Background.

Located on the crossroads of protracted Roman–Persian wars, the early Georgian kingdoms disintegrated into various feudal regions by the early Middle Ages. This made it easy for the remaining Georgian realms to fall prey to the early Muslim conquests in the 7th century.  In struggle against the Arab occupation, Iberian princes of Bagrationi dynasty came to rule over Tao-Klarjeti, the former southern provinces of Iberia, and established Kouropalatate of Iberia as a nominal vassal of the Byzantine Empire. Bagrationi's continued fighting for the central Georgian land, known as Kartli, contested also by the Kingdom of Abkhazia, the Arab emirs of Tbilisi

History.

Unification of the Georgian State.

At the end of the 10th century David III of Tao invaded the Kartli and gave it to his foster-son Bagrat III and installed his father Gurgen as his regent, who was also crowned as "King of the Iberians" in 994. Through his mother Gurandukht, sister of the childless Abkhazian king Theodosius III ( 975-978), Bagrat was a potential heir to the realm of Abkhazia.  Kingdom of Abkhazia was engulfed into complete chaos and feudal warfare under the rule of Bagrat's uncle Theodosius the Blind, a weak and inauspicious king. In 978, the former duke of Kartli, Ivane Marushisdze, aided by David III, forced Theodosius to abdicate the throne in favour of his nephew Bagrat. The latter proceeded to Kutaisi to be crowned King of the Abkhazia. Bagrat's descent from both Bagratid and Abkhazian dynasties made him an acceptable choice for the nobles of the realm who were growing weary of internecine quarrels. In

War and peace with Byzantium.

The major political and military event during George I’s reign, a war against the Byzantine Empire, had its roots back to the 990s, when the Georgian prince David III of Tao, following his abortive rebellion against Emperor Basil II, had to agree to cede his extensive possessions in Tao to the emperor on his death. All the efforts by David’s stepson and George’s father, Bagrat III, to prevent these territories from being annexed to the empire went in vain. Young and ambitious, George launched a campaign to restore the Curopalates’ succession to Georgia and occupied Tao in 1015–1016. Byzantines were at that time involved in a relentless war with the Bulgar Empire, limiting their actions to the west. But as soon as Bulgaria was conquered, Basil II led his army against Georgia in 1021. An exhausting war lasted for two years, and ended in a decisive

Great Turkish Invasion.

The second half of the 11th century was marked by the strategically significant invasion of the Seljuq Turks, who by the end of the 1040s had succeeded in building a vast empire including most of Central Asia and Persia. The Seljuk threat prompted the Georgian and Byzantine governments to seek a closer cooperation. To secure the alliance, Bagrat's daughter Maria married, at some point between 1066 and 1071, to the Byzantine co-emperor Michael VII Ducas.  The Seljuqs made their first appearances in Georgia in the 1060s, when the sultan Alp Arslan laid waste to the south-western provinces of the Georgian kingdom and reduced Kakheti. These intruders were part of the same wave of the Turkish movement which inflicted a crushing defeat on the Byzantine army at Manzikert in 1071. Although the Georgians were able to recover from Alp Arslan's

Georgian Reconquista.

David IV.

Watching his kingdom slip into chaos, George II ceded the crown to his 16-year-old son David IV in 1089. King David IV proved to be a capable statesman and military commander. As he came of age under the guidance of his court minister, George of Chqondidi, David IV suppressed dissent of feudal lords and centralized the power in his hands to effectively deal with foreign threats. In 1089–1100, he organized small detachments to harass and destroy isolated Seljuk troops and began the resettlement of desolate regions. By 1099 David IV's power was considerable enough that he was able to refuse paying tribute

The reign of Demetrius I and George III.

The kingdom continued to flourish under Demetrius I, the son of David. Although his reign saw a disruptive family conflict related to royal succession, Georgia remained a centralized power with a strong military. In 1139, he raided the city of Ganja in Arran and brought the iron gate of the defeated city to Georgia and donated it to Gelati Monastery at Kutaisi, western Georgia. Despite this brilliant victory, Demetrius could hold Ganja only for a few years. A talented poet, Demetrius also continued his father's contributions to Georgia's religious polyphony. The most famous of his hymns is Thou Art a Vineyard.  Demetrius was succeeded by his son George III in 1156, beginning a stage of more offensive foreign policy. The same year he ascended to the throne, George launched a successful campaign against the Seljuq sultanate of Ahlat. He freed the important Armenian town of Dvin from Eldiguzid vassalage and was thus welcomed

Golden age.

The unified monarchy maintained its precarious independence from the Byzantine and Seljuk empires throughout the 11th century, and flourished under David IV the Builder ( 1089–1125), who repelled the Seljuk attacks and essentially completed the unification of Georgia with the re-conquest of Tbilisi in 1122. In spite of repeated incidents of dynastic strife, the kingdom continued to prosper during the reigns of Demetrios I (1125–1156), George III (1156–1184), and especially, his daughter Tamar (1184–1213).  With the decline of Byzantine power and the dissolution of the Great Seljuk Empire, Georgia became one

Queen Tamar's reign.

The successes of his predecessors were built upon by Queen Tamar, daughter of George III, who became the first female ruler of Georgia in her own right and under whose leadership the Georgian state reached the zenith of power and prestige in the Middle Ages. She not only shielded much of her Empire from further Turkish invasions but successfully pacified internal tensions, including a coup organized by her Russian husband Yury Bogolyubsky, prince of Novgorod.  In 1199, Tamar's armies led by two Christianised Armenian-Kurdish generals, Zakare and Ivane Mkhargrzeli, dislodged the Shaddadid dynasty from Ani. At the beginning of the 13th century Georgian armies overran fortresses and cities towards the Ararat Plain, reclaiming one after another fortresses and districts from local Muslim rulers: Bjni, Amberd and all the towns on their way in 1201. Alarmed by the Georgian successes, Süleymanshah II, the resurgent Seljuqid sultan of Rûm, rallied his vassal emirs and marched against Georgia, but his camp was attacked and destroyed by Tamar's husband David Soslan at the Battle of Basian in 1203 or 1204. Exploiting her success in this battle, between 1203-1205 Georgians seized the town of Dvin and entered Akhlatshah possessions twice and subdued the emirs of Kars, Akhlatshahs, Erzurum and Erzincan.  In 1206 the Georgian army, under the command of David Soslan, captured Kars (vassal of the Saltukids in Erzurum) and other fortresses and strongholds along the Araxes. This campaign was evidently started because the ruler of Erzerum refused to submit to Georgia. The emir of Kars requested aid from the Akhlatshahs, but the latter was unable to respond, it was taken over by the Ayyubids In 1207. By 1209 Georgia challenged Ayyubid rule in eastern Anatolia. Georgian

Nomadic invasions.

The reign of George IV and Rusudan.

George IV continued Tamar's policy of strengthening of the Georgian feudal state. Georgia's largely isolationist policies had allowed it to accumulate a powerful army and a very large concentration of knights. He put down the revolts in neighbouring Muslim vassal states in the 1210s and began preparations for a large-scale campaign against Jerusalem to support the Crusaders in 1220. However, the Mongol approach to the Georgian borders made the Crusade plan unrealistic, the reconnaissance force under the Mongols Jebe and Subutai destroyed the entire Georgian army in two successive battles, in 1221–1222, most notably the Battle of Khunan.Georgians suffered heavy losses in this war and the King George IV, himself was severely wounded. The Kingdom of Georgia itself was torn by internal dissent and was unprepared for such an ordeal. The struggle between the nobility and the crown increased. In 1222, King George appointed his sister Rusudan as a co-regent and died later that year. Queen Rusudan ( 1223–1245) proved a less capable ruler, and domestic discord intensified

Mongol yoke.

The Mongols created the "Vilayet of Gurjistan", which included Georgia and the whole South Caucasus, where they ruled indirectly, through the Georgian monarch, the latter to be confirmed by the Great Khan upon his/her ascension. Following the death of Queen Rusudan in 1245, an interregnum began during which the Mongols divided the Caucasus into eight tumens.  Exploiting the complicated issue of succession, the Mongols had the Georgian nobles divided into two rival parties, each of which advocated their own candidate to the crown. These were David VII "Ulu", an illegitimate son of George IV, and his cousin David VI "Narin", son of Rusudan. After a

George V the Brilliant.

Demetrius was executed by the Mongols in 1289, and the little prince George was carried to Samtskhe to be reared at the court of his maternal grandfather, Beka I Jaqeli. In 1299, the Ilkhanid khan Ghazan installed him as a rival ruler to George's elder brother, the rebellious King David VIII. However, George's authority did not extend beyond the Mongol-protected capital Tbilisi, so George was referred to during this period as "The Shadow King of Tbilisi". In 1302, he was replaced by his brother, Vakhtang III. After the death of both his elder brothers – David and Vakhtang – George became a regent for David's son, George VI, who died underage in 1313, allowing George V to be crowned king for a second time. Having initially pledged his loyalty to the Il-khan Öljaitü, he began a program of reuniting the Georgian lands. In 1315, he led the Georgian auxiliaries to suppress an anti-Mongol revolt in Asia Minor, an expedition that would prove to be the last in which the Georgians fought in the Mongol ranks. In 1320, he drove the marauding Alans out of the town Gori and forced them back to the

Black Death.

One of the primary reasons of Georgian political and military decline was the bubonic plague. It was first introduced in 1346 by the soldiers of George the Brilliant returning from

Timurid invasions.

There was a period of reunion and revival under George V the Brilliant, but the eight onslaughts of the Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur between 1386 and 1403 dealt a great blow to the Georgian kingdom. Timur's first appearance in the Caucasus was a response to Khan Tokhtamysh’s marauding inroad into Northern Iran through the Caucasian lands in 1385. In late autumn 1386, a huge army of Timur attacked Georgia. Timur officially proclaimed his invasions to be jihad against the region's non-Muslims. Tbilisi was besieged and taken on 22 November 1386, after a fierce fight. The city

Turkmen invasions.

After the devastating invasions by Timur and subsequent enfeeblement of the Kingdom of Georgia, it soon faced a new threat. Timur's death in 1405 marked the beginning of the end of his Empire, unified only by fear and blood of the subjected peoples. Turkomans, particularly the Kara Koyunlu clan, were among the first to rebel against Shah Rukh who ruled most of the Persia and Mawerannahr. Qara Yusuf, ruler of the Kara Koyunlu, defeated Shah Rukh, captured Baghdad, and repulsed Timurids from western Persia. After they established themselves as the new leading power in the middle east. They took advantage of the temporary weakness of Georgians and launched attacks against them, apparently in which, George VII of Georgia was killed. Constantine I of Georgia, fearing further encroachment, allied himself with the Shirvanshah Ibrahim I to counter Turkoman advance and engaged them in the Battle of Chalagan, in which he was defeated and taken captive. In captivity Constantine behaved very proudly, which infuriated Qara Yusuf to such an extent, that he ordered his, his half-brother David's and 300 Georgian nobles' execution. Kara Yusuf put Constantine to death by his own hand.  Alexander I of Georgia who sought to strengthen and restore his declining Kingdom, faced constant invasions by the tribal Turkomans. Alexander re-conquered Lori from the Turkomans in 1431, which was of great importance in securing of the Georgian borders. Around 1434/5,

Final disintegration.

The political split of the kingdom was sped up by the Eristavs of Samtskhe. In 1462 Kvarkvare II Jaqeli called against the king of Georgia Uzun Hasan, the leader of the Aq Qoyunlu. His invasion was used by the viceroy of the western Georgia – Bagrat VI. In 1463 Bagrat VI defeated Giorgi VIII at Chikhori. "Dadiani, Gurieli, Abkhazians and Svans came to the conqueror and expressing the wish of all the Imerians (westerners) blessed him to be King. From that time Imereti turned into one kingdom and four Duchies or satavado.  Bagrat was the king of only west Georgia for a short period.

Government and society.

Georgian monarchs followed a policy of religious tolerance and their Christian, Muslim and Jewish subjects could feel quite comfortable. Medieval Georgia, in its political and cultural development and social structure, resembled Europe, "all the familiar terms of Western feudalism had their equivalents in the social system of medieval Georgia" obviously influenced by Byzantium. In the medieval period, Georgian feudalism or "Batonqmoba" went through three distinct phases. In the first period, taken to have lasted from the 8th to the 11th centuries, Georgian society was organized as a network of personal ties, tying the king with the nobles of various classes. By the early 9th century, Georgia had already developed a system in which homage was exchanged for benefices. Unlike the countries of medieval Europe, where the three elements of political compromise – towns, feudal lords and the church – divided power among themselves and consequently promoted the development of strong centralized nation-States, in Georgia the towns were too weak and were deprived of rights, the feudal lords were too strong, and the church was nominally subjugated to the crown and politically less active.  The aristocratic élite of this period was divided into two major classes: an upper noble whose dynastic dignity and feudal quality was expressed in the terms Tavadi and Didebuli, respectively; both of these terms were synonymous, from the 11th to the 14th centuries, with Eristavi, and all three terms referred to one of the upper nobles, "a Prince". Lesser nobles, the Aznauri, were either "nobles of race" or "of patent" who acquired their status in specific charters issued by the king or a lord. The power of the feudal nobles over the peasantry also increased and the cultivators began to loss a degree of personal freedom they had formerly enjoyed.

Administration.

"Eristavi"'s (dukes) were in charge of local governing. Saeristavo (duchy) was divided into Khevi ruled by "Khevistavi" (in mountainous regions - "Khevisberi"). List of duchies at the time of reign Tamar the Great: Svaneti, Racha-Takveri; Tskhumi, Artgveti, Odishi, Kartli, Kakheti, Hereti and Samtskhe.  The frontier regions were granted exceptional privileges and autonomous rights, and were governed by monapire eristavi (frontier governor). There were

Religion and Culture.

Between the 11th and the early 13th centuries, Georgia experienced a political, economical and cultural golden age, as the Bagrationi dynasty managed to unite western and eastern halves of the country into a single kingdom. To accomplish that goal, kings relied much on the prestige of the Church, and enrolled its political support by giving it many economical advantages, immunity from taxes and large appanages. At the same time, the kings, most notably David the Builder (1089–1125), used state power to interfere in church affairs. Notably, he summoned the 1103 council of Ruisi-Urbnisi, which condemned Armenian Miaphysitism in stronger terms than ever before, and gave unprecedented power, second only to the Patriarch, to his friend and advisor George of Chqondidi. For the following centuries, the Church would remain a crucial feudal institution, whose economical and political power would always be at least equal to that of the main noble families.  During the Middle Ages, Christianity was the central element of Georgian culture. Specific forms of art were developed in Georgia for religious purposes. Among them, calligraphy, polyphonic church singing, cloisonné enamel icons, such as the Khakhuli triptych, and the "Georgian cross-dome style" of architecture, which characterizes most medieval Georgian churches. The most celebrated examples of Georgian religious architecture of the time include the Gelati Monastery and Bagrati Cathedral in Kutaisi, the Ikalto Monastery complex and Academy, and the Svetitskhoveli Cathedral in Mtskheta.  Outstanding Georgian representatives of Christian culture include Euthymius of Athos (Ekvtime Atoneli, 955–1028), George of Athos (Giorgi Atoneli, 1009–1065), Arsen Ikaltoeli (11th century), and Ephrem Mtsire, (11th century). Philosophy flourished between the 11th and 13th century, especially at the Academy of Gelati Monastery, where Ioane Petritsi attempted a synthesis of Christian, aristotelician and neoplatonic thought.  Tamar's reign also marked the continuation of artistic development in the country commenced by her predecessors. While her contemporary Georgian chronicles continued to enshrine Christian morality, the religious theme started to lose its earlier dominant position to the highly original secular literature. This trend culminated in an epic written by Georgia's national poet Rustaveli - "The Knight in the Panther's Skin" ("Vepkhistq'aosani"). Revered in Georgia as the greatest achievement of native literature, the poem celebrates the Medieval humanistic ideals of chivalry, friendship and courtly love.

Missionary activities.

From the 10th century, Georgians had started to play a significant role in preaching Christianity in the mountains of the Caucasus. "Wherever the missions of the patriarchs of Constantinople, Rome, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem failed, the Georgian Church succeeded in bringing Jesus's Cross and preaching His Gospels". This is corroborated not only by old written sources, but also by Christian architectural monuments bearing Georgian inscriptions, which are still to be seen throughout the North Caucasus in Chechnya, Ingushetia, Dagestan, North Ossetia, Kabardino-Balkaria. The golden age of Georgian monasticism lasted from the 9th to the 11th century. During that period, Georgian monasteries were founded outside the country, most notably on Mount Sinai, Mount Athos (the Iviron monastery, where the Theotokos Iverskaya icon is still located), and in Palestine.

The Kingdom of Georgia (), also known as the Georgian Empire, was a medieval Eurasian monarchy which emerged circa 1008 AD. It reached its Golden Age of political and economic strength during the reign of King David IV and Queen Tamar the Great from 11th to 13th centuries. Georgia became one of the pre-eminent nations of the Christian East, her pan-Caucasian empire stretching, at its largest extent, from Eastern Europe and the North Caucasus to the northern portion of Iran and Anatolia, while also maintaining religious possessions abroad, such as the Monastery of the Cross in Jerusalem and the Monastery of Iviron in Greece. It was the principal historical precursor of present-day Georgia. Lasting for several centuries, the kingdom fell to the Mongol invasions in the 13th century, but managed to re-assert sovereignty by the 1340s. The following decades were marked by the Black Death, as well as numerous invasions under the leadership of Timur, who devastated the country's economy, population, and urban centers. The Kingdom's geopolitical situation further worsened after the fall of the Byzantine and then Empire of Trebizond. As a result of these processes, by the end of the 15th century Georgia turned into a fractured entity. Renewed incursions by Timur from 1386, and the later invasions by the Kara Koyunlu and Ak Koyunlu led to the final collapse of the kingdom into anarchy by 1466 and the mutual recognition of its constituent kingdoms of Kartli, Kakheti and Imereti as independent states between 1490 and 1493 – each led by a rival branch of the Bagrationi dynasty, and into five semi-independent principalities – Odishi, Guria, Abkhazia, Svaneti, and Samtskhe – dominated by their own feudal clans.

Das Königreich Georgien war ein mittelalterlicher Staat im heutigen Georgien und darüber hinaus, der von 978 n. Chr. bis etwa 1403 n. Chr. existierte.


The formula.

For a particle with speed "v", charge "z" (in multiples of the electron charge), and energy "E", traveling a distance "x" into a target of electron number density "n" and mean excitation potential "I", the relativistic version of the formula reads, in SI units:  where "c" is the speed of light and "ε" the vacuum permittivity, formula_1, "e" and "m" the electron charge and rest mass respectively.  Here, the electron density of the material can be calculated by  where "ρ" is the density of the material, "Z" its atomic number, "A" its relative atomic mass, "N" the Avogadro number and "M" the Molar mass constant.  In the figure to the right, the small circles are experimental results obtained from measurements of various authors, while the red curve is Bethe's formula. Evidently, Bethe's theory agrees very well with experiment at high energy. The agreement is even better when corrections are applied (see below).  For low energies, i.e., for small velocities of the particle "β" « 1, the Bethe formula reduces to  This can be seen by first replacing "βc" by "v" in eq. (1) and then neglecting "β" because of its small size.  At low energy, the energy loss according to the Bethe formula therefore decreases approximately as "v" with increasing energy. It reaches a minimum for approximately "E" = 3"Mc", where "M" is the mass of the particle (for protons, this would be about at 3000 MeV). For highly relativistic cases "β" ≈ 1, the energy loss increases again, logarithmically due to the transversal component of the electric field.

The mean excitation potential.

In the Bethe theory, the material is completely described by a single number, the mean excitation potential "I". In 1933 Felix Bloch showed that the mean ionization potential of atoms is approximately given by  where "Z" is the atomic number of the atoms of the material. If this approximation is introduced into formula () above, one obtains an expression which is often called "Bethe-Bloch formula". But since we have now accurate tables of "I" as a function of "Z" (see below), the use of such a table will yield better results than the use of formula ().  The figure shows normalized values of "I", taken from a table. The peaks and valleys in this figure lead to corresponding valleys and peaks in the stopping power. These are called ""Z"-oscillations" or ""Z"-structure" (where "Z" = "Z" means the atomic number of the target).

Corrections to the Bethe formula.

The Bethe formula is only valid for energies high enough so that the charged atomic particle (the ion) does not carry any atomic electrons with it. At smaller energies, when the ion carries electrons, this reduces its charge effectively, and the stopping power is thus reduced. But even if the atom is fully ionized, corrections are necessary.  Bethe found his formula using quantum mechanical perturbation theory. Hence, his result is proportional to the square of the charge "z" of the particle. The description can be improved by considering corrections which correspond to higher powers of "z". These are: the Barkas-Andersen-effect (proportional to "z", after Walter H. Barkas and Hans Henrik Andersen), and the Bloch-correction (proportional to "z"). In addition, one has to take into account that the atomic electrons of the material traversed are not stationary ("shell correction").  The corrections mentioned have been built into the programs PSTAR and ASTAR, for example, by which one can calculate the stopping power for protons and alpha particles. The corrections are large at low energy and become smaller and smaller as energy is increased.  At very high energies, Fermi's density correction has to be added also.

The problem of nomenclature.

In describing programs PSTAR and ASTAR, the National Institute of Standards and Technology calls formula () "Bethe's stopping power formula".  On the other hand, in the 2008 Review of Particle Physics the formula was called "Bethe-Bloch equation", even though Bloch's expression () did not appear in the formula. But in more recent editions, the formula is now called the "Bethe formula". Presumably, the "Bloch" in "Bethe-Bloch" meant the Bloch-correction (see above). But then the designation "Bethe-Barkas-Bloch" would have seemed more logical.

The Bethe formula describes the mean energy loss per distance travelled of swift charged particles (protons, alpha particles, atomic ions) traversing matter (or alternatively the stopping power of the material). For electrons the energy loss is slightly different due to their small mass (requiring relativistic corrections) and their indistinguishability, and since they suffer much larger losses by Bremsstrahlung, terms must be added to account for this. Fast charged particles moving through matter interact with the electrons of atoms in the material. The interaction excites or ionizes the atoms, leading to an energy loss of the traveling particle.

Die Bethe-Formel (auch Bethe-Gleichung, Bethe-Bloch-Formel, Bethe-Bloch-Gleichung oder Bremsformel) gibt den Energieverlust pro Weglängeneinheit an, den schnelle geladene schwere Teilchen (z. B. Protonen, Alphateilchen, Ionen) beim Durchgang durch Materie durch inelastische Stöße mit den Elektronen erleiden; die übertragene Energie bewirkt im Material Anregung oder Ionisation. Dieser Energieverlust, auch als "Elektronische Abbremsung" oder ungenau als Ionisationsverlust bezeichnet, hängt ab von Geschwindigkeit und Ladung der Projektilteilchen und vom Targetmaterial.


Early life and education.

The son of pharmacists, Heusgen grew up in Neuss where he attended Quirinus-Gymnasium. During his highschool years, he spent a year as an exchange student at Western Reserve Academy, a boarding school in Hudson, Ohio. Heusgen studied in St. Gallen, at Georgia Southern University (GSU) and at Panthéon-Assas University in Paris, and obtained a doctorate from the University of St. Gallen in 1980. Heusgen also enjoyed watching football, stating that he was a fan of FC Bayern Munich.

Career.

Heusgen joined the diplomatic service of West Germany in 1980.  In 2005 Heusgen became Under-Secretary for Foreign and Security Policy in the German Chancellery. In this capacity, he served as chief advisor on foreign and security policy to Chancellor Angela Merkel. By the end of his term, he was the longest-serving official in this position.  In November 2016 it became known that Heusgen would succeed Harald Braun as Permanent Representative of Germany to the United Nations in New York in 2017. In this capacity, he led the country’s campaign for the United Nations Security Council election in 2018. He subsequently served as the President of the United Nations Security Council in April 2019. In December 2019 Heusgen was an place 7 by list of Simon Wiesenthal Center on most antisemitic behaviour in 2019, because of his decisions to vote against Israel government on UNO-level.

Nepotism allegation.

In 2017, the German tabloid "Bild" spread leaked information from Russian hacker group Fancy Bear, believed to be linked to Russian intelligence agency GRU, who had hacked into the United Nations’ email system and obtained Heusgen’s correspondences, including one which suggested that he helped his wife get a job at the UN. Journalists familiar with the issue of working couples reported that it is not uncommon for both partners to seek employment.

Anti-semitism accusation.

The Wiesenthal Center listed Heusgen for 2019 among the year's 10 worst acts of antisemitism. German tabloid "Bild" “accused Heusgen in an editorial of ‘pure malice’ against the Jewish state.” The Wiesenthal Center further added that Heusgen “equated 130 rockets fired by terrorist Hamas at Israeli civilians in one week in March with the Jewish state’s demolition of terrorists’ homes”. Israel’s Ambassador to Germany defended Heusgen saying the accusation was totally inappropriate. The German Foreign Office pointed to Heusgen's long track record of supporting Israel's security.

Personal life.

Heusgen is married to fellow career diplomat Ina Heusgen, and has four children.

Christoph Heusgen (born 17 March 1955 in Düsseldorf-Heerdt) is a German diplomat who has been serving as German Ambassador to the United Nations in New York since July 2017. He was Under-Secretary for Foreign and Security Policy in the German Chancellery from 2005 to 2017, and described as Angela Merkel's most influential foreign policy adviser. Currently, Germany is a non-permanent member of the United Nations Security Council and Ambassador Heusgen served as President of the Council in April 2019.

Christoph Heusgen (* 17. März 1955 in Düsseldorf-Heerdt) ist ein deutscher Beamter und Diplomat. Ab 2005 war er der außen- und sicherheitspolitische Berater von Bundeskanzlerin Angela Merkel und ist seit Juli 2017 Ständiger Vertreter der Bundesrepublik Deutschland bei den Vereinten Nationen. Zudem leitete er im April 2019 turnusgemäß als Präsident die Sitzungen des UN-Sicherheitsrats.


Career.

Born in New York City, Justman was one of the pioneers behind "Star Trek", working both as an associate and supervising producer on "" and "". He was also the assistant director of the first two "Star Trek" episodes: "The Cage" and "Where No Man Has Gone Before." During "Star Trek: The Original Series", he served as Gene Roddenberry's right-hand man, who managed the show along with John D. F. Black, Herbert F. Solow, D.C. Fontana, and Gene L. Coon. Justman was reportedly the first to call Gene Roddenberry "The Great Bird of the Galaxy," drawn from a throwaway line from the episode "The Man Trap".  Justman served as associate producer of "Star Trek" during its first two seasons, and was promoted to co-producer at the start of the third before resigning, partly due to exhaustion, and partly due to his displeasure with the decline in quality of the series, as well as what he considered its poor treatment by Paramount, the new owner of the studio. Paramount radically reduced the production budget during its third season.  Justman's motion picture credits as an assistant director included "The Big Combo" (1955), "Kiss Me Deadly" (1955), "The Big Knife" (1955), "Attack" (1956), and "Mutiny on the Bounty" (1962).  Justman also appeared in front of the camera once as an actor. He appeared as the "Elder of Luminos" in the "A Feasibility Study" episode in "The Outer Limits". His name also became the name of a shuttlecraft in "The Next Generation".  Along with Herbert F. Solow, Justman wrote the book "Inside Star Trek: The Real Story", published by Pocket Books in 1996. According to "Publishers Weekly", "As told by Solow, "Star Trek's" co-producer [sic], and Justman, the executive in charge of production [sic], this is arguably the definitive history of the TV show...With plenty of behind-the-scenes material that will be of interest to "Trek" fans, this book puts a good deal of emphasis on the show's business side, elucidating production difficulties, cost overruns, and the seemingly constant debate with NBC over the show's future." ("Publishers Weekly" inadvertently gave Solow's title to Justman and vice versa.)  Justman was also a guest of the U.S. Air Force's special study at Maxwell Air Force Base in 1993–94 on the future of the military. He was a speaker and future thinker for the SPACECAST 2020 program.

Death.

Justman died on May 28, 2008 in Los Angeles from the complications of severe Parkinson's disease.

Robert Harris "Bob" Justman (July 13, 1926 – May 28, 2008) was an American television producer, director, and production manager. He worked on many American TV series including "Lassie", "The Life of Riley", "Adventures of Superman", "The Outer Limits", "Star Trek", "", and "Then Came Bronson".

Robert Harris Justman (* 13. Juli 1926 in Brooklyn, New York; † 28. Mai 2008 in Los Angeles) war ein US-amerikanischer Filmproduzent und Regieassistent. Er wurde vor allem durch seine Zusammenarbeit mit Gene Roddenberry an der Fernsehserie "Raumschiff Enterprise" bekannt.


First meetings.

Chan's defence minister, Mathias Ijape, requested logistical assistance from Australia and New Zealand, in preparation for an assault on the island. However, both nations refused to provide any military assistance. The decision was then made to investigate the use of mercenaries. Through some overseas contacts, Ijape was put in contact with Tim Spicer (an ex-Lt Colonel in the Scots Guards) who had recently founded Sandline International, a company specialising in providing arms, equipment, and contractors to participate in conflicts.  Spicer attempted to persuade the head of the Papua New Guinea Defence Forces (PNGDF), Jerry Singirok, to support the purchase of a package of military equipment that he had previously discussed with Ijape. Singirok dismissed the idea, and concentrated on proceeding with a planned assault on the island, codenamed "Operation High Speed II". However, the operation was a dismal failure, and within six days, Papua New Guinean forces had retreated from the island.  Later that year, Spicer met Chris Haiveta, the Deputy Prime Minister of Papua New Guinea, and convinced him of the benefits of using Sandline mercenaries to end the Bougainville conflict permanently, neutralise the Bougainville Revolutionary Army, and reopen the controversial Panguna copper mine. While Singirok still refused to deal with Spicer, Haiveta invited him to visit the country and make an assessment of the situation. He did so in December 1996, and received US$250,000 as a result. He estimated that Sandline mercenaries could do the job for a total of US$36 million.

Official dealings begin.

On 8 January 1997, Tim Spicer had his first meeting with Prime Minister Chan. Spicer succeeded in convincing Chan that Sandline could assist in retaking Bougainville before the upcoming elections. They agreed that Sandline would provide 44 special forces personnel, mainly British, South African and Australian, to fight alongside PNGDF personnel. The US$36 million was never voted upon by the full Cabinet of Parliament, but instead by the secretive National Security Council. Half was to be paid up front, with the other half to follow after completion of the mission. The money came from cutbacks to a number of ministries, including the education and health departments.  Sandline had subcontracted most of its crew for the Bougainville mission through Executive Outcomes, a South African mercenary provider. The first mercenaries arrived on an Air Niugini flight from Singapore on 7 February 1997. After a week, a total of 44 had arrived, 8 from the UK, 5 from Australia and the rest from South Africa.  In the meantime, a series of meetings were undertaken between Deputy Prime Minister Haiveta, Tim Spicer, and several other figures, with regard to buying out CRA's stake in Bougainville Copper Limited, the owner of the Panguna mine, which was at the heart of the Bougainville conflict. On 19 February 1997, Prime Minister Chan mentioned to Australian Foreign Minister Alexander Downer that Papua New Guinea was bringing in mercenaries for "training purposes". Downer condemned the move, and was particularly opposed to their use on Bougainville. On 10 February, the move was leaked to The Australian newspaper.

Affair becomes public.

The immediate public stir in Australia was larger than Chan had expected. While it briefly moved the Papua New Guinean people behind the idea, the international furore also hardened the dislike that Jerry Singirok had for the Sandline deal. By the time he returned from a visit to the Philippines on 27 February, his mind was made up. He condemned the government for leaving him, as head of the Papua New Guinea Defence Force (PNGDF), out of the loop, and condemned the fact that Spicer had more access to the government than he did. Over the next week, he made plans for Opareisen Rausim Kwik (). On 8 March, he asked Major Walter Enuma to command the operation. Enuma agreed.  Over the next few days, the Australian government tried in vain to persuade the Papua New Guinean government not to proceed with the mercenary deal. On the night of 16 March 1997, the revolt began. PNGDF soldiers were approached by leaders of the NGO Melanesian Solidarity (MELSOL). Jonathan O'ata and Peti Lafanama wanted to consolidate a military-NGO civil protest against the Chan-Haiveta decision to engage the Sandline mercenaries. By the time the night was over, the entire band of Sandline mercenaries had been disarmed and arrested. Prime Minister Chan did not find out until the next morning. That morning, Singirok accused Chan, Ijape, and Haiveta of corruption, and gave them 48 hours to resign. He also fiercely denied allegations that he was aiming to take power himself. Chan refused to resign, and the same day, sacked Singirok as Commander of the PNGDF, replacing him with controversial Colonel Alfred Aikung. The NGOs activated a nationwide protest in support of General Singirok.  The weapons, including Mil Mi-24 helicopter gunships, piston engined light aircraft, military small arms and 600 crates of ammunition, were shipped in an Antonov An-124 Ruslan giant plane. The Antonov had been impounded in Thailand for a week after Papua New Guinea authorities refused to allow the aircraft to land. Australian diplomats and defence and intelligence chiefs had been involved in secret negotiations for days with Sandline and the governments of PNG and Thailand before agreeing to accept the weapons for storage in Australia. The Antonov was allowed to fly to Tindal RAAF base, near Katherine, until the government of PNG arranged for the materiel to be returned to Sandline. The two attack helicopters remained in storage at RAAF Base Tindal until 2016, when they were buried at the Shoal Bay Landfill site near Darwin due to their delapidated condition and possible contamination, for example with asbestos, and the cost of shipping them anywhere.

Military standoff begins.

Singirok stated that he would accept the decision to fire him, and urged his soldiers to support his replacement. Chan told the media that Singirok had been neutralised and would be arrested. He also alleged that Singirok had attempted a coup, but had not had his men's support behind him. However, Chan's optimism turned out to be premature. The soldiers at the central Murray Barracks began to disobey orders, and police units had to be flown in from outside of the capital, Port Moresby. Two days later, a boycott of classes began at the University of Papua New Guinea in support of Singirok. Crowds of civilians blocked the roads around the barracks, and bomb hoaxes closed down government departments. Chan still continued to insist that he was in complete control, and accused Singirok of a plot to manipulate the price of copper. The following day, the protests turned somewhat violent, and looting began. The situation grew darker for Chan when Governor-General, Sir Wiwa Korowi, took out a newspaper advertisement that also accused the government of widespread corruption. Another two days saw Port Moresby almost grind to a halt.  The protests continued to get larger with each day, and the police and the army faced off against each other, with the army under Major Enuma's strict orders to hold their positions and the police appeared in no hurry to confront the army. Enuma also instructed the army to halt the looting. The Australian government sent emissaries to Port Moresby, and threatened to withdraw financial aid altogether if the Sandline deal was not cancelled. Reluctantly, Chan cancelled the deal and announced an inquiry. While this meant that Singirok and Enuma had accomplished one of their major goals, they continued to demand the resignation of Chan, Ijape and Haiveta. On 21 March, all Sandline's personnel, with the exception of Tim Spicer, who remained to give evidence to the enquiry, were withdrawn from Papua New Guinea.  Despite the cancellation of the Sandline contract, the security situation continued to slip further out of the government's control. The Acting Commander, Alfred Aikung was attacked and his vehicle was burned. Aikung subsequently fled into hiding fearing for his life. Chan considered asking for foreign military intervention, but Aikung advised him against it. Speaker of Parliament and former Prime Minister Sir Rabbie Namaliu met with Chan and Singirok, and advised the latter that two of his demands had been met, but that Chan would resign only at the request of Parliament.

Prime Minister Chan resigns.

The next session of Parliament began on 25 March, and Bill Skate, then Governor of Port Moresby, was ready to bring forth a motion calling on Chan to resign. On the night of 24 March, several members deserted the Chan government, and the capital once again came to a standstill. Soldiers at Murray Barracks demanded to be able to march on the Parliament, but Enuma steadfastly refused. Large crowds began to gather outside the Parliament. The police attempted to stop students from reaching the Parliament, but the soldiers escorted them in. Inside, Sir Michael Somare amended Skate's motion, so it only called upon Chan to step down for the period of the inquiry. A fierce debate ensued, with the Parliament divided. In the end, Chan realised that his position was hopeless. He spread the word inside the Parliament that if members supported him, he would resign anyway. The Parliament voted against the motion.  The crowd outside, upon hearing of the news, began to riot. They had not heard that Chan planned to resign anyway. The police advised parliamentarians to remain inside the Parliament, as they could not be safely evacuated. Chan and Haiveta had to be disguised and then raced out in a police car. All through the night, the standoff continued, with the parliamentarians fearing that they would be arrested. Though many soldiers continued to demand to move in on the building, Enuma resisted his soldiers, and convinced them to remain in their positions. He also addressed the Parliament, assuring them that there was not going to be a military coup. Enuma attempted to order the soldiers back to barracks and the crowds to disperse, but they remained until Parliament began sitting again the following morning. That morning, Chan sacked both Ijape and Haiveta then resigned himself.  Bill Skate, who had moved the motion against Chan, replaced him as Prime Minister on 22 July after a Federal election, (Giheno took on the acting PM role up until 2 June, where Chan was again raised to the PM for his last six weeks of term). Under Skate, the peace process continued, and within a year after the Sandline affair, a treaty was in place, which, remains intact. A number of inquiries into the affair followed. Jerry Singirok was reappointed to his previous position as head of the PNGDF in 1998, but was dismissed again in 2000 over charges stemming from the incident. However, in April 2004, Singirok was formally acquitted of all charges laid against him over the events of February and March 1997.

The Sandline affair was a political scandal that became one of the defining moments in the history of Papua New Guinea, and particularly the conflict in Bougainville. It brought down the government of Sir Julius Chan, and took Papua New Guinea to the verge of a military revolt. The event was named after Sandline International, a UK-based private military company force.

Die Sandline-Affäre war ein politischer Skandal in Papua-Neuguinea um einen Anfang 1997 geschlossenen Kontrakt des Staates mit dem privaten Sicherheits- und Militärunternehmen Sandline International zur militärischen Lösung des Konflikts um Bougainville.


History.

Alexander Duff (1849–1912) was the eldest son of The 5th Earl Fife (1814–1879). Upon his father's death on 7 August 1879, he succeeded as The 6th Earl Fife. With this, he inherited the titles Baron Braco (created in 1735), Earl Fife and Viscount Macduff (both created in 1759), all in the Peerage of Ireland (and created for Scottish nobleman William Duff, 1696–1763), and Baron Skene in the Peerage of the United Kingdom (created in 1857 for his father The 5th Earl Fife; a title which gave him a seat in the House of Lords). In 1885, Queen Victoria created for Alexander Duff the title Earl of Fife in the Peerage of the United Kingdom.  On Saturday, 27 July 1889, Alexander, 1st Earl of Fife and 6th Earl Fife, married Princess Louise, the third child and eldest daughter of the then-Prince of Wales (the future King Edward VII) and his wife Princess Alexandra, in the Private Chapel at Buckingham Palace. The couple were third cousins in descent from King George III. The wedding marked the second time a descendant of Queen Victoria married a British subject. Two days after the wedding, the Queen elevated Alexander, Lord Fife, to the dignities of Duke of Fife and Marquess of Macduff, in the County of Banff, in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. Queen Victoria's Letters Patent of 29 June 1889 creating these titles contained the standard remainder to "heirs male of his body".  On 24 April 1900, Queen Victoria issued another Letters Patent by which she created for The 1st Duke of Fife the further dignities of Duke of Fife and Earl of Macduff, both in the Peerage of the United Kingdom, and both with a special remainder that allowed these titles to pass to his daughters, in default of a son, and then to the male heirs of those daughters. The one restriction was that the mother of those daughters had to be Princess Louise; daughters from any subsequent marriage could not inherit. On 9 November 1905, King Edward VII granted to Alexander Duff's two daughters Lady Alexandra (* 1891) and Lady Maud (* 1893) the styles of "Highness" and "Princess".  Upon the death of Alexander, 1st Duke of Fife, in January 1912, the peerages created in 1889 (the dukedom of Fife of 1889 and the marquessate of Macduff) and all the older (as previously mentioned) peerages held by the Duff family (the barony of Braco of 1735, viscountcy of Macduff of 1759, earldom Fife of 1759, barony of Skene of 1857, earldom of Fife of 1885) became extinct, while the peerages created in 1900 (the dukedom of Fife of 1900 and the earldom of Macduff) passed to his elder daughter, Princess Alexandra (1891–1959).  On 15 October 1913, The 2nd Duchess of Fife married Prince Arthur of Connaught, the only son of Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn, third son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert and thus a younger brother of her maternal grandfather King Edward VII. As such, Arthur and Alexandra were first cousins once removed. Their only son, Alastair, died in 1943.  When The 2nd Duchess of Fife died in 1959, her hereditary peerages passed to her nephew James Carnegie (1929–2015), eldest son of her sister Maud and her husband Charles Carnegie, 11th Earl of Southesk (1893–1992). Thirty-three years later, in 1992, The 3rd Duke of Fife also succeeded his father as 12th Earl of Southesk and chief of the Clan Carnegie. As consequence, the following peerage titles became therefore subsidiary to that of the Dukedom: Lord Carnegie of Kinnaird in the Peerage of Scotland (created in 1616), Earl of Southesk and Lord Carnegie in the Peerage of Scotland (both created in 1633), Baron Balinhard in the Peerage of the United Kingdom (created in 1663; all previous mentioned titles awarded to Sir David Carnegie (1575–1658), an Extraordinary Lord of Session), and the Carnegie Baronetcy in the Baronetage of Nova Scotia (created in 1641 for David Carnegie of Pitcarrow (died 1708), a Scottish politician). Upon his death in 2015, he was succeeded in the Fife and Carnegie titles by his son, David Charles Carnegie (born 1961). The 4th Duke of Fife's heir apparent is his son Charles Duff Carnegie (born 1989), who uses the courtesy title "Earl of Southesk". The hypothetical grandson of the duke and heir-to-heir apparent would be styled instead "Lord Carnegie".

Seats.

The family's current main residence is Kinnaird Castle near the town of Brechin in Angus, Scotland. Another seat of the Duke is Elsick House near the town of Stonehaven in Aberdeenshire, Scotland, within the watershed of the Burn of Elsick. The Mar Lodge, to the west of the village of Braemar in Aberdeenshire, Scotland, was bequeathed by Princess Alexandra, 2nd Duchess of Fife, to her nephew Alexander Ramsay of Mar, and subsequently sold. The first two holders of the dukedom are buried in St Ninian's Chapel, Braemar.

Coat of arms.

Arms of the 4th Duke.

The following heraldic achievement was matriculated by the Court of the Lord Lyon in 2017 for the 4th Duke of Fife:

Arms of the 3rd Duke.

The arms as borne by the 3rd Duke of Fife were:

Duke of Fife is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom which has been created twice, in both cases for Alexander, 1st Duke of Fife and 6th Earl Fife, who in 1889 married Louise, Princess Royal, the eldest daughter of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, the future King Edward VII.

Duke of Fife ist ein erblicher britischer Adelstitel in der Peerage of the United Kingdom, benannt nach der schottischen Grafschaft Fife.


Biography.

Gigante was born in Lower East Side, Manhattan to Salvatore Esposito Vulgo Gigante (April 26, 1900- April 1979), a jewel engraver, and Yolonda Santasilia-Gigante (1902-May 10, 1997), a seamstress and maternal niece of Dolores Santasilia. His parents and aunt were first generation immigrants from Naples, Italy and never learned the English language. Vincent and his extended family relatives settled in New York City and Westchester County including Connecticut and Massachusetts. He had four brothers, Vincent, Pasquale A. Gigante (October 18, 1921 - January 7, 1983) and Ralph Gigante (March 14, 1930 - 1994), who followed his brother Vincent into a life of organized crime. His last brother Louis Gigante became an ordained Roman Catholic priest at St. Athanasius Church in the South Bronx and city councilman.

Criminal career.

Mario began his criminal life as a "made man," or full family member, in caporegime Vito Genovese's "Greenwich Village crew". At that time, his brother Vincent was Genovese's chauffeur. During the power struggle between Genovese and then boss Frank Costello, the Gigante brothers were reportedly involved in several significant hits for Genovese. On August 12, 1957, the day after the attempted assassination of Costello, New York Police Department (NYPD) detectives were watching Vincent's house in Greenwich Village. When Mario drove up, detectives took him out of the car and one tried to search him. Mario punched the detective and was arrested for assault. In court, the charge was reduced and Mario paid a $25 fine.  By the 1970s, both Mario and Vincent were capos of their own crews. Neither brother had served significant prison time as they both kept low profiles. In the early 1980s, Vincent became the boss of the Genovese family. Mario rose to become one of the family's highest earners, involved in illegal gambling, loansharking, and other rackets. On January 25, 1975, Mario was indicted on charges of illegal gambling.  On June 16, 1983, Mario was convicted of loansharking and received an eight-year prison sentence. However, former New York Senator Alfonse D’Amato allegedly lobbied U.S. Attorney Rudolph Giuliani to reduce Mario's sentence. In 1989, Mario's sentence was reduced to six years in prison. Mob turncoat Vincent "Fish" Cafaro later alleged that he had approached power broker and attorney Roy Cohn to bribe a judge to lower Mario's sentence. Cafaro said he delivered a $175,000 "payoff" to Cohn in three installments, dropping off the final $50,000 with Cohn’s law partner, Thomas Bolan. These allegations were investigated, but no charges were ever filed.  After Vincent was sent to prison in the summer of 1997, the family switched to a collective decision-making system. On October 1, 1997, Mario and other Genovese mobsters pleaded guilty to racketeering charges involving the trash hauling industry in Westchester, Rockland, and Orange counties in New York. According to prosecutors, the Genovese family maintained a "property rights" system in which they took control of local hauling firms and then insisted each firm had a "permanent right" to every customer. On one occasion, Mario enforced those rights by ordering the baseball bat beating of an uncooperative hauler.  Mario was released from prison in June 2001 after serving five years for extortion and racketeering in the solid waste hauling industry. In 2005, his brother Vincent died. Mario, now in his 90s, is assumed to be retired.

Mario R. Gigante (born November 4, 1923 in Greenwich Village, Manhattan) is a New York City mobster who served as caporegime for the Genovese crime family. He is the older brother of late family boss Vincent "The Chin" Gigante.

Mario Gigante (* 4. November 1923) ist ein hohes Mitglied der US-amerikanischen Cosa Nostra in New York City und war Oberhaupt der Genovese-Familie.


Design and development.

The DB 604 was unique among the DB 600 series of aircraft engines by having its 24 cylinders arranged in an X, with four inline rows of six cylinders. The DB 604 was also unique amongst the X-24 engines, in that it was not conceived as a further development of existing Daimler-Benz aircraft engines such as the DB 601, DB 603 or DB 605, which themselves had been twinned-up as two separate powerplants sharing a new common gear reduction case at their front ends, into the 1.5-tonne dry weight DB 601-based "coupled" DB 606 in February 1937, the same-weight figured DB 605-based DB 610 by June 1940, and just slightly earlier, in March 1940, the 1.8 tonne approximate weight replacement for the DB 606 and 610, the DB 603-based DB 613 "power system" of nearly 3,500 PS output. For example, the Rolls-Royce Vulture was basically two Rolls-Royce Peregrine engines joined at the crankcase, thus producing the X-configuration of the cylinders.  The DB 604 was a completely new Daimler-Benz engine design featuring a perfectly square stroke ratio of 135 mm x 135 mm. The short stroke ratio enabled the relatively high engine speed of 3,200 rpm. The first engine tested in 1939 on the engine test stand achieved a power output of 1,725 kW (2,350 hp).  Further development of the first test engines led to the DB 604A/B. The only difference between the DB 604A and the DB 604B - as with the similarly suffixed A and B versions of the DB 606 and 610 "coupled" power system engines - was the direction in which the DB 604's crankshaft turned. The DB 604A/B was equipped with a two-speed supercharger, achieving 1,835 kW (2,500 hp) whilst testing.  Development of this promising engine was canceled by the Reich Air Ministry (RLM - ) in September 1942.

Engines on display.

A preserved Daimler-Benz DB 604 is on public display at the Flugausstellung L.+ P. Junior museum, Hermeskeil, Germany.

The Daimler-Benz DB 604 was an experimental German 24-cylinder aircraft engine, which did not progress beyond the initial engine testing phase and was ultimately abandoned in 1942.

Der DB 604 war ein Flugmotor von Daimler-Benz. Es handelte sich um einen wassergekühlten 24-Zylinder-X-Motor mit Kompressoraufladung, bei dem vier 6-Zylinderreihen mit einem Zylinderwinkel von jeweils 90° angeordnet waren. Die Kurbelwelle war sechsfach gekröpft – auf jeder Kurbelwellenkröpfung arbeiteten vier Zylinder. Die Versatzwinkel der einzelnen Kröpfungen betrugen wie beim Reihen-Sechszylinder 0°, 120°, 240°, 240°, 120°, 0°. So wurden gleichmäßige Zündabstände erreicht (alle 30° Kurbelwellenumdrehung eine Zündung).


Structure.

The plantar fascia is a broad structure that spans between the medial calcaneal tubercle and the proximal phalanges of the toes. Recent studies suggest that the plantar fascia is actually an aponeurosis rather than true fascia. The Dorland’s Medical Dictionary defines an aponeurosis as: (i) a white, flattened or ribbon-like tendinous expansion, serving mainly to connect a muscle with the parts that it moves, (ii) a term formerly applied to certain fasciae. Further, it defines the plantar aponeurosis as bands of fibrous connective tissue radiating toward the bases of the toes from the medial process of the tuber calcanei (posterior half of the calcaneus).  The plantar fascia is made up of predominantly longitudinally oriented collagen fibers. There are three distinct structural components: the medial component, the central component (plantar aponeurosis), and the lateral component (see diagram at right). The central component is the largest and most prominent.  In younger people the plantar fascia is also intimately related to the Achilles tendon, with a continuous fascial connection between the two from the distal aspect of the Achilles to the origin of the plantar fascia at the calcaneal tubercle. However, the continuity of this connection decreases with age to a point that in the elderly there are few, if any, connecting fibers. There are also distinct attachments of the plantar fascia and the Achilles tendon to the calcaneus so the two do not directly contact each other. Nevertheless, there is an indirect relationship whereby if the toes are dorsiflexed, the plantar fascia tightens via the windlass mechanism. If a tensile force is then generated in the Achilles tendon it will increase tensile strain in the plantar fascia. Clinically, this relationship has been used as a basis for treatment for plantar fasciitis, with stretches and night stretch splinting being applied to the gastrocnemius/soleus muscle unit.

Function.

The plantar fascia contributes to support of arch of the foot by acting as a tie-rod, where it undergoes tension when the foot bears weight. One biomechanical model estimated it carries as much as 14% of the total load of the foot. In an experiment using cadavers, it was found that failure of the plantar fascia averaged at loads of 1189 ± 244 newtons (121 ± 24 kgf or 267 ± 55 lbf). Failure most often occurred at the proximal attachment to the calcaneus, which is consistent with the usual location of symptoms (i.e. in plantar fasciitis). Complete rupture or surgical release of the plantar fascia leads to a decrease in arch stiffness and a significant collapse of the longitudinal arch of the foot. By modeling it was predicted such conditions would result in a 17% increase in vertical displacement and a 15% increase in horizontal elongation of the foot when it was loaded at. Surgical release also significantly increases both stress in the plantar ligaments and plantar pressures under the metatarsal heads. Although most of the figures mentioned above are from either cadaver studies or investigations using models, they highlight the relatively large load the plantar fascia is subjected to while contributing to the structural integrity of the foot.

Gait.

The plantar fascia also has an important role in dynamic function during gait. It was found the plantar fascia continuously elongated during the contact phase of gait. It went through rapid elongation before and immediately after mid-stance, reaching a maximum of 9% to 12% elongation between mid-stance and toe-off. During this phase the plantar fascia behaves like a spring, which may assist in conserving energy. In addition, the plantar fascia has a critical role in normal mechanical function of the foot, contributing to the "windlass mechanism". When the toes are dorsiflexed in the propulsive phase of gait, the plantar fascia becomes tense, resulting in elevation of the longitudinal arch and shortening of the foot (see 3A). One can liken this mechanism to a cable being wound around the drum of a windlass (see 3B); the plantar fascia being the cable, the metatarsal head the drum, and the handle, the proximal phalanx.

The plantar fascia is the thick connective tissue (aponeurosis) which supports the arch on the bottom (plantar side) of the foot. It runs from the tuberosity of the calcaneus (heel bone) forward to the heads of the metatarsal bones (the bone between each toe and the bones of the mid-foot).

Die Aponeurosis plantaris ist eine Sehnenplatte (Aponeurose) im Bereich der Fußsohle (). Sie wird auch als "Plantaraponeurose" oder auch als "Plantarfaszie" bezeichnet.


History.

Early days (1991-1996).

Naked Lunch was named after the novel by William S. Burroughs. The first incarnation of the band was made up of Oliver Welter (vocals and guitar), Georg Timber-Trattnig (bass) and Peter Hornbogner (drums).  Soon after their formation, they sent out demos and were signed on the spot by German Big Store Records, where a first release came out, the 6-track-mini-LP "Naked". The year after that, a full-length album followed, titled "Balsam". After that, bassist Trattnig left the band to focus on his writing. He died in 2000 due to alcoholism. The song "King George" on "Songs for the Exhausted" is written about his death.  Trattnig was replaced with Herwig Zamernik (of Disharmonic Orchestra). Zamernik and Welter remained the core of the band to this day.  After a first few successes, the band became hungry for an international breakthrough, but despite playing showcases for major record companies, it took a few years before they were signed by Mercury Records.

Superstardom (1997-2000).

After finally being signed to a "big-time" label, Naked Lunch took on recording their second album, which should bring them what they predicted with the over-ambitious title, "Superstardom". Recordings took place in Weilheim, New York City and San Francisco. They shot a high-profile video for "Tambourine" (the single was mixed by Alan Moulder) in Brazil, where they also damaged equipment on stage; they were arrested in London, where some of the members had relocated. But still, big success did not take place.  Soon after that, Stefan Deisenberger joined on keyboards and synths.  In 1999, "Love Junkies" was released and the single "Closed today" was a minor hit internationally (and also the band's biggest so far), but the album did not sell well. Naked Lunch cut their ties with their label and signed with Virgin Records, where the same record got re-released. But it also flopped on second try and Virgin dropped them.

Songs for the Exhausted (2001-today).

After the events surrounding the two releases of "Love Junkies", Naked Lunch went on hiatus. Oliver Welter had to return to his hometown and lived on the streets and "out of his car", so to speak, for half a year. He often remarks that this phase was one of the hardest in his life and he was sometimes close to the edge. Perhaps the long-time-suicide of Georg Trattnig (as he called his long-term alcoholism which ultimately led to this death) showed Welter that it is better to choose life over death. Also, he fathered a daughter and more recently, a son. Herwig Zamernik is also a father (of four children).  Back to life, Naked Lunch entered the studio again and were all set to record another, perhaps their final album. The old indie rock-concepts were abandoned in favour for a new working technique involving intensive work with computers. "Songs for the Exhausted" was recorded in Herwig Zamerniks own studio, the "Fuzzroom" in Klagenfurt over the course of a year. Prior to the recording, drummer and founding member Peter "Bogs" Hornbogner left the band - he was later replaced by Thorsten Thonhauser (although most drum tracks on the album were played by session drummers or were programmed). Shortly before the completion of the session, the studio burned down. Zamernik has subsequently built a new "Fuzzroom".  After the recording was finished, the band faced new problems. They were unable to find a record company willing to release the record, which was considered too sad, depressing and generally non-commercial. Finally in 2004, Motor Music Records put their effort out and Naked Lunch were facing generally very good reviews and surprisingly good sales.  In the aftermath, Naked Lunch put out an EP, "Stay" in 2005 and contributed music to befriended film-maker Thomas Woschitz's project "Sperrstunde", which was screened to live backing music by the band. Also, Herwig Zamernik released a solo record, dubbed Fuzzman on Wohnzimmer Records.  In 2006, they composed the music for the episode "Bis in den Tod" of the Austrian mystery serial "8x45" and in 2007 the music for the Elisabeth Scharang TV movie Franz Fuchs - Ein Patriot starring Karl Markovics. A new album, "This Atom Heart of Ours" was released on January 19, 2007. It is the first to include new drummer, Alex Jezdinsky (formerly of Angelika Express), following the departure of Thorsten Thonhauser. Yet it is uncertain if Jezdinsky is a full member, hence he does not appear on any of the promotion photos for the new record nor in the video to the single "Military of the Heart".  The album entered the Austrian longplay charts at #25. In 2008, they composed the film score of "Universalove" by Thomas Woschitz.

Naked Lunch is a band from Klagenfurt, Carinthia, Austria, founded in 1991. They started out as an alternative rock band, mixing hard rock guitars and fragile vocals. In the nineties, they connected with the German band The Notwist, in Weilheim, with whom they still have ties; their producer, Olaf Opal, is also working for The Notwist.

Naked Lunch ist eine Rockband aus Klagenfurt, Österreich. In ihrer Anfangszeit spielten sie Alternative Rock mit einer Mischung aus harten Rockgitarren und sanftem Gesang. Im Verlauf der 1990er Jahre nahmen sie Kontakt zur Weilheimer Indieszene um The Notwist auf und erweiterten ihr Klangspektrum um vor allem elektronische Elemente.


History.

The name The Great Orchestra of Christmas Charity was coined by Jerzy Owsiak in 1993. The charity was officially founded in 1993 by Jerzy Owsiak, Lidia Niedźwiedzka-Owsiak, Bohdan Maruszewski, and Piotr Burczyński. The main objective, at that time, was "Protecting Health and Saving Children's Lives by Providing Medical Equipment to Public Hospitals" (as stated in the deed of foundation). During the first Finale (which was organized for the benefit of paediatric cardiac-surgery) in the same year, the Foundation collected a total of USD 1,535,440.68. Subsequently, what was intended to be one-time fundraiser to aid Children's Memorial Health Institute in Warsaw became an annual public fundraiser held across the country. In 2004 the GOCC raised money for the victims of tsunami in Sri Lanka. In 2010, after southern Poland has been struck by flooding a special fundraiser was held in aid of flood relief.  Every year, millions of Poles donate to the Foundation and throughout 24 Grand Finales, the Foundation collected over $130 million for cardiac-surgery, neonatology, paediatric oncology, kidney diseases, congenital disorders, newborns and children under 5 years of age who have been victims of accidents. Since 2013 the GOCC has been raising funds to support geriatric and long-term care units in Poland.  During the 27th Grand Finale concert in Gdańsk on 13 January 2019, Mayor of Gdańsk Paweł Adamowicz was stabbed on stage. He died the following day after undergoing over five hours of surgery in a hospital. After Adamowicz's death, Jerzy Owsiak announced that he would be stepping down as the chairman of the GOCC.  A wave of support came from millions of people with the hashtag #MuremZaOwsiakiem trending (translated as #WeStandWithOwsiak) and hundreds of thousands of people signing a petition for Owsiak to remain the chairman of GOCC. Many pleas from celebrities, social activisits, men of science, artists and religious activists have been sent to Owsiak, begging that he stays the chairman of GOCC. After the funeral of Paweł Adamowicz, Jerzy posted a video on his Facebook page saying that he was overwhelmed by the support and that he will not step down as the chairman of GOCC. He made a promise to Paweł Adamowicz that the Great Orchestra of Christmas Charity will be playing for eternity and one day longer.

The Grand Finale.

The Grand Finale fundraiser takes place on the second Sunday of January. The day-long public fundraiser is held in Poland and everywhere where there is an active Polish community. The public fundraiser is organised locally, by volunteer-run Collection Centres, and is accompanied by various events such as concerts, sporting competitions, and firework displays. A telethon, broadcast nationally, is held on the day as well. Volunteers, carrying branded collection boxes collect money across the country, and people donating money receive distinct red-heart stickers in return. The day culminates with a firework display - known as Light to the Sky, which takes place in front of the Palace of Culture and Science in Warsaw. The funds are being raised during a public money collection, in online auctions, and personal and corporate donations.  Each Grand Finale has a specific medical objective, which is implemented by the foundation after consultations with medical professionals. In order to receive aid from the foundation, the hospitals apply for devices that achieve the stated objective. The equipment is bought by the foundation during an open tender.

Medical programmes.

The GOCC Foundation runs four medical programs and one educational programme. The programmes are in action all-year long and are introduced to hospitals and clinics nationwide, because the foundation aims to systematically improve public healthcare in Poland.

Educational programme.

The GOCC runs an educational programme known as '"We Save and Teach How to Save Lives"' aimed at teaching children in primary schools the basis of CPR and first aid. Primary schools, which participate in the programme receive free teaching aids and the designated teachers are trained by certified AHA instructors.

The Great Orchestra of Christmas Charity (GOCC, Polish "Wielka Orkiestra Świątecznej Pomocy", WOŚP) is the biggest, non-governmental, non-profit, charity organization in Poland raising money for pediatric and elderly care. The GOCC Foundation holds American Heart Association certification to provide courses in CPR and AED, and for the use of high technology for medical lifesaving. The GOCC aims to support health care in Poland by purchase of state of the art medical equipment for Polish hospitals and clinics and by establishing and running six medical programmes and one educational programme. The foundation supports paediatric and geriatric wards, furnishing them in both complex medical devices such as MRI scanners, and providing long-term care units with anti-bedsore mattresses and beds.

Das große Orchester der Weihnachtshilfe (Polnisch "Wielka Orkiestra Świątecznej Pomocy", WOŚP) ist eine große nichtstaatliche Wohltätigkeitsorganisation in Polen. Es wurde 1993 von Jerzy Owsiak, Lidia Niedźwiedzka-Owsiak, Bohdan Maruszewski und Piotr Burczyński als Stiftung gegründet.


History.

The abbey was founded in 1113 by Stephen Harding as the first daughter house of Cîteaux Abbey, the mother house of the Cistercian reform. Along with Morimond Abbey, Clairvaux Abbey and Pontigny Abbey it was one of the four primary abbeys of the Cistercian order to which all other Cistercian houses were affiliated. It stood on a wild site located between the forest of Bragny and the swampy land of the Grosne.  It benefitted greatly from the generosity of the entourage of the Dukes of Burgundy and of the local nobility, especially the family of Gros de Brancion, and rapidly gained wealth and importance.  In 1165-66 it was caught up in the conflicts between Hugh III, Duke of Burgundy, and Counts Gerard of Mâcon and William of Chalon.  The conventual buildings were reconstructed in the 13th century.  In 1362 the abbey was occupied by the roaming brigands known as the "Tard-Venus". It was fortified in 1415, but this did not prevent it from being looted in 1562 und 1567. In 1570 it was set on fire by the Protestant troops of Gaspard de Coligny; the only buildings to survive were the church, the sacristy, the chapter house and an adjoining room. The abbot François de Beugre obtained permission in 1574 to sell lands in order to fund the rebuilding. The final works - the construction of the dormitory and the redecoration of the church - were completed in the early 17th century under his successor, Yves Sauvageot.  In 1682 the abbot Claude Petit refurbished the abbot's lodgings and the cloister, while the fortification wall was demolished and the defensive ditch filled in. Further works were undertaken by the abbot François Filzjean de Chemilly in about 1760, principally to the frontage of the abbot's residence, which bears his arms.  The last abbot, Antoine-Louis Desvignes de la Cerve, commissioned a scheme of interior redecoration from the local architect Rameau, for which he granted him a pension.  The abbey was dissolved in 1791 during the French Revolution, by which time the community numbered only 14 monks, and some of the outbuildings were occupied by the workers, some of them women, from the cotton factory which had been established elsewhere on the site. The buildings were sold as national assets and largely destroyed, including the abbey church.

Present.

The only substantial survival of the premises is the 18th century abbot's house, now known as the Château de la Ferté, built on a slight elevation, with a two-storey central block of three bays, wings of four bays with mansard roofs and corner blocks of two bays. This building contains the original monastic refectory. It was listed as a "monument historique" in 1993.

Daughter houses.

La Ferté was the direct founder of five daughter houses:

La Ferté Abbey (; ) was a Cistercian monastery founded in 1113 in La Ferté-sur-Grosne in the present commune of Saint-Ambreuil, Saône-et-Loire, France, the first of the four great daughter-houses of Cîteaux Abbey. It was dissolved in 1791.

Das Zisterzienserkloster La Ferté (lat. "Abbatia Firmitas") ist eine der Primarabteien des Zisterzienserordens. Die Abtei befand sich im Ort La Ferté-sur-Grosne, Gemeinde Saint-Ambreuil, im Département Saône-et-Loire in Frankreich.


Distribution.

The wasp is mostly found in the tropical regions of Africa, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific islands. The flying wasps are more abundant in the warm seasons of the year.  "A. compressa" was introduced to Hawaii by F.X. Williams in 1941 as a method of biocontrol. This has been unsuccessful because of the territorial tendencies of the wasp, and the small scale on which they hunt.  The species is also found in the Brazilian states of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. "A. compressa" likely arrived in the country through the ports of Santos and Rio de Janeiro.

Description.

The wasp has a metallic blue-green body, with the thighs of the second and third pair of legs red. The female is about 22 mm long; the male is smaller and lacks a stinger. Males can be less than half of a female in size if emerging from a smaller or a superparasitized host. The species undergoes four larval stages, where the initial younger larvae can be seen as external hemolymph-feeders on the paralysed roach's leg, and the last instar feeds internally. Upon pupation it produces a chocolate-coloured, thick, spindle-shaped cocoon which can be found inside the dead cockroach within the burrow.

Reproductive behavior and lifecycle.

Female wasps of this species were reported to sting a cockroach (specifically a "Periplaneta americana", "Periplaneta australasiae", or "Nauphoeta rhombifolia") twice, delivering venom. Researchers using radioactive labeling demonstrated that the wasp stings precisely into specific ganglia of the roach. It delivers an initial sting to a thoracic ganglion and injects venom to mildly and reversibly paralyze the front legs of its victim. A biochemically-induced transient paralysis takes over the cockroach, where the temporary loss of mobility facilitates the second venomous sting at a precise spot in the victim's head ganglia (brain), in the section that controls the escape reflex. As a result of this sting, the roach will first groom extensively, and then become sluggish and fail to show normal escape responses. The venom is reported to block receptors for the neurotransmitter octopamine.  Once the host is incapacitated, the wasp proceeds to chew off half of each of the roach's antennae, after which it carefully feeds from exuding hemolymph. The wasp, which is too small to carry the roach, then leads the victim to the wasp's burrow, by pulling one of the roach's antennae in a manner similar to a leash. In the burrow, the wasp will lay one or two white eggs, about 2 mm long, between the roach's legs. It then exits and proceeds to fill in the burrow entrance with any surrounding debris, more to keep other predators and competitors out than to keep the roach in.  With its escape reflex disabled, the stung roach simply rests in the burrow as the wasp's egg hatches after about 3 days. The hatched larva lives and feeds for 4–5 days on the roach, then chews its way into its abdomen and proceeds to live as an endoparasitoid. Over a period of 8 days, the final-instar larva will consume the roach's internal organs, finally killing its host, and enters the pupal stage inside a cocoon in the roach's body. Eventually, the fully grown wasp emerges from the roach's body to begin its adult life. Development is faster in the warm season.  Adults live for several months. Mating takes about a minute, and only one mating is necessary for a female wasp to successfully parasitize several dozen roaches.  While a number of venomous animals paralyze prey as live food for their young, "A. compressa" is different in that it initially leaves the roach mobile and modifies its behavior in a unique way. Several other species of the genus "Ampulex" show a similar behavior of preying on cockroaches. The wasp's predation appears only to affect the cockroach's escape responses. While a stung roach exhibits drastically reduced survival instincts (such as swimming, or avoiding pain) for about 72 hours, motor abilities such as flight or flipping over are unimpaired.

Biomechanics.

The first sting is delivered to the prothoracic ganglion (mass of nerve tissue) which causes a 2– to 3-minute paralysis of the front legs. This sting injects significant quantities of γ amino-butyric acid (GABA) and complementary agonists taurine and β alanine. The concoction temporarily blocks the motor action potentials in the prothoracic ganglion by depressing cholinergic transmission through the increased chloride conductance across nerve synapses. Individually, all of these substances induce short-term paralysis of the cockroach. When they are injected together in a ratio of, the effect was longer lasting. GABA activates ligand-gated chloride channels by binding to GABA receptors. Taurine and beta-alanine likely extend the duration of the paralytic effect by slowing the uptake of GABA by the synaptic cleft. Combined, this cocktail of compounds prevents the cockroach from moving and defending itself while the wasp administers the second sting/series of stings.  The second sting is administered to the subesophageal ganglion (SEG) and is much more precise, hence the need for paralysis and is significantly longer. The wasp actively searches for the SEG during this sting. The second sting inhibits the cockroach's ability to walk spontaneously, or of its own will, but cockroaches can right themselves and swim while under the influence, and when startled, will jump but not run. It also causes excessive grooming and alterations in the metabolism of the cockroach. The metabolic change is thought to preserve nutrients for the wasp larva. Researchers have simulated this zombie state by injecting procaine into the SEG. They also determined using extracellular bipolar electrodes that neuronal activity was less in stung cockroaches. The venom may disturb the octopaminergic modulation in structures within the roach's ganglion. Basically, it limits the effectiveness of octopamine, the neurotransmitter that controls muscle contraction in sudden movements.

The emerald cockroach wasp or jewel wasp ("Ampulex compressa") is a solitary wasp of the family Ampulicidae. It is known for its unusual reproductive behavior, which involves stinging a cockroach and using it as a host for its larvae. It thus belongs to the entomophagous parasites.

Die Juwelwespe ("Ampulex compressa") ist eine parasitär lebende Grabwespe aus der Familie der Ampulicidae. Sie kommt in den tropischen Gebieten Indiens, Afrikas und des pazifischen Raums vor. Ihr Brutverhalten ist einzigartig.


History.

The use of the word "server" in computing comes from queueing theory, where it dates to the mid 20th century, being notably used in (along with "service"), the paper that introduced Kendall's notation. In earlier papers, such as the, more concrete terms such as "[telephone] operators" are used.  In computing, "server" dates at least to RFC 5 (1969), one of the earliest documents describing ARPANET (the predecessor of Internet), and is contrasted with "user", distinguishing two types of host: "server-host" and "user-host". The use of "serving" also dates to early documents, such as RFC 4, contrasting "serving-host" with "using-host".  The Jargon File defines "server" in the common sense of a process performing service for requests, usually remote, with the 1981 (1.1.0) version reading:

Operation.

Strictly speaking, the term "server" refers to a computer program or process (running program). Through metonymy, it refers to a device used for (or a device dedicated to) running one or several server programs. On a network, such a device is called a "host". In addition to "server", the words "serve" and "service" (as noun and as verb) are frequently used, though "servicer" and "servant" are not. The word "service" (noun) may refer to either the abstract form of functionality, e.g. Web service. Alternatively, it may refer to a computer program that turns a computer into a server, e.g. Windows service. Originally used as "servers serve users" (and "users use servers"), in the sense of "obey", today one often says that "servers serve data", in the same sense as "give". For instance, web servers "serve [up] web pages to users" or "service their requests".  The server is part of the client–server model; in this model, a server serves data for clients. The nature of communication between a client and server is request and response. This is in contrast with peer-to-peer model in which the relationship is on-demand reciprocation. In principle, any computerized process that can be used or called by another process (particularly remotely, particularly to share a resource) is a server, and the calling process or processes is a client. Thus any general-purpose computer connected to a network can host servers. For example, if files on a device are shared by some process, that process is a file server. Similarly, web server software can "run" on any capable computer, and so a laptop or a personal computer can host a web server.  While request–response is the most common client-server design, there are others, such as the publish–subscribe pattern. In the publish-subscribe pattern, clients register with a pub-sub server, subscribing to specified types of messages; this initial registration may be done by request-response. Thereafter, the pub-sub server forwards matching messages to the clients "without" any further requests: the server "pushes" messages to the client, rather than the client "pulling" messages from the server as in request-response.

Purpose.

The role of a server is to share data as well as to share resources and distribute work. A server computer can serve its own computer programs as well; depending on the scenario, this could be part of a "quid pro quo" transaction, or simply a technical possibility. The following table shows several scenarios in which a server is used.  Almost the entire structure of the Internet is based upon a client–server model. High-level root nameservers, DNS, and routers direct the traffic on the internet. There are millions of servers connected to the Internet, running continuously throughout the world and virtually every action taken by an ordinary Internet user requires one or more interactions with one or more servers. There are exceptions that do not use dedicated servers; for example, peer-to-peer file sharing and some implementations of telephony (e.g. pre-Microsoft Skype).

Hardware.

Hardware requirement for servers vary widely, depending on the server's purpose and its software. Servers are more often than not, more powerful and expensive than the clients that connect to them.  Since servers are usually accessed over a network, many run unattended without a computer monitor or input device, audio hardware and USB interfaces. Many servers do not have a graphical user interface (GUI). They are configured and managed remotely. Remote management can be conducted via various methods including Microsoft Management Console (MMC), PowerShell, SSH and browser-based out-of-band management systems such as Dell's iDRAC or HP's iLo.

Large servers.

Large traditional single servers would need to be run for long periods without interruption. Availability would have to be very high, making hardware reliability and durability extremely important. Mission-critical enterprise servers would be very fault tolerant and use specialized hardware with low failure rates in order to maximize uptime. Uninterruptible power supplies might be incorporated to guard against power failure. Servers typically include hardware redundancy such as dual power supplies, RAID disk systems, and ECC memory, along with extensive pre-boot memory testing and verification. Critical components might be hot swappable, allowing technicians to replace them on the running server without shutting it down, and to guard against overheating, servers might have more powerful fans or use water cooling. They will often be able to be configured, powered up and down or rebooted remotely, using out-of-band management, typically based on IPMI. Server casings are usually flat and wide, and designed to be rack-mounted, either on 19-inch racks or on Open Racks.  These types of servers are often housed in dedicated data centers. These will normally have very stable power and Internet and increased security. Noise is also less of a concern, but power consumption and heat output can be a serious issue. Server rooms are equipped with air conditioning devices.

Clusters.

A "server farm" or "server cluster" is a collection of computer servers maintained by an organization to supply server functionality far beyond the capability of a single device. Modern data centers are now often built of very large clusters of much simpler servers, and there is a collaborative effort, Open Compute Project around this concept.

Appliances.

A class of small specialist servers called network appliances are generally at the low end of the scale, often being smaller than common desktop computers.

Mobile.

A mobile server has a portable form factor, e.g. a laptop. In contrast to large data centers or rack servers, the mobile server is designed for on-the-road or "ad hoc" deployment into emergency, disaster or temporary environments where traditional servers are not feasible due to their power requirements, size, and deployment time. The main beneficiaries of so-called "server on the go" technology include network managers, software or database developers, training centers, military personnel, law enforcement, forensics, emergency relief groups, and service organizations. To facilitate portability, features such as the keyboard, display, battery (uninterruptible power supply, to provide power redundancy in case of failure), and mouse are all integrated into the chassis.

Operating systems.

On the Internet the dominant operating systems among servers are UNIX-like open-source distributions, such as those based on Linux and FreeBSD, with Windows Server also having a significant share. Proprietary operating systems such as z/OS and macOS Server are also deployed, but in much smaller numbers.  Specialist server-oriented operating systems have traditionally had features such as:  In practice, today many desktop and server operating systems share similar code bases, differing mostly in configuration.

Energy consumption.

In 2010, data centers (servers, cooling, and other electrical infrastructure) were responsible for 1.1-1.5% of electrical energy consumption worldwide and 1.7-2.2% in the United States. One estimate is that total energy consumption for information and communications technology saves more than 5 times its carbon footprint in the rest of the economy by increasing efficiency.

In computing, a server is a computer program or a device that provides functionality for other programs or devices, called "clients". This architecture is called the client–server model. Servers can provide various functionalities, often called "services", such as sharing data or resources among multiple clients, or performing computation for a client. A single server can serve multiple clients, and a single client can use multiple servers. A client process may run on the same device or may connect over a network to a server on a different device. Typical servers are database servers, file servers, mail servers, print servers, web servers, game servers, and application servers.

In der Informationstechnik ist ein (, wörtlich "Diener" oder "Bediensteter", im weiteren Sinn auch "Dienst") ein Computerprogramm oder ein Gerät, welches Funktionalitäten für andere Programme oder Geräte („Clients“) bereitstellt.


History.

Lifted Research Group was founded in 1999 by Jonas Bevacqua and Robert Wright. Wright brought extensive experience in the streetwear industry to LRG, having worked with such companies as Quiksilver, O'Neill, and Katin during an eight-year span. He also contributed the resources to create the company's initial samples and patterns. Bevacqua also raised the initial start-up capital from friends of his adopted father, who worked in the fashion industry. This capital was used to finance an initial product run that sold out during their first day at the Action Sports Retailer Expo in San Diego, California. The company became profitable by 2002, and made its first $1 million in 2000.  In late 2005, L-R-G announced their new women's clothing line, called Luxirie, which targets the 18- to 30-year-old women's group. Designs from the label cover six themes, ranging from Western to military, and include signature items such as crystal-covered jeans. The label launched in the United States and Canada in fall 2006. LRG has since launched their products in other countries, as well as hosting an international skate team. Rider Marek Zaprazny has been a star in their international team. Also in fall 2006, wireless provider T-Mobile launched a limited edition Sidekick III designed by LRG. It was equipped with the same technical features as the Sidekick III and sported a green-on-green theme that made liberal use of L-R-G's logo. After a production run of 10,000 units, T-Mobile's website reported that it was sold out.  On May 31, 2011, Jonas Bevacqua was found dead of natural causes, aged 33.

Lifted Research Group, commonly known as LRG, is an American, Orange County, California based clothing brand headed by Jonas Bevacqua and Robert Wright. LRG produces clothing and accessories, and also has been known to develop a broad range of products consisting of electronic accessories, extreme vehicles, and outdoor equipment including sporting goods and more. The company is also involved in the promotion of underground recording artists and sponsors a skateboarding team. "Entrepreneur" magazine ranked the company at #5 on its 2007 Hot 500 list of fastest-growing companies.

LRG clothing (eigentlich "Lifted Research Group") ist eine im Jahr 1999 gegründete US-amerikanische Modefirma, die ihren Sitz in Orange County, Kalifornien hat. Die Gründer des Unternehmens sind Jonas Bevacqua und Robert Wright.


Design and construction.

In 1938, the Australian Commonwealth Naval Board (ACNB) identified the need for a general purpose 'local defence vessel' capable of both anti-submarine and mine-warfare duties, while easy to construct and operate. The vessel was initially envisaged as having a displacement of approximately 500 tons, a speed of at least, and a range of The opportunity to build a prototype in the place of a cancelled Bar-class boom defence vessel saw the proposed design increased to a 680-ton vessel, with a top speed, and a range of, armed with a 4-inch gun, equipped with asdic, and able to fitted with either depth charges or minesweeping equipment depending on the planned operations: although closer in size to a sloop than a local defence vessel, the resulting increased capabilities were accepted due to advantages over British-designed mine warfare and anti-submarine vessels. Construction of the prototype did not go ahead, but the plans were retained. The need for locally built 'all-rounder' vessels at the start of World War II saw the "Australian Minesweepers" (designated as such to hide their anti-submarine capability, but popularly referred to as "corvettes") approved in September 1939, with 60 constructed during the course of the war: 36 (including "Warrnambool") ordered by the RAN, 20 ordered by the British Admiralty but manned and commissioned as RAN vessels, and 4 for the Royal Indian Navy.  Morts Dock & Engineering Co laid "Warrnambool" down in Sydney on 13 November 1940. She was launched on 8 May 1941 by Mrs Simpson, wife of a shipyard Director, and commissioned on 23 September 1941.

Operational history.

"Warrnambool" began her career with patrols of Bass Strait, before heading to northern waters. She was in Darwin during the bombing of Darwin on 19 February 1942, although she was not damaged. A day later she was involved in the rescue of 73 crew from the Filipino merchant vessel, following attacks by Japanese dive bombers. During the rescue, the Japanese attacked "Warrnambool" but she received only minor damage. Over the next 12 months "Warrnambool" was involved in five evacuations or rescues (including that of HMAS "Voyager"’s crew following the destroyer running aground in September 1942), present for eighteen Japanese air raids, and transported over 4,000 troops to New Guinea.  In late 1942, the corvette moved to the east coast of Australia, where she remained until September 1944, performing convoy escort and anti-submarine patrols. Following this "Warrnambool" was assigned to Fremantle, Western Australia, where she performed similar duties until February 1945, when she returned to Darwin. She was present at the Japanese surrender at Koepang, Timor, on 11 September 1945. Following the conclusion of World War II, "Warrnambool" performed mine clearance work in the Solomon and New Guinea Islands before moving to the Great Barrier Reef. While performing clearance work on 13 September 1947, the corvette hit a mine around 16:00 near Cockburn Reef, off the northern Queensland coast. Four sailors were killed and another 29 were injured. "Warrnambool" sank shortly afterward, in of water. The wreck was sold to Southern Cross Diving and Salvage on 3 July 1972. A Board of Inquiry found that there was no culpable negligence in the loss of the corvette, and praised the conduct of her crew and commanding officer. "Warrnambool" is the only RAN ship to be sunk by a mine. A survey conducted in 2016 by found that the wreck of "Warrnambool" remained largely intact.  The corvette's wartime service was recognised with three battle honours: "Darwin 1942", "Pacific 1942–45", and "New Guinea 1942".

HMAS "Warrnambool" (J202), named for the city of Warrnambool, Victoria was one of 60 "Bathurst"-class corvettes constructed during World War II, and one of 36 initially manned and commissioned solely by the Royal Australian Navy (RAN). "Warrnambool" sank after she hit a mine in the Great Barrier Reef on 13 September 1947. She was one of only four "Bathurst" class corvettes lost while in Australian service, and the only one lost after World War II.

Das erste Schiff der Royal Australian Navy, das den Namen HMAS Warrnambool trug war eine Korvette der "Bathurst-Klasse" während des Zweiten Weltkriegs. Insgesamt 60 Schiffe dieser Klasse wurden während des Krieges in Australien als Teil des Kriegsnotprogramms als Minensucher gebaut, 36 für die Royal Australian Navy (darunter auch die "Warrnambool"), 20 im Auftrag der britischen Admiralität, aber von der Royal Australian Navy bemannt und eingesetzt, und vier weitere für die Royal Indian Navy. Namensgeberin des Schiffes war die Stadt Warrnambool im australischen Bundesstaat Victoria.