History.

Klang was formerly the terminus of the government railway and the port of the State. In 1880, the state capital of Selangor was moved from Klang to the more strategically advantageous Kuala Lumpur. Rapid development at the new administrative centre in the late 1800s attracted businessmen and job seekers alike from Klang. At this time the only methods of transport between Klang and Kuala Lumpur were by horse or buffalo drawn wagons, or boat ride along the Klang River to Damansara. Due to this Frank Swettenham stated to Selangor's British Resident at the time, William Bloomfield Douglas, that the journey to Kuala Lumpur was "rather long and boring". He continued to suggest a train line be built as an alternative route.  In September 1882, Sir Frank Athelstane Swettenham was appointed Selangor's new Resident. Swettenham initiated a rail link between Klang and Kuala Lumpur to overcome the transport problems particularly of the tin mining interests, who needed to convey the ore to Klang's port, Pelabuhan Batu. Nineteen and a half miles of rail track from Kuala Lumpur to Bukit Kudu was opened in September 1886, and extended 3 miles to Klang in 1890. . The river navigation, however, was difficult as only ships drawing less than of water could come up the jetty, and thus a new port was selected near the mouth of the river as the anchorage was good. Developed by the Malayan Railway and officially opened 15 years later on 15 September 1901 by Swettenham himself, the new port was named "Port Swettenham".

Under British rule.

Both Klang and Port Swettenham were already known as notoriously malaria prone localities with the port itself located on a mangrove swamp. Within two months of its opening, the port was closed due to an outbreak of malaria. Just a few years before, the British doctor Sir Ronald Ross proved in 1897 that malaria is transmitted by mosquitoes. Port Swettenham was the first colonial area to benefit from the discovery. Swamps were filled in, jungle cleared, and surface water diverted to destroy mosquito breeding grounds and combat further disruption to port operations. The threat of malaria was removed completely by the end of the exercise. Trade grew rapidly and two new berths were added by 1914 along with other port facilities. The Selangor Polo Club was founded in Port Swettenham in 1902 but it moved to Kuala Lumpur in 1911.  Between World Wars I and II the port experienced much growth and expansion, peaking in 1940 when tonnage rose to 550,000 tonnes. During the Second World War allied aircraft were serviced by RAF Servicing Commandos at airfields in Port Swettenham. Its location is marked on a 1954 map by the United States Army. Much of the port's facilities that were damaged during the war were reconstructed. The port expanded to the south with permanent installations to handle more palm oil and latex, two increasingly important exports. Imports also grew tremendously and tonnage of cargo handled at the port far exceeded what was thought possible before the war.

Post-independence.

On 1 July 1963 the Malaysian government established the Port Swettenham Authority, which subsequently was changed to Port Klang Authority as a statutory corporation to take over the administration of Port Klang from the Malayan Railway Administration. In the late 1960s and 1970s new deepwater berths were constructed with wharves suitable for handling container as well as conventional cargoes. The Royal Selangor Yacht Club was first registered here as "Port Swettenham Yacht Club" in July 1969. In November 1972, Prime Minister Tun Abdul Razak declared the container terminal open and in May 1974, construction of seven more berths for bulk cargo began and was completed in 1983. In October 1982, construction of the liquid bulk terminal in North Port was completed.  On 17 March 1986 the container terminal facilities operated by Port Klang Authority was privatised to Klang Container Terminal Berhad as part of the privatisation exercise of the government. In January 1988, construction work began on a new berth, as an alternative to the immediate development of West Port. A government directive in 1993 has identified Port Klang to be developed into the National Load Centre. Port Klang has since grown and now establishes trade connections with over 120 countries and dealings with more than 500 ports around the world.

Local governance.

Port Klang Authority.

The Port Klang Authority administers three ports in the Port Klang area namely Northport, Southpoint and Westport. Prior to the establishment of the Port Klang Authority, South Port was the only existing port and was administered by the Malayan Railway Administration. Both Westport and Northport have been privatized and managed as separate entities.  The total capacity of the port is 109,700,000 tons of cargo in 2005 compared to 550,000 tons in 1940.

Port operators.

Northport.

Northport is owned and operated by Northport (Malaysia) Bhd and comprises dedicated multipurpose port facilities and services. The Northport entity was a merger of two companies; Kelang Container Terminal (KCT) and Kelang Port Management (KPM). Its operations also cover South Port, which was renamed Southpoint for conventional cargo handling, and acquired Northport Distripark Sdn Bhd (NDSB) as part of its logistics division.

Westport.

Westport is managed by Westports Malaysia Sdn Bhd (formerly known as Kelang Multi Terminal Sdn Bhd). A passenger port, Port Klang Cruise Centre, opened in December 1995 at Pulau Indah which is located next to the cargo terminals of Westport. Cruise line and naval ships drop anchor in any of the three berths at Port Klang Cruise Centre, which was under the management of Star Cruises before being taken over by the Glenn Marine Group.

Accessibility.

Car.

Port Klang is the western end of the Federal Highway that links it all the way to Kuala Lumpur. The KESAS interchanges with the Pulau Indah Expressway in nearby Pandamaran connects to Westports and the PKFZ.  Main roads that link the Port Klang town, Southport and housing area are Persiaran Raja Muda Musa and Jalan Pelabuhan Utara.  Since 2012, Pulau Indah is directly connected to Malaysia's administrative capital, Putrajaya and Kajang via the SKVE.

Public transportation.

There is a frequent bus and commuter train service to Kuala Lumpur via Klang.  Port Klang is served by the KTM Komuter service and trains stop at the Port Klang Komuter station. The electric train service links to Klang, Kuala Lumpur, Subang Jaya, Shah Alam and all the way until Tanjung Malim.  A passenger ferry terminal to Pulau Ketam and an International terminal to Tanjungbalai and Dumai in Indonesia are also located in the area. The old ferry terminal used to serve regular passenger boats to Pulau Lumut and Telok Gonjeng terminal until the completion of Northport Bridge link.

Politics.

Port Klang is under the jurisdiction of the. It is represented in the Parliament by the Member of Parliament for, Charles Santiago. In the State Assembly of Selangor, the township is represented by, the state assemblyman for.

Port Klang (, Jawi: ڤلابوهن کلڠ) is a town and the main gateway by sea into Malaysia. Known during colonial times as Port Swettenham () but renamed Port Klang in July 1972, it is the largest port in the country. It is located about southwest of the town of Klang, and southwest of Kuala Lumpur.

Port Klang, auch "Port Kelang",, bis 1972 "Port Swettenham", ist eine Kleinstadt und der größte Seehafen in Malaysia. Port Klang liegt an der Straße von Malakka nahe der Stadt Klang im Distrikt Klang, der zum Bundesstaat Selangor gehört.


Signs and symptoms.

Affected feet may become numb, by erythema (turning red) or cyanosis (turning blue), as a result of poor blood supply, and may begin emanating a decaying odor if the early stages of necrosis (tissue death) set in. As the condition worsens, feet may also begin to swell. Advanced trench foot often involves blisters and open sores, which lead to fungal infections; this is sometimes called tropical ulcer (jungle rot). If left untreated, trench foot usually results in gangrene, which may require amputation. If trench foot is treated properly, complete recovery is normal, although it is marked by severe short-term pain when feeling returns.

Causes.

Unlike frostbite, trench foot does not require freezing temperatures; it can occur in temperatures up to and within as little as 13 hours. Exposure to these environmental conditions causes deterioration and destruction of the capillaries, and leads to morbidity of the surrounding flesh. Excessive sweating (hyperhidrosis) has long been regarded as a contributory cause; unsanitary, cold, and wet conditions can also cause trench foot.

Prevention.

Trench foot can be prevented by keeping the feet clean, warm, and dry. It was also discovered in World War I that a key preventive measure was regular foot inspections; soldiers would be paired and each partner made responsible for the feet of the other, and they would generally apply whale oil to prevent trench foot. If left to their own devices, soldiers might neglect to take off their own boots and socks to dry their feet each day, but when it was made the responsibility of another, this became less likely.

Treatment.

The mainstay of treatment, like the treatment of gangrene, is surgical debridement, and often includes amputation. Self-treatment consists of changing socks two or three times a day and usage of plenty of talcum powder. Whenever possible, shoes and socks should be taken off, the feet bathed for five minutes and patted dry, talcum powder applied, and feet elevated to let air get to them.

History.

Trench foot was first documented by Napoleon's army in 1812. It became prevalent during the retreat from Russia and was first described by the French army surgeon Dominique Jean Larrey. It was also a problem for soldiers engaged in trench warfare during the winters of World War I (hence the name).  Trench foot made a reappearance in the British Army during the Falklands War, in 1982. Some people were even reported to have developed trench foot at the 1998 and 2007 Glastonbury Festivals, the 2009 and 2013 Leeds Festivals, as well as the 2012, 2016, and 2019 Download Festivals, as a result of the sustained cold, wet, and muddy conditions at the events.

Trench foot is a medical condition caused by prolonged exposure of the feet to damp, unsanitary, and cold conditions. It is one of many immersion foot syndromes. The use of the word "trench" in the name of this condition is a reference to trench warfare, mainly associated with World War I.

Kälte-Nässe-Schaden der Hände oder Füße, bekannter als Immersionsfuß, (), ist ein medizinischer Oberbegriff für verwandte Varianten eines komplexen multifaktorellen Syndroms, das durch längere Einwirkung von Feuchtigkeit auf menschliches Gewebe in Verbindung mit geschlossenem Schuhwerk ausgelöst wird. Oft sind Unterschenkel, in seltenen Fällen auch Hände mitbetroffen.


Personal life.

Carlo Tresca was born March 9, 1879, in Sulmona, Abruzzo, Italy, the son of a landowner. His formal education reached to secondary school. Tresca had no hope of attending university as his family's finances were poor during the economic slump of the 1880s. He enrolled at a seminary instead, but left soon after, emerging as an anticlerical atheist.  From 1898 to 1902, Tresca was secretary of the Italian Federation of Railroad Workers. He was also the editor of "Il Germe," a socialist weekly based in Abruzzo. Seeking to avoid a jail term for his radical political activities, Tresca emigrated to the United States in 1904, settling in Philadelphia.  Tresca had a relationship with Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, and Flynn's sister, Bina, and was the father of Bina's son Peter D. Martin. He also had a relationship with sculptor Minna Harkavy, whose bust of him was erected in his birth town of Sulmona.

American years.

In America, Tresca was elected Secretary of the Italian Socialist Federation of North America in 1904. He remained in that position for the next three years. During this same interval, Tresca was also the editor of "Il Proletario" (The Proletarian), the official newspaper of the Italian Socialist Federation.  Tresca's political views became increasingly radical and he soon came to identify himself as an anarchist. In 1907 Tresca resigned as editor of "Il Proletario" and began publishing his own newspaper, "La Plebe" (The Plebeian). He would later transfer "La Plebe" to Pittsburgh and, with it, revolutionary ideas to Italian miners and mill workers in Western Pennsylvania. In 1909, Tresca became editor of "L'Avvenire," (The Future) remaining in that capacity until the coming of World War I, when the publication was suppressed under the Espionage Act.  Tresca joined the revolutionary syndicalist Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) in 1912, when he was invited by the union to Lawrence, Massachusetts to help mobilize the Italian workers during a campaign to free strike leaders Joseph Ettor and Arturo Giovannitti, jailed on false murder charges. After the victorious strike in Lawrence, Tresca was active in several strikes across the United States; the Little Falls, New York textile workers' strike (1912), the New York City hotel workers' strike (1913), the Paterson silk strike (1913), and the Mesabi Range, Minnesota, miners' strike (1916). He was arrested several times and jailed for nine months awaiting trial for murder in conjunction with the Minnesota action, ultimately being released without going to trial.  In August 1920, Tresca became involved tangentially in the Irish War of Independence. As Sidney Czira, secretary of Cumann na mBan in New York, and sister of Grace Gifford, later recalled, "Picketing of the British Embassy in Washington had been going on from 1916 onwards and I remember a very successful picketing that was undertaken as a protest in New York against the British arrest of Dr. Mannix in August 1920. This latter picketing was largely the work of an Italian called Carlo Tresca, a personal friend of the well-known Irish-American family of Flynn, who were great friends of James Connolly. Tresca had great influence among the sea-faring fraternity and suggested that we should call out the seamen from the British ships as a protest against the arrest of Dr. Mannix. This was done by pickets walking on the docks with placards, calling on the men to leave the ships. So far as I was concerned, this was rather an amusing incident, because I had a placard which read something like this, "Hear the call of the blood and refuse to work on British ships". I realised that the call of the blood was addressed to Greeks, Italians, Lascars, etc., and when they saw a young woman with a placard they came up to enquire what the strike was about. My efforts to translate "Hear the call of the blood" into Italian were funny, but I found one word which they all seemed to know was "tyranny - Irlanda", and smiling and nodding, they would all walk away. The picketing was extremely effective because when we were holding our meetings it was a thrilling sight when, from time to time, we would hear the march of feet and the crew of some ship would come marching into the room. We found out subsequently that Tresca, who had organised them, was generally supposed to be an anarchist! Of course, there were extremely severe penalties under American law for behaviour of this kind."  In August 1923, Tresca was arrested on charges of having printed an advertisement for a birth control pamphlet in his new publication, "Il Martello" (The Hammer). He was found guilty in an October 1923 trial and was sentenced to a year and a day in Atlanta Federal Penitentiary. This sentence was confirmed on November 10, 1924, and Tresca entered prison on January 5, 1925.

Making enemies.

Tresca became a major figure among Italian-Americans for his opposition to fascism and was reported to Benito Mussolini as a leading enemy of the fascist movement. Tresca edited an anti-Fascist newspaper named "Il Martello", where he attacked the myths that undergirded Mussolini's power. Tresca was monitored by the United States Department of Justice, who sought to deport him, and by Rome, where Mussolini feared that Italian-Americans would hurt his reputation with the United States and its banks. With pressure from the Italian ambassador to ban Tresca's newspaper, the American government charged Tresca with publishing obscenities. Tresca was sentenced and subject to deportation, but public dissent led the United States President Calvin Coolidge to commute Tresca's sentence. The fascists turned to violence, with a bombing assassination attempt in 1926, after which the antifascists fought back. Tresca contributed towards stopping Mussolini's ideological spread among Italian-Americans, despite Tresca's lack of reach into Italian-American media and business influence.  During the trial of Sacco and Vanzetti, Tresca organized publicity, fundraising, and the defense lawyer Fred Moore.  In the 1930s, Tresca became an outspoken opponent of Soviet Communists and Stalinism, particularly after the Soviet Union had engineered the destruction of the anarchist movement in Catalonia and Aragon during the Spanish Revolution.  In 1937, Tresca was a member of the Dewey Commission, which cleared Leon Trotsky of all charges made during the Moscow Trials.  In early 1938, Tresca publicly accused the Soviets of kidnapping Juliet Stuart Poyntz to prevent her defection from the Communist Party USA underground apparatus. Tresca alleged that before she had disappeared, Poyntz had talked to him about "exposing the communist movement".

Assassination.

By 1943, Tresca, on parole at the time, was under police surveillance. On January 9, 1943, his surveillance team witnessed an incident in which a speeding car attempted to run Tresca over.  Two days later, on January 11, 1943, in New York City, Tresca was leaving his parole officer's offices when he dodged surveilling officers by jumping into a car that was waiting for him. Two hours later, Tresca was crossing Fifth Avenue at 15th Street on foot when a black Ford pulled up beside him. A short, squat gunman in a brown coat jumped out and shot Tresca in the back of the head with a handgun, killing him instantly. The black Ford was later found abandoned nearby with all four doors open. One theory at the time was that the suspected assassin was a member of the Mafia, acting on orders from Sicily. Others have theorized that Tresca was eliminated by the NKVD as retribution for criticism of the Stalin regime of the Soviet Union.  More recent research by Alan A. Block in "Space, Time and Organized Crime", Dorothy Gallagher in "All the Right Enemies", and Nunzio Pernicone in "Carlo Tresca: Portrait of A Rebel" all confirm that the most likely scenario is that Tresca was killed by Carmine Galante, of the Bonanno crime family, on the order of Frank Garofalo, underboss to Joseph Bonanno, Fascist sympathizer and close friend to Generoso Pope. Tresca had not only been critical of Pope but recently berated Garofalo and threatened to expose him in "Il Martello". Galante, only recently released from prison, was seen by his parole officer fleeing the scene. Unfortunately, due to wartime rationing of gasoline, the parole officer was unable to engage in a chase after him.  Vito Genovese, boss of the Genovese crime family, is also said to have allegedly ordered the murder of Tresca, with the shooter allegedly being Galante. No one was ever charged in the Tresca murder.  A eulogy at his memorial service was delivered by Angelica Balabanoff, socialist activist and former Bolshevik. According to Lewis Coser's account of the funeral, "I was sitting near a burly Irish policeman who clearly didn't understand a word of Balabanoff's fierce Italian oratory. But at her climax he burst into tears."

Carlo Tresca (March 9, 1879 – January 11, 1943) was an Italian-American newspaper editor, orator, and labor organizer who was a leader of the Industrial Workers of the World during the 1910s. He is remembered as a leading public opponent of fascism, Stalinism, and Mafia infiltration of the trade union movement.

Carlo Tresca (* 9. März 1879 in Sulmona, Abruzzen, Italien; † 11. Januar 1943 in New York City, New York) war ein Agitator der Arbeiterbewegung. Er war als Mitglied der "Italienischen Eisenbahnarbeiterföderation" und als Autor der Zeitschrift "Il Germe" tätig.


Summary of reign.

With the aid of a band of Gileadites, from whose home territory he probably originally came, he slew Pekahiah and assumed the throne.  In c. 732 BC, Pekah allied with Rezin, king of Aram and threatened Jerusalem. The prime reason for such a league was probably to protect their respective countries from another incursion of Tiglath-pileser III., who had compelled Menahem, in 738 B.C., to pay a large tribute. The two kings united their armies and attempted to coerce Ahaz of Judah into joining them. Pekah raided Judah and carried to Samaria a number of captives; but, rebuked by the prophet Oded and by some of the prominent men, he released them and sent them back. The united forces of Israel and Syria appeared before the walls of Jerusalem to demand its surrender. At this juncture Isaiah the prophet came to the support of Judah and her king. The allies had proposed to set upon the throne of Judah a son of Tabeel, probably one favorable to the alliance. Ahaz, however, knowing that Tiglath-pileser was within call, appealed to him for help. Ahaz's "dread" of Rezin and Pekah, "Son of Remaliah" is recorded in the Immanuel prophecy in where the birth of a son (possibly Hezekiah) is a sign of the defeat of both kings by the King of Assyria before the child is old enough to eat curds and honey and distinguish right from wrong. After Ahaz paid tribute to Tiglath-Pileser, the Assyrians sacked Damascus and annexed Aram. According to, the population of Aram was deported and Rezin executed. According to, Tiglath-Pileser also attacked Israel and "took Ijon, Abel Beth Maacah, Janoah, Kedesh and Hazor. He took Gilead and Galilee, including all the land of Naphtali, and deported the people to Assyria." Tiglath-Pileser also records this act in one of his inscriptions.  Soon after this Pekah was assassinated by Hoshea ben Elah (that is, Hoshea the son of Elah) - a captain from Pekah's own army - who then took the throne. Tiglath-Pileser in an inscription mentions the slaying of Hoshea by his fellow Israelites. The inference here is that the people, seeing the inevitable outcome of the contest with Assyria, put out of the way their fighting king, and then yielded submission to the conqueror, Tiglath-pileser III. He is supposed by some to have been the "shepherd" mentioned in.

Chronology.

Controversy.

The data given for Pekah's reign in the biblical sources have generated considerable discussion. His ending date can be established fairly firmly as 732/731 BC.  But two conflicting systems of reckoning seem to be used for his reign. One system gives him a long reign of twenty years (), which puts his starting date in 752 BC. This date is consistent with the statement that Jotham of Judah began to reign in Pekah's second year, 750 BC (), and that Jotham's successor Ahaz began to reign in his 17th year, 735 BC ().  However, a shorter reign is indicated by, which says that Pekah began to reign in the 52nd year of Azariah (Uzziah) of Judah, i.e. in 740 BC. Also, Pekah assassinated Pekahiah to assume the throne (), and Pekahiah's two-year reign () was preceded by his father Menahem's ten-year reign (). Menahem gave tribute to Tiglath-Pileser III, as is recorded in (where Pul = Tiglath-Pileser) and also in Tiglath-Pileser's inscriptions. Since Tiglath-Pileser came to the throne in 745 BC, Menahem's tribute would have to be in 745 or later, yet the "longer" chronology gave Pekah, successor to Menahem and Pekahiah, a twenty-year reign that started before this, in 752. These apparent inconsistencies led many scholars to reject all or part of the biblical sources concerning Pekah. D. M. Beegle has maintained that it is impossible to reconcile a twenty-year reign for Pekah with other biblical or with Assyrian history, using this as one of his arguments that the doctrine of the inerrancy of all Scripture cannot be true.

C. Lederer and H. J. Cook: a rival reign in Gilead.

In 1887, Carl Lederer proposed that the existence of two apparently contradictory sets of text for Pekah could be explained if there really were two systems in use for reckoning the reign of Pekah, and these were the consequence of a rivalry between Pekah and Menahem. The rivalry began when Menahem slew Shallum, putting an end to Shallum's one-month reign (). This assumption accounted for all the chronological texts that related four kings of Judah (Uzziah through Hezekiah) to three kings of Israel (Menahem, Pekahiah, and Pekah), but it apparently was largely ignored by the scholarly community. Then in 1954, H. J. Cook added new considerations to support Lederer's thesis, beyond just the pragmatic. Cook maintained that although the Scriptures did not explicitly state the existence of two rival kingdoms in the north in the latter half of the eighth century BC, their existence could be inferred from passages of the book of Hosea that was written about the time of Pekah and Menahem. Cook showed that although "Ephraim" is sometimes used in Scripture to designate all of the northern kingdom, in various passages of Hosea such as Hosea 5:5, "Israel" and "Ephraim" are not synonymous but refer to separate entities. Cook's thesis in this regard was strengthened when Rodger Young pointed out that the Hebrew of Hosea 5:5 has a "vav" before Israel and then another "vav" before Ephraim, which is the Hebrew method of expressing "both... and," implying a distinction in this passage between Israel and Ephraim. All translations which have rendered this in some sense as "Israel, even Ephraim" are therefore incorrect (the Holman Study Bible renders the verse correctly, as did the ancient Septuagint). Others who have accepted the Lederer/Cook explanation of the two methods of dating for the time of Pekah are Thiele in his second edition of "Mysterious Numbers" and later, Leslie McFall, Francis Andersen and David Noel Freedman in their commentary on Hosea in the Anchor Bible Series, T. C. Mitchell, in the "Cambridge Ancient History", and Jack Finegan in his "Handbook of Biblical Chronology".

Assyrian references.

Looking at this from the Assyrian side, Stanley Rosenbaum maintains that the records of Tiglath-Pileser III demonstrate that the Assyrian king distinguished between two kingdoms in the north of Israel. Tiglath-Pileser says he united the northern part (restored as Naphthali in the text) with Assyria, whereas for the southern part, he wrote, "Israel ("bit-Humria") overthrew their king Pekah and I placed Hoshea as king over them." Cook thinks that Menahem's tribute to Assyria in 2 Kings 15:19 also suggests the existence of a rival to Menahem's kingdom: When Tiglath-Pileser III appeared in the west, Menahem took the opportunity to enlist his support by sending tribute of a thousand talents of silver, with the idea—as 2 Kings xv 19 puts it—'that he might help him to confirm his hold of the royal power'. This expression may simply indicate Menahem's sense of insecurity in the presence of Assyrian power; but it may equally well indicate the presence of a rival. Isaiah 7:1,2 speaks of a league between Pekah and King Rezin of Aram that was a threat to Ahaz of Judah. Ahaz and Menahem of Israel (Ephraim) followed a pro-Assyrian policy and were therefore aligned against the coalition of Pekah and the Arameans that sought to withstand Assyria, thus explaining why Menahem felt insecure and sought to buy the support of Assyria.

Pekah as commander under Pekahiah.

A major objection to the idea that Pekah headed a kingdom that was rival to Menahem's reign in Samaria is that he is listed as a commander ("shalish") of Pekahaiah, Menahem's son, whom he slew (2 Kings 15:25). Young remarks, The objections to Pekah being a rival to Menahem usually center on Pekah’s position as an officer in the army of Pekahiah, Menahem’s son and successor (2 Kgs 15:25). But there is nothing inherently unreasonable about two rivals reaching a détente under which one contender accepts a subordinate position, and he then bides his time until the opportunity comes to slay his rival (or his rival’s son) in a coup. Once the rivalry had begun, the external threat (Assyria) provided compelling reasons for a détente.  Any rivalry between Menahem and Pekah could only appear more and more foolish in light of the growing menace of Assyria. In 733, Tiglath-Pileser campaigned against Damascus, the capital of the Arameans, Pekah's erstwhile ally, and he returned to destroy the city in 732. Pekah must have seen the handwriting on the wall in 733 or earlier, and any feeling for "Realpolitik" would dictate that it was time for the two rivals to put aside their differences under some sort of accommodation. But "Realpolitik" would also suggest that this accommodation should not include giving your potential rival a position of leadership in the army, which Pekahiah learned too late.  This is based on inference from the political situation of the time. Gleason Archer showed how inference is used to reconstruct a rivalry in the neighboring kingdom of Egypt that has striking parallels to the Pekah/Menahem rivalry. When Thutmose II died, the intended heir was his son Thutmose III, who was still a boy. However, some time not long after the death of her husband (Thutmose II), Hatshepsut assumed the royal regalia and the title of pharaoh, reigning for 21 years. As he grew older, Thutmose III was given the position of commander of the army, similar to Pekah's position as commander, but still under his aunt and stepmother Hatshepsut. After Hatshepsut died, Thutmose, in an inscription describing his first campaign, said it was in his 22nd year of reign, thereby counting his regnal years from the time his father died, not from the death of Hatshepsut. Thutmose left no explanation for modern historians that his 22nd year was really the first year of sole reign, any more than Pekah or the historian of 2 Kings left an explanation that Pekah's 12th year, the year in which he slew Pekahiah, was really his first year of sole reign. Modern historians rely on a comparison of inscriptions and chronological considerations to reconstruct the chronology of Thutmose III, and there is unanimity among Egyptologists that he counted as his own years the 21 years that Hatshepsut was on the throne, even though no inscription has ever been found explicitly stating this fact. Commenting on the fact that Egyptologists have no problem in reconstructing history using inference of this sort, whereas critics will sometimes not allow the same historical method to be applied to the Bible, Young writes, "Do those who reject the Menahem/Pekah rivalry as improbable also reject as improbable this reconstruction from Egypt's Eighteenth Dynasty that Egyptologists use to explain the regnal dates of Thutmose III? How do they explain Hosea 5:5?"

Chronological note.

The calendars for reckoning the years of kings in Judah and Israel were offset by six months, that of Judah starting in Tishri (in the fall) and that of Israel in Nisan (in the spring). Cross-synchronizations between the two kingdoms therefore often allow narrowing of the beginning and/or ending dates of a king to within a six-month range. A study of the relevant texts in Scripture allows the narrowing of the start of the Pekah/Menahem rivalry on the death of Shallum to the month of Nisan, 752 BC, as Thiele showed in the second edition of "Mysterious Numbers", pp. 87–88. In order to simplify things for the reader, Thiele, in the third edition, omitted the logic that allows this accuracy. The third edition also frequently fails to make explicit the six-month narrowing of dates that is possible from the Biblical data, settling instead on a somewhat inexact notation like "931/930 BC" or even simply "931 BC." For Pekah, synchronisms with the kings of Judah show that he assassinated Pekahiah sometime between Tishri 1 of 740 BC and the day before Nisan 1 of 739 BC. He was slain by Hoshea sometime between Tishri 1 of 732 BC and the day before Nisan 1 of 731 BC.

Pekah ( "Peqaḥ"; ) was the eighteenth and penultimate king of Israel. He was a captain in the army of king Pekahiah of Israel, whom he killed to become king. Pekah was the son of Remaliah.

Pekach war der vorletzte König des Nordreichs Israel. Seine Regierungsdaten werden in aktuellen Standardwerken mit 735–732 v. Chr. angegeben; seine Residenz war Samaria.


History.

The chain was first established in 1971 by retail entrepreneur Baron Vaxelaire (Chairman of the GB/GIB Group) with two restaurants, one in Schoten, just outside Antwerp and another one in Waterloo, south of Brussels. The first Quick in France was opened in Aix-en-Provence on July 19, 1980. By December 31, 2010, it operated over 400 restaurants in Belgium, France, Luxembourg and the French overseas departments or territories of Réunion, Central African Republic, New Caledonia, Guadeloupe and Martinique. 72% of these restaurants are operated as franchises.  Quick used to have a UK and Dutch presence in the 1980s and 90s, including a branch in London's Leicester Square and in Rotterdam, but these are long since closed. From around 2007-08 Quick also had restaurants in Morocco and Algiers, Algeria, as well as Moscow and Tula in Russia, but these have also closed. Although, as of January 2017 one opened in Marrakech, Morocco, two outlets in Tunis, Tunisia and there are plans to reopen in Russia.  In September 2016,QSR Belgium bought back restaurants of Belgium and Luxembourg to Bertrand Group  In February 2010, Quick announced that eight of its French franchises would offer halal menus to cater to the Muslim population, a number that increased to 22 in August 2010, and only halal menus are being served since then. The move caused controversy from politicians across various parties, including Roubaix's mayor, Marine Le Pen of the National Front, and the UMP, France's ruling political party.  In 2011, Quick unveiled "Le Double Mix", a two-in-one sandwich featuring a bread-bun done two different ways on each half, with each side having its own dressings. Available in hamburger or chicken varieties, "Le Double Mix" was sold as a limited-run sandwich, through April 18, 2011.

Death of Benjamin Orset.

On January 22, 2011, 14-year-old Benjamin Orset died after eating two hamburgers at a Quick restaurant in Avignon, France. An autopsy report concluded that he died from food poisoning. Traces of staphylococci were detected in the boy's body, as well as in five of the eight employees. Quick's managing director, Jacques-Edouard Charret, refused to accept responsibility for the death of the boy. However, the investigation found that the death of Orset was a direct result of the meal he had eaten at Quick the day before. Admitting the possibility of a "local failure" rather than any problems with the products supplied centrally, Quick took control of the Avignon restaurant back from the franchisee. Quick also promised to "strengthen its controls and hygiene measures, which are already stricter than the legal standards".

Quick Restaurants is an originally Belgian chain of hamburger fast food restaurants based in Bobigny, Seine-Saint-Denis, France. Founded in 1971 by Belgian entrepreneur Baron François Vaxelaire, Quick is the first hamburger chain founded in Europe with around 400 restaurants.

Quick ist eine ursprünglich belgische Schnellrestaurantkette, die sich seit 2007 in französischem Besitz befindet und 2015 von Burger King übernommen wurde. Sie ist hauptsächlich in Belgien, Frankreich und Luxemburg vertreten.


History.

Sekondi, older and larger, was the site of Dutch Fort Orange (1642) and English Fort Sekondi (1682). It prospered from a railroad built in 1903 to hinterland mineral and timber resources. Takoradi was the site of Dutch Fort Witsen (1665) and has an important deepwater seaport, Ghana's first, built in 1928. During World War II, RAF Takoradi was an important staging point for British aircraft destined for Egypt. Spitfire fighter planes were shipped in crates from England to Takoradi where they were assembled then flown via Nigeria and Sudan to the war in Libya. 26 Squadron SAAF was also based in Takoradi during World War II flying anti-submarine and convoy protection patrols over the Atlantic. A number of South African airmen are buried in the Takoradi European Public cemetery. The cities combined in 1946. On 20 November 1969, the city became the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Sekondi–Takoradi.  The city is currently named (although not officially) as the Oil City of Ghana due to the massive discovery of oil in the Western region and has attracted massive migration from people all around the world. For example, of the 248,680 people in the Sekondi-Takoradi metro area in 2010, only 92,000, or well under half, were born in the Western Region of Ghana. 60,000 came from the central region of Ghana, centered on Cape Coast and just to the west of Sekondi-Takoradi. 20,000 from the Ashanti region centered on Kumasi, and 20,000 were born in the Greater Accra Region.

Demographics.

Sekondi-Takoradi's population is overwhelmingly Christian. 35% of the region are Pentecostal/Charismatic, 26% are Protestant and 14% are Catholic with the remaining 12% comprising numerous minor denominations. 9% of the population are Muslim, 3.5% identify as non religious and 0.2% practice traditional African religions The major ethnic group found in Sekondi are the Ahanta people.

Economy.

Takoradi is also a port city and has timber, energy and technology industries. Over the years it has attracted a good number of investors, including miners, as the city is close to the mining towns in the western part of Ghana. Ghana's recent discovery of oil gave the Sekondi-Takoradi township to be known as the Oil City.

Tourist attractions.

Sekondi-Takoradi has plenty of beaches, however they are not a major tourist attraction. Many beaches are also found to the west of Takoradi, with small resorts such as Fanta's Folly, The Hideout, and Green Turtle Lodge with larger ones such as Busua Beach, Lou Moon Lodge and Axim Beach Resort and also amazing places to eat such as Paragon Bar and Grill. It also has an annual street carnival, which is popular with tourists. There is also the village of Nzulezu which is a popular tourist site, in the Western Region.

Education.

Sekondi-Takoradi city has several secondary schools, colleges, and special schools, ranging from single-sex to coeducational institutions. Among the tertiary institutions are: Takoradi Technical University (a public institution), Nurses and Midwifery Training College, Holy Child Teachers Training College (now a College of Education). The Sekondi-Takoradi city currently has several secondary schools and Special schools, ranging from single-sex to coeducational institutions. These include:  Takoradi Technical Institute houses a fab lab, equipped by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), which is the first of its kind in Africa. Takoradi has a well-equipped technical training centre (Takoradi Technical Institute, TTI, 1,400 students in two shifts) assisted by the German government through GTZ/GOPA. Apart from TTI, Takoradi has a polytechnic and other renowned secondary schools including Ghana Secondary Technical School, St. Mary Secondary School, Bompeh Secondary School, Takoradi Secondary School and many others. Sekondi-Takoradi has many internet cafés and computer training centres to encourage familiarity with computers and acquire computer skills.  The Western Regional Library was established in Sekondi in 1955.

Stadiums and sports.

Sports.

Professional sports teams based in Sekondi-Takoradi include:

Climate.

Sekondi-Takoradi has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen climate classification: Aw).

References.

"Afrosages.com", Tourist Destinations Of Western Ghana, January 13, 2020

Sekondi-Takoradi, a city comprising the twin cities of Sekondi and Takoradi. It is the capital of Sekondi – Takoradi Metropolitan Assembly and the Western Region of Ghana. Sekondi-Takoradi is the region's largest city and an industrial and commercial centre, with a population of 445,205 people (2012).

Die Zwillingsstadt Sekondi-Takoradi ist die Hauptstadt der Western Region (also der westlichen Region) des westafrikanischen Staates Ghana. Sekondi-Takoradi liegt am westlichen Küstenabschnitt Ghanas und ist mit seinen etwa 335.000 Einwohnern die drittgrößte Stadt des Landes nach Accra und Kumasi (Angaben über die Einwohnerzahlen der Städte Ghanas sind allerdings nicht sehr exakt). Die Bewohner der Zwillingsstadt sprechen unterschiedliche einheimische Sprachen, am verbreitetsten sind Ahanta, Nzema, Sehwi, Wasa, Brosa / Aowin (Dialekte des Anyin) und Gwira/ Pepesa.


History.

In 1938, it was occupied by the Wehrmacht as one of the municipalities in Sudetenland. The railroad Pardubice-Jaroměř-Trutnov, which goes through Kuks, crossed the newly established border four times within about. After the war, the German-speaking population was expelled in 1945 (see the Beneš decrees) and replaced by Czech settlers.

Spa.

On the slope of the Elbe in Kuks, there used to be mineral springs. In 1692–96, Count Franz Anton von Sporck, the owner of the estate, directed three of them at one place and built a simple spa. When the healing effects of the water were proven by professors of the Charles-Ferdinand University and experts from Baden-Baden, Špork enlarged the spa in 1707–22 with an octagonal Church of Holy Trinity, a hospital, theatre and other buildings in the Baroque style. The interiors and exteriors were decorated with Baroque sculptures by Matthias Braun, the most famous of which are the Virtues and Vices. Count Georg Ludwig Albrecht von Rantzau stayed in Kuks (Kukus-Bad) together with two young Dukes, Charles and Anthony Ulrich of Brunswick-Lüneburg, in 1726. In his memoirs, he calls this place the most pleasant and comfortable spa in Europe.  Špork died in 1738 and his heirs were not interested in maintaining the spa. A flood in 1740 destroyed most of the infrastructure and put the spa out of business. The Hospital, Church, and Pharmacy buildings have been preserved, along with historic furnishings, and are considered masterpieces of the Baroque. Braun's exterior sculptures also survive, but have been fast eroding due to the action of water, from rainfall and moisture rising from the ground. For this reason, the Kuks Forest Sculptures were listed in the 2000 World Monuments Watch by the World Monuments Fund. With the financial support of American Express, pump boxes were installed to drive groundwater away from the sculptures and low-lying vegetation was removed to enhance air circulation in the damp wooded environment.

Surrounding.

More Baroque statues from Matthias Braun, so-called Bethlehem (Betlém), are in a nearby village of Žireč (part of Dvůr Králové nad Labem). Other places of interest in the area are in Dvůr Králové Zoo) and Jaroměř (fortress).

Kuks () is a village in the Czech Republic, Hradec Králové Region, Trutnov District. Its main feature is a baroque spa building with famous sculptures by Matthias Braun.

Kuks (deutsch "Kukus") ist eine Gemeinde im Okres Trutnov in Tschechien. Sie liegt am Oberlauf der Elbe zwischen den Städten Jaroměř und Dvůr Králové.


Standard-gauge lines.

Three quarters of the Swiss rail network is at standard gauge, comprising, administered mostly by three companies. Important railway stations are the Zürich HB (466,800 passengers per day on a working day), Bern (210,000 ppd), Basel SBB (114,200 ppd), Lausanne (108,900 ppd), Winterthur (108,000 ppd), Luzern (96,200 ppd), Zürich Oerlikon (85,700 ppd), Zürich Stadelhofen (83,300 ppd), Olten (81,300 ppd), and Geneva (73,700 ppd).

Swiss Federal Railways.

Swiss Federal Railways (SBB CFF FFS) is the largest railway company in Switzerland and handles the majority of national and international traffic. It operates the main east–west track in the Swiss Plateau area calling all larger Swiss cities and many smaller ones, and the north–south routes through the Alps via the Gotthard Line (Milano-Chiasso-Lugano-Luzern/Zurich-Basel line) and the Simplon Tunnel (Domodossola to Brig-Lausanne-Geneva line).

BLS.

BLS (Bern-Lötschberg-Simplon) is the other main company, with 10% of the standard-gauge network. It manages the other major Alpine route Bern-Brig via both Lötschberg Tunnels and connection at Brig with SBB's Simplon Tunnel to Italy.

SOB.

The Schweizerische Südostbahn AG (SOB) operates on (of which are their own) between Romanshorn on Lake Constance to St. Gallen. And further via Herisau to the Toggenburg valley in northeast Switzerland. Via Wattwil and Rapperswil SOB travels the track over the Seedamm on Lake Zurich and finally over the high moorland of Rothenthurm down to Arth-Goldau in Central Switzerland.  The named train "Voralpen Express" (VAE, Pre-Alpine Express) is operated by the Südostbahn. It runs every hour between Lucerne and St. Gallen.

Rail links to other countries.

Although both Austria and Germany use the same voltage as Switzerland, dedicated types of locomotives are necessary due to Switzerland using narrower pantographs.  The German national railway company Deutsche Bahn (DB) owns cross-border lines from the German border to Basel Badischer Bahnhof station, which is also operated by DB. It also owns and operates an east–west line across the canton of Schaffhausen that forms a link in the largely German Upper Rhine Railway, and jointly owns Schaffhausen railway station with the Swiss Federal Railways.  The German DB operates longer-distance trains from Germany to Swiss cities, including ICE services to Basel, Zurich, Berne, Chur and Interlaken. On the other hand, Swiss operators run several trains into Germany, e.g. regular EC service to Stuttgart.  The French-Swiss joint-venture TGV Lyria operates high-speed trains between Paris and South-France with services to Geneva, Lausanne, Basel and Zurich.  The Austrian Railjet by ÖBB operates the service between Zurich and several destinations in Austria. The service runs via Buchs SG and calls Innsbruck, Salzburg and Vienna besides others.  SBB and Trenitalia jointly operate EuroCity services between Switzerland and Italy. These services are running between Geneva and Milan or even Venice via the Simplon Tunnel. Between Basel and Milan via Berne and the Lötschberg Base and Simplon Tunnels, and between Zurich and Milan via the Gotthard route.

Narrow-gauge lines.

RhB and MGB.

The Rhätische Bahn (RhB) is the longest metre-gauge railway in Switzerland, linking Arosa, Disentis, Davos, St. Moritz in the high Alps, and Tirano in Italy with Chur, a rail junction with the SBB. It passes through the upper Rhine Valley and several side valleys, as well as the Engadine, the upper valley of the river Inn. The Bernina Pass is the highest point on this line, at 2253 m. Total length: 366 kilometres.  The former Furka Oberalp Bahn (FO) was a metre-gauge railway in the high southern alps. Its name referred to two passes, the Furka Pass and the Oberalp Pass. The Furka Pass lies at the upper end of the Rhône valley. The Oberalp Pass is the highest point on this line at 2033 metres, and lies at the upper end of the Rhine valley. The total length of the railway was 100 kilometres, and the line runs from Disentis to Brig. Brig is a rail junction with the SBB and BLS and sits at the north end of the Simplon tunnel on the Milan to Lausanne CFF line and Milan to Bern BLS line. The former BVZ Zermatt-Bahn (BVZ; BVZ means Brig Visp Zermatt) was a short line between Brig and Zermatt. It passes through the Visp and Matt Valleys, tributaries of the Rhône. Total length: 43 kilometres.  In 2003, the FO and BVZ merged to form the Matterhorn Gotthard Bahn (MGB).  The "Glacier Express" (GEX) runs on the combined three line route St. Moritz/Davos-Filisur-Chur-Disentis-Andermatt-Brig-Visp-Zermatt. A one-day trip in panoramic-view cars takes tourists from St. Moritz/Davos to Zermatt, or vice versa, through some of the most spectacular scenery of the Alps.

Further narrow-gauge lines.

The Appenzeller Bahnen (AB) with its total of 77 km of mainly metre-gauge tracks just recently combined (2006) the earlier separate Trogenerbahn from St. Gallen to Trogen, the standard-gauge railway from Rorschach, Switzerland to Heiden, Switzerland, the short track of the funiculair from Rheineck to Walzenhausen, as well as the previous Appenzeller Bahnen. The AB connects main spots within both Appenzells with St. Gallen and Altstätten in the Alpine Rhine Valley. The Chemin de Fer Montreux Oberland Bernois (MOB) line runs 75 kilometres from Montreux on Lake Geneva to Zweisimmen, with a connecting line to Lenk in the Simmental. The section from Montreux to Zweisimmen, approximately 63 kilometres long, is part of the "Golden Pass Panorama" trip from Montreux to Lucerne, a trip which combines rides on the MOB, the BLS and the Zentralbahn (zb).  From Interlaken, the narrow-gauge Brünigbahn section of the Zentralbahn (zb) runs 74 kilometres further to Lucerne. It skirts Lake Brienz and passes through the range of mountains to the north of the lake via Brünig Pass, and then drops into the Sarner Aa valley to Lucerne. The zb also runs the line between Lucerne and Engelberg.  The Chemins de fer du Jura (CJ), the railways of the Jura canton in northern Switzerland, is an 85-kilometre rail network of which 74 km is metre gauge, the remaining 11 km being standard gauge. It connects La Chaux-de-Fonds to Glovelier and Tramelan, both via Le Noirmont.  The Wynental- und Suhrentalbahn operates in the canton of Aargau in the two mentioned valleys connecting them in Aarau, over a total length of 32.3 km. The Berner Oberland Bahn (BOB) is a 24-kilometre line from Interlaken to Lauterbrunnen and Grindelwald. It begins at Interlaken Ost station and divides at Zweilütschinen, about 10 kilometres south of Interlaken. The western branch leads to Lauterbrunnen, while the eastern branch leads to Grindelwald. It is possible to make a loop by taking the Lauterbrunnen branch and returning via the Grindelwald branch. The two branches are connected by the Wengernalp Bahn.  The Wengernalpbahn (WAB) is a 19-kilometre line from Lauterbrunnen to Grindelwald, leading over the Eiger ridge at the junction station of Kleine Scheidegg. In the winter, this junction is a ski resort served by many lifts and trails, as well as the rail line. Skiers can ride the train from the valleys below to return to the top of the runs.  The Jungfraubahn (JB), which is also rack-and-pinion throughout, starts at Kleine Scheidegg and runs 9 kilometres through tunnels in the Eiger and Mönch, leading to the "Jungfraujoch," a saddle between the Mönch and the Jungfrau summits. At the saddle are a visitor centre and an observatory. The Aletsch Glacier, largest in Europe, runs to the south toward the Rhône valley.  The Bergbahn Lauterbrunnen-Mürren (BLM) is 6 km long, divided into two independent parts, the first part being a cable car (which runs above the old funicular railway, which was replaced in 2006), the second an adhesion railway.  The Chemin de fer Martigny–Châtelard (MC) is 19 km long, with one rack railway section, in the canton of Valais. It connects with the Saint-Gervais–Vallorcine railway in France, the joint services being marketed as "Mont-Blanc Express".  In the canton of Vaud, metre-gauge railways include the Chemin de fer Nyon-St-Cergue-Morez, the Chemin de fer Bière-Apples-Morges, the Chemin de fer Yverdon–Ste-Croix, the Chemin de fer Bex–Villars–Bretaye and the Chemin de fer Lausanne–Echallens–Bercher, as well as part of the longer MOB.  The Ferrovia Lugano–Ponte Tresa (FLP), in canton Ticino, runs 12.3 kilometres from Lugano to Ponte Tresa.  The Gornergrat Bahn climbs for 9 kilometres from an elevation of 1600 metres near the Zermatt station of the Zermatt RR to a 3000-metre high-end station on the shoulder of the Monte Rosa Mountain. The entire route is a rack-and-pinion railway.  At Brienz the Brienz Rothorn Bahn (BRB), a steam-hauled rack railway, ascends to near the summit of the Brienzer Rothorn.

Urban rail.

Trams.

There are trams operating on nine systems in seven Swiss cities. Street-running tramways are nearly all. The Chemin de fer Bex–Villars–Bretaye (BVB) in Bex is more of a mixed interuban light rail line connected to a rack railway but it does have some street running portions, particularly in Bex where the BVB operates along the right of way of a tramway system originally built in the 1890s.

S-Bahn.

In many parts of Switzerland suburban commuter rail service is today known as S-Bahn. Clock-face scheduling in commuter rail has been first put in place on the line Worb Dorf - Worblaufen near Bern in 1964. In 1968 followed the "Golden Coast Express" on the right side of Lake Zurich. 1982 clock-face scheduling was introduced all over Switzerland. The term "S-Bahn" has been used since 1990 for the Zürich S-Bahn, 1995 for Bern S-Bahn and 1997 with the Basel Regional S-Bahn. Other services include "S-Bahn Luzern" and "S-Bahn St. Gallen". But also other terms for commuter rail are in use like "Stadtbahn Zug". Around Fribourg, it is known as Réseau Express Régional (RER), in the region of Geneva the term is Léman Express and in the canton of Ticino Treni Regionali Ticino Lombardia (TILO). The commuter rail networks of Zurich, Basel, Geneva and Ticino provide also cross-border transportation services into Germany, France and Italy.

History.

The construction and operation of Swiss railways during the 19th century was carried out by private railways. The first internal line was a 16 km line opened from Zürich to Baden in 1847. By 1860 railways connected western and northeastern Switzerland. The first Alpine railway to be opened under the Gotthard Pass in 1882. A second alpine line was opened under the Simplon Pass in 1906.  In 1901 the major railways were nationalised to form Swiss Federal Railways. During the first half of the twentieth century they were electrified and slowly upgraded. After the Second World War rail rapidly lost its share of the rail market to road transport as car ownership rose and more roads were built. From 1970 the Federal Government has become more involved in upgrading the railways, especially in urban areas and on trunk routes under the Rail 2000 project. In addition, two major trans-alpine routes—the Gotthard Railway and the Lötschberg approach to the Simplon Tunnel—are being rebuilt under the NRLA project.

Integration of services.

Between rail services.

Services on the Swiss railway are integrated with each other and with other forms of public transport. Unlike its European neighbours, Switzerland has not developed a comprehensive high-speed rail network, with the running speed on its one stretch, called the Rothrist-Mattstetten line, of relatively high-speed line being 200 km/h. Instead the priority is not so much the speeding up of trains between cities, but the reduction of connection times through the nodal system. Journey times on main lines between hubs are multiples of 15 minutes so that on the hour or half-hour all trains stand in the main stations at the same time, thus minimising connection times. Indeed, the above-mentioned Rothrist-Mattstetten line reduces journey times from Bern to Zurich from 72 minutes to 57 minutes, in keeping with the clock face scheduling.

Between modes of transport.

Rail timetables are integrated with the extensive network of postal buses (branded as "PostBus",,, ) which serve both plain and high mountain villages. For example, on postal bus line 12.381 the 10:35 from the mountain village of Les Haudères is planned to arrive in the regional city of Sion at 11:20 where a train departs the station (located next to the bus station) at 11:24 for Visp. Indeed, it is a familiar sight to for the postal cars to be already lined up outside the station for the arriving train. From this perspective, the Swiss rail network functions as the core of a wider public transport network.

Costs and subsidies.

Although public investment is positively correlated with a given railway system's performance, the European Railway Performance Index finds differences in the value that countries receive in return for their public cost. The 2017 Index found Switzerland captures high value for money relative to the average ratio of performance to cost among European countries.

Passenger transport.

In 2012, the total costs for passenger transport on Swiss railway network was CHF 8.88 billion, of which CHF 4.46 billion (50%) were due to infrastructure costs, CHF 3.98 billion (45%) were costs of transportation means, CHF 427 million due to environmental and health costs, and CHF 25 million due to accidents.  CHF 4.28 billion, or 48.2%, were paid by passengers, and CHF 4.15 billion (or 47%) came from rail subsidies provided by federal, cantonal, and municipal contributions. CHF 426 million (or 4.8%) were contributed by the common weal (accident and health insurances, environmental funds etc.).

Freight transport.

In 2012, the total costs for freight transport on Swiss railway network was CHF 2.063 billion, of which CHF 779 million (37.8%) were due to infrastructure costs, CHF 900 million (43.6%) were costs of transportation means, CHF 59 million due to environmental and health costs, and CHF 325 million (15.8%) due to accidents.  CHF 1.058 billion, or 51.3%, were paid by customers, and CHF 122 million (5.9%) by transporting companies, while CHF 555 million (26.9%) were subsidised by federal, cantonal, and municipal contributions. CHF 328 millions (15.9%) were contributed by the common weal (accident and health insurances, environmental funds etc.).

The Swiss rail network is noteworthy for its density, its coordination between services, its integration with other modes of transport, timeliness and a thriving domestic and trans-alp freight system. This is made necessary by strong regulations on truck transport, and is enabled by properly coordinated intermodal logistics. In 2015, with network length, Switzerland has not only the world's most dense railway network ( km/10km, except for very small countries and city-states) despite the Alps covering about 60% of its surface, but it is also a world leader in kilometres traveled: per inhabitant and year (2015). Virtually 100% of its network is electrified, except for the few tracks on which steam locomotives operate for tourism purposes only. There are 74 railway companies in Switzerland. The share of commuters who travel to work using public transport (as main mode of transport) is 30%. The share of rail in goods transport performance by road and rail (modal split) is 39%.

Der Schienenverkehr bildet in der Schweiz das Rückgrat des öffentlichen Verkehrs. Die Schweiz hat ein sehr dichtes Eisenbahnnetz mit einem vergleichsweise sehr guten Angebot, das jeden Tag von fast einer Million Menschen genutzt wird. Zusammen mit den touristisch attraktiven Alpenbahnen trägt dies zum Image als Bahnland bei.


Early life.

Lollius Urbicus was the son of Marcus Lollius Senecio, who was a Berber Numidian landowner, and his wife Grania Honorata. Professor Edward Champlin included Adventus as a member of "a Cirtan community at Rome" he infers existed there, whose members included: Publius Pactumeius Clemens, consul in 138; Gaius Arrius Antoninus, consul c. 170; and the orator Marcus Cornelius Fronto. Champlin notes that Urbicus, along with Pactumeius Clemens, would later be useful patrons for Fronto at the beginning of the orator's career.

Early career.

The early senatorial career of Lollius Urbicus is known from a detailed inscription erected in Tiddis. After a military tribunate with the Legio XXII Primigenia at Mainz, he entered the Senate and served for a year as legate to the proconsul of Asia. He quickly rose to prominence as emperor Hadrian's candidate, and received a commission as legatus or commander of the Legio X Gemina at Vienna. He received "dona militaria", or military decorations, for his service as a legate during Hadrian's Jewish War of 132–135. His consulship can be placed in 135 or 136, after which he governed Germania Inferior. He was transferred to Britannia soon after Hadrian's death.

Governor of Britain.

According to the Augustan History, the emperor Antoninus Pius "defeated the Britons through the agency of the legate Lollius Urbicus". It seems that, in a reversal of Hadrianic policy in Britain, he sent Lollius Urbicus to effect the reconquest of Lowland Scotland. Between 139 and 140 Urbicus refurbished the fort at Corbridge, in preparation for the move north of Hadrian's Wall, and commemorative coins were issued in 142 celebrating a victory in Britain. It is therefore likely that Urbicus led the reoccupation of southern Scotland in 141, using all three legions and a variety of auxiliary units. In 143 he oversaw the initial construction of the Antonine Wall; he is explicitly named on building inscriptions from Balmuildy.  No historical source describes the Antonine invasion, so any attempted reconstruction will be purely speculative. Urbicus may have campaigned against several British tribes (possibly including factions of the northern Brigantes), certainly against the lowland tribes of Scotland; the Votadini and the Selgovae of the Scottish Borders region, also the Damnonii of Strathclyde and the Novantae of Dumfries and Galloway. All three of the legions of Britain would have taken part (Legio II Augusta based at Caerleon, the Sixth Victrix based at York and the Twentieth Valeria Victrix based at Chester), as they are all mentioned on the inscriptions recording building work undertaken along the Antonine Wall. This legionary core was, no doubt, backed up by a substantial contingent of auxiliary units, of which we have record of around nine regiments (e.g. RIB 1276, 2140, 2142, 2149, 2155, 3509).  It seems likely that Urbicus planned his campaign of attack from Corbridge in Northumberland, just to the rear of Hadrian's Wall, as dedicatory inscriptions positively dated to the early 140s have been uncovered at the Antonine storage-depot there. From here he drove north-north-west into the Scottish Borders along the Agricolan military road Dere Street, leaving garrison forts at High Rochester in Northumberland and possibly also at Newstead in the Borders, as he struck towards the Firth of Forth. Both of these sites, as well as similar military installations at Risingham, Chew Green, Cappuck and Inveresk, were very likely used as bases from which to police the lowland tribes, namely the Votadini to the east and the Selgovae to the west.  Having secured an overland supply route for military personnel and equipment along Dere Street, Urbicus very likely set up a supply port at Carriden for the supply of grain and other foodstuffs before proceeding against the Dumnonii tribe in South Strathclyde. This done, then came the task of completing a new barrier of turf and timber stretching for thirty-five miles from east to west across the narrow neck of land separating the mighty Rivers Forth and Clyde, nowadays known as the Antonine Wall.

Later career.

Urbicus returned to Rome with the prospect of the prestigious post of "praefectus urbi" (Prefect of Rome), which he probably held in AD 146, after the death of the incumbent, Sextus Erucius Clarus. He was perhaps the "praefectus urbi" who is known to have died in AD 160.  One recorded activity of Urbicus while "praefectus urbi" was his presiding at the trial of one Ptolemaeus, who had been accused by her ex-husband of being a Christian; she admitted to the prefect that she was indeed a Christian and was sentenced to death. This trial led Justin Martyr, who had converted her, to write his "Apology" to plead for her life.  Citing Urbicus' career inscription, Colin Wells concludes that: "At no other period of history could the second or third son of a Berber landowner from a very small town in the interior enjoy a career which took him to Asia, Judaea, the Danube... the lower Rhine and Great Britain, culminating in a position of great power and honor in the capital of the empire to which all these regions belonged."

Quintus Lollius Urbicus was a Berber governor of Roman Britain between the years 139 and 142, during the reign of the Emperor Antoninus Pius. He is named in the "Historia Augusta", although it is not entirely historical, and his name appears on five Roman inscriptions from Britain; his career is set out in detail on a pair of inscriptions set up in his native Tiddis, near Cirta, Numidia.

Quintus Lollius Urbicus war ein römischer Politiker und Heerführer des 2. Jahrhunderts n. Chr. Urbicus stammte aus Tiddis in Numidien, wo er ein Grabmal für Familienangehörige errichten ließ und ihm als Patron der Stadt auf dem Forum eine Statue errichtet wurde, deren Inschrift erhalten ist. Sie führt die Stationen seiner senatorischen Laufbahn "(cursus honorum)" auf. Er war (etwa im Jahr 121) "Quattuorvir viarum curandarum" (ein Amt im "Vigintivirat"), Militärtribun in der "Legio XXII Primigenia" (stationiert in Mogontiacum), "Quaestor urbanus" in Rom, danach war Urbicus Legat des Prokonsuls der Provinz "Asia", Volkstribun und Prätor, beides auf Vorschlag des Kaisers, sowie von 130 bis 133 Legat der "Legio X Gemina", die in Vindobona stationiert war. Ebenfalls als Legat nahm er an Kaiser Hadrians Feldzug zur Niederschlagung des jüdischen Aufstands unter Bar Kochba teil und wurde mit der "hasta pura" ausgezeichnet.


Pre-War.

Early history.

Alfa Romeo started motor racing almost immediately after it was founded. A.L.F.A. ventured into motor racing in 1911, with drivers Franchini and Ronzoni competing in the Targa Florio with two 24 HP models. The marque's first success came in 1913 when Nino Franchini finished second in Parma-Poggio Berceto race with a 40-60HP. Giuseppe Merosi built a very advanced racing car in 1914, which was named "Grand Prix". In 1920 Giuseppe Campari won the race at Mugello with a 40-60HP, whilst Enzo Ferrari was second in Targa Florio in the same year. A year later Giuseppe Campari won at Mugello again. Ugo Sivocci won the 1923 Targa Florio with an RL and Antonio Ascari took second. Sivocci's car was painted with the green cloverleaf on a white background that was to become Alfa's good luck token.

Grand Prix racing.

In 1923 Vittorio Jano was lured to Alfa from Fiat, designing the motors that gave Alfa racing success into the late 1930s. (When Alfa began to lose in the late 1930s Jano was promptly sacked.) In 1925 Alfa Romeo won the first Automobile World Championship in the history of automobile racing. Over 4 rounds the Alfa Romeo P2 won the European Grand Prix at Spa and the Italian Grand Prix at Monza, and hence incorporated the laurel wreath in their logo. For 1932 Jano produced the sensational P3 which won its first race driven by Tazio Nuvolari at the Italian Grand Prix, 5 more Grands Prix that year were shared by Nuvolari and Rudolf Caracciola. Alfa Corse closed for 1933 and locked the cars in the factory, but they eventually transferred them to Enzo Ferrari's now privatised 'factory' team Scuderia Ferrari. P3s then won six of the final 11 events of the season including the final 2 major Grands Prix in Italy and Spain.  In 1934 Louis Chiron won the French Grand Prix in the P3 whilst the German Silver Arrows dominated the other 4 championship events. However the P3s won 18 of the 35 Grands Prix held throughout Europe. 1935 was even tougher, the P3 was simply outclassed by the remorseless Silver Arrows, but Tazio Nuvolari gave the P3 one of the most legendary victories of all time by winning the 1935 German Grand Prix at the Nürburgring. The P3 managed 16 victories in 1935.

Sportscar racing.

In the 1930s Tazio Nuvolari won the Mille Miglia in a 6C 1750, crossing the finishing line after having incredibly overtaken Achille Varzi without lights (at nighttime). Alfa Romeos won the Targa Florio six times in row in the 1930s. and the Mille Miglia every year from 1928 to 1938 except for 1931.  The 8C 2300 won the Le Mans 24 Hours from 1931 to 1934, with Alfa Romeo withdrawing from racing in 1933 when the Italian government took over, and the racing of Alfas was then taken up by Scuderia Ferrari as Alfa's outsourced team. (Enzo Ferrari drove for Alfa before he went on to manage the team, and after that went on to manufacture his own cars.) In 1935 Alfa Romeo won the German Grand Prix with Nuvolari.  In 1938 Biondetti won the Mille Miglia in an 8C 2900B Corto Spider, thereafter referred to as the "Mille Miglia" model.

Formula One.

Alfa Romeo participated in Formula One, both as a constructor and engine supplier, from to.  The works Alfa Romeo team dominated the first two years of the Formula One World Championship, using the pre-war Alfetta, but withdrew from Formula One at the end of.  During the 1960s, several minor F1 teams used Alfa Romeo straight-4 engines and a V8 Alfa Romeo appeared in McLaren and March cars in the early 1970s.  The Brabham team used Alfa Romeo engines from to, foreshadowing a return by Alfa Romeo as a constructor from to.  For the 1987 season, Alfa Romeo made a deal to supply engines to Ligier, but the deal was cancelled when Fiat took control of Alfa Romeo.  Alfa Romeo also supplied engines to the tiny and unsuccessful Italian Osella team from 1983 to 1987 (1988 branded as Osella engine).  On 29 November 2017, Sauber announced that they have signed a multi-year technical and commercial partnership contract with Alfa Romeo, therefore the team will be renamed to Alfa Romeo Sauber F1 Team for the season onwards. In January 2019 the decision was made to rename the Alfa Romeo Sauber Team to Alfa Romeo Racing for the upcoming 2019 season.

Formula Three.

Alfa Romeo has also supplied engines to Formula Three cars. Piercarlo Ghinzani driving a Euroracing March 793 with 2 litre Alfa engine won straight away its first season in the Italian F3 series in 1979. Michele Alboreto won the European title in 1980 with a March-Alfa Romeo. Altogether Alfa Romeo engined cars took four consecutive Italian titles between 1980 and 1984. Alfa Romeo's new Twin Spark Formula Three engine arrived in 1987 and it continued the success. In all Alfa Romeo took five titles, five European Cups and about twenty national championships in Italy, France, Germany, Switzerland and Scandinavia. Other participation of Alfa Romeo in the Formula Three Championships, was made in South American Championship, where Alfa Romeo won 5 America Championship and 8 Mexican Championship, 1 Brazilian Championship, 4 Argentinian Championship and 3 Chilean Championship.  Alfa Romeo delivers engines to new Formula 3 WSK F3 Regional EM series, F3 Asian Championship and W Series starting in 2019. Italian based Autotecnica Motori tuned Alfa Romeo 1.75 L 4-cyl turbocharged engine produces and its used in Tatuus T-318 racing car.

Formula Alfa Boxer.

After great success of one-make championship Trofeo Alfasud, in 1987 Alfa Romeo launched the new Formula Alfa Boxer racing car which had engine derived from 33 and the Sprint. Amato Ferrari won the debut championship in 1987, followed by Mirko Savoldi in 1988 and by Alessandro Zampedri in 1989.  In 1990 this engine was replaced by more powerful Quadrifoglio Verde engine. In 1992 was launched European Championship (Formula Boxer Europe) and the choice of chassis was liberalized. The last Formula Alfa Boxer series season was in 1995. At the wheel of an Ermolli, Andrea Boldrini was the first champion, followed by Danilo Tomassini, and by Tony Kanaan driving a Tatuus.

Indycars.

From 1989 to 1991, Alfa Romeo supplied engines to the IndyCar World Series. The 2648 cc, turbocharged V8 engine produced 720 bhp, and was partly developed from the unraced Ferrari 637 Indy car. The engine was mated to a chassis specially built by March and prepared by Alex Morales Motorsports in 1989, with Roberto Guerrero at the wheel. Guerrero only managed a best of 8th place at Detroit, before both driver and engine moved onto Patrick Racing for 1990, again with a March chassis. That season proved to be an improvement, as Guerrero finished 16th place in the points standings, with a best finish of 5th place. The next year would be Alfa's last. The team switched to a Lola chassis, and Danny Sullivan took over the drive, finishing 11th in the points, with a best finish of 4th. In the end, Alfa Romeo would finish its Champ Car project without scoring a single podium, pole position or race win.

Rally.

Alfa Romeo cars have also been used in rallying, mostly by private teams. In 1958 the Alfa Romeo Giulietta won the 1000 Lakes Rally. Racing versions of the Alfetta GT and GTV were built by Autodelta in the 1970s, initially with the normally aspirated engine from the earlier GTAm racer, for homologation under FIA Group 2. In this form they were rallied with moderate success in 1975, winning the Elba and Costa Brava rallies overall, as well as winning the Group 2 category in the World Rally Championship's Tour de Corse. In 1980 the Alfetta GTV Turbodelta was already homologated in FIA Group 4, since the required number of production cars had been built. A racing version was campaigned in rallies, but once more the effort was abandoned after a single season, despite scoring a win at the Danube Rally. In 1986 Alfa Romeo GTV6 was one of the fastest Group A rally cars. However FIA reclassified it as a Group B car at the end of 1986, changing it from a winning car to a car which was much less competitive. The GTV6 placed 3rd in 1986 Tour de Corse.

Sportscars.

On March 6, 1963, Alfa Romeo's racing department, Autodelta, was established, to run Alfa Romeo's sportscar programme, directed by ex-Alfa Romeo and Ferrari engineer, Carlo Chiti. Competing with the Alfa Romeo TZ, the team began to collect class wins, but faced strong competition from the Porsche 904 and realised they would need a new design if they were to achieve outright victories. Carlo Chiti and the Audodelta team, designed a new 90 degree V8 engine for their Alfa Romeo Tipo 33 sportscar and ultimately a flat-12 engine for the Alfa Romeo 33 TT 12. These cars were raced in the World Sportscar Championship from 1967 to 1977, with the 3-litre TT 12, winning title in 1975 and SC 12 in 1977. The company developed a Group C prototype in the early 1990s, codenamed the SE 048SP, but this never raced.

Touring cars.

Starting in the 1960s Alfa Romeo won many touring car titles. The Alfa Romeo GTA won the European Touring Car Championship (ETCC) in 1966, 1967 and 1969. The later Alfa Romeo GTAm won further ETCC titles in 1971 and 1972. Among other victories, the GTA won the inaugural Sports Car Club of America's Trans-Am championship in 1966 with Horst Kwech and Gaston Andrey at the wheel. The GTA won the Trans-Am championship again in the 1970 season. The Alfa Romeo Alfetta GTV6 won four consecutive European Touring Car Championship titles between 1982 and 1985. The British Touring Car Championship was won in 1983 by Andy Rouse driving an Alfetta GTV6 and again in 1994 by Gabriele Tarquini with an Alfa Romeo 155. In 1993, the Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft (DTM) series was won by Nicola Larini with an Alfa Romeo 155 V6 Ti, also achieving all-time record wins of championship races. The successor of the 155, the Alfa Romeo 156 won the European Touring Car Championship four times in a row from 2000 to 2003, with Fabrizio Giovanardi and Gabriele Tarquini.  The Alfa Romeo 159 has also won the Bathurst 12 Hour race on three consecutive occasions at the diesel fuel category from 2007.  In recent years, several different teams in different competitions used the Alfa Romeo Giulietta for competing:  In addition, Tecnodom Sport used the Alfa Romeo MiTo in the 2016 season of the Italian Touring Car Championship.

Major victories and championships.

Alfa Romeo has won the following major victories and championships:

During its history, Alfa Romeo has competed successfully in many different categories of motorsport, including Grand Prix motor racing, Formula One, sportscar racing, touring car racing and rallies. They have competed both as a constructor and an engine supplier, via works entries (usually under the name Alfa Corse or Autodelta) and private entries. The first racing car was made in 1913, three years after the foundation of A.L.F.A., the 40-60HP had 6 liter straight-4 engine. Alfa Romeo quickly gained a good name in motorsport and gave a sporty image to the whole marque.

Der italienische Automobilhersteller Alfa Romeo hat in einem Zeitraum von nahezu 100 Jahren Motorsportgeschichte geschrieben. Außergewöhnliche Leistungen und zahlreiche Erfolge prägen die lange Geschichte dieses Engagements. Bereits in der Vorkriegszeit hatte sich das Mailänder Unternehmen erfolgreich an Großen Preisen beteiligt und wurde zum Ursprung der Scuderia Ferrari. Nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg setzte Alfa Romeo sein Motorsportengagement zunächst in der Formel 1 fort; auch hier dominierte das Unternehmen anfänglich das Renngeschehen. So gingen die ersten beiden Weltmeistertitel der Formel 1 an Alfa-Romeo-Piloten. Nach dem Gewinn des Meistertitels 1951 wandte sich Alfa Romeo für längere Zeit von der Formel 1 ab. In der Folgezeit war Alfa Romeo vorrangig im Tourenwagensport engagiert, später kamen auch Sportwagen hinzu. Von 1979 bis 1985 war Alfa Romeo wieder in der Formel 1 vertreten, konnte aber nicht mehr an frühere Erfolge anknüpfen.


Symptoms.

Many diseases that cause cerebral atrophy are associated with dementia, seizures, and a group of language disorders called the aphasias. Dementia is characterized by a progressive impairment of memory and intellectual function that is severe enough to interfere with social and work skills. Memory, orientation, abstraction, ability to learn, visual-spatial perception, and higher executive functions such as planning, organizing and sequencing may also be impaired. Seizures can take different forms, appearing as disorientation, strange repetitive movements, loss of consciousness, or convulsions. Aphasias are a group of disorders characterized by disturbances in speaking and understanding language. Receptive aphasia causes impaired comprehension. Expressive aphasia is reflected in odd choices of words, the use of partial phrases, disjointed clauses, and incomplete sentences.

Possible causes.

The pattern and rate of progression of cerebral atrophy depends on the disease involved.

Infections.

Where an infectious agent or the inflammatory reaction to it destroys neurons and their axons, these include...

Diagnosis.

Neurofilament light chain.

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a fluid that is found exclusively in the brain and spinal cord that circulates between sections of the brain offering an extra layer of protection. Studies have shown that biomarkers in the CSF and plasma can be tracked for their presence in different parts of the brain—and their presence can tell us about cerebral atrophy. One study took advantage of biomarkers, namely one called neurofilament light chain (NFL), in patients with Alzheimer’s Disease. Neurofilament light chain is a protein that is important in the growth and branching of neurons—cells found in the brain. In Alzheimer’s Disease, neurons will stop working or die in a process called neurodegeneration. By tracking NFL, researchers can see this neurodegeneration, which this study showed was associated with brain atrophy and later cognitive decline in Alzheimer's patients. Other biomarkers like Ng – a protein important in long-term potentiation and memory – have been tracked for their associations with brain atrophy as well, but NFL had the greatest association.

Measures.

CT and MRI are most commonly used to observe the brain for cerebral atrophy. A CT scan takes cross sectional images of the brain using X-rays, while an MRI uses a magnetic field. With both measures, multiple images can be compared to see if there is a loss in brain volume over time.

Difference from hydrocephalus.

Cerebral atrophy can be hard to distinguish from hydrocephalus because both cerebral atrophy and hydrocephalus involve an increase in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) volume. In cerebral atrophy, this increase in CSF volume comes as a result of the decrease in cortical volume. In hydrocephalus, the increase in volume happens due to the CSF itself.

Treatment and prevention.

Unfortunately, cerebral atrophy is not usually preventable, however there are steps that can be taken to reduce the risks such as controlling your blood pressure, eating a healthy balanced diet including omega-3's and antioxidants, and staying active mentally, physically, and socially.

Reversibility of cerebral atrophy.

While most cerebral atrophy is said to be irreversible there are some recent studies that show this is not always the case. A child who was treated with ACTH originally showed atrophy, but four months after treatment the brain was seemingly normal again.  Chronic alcoholism is known to be associated with cerebral atrophy in addition to motor dysfunction and impairment in higher brain function. Because some of the behavioral deficits have shown improvement after abstinence from alcohol, a study looked to see if cerebral atrophy could be reversed too. Researchers took CT scans of the 8 study participants in order to measure cortical volume over time. Although decrease in atrophy does not equate clinical improvement, the CT scans of 50% of participants showed partial improvement, giving hope that cerebral atrophy could be a reversible process.

Cerebral atrophy is a common feature of many of the diseases that affect the brain. Atrophy of any tissue means a decrement in the size of the cell, which can be due to progressive loss of cytoplasmic proteins. In brain tissue, atrophy describes a loss of neurons and the connections between them. Atrophy can be generalized, which means that all of the brain has shrunk; or it can be focal, affecting only a limited area of the brain and resulting in a decrease of the functions that area of the brain controls. If the cerebral hemispheres (the two lobes of the brain that form the cerebrum) are affected, conscious thought and voluntary processes may be impaired.

Als Hirnatrophie (umgangssprachlich: "Gehirnschwund") bezeichnet man einen allmählichen Verlust von Hirnsubstanz. In gewissem Umfang ist ein Rückgang von Volumen und Masse des Gehirns mit fortschreitendem Alter normal, man verliert ab dem 20. Lebensjahr etwa 50.000 bis 100.000 Hirnzellen täglich. Nur die über das Altersmaß hinausgehenden Veränderungen werden als Hirnatrophie bezeichnet. Langfristig kann Hirnatrophie zu neurologischen Ausfallerscheinungen und zum fortschreitenden Verlust der kognitiven Leistungsfähigkeit führen. Es gibt aber keinen linearen Zusammenhang zwischen Ausmaß der Atrophie und Leistungsminderung.


History.

On 1 October 1940, the first trolleybus ran through the streets of Salzburg, on the Siegmundsplatz–Maxglan route, which is now part of line 1. A few days later, on 24 October 1940, the extension to Makartplatz followed, and on 10 November 1940, the line was further extended, to Salzburg Hauptbahnhof. On 16 February 1942, the ring lines M and L (Maxglan–Lehen–Hauptbahnhof–Zentrum–Maxglan) came into operation. In the following years, the Salzburg trolleybus system recorded rapid growth, but the tramway network was destroyed.  Until the merger in 2000 of the "Salzburger Stadtwerke" with the "SAFE" ("Salzburger AG für Energiewirtschaft") to create the "Salzburg AG", the Salzburg trolleybus system, and the local railway line to Lamprechtshausen, were operated by the "Salzburger Stadtwerke - Verkehrsbetriebe". Some diesel bus lines also originally belonged to the company, but in the course of the 2000 merger these were transferred to "Albus Salzburg".  Since 2000, therefore, the trolleybus and diesel bus services have been fully separated, both organisationally and operationally. It follows that Salzburg AG is one of the few transport companies worldwide that operates trolleybus lines, but no diesel bus lines.  In 2004, trolleybus line 1 was extended about from Messezentrum to Salzburgarena. Unusually, however, the new terminal was served only during events. At other times, power to the overhead lines in this area is switched off; the status of the overhead lines is displayed to the trolleybus drivers by means of a signal light.  On 1 October 2005, line 1 was extended from Europark to Kavaliershaus, via the EM-Stadion. On 11 December 2005, the extension of line 2 came into operation from the Hauptbahnhof to Obergnigl via Mirabellplatz and the Sterneckstraße.  A of overhead line from the Versorgungshausstraße (line 2) via the Fürbergstraße to the Fadingerstraße was built in the spring of 2006. Especially during events in the city centre, and during the UCI Road World Championships 2006, it has been used intensively. Since then, the trolleybuses of lines 2 and 4 have operated on and off over this route. This section was the basis for the later electrification of the former "Albus" line 20.  Also, until September 2006 the Gaswerkgasse / Ignaz-Harrer-Strasse intersection, and the Hauptbahnhof area around the Forum-Kaufhaus/Fanny-von-Lehnert-Straße, were provided with additional turning and reversing capabilities. Likewise, since the spring of 2007 a non-revenue section has been in operation from the Landeskrankenhaus (line 7) to Willibald-Hauthaler-Straße (Line 4), and an additional turning space has been provided at the Makartplatz, in front of the Holy Trinity Church. A new turning facility on the Aiglhofkreuzung from line 4 to line 2 was created in spring 2008, as well as a dedicated lane for trolleybuses in the Griesgasse in the city centre. The latter allows the stacking-and-demand retrieval of trolleybuses in the city centre for events. With the timetable change on 7 December 2007, line 4 was extended from Langwied over the city boundary to Mayrwies, replacing bus line 4A.  In autumn 2008, the Salzburg Municipal Council decided to electrify the branch of bus line 20 to Sam / Lankessiedlung. The route follows that of line 20 from Lankessiedlung, via the Salzburg-Gnigl S-Bahn station, Fuggerstraße, Volksgarten, Hanuschplatz to the Landeskrankenhaus; the line leads back to Hanuschplatz and to Sam, via Edward-Baumgartner-Straße and Karajanplatz. This work was completed in mid-2009, and bus line 20 became trolleybus line 10.  On 9 July 2009, lines 3 and 5 were extended by to the new Itzling Pflanzmann terminus. These were the first privately financed trolleybus sections in Salzburg.

Lines.

The eleven lines of the present Salzburg trolleybus system are as follows:

Projects.

In October 2010, plans for new extensions were presented. It is proposed to run line 10 through the Strubergasse in future, and thereby provide a better connection with the Struber barracks. Additionally, by means of a branch in the Karolingerstrasse, line 8 will serve the many businesses and residents in that district. The city of Salzburg plans to invest around €2.2 million in these two projects up to 2015.  For quite some time, an extension to Eugendorf, or a cross-border line to Freilassing in Germany, have also been discussed.  In December 2016, diesel bus line 20 will be converted to trolleybus line 9 with a new route in the East of Salzburg.

Fleet.

Former fleet.

Until recently, almost all of the trolleybuses operating on the Salzburg system were made either by the German company MAN or its Austrian counterpart Gräf & Stift. After the former company took over the latter in 1971, the Gräf & Stift name remained in use as an MAN brand for the Austrian market and for trolleybuses until 2001, when ÖAF-Gräf & Stift AG was renamed MAN Sonderfahrzeuge AG.  With the retirement of large numbers of Gräf & Stift vehicles since the start of the 21st century, the MAN/Gräf & Stift portion of the fleet has been now much reduced.  Some of the retired Salzburg vehicles were sold to other trolleybus operators. By that means, former Salzburg trolleybuses later entered service on the since-closed trolleybus system in Kapfenberg, Austria, and also in Germany (Eberswalde), Lithuania (Vilnius), Romania (Mediaş and Timișoara) and Russia (Perm and Rybinsk).  Until 1975, trolleybuses also operated with trailers. Salzburg was the last trolleybus network in Austria in which this form of operation was to be found. There were four different models of trailer available. They were made by Gräf & Stift (type OA I), Kässbohrer (without model designation), Lohner (type OM 5/1) and Schumann (without model designation).

Current fleet.

The oldest vehicles in the current fleet are the 23 high-floor Gräf & Stift articulated trolleybuses built between 1988 and 1994. With three exceptions, they are powered by an induction motor. This series originally consisted of 36 vehicles, of which 35 were built for Salzburg. The other one, fleet no. 220, was bought secondhand from the Kapfenberg trolleybus system.  The first low-floor trolleybuses to be added to the system were the 23 MAN articulated vehicles constructed between 1994 and 1997. One of them, fleet no. 240, is likewise a used vehicle from Kapfenberg.  The Van Hool vehicle generation, in the fleet since 2000, similarly offers only low-floor entrances. Of the 32 Van Hool vehicles, 13 were equipped with a diesel-powered auxiliary drive, the first such devices to be fitted to vehicles in the Salzburg fleet. On 24 November 2008, two more Van Hool articulated vehicles arrived in Salzburg as secondhand acquisitions from the Vevey–Villeneuve trolleybus system, in Switzerland. These had been Vevey–Villeneuve fleet nos. 2 and 15, built in 1995. Following renovation work, they were put back into service, with new fleet nos. 259 and 260. They were also painted, into the same dark red livery as features on the trains of the Salzburger Lokalbahn.  Of the latest Solaris Trollino 18 generation of vehicles, the first three were delivered on 14 September 2009. Eight more followed in 2010, and the remaining nine were scheduled to go into operation in 2011 and 2012. There is also an option for two further trolleybuses of this type. The new Solaris vehicles are also painted dark red and have an auxiliary drive. In February 2010, one Solaris vehicle, fleet no. 301, was lent to the Eberswalde trolleybus system in Germany for presentation purposes.  Additionally, the procurement of a bi-articulated trolleybus is anticipated for the near future.

Heritage fleet.

The oldest operable trolleybus in Salzburg is a 1957 model ÜHIIIs. This is not an original Salzburg vehicle; with the fictitious number 123, it comes from the Solingen trolleybus system (former number 40) and has been loaned by an English collector.  Since July 2007, the ÜHIIIs has been operating special trips in Salzburg, for which it wears a Salzburg livery. The vehicle can also be hired privately. From late July to late August each year, to coincide with the Salzburg Festival, the ÜHIIIs runs on a regular basis every Friday, on a special heritage line of the Association "Pro Obus Salzburg eV". In 2012, the vehicle will return to England.  Two other serviceable heritage vehicles, also in the care of "Pro Obus Salzburg eV", are the 1985-built Gräf & Stift articulated trolleybus no. 178, and the 1988-built Steyr conventional trolleybus no. 109. Both are still used in scheduled passenger service in the rush hours. This serves the dual purpose of avoiding deterioration of the heritage vehicles in storage, and better covering peak demand.

The Salzburg trolleybus system forms part of the public transport network serving Salzburg, capital of the federal state of Salzburg in Austria. Opened on 1 October 1940, it replaced the Salzburg tramway network.

Der Oberleitungsbus Salzburg, lokal meist "Obus" genannt, ist neben dem Oberleitungsbus Linz einer von zwei verbliebenen Oberleitungsbus-Systemen in Österreich. Mit zwölf Linien, 165 Haltestellen und circa 100 Wagen besitzt Salzburg nach Athen/Piräus, San Francisco, Seattle und Vancouver das fünftgrößte Oberleitungsbusnetz der westlichen Welt. Es besteht seit 1940 und ersetzte damals die Straßenbahn Salzburg.