition suggested that: “Fascinated at finding [Native Americans] nearly untouched by civilization, he developed a deep interest in ethnology... Few explorers in the United States have had a comparable opportunity to study and photograph Indians so nearly in their aboriginal state.”  Powell created Illinois State University’s first Museum of Anthropology which at the time was called the finest in all of North America.  Powell held a post as lecturer on the History of Culture in the Political Science department at the Columbian University in Washington, D.C. from 1894–1899.

Environmentalism.

In "Cadillac Desert", Powell is portrayed as a champion of land preservation and conservation. Powell’s expeditions led to his belief that the arid West was not suitable for agricultural development, except for about 2% of the lands that were near water sources. His "Report on the Lands of the Arid Regions of the United States" proposed irrigation systems and state boundaries based on watershed areas to avoid disagreements between states. For the remaining lands, he proposed conservation and low-density, open grazing.  The railroad companies owned – vast tracts of lands granted in return for building the railways – did not agree with Powell’s views on land conservation. They aggressively lobbied Congress to reject Powell’s policy proposals and to encourage farming instead, as they wanted to cash in on their lands. The U.S. Congress went along and developed legislation that encouraged pioneer settlement of the American West based on agricultural use of land. Politicians based their decisions on a theory of Professor Cyrus Thomas who was a protege of Horace Greeley. Thomas suggested that agricultural development of land would change climate and cause higher amounts of precipitations, claiming that ‘rain follows the plow’, a theory which has since been largely discredited.  At an 1883 irrigation conference, Powell would prophetically remark: “Gentlemen, you are piling up a heritage of conflict and litigation over water rights, for there is not sufficient water to supply the land.”  Powell’s recommendations for development of the West were largely ignored until after the Dust Bowl of the 1920s and 1930s, resulting in untold suffering associated with pioneer subsistence farms that failed due to insufficient rain and irrigation water.

John Wesley Powell (March 24, 1834 – September 23, 1902) was a U.S. soldier, geologist, explorer of the American West, professor at Illinois Wesleyan University, and director of major scientific and cultural institutions. He is famous for the 1869 Powell Geographic Expedition, a three-month river trip down the Green and Colorado rivers, including the first official U.S. government-sponsored passage through the Grand Canyon.

John Wesley Powell (* 24. März 1834 in Mount Morris, Livingston County, New York; † 23. September 1902 in Haven, Maine) war ein US-amerikanischer Forscher und Leiter der Expedition der Erforschung des Colorado River und damit letztlich auch des Grand Canyons.


History.

Prehistory.

Flinders Island was first inhabited at least 35,000 years ago, when people made their way from Australia across the then-land bridge which is now Bass Strait. A population remained until about 4,500 years ago, succumbing to thirst and hunger following an acute El Niño climate shift.

European discovery.

Some of the south-eastern islands of the Furneaux Group were first recorded in 1773 by British navigator Tobias Furneaux, commander of, the support vessel with James Cook on Cook's second voyage. In February 1798, British navigator Matthew Flinders charted some of the southern islands, using one of the schooner "Francis"<nowiki>'</nowiki> open boats. Later that year, Flinders returned and finished charting the islands in the "Norfolk"; he then went on to complete the first circumnavigation of Tasmania (1798–99), accompanied by George Bass, proving Tasmania to be an island separated from the Australian mainland by Bass Strait, later named in honor of George Bass.

Geographic naming.

James Cook named the islands Furneaux's Islands, after Tobias Furneaux. Flinders named the largest island in the group "Great Island". He also named a group of mountains on Flinders Island, the "Three Patriarchs". The small island just to the east, Flinders named "Babel Island" from the noises made by the seabirds there. Phillip Parker King later named the largest island Flinders Island, after Matthew Flinders. Flinders named Mount Chappell Island after his wife Ann née Ann Chappelle. There are three islands named "Flinders' Island"—the large island on the east side of Bass Strait, named by Phillip Parker King; an island in the Investigator Group of South Australia, named by Matthew Flinders after his young brother Samuel Flinders (midshipman on the ); and an island in the Flinders Group north of Cooktown, Queensland was named after Matthew Flinders.

Settlement.

In the late 18th century, the island was often frequented by sealers and Aboriginal women, the majority of whom had been kidnapped from their mainland tribes. Seal stocks soon collapsed, causing the last sealing permit to be issued in 1828. Many sealers' families chose to stay in the Furneaux Group, subsisting on cattle grazing and muttonbirding.  From 1830, the remnants of the Tasmanian Aboriginal population were exiled to Settlement Point (or "Wybalenna", meaning "Black Man's House" in the language of the Ben Lomond people) on Flinders Island. These 160 survivors were deemed to be safe from white settlers here, but conditions were poor, and the relocation scheme was short-lived. In 1847, after a campaign by the Aboriginal population against their Commandant, Henry Jeanneret, which involved a petition to Queen Victoria, the remaining 47 Aboriginals were again relocated, this time to Oyster Cove Station, an ex-convict settlement 56 kilometres south of Tasmania's capital, Hobart, where it is thought that Truganini, the last full-blood Tasmanian Aborigine, died in 1876.  From the late 19th century freehold land was given out, but it was not until the 1950s that a proper settlement scheme was initiated, mainly drawing settlers from mainland Tasmania and central New South Wales to Flinders Island's eastern shore. The Municipality of Flinders Island was instituted in 1903.

Geography and nature.

The island forms part of the state of Tasmania, and part of the Municipality of Flinders Island local government area. Flinders Island is only one of the many islands included in the Municipal area. Of these islands Flinders Island is the only island with more than one permanent settlement, and is by far the largest in the Furneaux Group.  The island is about from north to south, and from east to west. with a total land area of. Mount Strzelecki in the south west is the island's highest peak at. About a third of the island is mountainous and rugged with ridges of granite running the length of the island. The coastal areas are dominated by sandy deposits often taking the shape of dunes. Many coastal lagoons punctuate the eastern shore, formed by dunes blocking further drainage. This drainage is mainly provided by many small streams, few of them permanently flowing directly leading to the waters of Bass Strait or such a lagoon.  The coastal areas are mainly covered in scrub or shrubs, whereas the vegetation at a higher elevation consists of woodland, mainly eucalyptus species. The total number of plant species in the Furneaux Group well exceeds 800, showing the great biodiversity of its ecosystem. Native bird species include the Cape Barren goose ("Cereopsis novaehollandiae") and the short-tailed shearwater ("Puffinus tenuirostris"). Marsupial mammals are represented by Bennett's wallaby ("Macropus rufogriseus"), brushtail possum ("Trichosurus vulpecula"), eastern pygmy possum ("Cercartetus nanus"), potoroo ("Potorous apicalis"), common ringtail possum ("Pseudocheirus peregrinus") and Tasmanian pademelon ("Thylogale billardierii"). The cape fur seal ("Arctocephalus pusillus") is the sole placental mammal commonly found on Flinders. It is the only remaining habitat of a subspecies of common wombat, V. u. ursinus, which is listed as vulnerable by the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 and IUCN Red List. The area surrounding Mount Strzelecki in the south west of the island constitutes Strzelecki National Park. The island also supports a population of feral turkeys ("Meleagris gallopavo").

Climate.

Flinders Island has a mild oceanic climate ("Cfb") that is strongly moderated by the Bass Strait. The summers are drier and less cloudy than the winters, and annual average rainfall totals less than.

Central Flinders Island Important Bird Area.

A 30 km tract of land on the island, lying mainly to the north and east of Whitemark, has been identified as an Important Bird Area (IBA) because it contains three breeding colonies of the endangered forty-spotted pardalote and habitat used by flame robins. It also supports populations of several of Tasmania's restricted-range endemic bird species, including the green rosella, yellow-throated honeyeater, black-headed honeyeater, strong-billed honeyeater, Tasmanian thornbill, black currawong and dusky robin.

Eastern Flinders Island Important Bird Area.

A 187 km strip of land extending the full 70 km length of Flinders Island's eastern coastline has also been identified as an IBA. it supports small numbers of fairy terns, large numbers of hooded plovers and over 1% of the world populations of chestnut teal, pied oystercatchers and sooty oystercatchers.

Demographics.

The population in 2011 was 700 people; the median age being 45.  Settlements include Whitemark (which has the island's main airstrip and about 155 inhabitants (2011) and Lady Barron (approx. 110 inhabitants), Blue Rocks, Killiecrankie, Wingaroo and Wybalenna (all below Lady Barron's population figure).  The 2016 census shows that the population is rising. The population of the Local Government Area, i.e. Flinders and Cape Barren Islands is 906; up from 776 in the 2011 Census.  The population of the 7255 postal code area, i.e. Flinders, is 833 up from 702 in 2011, a rise of over 16% for the Municipality and over 18% for Flinders over the 5-year period.  The median age of people in the Municipality has risen from 52 to 53, and the number of families has increased from 218 to 243.

Communications.

As of 4 October 2010, Sharp Airlines has been operating services between Essendon, Flinders Island and Launceston. Using 19-seat Metroliners, they fly between Essendon Airport and Flinders Island Airport three return flights a week (65 minutes) and Launceston Airport and Flinders Island Airport at least daily (25 minutes). The Tasmanian Aeroclub, Kirkhope Aviation and Vortex Air also offer charter services between Launceston, Flinders Island and Victoria (as well as surrounding Islands).  A ferry service delivering food and perishable goods is operated to the island weekly by Furneaux Freight between Bridport, Tasmania and Lady Barron, Tasmania and also monthly from Port Welshpool, Victoria.  Australian telecom provider Telstra offers the only mobile phone service on the island, providing 3G coverage across both Flinders and Cape Barren Island.  Internet access is limited to either a satellite dish connection or to use the 3G network.

Flinders Island, the largest island in the Furneaux Group, is a island in the Bass Strait, northeast of the island of Tasmania. Flinders Island is part of the state of Tasmania, Australia. It is from Cape Portland and is located on 40° south, a zone known as the Roaring Forties.

Flinders Island ist eine australische Insel am östlichen Ende der Bass-Straße zwischen Tasmanien und dem australischen Festland, die von etwa 900 Personen bewohnt wird. Sie ist die größte Insel der Furneaux-Gruppe.


Life.

Biographical data about Jacob Foppens van Es' life are scarce. The inscription on a portrait of Foppens van Es engraved by Wenceslaus Hollar after a painting by Joannes Meyssens states that he was born in Antwerp. In 1617 he became a master of the Antwerp Guild of St. Luke. The fact that he was not registered as a pupil with the Guild before becoming a master, indicates that he likely trained outside Antwerp. At the time of his registration as a master in Antwerp, he was already married to Joanna Claessens with whom he had a son called Nicolaas. Nicolaas became a master of the Guild in 1648. Jacob Foppens van Es and his wife had three more sons and three daughters.  His success as an artist is testified by evidence that works of his were recorded in many 17th century Antwerp collections. Even the inventory of the leading Flemish Baroque painter Peter Paul Rubens included two of his works. Further proof of his success is that made by Joannes Meyssens and engraved by Wenceslaus Hollar was included in the collection of artist portraits entitled "Images de Divers Hommes Despirit Sublime qui par leur art et science debvrovent vivre eternellement et des quels la louange et renomée facit estonner le monde", published in Antwerp in 1649, with the following text:  Jacob Foppens van Es enjoyed an elevated status among and became close friends with Antwerp's leading artists such as Jacob Jordaens, Cornelis Schut and Deodat del Monte who were also godfathers to his children. He was active in Antwerp for 50 years. His pupils included Jacob Gillis in 1621 and Jan van Tienen in 1623.  He was buried in Antwerp on 11 March 1666.

Works.

General.

Jacob Foppens van Es was a very prolific artist. About 125 of his works have been handed down. The pictures were usually signed with his full name "I. (or IACOB) VAN ES". As he did not generally date his works, it is impossible to identify the chronology or evolution in his work.  Jacob Foppens van Es painted mainly still lifes and in particular still lifes of food. They typically depict fruit, fish, lobster, oysters, mussels, cheese, ham, bread, olives, lemons and oranges together with objects such as glassware, pitchers and silver. Occasionally his compositions include animals such as butterflies, birds or squirrels or a flower. His still lifes typically depict a random accumulation of unrelated objects on a sharply inclined table with the principal concern being the realisation of rich colour.  His still lifes are generally archaizing in style and follow the small 'breakfast still lifes' of the Flemish masters Osias Beert and Clara Peeters. He later came under the influence of the Dutch still life painter Floris van Schooten. His works achieve a sense of three-dimensionality through dramatic lighting and a wide range of colours.

Flower pieces.

He also produced about five to six flower pieces which are of an exceptional simplicity, use original colour combinations and a powerful technique. An example is "An iris and three roses in an earthenware pot" (Fondation Custodia, Paris). This composition is of a charming simplicity with its three roses and an iris placed in an earthenware jug on a wooden table. The extreme simplicity of the arrangement, the few, perfectly harmonized shades and the spontaneous but firm brushstroke make the panel exceptional in Flemish still life painting as a whole. The muted palette may indicate that this work was created around 1630.

Garland paintings.

Foppens van Es occasionally worked on garland paintings in which the staffage was painted by other artists. Garland paintings are a special type of still life developed in Antwerp by Jan Brueghel the Elder and Hendrick van Balen at the request of the Italian cardinal Federico Borromeo at the beginning of the 17th century. Other artists involved in the early development of the genre included Andries Danielsz., Peter Paul Rubens and Daniel Seghers.  The garland genre was initially connected to the visual imagery of the Counter-Reformation movement. It was further inspired by the cult of veneration and devotion to Mary prevalent at the Habsburg court (then the rulers over the Southern Netherlands) and in Antwerp generally. Garland paintings typically show a flower garland around a devotional image, portrait or other religious symbol (such as the host). An example of a collaboration by Foppens van Es on a garland painting is "" (Musée des Beaux-Arts d'Orléans) (c. 1620-1630). Hendrick van Balen is believed to have painted the cartouche while Foppens van Es painted the garland of fruit and flowers.

Jacob Foppens van Es, Jacob Fopsen van Es or Jacob van Es (c. 1596 Antwerp – 1666 Antwerp) was a Flemish Baroque painter who was known for his still lifes mainly of food and occasionally flower paintings. He collaborated with other artists on garland paintings. Together with Osias Beert and Clara Peeters, he was one of the leading representatives of the first generation in Flemish still-life painting.

Jacob Foppens van Es, auch "Jacob Fopsen van Es" oder "Jacob Fossens van Essen" (* um 1590/1596, wahrscheinlich in Antwerpen; begraben 11. März 1666 in Antwerpen) war flämischer Barockmaler, der vor allem für seine Stillleben von Speisen und Blumen bekannt war. Zusammen mit Osias Beert dem Älteren und Clara Peeters war er einer der führenden Vertreter der flämischen Stilllebenmalerei.


Geography.

The Palatine village of Geinsheim is a ribbon development that lies, as its name indicates, in the so-called "Gäu", the flat terrain between the German Wine Road and the River Rhine, on the Upper Rhine Plain.  Geinsheim is roughly equidistant from Neustadt to the west and the town of Speyer to the east. Cycleways and footpaths, notably the Neustadt to Speyer cycleway, characterise the flat landscape, through which the "Hörstengraben" stream flows, north of the village, before emptying into the Speyerbach near Hanhofen.  Its neighbouring communities are, clockwise from the north, across a short piece (several metres) of the Neustadt village of Lachen-Speyerdorf, Haßloch in the district of Bad Dürkheim, Hanhofen and Harthausen in the district of Rhein-Pfalz-Kreis, Gommersheim and Böbingen in the district of Südliche Weinstraße and Duttweiler another sub-district of Neustadt.

Sights.

Heritage site.

The heart of the village, which is up to 500 years old, is protected as a heritage site.

Church buildings.

The protected zone includes the landmark of the municipality, the Roman Catholic parish church of "St. Peter und Paul" with its Neogothic facade and its tower that, for some time, has once again been a nesting place for the white stork. It is the largest church in the "Gäu" and is therefore known by the locals as the "Gäu-Dom" or "Gäu Cathedral". The church was built around 1500 and the tower and choir with its sacristy date to that period.

Secular buildings.

The oldest secular building in the conservation zone, with the address "Gäustraße 96", dates to the year 1600 and is built in the Renaissance style. The estate farm in "Gäustraße 79/81", with its barn in which the donations to Speyer's cathedral chapter were stored, dates to the Baroque period. The old Classicist school building, in which the village council is now house, as well as several double and three-sided farmsteads, date to the 18th to 20th centuries and complete the conservation zone.

Economy and Infrastructure.

Economy.

In addition to some wine the main crops are asparagus, tobacco, sugar beet, grain and potatoes. Home-grown fruit and vegetables are often sold by the growers immediately in front of their house on the road or in the farmyards.

Transport.

Geinsheim is on the B 39 federal highway from Neustadt to Speyer. After decades of planning and four years of construction work the 3.4 kilometre long ring road was opened on 30 August 2005. With the completion of this bypass to the north of the village, the last ring road on this 18-kilometre long stretch of the B 39 between Neustadt and Speyer was finished. Over 10,000 vehicles pass Geinsheim daily.  Geinsheim is also connected via the B 39 to the national road network. Six kilometres to the west is the A 65 motorway from Ludwigshafen am Rhein to Karlsruhe; the nearest junction being Neustadt-Süd. 10 kilometres to the east is the B 9 (Ludwigshafen–Wörth am Rhein, junction Speyer-Mitte), via which the A 61 (Koblenz–Hockenheim, junction Speyer-Nord), 4 kilometres beyond, can be reached.

Clubs.

The "Chorsängern 1791 Geinsheim" claims to be Germany's oldest male voice choir. There is a football club, SV 1920 Geinsheim that once played in the Oberliga-Verein. In 1973, an 18-hole golf course was opened by the "Golf-Club Pfalz" ("Palatinate Golf Club").

Festivals.

On the last weekend in August, Geinsheim celebrates the traditional wine festival known as the "Wein- und Ludwigskerwe". The 3rd weekend in June is the occasion of the two-day fire service festival run by the Geinsheim Fire Service ("Löschgruppe Geinsheim").

Population growth.

Geinsheim was originally a typical farming and wine-growing village; today it is increasingly a residential suburb of Neustadt. In June 2011 Geinsheim had a population of 1,937; in January 2012 it had fallen to 1,954.

Geinsheim is a village in the town of Neustadt an der Weinstraße in the Anterior Palatinate in the German state of Rhineland-Palatinate. It was incorporated into the town on 7 June 1969, its parent town lying 10 kilometres to the northwest of Geinsheim.

Geinsheim (pfälzisch "Goise)" liegt in der Vorderpfalz und ist seit dem 7. Juni 1969 ein Stadtteil und Ortsbezirk der 10 km nordwestlich gelegenen kreisfreien Stadt Neustadt an der Weinstraße in Rheinland-Pfalz eingemeindet.


Early life.

Horace Greeley was born on February 3, 1811, on a farm about five miles from Amherst, New Hampshire. He could not breathe for the first twenty minutes of his life. It is suggested that this deprivation may have caused him to develop Asperger's syndrome—some of his biographers, such as Mitchell Snay, maintain that this condition would account for his eccentric behaviors in later life. His father's family was of English descent, and his forebears included early settlers of Massachusetts and New Hampshire, while his mother's family descended from Scots-Irish immigrants from the village of Garvagh in County Londonderry who had settled Londonderry, New Hampshire. Some of Greeley's maternal ancestors were present at the Siege of Derry during the Williamite War in Ireland in 1689.  Greeley was the son of poor farmers Zaccheus and Mary (Woodburn) Greeley. Zaccheus was not successful, and moved his family several times, as far

First efforts at publishing.

In late 1831, Greeley went to New York City to seek his fortune. There were many young printers in New York who had likewise come to the metropolis, and he could only find short-term work. In 1832, Greeley worked as an employee of the publication "Spirit of the Times". He built his resources and set up a print shop in that year. In 1833, he tried his hand with Horatio D. Sheppard at editing a daily newspaper, the "New York Morning Post", which was not a success. Despite this failure and its attendant financial loss, Greeley published the thrice-weekly "Constitutionalist", which mostly printed lottery results.  On March 22, 1834, he published the first issue of "The New-Yorker" in partnership with Jonas Winchester. It was less expensive than other literary magazines of the time and published both contemporary ditties and political commentary. Circulation reached 9,000, then a sizable number, yet it was ill-managed and eventually fell victim to the economic Panic of 1837. He also published the campaign newssheet of the new Whig Party in New York for the 1834 campaign, and came to believe in its positions, including free markets with government assistance in developing the nation.  Soon after his move to New York City, Greeley met Mary Young Cheney. Both were living at a boarding house run on the diet principles of Sylvester Graham, eschewing meat, alcohol, coffee, tea, and spices, as well as abstaining from the use of tobacco. Greeley was subscribing to Graham's principles at the time, and to the end

Editor of the "Tribune".

Early years (1841–1848).

By the end of the 1840 campaign, the "Log Cabin"'s circulation had risen to 80,000 and Greeley decided to establish a daily newspaper, the "New-York Tribune". At the time, New York had many newspapers, dominated by James Gordon Bennett's "New York Herald", which with a circulation of about 55,000 had more readers than its combined competition. As technology advanced, it became cheaper and easier to publish a newspaper, and the daily press came to dominate the weekly, which had once been the more common format for news periodicals. Greeley borrowed money from friends to get started, and published the first issue of the "Tribune" on April 10, 1841 — the day of a memorial parade in New

Congressman (1848–1849).

In November 1848, Congressman David S. Jackson, a Democrat, of New York's 6th district was unseated for election fraud. Jackson's term was to expire in March 1849 but, during the 19th century, Congress convened annually in December, making it important to fill the seat. Under the laws then in force, the Whig committee from the Sixth District chose Greeley to run in the special election for the remainder of the term, though they did not select him as their candidate for the seat in the following Congress. The Sixth District, or Sixth Ward as it was commonly called, was mostly Irish-American, and Greeley proclaimed his support for Irish efforts towards independence from Great Britain. He easily won the November election and took his seat when Congress convened in December 1848. Greeley's selection was procured by the influence of his ally, Thurlow Weed.  As a congressman for three months, Greeley introduced legislation for a homestead act

Influence (1849–1860).

By the end of the 1840s, Greeley's "Tribune" was not only solidly established in New York as a daily paper, it was highly influential nationally through its weekly edition, which circulated in rural areas and small towns. Journalist Bayard Taylor deemed its influence in the Midwest second only to that of the Bible. According to Williams, the "Tribune" could mold public opinion through Greeley's editorials more effectively than could the president. Greeley sharpened those skills over time, laying down what future Secretary of State John Hay, who worked for the "Tribune" in the 1870s, deemed the "Gospel according to St. Horace".  The "Tribune" remained a Whig paper, but Greeley took an independent course. In 1848, he had been slow to endorse the Whig presidential nominee, General Zachary Taylor, a Louisianan and hero of the Mexican–American War. Greeley opposed both the war and the expansion of slavery into the new territories seized from Mexico and feared Taylor would support expansion as president. Greeley considered endorsing former President Martin Van Buren, candidate of the Free

1860 presidential election.

Although he remained on cordial terms with Senator Seward, Greeley never seriously considered supporting him in his bid for the Republican nomination for president. Instead, during the run-up to the 1860 Republican National Convention in Chicago, he pressed the candidacy of former Missouri representative Edward Bates, an opponent of the spread of slavery who had freed his own slaves. In his newspaper, in speeches, and in conversation, Greeley pushed Bates as a man who could win the North and even make inroads in the South. Nevertheless, when one of the dark horse

Civil War.

War breaks out.

After Lincoln's election, there was talk of secession in the South. The "Tribune" was initially in favor of peaceful separation, with the South becoming a separate nation. According to an editorial on November 9:  Similar editorials appeared through January 1861, after which "Tribune" editorials took a hard line on the South, opposing concessions. Williams concludes that "for a brief moment, Horace Greeley had believed that peaceful secession might be a form of freedom preferable to civil war". This brief flirtation with disunion would have consequences for Greeley—it was used against him by his opponents when he ran for president in 1872.  In the days leading up to Lincoln's inauguration, the "Tribune" headed its editorial columns each

"Prayer of Twenty Millions".

Restored to health by two weeks at the farm he had purchased in Chappaqua, Greeley returned to the "Tribune" and a policy of general backing of the Lincoln administration, even having kind words to say about Secretary Seward, his old foe. He was supportive even during the military defeats of the first year of the war. Late in 1861, he proposed to Lincoln through an intermediary that the president provide him with advance information as to its policies, in exchange for friendly coverage in the "Tribune".

Draft riots and peace efforts.

After the Union victory at Gettysburg in early July 1863, the "Tribune" wrote that the rebellion would be quickly "stamped out". A week after the battle, the New York City draft riots erupted. Greeley and the "Tribune" were generally supportive of conscription, though feeling that the rich should not be allowed to evade it by hiring substitutes. Support for the draft made them targets of the mob, and the "Tribune" Building was surrounded, and at least once invaded. Greeley secured arms from the Brooklyn Navy Yard and 150 soldiers kept the building secure. Mary Greeley and her children were at the farm in Chappaqua; a mob threatened them, but dispersed without doing harm.  In August 1863, Greeley was requested by a firm of Hartford publishers to write a history of the war. Greeley agreed, and over the next eight months penned a 600-page volume, which would be the first of two, entitled "The American Conflict". The books were very successful, selling a total of 225,000 copies by 1870, a large sale for the time.  Throughout the war, Greeley played with

Reconstruction.

As the war drew to a close in April 1865, Greeley and the "Tribune" urged magnanimity towards the defeated Confederates, arguing that making martyrs of Confederate leaders would only inspire future rebels. This talk of moderation ceased when Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth. Many concluded that Lincoln had fallen as the result of a final rebel plot, and the new president, Andrew Johnson, offered $100,000 for the capture of fugitive Confederate president Jefferson Davis. After the rebel leader was caught, Greeley initially advocated that "punishment be meted out in accord with a just verdict".  Through 1866, Greeley editorialized that Davis, who was being held at Fortress Monroe, should either be set free or put on trial. Davis's wife Varina urged Greeley to use his influence to gain her husband's release. In May 1867, a Richmond judge set bail for the former Confederate president at $100,000. Greeley was among those who signed the bail bond, and

Grant years.

In 1868, Whitelaw Reid joined the "Tribune"'s staff as managing editor. In Reid, Greeley found a reliable second-in-command. Also on the Tribune's staff in the late 1860s was Mark Twain; Henry George sometimes contributed pieces, as did Bret Harte. In 1870, John Hay joined the staff as an editorial writer. Greeley soon pronounced Hay the most brilliant at that craft ever to write for the "Tribune".  Greeley maintained his interest in associationism. Beginning in 1869, he

Presidential candidate.

As had been the case for much of the 19th century, political parties continued to be formed and to vanish after the Civil War. In September 1871, Missouri Senator Carl Schurz formed the Liberal Republican Party, founded on opposition to President Grant, opposition to corruption, and support of civil service reform, lower taxes, and land reform. He gathered around him an eclectic group of supporters whose only real link was their opposition to Grant, whose administration had proved increasingly corrupt. The party needed a candidate, with a presidential election upcoming. Greeley was one of the best-known Americans, as well as being a perennial candidate for office. He was more minded to consider a run for the Republican nomination, fearing the effect on the "Tribune" should he bolt the party. Nevertheless, he wanted to be president, as a Republican if possible, if not, as a Liberal Republican.  The Liberal Republican national convention met in Cincinnati in May 1872. Greeley was spoken of as a possible candidate, as was Missouri Governor Benjamin Gratz Brown. Schurz was ineligible as foreign-born. On the first ballot, Supreme Court Justice David Davis led, but Greeley took a narrow lead on the second ballot. Former minister to Britain Charles Francis Adams took the lead, but on the sixth ballot, after a "spontaneous" demonstration staged by Reid, Greeley gained the nomination, with Brown as vice presidential candidate. The Democrats, when they met in Baltimore in July, faced a stark choice: nominate Greeley, long a thorn in their side, or split the anti-Grant vote and go on to certain defeat. They chose the former, and even adopted the Liberal Republican platform, which called for equal rights for African Americans. This was the first time one man had been nominated for president by two political parties. Greeley resigned as editor of the "Tribune" for the campaign, and, unusually for the time, embarked on a speaking tour to bring his message to the people. As it was more usual for candidates for major office to not actively campaign, he was attacked as a seeker after office. Nevertheless, in late July, Greeley (and others, such as former Ohio governor Rutherford B. Hayes) thought he would very likely be elected. Greeley campaigned on a platform of intersectional reconciliation, arguing that the war was over and the issue of slavery was resolved. It was time to restore normality and end the continuing military occupation of the South.  The Republican counterattack was well-financed, accusing Greeley of support for everything from treason to the Ku Klux Klan. The anti-Greeley campaign was famously and effectively summed up in the cartoons of Thomas Nast, whom Grant later credited with a major role in his re-election. Nast's cartoons showed Greeley giving bail money for Jefferson Davis, throwing mud on Grant, and shaking hands with John Wilkes Booth across Lincoln's grave. The Crédit Mobilier scandal—corruption in the financing of the Union Pacific Railroad—broke in September, but Greeley was unable to take advantage of the Grant administration's ties to the scandal as he had stock in the railroad himself, and some alleged it had been given to him in exchange for favorable coverage.  Greeley's wife Mary had returned ill from a trip to Europe in late June. Her condition worsened in October, and he effectively broke off campaigning after October 12 to be with her. She died on October 30, plunging him into despair a week before the election. Poor results for the Democrats in those states that had elections for other offices in September and October presaged defeat for Greeley, and so it proved. He received 2,834,125 votes to 3,597,132 for Grant, who secured 286 electors to 66 chosen for Greeley. The editor-turned-candidate won only six states (out of 37): Georgia, Kentucky, Maryland, Missouri, Tennessee and Texas.

Appraisal.

Despite the venom that had been spewed over him in the presidential campaign, Greeley's death was widely mourned. "Harper's Weekly", which had printed Nast's cartoons, wrote, "Since the assassination of Mr. Lincoln, the death of no American has been so sincerely deplored as that of Horace Greeley; and its tragical circumstances have given a peculiarly affectionate pathos to all that has been said of him." Henry Ward Beecher wrote in the "Christian Union", "when Horace Greeley died, unjust and hard judgment of him died also". Harriett Beecher Stowe noted Greeley's eccentric dress, "That poor white hat! If, alas, it covered many weaknesses, it covered also much strength, much real kindness and benevolence, and much that the world will be better for".  Greeley supported liberal policies towards the fast-growing western regions; he memorably advised the ambitious to "Go West, young man." He hired Karl Marx because of his interest in coverage of working-class society and politics, attacked monopolies of all sorts, and rejected land grants to railroads. Industry would make everyone rich, he insisted, as he promoted high tariffs. He supported vegetarianism, opposed liquor and paid serious attention to any ism anyone proposed.  Historian Iver Bernstein says:  Greeley's view of freedom was based in the desire that all should have the opportunity to better themselves. According to his biographer, Erik S. Lunde, "a dedicated social reformer deeply sympathetic to the treatment of poor white males, slaves, free blacks, and white women, he still espoused the virtues of self-help and free enterprise". Van Deusen stated: "His genuine human sympathies, his moral fervor, even the exhibitionism that was a part of his makeup, made it inevitable that he should crusade for a better world. He did so with apostolic zeal."  Nevertheless, Greeley's effectiveness as a reformer was undermined by his idiosyncrasies: according to Williams, he "must have looked like an apparition, a man of eccentric habits dressed in an old linen coat that made him look like a farmer who came into town for supplies". Van Deusen wrote, "Greeley's effectiveness as a crusader was limited by some of his traits and characteristics. Culturally deficient, he was to the end ignorant of his own limitations, and this ignorance was a great handicap."  The "Tribune" remained under that name until 1924, when it merged with the New York "Herald" to become the New York "Herald-Tribune", which was published until 1966. The name survived until 2013, when the "International Herald-Tribune" became the "International New York Times".  There is a statue of Greeley in City Hall Park in New York, donated by the Tribune Association. Cast in 1890, it was not dedicated until 1916. A second statue of Greeley is located in Greeley Square in Midtown Manhattan. Greeley Square, at Broadway and 33rd Street, was named by the New York City Common Council in a vote after Greeley's death. Van Deusen concluded his biography of Greeley:

Horace Greeley (February 3, 1811 – November 29, 1872) was an American newspaper editor and publisher who was the founder and editor of the "New-York Tribune", among the great newspapers of its time. Long active in politics, he served briefly as a congressman from New York, and was the unsuccessful candidate of the new Liberal Republican party in the 1872 presidential election against incumbent President Ulysses S. Grant, who won by a landslide.

Horace Greeley (* 3. Februar 1811 in Amherst, New Hampshire; † 29. November 1872 in Pleasantville, New York) war ein US-amerikanischer Zeitungsverleger, Gründer der "New York Tribune", Politiker und Gegner der Sklaverei.


French Revolution.

Decaen, born in Caen, served as a gunner in the French Navy before the French Revolution. In 1792 Decaen enlisted in the "Calvados" battalion. He served under Kléber in the siege of Mainz. Promoted to adjudant-general, Decaen served in the uprising of the Vendée. He fought under the generals Canclaux, Dubayet, Moreau and Kléber. Promoted to general of brigade, Decaen was captured in the attack on Frantzenthal. After having given his parole he was exchanged.  In 1796 he served under Moreau in the operations near the Rhine and he distinguished himself in the passage of the river and the siege of Kehl, for which he was awarded a sword of honor by the French Directory. In 1800 he captured Munich and that December he commanded a division in the Battle of Hohenlinden. In that battle, he reacted "confidently and aggressively" in a confusing situation in heavy forest during a snowstorm. His attack defeated the southernmost Austrian column and contributed greatly to the overall French success. For his role at Hohenlinden he was promoted to general of division (Major-General).

Service to the Empire.

In Pondicherry.

Possibly singled out for "exile" by Napoleon Bonaparte for his association with Moreau's Army of the Rhine, Decaen was sent on a difficult mission to the French establishment in India in 1802. From 1803 to 1810, he defended the remote Île Bourbon (Réunion) and Isle de France (Mauritius) against all the efforts of the British. Ultimately overwhelmed by superior numbers, he obtained an honorable capitulation. He released Matthew Flinders from house arrest in April 1810, a few months before the Battle of Grand Port (August) and the capitulation to the British on 3 December of the same year.

Spain and fall of the Empire.

Upon his return he was made a count and made the head of the Army of Catalonia from October 1811 to January 1814, fighting in Spain. From his headquarters in Barcelona, he reported to Marshal Louis Gabriel Suchet. He formed the Catalan guides and gained their high regard. At Suchet's request, he sent the troops who raised the Siege of Tarragona. In 1814, he tried in vain to keep the British out of Bordeaux. After the first abdication of Napoléon I he recognized Louis XVIII and he was appointed as governor of the 11th military division (Bordeaux). Decaen made an unsuccessful effort to maintain the royal authority in that city after the return of Napoleon I from Elba in 1815.  After the royal princes had left France, Decaen rejoined the emperor's side and during the Hundred Days, he commanded troops in the south of France, for which he was imprisoned for five months after the Bourbon restoration which occurred after Waterloo. After his release he retired to civil life until he was recalled to activity by Louis-Philippe I in 1830. He died two years later.

Charles Mathieu Isidore Decaen (13 April 1769 – 9 September 1832) was a French general who served during the French Revolutionary Wars, as Governor General of Pondicherry and the Isle de France (now Mauritius) and as commander of the Army of Catalonia during the Napoleonic Wars.

Charles Matthieu Isidore Graf von Decaen (* 13. April 1769 zu Creuilly bei Caen; † 9. September 1832 in Deuil-la-Barre (Val-d'Oise)) war ein französischer Général de division.


History.

Ralston Purina (originally Ralston-Purina) traces its roots to 1894, when founder William H. Danforth established the animal feed company Purina Mills. Danforth, formed a partnership with George Robinson; William Andrews, entered the business of feeding farm animals by founding the Robinson-Danforth Commission Company. Its predominant brand for each animal was generally referred to as "Chow"; hence "Purina Horse Chow", "Purina Dog Chow", "Purina Cat Chow", "Purina Rabbit Chow", "Purina Pig Chow", and "Purina Monkey Chow".  Later, the company began producing cereal, which received endorsement by Webster Edgerly, founder of Ralstonism, to market Ralston breakfast cereals. Edgerly was at the time promoting the consumption of whole-grain cereal. These cereals became so successful that the name of the enterprise was changed in 1902 to the Ralston-Purina Company.  In 1986, Ralston Purina sold Purina Mills, its US animal feed business, to British Petroleum. Purina Mills is now owned by Land O'Lakes. In 1994, the Ralston "human food" operations of the Ralston Purina Company were spun off into a new company called Ralcorp Holdings. In 1998, Ralston Purina spun off its international animal feed business as Agribrands, which was acquired by Cargill in 2001. The animal feed businesses continue to use the Purina and Chow brands, which Purina Mills and Cargill license for use in the US and internationally, respectively.

Merger with Nestlé.

Ralston Purina became the subject of an acquisition bid by Swiss-based Nestlé, whose Friskies brand was the other leading US brand of pet food. Nestlé S.A. and Ralston Purina announced in January 2001 a definitive merger agreement. Under the agreement, Nestlé acquired all of Ralston Purina's (NYSE: RAL) outstanding shares for US$33.50 per share in cash. The offer represented a premium of 36% over the closing price on Friday, January 12, 2001. The transaction had an enterprise value of US$10.3 billion ($10.0 billion equity plus $1.2 billion of net debt, minus $0.9 billion of financial investments).  Both corporations saw this major strategic transaction as the ideal way to benefit from their combined know-how, complementary strengths, and international presence in the growing pet-care market. Several brands of pet food (e.g., "Meow Mix") had to be divested separately to meet antitrust concerns. Purina brands are now made and marketed by a division of Nestlé (Nestlé Purina PetCare) which is still headquartered in St. Louis.  While primarily a pet-food company, Ralston Purina also made some other pet-related products, such as Tidy Cats brand and Yesterday's News cat litter, which is made from recycled newspaper, purchased from Edward Lowe Industries in 1990. Also, Purina has honoured several Canadian animals every year since 1968 in their Animal Hall of Fame. The latest inductees included a police service dog which "rushed and subdued an armed robber".

Acquisitions and diversifications.

In 1977, Ralston Purina acquired Missouri Arena Corporation and the St. Louis Blues National Hockey League franchise. During the company's ownership of the team, they changed the name of the St. Louis Arena to the Checkerdome, reflecting the Ralston Purina logo. The franchise was sold to Harry Ornest on July 27, 1983.  Ralston Purina purchased the Eveready Battery Company in 1986, owner of the Eveready and Energizer brands. The company was spun off in 2000.  Ralston Purina purchased Continental Baking Company, makers of Wonder bread and Hostess cakes, from ITT in 1984. Ralston spun off Continental Baking Company, subsequently bought by Irving, Texas–based Interstate Brands Corporation (IBC).  Ralston Purina opened test market pizza stores called Checkerboard Pizza in 1986. The format was similar to Domino's and Little Caesars. They opened the stores in markets such as Moorhead, Minnesota, to test how the Midwestern market would accept the concept. They did well, but Ralston Purina decided not to enter the pizza franchise business and closed all pilots by late 1987. Ralston Purina owned and further developed the Keystone ski resort in Colorado. The "Checkerboard" slope for kids and beginners at Keystone still bears their logo.  Ralston Purina also owned Jack in the Box fast food restaurants from 1968 to 1985, along with several high-end restaurants.  Ralston Purina owned Van Camp Sea Food Company from 1963 to 1988, a tuna cannery with Chicken of the Sea as its main product.  Ralston Purina owned an animal pharmaceutical company in the 1970s and 1980s.

Logo.

Ralston Purina's "checkerboard" trademark was introduced in 1902. It was inspired by William Danforth's childhood memory of a family dressed in clothing made from the same bolt of checkerboard cloth. The company's headquarters was called Checkerboard Square. Danforth used the design as the visualization of a concept put forth in his book "I Dare You", in which he proposed that four key components in life ("Physical", "Mental", "Social", and "Religious") need to be in balance, and one area was not to develop at the expense of the others. In 1921, the design inspired the design of feed that was pressed in cubes, called "checkers".

Ralston Purina Company was a St. Louis, Missouri–based American animal feed, food and pet food company. On December 12, 2001, it merged with Swiss food-giant Nestlé's Friskies division to form Nestlé Purina PetCare Company.

Ralston Purina Company war ein US-amerikanischer Tiernahrungskonzern mit Hauptsitz in St. Louis im US-Bundesstaat Missouri. 1894 gründet William H. Danforth (1870–1955) die Robinson Danforth Commission Company, die spezielle Nahrung für Farmtiere herstellt. Der Name Purina entstand aus dem Firmenslogan „Where purity is paramount“ (etwa „Reinheit ist unser höchstes Gebot“). Das Logo mit den neun roten und weißen Quadraten (Checkerboard) entwickelte sich nach Firmenangaben aus William H. Danforth Kindheitserinnerungen an eine Nachbarfamilie, die ihre Kinder in rot-weiß karierten Anzüge kleidete. 1902 übernahm William H. Danforths dieses Muster für seine Produkte.


Biography.

Born in Milan, in what is now northern Italy, he was the son of Prince Emanuel of Liechtenstein and Maria Anna Antonia, Countess of Dietrichstein-Weichselstädt, Baroness zu Hollenburg und Finkenstein (10 September 1706 – 7 June 1777). Franz Josef was the eldest of their thirteen children. He was a nephew of Joseph Wenzel I, whom he succeeded on 10 February 1772.  Franz Joseph had been recognised heir to Liechtenstein since 1723, when his uncle's only son had died. Joseph Wenzel took Franz Joseph under his wing and Franz Joseph accompanied him in a campaign in Northern Italy, fighting with Wenzel at the Battle of Piacenza. The battle was a victory for the Holy Roman Empire, of which Liechtenstein was a part.  He was the 802nd Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Austria.  In 1763, Franz Josef traveled on behalf of the Emperor to Spain, to bring the bride of Archduke Leopold a picture of the Archduke. In 1767, he became Privy Councillor, and in 1771, he received the Order of the Golden Fleece.  Once Franz Joseph became Prince of Liechtenstein, he showed great interest in its economic problems and the ever-increasing Liechtenstein art collection. He died in Metz in 1781.

Marriage and issue.

Franz Josef married Marie Leopoldine Gräfin von Sternberg (Vienna, 11 December 1733 – Feldsberg, 27 June 1809), a member of the Bohemian nobility, on 6 July 1750 in Valtice or Feldsberg. The couple had 8 children:

Franz Joseph I, Prince of Liechtenstein, born "Franz de Paula Josef Johann Nepomuk Andreas" (19 November 1726 – 18 August 1781), was the Prince of Liechtenstein from 1772 until his death.

Franz Josef I. (* 19. November 1726 in Mailand; † 18. August 1781 in Metz) war von 1772 bis 1781 der 8. Fürst von Liechtenstein und Feldherr.


Counter parallel.

The "counter parallel" or "contrast chord" is terminology used in German theory derived mainly from Hugo Riemann to refer to (US:) relative (German: parallel) diatonic functions and is abbreviated Tcp in major and tCp in minor (Tkp respectively tKp in Riemann's diction). The chord can be seen as the "tonic parallel reversed" and is in a major key the same chord as the dominant parallel (Dp) and in a minor key equal to the subdominant parallel (sP); yet, it has another function. According to Riemann the chord is derived through Leittonwechselklänge (German, literally: "leading-tone changing sounds"), sometimes called "gegenklang" or "contrast chord", abbreviated Tl in major and tL in minor, or, in German literature, abbreviated Tg in major and tG in minor (standing for "Gegenklang" or "Gegenparallel"). If chords may be formed by raising (major) or lowering (minor) the fifth a whole step ["parallel" or relative chords], they may also be formed by lowering (major) or raising (minor) the root a half-step to "wechsel", the leading tone or "leitton".  For example, Am is the tonic parallel of C, thus, Em is the counter parallel of C. The usual parallel chord in a major key is a minor third below the root and the counter parallel is a major third above. In a minor key the intervals are reversed: the tonic parallel (e.g. Eb in Cm) is a minor third above, and the counter parallel (e.g. Ab in Cm) is a major third below. Both the parallel and the counter parallel have two notes in common with the tonic (Am and C share C & E; Em and C share E & G).  A chord should be analysed as a Tcp rather than Dp or sP particularly at cadential points, for example at an interrupted cadence, where it substitutes the tonic. It is most easily recognised in a minor key since it creates an ascending semitone step at the end of the cadence by moving from the major dominant chord to the minor counter parallel:  In four-part harmony, the Tcp usually has a doubled third to avoid consecutive fifths or octaves. This further emphasises its coherency with the tonic, since the third of the minor key counter parallel is the same as the tonic root which thus is doubled.

Parallel and Counter parallel chords are terms derived from the German ("Parallelklang", "Gegenparallelklang") to denote what is more often called in English the "relative", and possibly the "counter relative" chords. In Hugo Riemann's theory, and in German theory more generally, these chords share the function of the chord to which they link: subdominant parallel, dominant parallel, and tonic parallel. Riemann defines the relation in terms of the movement of one single note:

Gegenklänge, auch Gegenparallelen oder Leittonwechselklänge bezeichnen Begriffe aus der Funktionstheorie und zählen zu den Nebenfunktionen einer Tonart. Sie sind mit den Hauptfunktionen (Tonika, Dominante und Subdominante) einer Tonart großterzverwandt und stellen quasi „Gegenpole“ zu den kleinterzverwandten Parallelklängen dar. In Dur liegen sie eine große Terz "über", in Moll eine große Terz "unter" der zugehörigen Hauptfunktion. Gegen(drei)klänge in Dur sind Molldreiklänge, in Moll sind es Durdreiklänge. In der Funktionstheorie werden sie durch ein an das Symbol der zugehörigen Hauptfunktion angehängtes g oder G gekennzeichnet, wobei Großbuchstaben für Dur, Kleinbuchstaben für Moll stehen.