Present status.

Print version.

Since 1985, the "Britannica" has had four parts: the, the, the, and a two-volume index. The "Britannica" articles are found in the and, which encompass 12 and 17 volumes, respectively, each volume having roughly one thousand pages. The 2007 has 699 in-depth articles, ranging in length from 2 to 310 pages and having references and named contributors. In contrast, the 2007 has roughly 65,000 articles, the vast majority (about 97%) of which contain fewer than 750 words, no references, and no named contributors. The articles are intended for quick fact-checking and to help in finding more thorough information in the. The articles are meant both

Related printed material.

"Britannica Junior" was first published in 1934 as 12 volumes. It was expanded to 15 volumes in 1947, and renamed "Britannica Junior Encyclopædia" in 1963. It was taken off the market after the 1984 printing.  A British "Children's Britannica" edited by John Armitage was issued in London in 1960. Its contents were determined largely by the eleven-plus standardized tests given in Britain. Britannica introduced the "Children's Britannica" to the US market in 1988, aimed at ages seven to 14.  In 1961, a 16 volume "Young Children's Encyclopaedia" was issued for children just learning to read.  "My First Britannica" is aimed at children ages six to

Optical disc, online, and mobile versions.

The "Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite 2012 DVD" contains over 100,000 articles. This includes regular "Britannica" articles, as well as others drawn from the "Britannica Student Encyclopædia", and the "Britannica Elementary Encyclopædia." The package includes a range of supplementary content including maps, videos, sound clips, animations and web links. It also offers study tools and dictionary and thesaurus entries from Merriam-Webster.  "Britannica" Online is a website with more than 120,000 articles and is updated regularly. It has daily features, updates and links to news reports from "The New York Times" and the

Personnel and management.

Contributors.

The 2007 print version of the "Britannica" has 4,411 contributors, many eminent in their fields, such as Nobel laureate economist Milton Friedman, astronomer Carl Sagan, and surgeon Michael DeBakey. Roughly a quarter of the contributors are deceased, some as long ago as 1947 (Alfred North Whitehead), while another quarter are retired or emeritus. Most (approximately 98%) contribute to only

Staff.

in the fifteenth edition of "Britannica", Dale Hoiberg, a sinologist, was listed as "Britannica's" Senior Vice President and editor-in-chief. Among his predecessors as editors-in-chief were Hugh Chisholm (1902–1924), James Louis Garvin (1926–1932), Franklin Henry Hooper (1932–1938), Walter Yust (1938–1960), Harry Ashmore (1960–1963), Warren E. Preece (1964–1968, 1969–1975), Sir William Haley (1968–1969), Philip W. Goetz (1979–1991), and Robert McHenry (1992–1997). Anita Wolff was listed as the Deputy Editor and Theodore Pappas as Executive Editor. Prior Executive Editors include John V. Dodge (1950–1964) and Philip W. Goetz.  Paul T. Armstrong remains the longest working employee of Encyclopædia Britannica. He began his career there in 1934, eventually earning the positions of treasurer, vice president, and chief financial

Editorial advisors.

The "Britannica" has an Editorial Board of Advisors, which includes 12 distinguished scholars: non-fiction author Nicholas Carr, religion scholar Wendy Doniger, political economist Benjamin M. Friedman, Council on Foreign Relations President Emeritus Leslie H. Gelb, computer scientist David Gelernter, Physics Nobel laureate Murray Gell-Mann, Carnegie Corporation of New York President Vartan Gregorian, philosopher Thomas Nagel, cognitive scientist Donald Norman, musicologist Don Michael Randel, Stewart

Corporate structure.

In January 1996, the "Britannica" was purchased from the Benton Foundation by billionaire Swiss financier Jacqui Safra, who serves as its current Chair of the Board. In 1997, Don Yannias, a long-time associate and investment advisor of Safra, became CEO of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. In 1999, a new company, Britannica.com Inc., was created to develop digital versions of the "Britannica"; Yannias assumed the role of CEO in the new company, while his former position at the parent company remained vacant for two years. Yannias' tenure at Britannica.com Inc. was marked

Competition.

As the "Britannica" is a general encyclopaedia, it does not seek to compete with specialized encyclopaedias such as the "Encyclopaedia of Mathematics" or the "Dictionary of the Middle Ages", which can devote much more space to their chosen topics. In its first years, the "Britannica" main competitor was the general encyclopaedia of Ephraim Chambers and, soon thereafter, "Rees's Cyclopædia" and Coleridge's "Encyclopædia Metropolitana". In the 20th century, successful competitors included "Collier's Encyclopedia", the "Encyclopedia Americana", and the "World Book Encyclopedia". Nevertheless, from the 9th edition onwards, the "Britannica" was widely considered to have the greatest authority of any general English language encyclopaedia, especially because of its broad coverage and eminent authors. The print version of the "Britannica" was significantly more expensive than its competitors.  Since the early 1990s, the "Britannica" has faced new challenges from digital information sources. The Internet, facilitated by the development of search engines, has grown into a common source of information for many people, and provides easy access to reliable original sources and expert opinions, thanks in part to initiatives such as Google Books, MIT's release of its educational materials and the open PubMed Central library of the National Library of Medicine. In general, the Internet tends to provide more current coverage than print media, due to the ease with which material on the Internet can be updated. In rapidly changing fields such as science, technology, politics, culture and modern history, the "Britannica" has struggled to stay up-to-date, a problem first analysed systematically by its former editor Walter Yust. Eventually, the "Britannica" turned to focus more on its online edition.

Print encyclopaedias.

The has been compared with other print encyclopaedias, both qualitatively and quantitatively. A well-known comparison is that of Kenneth Kister, who gave a qualitative and quantitative comparison of the "Britannica" with two comparable encyclopaedias, "Collier's Encyclopedia" and the "Encyclopedia Americana". For the quantitative analysis, ten articles were selected at random—circumcision, Charles Drew, Galileo, Philip Glass, heart disease, IQ, panda bear, sexual harassment, Shroud of Turin and Uzbekistan—and letter

Digital encyclopaedias on optical media.

The most notable competitor of the "Britannica" among CD/DVD-ROM digital encyclopaedias was "Encarta", now discontinued, a modern, multimedia encyclopaedia that incorporated three print encyclopaedias: "Funk & Wagnalls", "Collier's" and the "New Merit Scholar's Encyclopedia". "Encarta" was the top-selling multimedia encyclopaedia, based on total US retail sales from January 2000 to February 2006. Both occupied the same price range, with the "2007 Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate" CD or DVD costing US$40–50 and the

Internet encyclopaedias.

The dominant internet encyclopaedia and main alternative to "Britannica" is Wikipedia. The key differences between the two lie in accessibility; the model of participation they bring to an encyclopedic project; their respective style sheets and editorial policies; relative ages; the number of subjects treated; the number of languages in which articles are written and made available; and their underlying economic models: unlike "Britannica", Wikipedia is a not-for-profit and is not connected with traditional profit- and contract-based publishing distribution networks.  The 699 printed articles are generally written by identified contributors, and the roughly 65,000 printed articles are the work of the editorial staff and identified outside consultants. Thus, a "Britannica" article either has known authorship or a set of possible authors (the editorial staff). With the exception of the editorial staff, most of the "Britannica" contributors are experts in their field—some are Nobel laureates. By contrast, the articles of Wikipedia are written by people of unknown degrees of expertise: most do not claim any particular expertise, and of those who do, many are anonymous and have no verifiable credentials. It is for this lack of institutional vetting, or certification, that former "Britannica" editor-in-chief Robert McHenry

Critical and popular assessments.

Reputation.

Since the 3rd edition, the "Britannica" has enjoyed a popular and critical reputation for general excellence. The 3rd and the 9th editions were pirated for sale in the United States, beginning with "Dobson's Encyclopaedia". On the release of the 14th edition, "Time" magazine dubbed the "Britannica" the "Patriarch of the Library". In a related advertisement, naturalist William Beebe was quoted as saying that the "Britannica" was "beyond comparison because there is no competitor." References to the "Britannica" can be found throughout English literature, most notably in one of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's favourite Sherlock Holmes stories, "The Red-Headed League". The tale was highlighted by the Lord Mayor of London, Gilbert Inglefield, at the bicentennial of the "Britannica".  The "Britannica" has a reputation for summarising knowledge. To further their education, some people have devoted themselves

Awards.

The CD/DVD-ROM version of the "Britannica", "Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite", received the 2004 Distinguished Achievement Award from the Association of Educational

Coverage of topics.

Topics are chosen in part by reference to the "Outline of Knowledge". The bulk of the "Britannica" is devoted to geography (26% of the ), biography (14%), biology and medicine (11%), literature (7%), physics and astronomy (6%), religion (5%), art (4%), Western philosophy (4%), and law (3%). A complementary study of the found that geography accounted for 25% of articles, science 18%, social sciences 17%, biography

Criticism of editorial decisions.

On rare occasions, the "Britannica "was criticized for its editorial choices. Given its roughly constant size, the encyclopaedia has needed to reduce or eliminate some topics to accommodate others, resulting in controversial decisions. The initial 15th edition (1974–1985) was faulted for having reduced or eliminated coverage of children's literature, military decorations, and the French poet Joachim du Bellay; editorial mistakes were also alleged, such as inconsistent sorting of Japanese biographies. Its elimination of the index was condemned, as was the apparently arbitrary division of articles into the and.

Other criticisms.

The "Britannica" has received criticism, especially as editions become outdated. It is expensive to produce a completely new edition of the "Britannica", and its editors delay for as long as fiscally sensible (usually about 25 years). For example, despite continuous revision, the 14th edition became outdated after 35 years (1929–1964). When American physicist Harvey Einbinder detailed its failings in his 1964 book, "The Myth of the Britannica", the encyclopaedia was provoked to produce the 15th edition, which required 10 years of work. It is still difficult to keep the "Britannica" current; one recent critic writes, "it is not difficult to find articles that are out-of-date or in need of revision", noting that the longer

History.

Past owners have included, in chronological order, the Edinburgh, Scotland printers Colin Macfarquhar and Andrew Bell, Scottish bookseller Archibald Constable, Scottish publisher A & C Black, Horace Everett Hooper, Sears Roebuck and William Benton.  The present owner of Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. is Jacqui Safra, a Brazilian billionaire and actor. Recent advances in information technology and the rise of electronic encyclopaedias such as Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite, "Encarta" and Wikipedia have reduced the demand for print encyclopaedias. To remain competitive, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. has stressed the reputation of the "Britannica", reduced its price and production costs, and developed electronic versions on CD-ROM, DVD, and the World Wide Web. Since the early 1930s, the company has promoted spin-off reference works.

Editions.

The "Britannica" has been issued in 15 editions, with multi-volume supplements to the 3rd and 4th editions (see the Table below). The 5th and 6th editions were reprints of the 4th, the 10th edition was only a supplement to the 9th, just as the 12th and 13th editions were supplements to the 11th. The 15th underwent massive re-organization in 1985, but the updated, current version is still known as the 15th. The 14th and 15th editions were edited every year throughout their runs, so that later printings of each were entirely different from early ones.  Throughout history, the "Britannica" has had two aims: to be an excellent reference book, and to provide educational material. In 1974, the 15th edition adopted a third goal: to systematize all human knowledge. The history of the "Britannica" can be divided into five eras, punctuated by changes in management, or re-organization of the dictionary.

1768–1826.

In the first era (1st–6th editions, 1768–1826), the "Britannica" was managed and published by its founders, Colin Macfarquhar and Andrew Bell, by Archibald Constable, and by others. The "Britannica" was first published between December 1768 and 1771 in Edinburgh as the "Encyclopædia Britannica, or, A Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, compiled upon a New Plan". In part, it was conceived in reaction to the French "Encyclopédie"

1827–1901.

During the second era (7th–9th editions, 1827–1901), the "Britannica" was managed by the Edinburgh publishing firm A & C Black. Although some contributors were again recruited through friendships of the chief editors, notably Macvey Napier, others were attracted by the "Britannica's" reputation. The contributors often came from other countries and included the world's most respected authorities in their fields. A general index

1901–1973.

In the third era (10th–14th editions, 1901–1973), the "Britannica" was managed by American businessmen who introduced direct marketing and door-to-door sales. The American owners gradually simplified articles, making them less scholarly for a mass market. The 10th edition was a eleven-volume supplement (including one each of maps and an index) to the 9th, numbered as volumes 25-35, but the 11th edition was a completely new work, and is still praised for excellence; its owner, Horace Hooper, lavished enormous effort on its perfection.  When Hooper fell into financial difficulties, the "Britannica" was managed by Sears Roebuck for 18 years (1920–1923, 1928–1943). In 1932, the

1974–1994.

In the fourth era (1974–94), the "Britannica" introduced its 15th edition, which was re-organized into three parts: the, the, and the. Under Mortimer J. Adler (member of the Board of Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica since its inception in 1949, and its chair from 1974; director of editorial planning for the 15th edition of "Britannica" from 1965), the "Britannica" sought not only to be a good reference work and educational tool, but to systematize all human knowledge. The absence of

1994–present.

In the fifth era (1994–present), digital versions have been developed and released on optical media and online. In 1996, the "Britannica" was bought by Jacqui Safra at well below its estimated value, owing to the company's financial difficulties. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. split in 1999. One part retained the company name and developed the print version, and the other, Britannica.com Inc., developed digital versions. Since 2001, the two companies have shared a CEO, Ilan Yeshua, who has continued Powell's strategy of introducing new products with the

Dedications.

The "Britannica" was dedicated to the reigning British monarch from 1788 to 1901 and then, upon its sale to an American partnership, to the British monarch and the President of the United States. Thus, the 11th edition is "dedicated by Permission to His Majesty George the Fifth, King of Great Britain and Ireland and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas, Emperor of India, and to William Howard Taft, President of the United States of America." The order

The (Latin for "British Encyclopaedia") is a general knowledge English-language online encyclopaedia. It was formerly published by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., and other publishers (for previous editions). It was written by about 100 full-time editors and more than 4,000 contributors. The 2010 version of the 15th edition, which spans 32 volumes and 32,640 pages, was the last printed edition.

Die Encyclopædia Britannica [] ist eine englischsprachige Enzyklopädie; sie beansprucht für sich, das menschliche Wissen in möglichst großer Breite zusammenfassend darzustellen. Sie steht insbesondere im Ruf, in wissenschaftlicher Hinsicht zuverlässige Angaben zu enthalten. Die Autoren sind in vielen Fällen namhafte Wissenschaftler oder bekannte Publizisten; ihre Urheberschaft wird jeweils nachgewiesen.


Name.

Attestations.

They are mentioned as "Suessiones" by Caesar (mid-1st c. BC) and Pliny (1st c. AD), as "Souessíōnes" (Σουεσσίωνες) and "Ou̓essíōnas" (Οὐεσσίωνας) by Strabo (early 1st c. AD), and as "Ouéssones" (Οὐέσσονες) by Ptolemy (2nd c. AD).

Etymology.

The etymology of the name "Suessiones" is uncertain. It could stem from Gaulish "suexs" ('six'; compare with Welsh "chwech"), following a custom of using numbers in tribal names among Gauls (e.g., "Vo-corii, Tri-corii, Petru-corii"). Other proposed etymologies include "*su-ed-ti-ones" ('rich in food'), or a formation from the root "*swe-" ('proper, to oneself'). The tribal name Suessetani, attested in Iberia, could be linguistically related.  The city of Soissons, attested as "Augusta Suessionum" in the 4th c. AD ("Suessio" in 561, "Soisson" in 1288), and the region of Soissonnais, are named after the tribe.

Geography.

Territory.

The territory of the Suessiones was bordered by the forest of the Oise valley to the west, and by wooded heights along the Marne river (near Épernay) to the southeast. They dwelled northeast of the smaller Meldi and Silvanectes, and west of the Remi.

Settlements.

La Tène period.

The oppidum of Villeneuve-Saint-Germain, founded on a plain near the Aisne river in the middle of the 1st century BC, was the main settlement of the Suessiones before the Roman conquest. It was an important Gallic agglomeration, reaching 70ha at its height.  From the period of the Gallic Wars (58–50 BC), their chief town became the oppidum of Pommiers, generally identified with the fortress of "Noviodunum" (Gaulish: 'new fortress') mentioned by Caesar. Pommiers was progressively abandoned and became unoccupied after the end of reign of Augustus (27 BC–14 AD), when their chief town became Augusta Suessionum.  Smaller oppida were also located at Ambleny, Pont-Saint-Mard, or Epagny.

Roman period.

Augusta Suessionum (modern Soissons), founded ca. 20 BC on an area more adapted to urbanization than Villeneuve-Saint-Germain and Pommiers, became the capital of the "civitas" "Suessionum" during the Roman period. Reaching 100–120ha at its height, it was one of most important settlements of northwestern Gaul. The Germanic Migrations in the 3rd century AD led to the erection of fortifications in the city. Rome was only able to defend the region until the defeat of Syagrius against the Frankish king Clovis in 486.  Smaller agglomerations within the "civitas" were also located at Château-Thierry, Ciry-Salsogne, Épaux-Bézu, Blesmes, Sinceny, and Ressons-le-Long.

History.

La Tène period.

According to archaeologist Jean-Louis Brunaux, large-scale migrations occurred in the northern part of Gaul in the late 4th–early 3rd century BC, which may correspond to the coming of the Belgae. Those cultural changes emerged later among the Suessiones, who were probably culturally integrated to the Belgae only after the 3rd century. New funerary customs (from burial to cremation) are noticeable by 250–200 BC on the territories of the Ambi or Bellovaci, whereas incineration occurred later in the Aisne valley from 200–150.  Around 80 BC, the Suessones king Diviciacus gained supremacy in areas of southeastern Britain.

Gallic Wars.

Caesar recounts in his "Gallic Wars" that in 57 BC the Suessiones were ruled by Galba.

Political organization.

Until the Gallic Wars (58–50 BC), the Suessiones shared a common cultural identity with the neighbouring Remi, which with they were linked by the same law, the same magistrates and a unified commander-in-chief. In reality, this virtual state of union between the two tribes probably leaned in favour of the Suessiones. The Remi asked the protection of the Romans by the time Caesar entered Gallia Belgica in 57 BC, thus gaining independence from a possibly asymmetrical relationship. The Meldi were also probably tributary to the more powerful Suessiones.  During the Roman period, the Suessiones were regarded as dependant upon Rome, whereas the Remi were considered the allies of the Romans. Parts of the Suessionean territory were given to the Remi, the Meldi, and perhaps to the Sulbanectes. The dependency of the Suessiones upon the Remi appears to have lasted until the beginning of the 1st century AD, and a Roman military presence is attested in Suessionean territory at the camp of Arlaines (Ressons-le-Long) until the Flavian period.

Religion.

In Augusta Suessionum were found a votive stele dedicated to the native goddess Camuloriga ("Camloriga"), and a statuette of the Roman god Mercury. The divine name "Camuloriga" stems from of the Gaulish term "camulos", possibly translated as 'champion, servant' (denoting one who makes efforts) and attached to the suffix "-riga-" ("< rigani" 'queen'; compare with Old Irish "rígain" 'queen').  Rural sanctuaries have been identified at Fossoy, Grand-Rozoy, and Pasly. Archaeologists have not been able to identified which deities were worshipped there.

Economy.

The Suessiones straddled two river routes, the Aisne and the Marne. Coinage minted by Belgic Gauls first appeared in Britain in the mid-2nd century BC with the coinage now categorized as the "Gallo-Belgic A" type. Coins associated with King Diviciacus of the Suessiones, issued near or between 90 and 60 BC, have been categorized as "Gallo-Belgic C." Finds of this issue of coin extend from Sussex to the Wash, with a concentration of finds near Kent. A later issue of coin, "Gallo-Belgic F" (c. 60-50 BC), has concentrated finds near Paris, throughout the lands of the Suessiones, and the southern, coastal areas of Britain. These finds lead scholars to suggest that the Suessiones had significant trade and migration into Britain during the 2nd and 1st centuries prior to Roman conquest. Caesar describes the Belgae as going to Britain looking for booty: "The inland part of Britain is inhabited by tribes declared in their own tradition to be indigenous to the island, the maritime part by tribes that migrated at an earlier time from Belgium to seek booty by invasion."

The Suessiones were a Belgic tribe, dwelling in the modern Aisne and Oise regions during the La Tène and Roman periods.

Die Suessionen (lateinisch "Suessiones") waren ein bei der nach ihnen benannten Stadt Augusta Suessionum (heute Soissons) siedelnder belgischer Volksstamm im Norden Galliens.


Early life.

Kinnock, an only child, was born in Tredegar, Wales. His father, Gordon Herbert Kinnock was a former coal miner who later worked as a labourer; and his mother Mary Kinnock (née Howells) was a district nurse. Gordon died of a heart attack in November 1971 aged 64; Mary died the following month aged 61.  In 1953, at eleven years old, Kinnock began his secondary education at Lewis School, Pengam, which he later criticised for its record on caning. He went on to the University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire in Cardiff (now Cardiff University), where he graduated with a degree in Industrial Relations and History in 1965. The following year, Kinnock obtained a postgraduate diploma in education. Between August 1966 and May 1970, he worked as a tutor for a Workers' Educational Association (WEA).  He has been married to Glenys Kinnock since 1967. They have two children – son Stephen Kinnock (born January 1970, now a Labour MP), and daughter Rachel Kinnock (born 1971).

Member of Parliament.

In June 1969, he won the Labour Party nomination for Bedwellty in South Wales, which became Islwyn for the 1983 general election.  He was first elected to the House of Commons on 18 June 1970, and became a member of the National Executive Committee of the Labour Party in October 1978. Upon his becoming an MP, his father said "Remember Neil, MP stands not just for Member of Parliament, but also for Man of Principle."  Following Labour's defeat at the 1979 general election, James Callaghan appointed Kinnock to the Shadow Cabinet as education spokesman. His ambition was noted by other MPs, and David Owen's opposition to the changes to the electoral college was thought to be motivated by the realisation that they would favour Kinnock's succession. Kinnock remained as education spokesman following the resignation of Callaghan as Leader of the Labour Party and the election of Michael Foot as his successor in late 1980.  In 1981, while still serving as Labour's education spokesman, Kinnock was alleged to have effectively scuppered Tony Benn's attempt to replace Denis Healey as Labour's Deputy Leader by first supporting the candidacy of the more traditionalist Tribunite John Silkin and then urging Silkin supporters to abstain on the second, run-off, ballot.  Kinnock was known as a left-winger, and gained prominence for his attacks on Margaret Thatcher's handling of the Falklands War in 1982, although it was in fact this conflict which saw support for the Conservative government increase, and contribute to its landslide re-election the following year.

Leadership of the Labour Party.

First period (1983–1987).

Following Labour's landslide defeat in June 1983, Michael Foot resigned as leader aged 69, and from the outset it was expected that the much younger Kinnock would succeed him. He was finally elected as Labour Party leader on 2 October 1983, with 71 per cent of the vote, and Roy Hattersley was elected as his deputy; their prospective partnership was considered to be a "dream ticket".  His first period as party leader between the 1983 and 1987 general elections was dominated by his struggle with the hard-left Militant tendency, then still strong in the party. Kinnock was determined to move the party's political standing to a centrist position, in order to improve its chances of winning a future general election. Although Kinnock had come from the Tribune left of the party, he parted company with many of his former allies after his appointment to the Shadow Cabinet.  The Labour Party was also threatened by the rise of the Social Democratic Party/Liberal Alliance, which pulled out more centrist adherents. On a broader perspective, the traditional Labour voter was disappearing in the face of de-industrialisation that the Conservative government had accepted since 1979. Kinnock focused on modernising the party, and upgrading its technical skills such as use of the media and keeping track of voters, while at the same time battling the Militants. Under his leadership, the Labour Party abandoned unpopular old positions, especially the nationalisation of certain industries, although this process was not completed until future Labour leader Tony Blair removed Clause IV from the party's manifesto in 1995. He stressed economic growth, which had a much broader appeal to the middle-class than the idea of redistributing wealth to benefit the poor. He accepted membership in the European Economic Community, whereas the party had pledged immediate withdrawal from it under Michael Foot. He discarded the rhetoric of class warfare.  All this meant that Kinnock had made plenty of enemies on the left wing of the party by the time he was elected as leader, though a substantial number of former Bennites gave him strong support. He was almost immediately in serious difficulty as a result of Arthur Scargill's decision to lead his union, the National Union of Mineworkers (NUM) into a national strike (in opposition to pit closures) without a nationwide ballot. The NUM was widely regarded as the labour movement's praetorian guard and the strike convulsed the Labour movement. Kinnock supported the aim of the strike – which he dubbed the "case for coal" – but, as an MP from a mining area, was bitterly critical of the tactics employed. When heckled at a Labour Party rally for referring to the killing of David Wilkie as "an outrage", Kinnock lost his temper and accused the hecklers of "living like parasites off the struggle of the miners" and implied that Scargill had lied to the striking miners. In 1985, he made his criticisms public in a speech to Labour's conference: In 2004, Kinnock said of Scargill, "Oh I detest him. I did then, I do now, and it's mutual. He hates me as well. And I'd much prefer to have his savage hatred than even the merest hint of friendship from that man."  The strike's defeat early in the year, and the bad publicity associated with the entryism practised by the Trotskyist Militant group were the immediate context for the 1985 Labour Party conference. Earlier in the year left-wing councils had protested at Government restriction of their budgets by refusing to set budgets, resulting in a budget crisis in the Militant-dominated Liverpool City Council. Kinnock attacked Militant and their conduct in a speech delivered at the conference: One Liverpool MP, Eric Heffer, a member of the NEC left the conference stage in disgust at Kinnock's comments. In June 1986, the Labour Party finally expelled the deputy leader of Liverpool council, the high-profile Militant supporter Derek Hatton, who was found guilty of "manipulating the rules of the district Labour party". By 1986, the party's position appeared to strengthen further with excellent local election results and a thorough rebranding of the party under the direction of Kinnock's director of communications Peter Mandelson, as well as seizing the Fulham seat in West London from the Conservatives in an April by-election. Labour, now sporting a continental social democratic style emblem of a rose (replacing the party's first logo, the Liberty logo), appeared to be able to run the governing Conservatives close, but Margaret Thatcher did not let Labour's makeover go unchallenged.  The Conservatives' 1986 conference was well-managed, and effectively relaunched the Conservatives as a party of radical free-market economic liberalism. Labour suffered from a persistent image of extremism, especially as Kinnock's campaign to root out Militant dragged on as figures on the hard left of the party tried to stop its progress. Opinion polls showed that voters favoured retaining the United Kingdom's nuclear weapons, (Labour's policy, supported by Kinnock, was of unilateral nuclear disarmament), and believed that the Conservatives would be better than Labour at defending the country.

1987 general election.

In early 1987, Labour lost a by-election in Greenwich to the SDP's Rosie Barnes. As a result, Labour faced the 1987 general election in some danger of finishing third in the popular vote, with the Conservatives once again expected to secure a comfortable victory. In secret, Labour's aim was to secure second place in order to remain as Official Opposition.  Mandelson and his team had revolutionised Labour's communications – a transformation symbolised by a party election broadcast popularly known as "Kinnock: The Movie". This was directed by Hugh Hudson and featured Kinnock's 1985 conference speech, and shots of him and his wife Glenys walking on the Great Orme in Llandudno (so emphasising his appeal as a family man and associating him with images of Wales away from the coal mining communities where he grew up), and a speech to that year's Welsh Labour Party conference asking why he was the "first Kinnock in a thousand generations" to go to university.  On polling day, Labour easily took second place, but with only a 31% share of the vote to the SDP-Liberal Alliance's 22%. Labour was still more than ten percentage points behind the Conservatives, who retained a three-figure majority in the House of Commons. However, the Conservative government's majority had come down from 144 seats in 1983 to 102. Significantly, Labour had gained twenty seats at the election.  Labour won extra seats in Scotland, Wales and Northern England, but lost ground particularly in Southern England and London, where the Conservatives still dominated. The Conservatives also regained the Fulham seat which it had lost to Labour at a by-election just over a year earlier.

Second period (1987–1992).

A few months after the general election, Kinnock gained brief attention in the United States in August 1987 when it was discovered that then-US Senator Joe Biden for Delaware (and future 47th Vice President) plagiarised one of Kinnock's speeches during his 1988 presidential campaign in a speech at a Democratic Party debate in Iowa. This led to Biden's withdrawal of his presidential campaign.  The second period of Kinnock's leadership was dominated by his drive to reform the party's policies to gain office. This began with an exercise dubbed the policy review, the most high-profile aspect of which was a series of consultations with the public known as "Labour Listens" in the autumn of 1987.  After Labour Listens, the party went on, in 1988, to produce a new statement of aims and values—meant to supplement and supplant the formulation of Clause IV of the party's constitution (though, crucially, this was not actually replaced until 1995 under the leadership of Tony Blair) and was closely modelled on Anthony Crosland's social-democratic thinking—emphasising equality rather than public ownership. At the same time, the Labour Party's commitment to unilateral nuclear disarmament was dropped, and reforms of Party Conference and the National Executive meant that local parties lost much of their ability to influence policy.  In 1988, Kinnock was challenged by Tony Benn for the party leadership. Later many identified this as a particularly low period in Kinnock's leadership — as he appeared mired in internal battles after five years of leadership with the Conservatives still dominating the scene, and being ahead in the opinion polls. In the end, though, Kinnock won a decisive victory over Benn and would soon enjoy a substantial rise in support.  The policy review — reporting in 1989 —coincided with Labour's move ahead in the polls as the poll tax row was destroying Conservative support, and Labour won big victories in local council elections as well as several parliamentary by-elections during 1989 and 1990. Labour overtook the Conservatives at the 1989 European elections, winning 40% of the vote; the first time Labour had finished in first place at a national election in fifteen years.  In December 1989, he abandoned the Labour policy on closed shops—a decision seen by many as a move away from traditional socialist policies to a more European-wide agenda, and also a move to rid the party of its image of being run by trade unions.  Kinnock was also perceived as scoring in debates over Margaret Thatcher in the Commons—previously an area in which he was seen as weak—and finally Michael Heseltine challenged Thatcher's leadership and she resigned on 28 November 1990 to be succeeded by then-Chancellor of the Exchequer, John Major. Kinnock greeted Thatcher's resignation by describing it as "very good news" and demanded an immediate general election.  Public reaction to Major's elevation was highly positive. A new Prime Minister and the fact that Kinnock was now the longest-serving current leader of a major party reduced the impact of calls for "Time for a Change". Neil Kinnock's showing in the opinion polls dipped; before Thatcher's resignation, Labour had been up to 10 points ahead of the Conservatives in the opinion polls (an Ipsos MORI poll in April 1990 had actually shown Labour as being more than 20 points ahead of the Conservatives), but many opinion polls were actually showing the Conservatives with a higher amount of support than Labour, in spite of the deepening recession.  By now Militant had finally been routed in the party, and their two MPs were expelled at the end of 1991, in addition to a number of supporters. The majority in the group were now disenchanted with entryism, and chose to function outside Labour's ranks, forming the Socialist Party.

1992 general election, backbenches and resignation from Parliament.

In the three years leading up to the 1992 general election, Labour had consistently topped the opinion polls, with 1991 seeing the Conservatives (rejuvenated by the arrival of a new leader with John Major the previous November) snatch the lead off Labour more than once before Labour regained it. The rise in Conservative support came in spite of the economic recession and sharp rise in unemployment which affected Britain in 1991. Since Major's election as Leader of the Conservative Party (and becoming Prime Minister), Kinnock had spent the end of 1990 and most of 1991 putting pressure on Major to call a general election that year, but Major had held out and by the autumn he had insisted that there would be no general election in 1991.  Labour had gained four seats from the Conservatives in by-elections since the 1987 general election, having initially suffered disappointing results in some by-elections, namely a loss of the Govan constituency in Glasgow to the Scottish National Party in November 1988. However, by the end of 1991, the Conservative majority still stood at 88 seats and Labour needed to win more than ninety new seats to gain an overall majority, although there was still the hope of forming a minority or coalition government if Labour failed to win a majority.  In the run-up to the election, held on 9 April 1992, most opinion polls had suggested that the election would result in either a hung parliament or a narrow Labour majority.  At the 1992 general election, Labour made considerable progress – reducing the Conservatives' majority to just 21 seats. It came as a shock to many when the Conservatives won a majority, but the "triumphalism" perceived by some observers of a Labour Party rally in Sheffield (together with Kinnock's performance on the podium) may have helped put floating voters off. Although internal polls suggested no impact, while public polls suggested a decline in support had already occurred, most of those directly involved in the campaign believe that the rally really came to widespread attention only after the electoral defeat itself, with Kinnock himself changing his mind to a rejection of its negative impact over time.  On the day of the general election, "The Sun" newspaper ran a front page featuring Kinnock with the headline "If Kinnock wins today will the last person to leave Britain please turn out the lights". Kinnock blamed the newspaper in his resignation speech for Labour losing the election, along with other right-wing media sections who had backed the Conservatives in the run-up to the election. The following day's headline in "The Sun" was "It's The Sun Wot Won It", which Rupert Murdoch, many years later at his April 2012 appearance before the Leveson Inquiry, stated was both "tasteless and wrong" and led to the editor Kelvin MacKenzie receiving a reprimand.  The Labour-supporting "Daily Mirror" had backed Kinnock for the 1987 general election and again in 1992. Less expected was the "Financial Times" backing Kinnock at the 1992 general election. Kinnock himself later claimed to have half-expected his defeat at the 1992 general election and proceeded to turn himself into a media personality, even hosting a chat show on BBC Wales and twice appearing on the topical panel show "Have I Got News for You" within a year of the defeat. Many years later, he returned to appear as a guest host of the programme.  Kinnock announced his resignation as Labour Party leader on 13 April 1992, ending nearly a decade in the role. John Smith, previously Shadow Chancellor, was elected on 18 July as his successor.  He remains on the Advisory Council of the Institute for Public Policy Research, which he helped set up in the 1980s.  He was an enthusiastic supporter of Ed Miliband's campaign for leadership of the Labour Party in 2010, and was reported as telling activists, when Miliband won, "We've got our party back" – although Miliband, like Kinnock, failed to lead the party back into government, and resigned after the Conservatives were re-elected with a slim majority in 2015.  In 2011, he participated in the family history TV programme "Coming Home" where he discovered hitherto unknown information about his family.

European Union Commissioner.

Kinnock was appointed one of the UK's two members of the European Commission, which he served first as Transport Commissioner under President Jacques Santer, in early 1995; marking the end of his 25 years in the House of Commons. This came less than a year after the death of his successor, John Smith and the election of Tony Blair as the party's new leader.  He was obliged to resign as part of the forced, collective resignation of the Commission in 1999. He was re-appointed to the Commission under new President Romano Prodi. He now became one of the Vice-Presidents of the European Commission, with responsibility for Administrative Reform and the Audit, Linguistics and Logistics Directorates General. His term of office as a Commissioner was due to expire on 30 October 2004, but was delayed owing to the withdrawal of the new Commissioners. During this second term of office on the Commission, he was responsible for introducing new staff regulations for EU officials, a significant feature of which was substantial salary cuts for everyone employed after 1 May 2004, reduced pension prospects for many others, and gradually worsening employment conditions. This made him disliked by many EU staff members, although the pressure on budgets that largely drove these changes had actually been imposed on the Commission from above by the Member States in Council.  In February 2004, it was announced that with effect from 1 November 2004, Kinnock would become head of the British Council. Coincidentally, at the same time, his son Stephen became head of the British Council branch in St. Petersburg, Russia. At the end of October, it was announced that he would become a member of the House of Lords (intending to be a working peer), when he was able to leave his EU responsibilities. In 1977, he had remained in the House of Commons, with Dennis Skinner, while other MPs walked to the Lords to hear the Queen's speech opening the new parliament. He had dismissed going to the Lords in recent interviews. Kinnock explained his change of attitude, despite the continuing presence of ninety hereditary peers and appointment by patronage, by asserting that the Lords was a good base for campaigning.

Life peerage.

He was introduced to the House of Lords on 31 January 2005, after being created, on 28 January, Baron Kinnock, of Bedwellty in the County of Gwent. On assuming his seat, he stated; "I accepted the kind invitation to enter the House of Lords as a working peer for practical political reasons." When his peerage was first announced, he said, "It will give me the opportunity... to contribute to the national debate on issues like higher education, research, Europe and foreign policy."  His peerage meant that the Labour and Conservative parties were equal in numbers in the upper house of Parliament (subsequently the number of Labour members overtook the number of Conservative members for many years). Kinnock was a long-time critic of the House of Lords, and his acceptance of a peerage led him to be accused of hypocrisy, by Will Self, among others.

Views.

Welsh identity and devolution.

In the build up to the 1979 Welsh devolution referendum The Labour government was in favour of devolution for Wales. Kinnock was one of just six MPs in South Wales who campaigned against devolution, with Kinnock personally backing an amendment to the Wales Act stating that devolution would require not only a simple majority, but also the backing of 40% of the entire electorate.  Kinnock has often referred to himself as a "unionist", he was controversially dismissive of Welsh identity, stating that "between the mid-sixteenth century and the mid-eighteenth century Wales had practically no history at all, and even before that it was the history of rural brigands who have been ennobled by being called princes".

Brexit.

Kinnock strongly opposed Brexit. Kinnock stated, “The truth is that we can either take the increasingly plain risks and costs of leaving the EU or have the stability, growth and revenues vital for crucial public services like the NHS and social care. Recognising that, we should stop Brexit to save the NHS – or, at very least, mitigate the damage by seeking European Economic Area membership.”

Personal life.

He is married to Glenys Kinnock, the UK's Minister for Africa and the United Nations from 2009–2010, and a Labour Member of the European Parliament (MEP) from 1994–2009. When she was made a life peer in 2009, they became one of the few couples both to hold titles in their own right. The pair met in the early 1960s whilst studying at University College, Cardiff, where they were known as "the power and the glory" (Glenys the power), and they married on 25 March 1967. Previously living together in Peterston-super-Ely, a village near the western outskirts of Cardiff, in 2008 they relocated to Tufnell Park, London, to be closer to their daughter and grandchildren.  They have a son, Stephen and a daughter, Rachel. Neil Kinnock, through his son Stephen, is also the father-in-law of Helle Thorning-Schmidt, the former Danish Prime Minister.  On 26 April 2006, Kinnock was given a six-month driving ban after being found guilty of two speeding offences along the M4 motorway, west of London.  Neil Kinnock is a Cardiff City F.C. fan and regularly attends matches. He is also a follower of rugby union and supports London Welsh RFC at club level, regularly attending Wales games.  He was portrayed by both Chris Barrie and Steve Coogan in the satirical TV programme, "Spitting Image" and by Euan Cuthbertson in the Scottish film "In Search of La Che".  Kinnock has been described as an agnostic and an atheist. Like his wife, he is a Patron of Humanists UK.

External links.

Neil Gordon Kinnock, Baron Kinnock (born 28 March 1942) is a British politician. A member of the Labour Party, he served as a Member of Parliament from 1970 until 1995, first for Bedwellty and then for Islwyn. He was the Leader of the Labour Party and Leader of the Opposition from 1983 until 1992.

Neil Gordon Kinnock, Baron Kinnock [] (* 28. März 1942 in Tredegar, Südwales) ist ein ehemaliger Vorsitzender der Labour-Party und Vizepräsident der EU-Kommission. Von 2004 bis 2010 war er Vorsitzender des British Council.


Host selection.

Argentina was chosen as the host nation by FIFA on 6 July 1966 in London, England. Mexico withdrew from the bidding process after having been awarded the 1970 competition two years earlier. The logo is based on President Juan Perón's signature gesture: a salute to the crowd with both arms extended above his head. This was one of the most famous, populist images of Perón. The design was created in 1974, two years prior to the military coup in 1976. The military leadership were aware that the World Cup's logo symbolized Perón's gesture, and they tried to change the competition's logo. At this point, the design was already broadly commercialized and the merchandise had already been made: a forced modification "would trigger a sea of lawsuits against the country", so the military had no option but to comply.

Qualification.

England, Belgium, Czechoslovakia (the European champions) and the Soviet Union failed to qualify for the second World Cup in succession, losing out to Italy, the Netherlands, Scotland and Hungary respectively. 1974 Quarter-finalists East Germany and Yugoslavia were eliminated by Austria and Spain and thus also failed to qualify for the finals, along with Bulgaria which failed to qualify for the first time since 1958 after losing to France. Bolivia's win meant Uruguay failed to qualify for the first time since 1958. Newcomers to the finals were Iran and Tunisia; Austria qualified for the first time since 1958, while France, Spain and Hungary were back for the first time since 1966. Peru and Mexico returned after missing the previous tournament. For the first time, more than 100 nations entered the competition.

List of teams qualifying.

The following 16 teams qualified for the final tournament:

Controversy.

A controversy surrounding the 1978 World Cup was that Argentina had undergone a military coup only two years before the cup, which installed a dictatorship known as the National Reorganization Process. Less than a year before the World Cup, in September 1977, Interior Minister General Albano Harguindeguy, stated that 5,618 people had recently disappeared. The infamous Higher School of Mechanics of the Navy (known by its acronym ESMA) held concentration camp prisoners of the Dirty War and those held captive reportedly could hear the roars of the crowd during matches held at River Plate's Monumental Stadium, located only a mile away; prompting echoes of Hitler's and Mussolini's alleged political manipulation of sports during the 1936 Berlin Olympics and 1934 FIFA World Cup. Because of the political turmoil, some countries, most notably the Netherlands, considered publicly whether they should participate in the event. Despite this, all teams eventually took part without restrictions. Allegations that Dutch star Johan Cruyff refused to participate because of political convictions were denied by him 30 years later. More controversy surrounded the host, Argentina, as all of their games in the first round kicked off at night, giving the Argentines the advantage of knowing where they stood in the group. This issue would arise again in Spain 1982, which prompted FIFA to change the rules so that the final two group games in subsequent World Cups would be played simultaneously.  Argentina's controversial and favorable decisions in their matches have caused many to view their eventual win as illegitimate; many cite the political climate and worldwide pressure on the Argentine government as the reason for these decisions. Desperate to prove their stability and prominence to the world after their coup two years earlier, the government used whatever means necessary to ensure that the team would progress far in the tournament.  Suspicions of match fixing arose even before the tournament began; Lajos Baróti, the head coach of Argentina's first opponents, Hungary, said that "everything, even the air, is in favor of Argentina". He also talked about the financial imperative to have Argentina win the World Cup: "The success of Argentina is financially so important to the tournament".  From Will Hersey's article "Remembering Argentina 1978: The Dirtiest World Cup of All Time":  "The other teams in Argentina and Hungary’s group were the much-fancied France and Italy, establishing the tournament’s toughest qualifying section. After the victory against Hungary, one junta official remarked to Luque, that "this could turn out to be the group of death as far as you are concerned". It was delivered with a smile.  "Uppermost in my mind was that earlier that day, the brother of a close friend of mine had disappeared", recalled Luque. "His body was later found by villagers on the banks of the River Plate with concrete attached to his legs. At that time, opponents of the regime were sometimes thrown out of aeroplanes into the sea"."  In their second group stage game against France, Argentina were the beneficiaries of multiple favourable calls. After France was denied what looked to be a clear penalty in the first half, an anonymous French player claimed to have heard the referee tell Daniel Passarella (the player who committed the foul), "Don't do that again please, or I might have to actually give it next time."  Further accusations have surrounded the game Argentina and Peru played in the second round of the tournament. Argentina needed to win by a margin of four goals to proceed to the final and did so by defeating Peru by 6–0. There were claims that the authoritarian Argentine military government interfered to ensure Argentina would defeat Peru through intimidation, though these were denied by the Peruvian captain and several Peruvian players. Some accusations originated in the Brazilian media and pointed to the fact that the Peruvian goalkeeper had been born in Argentina. There was also an alleged deal, reported by the British media as an anonymous rumour, that involved the delivery of a large grain shipment to Peru by Argentina and the unfreezing of a Peruvian bank account that was held by the Argentine Central Bank. Another alleged deal, published by a Colombian drug lord in a controversial book, involved the Peruvian team being bribed without any political implications. A third alleged deal, claimed by a Peruvian leftist politician, encompassed sending 13 Peruvian dissidents exiled in Argentina back to Peru. On top of the contradictions between stories, no evidence is shown in any case.  Three months before the World Cup, Argentina had beaten Peru 3–1 in Lima, head to head record was 15–3 in favour of the hosting nation and Peru had never beaten Argentina away from home. However, Peru had conceded only 6 goals in their previous 5 games in the World Cup. During the first half, Peru hit the post twice after two counters when the game was 0–0. Argentina managed to get ahead 2–0 before the end of the first 45 minutes. During the second half, Argentina was ahead 4–0 when Peru had another clear chance. Argentina kept attacking and scored twice more, making it 6–0 and surpassing the needed margin.  There was also some domestic controversy as well, as Argentine manager César Luis Menotti did not call up the then-17-year-old Argentinos Juniors local star Diego Maradona, as Menotti felt Maradona was too young to handle the pressures of such an important tournament on home soil and that the expectations of the team's performance would probably revolve around the Buenos Aires-born youngster. In addition, Maradona's traditional position of number 10 (play-making attacking mid-fielder) was taken by Mario Kempes, who ended up as the Best Player and Top Goal Scorer.

Format.

The format of the competition stayed the same as in 1974: 16 teams qualified, divided into four groups of four. Each group played a round-robin with two points for a win and one for a draw, and goal difference used to separate teams level on points. The top two teams in each group would advance to the second round, where they would be split into two groups of four. The winners of each group would play each other in the final, and the second-place finishers in the third place match. For the 1978 World Cup, FIFA introduced the penalty shoot-out as a means of determining the winner in knockout stages should the match end on a draw after 120 minutes. The method, however, was not put in practice as both the third-place match and the final were decided before 120 minutes. The first World Cup to feature a penalty shoot-out was the 1982 World Cup, in the semifinal match between France and West Germany.

Summary.

First round.

The first round produced several surprises. Poland won Group 2 ahead of world champions West Germany, after holding the Germans to a goalless draw and then beating Tunisia and Mexico. The Germans then thrashed Mexico 6–0, and finally played out a second goalless draw against Tunisia. Although they failed to qualify for the second round, Tunisia made history by beating Mexico 3–1 while trailing 0–1 at half time. It was the first time that any African team had won a match at the World Cup finals.  Peru pushed the Netherlands into second place in Group 4, where Scotland missed out on goal difference for the second successive tournament. Teófilo Cubillas was outstanding for Peru, scoring twice against Scotland in Peru's 3–1 win and hitting a hat-trick in their 4–1 victory over newcomers Iran. Rob Rensenbrink of the Netherlands also scored three times against Iran, scoring all the goals as the Dutch won 3–0. Scotland drew with Iran 1–1 and the only highlight of their campaign was a 3–2 victory over the Netherlands in their final group game which was not enough to prevent elimination. Iran, the reigning Asian champions, went out of the tournament winless. Rensenbrink's goal against Scotland was the 1000th goal of World Cup history. Scotland's Willie Johnston was expelled from the World Cup after he was found to have taken a banned stimulant during the opening game against Peru.  The biggest surprise of all came in Group 3, where Austria finished ahead of Brazil. The Austrians beat Spain and Sweden, while Brazil were held to draws by the same two teams. The draw between Brazil and Sweden was especially controversial; Welsh referee Clive Thomas awarded Brazil a very late corner kick, and Zico directly headed the kick into the net; but Thomas blew for time before Zico made contact with the ball, and the goal was disallowed. The Brazilian players were not happy with the decision, but the final result remained a 1–1 draw. Heading into their final group game, Brazil needed to beat Austria to be certain of advancing to the second round and managed a 1–0 win thanks to a goal from Roberto Dinamite. Brazil and Austria thus finished with the same number of points and the same goal difference, but Austria won the group by virtue of having scored more goals.  Group 1 had the strongest line-up of teams in the first round, featuring Italy, the host Argentina, France and Hungary. The two places in the second round were claimed before the final round of games, with Italy and Argentina both beating France and Hungary. The match between Italy and Argentina decided who topped the group, and a goal from Roberto Bettega midway through the second half was enough to give that honour to Italy. It also forced Argentina to move out of Buenos Aires and play in Rosario.  The 1978 World Cup marked the fourth and last occasion during which a national team did not wear its own kit to play a match (the first being in the 1934 World Cup third place match between Germany and Austria; the second in the 1950 World Cup first round match between Switzerland and Mexico and the third in the 1958 World Cup first round match between West Germany and Argentina). The incident happened during the game between France and Hungary. Both teams arrived at the venue with only their white change kits, resulting in a delayed kickoff while officials went in search of the jerseys of a local team from Mar del Plata, Club Atlético Kimberley; the jerseys had vertical green and white stripes and were worn by France.

Second round.

In the all-European Group A, the Netherlands got off to a flying start by thrashing Austria 5–1, Johnny Rep scoring two of their goals. In a rematch of the 1974 final, the Dutch then drew 2–2 with West Germany, who had previously shared a goalless game with Italy. The Italians beat Austria 1–0, and so the Netherlands faced Italy in their last group game knowing that the winners would reach the final. Ernie Brandts scored an 18th-minute own goal to put Italy ahead at half-time, but he made up for his mistake by scoring at the right end in the fifth minute of the second half. Arie Haan got the winner for the Dutch with 15 minutes remaining, and the Netherlands had reached their second successive World Cup Final. In the game known as the miracle of Cordoba, West Germany were surprisingly beaten by Austria 2–3 which marked their end as World Champions.  Group B was essentially a battle between Argentina and Brazil, and it was resolved in controversial circumstances. In the first round of group games, Brazil beat Peru 3–0 while Argentina saw Poland off by a score of 2–0. Brazil and Argentina then played out a tense and violent goalless draw, so both teams went into the last round of matches with three points. Argentina delayed the kick-off of its last match to await the result of the Brazil-Poland encounter. Brazil won by a 3–1 score, meaning Argentina had to beat Peru by four clear goals to reach the final but they managed to do it. Trailing 2–0 at half-time, Peru simply collapsed in the second half, and Argentina eventually won 6–0. As previously noted, rumors suggested that Peru might have been bribed or threatened into allowing Argentina to win the match by such a large margin. However, nothing could be proved, and Argentina met the Netherlands in the final. Brazil took third place from an enterprising Italian side with Nelinho scoring a memorable goal, and were dubbed "moral champions" by coach Cláudio Coutinho, because they did not win the tournament, but did not lose a single match.

Final.

The final, Argentina vs Netherlands, was also controversial, as the Dutch accused the Argentines of using stalling tactics to delay the match. The host team came out late and questioned the legality of a plaster cast on René van de Kerkhof's wrist, which the Dutch claimed allowed tension to build in front of a hostile Buenos Aires crowd.  Mario Kempes opened the scoring for the hosts before Dick Nanninga equalized a few minutes from the end. Rob Rensenbrink had a glorious stoppage-time opportunity to win it for the Netherlands but his effort came back off the goal post. Argentina won the final 3–1 after extra time, after Daniel Bertoni scored and Kempes, who finished as the tournament's top scorer with six goals, added his second of the day. The Netherlands, because of the controversial game events, refused to attend the post-match ceremonies after the match ended. They had lost their second consecutive World Cup final, both times to the host nation, after losing to West Germany in 1974. Argentina won 5 games but became the first team to win the World Cup after failing to win two matches, where they had lost to Italy in the first round and drawn with Brazil in the second round. Four years later, Italy would win the next World Cup despite failing to win three games.

Mascot.

The official mascot of this World Cup was "Gauchito", a boy wearing an Argentina kit. His hat (with the words ARGENTINA '78), neckerchief, and whip are typical of gauchos.

Venues.

In 1972, eight venues were preselected, with six that has been in 1978 plus La Plata and Tucuman. The city of the diagonals promised a "one-of-a-kind Stadium" but by 1974 it was scrapped by internal bids. Note, the Estadio Ciudad de La Plata was completed in 2003. In the case of Tucuman, an ambitious stadium of 70,000 spectators had been promised in Horco Molle, similar to the current Racing Club de Avellaneda stadium, along with the roof. In 1974 the Tucuman venue was temporarily suspended and in 1975 it was decommissioned, given the intensity of the actions of the guerrillas and the Armed Forces in the province.  Of the six venues used, the Estadio Monumental in Buenos Aires was the largest and most used venue, hosting nine total matches, including the final match. The Carreras Stadium in Cordoba hosted eight matches, the stadiums in Mendoza, Rosario and Mar del Plata each hosted six matches and the Jose Amalfitani stadium in Buenos Aires hosted three matches- bringing the Argentine capital and largest city's total to 12- nearly a third of all the matches played. The Minella stadium in Mar del Plata was heavily criticized due to its terrible pitch, which was deemed "nearly unplayable"; whereas the Amalfitani stadium in Buenos Aires, the least used stadium for this tournament, was praised for its very good pitch. Brazil was forced by tournament organizers to play all three of its first group matches in Mar del Plata; there had been rumors and allegations of the organizers deliberately sabotaging the Minella stadium's pitch to weaken Brazil's chances of success.

Squads.

For a list of all squads that appeared in the final tournament, see "1978 FIFA World Cup squads".

Goalscorers.

With six goals, Mario Kempes was the top scorer in the tournament. In total, 102 goals were scored by 62 players, with three of them credited as own goals.

FIFA retrospective ranking.

In 1986, FIFA published a report that ranked all teams in each World Cup up to and including 1986, based on progress in the competition, overall results and quality of the opposition. The rankings for the 1978 tournament were as follows:

The 1978 FIFA World Cup, the 11th staging of the FIFA World Cup, quadrennial international football world championship tournament, was held in Argentina between 1 and 25 June.

Die Endrunde der Fußball-Weltmeisterschaft 1978 "(span.: Campeonato Mundial De Futbol)" war die "elfte" Ausspielung dieses bedeutendsten Turniers für Fußball-Nationalmannschaften und fand vom 1. bis zum 25. Juni 1978 in Argentinien statt. Weltmeister wurde Gastgeberland Argentinien im Finale gegen die Niederlande, die somit ihr zweites WM-Finale in Folge verloren.


Franchise history.

Formation.

In 1959, Lamar Hunt began discussions with other businessmen to establish a professional football league that would rival the National Football League. Hunt's desire to secure a football team was heightened after watching the 1958 NFL Championship Game between the New York Giants and Baltimore Colts. After unsuccessful attempts to purchase and relocate the NFL's Chicago Cardinals to his hometown of Dallas, Texas, Hunt went to the NFL and asked to

Early success.

The Texans shared the Cotton Bowl with the NFL's cross-town competition Dallas Cowboys for three seasons. The Texans were to have exclusive access to the stadium until the NFL put an expansion team, the Dallas Cowboys, there. While the team averaged a league-best 24,500 at the Cotton Bowl, the Texans gained less attention due to the AFL's relatively lower profile compared to the NFL. In the franchise's first two seasons, the team managed only an 8–6 and 6–8 record, respectively. In their third season, the Texans strolled to an 11–3 record and a berth in the team's first American Football League Championship Game, against the Houston Oilers. The game was broadcast nationally on ABC and the Texans defeated the Oilers 20–17 in double overtime. The game lasted 77 minutes and 54 seconds, which still stands as the longest championship game in professional football history.  It turned out to be the last game the team would play as the Dallas

Decline.

The Chiefs would not return to the post-season for the remainder of the 1970s, and the 1973 season was the team's last winning effort for seven years. Hank Stram was fired following a 5–9 season in 1974, and many of the Chiefs' future Hall of Fame players would depart by the middle of the decade. From 1975 to 1988, the Chiefs had become a team that rarely won which provided Chiefs fans with nothing but futility. Five head coaches struggled to achieve the same success as Stram, compiling an 81–121–1 record.  In 1980, Coach Marv Levy cut future Hall of Fame Kicker Jan Stenerud for little known Nick Lowery, who would become the most accurate kicker in NFL History over the next 14 years. In 1981, running back Joe Delaney rushed for 1,121 yards and was named the AFC Rookie of the Year. The Chiefs finished the season with a 9–7 record and entered the 1982

Marty Schottenheimer era.

On December 19, 1988, owner Lamar Hunt hired Carl Peterson as the team's new president, general manager, and chief executive officer. Peterson fired head coach Frank Gansz two weeks after taking over and hired Marty Schottenheimer as the club's seventh head coach. In the 1988 and 1989 NFL Drafts, the Chiefs selected both defensive end Neil Smith and linebacker Derrick Thomas, respectively. The defense that Thomas and Smith anchored in their seven seasons together was a big reason why the Chiefs reached the postseason in six straight years.  In Schottenheimer's ten-season tenure as head coach, the Chiefs became a perennial playoff contender, featuring offensive players including Steve DeBerg, Christian Okoye, Stephone Paige and Barry Word, a strong defense, anchored by Thomas, Smith, Albert Lewis and Deron Cherry, and on special teams, Nick Lowery, then the most accurate kicker in NFL History. The team recorded a 101–58–1 record, and clinched seven playoff berths. The Chiefs' 1993 season was the franchise's most successful in 22 years. With newly acquired quarterback Joe Montana and running back Marcus Allen, two former Super Bowl

1999–2006.

Following Schottenheimer's resignation, defensive coordinator Gunther Cunningham took over coaching duties for the next two seasons, compiling a 16–16 record. By the end of the Chiefs' decade of regular-season dominance, Gannon had signed with the Oakland Raiders, Neil Smith signed with the Denver Broncos, and Derrick Thomas was paralyzed from a car accident on January 23, 2000. Thomas died from complications of his injury weeks later. After allegedly reading online that he would be relieved of duties, head coach Gunther Cunningham was fired. Looking to change the Chiefs' game plan which relied on a tough defensive strategy for the past decade, Carl Peterson contacted

2007–2012, second decline.

In 2007, Trent Green was traded to the Miami Dolphins leaving the door open for either Damon Huard or Brodie Croyle to become the new starting quarterback. After starting the season with a 4–3 record, the Chiefs lost the remaining nine games when running back Larry Johnson suffered a season-ending foot injury and the quarterback position lacked stability with Huard and Croyle. Despite the team's 4–12 record, tight end Tony Gonzalez broke Shannon Sharpe's NFL record for touchdowns at the position (63) and defensive end Jared Allen led the NFL in quarterback sacks with 15.5.  The Chiefs began their 2008 season with the youngest team in the NFL. The starting lineup had an average of 25.5 years of age. By releasing several veteran players such as cornerback Ty Law and wide receiver Eddie Kennison and trading defensive end Jared Allen, the Chiefs began

Andy Reid, John Dorsey era.

Following the 2012 season, the Chiefs fired head coach Romeo Crennel and general manager Scott Pioli. Former Philadelphia Eagles head coach Andy Reid was brought in as head coach to work with new general manager John Dorsey, a former Green Bay Packers head scout.  The Chiefs acquired quarterback Alex Smith from the San Francisco 49ers for the Chiefs' second-round pick, 34th overall, in the 2013 draft and a conditional pick in 2014 draft. Matt Cassel was released shortly after. The Chiefs selected Eric Fisher with the first overall pick of the 2013 NFL Draft.  The

Patrick Mahomes era, second Super Bowl win.

The Chiefs began the 2018 season with first-year starter Patrick Mahomes as their quarterback and finished the regular season with a record of 12–4, clinching the AFC West for the third year in a row and the AFC's top seed. This included victories over division rivals Los Angeles Chargers, Oakland Raiders and Denver Broncos (twice), along with important conference victories over the Pittsburgh Steelers, Cincinnati Bengals, and Jacksonville Jaguars. Their first loss of the season came at the hands of the New England Patriots with

Championships.

The Chiefs have won a total of three combined Super Bowl Championships and pre-Super

Logos and uniforms.

When the Texans began playing in 1960, the team's logo consisted of the state of Texas in white with a yellow star marking the location of the city of Dallas. Originally, Hunt chose Columbia blue and orange for the Texans' uniforms, but Bud Adams chose Columbia blue and scarlet for his Houston Oilers franchise. Hunt reverted to red and gold for the Texans' uniforms, which even after the team relocated to Kansas City, remain as the franchise's colors to this day.  The state of Texas on the team's helmet was replaced by an arrowhead design originally sketched by Lamar Hunt on a napkin. Hunt's inspiration for the interlocking "KC" design was the "SF" inside of an oval on the San Francisco 49ers helmets. Unlike the 49ers' logo, Kansas City's overlapping initials appear inside a white arrowhead instead of an oval and are surrounded by a thin black outline. From 1960 to 1973, the Chiefs had grey facemask bars on their helmets, but changed to white facemasks in 1974, making them one of the first teams (alongside the San Diego Chargers, who introduced a yellow facemask that same year) in the NFL to use a non-gray facemask.  The Chiefs' uniform design has essentially remained the same throughout the club's

Arrowhead Stadium.

Arrowhead Stadium has been the Chiefs' home field since 1972 and has a capacity of 76,416, which makes it the fifth-largest stadium in the NFL. The stadium underwent a $375 million renovation, completed in mid-2010, which included new luxury boxes, wider concourses and enhanced amenities. The stadium renovation was paid for by $250 million in taxpayer money and $125 million from the Hunt Family. The stadium cost $53 million to build in 1972, and an average ticket in 2009 costs $81. Aramark serves as the stadium's concession provider and Sprint, Anheuser-Busch and Coca-Cola are major corporate sponsors.  Dating back to the Chiefs' home opener in 1991 to mid-2009, the Chiefs had 155 consecutive sellout games. The streak ended with the final home game of the 2009 season against the Cleveland Browns, resulting in the first local TV blackout in over 19 years. Arrowhead has been called one of the world's finest stadiums and has long held

Training camp and practice facility.

When the franchise was based in Dallas, the team conducted their inaugural training camp at the New Mexico Military Institute in Roswell, New Mexico. They moved camp to Southern Methodist University, owner Lamar Hunt's alma mater, for 1961 and continued to practice there until 1965. From 1966 to 1971, the Chiefs practiced in Swope Park in Kansas City, and from 1972 to 1991 held camp at William Jewell College in Clay County, Missouri–where Lamar Hunt had extensive business dealings including Worlds of Fun, Oceans of Fun and SubTropolis. From 1992 to 2009 the Chiefs conducted summer training camp at the University of Wisconsin–River Falls in River Falls,

Rivalries.

The Chiefs share intense rivalries with their three AFC West opponents, namely the Denver Broncos, Las Vegas Raiders, and Los Angeles Chargers, with the Raiders rivalry considered one of the most bitter in the NFL. They also have had historical rivalries with the Seattle Seahawks, who were

Mascots and cheerleaders.

The Chiefs' first mascot was Warpaint, a nickname given to several different breeds of pinto horse. Warpaint served as the team's mascot from 1963 to 1988. The first Warpaint (born in 1955, died in 1992) was ridden bareback by rider Bob Johnson who wore a full Native American headdress. Warpaint circled the field at the beginning of each Chiefs home game and performed victory laps following each Chiefs touchdown. On September 20, 2009, a new Warpaint horse was unveiled at the Chiefs' home opener. Warpaint is now ridden by a cheerleader, Susie.  In the mid-1980s, the Chiefs featured a short-lived

Notable players.

Pro Football Hall of Fame enshrinees.

Twenty-three members of the Pro Football Hall of Fame spent at least some portion of their career with the Chiefs. Thirteen spent the majority of the career with the Chiefs. Ten of the Chiefs in the Hall of Fame were involved with the Chiefs during their Super

Chiefs Hall of Fame.

The Chiefs are one of 16 organizations that honor their players, coaches and contributors with a team Hall of Fame or Ring of Honor. Established in 1970, the Chiefs Hall of Fame has inducted a new member in an annual ceremony with the exception of the 1983 season. Several of the names were featured at Arrowhead Stadium in the stadium's architecture prior to renovations in 2009. The requirements for induction are that a player, coach, or contributor must have been

Head coaches.

Thirteen head coaches have served the Texans/Chiefs franchise since their first season in 1960. Hank Stram, the team's first head coach, led the Chiefs to three AFL championship victories and two appearances in the Super Bowl. Stram was the team's longest-tenured head coach, holding the position from 1960 to 1974. Marty Schottenheimer was hired in 1989 and led Kansas City to seven playoff appearances in his 10 seasons as head coach. Schottenheimer had the best winning percentage (.634) of all Chiefs coaches. Gunther Cunningham was on the Chiefs' coaching staff in various positions from 1995 to 2008, serving as the team's head coach in between stints as the team's defensive coordinator. Dick Vermeil coached the

Ownership and administration.

The franchise was founded in 1959 by Lamar Hunt after a failed attempt by Hunt to purchase an NFL franchise and relocate them to Texas. Hunt remained the team's owner until his death in 2006. The Hunt family kept ownership of the team following Lamar's death and Clark Hunt, Lamar's son, represents the family's interests. While Hunt's official title is CEO and Chairman of the Board, he represents the team at all owner meetings. In 2010, Hunt assumed role as CEO alongside his role as Chairman of the Board. According to "Forbes", the team is valued at $2.4 billion and ranks 24th among NFL teams in 2017.  Owner Lamar Hunt served as the team's president from 1960 to 1976. Because of Lamar Hunt's contributions to the NFL, the AFC Championship trophy is named after him. He promoted general manager Jack Steadman to become the team's president in 1977. Steadman held the job until Carl Peterson was hired

Media.

Radio and television.

From 1989 until the team's Super Bowl LIV victory, Cumulus Media's KCFX (101.1), a.k.a. "101 The Fox", broadcast all Chiefs games on FM radio under the moniker of The Chiefs Fox Football Radio Network, one of the earliest deals where an FM station served as the flagship station of a team radio network. Since 1994, Mitch Holthus has served as play-by-play announcer and former Chiefs quarterback Len Dawson serves as color commentator. Former Chiefs longsnapper Kendall Gammon serves as the field reporter. Former Chiefs broadcaster Bob Gretz also contributes to the broadcasts. Starting in the 2016 season, Dawson will only serve as color commentator during home games, and Gammon will be color commentator during road games, with Dani Welniak assuming Gammon's sideline reporting role for away games. The Chiefs and KCFX held the distinction of being the longest FM radio broadcast partnering tenure in the NFL. The Chiefs Radio Network extends throughout the six-state region of Missouri, Kansas, Iowa, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and Arkansas, with 61 affiliate stations.  With the start of the 2020 season, Entercom's WDAF-FM (106.5) will become the flagship of the Chiefs network, with sister

Culture.

Fan base.

The Chiefs boast one of the most loyal fan bases in the NFL. Kansas City is the sixth-smallest media market with an NFL team, but they have had the second-highest attendance average over the last decade. Studies by Bizjournals in 2006 gave the Chiefs high marks for consistently drawing capacity crowds in both good seasons and bad. The Chiefs averaged 77,300 fans per game from 1996 to 2006, second in the NFL behind the Washington Redskins. The franchise has an official fan club called Chiefs Kingdom which gives members opportunities to ticket priority benefits and VIP treatment.  At the end of "The Star-Spangled Banner" before home games, many Chiefs fans intentionally yell out "CHIEFS!" rather than singing "brave" as the final word. In 1996, general manager Carl Peterson said "We all look forward, not only at Arrowhead, but on the road, too, to when we get to that stanza of the National Anthem... Our players love it." After the September 11, 2001 attacks, Chiefs fans refrained from doing so in honor of those who lost their

Tomahawk chop.

Chiefs fans also carry on a tradition that began at Florida State University in the mid 1980s by using the Seminole WarChant as a rallying cry during key moments in their football games. Prior to each home game, a former Chiefs player or famous Chiefs fan (such as NASCAR driver Clint Bowyer or rapper Tech N9ne), called the honorary drum leader, bangs on a drum with a large drum stick to start the Tomahawk chop.  The Chiefs' and their fans use of American Indian imagery and stereotypes has been the source of controversy, as some decry usage of symbols like the "war drum," songs and spectacles like the "Tomahawk

Tony DiPardo.

From various periods between 1963 and the 2008 season, trumpeter Tony DiPardo and The T.D. Pack Band played live music at every Chiefs home game. The band was known as The Zing Band when the team was located at Municipal Stadium. DiPardo was honored by head coach Hank Stram in 1969 with a Super Bowl ring for

The Kansas City Chiefs are a professional American football team based in Kansas City, Missouri. The Chiefs compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league's American Football Conference (AFC) West division. The team was founded in 1960 as the Dallas Texans by businessman Lamar Hunt and was a charter member of the American Football League (AFL). (It is not associated with the NFL Dallas Texans.) In 1963, the team moved to Kansas City and assumed its current name. The Chiefs joined the NFL as a result of the merger in 1970. The team is valued at over $2 billion. Hunt's son, Clark, serves as chairman and CEO. While Hunt's ownership stakes passed collectively to his widow and children after his death in 2006, Clark is the operating head of the franchise; he represents the Chiefs at all league meetings and has ultimate authority on personnel changes.

Die Kansas City Chiefs sind ein American-Football-Team der US-amerikanischen National Football League (NFL). Sie spielen dort in der American Football Conference (AFC) in der "Western Division". Die Chiefs spielten von 1960 bis 1962 als "Dallas Texans", bevor es 1963 mit dem Umzug nach Kansas City, Missouri zur Umbenennung kam. Die Kansas City Chiefs gewannen drei Mal die Meisterschaft der American Football League, wobei die Letzte den Gewinn des Super Bowl IV ermöglichte, und ein Mal die Meisterschaft der NFL, als sie nach der Saison 2019 den Super Bowl LIV gewannen.