History.

The Black Sea Fleet is considered to have been founded by Prince Potemkin on May 13, 1783, together with its principal base, the city of Sevastopol. Formerly commanded by such legendary admirals as Dmitriy Senyavin and Pavel Nakhimov, it is a fleet of enormous historical and political importance for Russia. In 1790, Russian naval forces under the command of Admiral Fyodor Ushakov defeated the Turkish fleet at the Battle of Kerch Strait.  From 1841 onward, the fleet was confined to the Black Sea by the London Straits Convention.  As a result of the Crimean War, one provision of the Treaty of Paris was that the Black Sea was to be a demilitarized zone like the Island of Åland in the Baltic Sea, although Russia subsequently renounced the treaty and reconstituted its naval strength and fortifications in the Black Sea.  The crew of the battleship revolted in 1905 soon after the Navy's defeat in the Russo-Japanese War. Lenin wrote that the "Potemkin" uprising had had a huge importance in terms of being the first attempt at creating the nucleus of a revolutionary army.  During World War I, there were a number of encounters between the Russian and Ottoman navies in the Black Sea. The Ottomans initially had the advantage due to having under their command the German battlecruiser, but after the two modern Russian dreadnoughts and had been built in Mykolaiv, the Russians took command of the sea until the Russian government collapsed in November 1917. German submarines of the Constantinople Flotilla and Turkish light forces would continue to raid and harass Russian shipping until the war's end.

Soviet Navy.

During the Russian Civil War, the vast majority of the Black Sea Fleet was scuttled by Bolsheviks in Novorossiysk; some were managed to be interned by the Central Powers (later passed to Ukraine, see Navy of the Ukrainian People's Republic) or Western Allies (later passed to the White movement, see Wrangel's fleet). In 1919 out of the remnants of the Russian Imperial Fleet was established the Red Fleet of Ukraine which existed few months before a major advance of the Armed Forces of South Russia which occupied all the South and East Ukraine. Most of the ships became part of the "Russian Squadron" of Wrangl's armed forces and after the evacuation sailed to Tunisia. Out of those ships, some were passed to the French Navy and some were salvaged.  Upon the defeat of the Armed Forces of South Russia, the Ukrainian National Army and the Polish Armed Forces in Ukraine the Soviet government signed a military union with the Russian SFSR transferring all the command to the Commander-in-chief of Russia. Few ships that did stay in Black Sea were salvaged in the 1920s, while a large scale new construction programme began in the 1930s. Over 500 new ships were built during that period as well as massive expansion of coastal infrastructure took place. The Fleet was commanded by Vice Admiral F.S. Oktyabrskiy on the outbreak of war with Germany in June 1941. The Fleet gave a credible account of itself as it fought alongside the Red Army during the Siege of Odessa and the Battle of Sevastopol. (See Black Sea Campaigns (1941–44) for more details.)  In 1952, Turkey decided to join NATO, placing the Bosporus Strait in the Western sphere of influence. Together with the advent of long-range nuclear weapons, this dramatically decreased the strategic value of any naval activity in the Black Sea.  In the later post-war period, along with the Northern Fleet, the Black Sea Fleet provided ships for the 5th Operational Squadron in the Mediterranean, which confronted the United States Navy during the Arab-Israeli wars, notably during the Yom Kippur War in 1973. In 1988 Coastal Troops and Naval Aviation units of the Black Sea Fleet included:  In 1989, the 126th Motor Rifle Division at Simferopol was transferred to the Black Sea Fleet from the Odessa Military District. Also that year, the 119th Fighter Aviation Division, with the 86th Guards, 161st, and 841st Guards Fighter Aviation Regiments, joined the Fleet from the 5th Air Army. The 86th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment became part of the Moldovan Air Force upon the breakup of the Soviet Union. The 841st at Meria airport (between Poti and Batumi in the Adjar ASSR) (Georgian SSR) became the 841st independent Guards Anti-Submarine Helicopter Regiment in May 1991 and was disbanded in October 1992.

After the fall of the Soviet Union.

“Agreement on the principles for forming the Ukrainian Naval Forces and the Russian Naval Fleet based on the Black Sea Fleet (BSF) of the former USSR," the Yalta Treaty on the Black Sea Fleet was signed by the presidents of Ukraine and the RF on August 3, 1992 in Mukholatka, outside Yalta.  The military importance of the fleet has degraded since the collapse of the Soviet Union, due to significant funding cuts and, to a degree, the loss of its major missions. However, in the early 21st century, local conflicts in the Caucasus region (particularly the 2008 South Ossetia war) saw Moscow employ elements of the Black Sea Fleet off the coast of Georgia, and the development of oil transit in the region has strengthened Russia's support of the fleet.  In 1992, the major part of the personnel, armaments and coastal facilities of the Fleet fell under formal jurisdiction of the newly independent Ukraine as they were situated on Ukrainian territory. Later, the Ukrainian government ordered the establishment of its own Ukrainian Navy based on the Black Sea Fleet; several ships and ground formations declared themselves Ukrainian.  However, this immediately led to conflicts with the majority of officers who appeared to be loyal to Russia. Simultaneously, pro-Russian separatist groups became active in the local politics of Ukraine's Autonomous Republic of Crimea and the Sevastopol municipality where the major naval bases were situated, and started coordinating their efforts with pro-Moscow seamen.

Joint Fleet and its partition.

To ease the tensions, the two governments signed an interim treaty, establishing a joint Russo-Ukrainian Black Sea Fleet under bilateral command (and Soviet Navy flag) until a full-scale partition agreement could be reached. Formally, the Fleet's Commander was to be appointed by a joint order of the two countries' Presidents. However, Russia still dominated the Fleet unofficially, and a Russian admiral was appointed as Commander; the majority of the fleet personnel adopted Russian citizenship. Minor tensions between the Fleet and the new Ukrainian Navy (such as electricity cut-offs and sailors' street-fighting) continued. On 28 May 1997, Russia and Ukraine signed several agreements regarding the fleet including the Partition Treaty, establishing two independent national fleets and dividing armaments and bases between them. Ukraine also agreed to lease major parts of its facilities to the Russian Black Sea Fleet until 2017. However, the treaty appeared to be far from perfect: permanent tensions on the lease details (including often reported issue of lighthouse control) continued. The Fleet's main base is still situated in the Crimean port city of Sevastopol. In 2009 the Yushchenko Ukrainian government declared that the lease would not be extended and that the fleet would have to leave Sevastopol by 2017. In 2010 the Russian leasehold was renegotiated with an extension until 2042 and an option for an additional five years until 2047 plus consideration of further renewals.

Georgia in the Fleet partition.

The newly independent nation of Georgia, which also hosted several bases of the Soviet Black Sea Fleet when it was the Georgian SSR, also claimed a share of the Fleet, including 32 naval vessels formerly stationed at Georgia's Black Sea port of Poti. Not a CIS member at that time, Georgia was not, however, included in the initial negotiations in January 1992. Additionally, some low-importance bases situated in the Russian-backed breakaway autonomy of Abkhazia soon escaped any Georgian control. In 1996, Georgia resumed its demands, and the Russian refusal to allot Georgia a portion of the ex-Soviet navy became another bone of contention in the progressively deteriorating Georgian-Russian relations. This time, Ukraine endorsed Tbilisi's claims, turning over several patrol boats to the Georgian Navy and starting to train Georgian crews, but was unable to include in the final fleet deal a transfer of the formerly Poti-based vessels to Georgia. Later, the rest of the Georgian share was decided to be ceded to Russia in return for diminution of debt.  Since the 2008 South Ossetia war the Russian Black Sea Fleet has not taken part in any joint naval exercises involving Georgian warships. However, such a statement has little meaning since the Georgian Navy has ceased to exist (early 2009 it was merged with the Georgian coast guard).  Russia is a member of the Black Sea Naval Co-operation Task Group usually referred to as BLACKSEAFOR.

Combat operations.

Russia employed part of the fleet during the 2008 Georgian conflict. Russian units operating off Georgia's separatist Abkhazia region resulted in a reported skirmish with the Georgian Navy. As a result, Ukraine's then President Viktor Yushchenko decreed that the Black Sea Fleet would henceforth need permission to cross the Ukrainian border to enter and leave to Sevastopol, to which a Russian admiral retorted that the President of the Russian Federation and not Ukraine commands the Black Sea Fleet. Yushchenko's decrees were without force and deployed units of the Russian Black Sea Fleet returned to their home moorings without incident. The texts of the 1997 Ukraine-Russia agreements regarding the presence of Russian Black Sea Fleet ships in Crimea contained no requirement for Ukraine's permission to cross the Ukrainian border to enter or exit Sevastopol.

Black Sea Fleet and Ukraine.

In a letter to then Russian President Medvedev, former Ukrainian President Yushchenko complained about alleged "infringements of bilateral agreements and Ukrainian legislation"  In 2009, Ukraine government announced that the lease of Russian naval bases on the Crimea would not be extended beyond 2017, in response the Russian Black Fleet initiated the expansion of its base in Novorossiysk. In July 2007, the Navy Commander announced that the new base would be ready in 2012. Under the 1997 bilateral treaty, Russia paid annually and the treaty provided for an extension by mutual agreement. Russian officials repeatedly said they would like to extend the lease.  In June 2009, the head of the Ukrainian Security Service said that after December 13, 2009, all officers from the Russian Federal Security Service (FSB) represented at the (Russian) Black Sea Fleet must leave Ukraine, from then the Security Service of Ukraine will ensure the security of the (Russian) Black Sea Fleet and Russian sailors on Ukrainian territory. According to the Russian Foreign Ministry the employees of the FSB, working at the Black Sea Fleet facilities, are to remain on Ukrainian territory "in line with bilateral agreements".  In October–November 2009, the (Russian) Black Sea Fleet complained about illegal inspection of (non-boat) transport vehicles owned by the fleet by the Sevastopol State Auto Inspectorate and Ukrainian security officers, calling them "disrespect for the status of the Russian military units and an unfriendly step aimed at worsening the Russian-Ukrainian relations".  On April 21, 2010, Ukrainian President Yanukovych and Russian President Medvedev reached an agreement whereby the Russian lease on naval facilities in Crimea would be extended beyond 2017 by 25 years with an additional 5-year renewal option (to 2042–47) in exchange for a multiyear discounted contract to provide Ukraine with Russian natural gas. This deal is controversial in Ukraine.  Joint exercises of the Ukrainian Navy and the (Russian) Black Sea Fleet were resumed after a seven-year interval with a command-staff exercise in June 2010. In May 2011, Russian-Ukrainian at-sea naval "Peace Fairway" (Farvater Mira) exercises resumed.  In 2010, based on an agreement between Ukrainian and Russian governments military counterintelligence officers from the Russian Federal Security Service returned to the (Russian) Black Sea Fleet base.  While a Yushchenko Foreign Minister said that Russia cannot unilaterally replace its Black Sea Fleet ships without Ukraine's consent, the recent lease extension also revalidated the agreements of 1997. Those agreements stipulate that the Russian Black Sea Fleet can maintain the same numbers and types of ships that it had based in Sevastopol as a result of the 1997 fleet division without approval by Ukraine. This stipulation permits Russia to increase the current size of the fleet which has fallen below those numbers.  As a result of the stance of the Ukrainian authorities, it was reported on 20 May 2013 that Russia would be concentrating on its new base in Novorossiysk and putting Sevastopol on hold as it upgrades the Black Sea Fleet. The Project-11356 frigate "Admiral Grigorovich" and the Project-636 submarines (Kilo class submarine) "Novorossiysk" and "Rostov-na-Donu" were expected to join the Fleet in 2014 and new moorings were being made ready for them at the base.

Additions of ships to the Fleet.

Repeated and sometimes contradictory announcements have been made claiming that new ships will join the fleet. On December 3, 2009, First Vice Mayor of Sevastopol Vladimir Kazarin stated that Russia's Black Sea Fleet could lose its combat capability, given a small number of ships and the absence of new ones. Similar doubts had been stated by the Russian media. The Gazeta newspaper noted that, by 2015, the majority of the warships would no longer be fit for duty.  In April 2010, Russian Navy sources said that up to four frigates and four diesel-electric submarines will be added to the Black Sea Fleet by 2015. In June 2010, Russian Navy Commander-in-Chief Admiral Vladimir Vysotsky announced that Russia was reviewing plans for the naval modernization of the Black Sea Fleet. The plans include 15 new warships and submarines by 2020. These vessels will partially replace the reported decommissioning of "Kerch," "Ochakov" (decommissioned in 2011 and sunk as a blockship in 2014), several large support ships, and a diesel-electric submarine.  Also in 2010, Russian Navy Headquarters sources said that, by 2020, six frigates of Project 22350 "Gorshkov"-class, six submarines of Project 677 Lada-class, two large landing ships of Project 11711 "Ivan Gren"-class and four class-unspecified ships will be delivered. Due to the obsolescence of the Beriev Be-12 by 2015, they will be replaced with Il-38s. Sukhoi Su-24M aircraft are planned to be upgraded to Su-24M2 at the same time. However, the November 2011 suspension of the building of the second and third Lada-class boats throws this particular announcement into doubt.  The Project 636.3 ("Kilo"-class) diesel-electric submarine "Novorossiysk" — the first of three such new submarines, which was laid down at Admiralty Wharves Shipyard, St. Petersburg on August 20, 2010 — is destined to serve in the Black Sea Fleet. Navy sources also say that Project 11356 Grigorovich-class frigate will be dispatched to the Black Sea. The "Admiral Grigorovich", the lead ship of the class, was laid down on December 18, 2010 and was expected to be in service 34 months from that date (October 2013). Three ships of this class are to be in service in the Black Sea Fleet before 2015.  After the 2014 Crimean crisis, in which Ukrainian Armed Forces and the Ukrainian Navy were evicted from their bases and subsequently withdrawn from Crimea, Russia planned to integrate several vessels from the Ukrainian Navy into the Black Sea Fleet. According to sources from Black Sea Fleet Headquarters, inspections of all ships were to be done by the end of 2014.  Speaking ahead of the nationwide Navy Day festivities in 2015, Black Sea Fleet commander Adm. Vitko said that, "For the first time in quite a long period, more than ten brand-new boats and support vessels have been accepted into service within one calendar year." Overall, in 2015 the fleet received 15 new ships, including two submarines, two missile corvettes, seven counter-sabotage boats, support, rescue and auxiliary vessels.

Controversies.

The Russian Black Sea Fleet's (BSF) use of leased facilities in Sevastopol and the Crimea was sometimes controversial. A number of incidents took place:

List of Black Sea Fleet warships.

New ships included from the Ukrainian Navy.

In the 2014 Crimean crisis Ukrainian Armed Forces and the Ukrainian Navy were evicted from their bases and Ukraine subsequently withdrew its forces from Crimea. Fifty-four out of sixty-seven ships of the Ukrainian Navy have been transferred to the Black Sea Fleet, with St. Andrew flags raised on them. On 8 April 2014 an agreement was reached between Russia and Ukraine to return Ukrainian Navy materials to Ukraine proper. The greater portion of the Ukrainian naval ships and vessels were then returned to Ukraine but Russia suspended this process after Ukraine did not renew its unilaterally declared ceasefire on 1 July 2014 in the conflict in the Donbass. According to the fleet commander Aleksandr Vitko, this happened because the vessels were old "and, if used [by Ukraine], could hurt its own people".  Also, a squadron of Sukhoi Su-30SMs (2016).

The Black Sea Fleet (, "Chernomorsky Flot") is the fleet of the Russian Navy in the Black Sea, the Sea of Azov and the Mediterranean Sea.

Die Schwarzmeerflotte (; transkribiert "Tschernomorski flot") ist der Teil der früheren Kaiserlich Russischen Marine bzw. der sowjetischen Marine und heutigen Seestreitkräfte Russlands, der im Schwarzen Meer stationiert ist und dort und im Mittelmeer operiert. Sie ist in verschiedenen Häfen des Schwarzen und des Asowschen Meeres stationiert. Ihr Hauptstützpunkt ist seit dem 18. Jahrhundert die Hafenstadt Sewastopol an der Südwestspitze der Krim. Die fortdauernde Nutzung dieser Marinebasis führte nach dem Zerfall der Sowjetunion wiederholt zu Irritationen in den Beziehungen zwischen Russland und der Ukraine. 2010 zählten mehr als 16.000 Soldaten und über 40 Schiffe zur russischen Schwarzmeerflotte.


History.

The Kelb tal-Fenek is a traditional breed of rural Malta. As the English-language exonym suggests, it is sometimes claimed that the Pharaoh Hound descends from the dogs shown in the tomb paintings of Ancient Egypt. A recent DNA study suggests that the breed is not of ancient origin, but a moderately recent development from various other breeds.  In 1647 Giovanni Francesco Abela, in his "Della Descrittione di Malta isola nel Mare Siciliano: con le sue antichità, ed altre notizie", wrote "... we have the dogs called Cernechi, much valued for rabbit-hunting, which are often in demand as far away as France, mainly for [use in] steep and stony mountain terrain". Some have taken this to refer to the Kelb tal-Fenek. The modern Cirneco is a Sicilian breed of similar structure and appearance to the Kelb tal-Fenek, but somewhat smaller ().  The first litter to be born outside Malta was in the United Kingdom in 1963. The breed was accepted by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale as the "Pharaoh Hound" in the same year, under the patronage of the UK. A breed standard was approved by the British Kennel Club in 1974.

Appearance.

At first glance, the Pharaoh Hound appears both graceful and elegant as well as powerful and athletic. Its build is one of strength without bulkiness or excessive musculature. Its head is elegant without being fine or extreme. The skull resembles a blunt wedge, and is long and chiseled with only a slight stop and a snout of good length. Its eyes are oval with a keen, alert, and intelligent expression. Their eyes are commonly amber-coloured. It has a long, lean, and muscular neck that is slightly arched. It has a deep chest that extends down to the elbows and a moderate tuck up. Its shoulders are long and well laid back. Its front legs are long and straight. The back legs are moderately angled, parallel to each other, and must be balanced with the forelegs. It has a long, fine, straight tail that reaches down to a bit below the point of the hocks, and has a whip-like shape. The tail is carried down when relaxed. When the dog is in motion or is excited, the tail is carried up; either level with, or loosely curled above, the back. Its dewclaws may be removed. The Pharaoh Hound's ears are very large and point upward when alert. They usually come in tan or chestnut colors. A white tail-tip is admired. Most commonly seen is any solid white spot on their neck, back, or shoulders. Mainly seen on the back or sides of the dog.  The coat is fine and short with no feathering. The texture varies from silky to somewhat hard and it must never be so profuse as to stand away from the dog's skin. The coat can also be glossy and short in most cases. The only colour accepted by most kennel clubs is red; though the shades of red colour varies, and accepted shades range from a tan to a deep chestnut and all shades in between. White markings on the chest, toes, tail-tip, centre of forehead, and the bridge of the muzzle are accepted, but not required. Pharaoh's eyes are always amber, and should complement the coat colour. They are born with blue eyes, which change to a light gold or yellow colour during early puppyhood and then begin to darken well into adulthood. The nose, whiskers, nails, paw-pads, and eye-rims should also be the same colour as the coat. Pharaoh Hounds also have a unique trait of "blushing" when excited or happy, with their ears and noses becoming bright pink.

Health.

The Kelb tal-Fenek suffers from few genetic diseases. Life expectancy is about 12 to 14 years.

Hunting.

The Kelb tal-Fenek is usually taken out to hunt at night when there are fewer distractions. Generally, the hunters will take their dogs into the countryside and release pairs of a male and a female dog in each compass direction. The dogs will then search out their prey using scent. When a rabbit is found the hounds will give chase, the small and more agile female in the lead with the male keeping the rabbit from darting too far to the sides. At this point the dogs giving chase will emit a high pitched bark, attracting the other dogs and the hunters, all of whom will come running. By the time the hunters and other dogs arrive the rabbit will almost always have taken to the ground. The hunters will then gather and leash all but one dog, then place nets over all of the likely escape holes of the rabbit. Finally the hunter will take a ferret (with a small bell attached) from a round wicker basket, and places it into the last entrance to the rabbit's burrow. The Kelb tal-Fenek can hear the little bell up to 3 metres down under the rocky terrain. When the ferret flushes the rabbit out a hole, one free dog swoops down upon it. The use of ferrets is mentioned by Strabo about rabbit-hunting in the Balearic Islands under Roman rule.

Miscellaneous.

The Kelb tal-Fenek is not the only breed of dog specific to the tiny islands of Malta. There is also the Kelb tal-But ("pocket dog", a toy breed), Kelb tal-Kaċċa ("hunting dog", a breed used for bird hunting), and lastly a type of Mastiff which is now extinct (Kelb tal-Ġlied, sometimes called the Maltese Bulldog or Maltese Mastiff). It is number 141 out of 154 breeds by dogs registered in 2005 by the AKC.

The Pharaoh Hound is a Maltese breed of hunting dog. In Maltese it is called, which means "rabbit dog"; it is traditionally used for hunting rabbit in the rocky terrain of the Maltese Islands. It is classified by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale in its "Spitz and primitive" group, and shows similarities to other Mediterranean breeds in that group such as the Cirneco dell'Etna, the Podenco Andaluz, the Podenco Canario, the Podenco Ibicenco and the Portuguese Podengo. It is the only Maltese dog breed with international recognition.

Der Pharaonenhund oder auch Pharaoh Hound ist eine von der FCI (Nr. 248, Gr. 5, Sek. 6) anerkannte Hunderasse aus Malta. Der maltesische Name lautet Kelb tal-Fenek. Standardgebendes Land ist Großbritannien.


Location.

Linlithgow is located in the north-east of West Lothian, close to the border with the Falkirk Council area (historically part of Stirlingshire). It lies west of Edinburgh along the main railway route to Glasgow. Before the construction of the M8 and M9 motorways and the opening of the Forth Road Bridge, the town lay on the main road from Edinburgh to Stirling, Perth and Inverness, while the canal system linked the burgh to Edinburgh and Glasgow. The nearby village of Blackness once served as the burgh's port. Linlithgow is overlooked by its local hill, Cockleroi.

Etymology.

The name Linlithgow comes from the Old British "lynn llaith cau" meaning "lake in the damp hollow". Originally "Linlithgow" referred to the loch itself, the town being known as just "Lithgow" (hence the common surname). Folk etymology associated this name with the Gaelic "liath-chù" meaning "grey dog", likely the origin of the black bitch on the burgh arms.

History.

The chief historic attraction of Linlithgow is the remains of Linlithgow Palace, the birthplace of James V and Mary, Queen of Scots, and probably Scotland's finest surviving late medieval secular building. The present palace was started (on an older site) in 1424 by James I of Scotland. It was burnt in 1746, and, whilst unroofed, it is still largely complete in terms of its apartments, though very few of the original furnishings survived.  Linlithgow was also the site of the Battle of Linlithgow Bridge at the western edge of the town. The bridge no longer stands. The roadway to Linlithgow over the River Avon is described by scholars as a lifted road.  Besides the palace, a second attraction, standing adjacent, is the 15th century St. Michael's Church. Its western tower originally had a distinctive stone crown spire, of the type seen also on St Giles Cathedral in Edinburgh, and Newcastle Cathedral, but it was damaged in a storm in 1768 then removed in 1821. In 1964 a controversial replacement spire in aluminium in a modern style by Scots architect Sir Basil Spence, representing Christ's crown of thorns, was added.  Many historic buildings line the High Street. On the south side ground levels rise and several historic wynds and closes, as found in Edinburgh still exist. The most prominent space is on axis with the road to the palace. This contains the Cross Well of 1807 (redesigned by James Haldane) which proclaims itself to be a replica of its 1628 predecessor.  North of the well stands the Town House of 1668 by the master mason John Smith. This replaced a previous hall or Tolbooth demolished by Oliver Cromwell's army in 1650. Much of its original interior was removed in a modernisation project of 1962. In June 1622 Katherine Rannald (alias Broun) from Kilpunt and her daughter Barbara Home (alias Winzet) were imprisoned in the Tolbooth on suspicion of witchcraft.  Linlithgow has been cited as the location of the first petrol pump in Scotland. "A plaque on the High Street records that Scotland's first petrol pump was installed at a garage here in 1919."

Coat of arms.

The burgh's coat of arms features a black bitch chained to an oak tree on an island, and those born within the town are known as "black bitches". In his account of a tour of Scotland, published in 1679, an English gentleman, Thomas Kirk, described the arms of the town as "a black bitch tied to a tree, in a floating island. We enquired for a story about it, but could meet with none: their schoolmaster told us it proceeded from the name of the place. Linlithgow, in Erst [Gaelic], is thus explained: Lin signifies Lough; Lith, black; and Gow, a hound."  A more recently recorded legend relates that the bitch was a black greyhound whose master was sentenced to starve to death on an island in the loch. She used to swim from the town every day with food for him. When this was discovered she was chained to a tree on a different island to suffer the same fate as her master. The townspeople took the animal's loyalty and bravery as symbolic of their own. The local pub named "The Black Bitch" is reputed to be one of Scotland's oldest pubs.

Development.

Two large tracts of the northern side of the High Street were demolished in the 1960s and replaced by flats and public buildings in the brutalist style typical of that time period. Although these buildings were no doubt welcomed at the time as a vast improvement on what must have been cramped and dilapidated traditional accommodation, they were poorly conceived and constructed and have required extensive maintenance and renovation over the years. Many locals lament the brutal effect these buildings have had on the character and appearance of the town's main thoroughfare, and indeed such a dramatic remodelling of buildings forming such an integral part of the town would be unthinkable nowadays.  Today the town is especially popular with middle classes and commuters, not only because of its transport links with Edinburgh, Glasgow and Stirling, but also because of the perceived quality of its schooling. The town grew considerably during the 1990s with the completion of several housing developments on the east side of the town. Though there is little scope for the town to grow further (as it is now bounded by green belt to the south and east, the M9 to the north, the river Avon and county boundary to the West and with the east side of the town having limited access to the M9) a planning application by Wallace Land for its proposals for a residential and retail development at Burghmuir was submitted in early February 2012. The town also now suffers from parking problems and the local schools are running to full capacity due to the massive increase in population over the last ten years.  Linlithgow is also home to a major computing centre owned by Oracle. Former industries include the St. Magdalene's distillery, the Nobel explosives works, paper mills and many tanneries.

Geography.

The town has a generally east-west orientation and is centred on what used to be the main Edinburgh-Stirling road; this now forms the main thoroughfare called the High Street. Plots of farmed land, known as rigs, ran perpendicular to the High Street and comprised much of the town's development until the 19th century. Growth was restricted to the north by Linlithgow Loch, and by the steep hill to the south, but, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, development began much further south of the High Street. In the late 20th century, demand for housing led to many residential developments much further south, as well as spreading into new areas. This southward development was bisected by the Union Canal and latterly by the main Edinburgh-Glasgow railway line, and today there are traffic problems because there are only three places in the town where each of these can be crossed.  To the west, Linlithgow Bridge used to be a somewhat distinct village with its own identity, but in the latter half of the 20th century it was enveloped in the expansion of the main town. Today the distinction between them is hard to make out.

Politics.

Long a Labour stronghold, Linlithgow's political scene has changed dramatically in line with the rise of the Scottish National Party across the country in the early 21st Century.

UK Parliament.

At Westminster, Linlithgow has been included in the Linlithgow and East Falkirk constituency since 2005. Linlithgow was a safe Labour seat until the SNP landslide of 2015 when sitting MP Michael Connarty was defeated by Martyn Day of the SNP. Day successfully defended the seat in the 2017 snap election despite his lead diminishing by 7 percentage points.

Scottish Parliament.

At Holyrood, Linlithgow is represented by the SNP's Fiona Hyslop, the Cabinet Secretary for Culture, Tourism and External Affairs. Prior to the 2011 Scottish Parliament election, the town was represented by Mary Mulligan of Labour. It is also part of the Lothian electoral region, which elected 3 Conservative, 2 Labour and 2 Green MSPs under the additional member system in 2016.

West Lothian Council.

At both the 2012 and 2017 local elections, Linlithgow ward elected one Conservative, one Labour and one SNP councillor, namely Tom Kerr, Tom Conn and David Tait respectively.

British Army.

Following the formation of the Territorial Force the town was allocated, for recruiting, to the Lothians and Border Horse and 10th Battalion, Royal Scots. Today 1 SCOTS recruit from the area keeping the traditions of the area from the Royal Scots.

Facilities and leisure.

Linlithgow's rich history and central location make it a popular tourist destination, while many local people commute to Glasgow, Edinburgh or Stirling; this is made relatively easy by the town's railway station and its proximity to both the M8 and M9 motorways.  The town is served by three supermarkets and a retail park situated in Linlithgow Bridge. There are also a diverse range of local retailers in the High Street. There are controversial proposals for a new retail development to the east of the town. These are being opposed by a local lobby group.  Linlithgow is big enough to have facilities for most common participation sports.  Linlithgow Rose Community Football Club (formed from a partnership of Linlithgow Rose Football Club and BFC Linlithgow) has about 500 player members, involved in soccer 4s, soccer 7s, girls, youth and adult amateur football. The club has a dedicated goalkeeping school and referee training programme and has been awarded Community Level status in both the SFA Quality Mark and West Lothian Council Club Accreditation schemes.  Linlithgow is also host to Linlithgow Rose Football Club, Linlithgow Thistle AFC and Linlithgow Rugby Football Club as well as West Lothian County Cricket Association Linlithgow also hosts two main registered Scotland Supporters Clubs for the Scottish National football team: Linlithgow & District Tartan Army (LADTA) and the Young Linlithgow Tartan Army (YLTA). A number of local parks, including play areas for children, are spread throughout the burgh, with the tract of land surrounding the palace known as the Peel being particularly popular in summer. Low Port Outdoor Education Centre is situated next to the loch and provides facilities for many outdoor activities, many based on the adjacent loch. Nearby country parks include Beecraigs and Muiravonside.  Linlithgow golf club, founded in 1913, sits to the south of the canal on the western edge of town.  Educational establishments in the town include Linlithgow Academy, which regularly appears close to the top of the school league tables in Scotland and is one of the main reasons for the demand for housing in Linlithgow, and five primary schools: Linlithgow Primary School, St Joseph's Primary School, Linlithgow Bridge Primary School, Low Port Primary School and Springfield Primary School.  Donaldson's College, Scotland's national school for the deaf, relocated from Edinburgh to a new building in Linlithgow in 2008.  The Riding of the Marches, held in one form or another since the mid-16th century and nowadays celebrated on the first Tuesday after the second Thursday in June, involves young and old in the tradition of checking the burgh's perimeter, including the town's historic port of Blackness. Although today's activities are centred more on the colourful parades through the town that involve bands and floats decorated by local groups, the more ceremonial duties of the Marches are still performed, and a variety of local groups ensure that the traditions, old and new, are maintained.  There are many other events during the year such as the Children's Gala Day, the Linlithgow Folk Festival and a pre-Christmas Victorian Street Fayre, and since 2014, Party At The Palace which is a music festival held annually in August by the loch and has brought acts including Nile Rodgers, Kaiser Chiefs, Travis, Simple Minds, The Proclaimers, Texas and many others to play in the town. The Charlatans and Deacon Blue headline Party at the Palace 2019. The sense of community is enhanced by many active local groups such as Linlithgow Amateur Musical Productions (LAMP), Lithca Lore, the Linlithgow Players and the 41 Club. The town also has its own weekly local newspaper, the Linlithgow Gazette.  The Linlithgow Union Canal Society runs a canal museum and operates narrowboat tours from Manse Road basin.  The town has two Church of Scotland parish churches: St Michael's and the smaller St. Ninian's Craigmailen. There are also churches of other denominations, including a Methodist chapel (now an evangelical church, St. John's, which meets in Linlithgow Academy on a Sunday morning); St Peter's, an architecturally distinctive Scottish Episcopal church; and a Roman Catholic church, also called St Michael's, which was used as an ambulance depot by Polish servicemen during the Second World War.

Twin towns.

Linlithgow is twinned with the French town Guyancourt and, as part of West Lothian, with Grapevine, Texas in the USA. This has resulted in exchange programmes where students from Linlithgow visit schools in Grapevine, Texas.

Linlithgow (;, ) is a town in West Lothian, Scotland. It was historically West Lothian's county town, reflected in the county's alternative name of Linlithgowshire. An ancient town, it lies south of its two most prominent landmarks: Linlithgow Palace and Linlithgow Loch, and north of the Union Canal.

Linlithgow (; schottisch-gälisch "Gleann Iucha", Scots "Lithgae") ist die ehemalige Hauptstadt der nach ihr benannten schottischen Grafschaft Linlithgowshire, deren offizieller Name heute West Lothian lautet. Die Stadt zählt 16.470 Einwohner.


Appearance and anatomy.

The adult size is 61⁄2 cm for males and a slightly larger 7 cm for females (21⁄2 to 23⁄4 inches). Females have a slightly higher body frame than males in accordance with their larger abdominal region. Their average life span is 10 years. It has a yellow or pink body, white belly, and is blue-grey over its head and back. Its fins are yellow or pink and immaculate. In common with most Corydoras the dorsal, pectoral and adipose fins have an additional sharp barb and have a mild poison which causes fish which try to attack them to get stung. A brownish-orange patch is usually present on the head, just before the dorsal fin, and is its most distinctive feature when viewed from above in the stream. Their upper sides are often a greenish color, which is the reason another common name for this fish is the green corydoras.  Like many other catfishes, females are larger than males in this species.

Ecology.

They are found in quiet, shallow waters with soft bottoms that can sometimes be heavily polluted by clouds of disturbed mud from the bottom, but it also inhabits running waters. In its native habitat, it inhabits waters with a temperature range of 25 °C to 28 °C (77 °F to 82 °F), pH 6.0–8.0, and hardness 5 to 19 DGH. Like most members of the genus "Corydoras", these catfish have a unique method of coping with the low oxygen content that prevails in such environments. In addition to utilizing their gills like any other fish, they rapidly come to the surface of the water and draw air in through their mouth. This air is then absorbed through the wall of the intestine and any surplus air is expelled through the vent. It typically stays in schools of 20 to 30 individuals. It feeds on worms, benthic crustaceans, insects, and plant matter.

Reproduction.

Reproduction occurs with the onset of the rainy season, which changes the water chemistry. Females spawn 10–20 egg-clutches with multiple males at a time, but an entire egg clutch is inseminated by the sperm of a single male.  In laboratory observations, it was found that bronze corydoras have a unique method of insemination. When these fish reproduce, the male will present his abdomen to the female. The female will attach her mouth to the male's genital opening, creating the well-known "T-position" many "Corydoras" exhibit during courtship. The female will then drink the sperm. The sperm rapidly moves through her intestines and is discharged together with her eggs into a pouch formed by her pelvic fins. The female can then swim away and deposit the pouch somewhere else alone. Because the T-position is exhibited in other species than just "C. aeneus", it is likely that they also exhibit this behavior. In the wild, eggs are laid on waterweeds.  Males do not form territories or compete over females; interference between males might only happen when two males present their abdomens simultaneously. On the other hand, females do not choose between males. Mating is more or less random; therefore, male reproductive success is directly related to courtship frequency.  The eggs of "C. aeneus" exhibit a unique surface pattern with small villi-like protuberances which resemble attaching-filaments of teleost eggs. These structures allow the eggs to be adhesive and stick to a specific place or to each other. The presence of these structures may be related to the turbid habitat in which this species lives.

In the aquarium.

Bronze corydoras are probably the most popular "Corydoras" species. It is annually bred and shipped in large quantities all over the world It is easily bred and is produced in commercial quantities in the United States, Europe, and Singapore. Most of the available fish are therefore domestic strains. Wild imports are reported to be less easy to breed.  They are a hardy and useful aquarium fish despite having a coloration that is by no means striking or unusual. Many aquarists are fascinated by the habits of these fish. They ceaselessly comb the bottom of the aquarium for food and therefore disturb it slightly, sending up detritus and waste material that has settled loosely on the bottom. They prefer being kept in groups of 5 or more, being sociable fish and are ideal fish for a community tank. Other "Corydoras" species can be placed in the same aquarium, and despite the strong resemblance many species bear to one another, the species will tend to separate out and only move about among their own kind.  "Corydoras aeneus" is not particular about the composition of the water. Adequate conditions are a temperature range of 20 to 28 °C (68 to 82 °F), pH of 6.0–8.0, and hardness of 2–30 DGH. The water should have no salt added to it. A fairly dense growth of plants with a number of possible hiding places is greatly appreciated. Corys are easy to feed, they are omnivores eating all flake and pelleted food and also live and frozen foods. When it comes to sperm, then the female glues the eggs, only a few in number, to the chosen substrate and then (sometimes) quickly touches them with her mouth. After several acts of spawning, which span a total of two to three hours, one female will have produced up to 200 eggs. Frequently, two males are used for each female, as one male has difficulty fertilizing all the eggs. The eggs gradually grow darker in color, and just prior to hatching (ranging from three days at 28 °C to a week at 20 °C) they turn dark brown. The fry keep to the bottom of the tank, feeding on detritus and any fine foods available. The parents may spawn again within two to three weeks.

Albino corydoras.

The albino corydoras is an albino variety of the bronze corydoras that has been developed for the aquarium trade, with a pale pink or orange body and red eyes. It is physically similar to normally-colored individuals, although some breeders report that the fry are a little slower to develop. Others say that the albinos are practically blind and that the males are somewhat sterile, although this may be due to extensive inbreeding. Albino bronze corydoras are frequently injected with bright dye (via a needle) and sold in aquariums. This controversial practice is known as "painting" or "juicing" fish.

The bronze corydoras ("Corydoras aeneus"), green corydoras, bronze catfish, lightspot corydoras or wavy catfish is a tropical freshwater fish in the "armored catfish" family, Callichthyidae, often kept in captivity by fish keepers. It is widely distributed in South America on the eastern side of the Andes, from Colombia and Trinidad to the Río de la Plata basin. It was originally described as "Hoplosoma aeneum" by Theodore Gill in 1858 and has also been referred to as "Callichthys aeneus".

Der Metallpanzerwels ("Corydoras aeneus", lat. „aeneus“ – bronzen, kupfern), auch Goldstreifenpanzerwels, ist eine Fischart aus der Familie der Panzer- und Schwielenwelse. Der Artname nimmt Bezug auf den metallischen Glanz der Tiere.


Objective.

The objective of video tracking is to associate target objects in consecutive video frames. The association can be especially difficult when the objects are moving fast relative to the frame rate. Another situation that increases the complexity of the problem is when the tracked object changes orientation over time. For these situations video tracking systems usually employ a motion model which describes how the image of the target might change for different possible motions of the object.  Examples of simple motion models are:

Algorithms.

To perform video tracking an algorithm analyzes sequential video frames and outputs the movement of targets between the frames. There are a variety of algorithms, each having strengths and weaknesses. Considering the intended use is important when choosing which algorithm to use. There are two major components of a visual tracking system: target representation and localization, as well as filtering and data association.  "Target representation and localization" is mostly a bottom-up process. These methods give a variety of tools for identifying the moving object. Locating and tracking the target object successfully is dependent on the algorithm. For example, using blob tracking is useful for identifying human movement because a person's profile changes dynamically. Typically the computational complexity for these algorithms is low. The following are some common "target representation and localization" algorithms:  "Filtering and data association" is mostly a top-down process, which involves incorporating prior information about the scene or object, dealing with object dynamics, and evaluation of different hypotheses. These methods allow the tracking of complex objects along with more complex object interaction like tracking objects moving behind obstructions. Additionally the complexity is increased if the video tracker (also named TV tracker or target tracker) is not mounted on rigid foundation (on-shore) but on a moving ship (off-shore), where typically an inertial measurement system is used to pre-stabilize the video tracker to reduce the required dynamics and bandwidth of the camera system. The computational complexity for these algorithms is usually much higher. The following are some common filtering algorithms:

Video tracking is the process of locating a moving object (or multiple objects) over time using a camera. It has a variety of uses, some of which are: human-computer interaction, security and surveillance, video communication and compression, augmented reality, traffic control, medical imaging and video editing. Video tracking can be a time-consuming process due to the amount of data that is contained in video. Adding further to the complexity is the possible need to use object recognition techniques for tracking, a challenging problem in its own right.

Tracking (dt. für den statischen [retrospektiven] Anwendungsfall gleichbedeutend mit Spurbildung, für den dynamischen Anwendungsfall [mitlaufend, online] gleichbedeutend mit Nachführung) umfasst alle Bearbeitungsschritte, die der gleichzeitigen Verfolgung von (bewegten) Objekten dienen. Davon unterschieden wird das "Tracing", das eine zeitlich versetzte Verfolgung anhand von Aufzeichnungen betrifft, z. B. in der Programmierung als Ablaufverfolgung. Die Abgrenzung ist aber nicht einheitlich, so spricht man z. B. von einem GPS-Tracking unabhängig davon, ob die Verfolgung (Auswertung) gleichzeitig oder nachträglich erfolgt.


Plot.

Richard, a coal miner from Essen, returns after eleven years of being a Soviet prisoner of war in Siberia. In the meantime, his wife, two sons, and one daughter have reached a minimum standard of living without him. When he is unexpectedly repatriated in 1954, he has severe problems in reintegrating himself with his family and country. His wife is running a small business, his elder son has become a Communist challenging his father's ideals of the Nazi time, his daughter flirts with British soldiers who are his former enemies, while his 11-year-old son Matthias, who never knew his father, admires a local football hero instead, Helmut Rahn of Rot-Weiß Essen.  While Richard is initially very stern about Matthias' love for football, he gradually softens such that, on the night before the final game, father and son drive to Bern to see the match.  An additional plot of the movie is the personal triumph of Helmut Rahn, for whom Matthias becomes a lucky mascot. Rahn, nicknamed "The Boss", has a successful record at club level, though is rarely chosen to play at national level in trainer Sepp Herberger's team.  A third more light-hearted comic relief story line revolves around the fictional sports reporter Paul Ackermann and his wife, who travel to the World Cup despite their fundamentally different views on the importance of football.  There are several miraculous events in the film. For Richard, it is the sudden joy of scoring a goal with an abandoned football. For Rahn, it is seeing Matthias on the sideline that spurs him into scoring the winning goal. For Sepp Herberger, however, the miracles are more mundane: the sudden rain that slows down the Hungarians (however, German captain Fritz Walter tended to perform better in stormy conditions), but not so much the Germans fitted with Adolf Dassler's revolutionary screw-in football studs. For all Germans, it's the unexpected euphoria of a win that heals many wounds, becoming a symbol of the ongoing economic "miracle".

The real sports miracle.

The 1954 German team, captained by Fritz Walter and coached by Sepp Herberger, won the World Cup in a remarkable final against the legendary Hungarian "Mighty Magyars", undefeated for four years (Hungary had even thrashed the German back-ups 8–3 in the group stages). A determined Germany came back from an early two-goal deficit to win 3–2, with Helmut Rahn scoring the winning goal six minutes from the end of full-time. This was a euphoric event for Germany, which had been spiritually and economically shattered by the war. Winning the Jules Rimet Trophy by beating the world's strongest team gave the country new pride and is seen as a herald of Germany's economic and political recovery.

The Miracle of Bern () is a 2003 film by Sönke Wortmann, which tells the story of a German family (particularly of a young boy and his depressed ex-POW father) and the unexpected West German "miracle" victory in the 1954 World Cup Final in Bern, Switzerland.

Das Wunder von Bern ist ein Spielfilm des Regisseurs Sönke Wortmann aus dem Jahr 2003, der gemeinsam mit Rochus Hahn auch das Drehbuch schrieb. Es wird die Geschichte von Deutschlands unerwartetem Sieg bei der Fußball-Weltmeisterschaft 1954 in Bern (dem sogenannten Wunder von Bern) erzählt. Darüber hinaus beschreibt der Film die Schwierigkeiten eines heimgekehrten Kriegsgefangenen, der sich in seinem alten Leben nicht mehr zurechtfindet, parallel zum deutschen Erfolg aber seinem Sohn und seiner Familie wieder näherkommt.


Historical background.

Pseudo-Isidore worked in the second quarter of the ninth-century, in the archiepiscopal province of Reims. His sympathies lay with the rank-and-file Frankish episcopate. Decades of royally sponsored church reform had contributed substantially to the prominence and political importance of Frankish bishops; it also contributed to their legal vulnerability, as the reign of Louis I the Pious saw a series of sensational episcopal trials and depositions. Pseudo-Isidore was also heir to a long tradition of Carolingian church reform, and his forgeries also include a wide array of themes reflecting Frankish liturgical, doctrinal, educational and administrative aspirations.

Content.

One of Pseudo-Isidore's earliest projects addressed an authentic canonical collection from Visigothic Spain known as the Collectio Hispana (or the Spanish Collection), which provided a two-part compendium of canon law. The decrees of church councils were gathered in Part I, and papal decretals in Part II. Pseudo-Isidore knew only a corrupt subtype of the Hispana current in Gaul, known as the Hispana Gallica. He corrected this Gallican Hispana, in part by consulting related texts in other collections like the Dionysio-Hadriana. He also contributed an array of inauthentic interpolations to authentic Hispana materials, adjusting ancient legal proclamations here and there to fit his purposes. This so-called interpolated Hispana (also known as the Autun Hispana) survives today in only one complete copy, namely Vatican, Biblioteca Apostolica, Vat. lat. 1341.  At some later point Pseudo-Isidore forged a great many papal decretals in the names of popes from Clement I to Gregory the Great, which he then inserted into his interpolated Hispana. Sixty decretals from the earliest pre-Nicene popes (Clement through Melchiades) formed Part I of the new collection. Then came the conciliar material from the interpolated Hispana (originally Part I, now Part II), which received no further alterations. Finally came the original decretals part of the Hispana (Part II originally, now Part III), where many further decretal forgeries were carefully integrated with the authentic fund of Hispana decretals. This enormous compendium then received a preface in the name of the fictitious Isidorus Mercator. It is from this false Isidorus that the forger came to be known as Pseudo-Isidore.  The third major constituent of Pseudo-Isidore's output consists of a collection of forged capitulary legislation ascribed to Charlemagne and Louis the Pious. These False Capitularies, which consist mostly of excerpts from genuine biblical, patristic and legal sources, are false primarily in the sense that almost none of them were ever promulgated by the Frankish kings. Among the many genuine items are also select forged capitula that advance the Pseudo-Isidorian program. In a preface, the pseudonymous compiler, Benedictus Levita (Benedict the Deacon) claims that he found these neglected capitularies in the archives of the cathedral at Mainz; and that the former Archbishop Otgar of Mainz ordered him to collect this material for posterity. Because Benedict seems to acknowledge that Otgar is dead at the time of his writing, it has been possible to date his preface to the years after 847. Benedict presents his three books and appendices of pseudo-capitularies as an expansion to the authentic and widely known capitulary collection assembled by Ansegisus of Fontanelle.  Pseudo-Isidore also developed a small series of more minor forgeries which we find as appendices in manuscripts of the False Decretals. These include the Capitula Angilramni, a brief collection on criminal procedure allegedly given to Bishop Angilram of Metz by Pope Hadrian I; and a series of excerpts from the Rusticus version of the Council of Chalcedon.

Authorship.

The names assumed by Pseudo-Isidore, including Isidorus Mercator (conflated from the names of Isidore of Seville and Marius Mercator), Benedictus Levita and others are all pseudonyms. The forgeries originated in the archiepiscopal province of Reims, where they were first circulated and cited. Thanks to the research of Klaus Zechiel-Eckes, it is now also known that Pseudo-Isidore did important research at the library of the monastery of Corbie, in the Reims suffragan diocese of Amiens. Scholars disagree about whether all of the Pseudo-Isidorian forgeries are to be attributed to the same person or persons; or whether the False Capitularies of Benedictus Levita and the False Decretals of Isidorus Mercator represent separate but somehow related forgery enterprises.  Zechiel-Eckes believed that the prominent theologian and abbot of Corbie, Paschasius Radbertus (abbot 842-847) was to be identified with Pseudo-Isidore; and that the earliest phase of work on the forgeries, amounting to a subset of the False Decretals, was completed in the later 830s. These theories once commanded wide support, but today they are increasingly disputed. Eric Knibbs has argued that older, traditional dating schemes, which placed the False Decretals in the 840s or early 850s, were essentially correct. Several decretal forgeries contain material that aims to justify Ebo in his episcopal translation to the bishopric at Hildesheim after 845. It has also emerged that the decretal forgeries incorporate many items from a mid-ninth-century Corbie manuscript of the works of Ennodius of Pavia, which would seem to preclude any dates for the decretal forgeries substantially before the 840s.

Manuscripts.

Well over a hundred medieval manuscripts containing Pseudo-Isidorian material survive. The vast majority -- around 100 -- carry copies of the False Decretals. They are traditionally divided into six different classes. Probably the most widely distributed version is the manuscript class that Paul Hinschius christened A1. Equally important, though much rarer, is the so-called A/B class, which was developed at Corbie, where Pseudo-Isidore also did his work. The B and C classes, available only in high-medieval codices, are derived from A/B. All of these classes contain the full collection of Isidorus Mercator in three parts. A fifth class, which Hinschius called A2, provides only the 60 decretal forgeries from Part I and an initial sequence of decretal forgeries from Part III; it is also known as the short version and is closely related to A1. Finally, Horst Furhmann identified a further class of manuscripts that he called the Cluny Version. This entire class is descended from New Haven, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Ms. 442, and it is merely an A1 subtype. All of these different arrangements of the forgeries actually reflect two different traditions. A1 with the so-called Cluny subtype and the shorter A2 version are all closely related to one another; the A/B version, with its B- and C- class derivatives represents a fundamentally different 'edition' of the forgeries.  The other major Pseudo-Isidorian project, the False Capitularies, survive in twenty-three medieval manuscripts.

Editions.

Efforts to publish the forgeries have been unsuccessful, with the "Hispana Gallica Augustodunensis" never published. Although several editions of the "Capitularia Benedicti Levitae" exist, the most recent ("Monumenta Germaniae Historica", "Leges", folio II, 2, 1831) is scholastically inferior to the 1677 Étienne Baluze edition. The False Decretals and the "Capitula Angilramni" have been published twice, with the 1863 edition by Paul Hinschius criticized for his choice of manuscripts. Hinschius also printed the genuine and interpolated parts of the collection by reprinting older versions of Pseudo-Isidore's genuine sources, making that portion of his edition critically unusable. Historians must return to J. Merlin's 1525 edition, based on a single 13th-century manuscript and reprinted in volume 130 of Jacques Paul Migne's "Patrologia Latina".

Influence.

For 150 to 200 years, the forgeries were only moderately successful. Although a relatively-large number of ninth- or tenth-century manuscripts is known (about 100 more-or-less complete manuscripts of the False Decretals, dating from the ninth to the 16th century, have been preserved), the canonical collections took little notice of the False Decretals until the early 11th century.  During that century, the situation changed rapidly under the impetus of the Gregorian reforms and the Investiture Controversy. Spurred by monastic reform movements and the efforts of some Holy Roman Emperors, a group of cardinals and a series of popes strove to cleanse the church of abuses and free the papacy from its imperial patronage (which had recently freed it from the influence of Roman nobles). The reformers' efforts soon conflicted with temporal power; the bishops of the Holy Roman Empire were crucial to the emperors' power, forming the backbone of their administrative structure. This mingling of spiritual and temporal power was wrong, according to the reformers; Saint Peter had condemned Simon Magus (the "Simon" of simony), who tried to buy spiritual power.  The alleged letters, allegedly from some of the most venerable Roman bishops, demonstrated that the emperors' practice contradicted the oldest traditions of the church. Collections of canon law rediscovered the False Decretals, since some were largely extracts of the forgeries. The texts were now used to increase scrutiny of the bishops, making them dependent on the pope.  This situation prevailed until around 1140, when the jurist Gratian published his "Concordia discordantium canonum" (increasingly replacing the older collections and soon regarded as authoritative). Although Gratian also indirectly used forged texts, his work ended the immediate influence of the False Decretals. The texts had become a basis for procedural law, but the bishops' independence was increasingly restricted by the Church of Rome.  During the Middle Ages, few doubted the authenticity of the alleged papal letters. This changed during the fifteenth century, when humanist Latin scholars such as Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa noticed bizarre anachronisms (such as the claim that Clement I had based the preeminence of local churches on the presence of pagan high priests). During the sixteenth century, Protestant ecclesiastical historians such as the Centuriators of Magdeburg (the authors of the "Magdeburg Centuries") systematically criticized the forgeries without yet recognizing them as an interconnected complex.  The final proof was provided by Calvinist preacher David Blondel, who discovered that the popes from the early centuries quoted extensively from much-later authors and published his findings ("Pseudoisidorus et Turrianus vapulantes") in 1628. Although Catholic theologians originally tried to defend the authenticity of at least some of the material, since the nineteenth century no serious theologian (or historian) has denied them as forgeries.

Pseudo-Isidore is the conventional name for the unknown Carolingian-era author (or authors) behind an extensive corpus of influential forgeries. Pseudo-Isidore's main object was to provide accused bishops with an array of legal protections amounting to de facto immunity from trial and conviction; to secure episcopal autonomy within the diocese; and to defend the integrity of church property. The forgeries accomplished this goal, in part, by aiming to expand the legal jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome.

Pseudoisidor (oder "pseudoisidorische Dekretalen – Decretales Pseudo-Isidorianae") ist der übergreifende Name für die umfangreichste und einflussreichste kirchenrechtliche Fälschung des Mittelalters. Entstanden sind diese Fälschungen im zweiten Viertel des 9. Jahrhunderts im heutigen Ostfrankreich.


History.

The Alvito region has been inhabited since the Neolithic, and during the period of Roman domination several villae were established nearby, later occupied by Visigoths and Moors. During the Reconquista, Alvito was conquered by the Portuguese in 1234, being later (1251) donated by King Afonso III to Estêvão Anes, chancellor of the kingdom, who promoted the settlement of the area.  The village gained a foral (letter of feudal rights) in 1280, confirmed by King Dinis I in 1283. In 1296 an annual fair was established, attesting the rapid development of the region. In 1387, King John I donated Alvito to knight Diogo Lobo in exchange for his services in the decisive Battle of Aljubarrota (1385), and in 1475 the title of Baron was granted to the rulers of Alvito.  The 15th and 16th centuries were a time of strong economic and populational development of Alvito, which reached 1700 inhabitants in 1527. The Castle of Alvito was rebuilt between 1494 and 1504, and its architecture and decoration show an interesting mix of Manueline (Portuguese late Gothic) and Mudéjar (Arab-influenced) styles, typical of the Alentejo region. Also the main church ("matriz") of Alvito, in a mix of Manueline and early Renaissance styles, dates from the early 16th century.  After the 18th century, Alvito faced an economic stagnation that continued until the 20th century, and it now bets on its touristic potential. In 1993, the Castle of Alvito was turned into a luxury hotel of the Pousadas de Portugal brand.

Parishes.

Administratively, the municipality is divided into 2 civil parishes ("freguesias"):

Cities and towns.

The municipality includes one town:

International relations.

Alvito is twinned with:

Alvito () is a town and a municipality in Beja District in Portugal. The population in 2011 was 2,504, in an area of 264.85 km2.

Alvito ist eine Stadt (Vila) in Portugal mit Einwohnern (Stand ). Der Landkreis von Alvito befindet sich im Nordwesten des Baixo Alentejo 38 km von Beja (Distrikthauptstadt) entfernt mit einer Gesamtfläche von km2 und Einwohnern (Stand ). Es gibt neben der Gemeinde von Alvito noch die Gemeinde von Vila Nova da Baronia, die auch zu diesem Landkreis gehört.


Relationship to superconductivity.

The tendency for all the Cooper pairs in a body to "condense" into the same ground quantum state is responsible for the peculiar properties of superconductivity.  Cooper originally considered only the case of an isolated pair's formation in a metal. When one considers the more realistic state of many electronic pair formations, as is elucidated in the full BCS theory, one finds that the pairing opens a gap in the continuous spectrum of allowed energy states of the electrons, meaning that all excitations of the system must possess some minimum amount of energy. This "gap to excitations" leads to superconductivity, since small excitations such as scattering of electrons are forbidden. The gap appears due to many-body effects between electrons feeling the attraction.  R. A. Ogg, Jr., was first to suggest that electrons might act as pairs coupled by lattice vibrations in the material. This was indicated by the isotope effect observed in superconductors. The isotope effect showed that materials with heavier ions (different nuclear isotopes) had lower superconducting transition temperatures. This can be explained by the theory of Cooper pairing: heavier ions are harder for the electrons to attract and move (how Cooper pairs are formed), which results in smaller binding energy for the pairs.  The theory of Cooper pairs is quite general and does not depend on the specific electron-phonon interaction. Condensed matter theorists have proposed pairing mechanisms based on other attractive interactions such as electron–exciton interactions or electron–plasmon interactions. Currently, none of these other pairing interactions has been observed in any material.  It should be mentioned that Cooper pairing does not involve individual electrons pairing up to form "quasi-bosons". The paired states are energetically favored, and electrons go in and out of those states preferentially. This is a fine distinction that John Bardeen makes:  The mathematical description of the second-order coherence involved here is given by Yang.

In condensed matter physics, a Cooper pair or BCS pair is a pair of electrons (or other fermions) bound together at low temperatures in a certain manner first described in 1956 by American physicist Leon Cooper. Cooper showed that an arbitrarily small attraction between electrons in a metal can cause a paired state of electrons to have a lower energy than the Fermi energy, which implies that the pair is bound. In conventional superconductors, this attraction is due to the electron–phonon interaction. The Cooper pair state is responsible for superconductivity, as described in the BCS theory developed by John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and John Schrieffer for which they shared the 1972 Nobel Prize.

Als Cooper-Paare werden paarweise Zusammenschlüsse von beweglichen Elektronen in speziellen Materialien bezeichnet. Sie treten bei sehr tiefen Temperaturen auf und sind Voraussetzung für den supraleitenden Zustand dieser (metallischen oder keramischen) Materialien. Das Phänomen der Cooper-Paar-Bildung ist nach der Erstbeschreibung im Jahr 1956 durch Leon Neil Cooper benannt und erhält in der BCS-Theorie der Supraleitung grundlegende Bedeutung.


Features.

Sanglas motorcycles were of relatively large engine for its time, especially for Spain. The company was born with the intention to position itself as an alternative to brands as BMW, Zündapp or DKW to provide motor vehicles to official agencies.

History.

The history of the brand dates back to 1942, three years after the Spanish Civil War, but the first documents on the formal sale of motorcycles dating from 1947. It was founded by two young students of engineering of Barcelone, brothers Javier and Martin Sanglas with financial back up by their father, an textile entrepreneur.  Sanglas models were a hybrid of English and German models. The chassis was based on the concept of BMW and the engine, type monoblock, 4-stroke single cylinder, OHV type, was inspired by DKW brand. The first motorcycle had a displacement of 347,75 cc. and 14.4 HP power at 4,800 rpm. At the end of 1948 the company already had 100 employees and had manufactured 200 units. The first model, 500 cc with a rear chassis renovated to be able to accommodate an oscillating fork and two hydraulic shock absorbers, was launched in October 1952.  The Sanglas were designed for tourism, reached considerable speeds and could travel long distances. 350/4 and 500/3 models included engines with increased power, an improved silencer and brakes in aluminum among other improvements. However, the Seat 600 car, only marginally more expensive than the Sanglas, dismissed market to the latter. In 1957 a sidecar made in fiberglass was presented at the Fair of Barcelone. A renewed version of the mountain motorcycle, named Montaña II afterwards, with substantial improvements over the first version, was also launched. It yielded 25 HP with a high torque value.  In 1958 the production amounts to 500 units annually, which leads to expand production with the subsequent transfer from Poble Nou to a more modern factory located in El Hospitalet. During the crisis of those years the staff was reduced from 200 to 50 workers, much of them becoming suppliers and outsourcing some components, for example by providing the new Sanglas 400 with British engines under the brand Rovena.  At the end of the 1950s, due to the rise of four-wheeled vehicles, many motorcycle manufacturers were forced to reduce the displacemt of their models. The result was the model known as “Chromática”, with 295 cc engine, 13 HP power and 6,000 rpm. In 1959 480 units are sold, 250 to public agencies and 230 to individual clients. The Chromática nickname was due to the four colors (blue, salmon, green and black) with which it was supplied.  A 500 cc model was launched in 1967 intended for military use, but did not receive much demand. That year, Sanglas launches the brand Rovena, with two-stroke two-cylinder Hispano Villiers engines and capacity of 250/350 cc (the latter since 1963). Production of the Sanglas with two-stroke Zündapp engines of 50, 75 and 100cc began in 1964. Four-stroke engine model 400T (423 cc, already designed in 1956-57) was presented at the Fair of Barcelone. This model would serve as a reference for the rest of the line-up of the brand until its demise.  At the end of the 1960s the production reached 2,500 units, with 40 workers on the assembly line, from a total workforce of less than 100 people.  In 1970, a folding multi-use model of 49 cc, low-maintenance secondary transmission by cardan and only 28 kg of weight is designed, but lacking funds for production, the project was dismissed.  By 1973 the demand for motorcycles of great size and power had increased, but Sanglas manages to sell only 474 units because of their lack of performance. In 1976 the model 500S is presented, with onboard (Sanglas concept) disc brakes and 32 HP at 6,700 rpm. At the same time, the 400E model was stepped to become the 400F. The 500S model allows an increase in sales abroad with the financial help of the Prodinsa company, which also owned shares in the company Mototrans (manufacturer under license from the Italian brand Ducati motorcycles), which led attempts to merge both companies.  In 1977, the 500 S2 is launched, and two years later a version with five-speed gearbox (the 500 S2 V5) appears on the market. The business never made profitable the Prodinsa investment and the brand Sanglas is sold to the Spanish bank Banesto, with the idea of achieving capital gains from the sale of the company to some Japanese manufacturer, seeking for a local partner to penetrate the Spanish market. Finally, in 1981 the SEMSA company is created, with participation of Yamaha, Banesto, Bank of Madrid and Catalan Development Bank. 50% of the capital was originally in the hands of Yamaha that, through several capital increases, achieved total control over the company.  The last Sanglas with own engine, the 500 S2 V5, was discontinued in 1981. The production of the 400Y ceased in 1982, thus disappearing Sanglas name and the last of their products. From that moment only the Yamaha brand motorcycles would be produced. In 1989 the firm SEMSA disappears and Yamaha engine Spain, S.A. is constituted.

Sanglas was a Spanish motorcycle manufacturer which was founded in Barcelona (Poble Nou) in 1942 and ceased production in 1981.

Sanglas war ein spanischer Motorradhersteller in Katalonien, der von 1942 bis zum Ende der 1970er Jahre existierte. Während der Franco-Zeit, als eine einhundertprozentige Importsteuer auf ausländische Fahrzeuge den Import von Motorrädern unerschwinglich machte, waren Modelle der Marke Sanglas die schwersten Motorräder auf Spaniens Straßen. Sie besaßen Einzylinder-Viertaktmotoren mit bis zu 750 cm3 Hubraum. Ab dem Ende der 1970er Jahre baute Sanglas ein zweizylindriges Modell, verschwand wenig später aber vom Markt.


History.

First foundation.

Monks have lived in the present St. Matthias' Abbey since late antiquity. The monastery adopted the Rule of Saint Benedict in about 977.  Since the 10th century the bones of the founders of the Archbishopric of Trier, bishops Eucharius and Valerius, have been preserved here.  The bones of the Apostle Matthias were supposedly sent to Trier on the authority of the Empress Helena, mother of the Roman emperor Constantine I, but the relics were only discovered in 1127 during demolition work on the predecessor of the present church buildings, since which time the abbey has been a major centre of pilgrimage.  Efforts to reform in the wake of the Council of Basle, under Johannes Rode, the Carthusian prior appointed by the bishop, led to spiritual and economic renewal, to the extent that St. Matthias' became an example for other monasteries. The attempt to found a congregation round it came to nothing, however, and St. Matthias' in due course joined the Bursfelde Congregation in 1458.  The abbey passed through the Reformation almost unscathed, but it was badly affected by wars and looting, and also by conflicts with various bishops or abbots. The last abbot was relieved of his office as early as 1783, years before the actual dissolution of the abbey, and management from then on lay in the hands of the prior.  When the troubles of the French Revolution spilled over onto German territory, the abbey buildings were requisitioned by the French army, and monks were obliged to leave the abbey, at first with the intention that this was to be a temporary absence, living from 1794 to 1802 in the parish house ("Mattheiser Pfarrhaus"). In 1802 however the abbey was nationalised and secularised. When the premises were sold off, the local businessman Christoph Philipp Nell acquired the bulk of the main building complex and used it with little alteration for his residence, thus preserving it from the demolition and gross alterations for industrial purposes that befell many other monastic buildings at this period.  Apart from the main abbey complex there remain, particularly in villages along the Moselle, many farmhouses and estate buildings which formed the abbey's economic basis before secularisation. They are often called "Mattheiser Hof" ("Matthias' farm") or other names making reference to the abbey. An especially large farm of this sort was the "Roscheider Hof" near the village of Merzlich (now Konz-Karthaus), now the "Volkskunde- und Freilichtmuseum Roscheider Hof" ("Local History and Open-air Museum, Roscheider Hof"), where the original building is preserved as one of the exhibits.

Second foundation.

After several attempts to revive the monastery in the 19th century, monks from Seckau Abbey, part of the Beuron Congregation, moved into the "Mattheiser Pfarrhaus" after World War I. On 22 October 1922 the main building complex was rededicated as a Benedictine abbey and resettled. The new community joined the Beuron Congregation.  In 1941 the National Socialist government suspended the monastery and the monks moved to Maria Laach Abbey. After their return in 1945 there was dissension over the care of the parish of St. Matthias, which was now independent of the Benedictine order, for whom parochial duties with the secure income they provided represented a staple economic resource. It was recommended that the monastic community should move to Tholey Abbey in the Saarland, a move which split the community between those who were willing to go to Tholey, and those who preferred to stay in Trier. Those monks who remained in St. Matthias' became independent of any congregation, and remained so until 1981, when they joined the Congregation of the Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin Mary ("Congregatio Annuntiationis BMV").  Since 1991 the abbey has had a close link with Huysburg Priory in Saxony-Anhalt, refounded in 1972. In September 2004 the two monasteries joined as one community.  The community devotes itself to the cure of souls - in 2007 10,000 Roman Catholics belonged to the parish of St. Matthias - as well as hospital and pilgrimage duties. The community also receives guests and leads ecumenical discussions. Individual brothers may also pursue secular occupations, such as judge, town planner or teacher.  From 1981 to 2005 Dom Ansgar Schmidt led the community as its abbot until his election as President-Abbot of the Congregation. Ignatius Maaß was elected his successor, and nominated Matthias Vogt as his new prior; the benediction took place on 22 October 2005.  As of 2007 19 monks lived in the abbey.

Buildings and art.

Basilica.

St. Matthias' Basilica, which was dedicated on 13 January 1148, combines four functions. It is the parish church of the parish of the same name; the monastic church of the Benedictine community; a pilgrimage church centred on the tomb of Saint Matthias the Apostle; and the burial church of the first bishops of Trier, Eucharius und Valerius. The church building, like all such, is in a constant state of tension between on the one hand the preservation and care of the structure, and on the other the need to meet current demands.  The basilica has therefore been thoroughly transformed during a long-drawn-out exercise in cleaning up and alteration. The crypt has been extended by a further two bays and provided with new means of access. The place of the veneration of Saint Matthias the Apostle, as well as the altar space, have been adapted to modern requirements. Stable choir stalls have been built for the monks' choir. A lift has been installed for easier access to all levels. On 10 December 2007 during a solemn pontifical office with Bishop Reinhard Marx the bones of the Apostle Matthias in their shrine were translated to their final location in the crypt, with the solemn dedication of the altar planned for 24 February 2008. The conclusion of the building works with an overhaul of the electrics and a final paint job is not presently possible due to financial constraints.

Reliquary of the Cross.

In the Chapel of the Cross ("Kreuzkapelle") in the north side-tower of the basilica is kept the reliquary of the cross, or "staurotheca". It dates from the 13th century and is made of worked gold; in the centre is a golden cross set with precious stones, which is said to contain pieces of the True Cross. The Chapel of the Cross is accessible on guided tours.

Mattheiser Venus.

The "Mattheiser Venus" or "Venus of St. Matthias" was an ancient Roman marble statue of the goddess Venus, which was formerly kept at the St. Matthias' Abbey. The statue of the goddess of love was kept on display in chains by the wall of the monastery marked with the following inscription:  It was an established custom at the monastery to stone the statue annually to ritually celebrate the victory of Christianity over "Paganism" by annual desecration of the statue. This custom allegedly took place since the Middle Ages, but is confirmed since at least 1551. The statue was reduced to rubble, but the remains of it was transferred by the French commander of the town to a historical society in 1811. It is now kept at the Rheinisches Landesmuseum Trier.

Abbots (incomplete list).

After the refoundation: The community split in 1949: one part resettled in Tholey with Abbot Petrus Borne; the remainder in Trier belonged to no congregation and was directly subordinate to the Abbot-Primate of the Benedictine Order.

Relations to other communities.

Delegations from St. Matthias' visit both Dinklage and Mirfield every year, who in turn send every year a delegation to St. Matthias'.

St. Matthias' Abbey is a Benedictine monastery in Trier, Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. The abbey church, a Romanesque basilica, is a renowned place of pilgrimage because of the tomb of Saint Matthias the Apostle, after whom the abbey is named, located here since the 12th century, and the only burial of an apostle in Germany and north of the Alps. The abbey was originally named after Saint Eucharius, first Bishop of Trier, whose tomb is in the crypt. The church has been given the status of a basilica minor.

Die Abtei St. Matthias ist ein Benediktinerkloster in Trier. Die Kirche der Abtei, eine romanische Basilika, ist eine bedeutende Pilgerstätte der Matthiasbruderschaften. Hier wird seit dem 12. Jahrhundert das Grab des Apostels Matthias verehrt, nach dem die Abtei heute benannt ist. Ursprünglich war sie benannt nach St. Eucharius, dem ersten Trierer Bischof, dessen Grab sich in der Krypta befindet. Die Abtei beherbergt das einzige Apostelgrab auf deutschem Boden und nördlich der Alpen. Seit 1920 trägt die Kirche den Titel einer Basilica minor.


Description.

Evidence for the length of insular Anglo-Saxon spears is limited, but based on grave finds it has been estimated that they ranged in length from, compared to continental examples found at Nydam Mose in Denmark which range from long. Although shorter and lighter spears with smaller heads were generally preferred for use as javelins, an exception was the barbed "angon", one of which was found at Abingdon with a head measuring. The barbs were designed to lodge in an opponent's shield (or body) so that it could not be removed and the long iron shank prevented the head from being cut from the shaft. The "angon" was likely designed for the purpose of disabling enemy shields, thus leaving combatants vulnerable, and disrupting enemy formations. The shaft may sometimes have been decorated or painted, and iron or bronze rings were sometimes fitted onto it which may have marked the center of balance and thus the best place to hold the weapon.

Use.

Before the battle lines joined and warriors engaged in hand to hand combat, they would attempt to thin the enemy ranks with ranged weapons. This would begin with archery, followed by an exchange of javelins and throwing axes prior to closing. The scholar Agathias recorded the use of "angons" by Frankish warriors at the Battle of Casilinum in 554:  The poem recording the Battle of Maldon in Essex, England, in 991 AD, describes an encounter between the earl Byrhtnoth and a group of Norsemen in which an exchange of javelins is made before the warriors draw their swords and engage in close combat.  The maximum effective range of the angon and other javelins was probably depending on the length and weight of the weapon and the skill of the thrower. It is not known to have been used in war beyond the 7th century, but during the 16th century it was used sporadically for hunting.

The angon (Medieval Greek, Old High German "ango", Old English "anga" "hook, point, spike") was a type of javelin used during the Early Middle Ages by the Franks and other Germanic peoples, including the Anglo-Saxons. It was similar to, and probably derived from, the "pilum" used by the Roman army and had a barbed head and long narrow socket or shank made of iron mounted on a wooden haft.

Der Ango (mittelgriechisch "", althochdeutsch "ango" „Haken, Stachel, Spitze“) ist eine Form des Speeres mit einem etwa zehn Zentimeter langen, pfeilförmigen Blatt aus Eisen, Widerhaken und viereckigem Querschnitt auf einer extrem langen Tülle von ca. einem Meter Länge. Die Tülle war mit einem Holzschaft verbunden. Die Gesamtlänge dieser Waffe betrug wahrscheinlich zwischen zwei und drei Meter. Der Ango wurde als Kampf- und Jagdwaffe benutzt.


History.

Etymology.

The name Béarn derives from "Beneharnum", the capital city of the ancient Venarni people, which was destroyed by Vikings by 840. The modern town of Lescar is built on the site of Beneharnum.

Prehistory.

Agriculture and metallurgy were first practiced in the region around 4,000 years ago. Many dolmens, tumuli and megaliths have been found in Béarn dating to this era, suggesting that ancestor worship was an important religious activity in neolithic Béarn. Construction of cromlêhs in Béarn continued into the Bronze Age.  Fortified villages were also constructed in Neolithic Béarn, and remains of these have been found near Asson, Bougarber and Lacq.

Antiquity.

Béarn was occupied by Ligurians around 3000 years ago. By 500 BC, Iberians appear to have replaced the Ligurians. The names of several towns in Béarn end in -os (e.g. Gelos, Urdos and Arros) which suggests an Iberian origin.  The region became part of the Roman Empire in the first century BC. Diocletian included Bearn in the Roman province of Novempopulania. Roman influence in the region waned in the fifth century AD, and Béarn experienced multiple barbarian invasions. Béarn was successively conquered by the Vandals, the Visigoths, the Merovingians and finally the Carolingians.  The fifth century AD also saw the arrival of Christianity in Béarn. The rural character of Béarn meant that Christianity took longer to become established there than elsewhere in France.

Transport.

Road.

Béarn is served by two autoroutes. The A64 ("l'autoroute pyrénéenne", European designation E80) was built in 1977 and links Pau, Toulouse and Bayonne. In Béarn, the A64 has junctions serving the towns of Salies-de-Béarn, Orthez, Artix, Pau and Soumoulou.  The A65 ("l'autoroute de Gascogne", European designation E7) links Pau with Langon. It serves the Béarnese towns of Lescar, Thèze and Garlin. At Langon, the A65 joins on to the A62, which continues to Bordeaux. The A65 was opened in 2010, and was at the time France's most expensive autoroute.  Several more minor routes also serve Béarn. The Route Nationale 134 links the south of Pau with Somport in the Aspe Valley. Several mountain roads link Somport with Spain.

Rail.

Three railway lines serve Béarn. The first of these is the Toulouse to Bayonne railway, which was opened in stages between 1861 and 1867. Several rail stations are located on this line, including those of Coarraze-Nay, Assat, Pau, Artix, Orthez and Puyoô. The Puyoô to Dax railway line enables trains to run from Béarn to Bordeaux. Both these railway lines are served by TGV, Intercités and TER.  The third railway line, the Pau to Canfranc line, serves the south of Béarn. It was put into service between 1883 and 1928. However, the railway line been partially closed since 1970. This is because in 1970, a bridge carrying this rail line over the Gave d'Aspe was destroyed by a train derailment; SNCF consequently closed the line south of the Gare d'Oloron-Sainte-Marie. An additional section of the line, between Oloron-Sainte-Marie and Bedous, was reopened by SNCF in 2016.  Canfranc Railway Station is located within Spain and is also served by the Spanish Jaca to Canfranc railway. International rail transport between Béarn and Aragon was thus previously possible using this route. In 2013, the regional governments of Aragon and Aquitaine agreed to take steps to further the economic links between their two regions, including possibly reopening the Pau-Canfranc railway line all the way to Canfranc Station. The two governments hope to have the line fully reopened by 2020.  A fourth railway line once linked Puyoô rail station to that of Mauléon-Licharre. This line opened in two stages between 1884 and 1887; it was closed to passengers in 1968 and to freight in 1989. The line was officially abandoned in 1991. A branch of this line ran from Autevielle to Saint-Palais. This branch is also now closed.

Aviation.

Pau Pyrénées Airport, situated near Uzein, has direct flights to Charles de Gaulle Airport and Orly Airport (9 flights in total to Paris daily), Lyon–Saint-Exupéry Airport (3 flights daily) and Marseille Provence Airport. During summer, it also has flights to Bastia – Poretta Airport, Ajaccio Napoleon Bonaparte Airport, Naples International Airport and Bari Karol Wojtyła Airport. 634,000 passengers used Pau Pyrénées Airport in 2015, making it the third busiest airport in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine région of France, after Bordeaux–Mérignac Airport and Biarritz Pays Basque Airport.  Béarn has a long association with aviation. The meteorological conditions of Béarn were convenient for early aviators, and the Wright brothers made several flights in Pont-Long, a flat marshy area north of Pau from 1908 onwards. Wilbur Wright helped set up the world's first aviation school, which opened outside Pau in 1908. Pau Pyrénées Airport is located on the site of this aviation school. The French military trains its paratroopers at the School of Airborne Troops, which has been located near Pau since 1946.

Béarn (, ; or "Biarn"; or "Biarno"; or "Bearnia") is one of the traditional provinces of France, located in the Pyrenees mountains and in the plain at their feet, in southwest France. Along with the three Basque provinces of Soule, Lower Navarre, and Labourd, the principality of Bidache, as well as small parts of Gascony, it forms in the southwest the current "département" of Pyrénées-Atlantiques (64). The capitals of Béarn were Beneharnum (until 841), Morlaàs (from ca. 1100), Orthez (from the second half of the 13th century), and then Pau (beginning in the mid-15th century).

Das Béarn ist eine historische französische Provinz am Fuß der Pyrenäen. Gemeinsam mit dem französischen Baskenland bildet es das Département Pyrénées-Atlantiques (64).