Pre-zygotic isolation.

Pre-zygotic isolation mechanisms are the most economic in terms of the natural selection of a population, as resources are not wasted on the production of a descendant that is weak, non-viable or sterile. These mechanisms include physiological or systemic barriers to fertilization.

Temporal or habitat isolation.

Any of the factors that prevent potentially fertile individuals from meeting will reproductively isolate the members of distinct species. The types of barriers that can cause this isolation include: different habitats, physical barriers, and a difference in the time of sexual maturity or flowering.  An example of the ecological or habitat differences that impede the meeting of potential pairs occurs in two fish species of the family "Gasterosteidae" (sticklebacks). One species lives all year round in fresh water, mainly in small streams. The other species lives in the sea during winter, but in spring and summer individuals

Behavioral isolation.

The different mating rituals of animal species creates extremely powerful reproductive barriers, termed sexual or behavior isolation, that isolate apparently similar species in the majority of the groups of the animal kingdom. In dioecious species, males and females have to search for a partner, be in proximity to each other, carry out the complex mating rituals and finally copulate or release their gametes into the environment in order to breed.  Mating dances, the songs of males to attract females or the mutual grooming of pairs, are all examples of typical courtship behavior that allows both recognition and reproductive isolation. This is because each of the stages of courtship depend on the behavior of the partner. The male will only move onto

Mechanical isolation.

Mating pairs may not be able to couple successfully if their genitals are not compatible. The relationship between the reproductive isolation of species and the form of their genital organs was signaled for the first time in 1844 by the French entomologist Léon Dufour. Insects' rigid carapaces act in a manner analogous to a lock and key, as they will only allow mating between individuals with complementary structures, that is, males and females of the same species (termed "co-specifics").  Evolution

Gametic isolation.

The synchronous spawning of many species of coral in marine reefs means that inter-species hybridization can take place as the gametes of hundreds of individuals of tens of species are liberated into the same water at the same time. Approximately a third of all the possible crosses between species are compatible, in the sense that the gametes will fuse and lead to individual hybrids. This hybridization apparently plays a fundamental role in the evolution of coral species. However, the other two-thirds of possible crosses are incompatible. It has been observed that in sea urchins of the genus "Strongylocentrotus" the concentration of spermatocytes that allow 100% fertilization of the ovules of the same species is only able to fertilize 1.5% of the ovules of other species. This inability to produce hybrid offspring, despite the fact that the gametes are

Post-zygotic isolation.

A number of mechanisms which act after fertilization preventing successful inter-population crossing are discussed below.

Zygote mortality and non-viability of hybrids.

A type of incompatibility that is found as often in plants as in animals occurs when the egg or ovule is fertilized but the zygote does not develop, or it develops and the resulting individual has a reduced viability. This is the case for crosses between species of the frog genus, where widely differing results are observed depending upon the species involved. In some crosses there is no segmentation of the zygote (or it may be that the hybrid is extremely non-viable and changes occur from the first mitosis). In others, normal segmentation occurs in the blastula but gastrulation fails. Finally, in other crosses, the initial stages are normal but errors occur in the final phases of embryo

Hybrid sterility.

A hybrid may have normal viability but is typically deficient in terms of reproduction or is sterile. This is demonstrated by the mule and in many other well known hybrids. In all of these cases sterility is due to the interaction between the genes of the two species involved; to chromosomal imbalances due to the different number of chromosomes in the parent species; or to nucleus-cytoplasmic interactions such as in the case of "Culex" described above.  Hinnies and mules are hybrids resulting from a cross between a horse and a donkey or between a mare and a donkey, respectively. These animals are nearly always sterile due to the difference in the number of chromosomes between the two parent species. Both horses and donkeys belong to the genus "Equus", but "Equus caballus" has 64 chromosomes, while "Equus asinus" only has 62. A cross will produce

Multiple mechanisms.

In general, the barriers that separate species do not consist of just one mechanism. The twin species of "Drosophila", "D. pseudoobscura" and "D. persimilis", are isolated from each other by habitat ("persimilis" generally lives in colder regions at higher altitudes), by the timing of the mating season ("persimilis" is generally more active in the morning and "pseuoobscura" at night) and by behavior during mating (the females of both species prefer the males of their respective species). In this way, although the

Hybrid sex: Haldane's rule.

Haldane's rule states that when one of the two sexes is absent in interspecific hybrids between two specific species, then the sex that is not produced, is rare or is sterile is the heterozygous (or heterogametic) sex. In mammals, at least, there is growing evidence to suggest that this is due to high rates of mutation of the genes determining masculinity in the Y chromosome.  It has been suggested that Haldane's rule simply reflects the fact that the male sex

Genetics.

Pre-copulatory mechanisms in animals.

The genetics of ethological isolation barriers will be discussed first. Pre-copulatory isolation occurs when the genes necessary for the sexual reproduction of one species differ from the equivalent genes of another species, such that if a male of species A and a female of species B are placed together they are unable to copulate. Study of the genetics involved in this reproductive barrier tries to identify the genes that govern distinct sexual behaviors in the two species. The males of "Drosophila melanogaster" and those of "D. simulans" conduct an elaborate courtship with their respective females, which are different for each species, but the differences between the species are more quantitative than qualitative. In fact the "simulans" males are able to hybridize with the "melanogaster" females. Although there are

Post-copulation or fertilization mechanisms in animals.

Reproductive isolation between species appears, in certain cases, a long time after fertilization and the formation of the zygote, as happens – for example – in the twin species "Drosophila pavani" and "D. gaucha". The hybrids between both species are not sterile, in the sense that they produce viable gametes, ovules and spermatozoa. However, they cannot produce offspring as the sperm of the hybrid male do not survive in the semen receptors of the females, be they hybrids or from the parent lines. In the same way, the sperm of the males of the two parent species do not survive in the reproductive tract of the hybrid female. This type of post-copulatory isolation appears as the most efficient system for maintaining reproductive isolation in many species.  The development of a zygote into an adult is a complex and delicate process of interactions between genes and the environment that must be carried out precisely, and if there is any alteration in the usual process, caused by the absence of a necessary gene or the presence of a different one, it can arrest the normal development causing the non-viability of the hybrid or its sterility. It should be borne in mind that half of the chromosomes and genes

In plants.

A large variety of mechanisms have been demonstrated to reinforce reproductive isolation between closely related plant species that either historically lived or currently live in sympatry. This phenomenon is driven by strong selection against hybrids, typically resulting from instances in which hybrids suffer reduced fitness. Such negative fitness consequences have been proposed to be the result of negative epistasis in hybrid genomes and can also result from the effects of hybrid sterility. In such cases, selection gives rise to population-specific isolating mechanisms to prevent either fertilization by interspecific gametes or the development of hybrid embryos.  Because many sexually reproducing species of

Examples of pre-fertilization mechanisms.

A well-documented example of a pre-fertilization isolating mechanism comes from study of Louisiana iris species. These iris species were fertilized with interspecific and conspecific pollen loads and it was demonstrated by measure of hybrid progeny success that differences in pollen-tube growth between interspecific and conspecific pollen led to a lower fertilization rate by interspecific pollen. This

Examples of post-fertilization mechanisms.

Crosses between diploid and tetraploid species of Paspalum provide evidence of a post-fertilization mechanism preventing hybrid formation when pollen from tetraploid species was used to fertilize a female of a diploid species. There

Effects of hybrid necrosis.

Plant hybrids often suffer from an autoimmune syndrome known as hybrid necrosis. In the hybrids, specific gene products contributed by one of the parents may be

Chromosomal rearrangements in yeast.

In brewers' yeast "Saccharomyces cerevisiae", chromosomal rearrangements are a major mechanism to reproductively isolate different strains. Hou et al. showed that reproductive isolation acts postzygotically and could be

Incompatibility caused by microorganisms.

In addition to the genetic causes of reproductive isolation between species there is another factor that can cause post zygotic isolation: the presence of microorganisms in the cytoplasm of certain species. The presence of these organisms in a species and their absence in another causes the non-viability of the corresponding hybrid. For example, in the semi-species of the group "D. paulistorum" the hybrid females are fertile but the males are sterile, this is due to the presence of a "Wolbachia" in the cytoplasm which alters spermatogenesis leading to sterility. It is interesting that incompatibility or isolation can also arise at an intraspecific level. Populations of "D. simulans" have been studied that show hybrid sterility according to the direction

Selection.

In 1950 K. F. Koopman reported results from experiments designed to examine the hypothesis that selection can increase reproductive isolation between populations. He used "D. pseudoobscura" and "D. persimilis" in these experiments. When the flies of these species are kept at 16 °C approximately a third of the matings are interspecific. In the experiment equal numbers of males and females of both species were placed in containers suitable for their survival and reproduction. The progeny of each generation were examined in order to determine if there were any interspecific hybrids. These hybrids were then eliminated. An equal number of males and females of the resulting progeny were then chosen to act as progenitors of the next generation. As the hybrids were destroyed in each generation the flies that solely mated with members of their own species produced more surviving descendants than the flies that mated solely with individuals of the other species. In the adjacent table it can be seen that for each generation the number of hybrids continuously decreased up to the tenth generation when hardly any interspecific hybrids were produced. It is evident that selection against the hybrids was very effective in increasing reproductive isolation between these species. From the third generation, the proportions of the hybrids were less than 5%.

Notes.

a. The DNA of the mitochondria and chloroplasts is inherited from the maternal line, i.e. all the progeny derived from a particular cross possess the same cytoplasm (and genetic factors located in it) as the female progenitor. This is because the zygote possesses the same cytoplasm as the ovule, although its nucleus comes equally from the father and the mother.

The mechanisms of reproductive isolation are a collection of evolutionary mechanisms, behaviors and physiological processes critical for speciation. They prevent members of different species from producing offspring, or ensure that any offspring are sterile. These barriers maintain the integrity of a species by reducing gene flow between related species.

Isolationsmechanismen beschreiben in der Evolutionstheorie Eigenschaften von Organismen verschiedener Arten oder Populationen, die bei sexueller Fortpflanzung die Bildung von Nachkommen untereinander verhindern, die zum Genpool der betreffenden Arten beitragen. Diese so genannte reproduktive Isolation ist Voraussetzung dafür, dass Arten getrennt voneinander bleiben, wenn sie in Kontakt zueinander stehen, vor allem, weil sie gemeinsam im selben Lebensraum vorkommen. Die Ausbildung von Isolationsmechanismen ist daher wesentlich für den Vorgang der Artbildung.


Military career.

509th Composite Group.

Sweeney became an instructor in the atomic missions training project, Project Alberta, at Wendover Army Airfield, Utah. Selected to be part of the 509th Composite Group commanded by Col. Paul Tibbets, he was named commander of the 320th Troop Carrier Squadron on 6 January 1945. Initially his squadron used C-47 Skytrain and C-46 Commando transports on hand to conduct the top secret operations to supply the 509th, but in April 1945 it acquired five C-54 Skymasters, which had the range to deliver personnel and materiel to the western Pacific area.  On May 4, 1945, Sweeney became commander of the 393d Bombardment Squadron, Heavy, the combat element of the 509th, in charge of 15 Silverplate B-29s and their flight and ground crews, 535 men in all. In June and July Sweeney moved his unit to North Field on the island of Tinian in the Marianas.  In addition to supervising the intensive training of his flight crews during July 1945, Sweeney was slated to command the second atomic bomb mission. He trained with the crew of Captain (Charles D.) Don Albury aboard their B-29 "The Great Artiste", and was aircraft commander on the training mission of July 11. He and the crew flew five of the nine rehearsal test drops of inert Little Boy and Fat Man bomb assemblies in preparation for the missions.  On 6 August 1945, Sweeney and Albury piloted "The Great Artiste" as the instrumentation and observation support aircraft for the atomic bomb attack on Hiroshima.

The Nagasaki Mission.

On 9 August 1945, Major Sweeney commanded "Bockscar", which carried the atomic bomb "Fat Man" from the island of Tinian to Nagasaki. In addition to "Bockscar", the mission included two observation and instrumentation support B-29s, "The Great Artiste" and "The Big Stink", who would rendezvous with "Bockscar" over Yakushima Island. At the mission pre-briefing, the three planes were ordered to make their rendezvous over Yakushima at 30,000 feet due to weather conditions over Iwo Jima (the Hiroshima mission rendezvous). That same morning, on the day of the mission, the ground crew notified Sweeney that a faulty fuel transfer pump made it impossible to utilize some 625 gallons of fuel in the tail, but Sweeney, as aircraft commander, elected to proceed with the mission.  Before takeoff, Col. Tibbets warned Sweeney that he had lost at least 45 minutes of flying time because of the fuel pump problem, and to take no more than fifteen minutes at the rendezvous before proceeding directly to the primary target.  After takeoff from Tinian, "Bockscar" reached its rendezvous point and after circling for an extended period, found "The Great Artiste", but not "The Big Stink". Climbing to 30,000 feet, the assigned rendezvous altitude, both aircraft slowly circled Yakushima Island. Though Sweeney had been ordered not to wait at the rendezvous for the other aircraft longer than fifteen minutes before proceeding to the primary target, Sweeney continued to wait for "The Big Stink", perhaps at the urging of Commander Frederick Ashworth, the plane's weaponeer. After exceeding the original rendezvous time limit by a half-hour, "Bockscar", accompanied by "The Great Artiste", proceeded to the primary target, Kokura. No fewer than three bomb runs were made, but the delay at the rendezvous had resulted in 7/10ths cloud cover over the primary target, and the bombardier was unable to drop. By the time of the third bomb run, Japanese antiaircraft fire was getting close, and Japanese fighter planes could be seen climbing to intercept "Bockscar".  Poor bombing visibility and an increasingly critical fuel shortage eventually forced "Bockscar" to divert from Kokura and attack the secondary target, Nagasaki. As they approached Nagasaki, the heart of the city's downtown was covered by dense cloud, and Sweeney and the plane's weaponeer, Commander Ashworth, initially decided to bomb Nagasaki using radar. However, a small opening in the clouds allowed "Bockscar's" bombardier to verify the target as Nagasaki. As the crew had been ordered to drop the bomb visually if possible, Sweeney decided to proceed with a visual bomb run. "Bockscar" then dropped "Fat Man", with a blast yield equivalent to 21 kilotons of TNT. It exploded 43 seconds later at above the ground, at least northwest of the planned aim point. The failure to drop "Fat Man" at the precise bomb aim point caused the atomic blast to be confined to the Urakami Valley. As a consequence, a major portion of the city was protected by the intervening hills, and only 60% of Nagasaki was destroyed. The bombing also severed the Mitsubishi arms production extensively and killed an estimated 35,000–40,000 people outright, including 23,200–28,200 Japanese industrial workers, 2,000 Korean slave laborers, and 150 Japanese soldiers.  Low on fuel, "Bockscar" barely made it to the runway on Okinawa. With only enough fuel for one landing attempt, Sweeney brought "Bockscar" in fast and hard, ordering every available distress flare on board to be fired as he did so. The number two engine died from fuel starvation as "Bockscar" began its final approach. Touching the runway hard, the heavy B-29 slewed left and towards a row of parked B-24 bombers before the pilots managed to regain control. With both pilots standing on the brakes, Sweeney made a swerving 90-degree turn at the end of the runway to avoid going over the cliff into the ocean. 2nd Lt. Jacob Beser recalled that at this point, two engines had died from fuel exhaustion, while "the centrifugal force resulting from the turn was almost enough to put us through the side of the airplane."  After "Bockscar" returned to Tinian, Col. Tibbets recorded that he was faced with the dilemma of considering “if any action should be taken against the airplane commander, Charles Sweeney, for failure to command.” After meeting on Guam with Col. Tibbets and Major Sweeney, General Curtis LeMay, chief of staff for the Strategic Air Forces, confronted Sweeney, stating ""You fucked up, didn't you, Chuck?"", to which Sweeney made no reply. LeMay then turned to Tibbets and told him that an investigation into Sweeney's conduct of the mission would serve no useful purpose.  In November 1945, Sweeney returned with the 509th Composite Group to Roswell Army Air Base in New Mexico to train aircrews for the atomic testing mission, Operation Crossroads.

Post-war activities.

Sweeney left active duty with the rank of lieutenant colonel on June 28, 1946, but remained active with the Massachusetts Air National Guard. Later promoted to full colonel, on February 21, 1956, Sweeney was named commander of its 102nd Air Defense Wing and shortly after, on April 6, was promoted to Brigadier General. During this time, he was activated with the 102nd and served in Europe during the Berlin Crisis from October 1961 to August 1962. Sweeney was made Chief of Staff in October 1967.  In the 1960s, Sweeny coordinated civil defense in Boston, serving as the Boston Director of Civil Defense.  He retired in 1976 as a major general in the Air National Guard. He also appeared in the 1970s television series "The World at War" and was seen explaining the USAAF buildup to the mission raids.  Throughout his life Sweeney remained convinced of the appropriateness and necessity of the bombing. "I saw these beautiful young men who were being slaughtered by an evil, evil military force," he said in 1995. "There's no question in my mind that President Truman made the right decision." At the same time, he said, "As the man who commanded the last atomic mission, I pray that I retain that singular distinction."

Later life.

Near the end of his life, Sweeney wrote a controversial and factually disputed memoir of the atomic bombing and the 509th Composite Group, "War's End: An Eyewitness Account of America's Last Atomic Mission". In "War's End", Sweeney defended the decision to drop the atomic bomb in light of subsequent historical questioning. However, it was Sweeney's other assertions regarding the Nagasaki atomic mission, along with various anecdotes regarding the 509th and its crews that drew the most criticism. General Paul Tibbets, Major "Dutch" Van Kirk, Colonel Thomas Ferebee and others vigorously disputed Sweeney's account of events. Partly in response to "War's End", General Tibbets issued a revised version of his own autobiography in 1998, adding a new section on the Nagasaki attack in which he harshly criticized Sweeney's actions during the mission.  In his later years Charles Sweeney performed in various air shows doing many maneuvers to awe crowds. Sweeney died at age 84 on July 16, 2004 at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston.  A short documentary featuring an audio recording of Sweeney describing the Nagasaki mission preparation and execution called "Nagasaki: The Commander's Voice" was made in 2005. The 2002 audio recording was the last one made before his death.

Awards.

Armed Forces Reserve Medal with gold hourglass device  Small Arms Expert Marksmanship Ribbon  Massachusetts Air National Guard Service Medal

Charles W. Sweeney (December 27, 1919 – July 16, 2004) was an officer in the United States Army Air Forces during World War II and the pilot who flew Bockscar carrying the Fat Man atomic bomb to the Japanese city of Nagasaki on August 9, 1945. Separating from active duty at the end of World War II, he later became an officer in the Massachusetts Air National Guard as the Army Air Forces transitioned to an independent United States Air Force, eventually rising to the rank of major general.

Charles W. Sweeney (* 27. Dezember 1919 in Lowell, Massachusetts; † 15. Juli 2004 in Boston, Massachusetts) war ein Brigadegeneral der amerikanischen Luftwaffe. Er war Pilot des B-29-Bombers "Bockscar", von welchem die Atombombe "Fat Man" auf die japanische Stadt Nagasaki abgeworfen wurde.


Names and etymology.

The name is of Slavic or Latin origin. The first interpretation is straightforward – the name consists of two parts: "komár" (Slavic/Slovak: a mosquito) and an ending "-no" (a place name). Thus, Komárno means "a place with many mosquitos", reflecting a location in a swampy area near the Danube. According to another theory, the name could be derived from Latin "commercium" (a trade center).  One disputed record of the name of the settlement can be dated back to 1075 as "Camarum". Further documents mention the settlement as Kamarn(iensis) / Komarn(iense) (1218), Kamarum (1266), Camarum (1268), Kamar (1283) and many other, e.g. Camaron, Comaron (between 1372–1498). "Villa Camarun" was one of the 23 settlements belonging to the domain of the Komárom castle.  The Hungarian name for the town is historically "Komárom". Since the town has been split, the more colloquial names "Révkomárom" (Komárom Port), "Öregkomárom" (Old Komárom) and "Észak-Komárom" (North Komárom) are used to distinguish it from the town on the Hungarian side, which is simply called Komárom.

History.

Komárno, located at the confluence of the Danube (rom. Ister) and Váh rivers, 108 – 115 meters above sea level, is an old settlement. Findings stem from the Neolithic, Eneolithic period, the Bronze Age. Many archaeological remains found throughout the region surrounding Komárno indicate the area was settled by the Celts toward the end of the 1st Century BC.  During the 1st century AD the Roman Empire extended its frontiers over the region forming the province of Pannonia (present day Transdanubia). Here the Romans, on the southern shore of the Danube, established the military camp and the settlement Brigetio. A chain of fortifications built along the Danube shores protected the camp and town. On the northern shore of the Danube, the fortified bridgehead of Celemantia (near present-day Izsa), was built at the beginning of the 2nd century. Some historians suppose that there was a similar Roman fortress on site of the Komárno Castle because of the strategic importance of the place but excavations have not yet proved this theory. The Romans remained in Pannonia until the end of the 4th century when they were gradually pushed out by the strengthening attacks of barbarian tribes.  Gothic, Slavic and Avar findings have been excavated here from the 7th and 8th century AD. After the collapse of the Avar empire at the end of the 8th century, Komárno had remained one of the last resorts of the Avars. The most significant Avar findings are the so-called Shipyard-graves. They are one of the most significant Avar findings in the Carpathian Basin with 153 graves dated from the 7th–9th Century.  In the early 10th century the territory came under the rule of the Magyar tribes. According to the medieval chronicle Gesta Hungarorum, one of the Magyar tribal chieftains, Ketel established his domain near the mouth of the Váh river, his son Alaptolma later built a castle there and named it Komárom. Two-thirds of their people settled around the castle. Both Ketel and Alaptolma were buried in Komárom according to the pagan fashion. Soon after, during the time of the formation of the Hungarian State in the age of Stephen I the fortified settlement with its castle became the center of the Komárom county. The factual accuracy of the Gesta Hungarorum is often disputed and according to excavations, the present-day Komárno Castle was built only in the 12th century.  King Béla IV, in his charter of April 1, 1265, granted the settlement town status and privileges. These privileges contributed to the development of medieval Komárom, helping it establish a flourishing trade market and craft industry. Medieval Komárno prospered, especially under the reign of Mathias Corvinus. He built a renaissance palace within the castle complex and frequented it for rest and pleasure. Mathias Corvinus also established the royal Danube flotilla, which used the town as its main base during the Ottoman wars. In the 16th century Komárom became one of centers of defense for the Habsburg Empire against the expansion of the Ottoman Empire. During the middle of the 16th century, under the reign of Ferdinand I, the medieval castle was rebuilt into a well-defensible fortification. However, it was occupied by Ottomans between 1594–1599. The rebuilt fortification became known as the Old Fortress when in the 17th century it was enlarged and expanded to form the New Fortress. In 1663, Komárom became the seat of the Captaincy of Lower Hungary. Both the Old and New Fortresses successfully resisted the attacks of the Turkish army during the course of the Turkish wars. In the 18th century, after the end of the Turkish wars and expulsion of the Turks from the region, Komárom, one of the biggest towns in the country, again began to flourish. Maria Theresa's charter of the March 16, 1745 granted Komárom the status and privilege of a free royal town. Komárom was soon influenced by the Baroque styles that represented and characterized the Habsburg Empire and its territories. The local nobles and burgers built palaces and the newly arrived Trinitarians, Franciscans and Jesuits built churches.  During the 18th century Komárom experienced many natural disasters including floods, fires, earthquakes, and cholera and plague epidemics. Most notable of these natural disasters were the two earthquakes that completely destroyed the town in 1763 and 1783. Despite these calamities, Komárom continued to be an important center for trade and crafts until the middle of the 19th century. Beginning in the early 19th century, the fortifications surrounding Komárno underwent extensive reconstruction. The reconstruction was interrupted by the Hungarian Revolution of 1848. Komárom played a significant role in the revolution, remaining the last bastion of the Hungarian resistance against the Austrians until 1849, when the fortress and town were finally surrendered. Captain György Klapka handed over the fortress to the Austrians only after a statement that for every person in the fortress a free withdraw and passport is granted. The town was completely destroyed by the Austrian bombardment and left destitute. During the years of Austrian absolutism, Komárom quickly became a strategic military base. Various military buildings were constructed and in 1876 reconstruction of the fortification system was completed. The town itself only slowly recovered from the destruction during the revolutionary war. It lost its former economic importance and influence as a major town of the region.

20th century.

Komárom's recovery began at the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century, when construction of iron bridges across the Danube and Váh began as well as the first railway lines linking Komárno to the rest of Austro-Hungary. It soon became an important transport junction, attracting industry and trade. In 1896 the town of Újszőny on the south side of the Danube was combined with Komárom, allowing the town to expand its territory and development across the Danube.  With the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy after World War I, Komárom found itself under new rule. The forming of Czechoslovakia, whose natural border in the south became the Danube River, separated Komárom from its southern half. In 1919 (confirmed by the Treaty of Trianon in 1920), the territory to the north of the Danube was ceded to Czechoslovakia with the territory to the south of the Danube remaining in Hungary. The town on the northern shore was renamed to Komárno (today the Slovak name of the town), and in 1923 it was reduced from a county seat to a district seat. Although this resulted in a dramatic change in the national composition of Komárno, the majority remained Hungarian.  In fact Komárno became the center of cultural and social life of the Hungarians in Czechoslovakia. In 1938, under the First Vienna Award of that year, Komárno (now again as Komárom) was returned to Hungary. Its former name and status of town and county seat of the Komárom county was restored. At the onset of World War II Komárom/Komárno became a military center for the Germans and eventually the frontline for the Germans defending the oil refineries to the south. Although there was no heavy fighting in the Komárno area, it was bombarded several times. The bridges connecting the two territories were destroyed and most of the territory lying on the south bank of the Danube lay in ruins. After the WW II the territory on the north bank of the Danube became part of Czechoslovakia again and the town name was changed to Komárno. After the war, large-scale reconstruction of Komárno's industries began. The reconstruction of the SLKB Komarno (Komárno) - Slovak Shipyard Komárno, the town's largest industrial facility, was completed in 1950 and greatly promoted the economic development of the town. New factories were constructed in the west side of town near the shipyard creating a new industrial district. An urban development plan was implemented as well. Residential districts were created with new housing estates and wide roads were laid across the town.

Sights.

The majority of the historical and cultural sites, including the town center of the former Komárno, were well preserved and remain to this day. The county and town halls, the courthouse, St. Andrews Church, the Danube Museum, and other buildings are examples of some of the many historical structures still standing today. Klapka Square (named after György Klapka, the Hungarian general who defended Komárno against the Austrians in the War of Independence) and the well preserved remains of the fortification structure are Komárno's main historical monuments symbolizing both the pride and resilience of this historical important town. The fortification structure includes Old and New fortresses at the confluence of the rivers Danube and Váh and the bastions from the Palatine's line to protect the city from west and the bastions of the Váh's line to protect the river banks of Váh. Komárno and Komárom were one city during the Austria-Hungary era, that's why there are additionally three fortresses on the Hungary bank of the Danube river, Star (), Igmand and Monostor. Europe Square in the center purports to represent buildings from all parts of Europe. The buildings function as shops and restaurants.

Demographics and culture.

In 2001, the town had a population of 37,366. 60% of the inhabitants are Hungarians and Slovaks made up 34.7%.  Native language in 2011: 20080 Hungarian (58.5%), 9883 Slovak (28.8%), 139 Roma/Gipsy (0.4%), 213 Czech (0.7%) and 3813 with unknown native language (no data). Total population: 34349. Ethnicities in 2011: 18506 Hungarian (53.9%), 11509 Slovak (33.5%), 141 Roma/Gipsy (0.4%), 232 Czech (0.7%) and 3699 with unknown ethnicity (no data). Total population: 34349. (There is no possibility to declare two ethnicities or two native languages, many inhabitants do not declare ethnicity and native language because of discrimination in the past.) The overwhelming majority are bilingual.  In 2004 the first Hungarian-language university in Slovakia since 1919, the J. Selye University was established in Komárno. Serbs of Slovakia have had their seat in the town since the 15th century.

Twin towns — sister cities.

Komárno is twinned with:

Genealogical resources.

The records for genealogical research are available at the state archive "Statny Archiv in Nitra, Slovakia"

Komárno (, colloquially "Révkomárom, Öregkomárom, Észak-Komárom",, ) is a town in Slovakia at the confluence of the Danube and the Váh rivers. Komárno was formed from part of a historical town in Hungary situated on both banks of the Danube. Following World War I and the Treaty of Trianon, the border of the newly created Czechoslovakia cut the historical, unified town in half, creating two new towns. The smaller part, based on the former suburb of Újszőny, is in present-day Hungary as Komárom (the historical Hungarian town had the same name). Komárno and Komárom are connected by the Elisabeth Bridge, which used to be a border crossing between Slovakia and Hungary until border checks were lifted due to the Schengen Area rules.

Komárno, ungarisch Komárom (deutsch "Komorn") ist eine Stadt in der Slowakei im Nitriansky kraj mit zirka 37.000 Einwohnern (davon 22.452 (60,7 %) ungarisch, 12.960 (35 %) slowakisch (2001)). Sie ist ein Zentrum der ungarischen Minderheit in der Slowakei und Hauptstadt des Okres Komárno.


Before the war.

After studying at a Jesuit college and attempting to get a degree in law and political sciences from the Catholic University of Leuven, but never graduating, Degrelle worked as a journalist for the conservative Roman Catholic periodical "Christus Rex." During his time at this publication, he became attracted to the ideas of Charles Maurras and French Integralism. Until 1934, Degrelle worked as a correspondent for the paper in Mexico, during the Cristero War. He led a radical group inside the Catholic Party, based on the "Éditions de Rex" publishing house. The "Éditions" drew its name from the battle cry of the "Cristeros": "Viva Cristo Rey y Santa María de Guadalupe," alluding to "Christ the King".  Degrelle's actions inside the Catholic Party saw him come into opposition with the mainstream of the same party, many of whom were monarchist conservatives or centrists. The Rexist group, including the likes of Jean Denis, separated itself from the Catholic Party in 1935, after a meeting in Kortrijk. The newly formed party was heavily influenced by Fascism and Corporatism (but also included several elements interested solely in Nationalism or Ultramontanism); it had a vision of social equality that drew comparisons with Marxism but was staunchly anti-communist (anti-bolshevik). The party also came to denounce political corruption in Belgian politics. In 1936, in which Rex reached peak votes, it drew its support from Brussels (18.50%), Wallonia (15.16%), Flanders (7.01%), and Eupen-Malmedy (26.44%). Rexism had a Flemish ideological competitor in the Vlaamsch Nationaal Verbond which advocated an independent Flanders and exclusive use of the Dutch language. In 1936, Degrelle met Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler, both of them providing Rexism with funds (2 million lire and 100,000 marks) and ideological support. Elections in that year had given the "Parti Rexiste" 21 deputies and 12 senators, although its influence declined by 1939 when it managed to win only four seats in each Chamber. The party progressively added Nazi-inspired Antisemitism to its agenda, and soon established contacts with fascist movements around Europe. Degrelle notably met with Falange leader José Antonio Primo de Rivera and the Iron Guard's Corneliu Zelea Codreanu.  During this time (mid-1930s), Degrelle became acquainted with the cartoonist Hergé. In a volume published after his death ("Tintin mon copain"), the Rexist leader claimed that his years of journalism had inspired the creation of "The Adventures of Tintin"—ignoring Hergé's statements that the character was in fact based on his brother, Paul Remi. Degrelle had been shipping Mexican newspapers containing American cartoons to Belgium, and Hergé did admit years later in 1975 that Degrelle deserved credit for introducing him to the comic "strip".

Collaboration.

When the war began, Degrelle approved of King Leopold III's policy of neutrality. After the Germans invaded Belgium on 10 May 1940, the Rexist Party split over the matter of resistance. He was arrested as a suspected collaborator and evacuated to France. Unlike other Belgian deportees, Degrelle was spared in the and instead sent into a French concentration camp. He was later released when the occupation began.  Degrelle returned to Belgium and proclaimed reconstructed Rexism to be in close union with Nazism—in marked contrast with the small group of former Rexists (such as Théo Simon and Lucien Mayer) who had begun fighting against the Nazi occupiers from the underground. In August, Degrelle started contributing to a Nazi news source, "Le Pays Réel" (a reference to Charles Maurras). Degrelle joined the Walloon legion of the Wehrmacht, which was raised in August 1941, to fight against the Soviet Union on the Eastern Front. The leadership of the Rexists then passed to Victor Matthys. Lacking any previous military service, Degrelle joined as a private and was awarded the Iron Cross Second Class in March 1942. He quickly rose through the ranks, becoming a lieutenant in May 1942, and received the Iron Cross First Class the same month. Initially, the group was meant to represent a continuation of the Belgian Army, and fought as such during Operation Barbarossa, while integrating many Walloons who had volunteered for service. The Walloons were transferred from the Wehrmacht to the Waffen-SS in June 1943, becoming the Sturmbrigade Wallonien and served on the Eastern Front.  From 1940, the Belgian Roman Catholic hierarchy had banned all uniforms during Mass. On 25 July 1943, in his native Bouillon, Degrelle was told by Dean Rev Poncelet to leave a Requiem Mass, because he was wearing his SS uniform, which church authorities had prohibited. Degrelle was excommunicated by the Bishop of Namur, but the excommunication was later lifted by the Germans since as a German officer he was under the jurisdiction of the German chaplaincy. After being wounded at Cherkasy in 1943, Degrelle continued to climb the SS hierarchy after the inclusion of Walloons in the Waffen-SS.  During the battle of the Korsun-Cherkassy Pocket, fought from 24 January to 16 February 1944, the "Wallonien" was given the task of defending against Soviet attacks on the eastern side of the pocket. While General Wilhelm Stemmermann, the overall commander for the trapped forces, moved them to the west of the pocket in readiness for a breakout attempt, "Wallonien" and "Wiking" were ordered to act as a rearguard. After Lippert was killed, Degrelle took command of the Brigade, and the "Wallonien" began its withdrawal under heavy fire. Of the brigade's 2,000 men, only 632 survived.  For his actions at Korsun, Degrelle was promoted to SS-Sturmbannführer (major). He was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross ("Ritterkreuz") by Hitler in February 1944. Degrelle later claimed Hitler told him, "You are truly unique in history. You are a political leader who fights like a soldier. If I had a son, I would want him to be like you."  Six months later Degrelle was awarded the Knight's Cross with Oak Leaves, as were seven other non-Germans.  The unit was sent back to Wildflecken to be reformed. In June 1944, a 440-man battalion of the Wallonien was sent to Estonia to assist in the defence of the Tannenberg Line. After Operation Bagration began, Army Group North began to fall back into the Kurland Pocket. The battalion left through the port of Tallinn (Reval) on the Baltic Sea. The remnants of the Battalion were sent back to join the rest of the brigade, which was located at Breslau.  On 8 July 1944 Degrelle's brother Édouard, a pharmacist, was killed in Degrelle's hometown of Bouillon by Belgian resistance fighters. Shortly afterwards, a Rexist hit squad executed pharmacist Henri Charles. A few days later, three civilian hostages were executed, apparently on Degrelle's orders, as all three were known to be his political enemies.  He commanded "Sturmbrigade Wallonien" from 18 September 1944 to 8 May 1945. He led the unit in the defense of Estonia against the Soviets. He was promoted to SS-Obersturmbannführer (lieutenant colonel) in the early months of 1945.  Degrelle was promoted to SS-Standartenführer (colonel) on 20 April 1945. On 1 May 1945, Degrelle was promoted by SS Reichsfuhrer Heinrich Himmler to Brigadeführer (brigadier general). This promotion, however, was extralegal due to Himmler having been removed from office on Hitler's orders on 28 April.  Degrelle was wounded in action several times during the war and received the Wound Badge 1st Class and the Gold Close Combat Clasp. Although, none of his injuries were serious enough to require hospitalization.

After the war.

With the final surrender of Berlin on 2 May 1945, Degrelle was desperate to avoid Russian captivity and ordered as many of his worn-out veterans as possible to make for the Baltic port of Lübeck to surrender to the British. Degrelle himself fled first to Denmark and then Norway, where he commandeered a Heinkel He 111 aircraft, allegedly provided by Albert Speer. After a flight over portions of Allied-occupied Europe, he crash-landed on the beach at San Sebastian in northern Spain, but was gravely injured and hospitalized for over a year. Several attempts were made to bring Degrelle to justice, including an attempt to kidnap him, but they all failed.  In 1954, in order to prevent extradition to Belgium, Spain granted him Spanish citizenship under the name José León Ramírez Reina after being adopted by an older Spanish woman, and the Falange assigned him the leadership of a construction firm that benefited from state contracts, including with the U.S. government to build military airfields in Spain. Meanwhile, friends scoured Europe for his children. In time, all were found and spirited to Spain.  While in Francoist Spain, Degrelle maintained a high standard of living and frequently appeared in public and private meetings in a white uniform featuring his German decorations, while expressing his pride over his close contacts and "thinking bond" with Adolf Hitler. He continued to live undisturbed when Spain transitioned to democracy after the death of Franco, and continued publishing polemics, voicing his support for the political far right. He became active in the Neo-Nazi "Círculo Español de Amigos de Europa" (Cedade) and ran its printing press in Barcelona, where he published a large portion of his writings, including an "Open Letter" to Pope John Paul II on the topic of the Auschwitz concentration camp, asking the Pope not to go.  His repeated statements on the topic of Nazi genocide brought Degrelle to trial with Violeta Friedman, a Romanian-born survivor of the camps. Although lower courts were initially favourable to Degrelle, the Supreme Court of Spain decided he had offended the memory of the victims, both Jews and non-Jews, and sentenced him to pay a substantial fine. Asked if he had any regrets about the war, his reply was "Only that we lost!"  In 1994, Léon Degrelle died of cardiac arrest in a hospital in Málaga.

Léon Joseph Marie Ignace Degrelle (; 15 June 1906 – 31 March 1994) was a Belgian politician and one of the most important Nazi collaborators and Holocaust denialists from Belgium. Degrelle rose to prominence in the 1930s as the leader of the Catholic authoritarian Rexist Party in Belgium. During the German occupation in World War II, he enlisted in the German army and fought in the Walloon Legion on the Eastern Front. After the collapse of the Nazi regime, Degrelle went into exile in Francoist Spain where he remained a prominent figure in neo-Nazi politics. He died 50 years after being sentenced to death and losing his Belgian nationality for collaboration in 1944.

Léon Joseph Marie Ignace Degrelle alias José León Ramírez Reina (* 15. Juni 1906 in Bouillon, Belgien; † 31. März 1994 in Málaga, Spanien) war der Führer der belgischen Rexisten und ein Offizier der Waffen-SS, zuletzt offiziell im Rang eines SS-Standartenführers.


Assemblies.

CEC assemblies take place once every five years. The 4th CEC assembly (1964) had to be held on a ship on the Baltic Sea owing to the difficulties of obtaining visas for delegates from eastern European countries.

Governance.

Until 2013, the CEC was governed by an annual Central Committee meeting between assemblies. The 12th Assembly of the Conference of European Churches (Trondheim, 2003) elected the 40-member Committee. This Committee, according to the CEC Constitution, was "empowered to conduct the business of the Conference when the Assembly is not meeting". At the 14th CEC Assembly (Budapest 2013) the Central Committee was replaced by a 20-member Governing Board. The Governing Board meets twice annually to oversee the implementation of the decisions of the Assembly. (art. 6.1) Recent meetings of the Central Committee took place in Geneva (2003), Prague (2004), Crete (2005), Derry (2006) and Crete (2012).  The President of the CEC (from 2009 to 2013) was H.E. Metropolitan Emmanuel of France. He was succeeded in 2013 by Christopher Hill, a retired Church of England bishop (formerly Bishop of Guildford. On 4 June 2018, Rev. Christian Krieger, from the Reformed Church in Alsace and Lorraine was elected President, in Novi Sad, Serbia.  The longstanding membership status of the Associated Organisations from all strands of the ecumenical movement was cancelled after a controversial debate by the 14th CEC Assembly in a second vote during a closed session requested by the Evangelical Church in Germany, one of the main contributors to the CEC budget. The organisations excluded were offered a non-voting status of organisations in partnership like national councils of churches in the CEC. It is affiliated with the World Council of Churches (WCC).

Secretariat.

The offices of the Conference of European Churches are (since 2014) based in Brussels, Belgium - formerly the offices used by the Church and Society Commission of the CEC. The CEC General Secretariat and the (former) Churches in Dialogue Commission were previously located in the Ecumenical Centre, Geneva, Switzerland - which remains also the headquarters building of the World Council of Churches. The position of the General Secretary at CEC is vacant at the moment. The former General Secretary is Fr. Heikki Huttunen from the Orthodox Church of Finland. He succeeded Rev. Dr Guy Liagre, formerly President of the United Protestant Church in Belgium and Rev. Prof. Dr Viorel Ionita who served as Interim General Secretary from 2010. The former General Secretary (2005-2010) was the Venerable Colin Williams, formerly Archdeacon of Lancaster in the Church of England; he succeeded the Rev. Dr Keith Clements.

Former Commissions.

By 2014 the two former Commissions of the CEC were fully integrated into the core work of the CEC.

Church and Society Commission.

In 1999 the European Ecumenical Commission on Church and Society (EECCS) merged with the CEC, becoming the CEC's Church and Society Commission. The Church and Society Commission's secretariat was located in offices in Brussels, Belgium and Strasbourg, France. The Director of the Church and Society Commission from 2002 until 2013 was the Rev. Rüdiger Noll. Recent annual plenary meetings of the Church and Society Commission have been held in El Escorial, Spain (2003), Wavre, Belgium (2004), Dunblane, Scotland (2005), Sigtuna, Sweden (2006), Etchmiadzin, Armenia (2007), Prague, Czech Republic (2008) and Nyborg, Denmark (2009). Following the 14th CEC Assembly in Budapest in 2013 the programmes of the Church and Society Commission were integrated fully into the work of the CEC, a move completed in 2014.

Churches in Dialogue Commission.

Based in Geneva, the staff member in charge was until July 2012, Rev. Professor Father Viorel Ionita, of the Romanian Orthodox Church. The new General Secretary of the CEC, Rev. Dr Guy Liagre succeeded him from 2012. From 2013 the work of the Churches in Dialogue Commission has been fully integrated in the work on ecumenical relations led by the CEC General Secretary.

Relations with the Roman Catholic Church.

The largest Christian body, the Roman Catholic Church, is not a member of the CEC for the same reasons that it abstains from officially participating in the World Council of Churches, which is that such organizations do not recognize any kind of Roman Catholic primacy in the governance of the universal Church.  The Third European Ecumenical Assembly (co-organised by the CEC and the CCEE) was held in Sibiu, Romania, 4–9 September 2007.

The Conference of European Churches (CEC) was founded in 1959 to promote reconciliation, dialogue and friendship between the churches of Europe at a time of growing Cold War political tensions and divisions.

Die Konferenz Europäischer Kirchen (KEK) ist die regionale ökumenische Organisation der orthodoxen, anglikanischen, altkatholischen, evangelischen (darunter unter anderem lutherische, reformierte, unierte, methodistische, baptistische) Kirchen Europas. Sie ist einer der acht regionalen ökumenischen Zusammenschlüsse, die miteinander praktisch die ganze Welt umfassen. Die römisch-katholische Kirche ist nicht Mitglied der KEK, arbeitet aber über den Rat der Europäischen (katholischen) Bischofskonferenzen mit der KEK zusammen.


Early life.

Ronald Jeremy Hyatt was born in Queens, New York, to a middle-class Jewish family from Russia and Poland. His father, Arnold (born 1918) was a physicist, and his mother a book editor who served in the O.S.S. during World War II, as she spoke fluent German and French.  He graduated from Benjamin N. Cardozo High School.

Pornographic film career.

Jeremy left the teaching profession (he called it his "ace in the hole") to pursue a legitimate acting career on Broadway. He has said that he learned then what it was like to be broke, making no money as an actor who "starved Off-Broadway" Jeremy soon found work posing for "Playgirl" after his then-girlfriend submitted his photo to the magazine. Jeremy utilized this opportunity as a springboard into the adult film industry, which he viewed as a reliable means of supporting himself.  Jeremy began using his first and middle name professionally in the adult industry, after his grandmother Rose was pestered by people calling her thinking they were contacting him. Rose, listed at that time as R. Hyatt in the phone book, was reportedly pestered at all hours by prospective suitors who'd seen Jeremy in "Playgirl". "She had to move out of her apartment for a month," he has said. "My father told me, 'If you want to get into this naked, crazy business, so be it, but if you use the family name again, I'll kill you.'" He quickly dropped his last name professionally for fear of embarrassing his family.  Jeremy had the nickname "The Hedgehog" bestowed upon him by fellow porn actor William Margold in 1979 after a situation on the set of the porn film "Olympic Fever". Jeremy flew in from New York to shoot the movie. Expecting warm California weather, he wore only a T-shirt and shorts and brought no additional clothing. During the long motorcycle ride to the set, located near Lake Arrowhead, in the California mountains, the weather deteriorated to blizzard conditions, which chilled him to the point of near hypothermia. Upon arriving at the set, Jeremy was immediately whisked away to thaw out in a hot shower. When he finished, his skin had taken on a pinkish hue from the temperature extremes, and all the many hairs on his body were standing on end. Margold's comment upon seeing Jeremy at that moment was "You are a hedgehog, my friend. A walking, talking hedgehog." Contrary to popular belief, the nickname had nothing to do with his weight, as he was quite physically fit at the time.  Jeremy is listed in the "Guinness Book of World Records" for "Most Appearances in Adult Films"; his entry on the Internet Adult Film Database lists more than 2,000 films in which he has performed, and an additional 285 films which he directed. By way of comparison, John Holmes, the next highest-ranked male star on the AVN Top 50 porn stars, has 384 acting credits listed on the IAFD.  One joke that made the rounds within the industry at the time was "the kinkier acts some actresses would not perform were bestiality, sado-masochism, and sex with Jeremy." However, he has since been recognized for his contributions to the adult industry by being inducted into both the AVN and its Hall of Fame. Additionally, Jeremy's work earned him a spot on the Adult Star Path of Fame located in Edison, New Jersey.

Non-pornographic appearances.

Film.

Outside the adult film industry, Jeremy worked as a "special consultant" for the 1986 film "91⁄2 Weeks". He appears in the 1996 horror film "They Bite" in a role making a film-within-a-film ("Invasion of the Fishfuckers") – another horror film, both in the same vein as "Humanoids from the Deep". He also served as a consultant on the 1997 film "Boogie Nights"—which chronicled the emergence of the fictional porn star Dirk Diggler (Mark Wahlberg, loosely based on the life of porn star John Holmes, who had been a co-worker of Jeremy's)—and the movie "The Chase", in which he has a small cameo as a news cameraman. He played the monster "Blisterface" in ABC's children's show "Bone Chillers". He also appeared in the 1999 film "The Boondock Saints", played a bartender in 2002's "Spun" and acted in 2003's cult film "Zombiegeddon". He was an extra in "Ghostbusters", played a male strip-club announcer in "Detroit Rock City", and had a cameo in "Killing Zoe" and in the porn spoof, "Orgazmo". In addition, he appeared in several productions released by Troma Entertainment, such as "Terror Firmer", "" and "Poultrygeist". He was the subject of a feature-length biographical documentary, "", released in 2001 and widely distributed on DVD by mainstream retailers. In that same year he is briefly seen on the heavy metal band Fear Factory's DVD "Digital Connectivity". In 2003 Jeremy appeared as himself in, and lent his name to, the comedy film "Being Ron Jeremy", a parody of "Being John Malkovich". Jeremy is a frequent interviewee in documentaries about the porn industry, or related subjects such as "Fuck: A Fuckumentary".  He was featured in the music video "The Plot to Bomb the Panhandle" by A Day to Remember in 2007 off of their CD entitled "For Those Who Have Heart". In 2007, he appeared in the comedy film "Finishing the Game" as himself. Jeremy starred in 2008 in the erotic horror film "I Am Virgin", which was released in 2010.  Jeremy has a cameo in "", playing himself as a protester angry at the low salaries porn stars get. Another 2009 cameo was in "Stripper: Natasha Kizmet. He once again appears as himself in the 2009 release "One-Eyed Monster", a horror film parody predicated on the premise that an alien force takes over Jeremy's penis and begins killing people in the woods.  Jeremy is the Lead Antagonist/League Owner in the sports comedy "Tetherball: The Movie" and appeared in the western comedy "Big Money Rustlas" featuring Insane Clown Posse in 2010.

Television.

In 1980, Jeremy competed on the game show "Wheel of Fortune", using his real last name, as Ron Hyatt. Among his winnings was a trip to Mazatlán.  Jeremy appeared in the second season of "The Surreal Life", during which he developed a close friendship with Tammy Faye Bakker despite her devout Christianity and disapproval of pornography, and returned to the franchise for the ninth season of "", in which he finished second to Traci Bingham on the season finale, which aired on March 25, 2007. Jeremy also appeared in a segment on Comedy Central's "Chappelle's Show". Additionally, he made appearances on Penn and Teller's "" in episodes regarding penis enlargement and circumcision. In 2005, he appeared on the UK reality TV show, "The Farm". Jeremy also made a brief cameo on "Lewis Black's Root of All Evil", in the episode "YouTube VS Porn", in a short segment where people on the street were shown a video of hardcore pornography, and Jeremy was the only one disgusted by the video.  Jeremy was seen in the "Robot Chicken" episode, "A Piece of the Action", in which he was voiced by Michael Benyaer. In the episode, he and several others parody "The Surreal Life" and "Lord of the Rings". The segment lampoons his penis size by having his character unseat a knight on horseback using nothing but his erect penis. Jeremy appeared as himself in the 2001 "Family Guy" episode "Brian Does Hollywood", in which he is a presenter at an adult industry award show in which Brian Griffin is a nominee. Comedian Kathy Griffin went on a date with him in the third season of her reality show, "". Ron Jeremy has also appeared in a part on the Comedy Central show "Tosh.0"  In 2003, Jeremy appeared on "The Frank Skinner Show" and performed a duet ("I Got You Babe") with former Cabinet minister Mo Mowlam. Jeremy appeared on "Chappelle's Show" as himself in a spoof called "What if the Internet was a real place?", in which he asks Dave Chappelle if he would like to see some of his films. Jeremy also appeared as a guest commentator on the Fox News Channel late-night news and comedy talk show "Red Eye w/ Greg Gutfeld" in 2007. In the "Super Karate Monkey Death Car" episode of "Newsradio", Jeremy can be seen sitting in the audience at Jimmy James's reading, along with Brian Posehn. Jeremy appeared in "Tosh.0" as the falling prom girl's date. Jeremy appeared on "", as himself, in Bourdain's "Food Porn" (Season 5) and "Food Porn 2" (Season 6) episodes. Jeremy appeared on "Silent Library" in 2010. In the show, he was the "Mystery Creature" that was concealed underneath a sheet in a cage, the contestant has to feed him carrots while being blindfolded.  During the 2013 Academy Award broadcast, host and Master of ceremonies Seth MacFarlane mentioned Jeremy in his opening monologue, "From Whoopi all the way down to Ron Jeremy, it eventually found its way to me", joking about the number of rejections that Oscar organizers must have gotten from potential hosts before they arrived at him. Later in the April issue of "AVN" magazine in the "Crossover Report" section, with roughly 1 billion viewers worldwide, the writer observed that "... the mere fact that his name made its way into one of MacFarlane's opening lines would suggest that he has officially reached household status on a "global scale"."

Music.

Jeremy has appeared in videos by Sublime, Mercury Rev, Moby, Insane Clown Posse, Kid Rock, LMFAO, Everclear, Sam Kinison, Guns N' Roses, Mad Yellow Sun, Los Umbrellos, XXX Rottweiler Hundar (Icelandic), The Radioactive Chicken Heads, A Day To Remember, Escape The Fate, Christina Linhardt, Necro, Flight of the Conchords, My Darkest Days, Armin Van Buuren, The Meices, and Steel Panther. In addition, he released a rap single called "Freak Of The Week" which peaked at 95 on the "Billboard" rap charts; a music video for this was also produced. Jeremy introduced Boston ska punk band Big D and the Kids Table at the 2011 and 2013 Vans Warped Tour in Carson, California, and also appeared in their new video for the song "One Day". In 2001, he made a small appearance in industrial/groove metal band Fear Factory's DVD "Digital Connectivity", where he welcomes the viewer, in the ""Digimortal"" portion of the DVD, "to the world of Fear Factory". In 2008, Brooklyn rap artist Necro featured Ron as well as Jack Napier, Rebeca Linares, and several others for the videos "Who's Ya Daddy" and "I Wanna F**k". In 2011, he appeared in LMFAO's music video for the song "Sexy And I Know It". In 2011, he also appeared on the rap group "Bankrupt Records" album "Double Vision" on the skit "The Ron Jeremy Call".  In 2012, he appeared in Canadian rock band My Darkest Days music video for their song "Casual Sex". In 2013, he appeared in the music video for the song "This Is What It Feels Like" by famous DJ Armin van Buuren, later in the year he appeared in a parody of the music video for Miley Cyrus's "Wrecking Ball" by YouTuber Bart Baker.

Video games.

Jeremy was featured as a playable character in the "Celebrity Deathmatch" video game. His image was used as a fairy in the game "", in which he gives tips and advice to the main character. Ron Jeremy also stars in Bonetown as the king of Bonetown and sex god. Jeremy appears in the 2011 video game "Postal III" as Raul Chomo, the mayor of the fictional town of Catharsis, Arizona.

Video.

Jeremy appeared in a series of viral video spoofs for video sharing website Heavy.com. The videos lampooned include Britney Spears, lonelygirl15, Little Superstar and others. In 2007 he had a cameo appearance in "The Plot to Bomb the Panhandle" video, by A Day to Remember. In addition, Jeremy appeared on an episode of "Gorgeous Tiny Chicken Machine Show", titled "Pamous Movie Star". In January 2009, Jeremy appeared with David Faustino (Bud Bundy from "Married with Children") in an episode of Faustino's show "Star-ving", which airs on Crackle, as does the "Gorgeous Tiny Chicken Machine Show". In June 2009, he did a cameo in the music video "10 Miles Wide" by Escape The Fate, along with Dennis Hof and other adult video performers. In December 2010, Jeremy starred in the Break.com video "Tron Jeremy", a parody of the film "". In October 2013, Jeremy appeared in Bart Baker's parody of Miley Cyrus's Wrecking Ball.

Advertisement.

As a further indication of his crossover celebrity status, Jeremy has posed in an advertisement for People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) to raise awareness of the overpopulation of domesticated animals. In the poster, he lies partially nude on a bed, a pair of handcuffs on his wrists. Poking fun at his notoriety, the title of the advertisement exclaims, "Too much sex can be a bad thing. Spay and neuter your cats and dogs." Jeremy also appeared in a 2008 video for PETA, explaining why in his view, more humane slaughter practices by KFC would be "not just a moral thing but also a smart business move", quipping that "The Colonel might get a promotion and become a General" as a result.

Books.

Jeremy released his memoir, titled "Ron Jeremy: The Hardest (Working) Man in Showbiz", in February 2007. The book was published by Harper Collins.

Personal life.

In 2006, Jeremy began a series of debates on pornography opposing Pastor Craig Gross, founder of anti-pornography website XXXchurch.com, visiting various U.S. and Canada college campuses as part of the "Porn Debate Tour".  On January 29, 2013, Jeremy drove himself to Cedars-Sinai Medical Center after experiencing severe chest pain. Doctors discovered an aneurysm near his heart and he was operated on the following day. Three weeks later, he was released from the hospital.

Sexual assault allegations.

More than a dozen women have publicly accused Jeremy of sexual assault. Several of the allegations relate to his appearances at fan conventions, alleging that he would grope and insert his fingers into attendees without their consent. The organizers of the Exxxotica national adult conventions permanently banned Jeremy from their shows in October 2017 after a social media campaign by webcam model Ginger Banks. The Free Speech Coalition, an industry trade group, rescinded its Positive Image Award that it had originally presented to him in 2009 due to the allegations.  As of May 2020, the Los Angeles District Attorney's Office is investigating new sexual assault allegations against Jeremy.

Businesses.

In June 2009, Jeremy and business partner Paul Smith opened Ron Jeremy's Club Sesso, a swingers nightclub located in the financial district of downtown Portland, Oregon. The club was closed June 20, 2015 over legal problems with the city.  Jeremy is also involved in the marketing of a line of rum "Ron de Jeremy" to which he lent his name ("ron" being Spanish for "rum"). Television ads for the rum featuring Jeremy proclaim that it's rum "Ron Style".

Ronald Jeremy Hyatt (born March 12, 1953) is an American pornographic actor, filmmaker, actor, and stand-up comedian. Nicknamed "The Hedgehog", Jeremy was ranked by "AVN" at No. 1 in their "50 Top Porn Stars of All Time" list. Jeremy has also made a number of non-pornographic media appearances, and director Scott J. Gill filmed a documentary about him and his legacy, "", which was released in 2001.

Ron Jeremy (* 12. März 1953 in Flushing im Bezirk Queens, New York; eigentlich "Ronald Jeremy Hyatt") ist ein US-amerikanischer Pornodarsteller und Schauspieler.


Nomenclature.

The culture was initially named after the village of Cucuteni in Iași County, Romania. In 1884, Teodor T. Burada, after having seen ceramic fragments in the gravel used to maintain the road from Târgu Frumos to Iași, investigated the quarry in Cucuteni from where the material was mined, where he found fragments of pottery and terracotta figurines. Burada and other scholars from Iași, including the poet Nicolae Beldiceanu and archeologists Grigore Butureanu, Dimitrie C. Butculescu and George Diamandy, subsequently began the first excavations at Cucuteni in the spring of 1885. Their findings were published in 1885 and 1889, and presented in two international conferences in 1889, both in Paris: at the International Union for Prehistoric and Protohistoric Sciences by Butureanu and at a meeting of the

Geography.

The Cucuteni–Trypillia culture flourished in the territory of what is now Moldova, northeastern Romania and parts of Western, Central and Southern Ukraine.  The culture thus extended northeast from the Danube river basin around the Iron Gates to the Black Sea and the Dnieper. It encompassed the central Carpathian Mountains as well as the plains, steppe

Chronology.

Periodisation.

Traditionally separate schemes of periodisation have been used for the Ukrainian Trypillia and Romanian Cucuteni variants of the culture. The Cucuteni scheme, proposed by the German archaeologist Hubert Schmidt in 1932, distinguished three cultures: Pre-Cucuteni, Cucuteni and Horodiştea–Folteşti; which were further divided into phases (Pre-Cucuteni I–III and Cucuteni A and B). The Ukrainian scheme was first developed by Tatiana Sergeyevna Passek in

Early period (5800–5000 BCE).

The roots of Cucuteni–Trypillia culture can be found in the Starčevo–Körös–Criș and Vinča cultures of the 6th to 5th millennia, with additional influence from the Bug–Dniester culture (6500–5000 BC). During the early period of its existence (in the fifth millennium BCE), the Cucuteni–Trypillia culture was also influenced by the Linear Pottery culture from the north, and by the Boian culture from the south. Through colonisation and acculturation from these other cultures, the formative Pre-Cucuteni/Trypillia A culture was established. Over the course of the fifth millennium, the Cucuteni–Trypillia culture expanded from its 'homeland'

Middle period (4000–3500 BC).

In the middle era, the Cucuteni–Trypillia culture spread over a wide area from Eastern Transylvania in the west to the Dnieper River in the east. During this period, the population immigrated into and settled along the banks of the upper and middle regions of the Right Bank (or western side) of the Dnieper River, in present-day Ukraine. The population grew considerably during this time, resulting in settlements being established on plateaus, near major rivers and springs.  Their dwellings were built by placing vertical poles in the form of circles or ovals. The construction techniques incorporated log floors covered in clay, wattle-and-daub walls that were woven from pliable branches and covered in clay and a clay oven, which was situated in the centre of the dwelling. As the population in this area grew, more land was put under cultivation. Hunting supplemented the practice of animal husbandry of domestic livestock.  Tools made of

Late period (3500–3000 BC).

During the late period, the Cucuteni–Trypillia territory expanded to include the Volyn region in northwest Ukraine, the Sluch and Horyn Rivers in northern Ukraine and along both banks of the Dnieper river near Kyiv. Members of the Cucuteni–Trypillia culture who lived along the coastal regions near the Black Sea came into contact with other cultures. Animal husbandry increased in importance,

Decline and end.

There is a debate among scholars regarding how the end of the Cucuteni–Trypillia culture took place.  According to some proponents of the Kurgan hypothesis of the origin of Proto-Indo-Europeans, and in particular the archaeologist Marija Gimbutas, in her book ""Notes on the chronology and expansion of the Pit-Grave Culture"" (1961, later expanded by her and others), the Cucuteni–Trypillia culture was destroyed by force. Arguing from archaeological and linguistic evidence, Gimbutas concluded that the people of the Kurgan culture (a term grouping the Yamnaya culture and its predecessors) of the Pontic–Caspian steppe, being most likely speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language, effectively destroyed

Economy.

Throughout the 2,750 years of its existence, the Cucuteni–Trypillia culture was fairly stable and static; however, there were changes that took place. This article addresses some of these changes that have to do with the economic aspects. These include the basic economic conditions of the culture, the development of trade, interaction with other cultures and the apparent use of barter tokens, an early form of money.  Members of the Cucuteni–Trypillia culture shared common features with other Neolithic societies, including: Earlier societies of hunter-gatherer tribes had no social stratification, and later societies of the Bronze Age had noticeable social stratification, which saw the creation of occupational specialization, the state and social classes of individuals who were of the elite ruling or religious classes, full-time warriors and wealthy merchants, contrasted with those individuals on the other end of the economic spectrum who were poor, enslaved and hungry. In between these two economic models (the hunter-gatherer tribes and Bronze Age civilisations) we find the later Neolithic and Eneolithic societies such as the Cucuteni–Trypillia culture, where the first indications of social stratification began to be found. However, it would be a mistake to overemphasise the impact of social stratification in the Cucuteni–Trypillia culture, since it was still (even in its later phases) very much an egalitarian society. And of course, social stratification was just one of the many aspects of what is regarded as a fully established civilised society, which began to appear in the Bronze Age.  Like other Neolithic societies, the Cucuteni–Trypillia culture had almost no division of labor. Although this culture's settlements sometimes grew to become the largest on Earth at the time (up to 15,000 people in the largest), there is no evidence that has been discovered of labour specialisation. Every household probably had members of the extended family who would work in the fields to raise crops, go to the woods to hunt game and bring back firewood, work by the river to bring back clay or fish and all of the other duties that would be needed to survive. Contrary to popular belief, the Neolithic people experienced considerable abundance of food and other resources.  Since every household was almost entirely self-sufficient, there was very little need for trade. However, there were certain mineral resources that, because of limitations due to distance and prevalence, did form the rudimentary foundation for a trade network that towards the end of the culture began to develop into a more complex system, as is attested to by an increasing number of artifacts from other cultures that have been dated to the latter period.  Toward the end of the Cucuteni–Trypillia culture's existence (from roughly 3000 BC to 2750 BC), copper traded from other societies (notably, from the Balkans) began to appear throughout the region, and members of the Cucuteni–Trypillia culture began to acquire skills necessary to use it to create various items. Along with the raw copper ore, finished copper tools, hunting weapons and other artefacts were also brought in from other cultures. This marked the transition from the Neolithic to the Eneolithic, also known as the Chalcolithic or Copper Age. Bronze artifacts began to show up in archaeological sites toward the very end of the culture. The primitive trade network of this society, that had been slowly growing more complex, was supplanted by the more complex trade network of the Proto-Indo-European culture that eventually replaced the Cucuteni–Trypillia culture.

Technology and material culture.

The Cucuteni–Trypillia culture is known by its distinctive settlements, architecture, intricately decorated pottery and anthropomorphic and zoomorphic figurines, which are preserved in archaeological remains. At its peak it was one of the most technologically advanced societies in the world at the time, developing new techniques for ceramic production, housing building, agriculture and producing woven textiles (although these have not survived and are known indirectly).

Settlements.

In terms of overall size, some of Cucuteni–Trypillia sites, such as Talianki (with a population of 15,000 and covering an area of 335 hectares) in the province of Uman Raion, Ukraine, are as large as (or perhaps even larger than) the city-states of Sumer in the Fertile Crescent, and these Eastern European settlements predate the Sumerian cities by more than half of a millennium.  Archaeologists have uncovered a large number of artefacts from these ancient ruins. The largest collections of Cucuteni–Trypillia artefacts are to be found in museums in Russia, Ukraine and Romania, including the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg and the Archaeology Museum Piatra Neamţ in Romania. However, smaller collections of artefacts

Pottery.

Most Cucuteni–Trypillia pottery was hand coiled from local clay. Long coils of clay were placed in circles to form first the base and then the walls of the vessel. Once the desired shape and height of the finished product was built up the sides would then be smoothed to create a seamless surface. This technique was the earliest form of pottery shaping and the most common in the Neolithic; however, there is some evidence that they also used a primitive type of slow-turning potter's wheel, an innovation that did not become common in Europe until the Iron Age.  Characteristically vessels were elaborately decorated with swirling patterns and intricate designs. Sometimes decorative incisions were added prior to firing, and sometimes these were filled with coloured dye to produce a dimensional effect. In the early period, the colours used to decorate pottery were limited to a rusty-red and white. Later, potters added additional colours to their products and experimented

Ceramic figurines.

An anthropomorphic ceramic artefact was discovered during an archaeological dig in 1942 on Cetatuia Hill near Bodeşti, Neamţ County, Romania, which became known as the "Cucuteni Frumusica Dance" (after a nearby village of the same name). It was used as a support or stand, and upon its discovery was hailed as a symbolic masterpiece of Cucuteni–Trypillia culture. It is believed

Textiles.

No examples of Cucuteni–Trypillia textiles have yet been found – preservation of prehistoric textiles is rare and the region does not have a suitable climate. However, impressions of textiles are found on pottery sherds (because the clay was placed there before it was fired). These show that woven fabrics were common in Cucuteni–Trypillia

Weapons and tools.

Cucuteni–Trypillia tools were made from knapped and polished stone, organic materials (bone, antler and horn), and in the later period, copper. Local Miorcani flint was the most common material for stone tools, but a

Wheels.

Some researchers, e.g., Asko Parpola, an Indologist at the University of Helsinki in Finland, believe that the CT-culture used the wheel with wagons. However, only miniature models of animals and cups on 4 wheels

Ritual and religion.

Some Cucuteni–Trypillia communities have been found that contain a special building located in the centre of the settlement, which archaeologists have identified as sacred sanctuaries. Artefacts have been found inside these sanctuaries, some of them having been intentionally buried in the ground within the structure, that are clearly of a religious nature, and have provided insights into some of the beliefs, and perhaps some of the rituals and structure, of the members of this society. Additionally, artefacts of an apparent religious nature have also been found within many domestic Cucuteni–Trypillia homes.  Many of these artefacts are clay figurines or statues. Archaeologists have identified many of these as fetishes or totems, which are believed to be imbued with powers that can help and protect the people who look after them. These Cucuteni–Trypillia figurines have become known popularly as goddesses; however, this term is not necessarily accurate for all female anthropomorphic clay figurines, as the archaeological evidence suggests that different figurines were used for different purposes (such as for protection), and so are not all representative of a goddess. There have been so many of these figurines discovered in Cucuteni–Trypillia sites that many museums in eastern Europe have a sizeable collection of them, and as a result, they have come to represent one of the more

Vinča–Turdaș script.

The mainstream academic theory is that writing first appeared during the Sumerian civilisation in southern Mesopotamia, around 3300–3200 BC. in the form of the Cuneiform script. This first writing system did not suddenly appear out of nowhere, but gradually developed from less stylised pictographic systems that used ideographic and mnemonic symbols that contained meaning, but did not have the linguistic flexibility of the natural language writing system that the Sumerians first conceived. These earlier symbolic systems have been labelled as proto-writing, examples of which have been discovered in a variety of places around the world, some dating back to the 7th millennium BC.  One such early example of a proto-writing system are the Vinča symbols, which is a set of symbols depicted on clay artefacts associated with the Vinča culture, which flourished along the Danube River in the Pannonian Plain, between 6000 and 4000 BC. The first discovery of this script occurred at the archaeological site in the village of Turdaş (Romania), and consisted of a collection of artefacts that had what appeared to be an unknown system of writing. In 1908, more of these same kinds of artefacts were discovered at a site near Vinča, outside the city of Belgrade,

Archaeogenetics.

Nikitin (2011) analyzed mtDNA recovered from Cucuteni–Trypillia human osteological remains found in the Verteba Cave (on the bank of the Seret River, Ternopil Oblast, Ukraine). It revealed that seven of the individuals whose remains where analysed belonged to: two to haplogroup HV(xH), two to haplogroup H, one to haplogroup R0(xHV), one to haplogroup J and one to haplogroup T4, the latter also being the oldest sample of the set.  The authors conclude that the population living around Verteba Cave was fairly heterogenous, but that the wide chronological age of the specimens might

Bibliography.

English  French  German  Romanian  Russian  Ukrainian

The Cucuteni–Trypillia culture ( and ), also known as the Tripolye culture (), is a Neolithic–Eneolithic archaeological culture ( 5500 to 2750 BCE) of Eastern Europe.

Die Cucuteni-Tripolje-Kultur, traditionell rumänisch-russisch "Cucuţeni-Tripolje-Kultur", ukrainisch "Trypillia", gehört zu den südosteuropäischen Kulturen des Neolithikums und des Eneolithikums. Zeitlich wird sie etwa um 5000 bis 2750 v. Chr. angesetzt, nach anderen um 4800 bis 3000 v. Chr. Die frühesten Siedlungen erschienen gleich mit oder nach den Siedlungen der Linienbandkeramischen Kultur. Unterschieden werden drei Phasen, nämlich A (5000–4300 v. Chr.) sowie B und C, wobei B wiederum in BI (4300–4100 v. Chr.) und BII (4100–3600 v. Chr.), C in CI (3600–3200 v. Chr.) und CII (3200–2750 v. Chr.) unterteilt wird. In der Mittleren Phase der Cucuteni-Tripolje-Kultur entstanden Megasiedlungen von bis zu 340 ha Fläche, die die größten Siedlungen des gesamten Äneolithikums darstellen. Sie bargen um 3800 v. Chr. bis zu 20.000 Einwohner. Lebensgrundlage waren sowohl Viehhaltung und Feldfrüchte (Weizen, Gerste, aber auch Hirse, dazu Erbsen, Linsen-Wicken und weitere Hülsenfrüchte und Trauben), als auch die Jagd und der Fischfang. Auch Wildfrüchte spielten eine wesentliche Rolle, wie etwa Weinbeeren, Birnen, Weißdorn, Pflaume oder Gelber Hartriegel. Selbst in der Phase BII-CI dominierten an Stätten wie Kolomyïshchina II (BII) und Kolomyïshchina I (CI) die Wildtiere mit etwa 80 % der Knochenfunde. In der frühen Phase dominierte hingegen Emmer unter den Getreidearten.


History.

The law dates back to 1987 when it was first proposed by Ian Holland, who was working on the Demeter Project. The Demeter Project was the birthplace of a lot of AOP (Aspect Oriented Programming) principles.  A quote in one of the remainders of the project seems to clarify the origins of the name:

In object-oriented programming.

An object codice_1 can request a service (call a method) of an object instance codice_2, but object codice_1 should not "reach through" object codice_2 to access yet another object, codice_5, to request its services. Doing so would mean that object codice_1 implicitly requires greater knowledge of object codice_2's internal structure.  Instead, codice_2's interface should be modified if necessary so it can directly serve object codice_1's request, propagating it to any relevant subcomponents. Alternatively, codice_1 might have a direct reference to object codice_5 and make the request directly to that. If the law is followed, only object codice_2 knows its own internal structure.  More formally, the Law of Demeter for functions requires that a method codice_13 of an object codice_14 may only invoke the methods of the following kinds of objects:  In particular, an object should avoid invoking methods of a member object returned by another method. For many modern object oriented languages that use a dot as field identifier, the law can be stated simply as "use only one dot". That is, the code codice_21 breaks the law where codice_22 does not. As an analogy, when one wants a dog to walk, one does not command the dog's legs to walk directly; instead one commands the dog which then commands its own legs.

Advantages.

The advantage of following the Law of Demeter is that the resulting software tends to be more maintainable and adaptable. Since objects are less dependent on the internal structure of other objects, object containers can be changed without reworking their callers.  Basili et al. published experimental results in 1996 suggesting that a lower "Response For a Class" (RFC, the number of methods potentially invoked in response to calling a method of that class) can reduce the probability of software bugs. Following the Law of Demeter can result in a lower RFC. However, the results also suggest that an increase in "Weighted Methods per Class" (WMC, the number of methods defined in each class) can increase the probability of software bugs. Following the Law of Demeter can also result in a higher WMC; see Disadvantages.  A multilayered architecture can be considered to be a systematic mechanism for implementing the Law of Demeter in a software system. In a layered architecture, code within each layer can only make calls to code within the layer and code within the next layer down. "Layer skipping" would violate the layered architecture.

Disadvantages.

Although the LoD increases the adaptiveness of a software system, it may result in having to write many wrapper methods to propagate calls to components; in some cases, this can add noticeable time and space overhead.  At the method level, the LoD leads to narrow interfaces, giving access to only as much information as it needs to do its job, as each method needs to know about a small set of methods of closely related objects. On the other hand, at the class level, if the LoD is not used correctly, wide (i.e. enlarged) interfaces may be developed that require introducing many auxiliary methods.. This is due to poor design rather than a consequence of the LoD per se. If a wrapper method is being used, it means that the object being called through the wrapper should have been a dependency in the calling class.  One proposed solution to the problem of enlarged class interfaces is the aspect-oriented approach, where the behavior of the method is specified as an aspect at a high level of abstraction. The wide interfaces are managed through a language that specifies implementations. Both the traversal strategy and the adaptive visitor use only a minimal set of classes that participate in the operation, and the information about the connections between these classes is abstracted out.

The Law of Demeter (LoD) or principle of least knowledge is a design guideline for developing software, particularly object-oriented programs. In its general form, the LoD is a specific case of loose coupling. The guideline was proposed by Ian Holland at Northeastern University towards the end of 1987, and can be succinctly summarized in each of the following ways:

Das Gesetz von Demeter (, kurz "LoD") ist eine Entwurfs-Richtlinie in der objektorientierten Softwareentwicklung. Sie besagt im Wesentlichen, dass Objekte nur mit Objekten in ihrer unmittelbaren Umgebung kommunizieren sollen. Dadurch soll die Kopplung (das heißt die Anzahl von Abhängigkeiten) in einem Softwaresystem verringert und somit die Wartbarkeit erhöht werden. Es wird deswegen manchmal auch als „Prinzip der Verschwiegenheit“ bezeichnet.


Description.

"Veratrum album" is a tall perennial herb with alternate, pleated leaves. The flowers are white, marked with green on the top portion of the stalk. The fruit is a small pod containing winged seeds. The stout, simple stems are tall. The plants have an estimated lifespan of several centuries and often achieve dominance in wild areas as they are unpalatable to grazing herbivores.

Uses.

Extracts from dried rhizomes of "Veratrum album" were briefly used as a pesticide against the Colorado potato beetle.

Research.

In 1890, Salzberger first isolated and named the alkaloid "protoveratrine". Later investigation found that protoveratrine is a mixture of two closely related alkaloids, protoveratrine A and protoveratrine B. During the 1940s and 1950s, "Veratrum album" was studied in essential hypertension, hypertension during renal dysfunction, and pre-eclampsia.

Horticultural.

"Veratrum album" is grown as an ornamental plant. In the UK It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society’s Award of Garden Merit.

Toxicity.

In beverages, "V. album" has been mistaken for the harmless yellow gentian ("Gentiana lutea") or wild garlic ("Allium ursinum"), resulting in poisoning. All parts of the plant are poisonous, including its aroma.

Symptoms.

Symptoms of "Veratrum" alkaloid poisoning typically occur within thirty minutes to four hours of ingestion, and include:

Treatment.

Treatment for "Veratrum" alkaloid poisoning include supportive care and symptomatic treatments, such as fluid replacement and anti-emetics. Atropine and vasopressors act to combat bradycardia and hypotension. Duration of illness can last up to ten days but full recovery is possible within a few hours depending on dose and treatment.

Poisonings.

Various "Veratrum" alkaloids were present in a German sneezing powder in 1982, resulting in the accidental poisoning of those who used it. Sneezing powders are commonly used to prank others. In 1983, there were nine cases of accidental poisoning as a result of these pranks due to the presence of "Veratrum" alkaloids in the sneezing powders. The victims were nine boys aged between 11 and 18 years old in Scandinavian countries who used supplies imported from the Federal Republic of Germany. All boys had inhaled the powder and six had ingested it. Symptoms typically presented within an hour, after which calls were made to authorities. After sneezing, the victims began to develop gastrointestinal disturbances such as vomiting in all cases and epigastric pain in two. Three of the children collapsed due to low blood pressure prior to being admitted to hospital. Seven of the children had significantly decreased blood pressure and five have cases of sinus bradycardia with no other irregularities. Half of those who had ingested the powder were treated with gastric lavage. Four of the boys were given atropine to combat bradycardia and one was given activated charcoal. Atropine normalised their heart rates within minutes but did little to assist with low blood pressure. In all cases, the patients recovered within twenty-four hours.  In 2005 and 2008, there were three reported cases of accidental poisoning. In 2009, eleven children, aged 8 to 12 years old, accidentally ingested "Veratrum album" at a youth camp where they had prepared homemade tea using fresh herbs. Two children remained asymptomatic, nine developed mild gastrointestinal symptoms, six presented neurological symptoms, and three showed bradycardia; after medical care, all children recovered. Four cases of accidental poisoning were reported in 2010 after "Veratrum album" was mistaken for wild garlic and used in self prepared-salad and soups. All victims developed nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, sinus bradycardia, and hypotension. Complete recovery took between twenty-four and forty-eight hours.

Alexander the Great.

A debate amongst historians is centred around the cause of death of Alexander the Great. Some believe the Macedonian king died of natural causes and others believe he was poisoned. The "Romance" suggests that his inner circle conspired to assassinate him upon his return to Babylon. A theory proposed by Schep in 2013 suggests that "Veratrum album" was used to kill Alexander the Great. Schep argues that the usual suspects thought to be the culprit, such as arsenic and strychnine, would have acted too quickly to correlate with historical accounts. Alexander was ill for twelve days and suffered symptoms synonymous with "Veratrum album" poisoning. Notably, the theory is furthered by the proposal that Alexander drank wine poisoned with "Veratrum album". Accounts from Diodorus detail that the king was struck with pain after drinking a large bowl of unmixed wine in honor of Hercules.

In vitro mechanism.

"Veratrum album" contains over fifty steroidal alkaloids called "'Veratrum" alkaloids', including O-acetyljervine, cevadine, cryptenamine, cyclopamine (11-deoxojervine), cycloposine, germitrine, germidine, jervine, muldamine, protoveratrine (A&B), veratramine, veratridine, and veriloid. Some of the principal toxins have a modified steroid template while others differ in their esterified acid moieties. In general, "Veratrum" alkaloids act by increasing the permeability of the sodium channels of nerve cells, causing them to fire continuously. Increased stimulation, associated with the vagus nerve, results in the Bezold-Jarisch reflex: hypotension, bradycardia and apnoea.  The neurotoxicity of "Veratrum" alkaloids derives from their effect on the sodium ion channels of nerve cells. They activate receptor site 2 of the voltage-dependent Na channel in membranes by prolonging its open state. The alkaloids depolarize nerves by enhancing exchange of Na and K across the membrane.

Veratrum album (commonly known as false helleborine, white hellebore, European white hellebore, or white veratrum; syn. "Veratrum lobelianum" "Bernh") is a poisonous plant of the family Liliaceae or Melanthiaceae. It is native to Europe and parts of western Asia (western Siberia, Turkey, Caucasus).

Der Weiße Germer ("Veratrum album"), auch Weiß-Germer genannt, ist eine Pflanzenart aus der Familie der Germergewächse (Melanthiaceae). Er wird auch als (Weiße) Nieswurz, Hammerwurz, Hemmer(t)wurzn, Lauskraut oder Lauswurz bezeichnet.