Names and etymology.

The shoes have gone by a variety of names, depending on geography, and changing over the decades. The term "sneakers" is most commonly used in the Northeastern United States, South Florida and Central Florida, parts of Canada and New Zealand. The British English equivalent of "sneaker" in its modern form is "trainer". In some urban areas in the United States, the slang for sneakers is kicks. Other terms include training shoes or trainers (Britain), sandshoes, gym boots or joggers (Geordie English in the UK and Australian English), running shoes, runners or gutties (Canada, Australia and Scotland), daps in Wales, runners in Hiberno-English, sneakers (North America, New Zealand and Australia), tennis shoes (North American and Australia), gym shoes, tennies, sports shoes, sneaks, takkies (South Africa and Hiberno-English), rubber shoes (Philippine English), canvas shoes (Nigeria) and sportex (Greece)  Plimsolls (British English) are "low tech" athletic shoes, and are also called'sneakers' in American English. The word "sneaker" is often attributed to American Henry Nelson McKinney who was an advertising agent for N. W. Ayer & Son. In 1917, he used the term because the rubber sole made the shoe's wearer stealthy. The word was already in use at least as early as 1887, as "The" "Boston Journal" made reference to "sneakers" as "the name boys give to tennis shoes." The name "sneakers" originally referred to how quiet the rubber soles were on the ground, in contrast to noisy standard hard leather sole dress shoes. Someone wearing sneakers could "sneak up" on someone while someone wearing standards could not.  Earlier, the name "sneaks" had been used by prison inmates to refer to warders because of the rubber-soled shoes they wore.

History.

These shoes acquired the nickname 'plimsoll' in the 1870s, derived according to Nicholette Jones' book "The Plimsoll Sensation", from the coloured horizontal band joining the upper to the sole, which resembled the Plimsoll line on a ship's hull. Alternatively, just like the Plimsoll line on a ship, if water got above the line of the rubber sole, the wearer would get wet.  Plimsolls were widely worn by vacationers and also began to be worn by sportsmen on the tennis and croquet courts for their comfort. Special soles with engraved patterns to increase the surface grip of the shoe were developed, and these were ordered in bulk for the use of the British Army. Athletic shoes were increasingly used for leisure and outdoor activities at the turn of the 20th century - plimsolls were even found with the ill-fated Scott Antarctic expedition of 1911. Plimsolls were commonly worn by pupils in schools' physical education lessons in the UK from the 1950s until the early 1970s.  British company J.W. Foster and Sons designed and produced the first shoes designed for running in 1895; the shoes were spiked to allow for greater traction and speed. The company sold its high-quality handmade running shoes to athletes around the world, eventually receiving a contract for the manufacture of running shoes for the British team in the 1924 Summer Olympics. Harold Abrahams and Eric Liddell won the 100 m and 400 m events, kitted out with Foster's running gear.  This style of footwear also became prominent in America at the turn of the 20th century, where they were called'sneakers'. In 1892, the U.S. Rubber Company introduced the first rubber-soled shoes in the country, sparking a surge in demand and production. The first basketball shoes were designed by Spalding as early as 1907. The market for sneakers grew after World War I, when sports and athletics increasingly became a way to demonstrate moral fiber and patriotism. The U.S. market for sneakers grew steadily as young boys lined up to buy sneakers endorsed by football player Jim Thorpe and Converse All Stars endorsed by basketball player Chuck Taylor.  During the interwar period, athletic shoes began to be marketed for different sports, and differentiated designs were made available for men and women. Athletic shoes were used by competing athletes at the Olympics, helping to popularise athletic shoes among the general public. In 1936, a French brand, Spring Court, marketed the first canvas tennis shoe featuring signature eight ventilation channels on a vulcanised natural rubber sole.  Adolf "Adi" Dassler began producing his own sports shoes in his mother's wash kitchen in Herzogenaurach, Bavaria, after his return from World War I, and went on to establish one of the leading athletic shoe manufacturers, Adidas. He also successfully marketed his shoes to athletes at the 1936 Summer Olympics, which helped cement his good reputation. Business boomed and the Dasslers were selling 200,000 pairs of shoes each year before World War II.

Post-War.

During the 1950s, leisure opportunities greatly expanded, and children and adolescents began to wear sneakers as school dress codes relaxed. Sneaker sales rose so high, they began to adversely affect the sales of conventional leather shoes, leading to a fierce advertising war for market share in the late '50s. In the 1970s, jogging for exercise became increasingly popular, and trainers designed specifically for comfort while jogging sold well. Companies also started to target some of their products at the casual fashion market. Soon, shoes were available for football, jogging, basketball, running, etc. Many sports had their relevant shoe, made possible by podiatrist development of athletic shoe technology.  During the 1990s, shoe companies perfected their fashion and marketing skills. Sports endorsements with famous athletes grew larger, and marketing budgets went through the roof. Sneakers became a fashion statement and were marketed as a definition of identity and personality rather than simply athletic aids.  From 1970 (5 models) over 1998 (285 models) to 2012 (3,371), the number of sport shoe models in the U.S. has grown exponentially.

Use in sports.

The term 'athletic shoes' is typically used for shoes utilized for jogging or road running and indoor sports such as basketball, but tends to exclude shoes for sports played on grass such as association football and rugby football, which are generally known in North America as "cleats" and in British English as "boots" or "studs".  Attributes of an athletic shoe include a flexible sole, appropriate tread for the function, and ability to absorb impact. As the industry and designs have expanded, the term "athletic shoes" is based more on the design of the bottom of the shoe than the aesthetics of the top of the shoe. Today's designs include sandals, Mary Janes, and even elevated styles suitable for running, dancing, and jumping.  The shoes themselves are made of flexible compounds, typically featuring a sole made of dense rubber. While the original design was basic, manufacturers have since tailored athletic shoes for their specific purposes. An example of this is the spiked shoe developed for track running. Some of these shoes are made up to unusually large sizes for athletes with large feet.

Running shoes.

Running shoes come in a range of shapes suited to different running styles/abilities. Generally, they are divided by running style: the majority are for heel-toe joggers/runners which are further subdivided into 'neutral', 'overpronation' and 'underpronation'. These are constructed with a complex structure of "rubber" with plastic/metal stiffeners to restrict foot movement. More advanced runners tend to wear flatter and flexible shoes, which allow them to run more quickly with greater comfort.  According to the NPD Group, one in four pairs of running shoes that were sold in the United States in 2016 were bought from an online retailer.

Notable brands.

, brands with global popularity include:

Sneaker culture.

Sneakers have been an important part of hip hop (primarily Pumas, Nike, and Adidas) and rock 'n roll (Converse, Vans) cultures since the 1970s. Hip hop artists sign million dollar deals with major brands such as Nike, Adidas, or Puma to promote their shoes. Sneaker collectors, called "sneakerheads", regard sneakers as fashionable items. Sneaker companies encourage this trend by producing rare sneakers in limited numbers, often at very high retail prices. Artistically-modified sneakers can sell for upwards of $1000 at exclusive establishments like Saks Fifth Avenue. In 2005, a documentary, "Just for Kicks", about the sneaker phenomenon and history was released.

Sneakers (also called trainers, athletic shoes, tennis shoes, gym shoes, kicks, sport shoes, flats, running shoes, or runners) are shoes primarily designed for sports or other forms of physical exercise, but which are now also widely used for everyday casual wear.

Sneaker () ist der US-amerikanische Sammelbegriff für Sportschuhe und bezeichnet Schuhe, die sowohl während sportlicher Betätigung als auch im Alltag getragen werden können. Im Deutschen wird der Begriff Sneaker hingegen meist auf im Alltag getragene, sportlich aussehende Schuhe angewendet; ist also enger gefasst als im amerikanischen Englisch. Im britischen Englisch bedeutet'sneaker' nur Turnschuhe mit Canvas-Schaft und Gummisohle.


Description.

Morphology.

All Paeoniaceae are deciduous perennial herbs or shrubs, with thick storage roots and thin roots for gathering water and minerals. Some species are caespitose (tufted), because the crown produces adventitious buds, while others have stolons. They have rather large compound leaves without glands and stipules, and with anomocytic stomata. In the woody species the new growth emerges from scaly buds on the previous flush or from the crown of the rootstock. The large bisexual flowers are mostly single at the end of the stem. In "P. emodi", "P. lactiflora", "P. veitchii" and many of the cultivars these contributed to, few additional flowers develop in the axils of the leaves. Flowers close at night or when the sky is overcast. Each flower is subtended by a number of bracts, that may form a sort of involucre, has 3-7 tough free sepals and mostly 5-8, but occasionally up to 13 free petals. These categories however are intergrading, making it difficult to assign some of them, and the number of these parts may vary. Within are numerous (50–160) free stamens, with anthers fixed at their base to the filaments, and are sagittate in shape, open with longitudal slits at the outer side and free pollen grains which have three slits or pores and consist of two cells. Within the circle of stamens is a more or less prominent, lobed disc, which is presumed not to excrete nectar. Within the disk is a varying number (1-15) of separate carpels, which have a very short style and a decurrent stigma. Each of these develops into a dry fruit (which is called a follicle), which opens with a lengthwise suture and each of which contains one or a few large fleshy seeds. The annual growth is predetermined: if the growing tip of a shoot is removed, no new buds will develop that season.

Phytochemistry.

Paeoniaceae are dependent on C3 carbon fixation. They contain ellagic acid, myricetin, ethereal oils and flavones, as well as crystals of calcium oxalate. The wax tubules that are formed primarily consist of palmitone (the ketone of palmitic acid).

Genome.

The basic chromosome number is five. About half of the species of the section "Paeonia" however is tetraploid (4n=20), particularly many of those in the Mediterranean region. Both allotetraploids and autotetraploids are known, and some diploid species are also of hybrid origin.

Taxonomy.

The family name "Paeoniaceae" was first used by Friedrich K.L. Rudolphi in 1830, following a suggestion by Friedrich Gottlieb Bartling that same year. The family had been given other names a few years earlier. The composition of the family has varied, but it has always consisted of "Paeonia" and one or more genera that are now placed in Ranunculales. It has been widely believed that "Paeonia" is closest to "Glaucidium", and this idea has been followed in some recent works. Molecular phylogenetic studies, however, have demonstrated conclusively that "Glaucidium" belongs in the family Ranunculaceae, order Ranunculales, but that "Paeonia" belongs in the unrelated order Saxifragales. The genus "Paeonia" consists of about 35 species, assigned to three sections: "Moutan", "Onaepia" and "Paeoniae". The section "Onaepia" only includes "P. brownii" and "P. californicum". The section "Moutan" is divided into "P. delavayi" and "P. ludlowii", together making up the subsection "Delavayanae", and "P. catayana", "P. decomposita", "P. jishanensis", "P. osti", "P. qiui" and "P. rockii" which constitute the subsection "Vaginatae". "P. suffruticosa" is a cultivated hybrid swarm, not a naturally occurring species.  The remainder of the species belongs to the section "Paeonia", which is characterised by a complicated reticulate evolution. Only about half of the (sub)species is diploid, the other half tetraploid, while some species both have diploid and tetraploid populations. In addition to the tetraploids, are some diploid species also likely the result of hybridisation, or nothospecies. Known diploid taxa in the "Paeonia"-section are "P. anomala", "P. lactiflora", "P. veitchii", "P. tenuifolia", "P. emodi", "P. broteri", "P. cambedessedesii", "P. clusii", "P. rhodia", "P. daurica" subsps. "coriifolia", "daurica", "macrophylla" and "mlokosewitschii". Tetraploid taxa are "P. arietina", "P. officinalis", "P. parnassica", "P. banatica", "P. russi", "P. peregrina", "P. coriacea", "P. mascula" subsps. "hellenica" and "mascula", and "P. daurica" subsps. "tomentosa" and "wittmanniana". Species that have both diploid and tetraploid populations include "P. clusii", "P. mairei" and "P. obovata". "P. anomala" was proven to be a hybrid of "P. lactiflora" and "P. veitchii", although being a diploid with 10 chromosomes. "P. emodi" and "P. sterniana" are diploid hybrids of "P. lactiflora" and "P. veitchii" too, and radically different in appearance. "P. russi" is the tetraploid hybrid of diploid "P. lactiflora" and "P. mairei", while "P. cambedessedesii" is the diploid hybrid of "P. lactiflora", likely "P. mairei", but possibly also "P. obovata". "P. peregrina" is the tetraploid hybrid of "P. anomala" and either "P. arietina", "P. humilis", "P. officinalis", "P. parnassica" or less likely "P. tenuifolia", or one of their (now extinct) common ancestors. "P. banatica" is the tetraploid hybrid of "P. mairei" and one of this same group. "P. broteri", "P. coriacea", "P. clusii", "P. rhodia", "P. daurica" subsp. "mlokosewitschi", "P. mascula" subsp. "hellenica" and ssp. "mascula", and "P. daurica" subsp. "wittmanniana" are all descendants of hybrids of "P. lactiflora" and "P. obovata".

Phylogeny.

According to recent genetic analyses, the monogeneric family Paeoniaceae is related to a group of families with woody species in the order Saxifragales. This results in the following relationship tree. One dissertation suggests the section "Onaepia" branches off earliest. A later publication of the same author and others suggests the "Moutan"-section splits off first. Within that section "P. ludlowii" and "P. delavayi" are more related to each other than to any other species.

Etymology.

The peony is named after Paeon (also spelled Paean), a student of Asclepius and the Greek god of medicine and healing. In Greek mythology, when Asclepius became jealous of his pupil, Zeus saved Paeon from the wrath of Asclepius by turning him into the peony flower.

Distribution.

The genus "Paeonia" naturally occurs in the temperate and cold areas of the Northern Hemisphere. The section "Moutan", which includes all woody species, is restricted in the wild to Central and Southern China, including Tibet. The section "Onaepia" consist of two herbaceous species and is present in the West of North-America, "P. brownii" between southern British Columbia and the Sierra Nevada in California and eastward to Wyoming and Utah, while "P. californica" is limited to the coastal mountains of Southern and Central California.  The section "Paeonia", which comprises all other herbaceous species, occurs in a band stretching roughly from Morocco to Japan. One species of the section "Paeonia", "P. anomala", has by far the largest distribution, which is also north of the distribution of the other species: from the Kola peninsula in North-West Russia, to Lake Baikal in Siberia and South to the Tien Shan Mountains of Kazakhstan. The rest of the section concentrates around the Mediterranean, and in Asia.  The species around the Mediterranean include "Paeonia algeriensis" that is an endemic of the coastal mountains of Algeria, "P. coriacea" in the Rif Mountains and Andalusia, "P. cambessedesii" on Majorca, "P. russoi" on Corsica, Sardinia and Sicilly, "P. corsica" on Corsica, Sardinia, the Ionian islands and in western Greece", P. clusii" subsp. "clusii" on Crete and Karpathos, and subsp. "rhodia" on Rhodes, "P. kesrouanensis" in the Western Taurus Mountains, "P. arietina" from the Middle Taurus Mountains, "P. broteri" in Andalucia, "P. humilis" from Andalucia to the Provence, "P. officinalis" from the South of France, through Switzerland to the Middle of Italy, "P. banatica" in western Romania, northern Serbia and Slovenia and in southern Hungary, "P. peregrina" in Albania, western Bulgaria, northern Greece, western Romania, Serbia, Montenegro and Bosnia, while "P. mascula" has a large distribution from Catalonia and southern France to Israel and Turkey.  Between the two concentrations, the subspecies of "Paeonia daurica" occur, with subspecies "velebitensis" in Croatia, and "daurica" in the Balkans and Crimea, while the other subspecies "coriifolia", "macrophylla", "mlokosewitschii", "tomentosa" and "wittmanniana" are known from the Caucasus, Kaçkar and Alborz Mountains.  "Paeonia emodi" occurs in the western Himalayas between Pakistan and western Nepal, "P. sterniana" is an endemic of southeastern Tibet, "P. veitchii" grows in Central China (Qinghai, Ningxia, Gansu, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Sichuan and the eastern rim of Tibet), like "P. mairei" (Gansu, Guizhou, Hubei, Shaanxi, Sichuan, and Yunnan), while "P. obovata" grows in warm-temperate to cold China, including Manchuria, Korea, Japan, Far Eastern Russia (Primorsky Krai) and on Sakhalin, and "P. lactiflora" occurs in Northern China, including Manchuria, Japan, Korea, Mongolia, Russia (Far East and Siberia).

Distributional history.

The species of the section Paeonia have a disjunct distribution, with most of the species occurring in the Mediterranean, while many others occur in eastern Asia. Genetic analysis has shown that all Mediterranean species are either diploid or tetraploid hybrids that resulted from the crossbreeding of species currently limited to eastern Asia. The large distance between the ranges of the parent species and the nothospecies suggest that hybridisation already occurred relatively long ago. It is likely that the parent species occurred in the same region when the hybrids arose, and were later exterminated by successive Pleistocene glaciations, while the nothospecies remained in refugia to the South of Europe. During their retreat "P. lactiflora" and "P. mairei" likely became sympatric and so produced the Himalayan nothospecies "P. emodi" and "P. sterniana".

Chemistry and biological activity.

Over 262 compounds have been obtained so far from the plants of Paeoniaceae. These include monoterpenoid glucosides, flavonoids, tannins, stilbenoids, triterpenoids, steroids, paeonols, and phenols. "In vitro" biological activities include antioxidant, antitumor, antipathogenic, immunomodulative, cardiovascular-system-protective activities and central-nervous-system activities.

Cultivation.

Ancient Chinese texts mention the peony was used for flavoring food. Confucius (551–479 BC) is quoted to have said: "I eat nothing without its sauce. I enjoy it very much, because of its flavor." Peonies have been used and cultivated in China since early history. Ornamental cultivars were created from plants cultivated for medicine in China as of the sixth and seventh century. Peonies became particularly popular during the Tang dynasty, when they were grown in the imperial gardens. In the tenth century the cultivation of peonies spread through China, and the seat of the Sung dynasty, Luoyang, was the centre for its cultivation, a position it still holds today. A second centre for peony cultivation developed during the Qing dynasty in Cáozhōu, now known as He Ze. Both cities still host annual peony exhibitions and state-funded peony research facilities. Before the tenth century, "P. lactiflora" was introduced in Japan, and over time many varieties were developed both by self fertilisation and crossbreeding, particularly during the eighteenth to twentieth centuries (middle Edo to early Shōwa periods). During the 1940s Toichi Itoh succeeded in crossing tree peonies and herbaceous peonies and so created a new class of so-called intersectional hybrids. Although "P. officinalis" and its cultivars were grown in Europe from the fifteenth century on, originally also for medicinal purposes, intensive breeding started only in the nineteenth century when "P. lactiflora" was introduced from its native China to Europe. The tree peony was introduced in Europe and planted in Kew Gardens in 1789. The main centre of peony breeding in Europe has been in the United Kingdom, and particularly France. Here, breeders like Victor Lemoine and François Félix Crousse selected many new varieties, mainly with "P. lactiflora", such as "Avant Garde" and "Le Printemps". The Netherlands is the largest peony cut flower producing country with about 50 million stems each year, with "Sarah Bernhardt" dominating the sales with over 20 million stems.

Plant growth habits.

Peony species come in two distinct growth habits, while hybrid cultivars in addition may occupy an intermediate habit.

Flower types.

Six types of flower are generally distinguished in cultivars of herbaceous peonies.

Propagation.

Herbaceous and Itoh peonies are propagated by root division, and sometimes by seed. Tree peonies can be propagated by grafting, division, seed, and from cuttings, although root grafting is most common commercially.  Herbaceous peonies such as "Paeonia lactiflora", will die back to ground level each autumn. Their stems will reappear the following spring. However tree peonies, such as "Paeonia suffruticosa", are shrubbier. They produce permanent woody stems that will lose their leaves in winter but the stem itself remains intact above ground level.

Uses.

The herb known as Paeonia, in particular the root of "P. lactiflora" (Bai Shao, Radix Paeoniae Lactiflorae), has been used frequently in traditional medicines of Korea, China and Japan. In Japan, "Paeonia lactiflora" used to be called "ebisugusuri" ("foreign medicine"). Pronunciation of 牡丹 (peony) in Japan is "botan." In "kampo" (the Japanese adaptation of Chinese medicine), its root was used as a treatment for convulsions. It is also cultivated as a garden plant. In Japan "Paeonia suffruticosa" is called the "King of Flowers" and "Paeonia lactiflora" is called the "Prime Minister of Flowers."  In China, the fallen petals of "Paeonia lactiflora" are parboiled and sweetened as a tea-time delicacy. Peony water, an infusion of peony petals, was used for drinking in the Middle Ages. The petals may be added to salads or to punches and lemonades.  Peonies are also extensively grown as ornamental plants for their very large, often scented flowers.

Culture.

The peony is among the longest-used flowers in Eastern culture. Along with the plum blossom, it is a traditional floral symbol of China, where the "Paeonia suffruticosa" is called 牡丹 (mǔdān). It is also known as 富貴花 (fùguìhuā) "flower of riches and honour" or 花王 (huawang) "king of the flowers", and is used symbolically in Chinese art. In 1903, the Qing dynasty declared the peony as the national flower. Currently, the Republic of China government in Taiwan designates the plum blossom as the national flower, while the People's Republic of China government has no legally designated national flower. In 1994, the peony was proposed as the national flower after a nationwide poll, but the National People's Congress failed to ratify the selection. In 2003, another selection process was initiated, but no choice has been made to date.  The ancient Chinese city Luoyang has a reputation as a cultivation centre for the peonies. Throughout Chinese history, peonies in Luoyang have been said to be the finest in the country. Dozens of peony exhibitions and shows are still held there annually.  In the Middle Ages, peonies were often painted with their ripe seed-capsules, since it was the seeds, not the flowers, which were medically significant. Ancient superstition dictated that great care be taken not to be seen by a woodpecker while picking the plant's fruit, or the bird might peck out one's eyes.  The red flowers of the species "Paeonia peregrina" are important in Serbian folklore. Known as Kosovo peonies (, ), they are said to represent the blood of Serbian warriors who died when fighting in the Battle of Kosovo in June 1389.  In 1957, the Indiana General Assembly passed a law to make the peony the state flower of Indiana, a title which it holds to this day. It replaced the zinnia, which had been the state flower since 1931.  Mischievous nymphs were said to hide in the petals of the Peony, giving it the meaning of Shame or Bashfulness in the Language of Flowers. While the peony takes several years to re-establish itself when moved, it blooms annually for decades once it has done so.  Peonies tend to attract ants to the flower buds. This is due to the nectar that forms on the outside of the flower buds, and is not required for the plants' own pollination or other growth. The presence of ants is thought to provide some deterrence to other harmful insects though, so the production of ant-attracting nectar is plausibly a functional adaptation. Ants do not harm the plants.  Peonies are a common subject in tattoos, often used along with koi-fish. The popular use of peonies in Japanese tattoo was inspired by the ukiyo-e artist Utagawa Kuniyoshi's illustrations of "Suikoden", a classical Chinese novel. His paintings of warrior-heroes covered in pictorial tattoos included lions, tigers, dragons, koi fish, and peonies, among other symbols. The peony became a masculine motif, associated with a devil-may-care attitude and disregard for consequence.  Famous painters of peonies have included Conrad Gessner (ca. 1550) and Auguste Renoir in 1879. "Paeonia officinalis" can be found in the altar picture of "Maria im Rosenhag" by Schongauer in the former Dominican Church in Colmar. The Italian Jesuit, painter and architect Giuseppe Castiglione (1688-1766), who worked at the court of the Qianlong Emperor in the Qing dynasty, painted peonies.

The peony or paeony is a flowering plant in the genus Paeonia, the only genus in the family Paeoniaceae. Peonies are native to Asia, Europe and Western North America. Scientists differ on the number of species that can be distinguished, ranging from 25 to 40, although the current consensus is 33 known species. The relationships between the species need to be further clarified.

Die Pfingstrosen ("Paeonia"), auch Päonien genannt, sind die einzige Pflanzengattung der Familie der Pfingstrosengewächse (Paeoniaceae). Diese Gattung umfasst 32 Arten. Die bekanntesten Sorten sind Stauden, also ausdauernde krautige Pflanzen, deren oberirdische Sprosse im Winter absterben; daneben gibt es auch verholzende Arten und Sorten, die meistens als Halbsträucher, seltener als Sträucher wachsen. Ausgangsformen der Kultursorten sind fast immer gärtnerische Züchtungen der Gemeinen Pfingstrose und der Milchweißen Pfingstrose. Wenige Gartenformen basieren dagegen auf interspezifischen Hybriden.


Discovery and naming.

The fragmentary and poorly preserved skeleton of "Procompsognathus" was found in the Middle Stubensandstein member of the Löwenstein Formation at the "Weiße Steinbruch", the quarry of Albert Burrer on the northern slopes of the Stromberg region near Pfaffenheim in Württemberg, Germany. The discovery was made by Albert Burrer in the spring of 1909 in white sandstone and gray/blue marl sediments that were deposited during the Norian stage of the Triassic period, approximately 210 million years ago.  The holotype SMNS 12591, consisted of three blocks of sandstone: one showed a small, seven-centimetre-long, severely crushed skull with lower jaws. The second and third contained the partly articulated remains of a postcranial skeleton, including twenty-nine vertebrae of the neck, back and tail; ribs; elements of the shoulder girdle and a forelimb; an ilium; both pubis and the hindlimbs. It represents an adult individual.  Burrer sent the specimen to Professor Eberhard Fraas of the "königliche Stuttgarter Naturalienkabinett". In a lecture on 9 October 1911, Fraas referred to it by the name "Hallopus celerrimus", considering it jumping form of dinosaur that was approximately long, and was associated with the origin of birds. Later, Fraas decided to use a different name in the official publication. Fraas in 1913 named the genus "Procompsognathus" with as type species, "Procompsognathus triassicus". The type specimen is housed in the collection of the State Museum of Natural History in Stuttgart, Germany.  In 1921, Friedrich von Huene referred two more specimens, both also found in the Burrer quarry, in 1908, to "Procompsognathus": SMNS 12352, a partial skull and lower jaws from a larger individual than the holotype, and SMNS 12352a, an isolated left hand.  The genus name "Procompsognathus", means "before elegant jaw", and is derived from the name of another dinosaur, "Compsognathus". A later (Jurassic) small predatory dinosaur, "Compsognathus" takes its name from the Greek word "kompsos" (κομψός) which can be rendered as "elegant", "refined" or "dainty" and the Greek word "gnathos" (γνάθος) which means "jaw". The prefix "Pro" (προ) implies "before" or "ancestor of", although this direct lineage was not supported by subsequent research. The specific name "triassicus" refers to the geologic time period to which this dinosaur belongs, the Triassic.

Description.

"Procompsognathus" may have been about long, though Fraas in 1913 estimated a length of. In 2010 Gregory S. Paul gave an estimate of for the weight with a length of. A biped, "Procompsognathus" had long hind legs, short arms, large clawed hands, a long slender snout with many small teeth, and a stiff tail. The femur discovered for the type specimen of this genus measures 93mm and the tibia, 112mm. The tibia is approximately 20% longer than the femur in "Procompsognathus", an adaptation which has been strongly correlated with the development of cursorial habits in dinosaurs, suggesting that they were good runners.

Distinguishing anatomical features.

A diagnosis is a statement of the anatomical features of an organism (or group) that collectively distinguish it from all other organisms. Some, but not all, of the features in a diagnosis are also autapomorphies. An autapomorphy is a distinctive anatomical feature that is unique to a given organism or group. In 2000, Rauhut noted that its scapula is more slender than that of "Coelophysis bauri".  In 1998 Chatterjee noted that the skull of "Procompsognathus" possesses a suite of theropod synapomorphies, which included:

Classification.

Type specimen SMNS 12591.

While it is undoubtedly a small, bipedal carnivore, the extremely poor preservation of the only known "Procompsognathus" fossil makes its exact identity difficult to determine. Fraas originally assigned it to the Dinosauria. In 1923 Franz Nopcsa coined a Procompsognathinae, and in 1929 von Huene created a Procompsognathidae, though these concepts are today rarely used. In 1932 von Huene saw it as a member of the non-dinosaurian Pseudosuchia. It has since then usually been considered a theropod dinosaur, with some exceptions. In 1992 Paul Sereno and Rupert Wild stated that the holotype specimen consisted of fossils from two separate animals: the postcranial skeleton would be a theropod, likely a coelophysoid related to "Segisaurus", but the skull and the von Huene specimens they referred to the basal crocodylomorph "Saltoposuchus connectens". However, in 1993 Sankar Chatterjee after further preparation refuted their assessment and regarded the skull as that of a theropod similar to "Syntarsus", and demonstrated that it could not have been a crocodylomorph, as it lacks the landmark features of this group. Sereno (1997) and Ezcurra and Novas (2007) conducted phylogenetic analysis that supported the placement of "Procompsognathus" in the taxon Coelophysidae. This genus may be most closely related to "Segisaurus halli".

Referred specimens SMNS 12352 and SMNS 12352a.

Much controversy has arisen however, about the association with the later material referred by von Huene. In 1982 John Ostrom claimed that SMNS 12352 and SMNS 12352a originated from a taxon different from the holotype. In 2006 and 2008 Fabien Knoll concluded that SMNS 12352 represented a crocodylomorph and SMNS 12352a a crocodylomorph or some other basal archosaur. The postcranial skeleton, for which he reserved the inventory number SMNS 12591, was a coelophysoid; and the skull, now indicated with the number SMNS 12591a, a perhaps more derived theropod, possibly a basal member of the Tetanurae. In 2012 Knoll after a CAT-scan reaffirmed that SMNS 12352 was a crocodylomorph, but established it was different from "Saltoposuchus".  Oliver Rauhut and Axel Hungerbuhler (2000) noted features of the vertebrae which suggest that "Procompsognathus" may be a coelophysid or ceratosaur, and Carrano "et al." (2005), in their re-study of the related genus "Segisaurus", found both "Segisaurus" and "Procompsognathus" to belong to the Coelophysidae within Dinosauria. In 2004 David Allen considered "Procompsognathus" to be a primitive, non-dinosaurian ornithodiran.

Paleoecology.

"Procompsognathus" lived in a relatively dry, inland environment and may have eaten insects, lizards and other small prey. Contemporaries of "Prompsognathus" included the coelophysoids "Halticosaurus" and "Dolichosuchus", as well as the Sauropodomorphs "Plateosaurus gracilis" and "Efraasia minor". Weishampel, "et al." (2004) noted that theropod tracks and fossils of an unnamed herrerasaur genus are known from the Lower Stubensandstein.

In popular culture.

"Procompsognathus" appears in the novel "Jurassic Park" and its sequel "The Lost World" by Michael Crichton. The species is sometimes referred to as "compys" by the characters. While the author invents a venomous bite for "Procompsognathus" with soporific effects, there is no evidence to support venom in "Procompsognathus".  "See also: Compsognathus in popular culture"

Procompsognathus is an extinct genus of coelophysid theropod dinosaur that lived approximately 210 million years ago during the later part of the Triassic Period, in what is now Germany. "Procompsognathus" was a small-sized, lightly built, ground-dwelling, bipedal carnivore, that could grow up to 1 m (3.3 ft) long.

Procompsognathus war ein kleiner, in Nordeuropa beheimateter fleischfressender Dinosaurier. Die bisher einzige beschriebene Art "P. triassicus" lässt sich auf die späte Trias (mittleres Norium) datieren. Der fünffingrige Saurier dürfte sich vorwiegend von kleineren Echsen und Insekten ernährt haben.


Biography.

Public career.

During the First Civil War (88–87 BC), Verres supported Gaius Marius and the Populares, but soon went over to Sulla and the Optimates. After Sulla’s return from the East and his subsequent victory in the Second Civil War (84-81) Verres found himself on the winning side. Sulla made him a present of land at Beneventum and secured him against punishment for embezzlement. In 80 BC Verres served on the staff of Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella, governor of Cilicia. According to Cicero, the governor and his subordinate both ruthlessly plundered the province. In 78 BC Dolabella had to stand trial at Rome accused of extortion and was found guilty with the evidence of Verres, who had secured a pardon.  In 74 BC, by lavish use of bribes, Verres secured a praetorship. He abused his authority to further the political ends of his party. As a reward, the Senate sent him as governor ("propraetor") to Sicily, the breadbasket of the Roman Republic – a particularly rich province thanks to its central position in the Mediterranean making it a commercial crossroads. The people were for the most part prosperous and contented, but under Verres the island experienced more misery and desolation than during the time of the First Punic War (264 to 241 BC) or the recent Servile Wars (135–72 BC). Verres ruined the wheat-growers and the revenue collectors by exorbitant imposts or by the iniquitous canceling of contracts. He robbed temples (notably that on the site of the Cathedral of Syracuse) and private houses of their works of art, and disregarded the rights of Roman citizens.  Another major charge leveled against Verres during his Sicilian tenure alleged that, during the time of the Third Servile War (73–71 BC) against Spartacus, he had used the emergency to raise cash. He would, allegedly, pick key slaves of wealthy landowners and charge them with plotting to join Spartacus' revolt or otherwise causing sedition in the province. Having done so, he would sentence the slave to death by crucifixion, and then lay a broad hint that a sizable bribe from the slave's owner could expunge the charge and sentence. Other times he would name non-existent slaves, charging that the landowner held a slave suspected of plotting rebellion and that the owner was actively hiding him. When the owner, quite understandably, could not produce the slave (which he didn't own), Verres would throw the putative owner into prison until a bribe could be paid for his release.  He was also criticized for his public relationship with Tertia, which was regarded scandalous, and Chelidon, who was attributed undue influence upon his office by his detractors.  Verres returned to Rome in 70, and in the same year, at the request of the Sicilians, Marcus Tullius Cicero prosecuted him: Cicero later published the prosecution speeches as the "Verrine Orations". Verres entrusted his defence to the most eminent of Roman advocates, Quintus Hortensius, and he had the sympathy and support of several of the leading Roman patricians.

Trial and exile.

The court was composed exclusively of senators, some of whom may have been his friends. However, the presiding judge, the city praetor, Manius Acilius Glabrio, was a thoroughly honest man, and his assessors were at least not accessible to bribery. Verres vainly tried to get the trial postponed until 69 BC when his friend Marcus Caecilius Metellus would be the presiding judge. Hortensius tried two successive tactics to delay the trial. The first was trying to sideline Verres' prosecution by hoping to get a prosecution of a former governor of Bithynia to take precedence. When that failed, the defense then looked to procedural delays (and gaming the usual format of a Roman extortion trial) until after a lengthy and upcoming round of public holidays, after which there would be scarce time for the trial to continue before Glabrio's term was up and the new and more malleable judge would be installed. However, in August, Cicero opened the case and vowed to short-circuit the plans by taking advantage of an opportunity to change the format of the trial to bring evidence and witnesses up much sooner, and opened his case with a short and blistering speech.  The effect of the first brief speech was so overwhelming that Hortensius refused to reply, and recommended his client leave the country. Before the expiration of the 9 days allowed for the prosecution Verres was on his way to Massilia (today Marseille). There he lived in exile until 43 BC, when he was proscribed by Mark Antony, apparently for refusing to surrender some art treasures that Antony coveted.  Verres may have had a more decent character than that with which Cicero, the primary source of information, credits him, but there is no evidence to counter the allegation that he stood preeminent among the worst specimens of Roman provincial governors. Of the seven Verrine orations collectively called "In Verrem", only two were delivered; the remaining five were compiled from the depositions of witnesses and published after Verres' flight.  It is not known what "gens" Verres belonged to, though some give him the nomen "Licinius".

References.

Attribution:

Gaius Verres (c. 120–43 BC) was a Roman magistrate, notorious for his misgovernment of Sicily. His extortion of local farmers and plundering of temples led to his prosecution by Cicero, whose accusations were so devastating that his defence advocate could only recommend that Verres should leave the country. Cicero's prosecution speeches were later published as the "Verrine Orations".

Gaius Verres (* um 115 v. Chr.; † 43 v. Chr.) war ein römischer Politiker; er war Statthalter der Provinz Sizilien. Sein "nomen gentile" ist nicht überliefert. Sein Cognomen, Verres, bedeutet "Eber". Fast alles, was über sein Leben bekannt ist, wurde von Cicero in seinen „"Reden gegen Verres"“ ("Orationes in Verrem") überliefert, welche dieser im Jahre 70 v. Chr. als Ankläger in einem Prozess gegen Verres verwendete. Sie sind dementsprechend vorbelastet.


Biography.

Haar was born to a Hungarian-Jewish family in Budapest on 11 October 1885 to parents Ignác Haar and Emma Fuchs. He graduated in 1903 from the secondary school Fasori Evangélikus Gimnázium where he was a student of Rátz László. He started his university studies in Budapest, later moving on to Göttingen reading Mathematics and sciences. Among the many famous professors he was taught by, he could count Eötvös Loránd, József Kürschák, Constantin Carathéodory, David Hilbert, Felix Christian Klein and Ernst Zermelo.  During years of the secondary school, he collaborated with the mathematical journal for secondary school students Középiskolai Matematikai Lapok, and won the national Eötvös Loránd Mathematical Competition. He enrolled to the Technical University of Budapest as a student of Chemical Engineering, but in the same year he moved on to the University of Budapest, and after a year to the University of Göttingen. His doctoral research was supervised by Hilbert graduating in June 1909. His 49-page thesis studies systems of Sturm-Liouville functions and spherical functions, introducing the now widely used Haar orthogonal systems. In the same year he habilitated to become a private professor of the university.  In 1912, the Franz Joseph University in Kolozsvár, Austria-Hungary (now Cluj-Napoca in Romania) invited him along with Gyula Farkas and Frigyes Riesz to join as faculty, and he became the professor of 'Quatitics'. A number of his lecture notes from the time became established books later. After the Treaty of Trianon, which ceded Transylvania to Romania, the university had to move to Szeged, the closest city within the new boundaries, where he with Riesz established the Centre of Mathematics, and the first internationally recognised Hungarian mathematical journal, the Acta Scientiarum Mathematicarum.  One of his doctoral students at the University of Szeged was Béla Szőkefalvi-Nagy.  Haar died of stomach cancer on 16 March 1933.

Fields of research.

His results are from the fields of mathematical analysis and topological groups, in particular he researched orthogonal systems of functions, singular integrals, analytic functions, differential equations, set theory, function approximation and calculus of variations.

Alfréd Haar (; 11 October 1885, Budapest – 16 March 1933, Szeged) was a Hungarian mathematician. In 1904 he began to study at the University of Göttingen. His doctorate was supervised by David Hilbert. The Haar measure, Haar wavelet, and Haar transform are named in his honor. Between 1912 and 1919 he taught at Franz Joseph University in Kolozsvár. Together with Frigyes Riesz, he made the University of Szeged a centre of mathematics. He also founded the Acta Scientiarum Mathematicarum journal together with Riesz.

Alfréd Haar [] (* 11. Oktober 1885 in Budapest, Österreich-Ungarn; † 16. März 1933 in Szeged) war ein ungarischer Mathematiker.


Early life and career.

Kellogg was born in Potsdam, New York on December 22, 1856. His family moved to Minnesota in 1865.  Kellogg read law and began practicing law in Rochester, Minnesota, in 1877. He served as city attorney of Rochester 1878–1881 and county attorney for Olmsted County, Minnesota, from 1882 to 1887. He moved to St. Paul, Minnesota, in 1886.  In 1905, Kellogg joined the federal government when Theodore Roosevelt asked Kellogg to prosecute a federal antitrust case. In 1906, Kellogg was appointed special counsel to the Interstate Commerce Commission for its investigation of E. H. Harriman. In 1908, he was appointed to lead the federal prosecution against Union Pacific Railroad, under the Sherman Antitrust Act. His most important case was "Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States", 221 U.S. 1 (1911). Following this successful prosecution, he was elected president of the American Bar Association (1912–1913).  In 1907 he was elected as a Compatriot of the Minnesota Society of the Sons of the American Revolution.

United States Senate.

In 1916, Kellogg was elected as a Republican to the United States Senate from Minnesota and served from March 4, 1917 to March 4, 1923 in the 65th, 66th, and 67th Congresses. During the ratification battle for the Treaty of Versailles, he was one of the few Republicans who supported ratification. He lost his re-election bid in 1922 and, in 1923, he was a delegate to the Fifth International Conference of American States at Santiago, Chile.

Ambassador to Great Britain.

In 1924, he was appointed by President Calvin Coolidge as Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary to Great Britain, serving from January 14, 1924 to February 10, 1925. He succeeded George Brinton McClellan Harvey who served under Warren G. Harding and was succeeded by Alanson B. Houghton so that Kellogg could assume the role of Secretary of State.

Secretary of State.

From 1925 until 1929, he served as the United States Secretary of State in the Cabinet of President Coolidge. In 1928, he was awarded the Freedom of the City in Dublin, Ireland and in 1929 the government of France made him a member of the Legion of Honour.  As Secretary of State, he was responsible for improving U.S.–Mexican relations and helping to resolve the long-standing Tacna–Arica controversy between Peru and Chile. His most significant accomplishment, however, was the Kellogg–Briand Pact, signed in 1928. Proposed by its other namesake, French foreign minister Aristide Briand, the treaty intended to provide for "the renunciation of war as an instrument of national policy." He was awarded the 1929 Nobel Peace Prize in recognition.  He was associate judge of the Permanent Court of International Justice from 1930 to 1935.  Kellogg was self-conscious about his lack of academic credentials he attended a one-room country school and dropped out at age 14. He never attended high school, college or law school. His only advanced training came from clerking in a private lawyer's office. Kellogg grew up in a poor farm in Minnesota, and lacked a commanding presence or the sophistication to deal with the aristocrats who dominated European diplomacy. As Secretary of State, his main focus was Latin America, where he dealt with brutal but unsophisticated strongmen. His staff provided the ideas, and they appreciated that he was always open, candid, and easy to communicate with. He helped end the battle between the Mexican government and the Catholic Church, but failed to resolve the dispute over ownership of the oil reserves. In the Far East, he favored China and it from threats from Japan. He successfully negotiated tariff reform with China. As for Europe he was primarily interested with expanding the limitations on naval armaments that been established by the Washington Treaty; he made little progress. Kellogg gained international fame, and the Nobel Peace Prize, with the Kellogg-Briand Pact. It was endorsed by nearly every nation and made starting a war a punishable criminal action. It formed the legal basis for the trial and execution of German and Japanese war leaders after 1945.

Personal life.

In 1886, Kellogg was married to Clara May Cook (1861–1942), the daughter of George Clinton Cook (1828–1901) and Elizabeth (née Burns) Cook (1838–1908).  In 1880, he became a member of the masonic lodge Rochester No. 21 where he received the degrees of freemasonry on April 1, April 19, and May 3.  He died from pneumonia, following a stroke, on the eve of his 81st birthday in St. Paul. He was buried at the Chapel of St. Joseph of Arimathea in Washington National Cathedral, Washington, D.C.

Legacy.

In 1937, he endowed the Kellogg Foundation for Education in International Relations at Carleton College, where he was a trustee. His house in St. Paul, the Frank B. Kellogg House was listed as a National Historic Landmark in 1976.  The following were named in his honor:

Papers.

Frank B. Kellogg's papers are available for research use at the Minnesota Historical Society. They include correspondence and miscellaneous papers, State Department duplicates, news clippings scrapbooks, awards, floor plans, honorary degrees, maps, memorials and memoranda.

Frank Billings Kellogg (December 22, 1856December 21, 1937) was an American lawyer, politician, and statesman who served in the U.S. Senate and as U.S. Secretary of State. He co-authored the Kellogg–Briand Pact, for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1929.

Frank Billings Kellogg (* 22. Dezember 1856 in Potsdam, St. Lawrence County, New York; † 21. Dezember 1937, Saint Paul, Minnesota) war ein US-amerikanischer Politiker, Jurist und Diplomat. Als Verhandlungspartner des Briand-Kellogg-Paktes, einem gegenseitigen Verzicht auf Krieg zwischen Staaten, erhielt er den Friedensnobelpreis für 1929, der aber erst 1930 verliehen wurde.


History.

Earle S. MacPherson was appointed the chief engineer of Chevrolet's Light Car project in 1945, to develop new smaller cars for the immediate post-war market. This gave rise to the Chevrolet Cadet. By 1946 three prototypes of the Cadet design had been produced. These incorporated the first MacPherson strut independent suspension both in front and rear. The Cadet project was cancelled in 1947 and the disgruntled MacPherson was enticed to join Ford. Patents were filed in 1947 ( for GM) and in 1949 ( for Ford), the 1949 patent citing designs by Guido Fornaca of FIAT in the mid-1920s. The strut suspension of the pre-war Stout Scarab could have been an influence and long-travel struts in aircraft landing gear were well-known by this time. French Cottin-Desgouttes utilized a similar design, albeit with less sophisticated leaf springs, however the Cottin-Desgouttes front suspension was in turn inspired by American engineer J. Walter Christie's 1904 design.  MacPherson designed the strut for all four wheels, but it is normally used for the front suspension only, where it provides a steering pivot as well as a suspension mounting for the wheel.  The first production car to use MacPherson struts is often listed incorrectly as the French 1949 Ford Vedette, but it was developed before MacPherson with an independent front suspension based on wishbones and an upper coil spring. Only in 1954, after the Vedette factory had been purchased by Simca, did the revised Simca Vedette switch to using front struts.  Following MacPherson's arrival at Ford, the first production car to feature MacPherson struts was the British-built 1950 Ford Consul and later Zephyr.

Design.

A MacPherson strut uses a wishbone, or a substantial compression link stabilized by a secondary link, which provides a mounting point for the hub carrier or axle of the wheel. This lower arm system provides both lateral and longitudinal location of the wheel. The upper part of the hub carrier is rigidly fixed to the bottom of the outer part of the strut proper; this slides up and down the inner part of it, which extends upwards directly to a mounting in the body shell of the vehicle. The line from the strut's top mount to the bottom ball joint on the control arm gives the steering axis inclination. The strut's axis may be angled inwards from the steering axis at the bottom, to clear the tyre; this makes the bottom follow an arc when steering.  To be really successful, the MacPherson strut required the introduction of unitary construction, because it needs a substantial vertical space and a strong top mount, which unibodies can provide, while benefiting them by distributing stresses. The strut will usually carry both the coil spring on which the body is suspended and the shock absorber, which is usually in the form of a cartridge mounted within the strut (see coilover). The strut can also have the steering arm built into the lower outer portion. The whole assembly is very simple and can be preassembled into a unit; also by eliminating the upper control arm, it allows for more width in the engine compartment, which is useful for smaller cars, particularly with transverse-mounted engines such as most front wheel drive vehicles have. It can be further simplified, if needed, by substituting an anti-roll bar (torsion bar) for the radius arm. For those reasons, it has become almost ubiquitous with low cost manufacturers. Furthermore, it offers an easy method to set suspension geometry.  Many modern implementations replace the lower control arm by a wishbone. An anti-roll bar is optional and if present is attached by a ball-jointed rod to the spring-damper or by a ball or elastomerically jointed rod to the wishbone.

Advantages and disadvantages.

Because MacPherson struts are packaged with a significant structure in the front crash structure of the car, it is easier to engineer cars that pass more stringent small overlap crashes with struts over a double wishbone suspension. Notable examples include the Honda Accord and Civic as well as the Mercedes E-Class which both adopted struts to improve crash performance. The overall simplicity of the design also means there are fewer joints in the suspension to wear over time, affecting handling and steering feel. Inverted monotube struts can also provide extra rigidity in the front suspension as seen in the Porsche 911 GT3 and Cayman GT4 as well as the Subaru Impreza WRX STI. Finally, struts can package more efficiently than other types of front suspension, which allows for significant cargo space in rear/mid engined cars like the Porsche 911 and Boxster.  Geometric analysis shows it cannot allow vertical movement of the wheel without some degree of either camber angle change, sideways movement, or both. It is not generally considered to give as good handling as a double wishbone or multi-link suspension, because it allows the engineers less freedom to choose camber change and roll center. Cars that have cockpit adjustable ride height generally cannot have MacPherson struts because of the camber changes that are an unavoidable part of the design. Ride suffers because the shock absorber has almost the same vertical motion as the wheel, so there is relatively little leverage to break the stiction in the seals. A standard single pivot MacPherson strut also tends to have positive scrub where the center of the steering axis is offset from the center of the front tires, which results in torque steer.  Despite these drawbacks, the MacPherson strut setup is still used on some high performance cars, because they tend to have relatively small suspension travel, and so do not see the kinematic problems.  Porsche 911 up until the 1989 model year (964) used a similar strut design that does not have coil springs, using torsion bar suspension instead, after that point all Porsche 911s have had front MacPherson struts.  In recent years, General Motors and Ford have introduced a modified strut setup, "Hi-Per Strut" and "Revoknuckle" respectively, that split the strut into two components that handle the up-and-down flexibility and steering dynamics separately. The benefits of this design are greater surface contact and reduction in torque steer. The drawback are the additional weight and cost but less expensive than either a double wishbone and multi-link setup. Honda also introduced another variation strut setup called "dual-axis" applied in the suspension setup of the Civic Type-R. Another variant of the MacPherson strut is the double pivot front suspension which splits the lower wishbone into two while retaining the standard upright design of the MacPherson strut. This allows for better control of steering geometry and scrub radius while allowing for a larger brake assembly.

The MacPherson strut is a type of automotive suspension system that uses the top of a telescopic damper as the upper steering pivot. It is widely used in the front suspension of modern vehicles and is named for American automotive engineer Earle S. MacPherson, who invented and developed the design.

Das MacPherson-Federbein ist Teil einer Radaufhängung an Automobilen, die nach dem US-amerikanischen Ingenieur Earle S. MacPherson benannt ist und auf die er 1949 ein Patent erhielt. Es ähnelt Konstruktionen an Flugzeugfahrwerken. Er entwickelte sein Federbein während des Zweiten Weltkrieges für den Chevrolet Cadet, ein Kleinwagenprojekt von General Motors (GM). Als das Projekt 1947 gestoppt wurde, verließ er GM und ging zu Ford. Dort wurde sein Konzept verwirklicht.


Related definitions and terminology.

The "rotation group" is a Lie group of rotations about a fixed point. This (common) fixed point is called the "center of rotation" and is usually identified with the origin. The rotation group is a "point stabilizer" in a broader group of (orientation-preserving) motions.  For a particular rotation:  A "representation" of rotations is a particular formalism, either algebraic or geometric, used to parametrize a rotation map. This meaning is somehow inverse to the meaning in the group theory.  Rotations of (affine) spaces of points and of respective vector spaces are not always clearly distinguished. The former are sometimes referred to as "affine rotations" (although the term is misleading), whereas the latter are "vector rotations". See the article below for details.

Definitions and representations.

In Euclidean geometry.

A motion of a Euclidean space is the same as its isometry: it leaves the distance between any two points unchanged after the transformation. But a (proper) rotation also has to preserve the orientation structure. The "improper rotation" term refers to isometries that reverse (flip) the orientation. In the language of group theory the distinction is expressed as "direct" vs "indirect" isometries in the Euclidean group, where the former comprise the identity component. Any direct Euclidean motion can be represented as a composition of a rotation about the fixed point and a translation.  There are no non-trivial rotations in one dimension. In two dimensions, only a single angle is needed to specify a rotation about the origin – the "angle of rotation" that specifies an element of the circle group (also known as ). The rotation is acting to rotate an object counterclockwise through an angle about the origin; see below for details. Composition of rotations sums their angles modulo 1 turn, which implies that all two-dimensional rotations about "the same" point commute. Rotations about "different" points, in general, do not commute. Any two-dimensional direct motion is either a translation or a rotation; see Euclidean plane isometry for details. Rotations in three-dimensional space differ from those in two dimensions in a number of important ways. Rotations in three dimensions are generally not commutative, so the order in which rotations are applied is important even about the same point. Also, unlike the two-dimensional case, a three-dimensional direct motion, in general position, is not a rotation but a screw operation. Rotations about the origin have three degrees of freedom (see rotation formalisms in three dimensions for details), the same as the number of dimensions.  A three-dimensional rotation can be specified in a number of ways. The most usual methods are:  A general rotation in four dimensions has only one fixed point, the centre of rotation, and no axis of rotation; see rotations in 4-dimensional Euclidean space for details. Instead the rotation has two mutually orthogonal planes of rotation, each of which is fixed in the sense that points in each plane stay within the planes. The rotation has two angles of rotation, one for each plane of rotation, through which points in the planes rotate. If these are and then all points not in the planes rotate through an angle between and. Rotations in four dimensions about a fixed point have six degrees of freedom. A four-dimensional direct motion in general position "is" a rotation about certain point (as in all even Euclidean dimensions), but screw operations exist also.

Linear and multilinear algebra formalism.

When one considers motions of the Euclidean space that preserve the origin, the distinction between points and vectors, important in pure mathematics, can be erased because there is a canonical one-to-one correspondence between points and position vectors. The same is true for geometries other than Euclidean, but whose space is an affine space with a supplementary structure; see an example below. Alternatively, the vector description of rotations can be understood as a parametrization of geometric rotations up to their composition with translations. In other words, one vector rotation presents many equivalent rotations about "all" points in the space.  A motion that preserves the origin is the same as a linear operator on vectors that preserves the same geometric structure but expressed in terms of vectors. For Euclidean vectors, this expression is their "magnitude" (Euclidean norm). In components, such operator is expressed with orthogonal matrix that is multiplied to column vectors.  As it was already stated, a (proper) rotation is different from an arbitrary fixed-point motion in its preservation of the orientation of the vector space. Thus, the determinant of a rotation orthogonal matrix must be 1. The only other possibility for the determinant of an orthogonal matrix is, and this result means the transformation is a hyperplane reflection, a point reflection (for odd ), or another kind of improper rotation. Matrices of all proper rotations form the special orthogonal group.

Two dimensions.

In two dimensions, to carry out a rotation using a matrix, the point to be rotated counterclockwise is written as a column vector, then multiplied by a rotation matrix calculated from the angle :  The coordinates of the point after rotation are, and the formulae for and are  The vectors formula_3 and formula_4 have the same magnitude and are separated by an angle as expected. Points on the plane can be also presented as complex numbers: the point in the plane is represented by the complex number  This can be rotated through an angle by multiplying it by, then expanding the product using Euler's formula as follows:  and equating real and imaginary parts gives the same result as a two-dimensional matrix:  Since complex numbers form a commutative ring, vector rotations in two dimensions are commutative, unlike in higher dimensions. They have only one degree of freedom, as such rotations are entirely determined by the angle of rotation.

Three dimensions.

As in two dimensions, a matrix can be used to rotate a point to a point. The matrix used is a matrix,  This is multiplied by a vector representing the point to give the result  The set of all appropriate matrices together with the operation of matrix multiplication is the rotation group SO(3). The matrix is a member of the three-dimensional special orthogonal group,, that is it is an orthogonal matrix with determinant 1. That it is an orthogonal matrix means that its rows are a set of orthogonal unit vectors (so they are an orthonormal basis) as are its columns, making it simple to spot and check if a matrix is a valid rotation matrix.  Above-mentioned Euler angles and axis–angle representations can be easily converted to a rotation matrix.  Another possibility to represent a rotation of three-dimensional Euclidean vectors are quaternions described below.

Quaternions.

Unit quaternions, or "versors", are in some ways the least intuitive representation of three-dimensional rotations. They are not the three-dimensional instance of a general approach. They are more compact than matrices and easier to work with than all other methods, so are often preferred in real-world applications.  A versor (also called a "rotation quaternion") consists of four real numbers, constrained so the norm of the quaternion is 1. This constraint limits the degrees of freedom of the quaternion to three, as required. Unlike matrices and complex numbers two multiplications are needed:  where is the versor, is its inverse, and is the vector treated as a quaternion with zero scalar part. The quaternion can be related to the rotation vector form of the axis angle rotation by the exponential map over the quaternions,  where is the rotation vector treated as a quaternion.  A single multiplication by a versor, either left or right, is itself a rotation, but in four dimensions. Any four-dimensional rotation about the origin can be represented with two quaternion multiplications: one left and one right, by two "different" unit quaternions.

Further notes.

More generally, coordinate rotations in any dimension are represented by orthogonal matrices. The set of all orthogonal matrices in dimensions which describe proper rotations (determinant = +1), together with the operation of matrix multiplication, forms the special orthogonal group.  Matrices are often used for doing transformations, especially when a large number of points are being transformed, as they are a direct representation of the linear operator. Rotations represented in other ways are often converted to matrices before being used. They can be extended to represent rotations and transformations at the same time using homogeneous coordinates. Projective transformations are represented by matrices. They are not rotation matrices, but a transformation that represents a Euclidean rotation has a rotation matrix in the upper left corner.  The main disadvantage of matrices is that they are more expensive to calculate and do calculations with. Also in calculations where numerical instability is a concern matrices can be more prone to it, so calculations to restore orthonormality, which are expensive to do for matrices, need to be done more often.

More alternatives to the matrix formalism.

As was demonstrated above, there exist three multilinear algebra rotation formalisms: one with U(1), or complex numbers, for two dimensions, and two others with versors, or quaternions, for three and four dimensions.  In general (even for vectors equipped with a non-Euclidean Minkowski quadratic form) the rotation of a vector space can be expressed as a bivector. This formalism is used in geometric algebra and, more generally, in the Clifford algebra representation of Lie groups.  In the case of a positive-definite Euclidean quadratic form, the double covering group of the isometry group formula_12 is known as the Spin group, formula_13. It can be conveniently described in terms of a Clifford algebra. Unit quaternions give the group formula_14.

In non-Euclidean geometries.

In spherical geometry, a direct motion of the -sphere (an example of the elliptic geometry) is the same as a rotation of -dimensional Euclidean space about the origin (). For odd, most of these motions do not have fixed points on the -sphere and, strictly speaking, are not rotations "of the sphere"; such motions are sometimes referred to as "Clifford translations". Rotations about a fixed point in elliptic and hyperbolic geometries are not different from Euclidean ones.  Affine geometry and projective geometry have not a distinct notion of rotation.

In relativity.

One application of this is special relativity, as it can be considered to operate in a four-dimensional space, spacetime, spanned by three space dimensions and one of time. In special relativity this space is linear and the four-dimensional rotations, called Lorentz transformations, have practical physical interpretations. The Minkowski space is not a metric space, and the term "isometry" is inapplicable to Lorentz transformation.  If a rotation is only in the three space dimensions, i.e. in a plane that is entirely in space, then this rotation is the same as a spatial rotation in three dimensions. But a rotation in a plane spanned by a space dimension and a time dimension is a hyperbolic rotation, a transformation between two different reference frames, which is sometimes called a "Lorentz boost". These transformations demonstrate the pseudo-Euclidean nature of the Minkowski space. They are sometimes described as "squeeze mappings" and frequently appear on Minkowski diagrams which visualize (1 + 1)-dimensional pseudo-Euclidean geometry on planar drawings. The study of relativity is concerned with the Lorentz group generated by the space rotations and hyperbolic rotations.  Whereas rotations, in physics and astronomy, correspond to rotations of celestial sphere as a 2-sphere in the Euclidean 3-space, Lorentz transformations from induce conformal transformations of the celestial sphere. It is a broader class of the sphere transformations known as Möbius transformations.

Importance.

Rotations define important classes of symmetry: rotational symmetry is an invariance with respect to a "particular rotation". The circular symmetry is an invariance with respect to all rotation about the fixed axis.  As was stated above, Euclidean rotations are applied to rigid body dynamics. Moreover, most of mathematical formalism in physics (such as the vector calculus) is rotation-invariant; see rotation for more physical aspects. Euclidean rotations and, more generally, Lorentz symmetry described above are thought to be symmetry laws of nature. In contrast, the reflectional symmetry is not a precise symmetry law of nature.

Generalizations.

The complex-valued matrices analogous to real orthogonal matrices are the unitary matrices formula_15, which represent rotations in complex space. The set of all unitary matrices in a given dimension forms a unitary group formula_15 of degree ; and its subgroup representing proper rotations (those that preserve the orientation of space) is the special unitary group formula_17 of degree. These complex rotations are important in the context of spinors. The elements of formula_18 are used to parametrize "three"-dimensional Euclidean rotations (see above), as well as respective transformations of the spin (see representation theory of SU(2)).

Rotation in mathematics is a concept originating in geometry. Any rotation is a motion of a certain space that preserves at least one point. It can describe, for example, the motion of a rigid body around a fixed point. A rotation is different from other types of motions: translations, which have no fixed points, and (hyperplane) reflections, each of them having an entire -dimensional flat of fixed points in a -dimensional space. A clockwise rotation is a negative magnitude so a counterclockwise turn has a positive magnitude.

Unter einer Drehung versteht man in der Geometrie eine Selbstabbildung des euklidischen Raumes mit mindestens einem Fixpunkt, die alle Abstände invariant lässt und die Orientierung erhält. Wird die Orientierung vertauscht, so liegt eine Spiegelung (Geometrie) oder Drehspiegelung vor.


History.

DX contesting is scored based on the distance of contacts, typically 1 point per kilometre, so there is a need for amateurs to exchange their locations over the air. To facilitate this, following the growth of the sport in the 1950s, the German QRA locator system was adopted in 1959. The QRA locator system was limited to describing European coordinates, by the mid-1970s there was growing need for a global locator system.  By the time of their April 1980 meeting, in Maidenhead, England, the VHF Working Group had received twenty different proposals to replace the QRA locator grid. That devised by Dr. John Morris G4ANB was deemed to be the best.  At the 1999 IARU Conference in Lillehammer it was decided that the latitude and longitude to be used as a reference for the determining of locators should be based on the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS-84).

Description of the system.

A Maidenhead locator compresses latitude and longitude into a short string of characters, which is similar in concept to the World Geographic Reference System or GEOREF. This position information is presented in a limited level of precision to limit the number of characters needed for its transmission using voice, Morse code, or any other operating mode.  The chosen coding uses alternating pairs of letters and digits, like so:  In each pair, the first character encodes longitude and the second character encodes latitude. These character pairs also have traditional names, and in the case of letters, the range of characters (or "encoding base number") used in each pair does vary. To avoid negative numbers in the input data, the system specifies that latitude is measured from the South Pole to the North Pole, and longitude measured eastward from the antimeridian of Greenwich, giving the Prime Meridian a false easting of 180° and the equator a false northing of 90°.  To simplify manual encoding, the base for the first pair of letters—traditionally called a "field"—was chosen to be 18, thus dividing the globe into 18 zones of longitude of 20° each, and 18 zones of latitude 10° each. These zones are encoded with the letters "A" through "R". The second pair of numbers, called a "square" and placed after the first pair of letters, uses a base number of 10, and is encoded using the digits "0" to "9". This is where the alternative name "grid squares" comes from. Each of these squares represents 1° of latitude by 2° of longitude. For additional precision, each square can optionally be sub-divided further, into "subsquares". These are encoded into a second pair of letters, often (but not always) presented in lowercase. Again, to make manual calculations from degrees and minutes easier, 24 was chosen as the base number, giving these subsquares dimensions of 2.5' of latitude by 5' of longitude. The letters used are "a" through "x".  The resulting Maidenhead subsquare locator string is hence composed of two letters, two digits, and two more letters. To give an example, W1AW, the American Radio Relay League's Hiram Percy Maxim Memorial Station in Newington, Connecticut, is found in grid locator. Two points within the same Maidenhead subsquare are always less than apart, which means a Maidenhead locator can give adequate precision from only six easily transmissible characters.  For even more precise location mapping, two additional digits were proposed and ratified as an "extended locator", making it altogether eight characters long, and dividing "subsquares" into even smaller ones. Such precision has uses in very short communication spans. Beyond this, no common definition exists to extend the system further into even smaller squares. Most often the extending is done by repeating alternating subsquare and square rules (base numbers 24 and 10 respectively). However, other bases for letter encodings have also been observed, and therefore such "extended extended" locators might not be compatible.  To summarise:  On shortwave frequencies, positions are reported at "square" precision, and on VHF and UHF, "subsquare" precision is used. More precise position reports are very rarely used.

Adoption and use.

Like the QRA system before it, Maidenhead locators were enthusiastically adopted by radio amateurs beyond contesting, and it is now in widespread use.  Maidenhead locators are still used as part of the formulas for scoring in many VHF amateur radio contests and as the basis of earning awards like the American Radio Relay League's VHF/UHF Century Club, URE TTLOC, etc. operating award.  In IARU Region 1 rules, VHF distance calculations are carried out between Maidenhead subsquare centres assuming a "spherical" Earth. This results in a small error in distance, but makes calculations simpler and, given the inherent imprecision in the used input data, it is not the biggest error source.  The relatively new FT8 narrowband digital mode transmits Maidenhead locator square as part of standard messages, with the 4 character locator square being efficiently represented within 15 bits of the transmitted string.  Until the adoption of WGS 84 as the official geodetic datum of the Maidenhead locator system in 1999, operators had usually specified their location based on their local national datum. Consequently, stations very near the edges of squares (at denoted precision) may have changed their locators when changing over to the use of WGS 84.

Hardware and software support.

In 1985, the Radio Society of Great Britain published a small set of BASIC language routines to convert from locator references to geographical coordinates (latitude and longitude) for further processing. A complete program in BASIC called "Universal Gridlocator" was made available the following year by ARRL for a nominal cost of US$3. Many other utilities exist to convert latitude and longitude to locators, as this is a favourite hack for programmers who are also radio amateurs. Perl supports conversion between geographical coordinates and Maidenhead locators in module Ham::Locator by Andy Smith, available on CPAN.  Many commercially available general purpose (civil) Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers (e.g. Garmin GPS-12) have the option to display positions in Maidenhead Locator format.

The Maidenhead Locator System (a.k.a. QTH Locator and IARU Locator) is a geographic co-ordinate system used by amateur radio operators to succinctly describe their locations, which replaced the deprecated QRA locator that was limited to European contacts. Its purpose is to be concise, accurate and robust in the face of interference and adverse transmission conditions. The Maidenhead Locator System can describe locations anywhere in the world.

Der QTH-Locator (auch: "QTH-Kenner", "Locator", Auf GPS Geräten auch gerne als "Maidenhead Locator" oder einfach "Maidenhead" bezeichnet) ist die Angabe eines Standortes anhand eines an den Längen- und Breitengraden ausgerichteten geodätischen Netzes. Die Erdoberfläche wird dadurch in Felder unterteilt, die als Positionsangabe verwendet werden. QTH-Locator Systeme wurden von Funkamateuren entwickelt und werden im Amateurfunk vorwiegend im UKW-Funkverkehr zur Positionsangabe verwendet.


Biography.

Constantin Lipatti (from childhood called by the diminutive "Dinu") was born in Bucharest into a musical family: his father was a violinist who had studied with Pablo de Sarasate and Carl Flesch, his mother a pianist. For his baptism, which occurred not shortly after birth as is usual, but when he was old enough to play the piano, the violinist and composer George Enescu agreed to be his godfather. Lipatti played a minuet by Mozart at his own baptism.  He studied at the Gheorghe Lazăr High School, while studying piano and composition with Mihail Jora for three years. He then attended the Bucharest Conservatoire, studying under Florica Musicescu, who also taught him privately. In June 1930, the best pupils at the Conservatoire gave a concert at the Bucharest Opera, and the 13-year-old Lipatti received a huge ovation for his performance of the Grieg Piano Concerto in A minor. In 1932 he won prizes for his compositions: a Piano Sonatina, and a Sonatina for Violin and Piano. That year he also won a Grand Prize for his symphonic suite "Les Tziganes".  He entered the 1933 Vienna International Piano Competition but finished second to Polish pianist Bolesław Kon, some say controversially. Alfred Cortot, who thought Lipatti should have won, resigned from the jury in protest. Lipatti subsequently studied in Paris under Cortot, Nadia Boulanger (with whom he recorded some of Brahms's Waltzes Op. 39), Paul Dukas (composition) and Charles Munch (conducting). At eighteen, Lipatti gave his recital debut in Paris at the École Normale. On 17 May 1935, three days before the concert, his friend and teacher, Paul Dukas, died and in his memory Lipatti opened his program with J. S. Bach's "Jesu, Joy of Man's Desiring" in the transcription by Myra Hess, the first piece he publicly performed as an adult pianist.  Lipatti's career was interrupted by World War II. Although he gave concerts across the Nazi-occupied territories, as the war grew closer he fled his native Romania in September 1943 with his companion and fellow pianist, Madeleine Cantacuzene. With the aid of Edwin Fischer he emigrated to Geneva, Switzerland where he accepted a position as professor of piano at the Geneva Conservatory. It was at this time that the first signs of his illness emerged. At first, doctors were baffled, but in 1947 he was diagnosed with Hodgkin's disease.  He and Madeleine eventually married in 1948 but Lipatti's health continued to decline. As a result, his public performances became considerably less frequent after the war. His energy level was improved for a time by then experimental injections of cortisone and his collaboration with record producer Walter Legge between 1947 and 1950 resulted in the majority of the recordings of Lipatti's playing. Lipatti gave his final recital, also recorded, on 16 September 1950 at the Besançon Festival in France. Despite severe illness and a high fever, he gave superb performances of Bach's Partita No. 1 in B-flat major, Mozart's A minor Sonata, K. 310, Schubert's G-flat major and E-flat major Impromptus, Op. 90, and thirteen of the fourteen Chopin Waltzes which he played in his own integral order. Coming to the last one, No. 2 in A-flat, he found he was too exhausted to play it and he offered instead "Jesu, Joy of Man's Desiring", the piece with which he had begun his professional career only fifteen years before. He died less than 3 months later in Geneva aged 33, from a burst abscess on his one lung. Lipatti is buried at the cemetery of Chêne-Bourg next to his wife Madeleine (1908-1982), a noted piano teacher.

Repertoire.

Lipatti's piano playing was, and is, widely appreciated for the absolute purity of his interpretations, at the service of which he used a masterful pianistic technique. Lipatti is particularly noted for his interpretations of Chopin, Mozart and Bach, but he also made recordings of Ravel's "Alborada del Gracioso", Liszt, Enescu, and the Schumann and Grieg piano concertos. His recording of Chopin's Waltzes has remained in print since its release and has long been a favorite of many classical music-lovers.  Lipatti never recorded any music of Beethoven. It is a common misconception, however, that Lipatti did not perform Beethoven's music until late in his career. The "Waldstein" Sonata had been a feature of Lipatti's repertoire since 1935. He also performed the "Emperor" Concerto in Bucharest twice during the 1940–41 season, and even stood ready to record it for EMI in 1949. An internal memo from Lipatti's recording producer Walter Legge, dated 23 February 1948, states that "Lipatti ha[d] his heart set on doing a Beethoven Concerto in 1949" and nominates the "Emperor" Concerto, given that Lipatti had already performed it.  A recording of Chopin's Piano Concerto No. 1 in E minor, originally released under Lipatti's name, and said to have been a recording of a live performance in Switzerland in May 1948, proved not to be his contribution at all. In 1981, it emerged that the soloist on this recording was in fact a Polish pianist (and a fellow Cortot pupil), Halina Czerny-Stefańska, the joint winner of the 4th International Chopin Piano Competition, playing with the Czech Philharmonic Orchestra under Václav Smetáček. However, later on, an authentic recording by Lipatti of the Chopin Concerto was found.  Harold C. Schonberg wrote in 1953 "Lipatti, a master of the keyboard, would have developed into one of the supreme artists of this era. He was a pianist of the Rachmaninoff order, blessed with an enormous technique and a strong rhythmic sense."

Legacy.

In recognition of his outstanding contributions to classical music interpretation and composition he was posthumously elected in 1997 as a member of the Romanian Academy. In 2005, The Mountain Goats released a song in his honor, titled "Dinu Lipatti's Bones". In 2017 Lipatti admirer Orlando Murrin discovered the only known film footage of Lipatti, at a Lucerne garden party in 1947 with Paul Hindemith and other musicians, which was screened at London's Cadogan Hall that November.

Compositions.

In addition to his pianistic accomplishments, Lipatti was a composer, who wrote in a neoclassical style with French and Romanian influences. His works include:

Dinu Constantin Lipatti (; 2 December 1950) was a Romanian classical pianist and composer whose career was cut short by his death from causes related to Hodgkin's disease at age 33. He was elected posthumously to the Romanian Academy.

Dinu Lipatti (* 19. März 1917 in Bukarest; † 2. Dezember 1950 in Genf, Schweiz) war ein rumänischer Pianist und Komponist.