Early life.

Constantin Fehrenbach was born on 11 January 1852 in Wellendingen near Bonndorf in what was then the Grand Duchy of Baden as the son of Johann Georg Fehrenbach, a teacher (1826–95), and his wife Rosina (1832–1900), née Gensecke.  From 1871 to 1878, Fehrenbach studied theology, then law at Freiburg im Breisgau and in 1882 began to practise law there, soon becoming a successful criminal lawyer. In 1879, Fehrenbach married Maria (1855–1921), née Hossner at Freiburg. They had one daughter.

Political career.

Empire.

In 1884, Fehrenbach started his political career by becoming a member of the Freiburg city council (parliament). The next year, Fehrenbach became a member of the "Landtag" (diet) of Baden for the Catholic "Zentrum". However, in 1887 he resigned his seat after disagreements with the leader of the party in Baden,. In 1895, Fehrenbach became "Stadtrat" in Freiburg (member of the city government) and in 1896 "Kreisabgeordneter" (district representative). In 1901 he was reelected to the Landtag and remained a member until 1913 (in 1907–09 as president). In 1903, he also became a member of the Reichstag where his oratory skills were widely acclaimed. In particular, his speech on the Saverne Affair in 1913 made him famous nationwide for his defence of the rights of the people of Alsace and all citizens of the German Reich against the powers of the military. In 1917, Fehrenbach became the chairman of the "Hauptausschuss" of the Reichstag and supported the "peace resolution" in favour of a negotiated peace. In July 1918, Fehrenbach became the last president of the Imperial Reichstag.

Weimar Republic.

After the German Revolution of 1918-19, Fehrenbach once again became president of the parliament, the Weimar National Assembly in February 1919. In that office, he succeeded due to a talent for achieving compromise and a quiet and self-controlled nature. Within the "Zentrum", he was a member of the party's right wing.  In June 1920, Fehrenbach formed the first Weimar Republic cabinet without participation of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD). The SPD remained the largest party in the newly elected Reichstag, which succeeded the National Assembly. As Chancellor, Fehrenbach represented Germany at the Spa Conference of 1920 and the. He tried in vain to get the US government to work as a mediator. In social policy, unemployment benefits were improved during Fehrenbach's time as chancellor, with the maximum benefit for single males over the age of 21 were increased in November 1920 from 7 to 10 marks.  Fehrenbach resigned in May 1921, as the DVP had withdrawn its support for the government's foreign policy of trying to cooperate with the Allies on the issue of reparations. In particular, Fehrenbach had failed to get the Reichstag's approval for a fixing of German reparation payments at 132 billion gold mark. Although he officially resigned on 4 May, he remained in charge of the caretaker government until his replacement by Joseph Wirth on 10 May.  In 1922, Fehrenbach became a judge on the ', the legal guardian of the Weimar Constitution. In late 1923, Fehrenbach was elected head of the "Zentrum" fraction in the Reichstag. He remained in that office until his death in 1926. He also became vice-chairman of the ', an organization fighting antisemitism.

Later life and death.

Fehrenbach died on 26 March 1926 in Freiburg im Breisgau.

Constantin Fehrenbach, sometimes falsely, Konstantin Fehrenbach (11 January 1852 – 26 March 1926), was a German Catholic politician who was one of the major leaders of the Centre Party or "Zentrum". He served as President of the Reichstag in 1918, and then as President of the Weimar National Assembly from 1919 to 1920. In June 1920, Fehrenbach became Chancellor of Germany. He resigned in May 1921 over the issue of war reparation payments to the Allies. Fehrenbach headed the Centre Party's Reichstag fraction from 1923 until his death in 1926.

Constantin Fehrenbach (häufig auch fälschlich: "Konstantin Fehrenbach", * 11. Januar 1852 in Wellendingen bei Bonndorf (Baden); † 26. März 1926 in Freiburg im Breisgau) war ein deutscher Politiker (Zentrum) und vom 25. Juni 1920 bis zum 4. Mai 1921 Reichskanzler der Weimarer Republik.


Applications.

PDF417 is used in many applications by both commercial and government organizations. PDF417 is one of the formats (along with Data Matrix) that can be used to print postage accepted by the United States Postal Service. PDF417 is also used by the airline industry's Bar Coded Boarding Pass (BCBP) standard as the 2D bar code symbolism for paper boarding passes. PDF417 is the standard selected by the Department of Homeland Security as the machine readable zone technology for RealID compliant driver licenses and state issued identification cards. PDF417 barcodes are also included on visas and border crossing cards issued by the State of Israel ().

Features.

In addition to features typical of two dimensional bar codes, PDF417's capabilities include:  The introduction of the ISO/IEC document states:

Format.

The PDF417 bar code (also called a symbol) consists of 3 to 90 rows, each of which is like a small linear bar code. Each row has:  All rows are the same width; each row has the same number of codewords.

Codewords.

PDF417 uses a base 929 encoding. Each codeword represents a number from 0 to 928.  The codewords are represented by patterns of dark (bar) and light (space) regions. Each of these patterns contains four bars and four spaces (where the 4 in the name comes from). The total width is 17 times the width of the narrowest allowed vertical bar (the X dimension); this is where the 17 in the name comes from. Each pattern starts with a bar and ends with a space.  The row height must be at least 3 times the minimum width: Y ≥ 3 X.  There are three distinct bar–space patterns used to represent each codeword. These patterns are organized into three groups known as clusters. The clusters are labeled 0, 3, and 6. No bar–space pattern is used in more than one cluster. The rows of the symbol cycle through the three clusters, so row 1 uses patterns from cluster 0, row 2 uses cluster 3, row 3 uses cluster 6, and row 4 again uses cluster 0.  Which cluster can be determined by an equation:  Where "K" is the cluster number and the "b" refer to the width of the "i"-th black bar in the symbol character (in "X" units).  Alternatively,  Where "E" is the "i"-th edge-to-next-same-edge distance. Odd indices are the leading edge of a bar to the leading edge of the next bar; even indices are for the trailing edges.  One purpose of the three clusters is to determine which row (mod 3) the codeword is in. The clusters allow portions of the symbol to be read using a single scan line that may be skewed from the horizontal. For instance, the scan might start on row 6 at the start of the row but end on row 10. At the beginning of the scan, the scanner sees the constant start pattern, and then it sees symbols in cluster 6. When the skewed scan straddles rows 6 and 7, then the scanner sees noise. When the scan is on row 7, the scanner sees symbols in cluster 0. Consequently, the scanner knows the direction of the skew. By the time the scanner reaches the right, it is on row 10, so it sees cluster 0 patterns. The scanner will also see a constant stop pattern.

Encoding.

Of the 929 available code words, 900 are used for data, and 29 for special functions, such as shifting between major modes. The three major modes encode different types of data in different ways, and can be mixed as necessary within a single bar code:

Error correction.

When the PDF417 symbol is created, from 2 to 512 error detection and correction codewords are added. PDF417 uses Reed–Solomon error correction. When the symbol is scanned, the maximum number of corrections that can be made is equal to the number of codewords added, but the standard recommends that two codewords be held back to ensure reliability of the corrected information.

Comparison with other symbologies.

PDF417 is a stacked barcode that can be read with a simple linear scan being swept over the symbol. Those linear scans need the left and right columns with the start and stop code words. Additionally, the scan needs to know what row it is scanning, so each row of the symbol must also encode its row number. Furthermore, the reader's line scan won't scan just a row; it will typically start scanning one row, but then cross over to a neighbor and possibly continuing on to cross successive rows. In order to minimize the effect of these crossings, the PDF417 modules are tall and narrow — the height is typically three times the width. Also, each code word must indicate which row it belongs to so crossovers, when they occur, can be detected. The code words are also designed to be delta-decodable, so some code words are redundant. Each PDF data code word represents about 10 bits of information (log(900) ≈ 9.8), but the printed code word (character) is 17 modules wide. Including a height of 3 modules, a PDF417 code word takes 51 square modules to represent 10 bits. That area does not count other overhead such as the start, stop, row, format, and ECC information.  Other 2D codes, such as DataMatrix and QR, are decoded with image sensors instead of uncoordinated linear scans. Those codes still need recognition and alignment patterns, but they do not need to be as prominent. An 8 bit code word will take 8 square modules (ignoring recognition, alignment, format, and ECC information).  In practice, a PDF417 symbol takes about four times the area of a DataMatrix or QR Code.

PDF417 is a stacked linear barcode format used in a variety of applications such as transport, identification cards, and inventory management. "PDF" stands for Portable Data File. The "417" signifies that each pattern in the code consists of 4 bars and spaces in a pattern that is 17 units (modules) long. The PDF417 symbology was invented by Ynjiun P. Wang at Symbol Technologies in 1991. It is defined in ISO standard 15438.

PDF417 (PDF steht für „Portable Data File“) ist ein 2D-Barcode und wurde 1991 von Ynjiun Wang bei Symbol Technologies entwickelt.


Characteristics.

Acculturation proceeded from the top down, with the upper classes adopting Roman culture first and the old ways lingering for the longest among peasants in outlying countryside and rural areas. Hostages played an important part in this process, as elite children, from Mauretania to Gaul, were taken to be raised and educated in Rome.  Ancient Roman historiography and traditional Italian historiography confidently identified the different processes involved with a "civilization of barbarians". Modern historians take a more nuanced view: by making their peace with Rome, local elites could make their position more secure and reinforce their prestige. New themes include the study of personal and group values and the construction of identity, which is the personal aspect of ethnogenesis. The transitions operated differently in different provinces; as Blagg and Millett point out even a Roman province may be too broad a canvas to generalize.  One characteristic of cultural Romanization was the creation of many hundreds of Roman coloniae in the territory of the Roman Republic and the subsequent Roman Empire. Until Trajan, colonies were created by using retired veteran soldiers, mainly from the Italian peninsula, who promoted Roman customs and laws, with the use of Latin.  It has been estimated that at the beginning of the empire, about 750,000 Italians lived in the provinces. Julius Caesar, Mark Anthony and Octavian settled many of their veterans in colonies: in Italy, and the provinces. The colonies that were established in Italy until 14 BCE have been studied by Keppie (1983). In his account of the achievements of his long reign, "Res Gestae Divi Augusti", Augustus stated that he had settled 120,000 soldiers in twenty colonies in Italy in 31 BCE, then 100,000 men in colonies in Spain and southern Gaul in 14 BCE, followed by another 96,000 in 2 BCE. Brian Campbell also states "From 49 to 32 BCE about 420,000 Italians were recruited", which would thus be the veteran (citizen) stock that was largely sent to the provinces (colonies) during Augustus. The Lex Calpurnia, however, also allowed citizenship to be granted for distinguished bravery. For example, the 1,000 socii from Camerinum after Vercellae 101 BCE (Plutarch Mar. XXXVIII) and the auxiliary (later Legio XXII Deiotariana) after Zela, got Roman citizenship. By the time of Augustus, the legions consisted mostly of ethnic Latins/Italics and Cisalpine Gauls.  However, Romanization did not always result in the extinction of all aspects of native cultures even when there was extensive acculturation. Many non-Latin provincial languages survived the entire period while sustaining considerable Latin influence, including the ancestor languages of Welsh, Albanian, Basque and Berber. Where there was language replacement, in some cases, such as Italy, it took place in the early imperial stage, while in others, native languages only totally succumbed to Latin "after" the fall of the Empire, as was likely the case with Gaulish. The Gaulish language is thought to have survived into the 6th century in France, despite considerable Romanization of the local material culture. The last record of spoken Gaulish deemed to be plausibly credible was when Gregory of Tours wrote in the 6th century (c. 560-575) that a shrine in Auvergne which "is called Vasso Galatae in the Gallic tongue" was destroyed and burnt to the ground. Coexisting with Latin, Gaulish helped shape the Vulgar Latin dialects that developed into French, with effects including loanwords and calques (including "oui", the word for "yes"), sound changes, and influences in conjugation and word order.

Process.

All that led to many gradual developments.  The very existence is a source of contention among modern archaeologists. One of the first approaches, which now can be regarded as the "traditional" approach, was taken by Francis Haverfield. He saw this process beginning in primarily post-conquest societies (such as Britain and Gaul), where direct Roman policy from the top promoted an increase in the Roman population of the province through the establishment of veteran colonies. The "coloniae" would have spoken Latin and been citizens of Rome following their army tenure (See Roman citizenship). Haverfield thus assumes this would have a Romanising effect upon the native communities.  This thought process, fueled though it was by early 20th century standards of imperialism and cultural change, forms the basis for the modern understanding of Romanization. However, recent scholarship has devoted itself to providing alternate models of how native populations adopted Roman culture and has questioned the extent to which it was accepted or resisted.

Legacy.

Roman names were adopted.  The Latin language was spread, which was greatly facilitated by the fact that many cultures were mostly oral (particularly for the Gauls and Iberians). Anyone who wanted to deal (through writing) with the bureaucracy and/or with the Roman market had to write in Latin. The extent of the adoption is subject to ongoing debate, as the native languages were certainly spoken after the conquests. Moreover, in the eastern half of the Empire, Latin had to compete with Greek, which largely kept its position as lingua franca and even spread to new areas. Latin became prominent in certain areas around new veteran colonies like Berytus.  The ancient tribal laws were replaced by Roman law, with its institutions of property rights.  Typically-Roman institutions, such as public baths, the imperial cult and gladiator fights, were adopted.  Gradually, the conquered would see themselves as Romans. The process was supported by the Roman Republic and then by the Roman Empire.  The entire process was facilitated by the Indo-European origin of most of the languages and by the similarity of the gods of many ancient cultures. They also already had had trade relations and contacts with one another through the seafaring Mediterranean cultures like the Phoenicians and the Greeks.  Romanization was largely effective in the western half of the empire, where native civilizations were weaker. In the Hellenized east, ancient civilizations like those of Ancient Egypt, Anatolia, The Balkans, Judea and Syria, effectively resisted all but its most superficial effects. When the Empire was divided, the east, with mainly Greek culture, was marked by the increasing strength of specifically Greek culture and language to the detriment of the Latin language and other Romanizing influences, but its citizens continued to regard themselves as Romans.  While Britain certainly was Romanized, its approximation to the Roman culture seems to have been smaller than that of Gaul. The most romanized regions, as demonstrated by Dott. Bernward Tewes and Barbara Woitas of the computing center of the Catholic University Eichstätt-Ingolstadt, were Italy, the Iberian Peninsula, Gaul, southern Germany and Dalmatia.  Romanization in most of those regions remains such a powerful cultural influence in most aspects of life today that they are described as "Latin countries" and "Latin American countries". That is most evident in European countries in which Romance languages are spoken and former colonies that have inherited the languages and other Roman influences. According to Theodor Mommsen, cultural Romanisation was more complete in those areas that developed a "neolatin language" (like Spanish, French, Italian, Portuguese, and Romanian). The same process later developed in the recent centuries' colonial empires.

Romanization or Latinization (or Romanisation or Latinisation), in the historical and cultural meanings of both terms, indicate different historical processes, such as acculturation, integration and assimilation of newly incorporated and peripheral populations by the Roman Republic and the later Roman Empire. Ancient Roman historiography and Italian historiography until the fascist period used to call the various processes the "civilizing of barbarians".

Romanisierung bezeichnet die Übernahme der lateinischen Sprache und römischen Zivilisation durch andere, meist unterworfene Völker. Romanisierung bedeutet dabei im Wesentlichen eine sprachliche und kulturelle Anpassung unter Aufgabe oder Umgestaltung eigener Kulturformen.


Timeline.

The Zschopau works was one of the oldest motorcycle factories in the world, producing motorcycles since 1922. They were the first company to develop the two-stroke engine for vehicles and were the leader in two-stroke development worldwide. Rasmussen had begun the motorcycle production under the brand name DKW. Later he also started the car company DKW cars. In the world economic crises of 1929, four local car manufacturers under the leadership of Rasmussen's DKW founded Auto Union, nowadays known as Audi AG car manufacturer. The best known models from Zschopau later were the two-stroke 125/150 and 250 series, with the variants ES, ETS, TS and ETZ. In the 1950s, MZ was the world leader in two-stroke engines. Especially through the work of their racing engineer and department leader Walter Kaaden their engines became nearly unbeatable and in 1961 they nearly won the world championships in the 125 cc class against Soichiro Honda's four-stroke engines. The championship was lost through one of the biggest spy scandals in motorcycle history. The factory rider Ernst Degner fled from East Germany and brought all their knowledge to Suzuki. Walter Kaaden's secret was stolen. He had developed the two-stroke exhaust pipe, known as expansion chamber. In 1962, with his stolen knowledge that he brought to Suzuki he won the first world title for the Japanese manufacturer. The British author Mat Oxley wrote a book about this scandal: "Stealing Speed". Later MZ was one of the few producers that made motorcycles with sidecars, though prior to 1972 sidecars were manufactured by Stoye. A later version named the MuZ Voyager was an Austrian 500 cc, four-valve, rotax-equipped, retro-styled standard, custom-painted to match the model #562 sidecar made by Velorex of Czechoslovakia. However, a cease and desist order was issued in the early 1990s by Kawasaki, who owned the rights to that name, and MuZ subsequently renamed the motorcycle the Silverstar, and the sidecar-equipped version the Silverstar Gespann. Only after Hong Leong Group took over the lead of MZ Motorrad und Zweiradwerke GmbH the funding was secured to invest in the development of new engines and motorcycles. They developed with the German MZ engineers the models MZ 1000s and MZ RT 125 (with a four-stroke engine) and as a successor model to one of the most famous and copied motorcycle models in the world, the MZ RT125.

Sports.

Activities started in 1927.

Enduro.

Winner of International Six Day Trial: 1963, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1967, 1969, 1987.  The East German government did not support the international racing aspirations of MZ. The defection to the West of grand prix rider Ernst Degner, complete with his theft of a set of secrets, started the end of the glory years of Kaadens bikes. The Yamaha-based engine can be reliably tuned to 150 percent of its original performance. At that stage, it can become competitive in Supermono racing classes and in single and twin-cylinder racing classes.

UK Importer "Specials".

Back in the early 1980s in the UK, MZ were regarded by the motorcycle press as producing ugly and old-fashioned (if worthy) motorcycles. The then importer, Wilf Green, decided to try and update the image of the bikes by producing his own modified versions of the TS125, christened the “Pathfinder” and the “Sport”.  Both bikes were, in essence, standard TS125 deluxe models with remodelled fuel tanks and a remodelled, shortened GRP rear mudguard. The Sport also had a re-sculpted seat whereas the Pathfinder was transformed into a budget trial bike with the addition of knobbly tyres, high level front mudguard, motocross bars, high level exhaust and remodelled airbox. Neither bike was produced in great numbers.  Wilf Green subsequently created the ETZ300 (as distinct from the later, factory produced ETZ301), which was essentially a standard ETZ250 with a re-bored (and slightly restyled) engine, cockpit fairing and revised decals. Shortly after releasing this bike, however, Wilf Green lost the MZ import franchise meaning an end to importer-modified special editions in the UK.

Most recent models.

MZ manufactured a line of 125 cc four-stroke motorcycles using an engine that was designed in-house. The MZ 125 produces and nearly of torque. It is a liquid-cooled, dual-overhead-cam design with four valves, high-voltage electronic ignition and an 11,000 rpm ignition cut-off. This engine was used in four models, all of which share a common frame. The frame is a tube-steel backbone with the engine as a stressed bottom member. Differences in the suspension, fascia, gearing, and equipment make the four models relatively distinct, despite the shared platform. All four bikes feature a six-speed transmission and dual disc brakes.  All four 125s are capable of speeds over, with the fastest being the RT and SM, both of which are capable of sustained speeds.  MZ also used a Yamaha-built 660 cc single in the Baghira line of mid-displacement Enduro/DualPurpose/Motard bikes.  The last new MZ model was the 1000S which featured a novel 1000 cc, DOHC parallel twin designed and built by MZ. The 1000S is a sport-tourer by design. The 1000S' unique engine is exceptionally compact for its displacement. The range includes a naked (unfaired) version and a full tourer with luggage, higher handlebars, and lower footpegs for comfort. Both of these are retuned, with less outright horsepower than the 'S', but with more torque.  In addition to the 1000S, MZ also produced the naked version of the 1000S, known as the MZ1000SF, and the sports touring version called the MZ1000ST. MZ also produces its own lines of scooters called the MZ Moskito, powered by a 50 cc two-stroke engine.  Besides scooters, MZ also produced its own line of underbone motorcycles, targeted for the Southeast Asian market. Their debut underbone model was the MZ Perintis 120, launched in 2002. The Perintis was succeeded by the MZ Mantizz series, launched in 2004. The Mantizz series has two displacement options – 125 cc and 110 cc. All MZ underbone models are powered by four-stroke engines and are manufactured in MZ's Malaysian plant in Shah Alam.  MZ also competed in the European GP-500 class with race-only models, and built several scooter and ATV models ranging in displacement from 50 cc to 185 cc, as well as the Charlie electric scooter, the fastest stand-up electric scooter produced.  As of January 2010 only the Charlie electric scooter is in production, and the company is under new owners.

Motorenwerke Zschopau GmbH (formerly MZ Motorrad- und Zweiradwerk GmbH) is a German motorcycle manufacturer located in Zschopau, Saxony. The acronym MZ since 1956 stands for Motorenwerke Zschopau" GmbH (German for Zschopau engine factory). From 1992 to 1999 the company was called MuZ, an acronym for Motorrad und Zweiradwerk" (German for motorcycle and two-wheeler factory).

In der sächsischen Stadt Zschopau beziehungsweise ihrem Nachbarort Hohndorf wurden von 1922 bis 2016 Motorräder gebaut. Bekanntheit erlangten Hersteller, die ab 1952 unter dem Markenkürzel MZ, kurzzeitig auch unter MuZ firmierten. Die Kürzel stehen für "VEB Motorradwerk Zschopau, Motorradwerk Zschopau GmbH, Motorrad- und Zweiradwerk GmbH" (MuZ), sowie "MZ Motorrad- und Zweiradwerk GmbH" und ab 2009 für "Motorenwerke Zschopau GmbH". In Zschopau stand das erste Motorrad-Fließband der Welt. Bis zum Tag der Wirtschaftsunion zwischen der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und der DDR am 1. Juli 1990 galt MZ mit 85.000 Maschinen im Jahr als weltweit größter Motorradhersteller, der in rund 100 Länder exportierte.


History.

In 1761 Joseph Black introduced the idea of latent heat which lead to creation of the first ice-calorimeters. In 1780, Antoine Lavoisier used the heat from the guinea pig's respiration to melt snow surrounding his apparatus, showing that respiratory gas exchange is combustion, similar to a candle burning. Lavoisier dubbed this apparatus the calorimeter, based on both Greek and Latin roots. One of the first ice calorimeters was used in the winter of 1782 by Lavoisier and Pierre-Simon Laplace, which relied on the heat required to melt ice to water to measure the heat released from chemical reactions.

Adiabatic calorimeters.

An adiabatic calorimeter is a calorimeter used to examine a runaway reaction. Since the calorimeter runs in an adiabatic environment, any heat generated by the material sample under test causes the sample to increase in temperature, thus fueling the reaction.  No adiabatic calorimeter is fully adiabatic - some heat will be lost by the sample to the sample holder. A mathematical correction factor, known as the phi-factor, can be used to adjust the calorimetric result to account for these heat losses. The phi-factor is the ratio of the thermal mass of the sample and sample holder to the thermal mass of the sample alone.

Reaction calorimeters.

A reaction calorimeter is a calorimeter in which a chemical reaction is initiated within a closed insulated container. Reaction heats are measured and the total heat is obtained by integrating heatflow versus time. This is the standard used in industry to measure heats since industrial processes are engineered to run at constant temperatures. Reaction calorimetry can also be used to determine maximum heat release rate for chemical process engineering and for tracking the global kinetics of reactions. There are four main methods for measuring the heat in reaction calorimeter:

Heat flow calorimeter.

The cooling/heating jacket controls either the temperature of the process or the temperature of the jacket. Heat is measured by monitoring the temperature difference between heat transfer fluid and the process fluid. In addition, fill volumes (i.e. wetted area), specific heat, heat transfer coefficient have to be determined to arrive at a correct value. It is possible with this type of calorimeter to do reactions at reflux, although it is very less accurate.

Heat balance calorimeter.

The cooling/heating jacket controls the temperature of the process. Heat is measured by monitoring the heat gained or lost by the heat transfer fluid.

Power compensation.

Power compensation uses a heater placed within the vessel to maintain a constant temperature. The energy supplied to this heater can be varied as reactions require and the calorimetry signal is purely derived from this electrical power.

Constant flux.

Constant flux calorimetry (or COFLUX as it is often termed) is derived from heat balance calorimetry and uses specialized control mechanisms to maintain a constant heat flow (or flux) across the vessel wall.

Bomb calorimeters.

A bomb calorimeter is a type of constant-volume calorimeter used in measuring the heat of combustion of a particular reaction. Bomb calorimeters have to withstand the large pressure within the calorimeter as the reaction is being measured. Electrical energy is used to ignite the fuel; as the fuel is burning, it will heat up the surrounding air, which expands and escapes through a tube that leads the air out of the calorimeter. When the air is escaping through the copper tube it will also heat up the water outside the tube. The change in temperature of the water allows for calculating calorie content of the fuel.  In more recent calorimeter designs, the whole bomb, pressurized with excess pure oxygen (typically at 30 atm) and containing a weighed mass of a sample (typically 1–1.5 g) and a small fixed amount of water (to saturate the internal atmosphere, thus ensuring that all water produced is liquid, and removing the need to include enthalpy of vaporization in calculations), is submerged under a known volume of water (ca. 2000 ml) before the charge is electrically ignited. The bomb, with the known mass of the sample and oxygen, form a closed system — no gases escape during the reaction. The weighed reactant put inside the steel container is then ignited. Energy is released by the combustion and heat flow from this crosses the stainless steel wall, thus raising the temperature of the steel bomb, its contents, and the surrounding water jacket. The temperature change in the water is then accurately measured with a thermometer. This reading, along with a bomb factor (which is dependent on the heat capacity of the metal bomb parts), is used to calculate the energy given out by the sample burn. A small correction is made to account for the electrical energy input, the burning fuse, and acid production (by titration of the residual liquid). After the temperature rise has been measured, the excess pressure in the bomb is released.  Basically, a bomb calorimeter consists of a small cup to contain the sample, oxygen, a stainless steel bomb, water, a stirrer, a thermometer, the dewar or insulating container (to prevent heat flow from the calorimeter to the surroundings) and ignition circuit connected to the bomb. By using stainless steel for the bomb, the reaction will occur with no volume change observed.  Since there is no heat exchange between the calorimeter and surroundings (Q = 0) (adiabatic), no work is performed (W = 0)  Thus, the total internal energy change  Also, total internal energy change  where formula_6 is heat capacity of the bomb  Before the bomb can be used to determine heat of combustion of any compound, it must be calibrated. The value of formula_6 can be estimated by  In the laboratory, formula_6 is determined by running a compound with known heat of combustion value: formula_14  Common compounds are benzoic acid (formula_15) or p-methyl benzoic acid (formula_16).  Temperature () is recorded every minute and formula_17  A small factor contributes to the correction of the total heat of combustion is the fuse wire. Nickel fuse wire is often used and has heat of combustion = 981.2 cal/g  In order to calibrate the bomb, a small amount (~ 1 g) of benzoic acid, or p-methyl benzoic acid is weighed. A length of Nickel fuse wire (~10 cm) is weighed both before and after the combustion process. Mass of fuse wire burned formula_18  The combustion of sample (benzoic acid) inside the bomb  Once formula_6 value of the bomb is determined, the bomb is ready to use to calculate heat of combustion of any compounds by

Combustion of non-flammables.

The higher pressure and concentration of O in the bomb system can render combustible some compounds that are not normally flammable. Some substances do not combust completely, making the calculations harder as the remaining mass has to be taken into consideration, making the possible error considerably larger and compromising the data.  When working with compounds that are not as flammable (that might not combust completely) one solution would be to mix the compound with some flammable compounds with a known heat of combustion and make a pallet with the mixture. Once the Cv of the bomb is known, the heat of combustion of the flammable compound (C), of the wire (C) and the masses (m and m), and the temperature change (ΔT), the heat of combustion of the less flammable compound (C) can be calculated with:  C = C. ΔT - C*m - C*m

Calvet-type calorimeters.

The detection is based on a three-dimensional fluxmeter sensor. The fluxmeter element consists of a ring of several thermocouples in series. The corresponding thermopile of high thermal conductivity surrounds the experimental space within the calorimetric block. The radial arrangement of the thermopiles guarantees an almost complete integration of the heat. This is verified by the calculation of the efficiency ratio that indicates that an average value of 94% +/- 1% of heat is transmitted through the sensor on the full range of temperature of the Calvet-type calorimeter. In this setup, the sensitivity of the calorimeter is not affected by the crucible, the type of purgegas, or the flow rate. The main advantage of the setup is the increase of the experimental vessel's size and consequently the size of the sample, without affecting the accuracy of the calorimetric measurement.  The calibration of the calorimetric detectors is a key parameter and has to be performed very carefully. For Calvet-type calorimeters, a specific calibration, so called Joule effect or electrical calibration, has been developed to overcome all the problems encountered by a calibration done with standard materials. The main advantages of this type of calibration are as follows:  An example of Calvet-type calorimeter is the C80 Calorimeter (reaction, isothermal and scanning calorimeter).

Constant-pressure calorimeter.

A constant-pressure calorimeter measures the change in enthalpy of a reaction occurring in solution during which the atmospheric pressure remains constant.  An example is a coffee-cup calorimeter, which is constructed from two nested Styrofoam cups and a lid with two holes, allowing insertion of a thermometer and a stirring rod. The inner cup holds a known amount of a solvent, usually water, that absorbs the heat from the reaction. When the reaction occurs, the outer cup provides insulation. Then  where  The measurement of heat using a simple calorimeter, like the coffee cup calorimeter, is an example of constant-pressure calorimetry, since the pressure (atmospheric pressure) remains constant during the process. Constant-pressure calorimetry is used in determining the changes in enthalpy occurring in solution. Under these conditions the change in enthalpy equals the heat.

Differential scanning calorimeter.

In a differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), heat flow into a sample—usually contained in a small aluminium capsule or 'pan'—is measured differentially, i.e., by comparing it to the flow into an empty reference pan.  In a heat flux DSC, both pans sit on a small slab of material with a known (calibrated) heat resistance K. The temperature of the calorimeter is raised linearly with time (scanned), i.e., the heating rate dT/dt = β is kept constant. This time linearity requires good design and good (computerized) temperature control. Of course, controlled cooling and isothermal experiments are also possible.  Heat flows into the two pans by conduction. The flow of heat into the sample is larger because of its heat capacity "C". The difference in flow "dq"/"dt" induces a small temperature difference Δ"T" across the slab. This temperature difference is measured using a thermocouple. The heat capacity can in principle be determined from this signal:  Note that this formula (equivalent to Newton's law of heat flow) is analogous to, and much older than, Ohm's law of electric flow: ΔV = R dQ/dt = R I.  When suddenly heat is absorbed by the sample (e.g., when the sample melts), the signal will respond and exhibit a peak.  From the integral of this peak the enthalpy of melting can be determined, and from its onset the melting temperature.  Differential scanning calorimetry is a workhorse technique in many fields, particularly in polymer characterization.  A modulated temperature differential scanning calorimeter (MTDSC) is a type of DSC in which a small oscillation is imposed upon the otherwise linear heating rate.  This has a number of advantages. It facilitates the direct measurement of the heat capacity in one measurement, even in (quasi-)isothermal conditions. It permits the simultaneous measurement of heat effects that respond to a changing heating rate (reversing) and that don't respond to the changing heating rate (non-reversing). It allows for the optimization of both sensitivity and resolution in a single test by allowing for a slow average heating rate (optimizing resolution) and a fast changing heating rate (optimizing sensitivity).  Safety Screening:- DSC may also be used as an initial safety screening tool. In this mode the sample will be housed in a non-reactive crucible (often Gold, or Gold plated steel), and which will be able to withstand pressure (typically up to 100 bar). The presence of an exothermic event can then be used to assess the stability of a substance to heat. However, due to a combination of relatively poor sensitivity, slower than normal scan rates (typically 2–3°/min - due to much heavier crucible) and unknown activation energy, it is necessary to deduct about 75–100 °C from the initial start of the observed exotherm to suggest a maximum temperature for the material. A much more accurate data set can be obtained from an adiabatic calorimeter, but such a test may take 2–3 days from ambient at a rate of 3 °C increment per half hour.

Isothermal titration calorimeter.

In an isothermal titration calorimeter, the heat of reaction is used to follow a titration experiment. This permits determination of the midpoint (stoichiometry) (N) of a reaction as well as its enthalpy (delta H), entropy (delta S) and of primary concern the binding affinity (Ka)  The technique is gaining in importance particularly in the field of biochemistry, because it facilitates determination of substrate binding to enzymes. The technique is commonly used in the pharmaceutical industry to characterize potential drug candidates.

A calorimeter is an object used for calorimetry, or the process of measuring the heat of chemical reactions or physical changes as well as heat capacity. Differential scanning calorimeters, isothermal micro calorimeters, titration calorimeters and accelerated rate calorimeters are among the most common types. A simple calorimeter just consists of a thermometer attached to a metal container full of water suspended above a combustion chamber. It is one of the measurement devices used in the study of thermodynamics, chemistry, and biochemistry.

Ein Kalorimeter (lat. "calor",Wärme‘;/(lat.)"metari",abmessen) ist ein Messgerät (oder eine Apparatur) zur Bestimmung der Wärmemenge, die bei physikalischen, chemischen oder biologischen Prozessen freigesetzt oder aufgenommen wird. Mit Hilfe eines Kalorimeters kann zudem die spezifische Wärmekapazität eines Stoffes ermittelt werden. Man unterscheidet Kalorimeter nach Betriebsarten wie zum Beispiel adiabatisch oder isotherm beziehungsweise nach dem Messprinzip wie zum Beispiel Leistungskompensations- oder Wärmeleitungsprinzip. Das Messverfahren selbst bezeichnet man als Kalorimetrie.


Biography.

Early life.

Adem Shaban Jashari was born in the village of Prekaz, in the Drenica region of the Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo, on 28 November 1955 as Fazli Jashari. Descended from Kosovo Albanian guerrillas who had fought Yugoslav forces decades prior, he was raised on Albanian war stories and was rarely seen without a gun. According to the journalist Tim Judah, Jashari "hated the Serbs, and although he was one of the KLA’s early recruits, he was no ideological guerrilla."

Guerrilla activities.

Drenica is a hilly region in central Kosovo inhabited almost exclusively by Kosovo Albanians. Prior to the Kosovo War, the government of Yugoslavia considered it "the hotbed of Albanian terrorism." Jashari was a farmer. In 1991, he participated in an armed uprising against the Yugoslav authorities in Kosovo. During this period, a Kosovo Albanian irredentist organization that came to be known as the Kosovo Liberation Army first emerged.  From 1991 to 1992, Jashari and about 100 other ethnic Albanians wishing to fight for the independence of Kosovo underwent military training in the municipality of Labinot-Mal in Albania. Afterwards, Jashari and other ethnic Albanians committed several acts of sabotage aimed at the Serbian administrative apparatus in Kosovo. Attempting to capture or kill him, Serbian police surrounded Jashari and his older brother, Hamëz, at their home in Prekaz on 30 December 1991. In the ensuing siege, large numbers of Kosovo Albanians flocked to Prekaz, pressuring the police to withdraw from the village.  While in Albania, he was arrested in 1993 by the government of Sali Berisha and sent to jail in Tirana before being released alongside other Kosovo Albanian militants at the demand of the Albanian Army. With the Yugoslav forces now considering Prekaz a "no-go" area, Jashari launched several attacks over the next several years. These targeted the Yugoslav Army (VJ) and Serbian police in Kosovo. Jashari was convicted of terrorism "in absentia" by a Yugoslav court on 11 July 1997. Human Rights Watch subsequently described the trial, in which fourteen other Kosovo Albanians were also convicted, as "[failing] to conform to international standards." Pursuing Jashari for the murder of a Serb policeman, Yugoslav forces again attempted to assault the Jashari compound in Prekaz on 22 January 1998. With Jashari not present, thousands of Kosovo Albanians descended on Prekaz and again succeeded in pushing the Serbs out of the village and its surroundings. The next month, a small unit of the KLA ambushed Serbian policemen. Four Serbs were killed and two were injured in the ensuing clashes. At dawn on 5 March 1998, the KLA launched an attack against a police patrol in Prekaz.

Death.

In response to this attack, the Yugoslavs organized a "full-scale revenge mission" involving tanks, APCs and helicopters. They were backed up by artillery from a nearby ammunition factory. With the intention of "eliminating the suspects and their families," the police attacked villages that had been identified as KLA strongholds, including Likošane and Ćirez. Human Rights Watch noted that "special police forces attacked without warning, firing indiscriminately at women, children and other noncombatants." KLA members and their families subsequently fled to Jashari's compound. Here, the police invited Jashari to surrender, giving him a deadline of two hours in which to respond. During this period, a number of families left the compound. Jashari remained, ordering his family members to stay inside and telling his militants to resist to the last man.  Once the two-hour deadline had expired, the two sides began exchanging gunfire. In one of the houses, where most of Jashari's extended family had gathered, a mortar shell fell in through the roof, causing many deaths. After a two or three-day siege, the police captured the Jashari compound. Once inside, they discovered that Jashari and his brother Hamëz had been killed. Also killed were Jashari's wife, Adilje, and his thirteen-year-old son, Kushtrim. Overall, approximately fifty-eight Kosovo Albanians were killed in the attack, including eighteen women and ten children under the age of sixteen. Goran Radosavljević, a major in the Serbian Interior Ministry, said that "[Jashari] used women, children and the elderly as hostages." Speaking of the attack, Yugoslav General Nebojša Pavković stated that it was "a normal policing action against a well-known criminal. It was successful. The other details I don't remember." The only survivor was Besarta Jashari, Hamëz Jashari's daughter. She claimed that the policemen had "threatened her with a knife and ordered her to say that her uncle (Adem Jashari) had killed everyone who wanted to surrender."

Aftermath.

Soon after the attack against Prekaz, 46 bodies were taken to a hospital morgue in Pristina on 7 March before being returned to Skenderaj the next day. There, they were placed inside a warehouse located on the outskirts of town. Photographs taken during this time revealed that Jashari had received a bullet wound to the neck. On 9 March, the police publicly stated that they would themselves bury the bodies of those killed if they were not quickly claimed and buried by family members. The next day, the police dug a large grave near Donji Prekaz and buried the bodies of fifty-six people, ten of whom could not be identified. On 11 March, the bodies were disinterred by relatives and reburied in accordance with Islamic tradition on a field known as the "field of peace".  The shootout at the Jashari family compound involving Adem Jashari, a KLA commander and surrounding Yugoslav troops in 1998 resulted in the massacre of most Jashari family members. The deaths of Jashari and his family generated an international backlash against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. As news of the killings spread, armed Kosovo Albanian militias emerged throughout Kosovo, seeking to avenge Jashari's death as Albanians flocked to join the KLA. The event became a rallying myth for KLA recruitment regarding armed resistance to Yugoslav forces.

Legacy.

The exploits of Adem Jashari have been celebrated and turned into legend by former KLA members, some in government, and by Kosovar Albanian society resulting in songs, literature, monuments, memorials with streets and buildings bearing his name across Kosovo. Dubbed the "Legendary Commander" () by Albanians, Jashari is regarded by many in Kosovo as being the "father of the KLA". Portraits of him carrying an automatic weapon often adorn the walls of homes inhabited by ethnic Albanians. Considered a symbol of independence by Kosovo Albanians, the anniversary of Jashari's death is annually commemorated in Kosovo and his home has since been transformed into a shrine. The field where he and his family were buried has since become a place of pilgrimage for Kosovo Albanians, and several authors have equated Jashari with Albanian national hero Skanderbeg as well as Albanian "kaçak" rebels from the past. Following Kosovo's declaration of independence in 2008, Jashari was posthumously awarded the title "Hero of Kosovo" for his role in the Kosovo War. The football stadium in Mitrovica, the National Theatre in Pristina and Pristina International Airport have also been named after him.

Adem Jashari (born Fazli Jashari; 28 November 1955 – 7 March 1998) was one of the founders of the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA)( (UÇK)), a Kosovo Albanian separatist organization which fought for the secession of Kosovo from the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia during the 1990s and the eventual creation of a Greater Albania.

Adem Jashari (, * 28. November 1955 in Donji Prekaz bei Srbica, FVR Jugoslawien; † 7. März 1998, BR Jugoslawien) war ein kosovo-albanischer Mitbegründer sowie zeitweiliger lokaler Kommandant der UÇK in der Drenica-Region.


Life.

Early life.

Milutin Milanković was born in the village of Dalj, a settlement on the banks of the Danube in what was then part of Austro-Hungarian Empire. Milutin and his twin sister were the oldest of seven children raised in a Serbian family. Their father was a merchant, landlord, and a local politician who died when Milutin was eight. As a result, Milutin and his siblings were raised by his mother, grandmother, and an uncle. His three brothers died of tuberculosis as children. As his health was fickle, Milutin received his elementary education at home (in "the classroom without walls"), learning from his father Milan, private teachers, and from numerous relatives and friends of the family, some of whom were renowned philosophers, inventors, and poets. He attended secondary school in nearby Osijek, completing it in 1896.  In October 1896, at the age of seventeen, he moved to Vienna to study Civil Engineering at the Vienna University of Technology and graduated in 1902 with the best marks. In his memoirs, Milanković wrote about his lectures on engineering: "Professor Czuber was teaching us mathematics. His every sentence was the masterpiece of strict logic, without any extra word, without any error." After graduating and spending his obligatory year in military service, Milanković borrowed money from an uncle to pay for additional schooling at the Technical University in engineering. He researched concrete and wrote a theoretical evaluation of it as a building material. At age twenty-five, his PhD thesis was entitled "Contribution to the Theory of Pressure Curves" (Beitrag zur Theorie der Druckkurven) and its implementation allowed assessment of pressure curves' shape and properties when continuous pressure is applied, which is very useful in bridge, cupola and abutment construction. His thesis was successfully defended on 12 December 1904; examination committee members were Johan Brick, Josef Finger, Emanuel Czuber and Ludwig von Tetmajer. He then worked for an engineering firm in Vienna, using his knowledge to design structures.

Middle years.

Construction engineering.

At the beginning of 1905, Milanković took up practical work and joined the firm of Adolf Baron Pittel Betonbau-Unternehmung in Vienna. He built dams, bridges, viaducts, aqueducts, and other structures in reinforced concrete throughout Austria-Hungary. The result was particularly evident in the extraordinary design of a reinforced-concrete aqueduct for a hydroelectric power plant in Sebeș, Transylvania, which Milanković designed at the beginning of his career.  He patented a new type of reinforced concrete ribbed ceiling and published the first paper on armored concrete named ""Contribution to the theory of reinforced armored pillars"". He published the second paper on the same subject based on new results in 1906. In 1908, he published a paper titled ""On membranes of same opposition"" in which he proves that the ideal shape for a water reservoir of equally thick walls is that of a drop of water. His six patents were officially recognized and his reputation in the profession was enormous, bringing abundant financial wealth.  Milanković continued to practice civil engineering in Vienna until 1 October 1909 when he was offered the chair of applied mathematics (rational, celestial mechanics, and theoretical physics) at the University of Belgrade. Though he continued to pursue his investigations of various problems pertaining to the application of reinforced concrete, he decided to concentrate on fundamental research.  Milanković continued in design and construction work when he moved to Serbia. During 1912, he designed the reinforced bridges in the Timok valley on the railway line Niš-Knjaževac.

Planet's insolation.

While studying the works of the contemporaneous climatologist Julius von Hann, Milanković noticed a significant issue, which became one of the major objects of his scientific research: a mystery ice age. The idea of possible astronomically-related climate changes was first considered by astronomers (John Herschel, 1792–1871) and then postulated by geologists (Louis Agassiz, 1807–1873). In parallel, there were also several attempts to explain the climate change by the influence of astronomical forces (the most comprehensive of them was the theory put forward by James Croll in the 1860s). Milanković studied the works of Joseph Adhemar whose pioneering theory on the astronomical origins of ice ages were formally rejected by his contemporaries and James Croll whose work was effectively forgotten about even after acceptance by contemporaries such as Charles Darwin. Despite having valuable data on the distribution of ice ages on Alps, climatologists and geologists could not discover the basic causes – that is, the different insolations of the Earth during past ages remained beyond the scope of these sciences. But Milanković decided to follow their path and attempt correctly to calculate the magnitude of such influences. Milanković sought the solution of these complex problems in the field of spherical geometry, celestial mechanics, and theoretical physics.  He began working on it in 1912, after he had realized that "most of meteorology is nothing but a collection of innumerable empirical findings, mainly numerical data, with traces of physics used to explain some of them... Mathematics was even less applied, nothing more than elementary calculus... Advanced mathematics had no role in that science..." His first work described the present climate on Earth and how the Sun's rays determine the temperature on Earth's surface after passing through the atmosphere. He published the first paper on the subject entitled ""Contribution to the mathematical theory of climate"" in Belgrade on 5 April 1912. His next paper was entitled ""Distribution of the sun radiation on the earth's surface"" and was published on 5 June 1913. He correctly calculates the intensity of insolation and developed a mathematical theory describing Earth's climate zones. His aim was an integral, mathematically accurate theory which connects thermal regimes of the planets to their movement around the Sun. He wrote: "...such a theory would enable us to go beyond the range of direct observations, not only in space, but also in time... It would allow reconstruction of the Earth's climate, and also its predictions, as well as give us the first reliable data about the climate conditions on other planets." Then he tried to find a mathematical model of a cosmic mechanism to describe the Earth's climatic and geological history. He published a paper on the subject entitled ""About the issue of the astronomical theory of ice ages"" in 1914. But the cosmic mechanism was not an easy problem, and Milanković took three decades to develop an astronomical theory.  At the same time, the July Crisis between the Austro-Hungarian empire and Serbia broke out, which led to World War I. On 14 June 1914, Milanković married Kristina Topuzovich and went on his honeymoon to his native village of Dalj in Austro-Hungary, where he heard about the beginning of the War. He was arrested as a citizen of Serbia and was interned by the Austro-Hungarian army in Neusiedl am See. He described his first day in prison, where he waited to be taken to the Esseg fortress as a prisoner of war, in the following words:  His wife went to Vienna to talk to Emanuel Czuber, who was his mentor and a good friend. Through his social connections, Professor Czuber arranged Milanković's release from prison and permission to spend his captivity in Budapest with the right to work.  Immediately after arriving in Budapest, Milanković met the Director of the Library of the Hungarian Academy of Science, Koloman von Szilly who, as a mathematician, eagerly accepted Milanković and enabled him to work undisturbed in the Academy's library and the Central Meteorological Institute. Milanković spent four years in Budapest, almost the entire war. He used mathematical methods to study the current climate of inner planets of the solar system. In 1916 he published a paper entitled "Investigation of the climate of the planet Mars". Milanković calculated that the average temperature in the lower layers the atmosphere on Mars is and the average surface temperature is. Also, he concluded that: "This large temperature difference between the ground and lower layers of the atmosphere is not unexpected. Great transparency for solar radiation makes that is the climate of Mars very similar to altitudes climate of our Earth." Today it is known that the average temperature is, but that the ground temperatures and air temperatures generally differ. In any case, Milanković theoretically proved that Mars has an extremely harsh climate. In addition to considering Mars, he dealt with the climatic conditions prevailing on Venus and Mercury. His calculations of the temperature conditions on the neighboring Moon are particularly significant. Milanković knew that one day on the Moon lasts 15 Earth days, and this is the amount and length of night. Milanković calculated that the surface temperature on the day side of the moon reaches +100.5 °C. Also, he calculated that the temperature during the early morning on the Moon, or before the rise of the Sun over horizon, was −58 °C. Today it is known that the surface temperature on the day side of the Moon reaches +108 °C and that it falls at night to −153 °C.  After World War I, Milanković returned to Belgrade with his family on 19 March 1919. He continued his professorial career, becoming a full professor at the University of Belgrade. From 1912 to 1917, he wrote and published seven papers on mathematical theories of climate both on the Earth and on the other planets. He formulated a precise, numerical climatological model with the capacity for reconstruction of the past and prediction of the future, and established the astronomical theory of climate as a generalized mathematical theory of insolation. When these most important problems of the theory were solved, and a firm foundation for further work built, Milanković finished a book which was published in 1920, by the Gauthier-Villars in Paris under the title "Théorie mathématique des phénomènes thermiques produits par la radiation solaire" ("Mathematical Theory of Heat Phenomena Produced by Solar Radiation"). Immediately after the publication of this book in 1920, meteorologists recognized it as a significant contribution to the study of contemporary climate. The works of Vilhelm Bjerknes in 1904, and Lewis Fry Richardson in 1922 are the foundation of modern numerical weather prediction.

Orbital variations and ice age cycles.

Milanković's works on astronomical explanations of ice ages, especially his curve of insolation for the past 130,000 years, received support from the climatologist Wladimir Köppen and from the geophysicist Alfred Wegener. Köppen noted the usefulness of Milanković's theory for paleoclimatological researchers. Milanković received a letter on 22 September 1922 from Köppen, who asked him to expand his studies from 130,000 years to 600,000 years. They agreed that summer insolation is a crucial factor for climate. After developing the mathematical machinery enabling him to calculate the insolation in any given geographical latitude and for any annual season, Milanković was ready to start the realization of the mathematical description of climate of the Earth in the past. Milanković spent 100 days doing the calculations and prepared a graph of solar radiation changes at geographical latitudes of 55°, 60° and 65° north for the past 650,000 years. Milanković believed that these were the latitudes on Earth most sensitive to the change of thermal balance. From that time there is an anecdote, when Milanković's good friend and professor of geography, Jovan Cvijić, asked him: "Why do you calculate temperature conditions at the top of the atmosphere, what is the purpose?!"  These curves showed the variations in insolation which correlated with the series of ice ages. Köppen felt that Milanković's theoretical approach to solar energy was a logical approach to the problem. His solar curve was introduced in a work entitled ""Climates of the geological past"", published by Wladimir Köppen and his son-in-law Alfred Wegener in 1924.  Milanković put the sun at the center of his theory, as the only source of heat and light in the solar system. He considered three cyclical movements of the Earth: eccentricity (100,000-year cycle – Johannes Kepler, 1609), axial tilt (41,000-year cycle – from 22,1° to 24,5°; Presently, the Earth's tilt is 23.5° – Ludwig Pilgrim, 1904), and precession (23,000-year cycle – Hipparchus, 130 BC). Each cycle works on a different time-scale and each affects the amount of solar energy received by the planets. Such changes in the geometry of an orbit lead to the changes in the insolation – the quantity of heat received by any spot at the surface of a planet. These orbital variations, which are influenced by gravity of the Moon, Sun, Jupiter, and Saturn, form the basis of the Milankovitch cycle. His original contribution to celestial mechanics is called Milanković's system of vector elements of planetary orbits. He reduced six Lagrangean-Laplacian elliptical elements to two vectors determining the mechanics of planetary movements. The first specifies the planet's orbital plane, the sense of revolution of the planet, and the orbital ellipse parameter; the second specifies the axis of the orbit in its plane and the orbital eccentricity. By applying those vectors he significantly simplified the calculation and directly obtained all the formulas of the classical theory of secular perturbations. Milanković, in a simple but original manner, first deduced Newton's law of gravitation from Kepler's laws. Then Milankovich treated the two-body and the many-body problems of celestial mechanics. He accepted but corrected the Le Verrier and Stockwell computation by using newer and more accurate values for the masses of the planets in the solar system.  The Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts elected Milanković as a corresponding member in 1920; he became a full member in 1924. The Meteorological service of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia became a member of International Meteorological Organization – IMO (founded in Brussels in 1853 and in Vienna in 1873) as a predecessor of present World Meteorological Organization, WMO. Milankovic served as a representative of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia there for many years.  Köppen proposed to Milankovic on 14 December 1926 to extend his calculations to a million years and to send his results to Barthel Eberl, a geologist studying the Danube basin, as Eberl's research had unearthed some pre-Ice Ages before over 650,000 years. Eberl published all this in Augsburg in 1930 together with Milankovic's curves.  Between 1925 and 1928 Milanković wrote the popular-science book "Through Distant Worlds and Times" in the form of letters to an anonymous woman. The work discusses the history of astronomy, climatology and science via a series of imaginary visits to various points in space and time by the author and his unnamed companion, encompassing the formation of the Earth, past civilizations, famous ancient and renaissance thinkers and their achievements, and the work of his contemporaries, Köppen and Wegener. In the "letters", Milanković expanded on some of his own theories on astronomy and climatology, and described the complicated problems of celestial mechanics in a simplified manner.  Subsequently, Milanković wrote the introductory portion of "Mathematical science of climate and astronomical theory of the variations of the climate" ("Mathematische Klimalehre und Astronomische Theorie der Klimaschwankungen"), published by Köppen ("Handbook of Climatology"; "Handbuch der Klimalogie Band 1") in 1930 in German and translated into Russian in 1939. In 1934 Milanković published the book "Celestial Mechanics". This textbook used vector calculus systematically to solve problems of celestial mechanics.  In the period from 1935 to 1938 Milanković calculated that ice cover depended on changes in insolation. He succeeded in defining the mathematical relationship between summer insolation and the altitude of the snow line. In this way he defined the increase of snow which would occur as a consequence of any given change in summer insolation. He published his results in the study ""New Results of the Astronomic Theory of Climate Changes"" in 1938. Geologists received a graph for presenting bordering altitudes of ice covers any period of time during the last 600,000 years. André Berger and Jacques Laskar later developed this theory further.

Polar wandering.

Conversations with Wegener, the author of continental drift theory, got Milanković interested in the interior of the Earth and the movement of the poles, so he told his friend that he would investigate polar wandering. In November 1929, Milanković received an invitation from Professor Beno Gutenberg of Darmstadt to collaborate on a ten volume handbook on geophysics and to publish his views on the problem of the secular variations of the Earth's rotational poles. Wegener presented extensive empirical evidence in his scientific work on the 'great events' during the Earth's past. However, one of the main findings that especially preoccupied Wegener and then Milankovitch was the discovery of big coal reserves on the Svalbard Islands, in the Arctic Ocean, which could not form at the present latitude of these islands. In the meantime, Wegener died (from hypothermia or heart failure) in November 1930 during his fourth expedition to Greenland. Milanković became convinced that the continents 'float' on a somewhat fluid subsurface and that the positions of the continents with respect to the axis of rotation affect the centrifugal force of the rotation and can throw the axis off balance and force it to move. Wegener's tragedy additionally motivated Milankovich to persevere in solving the problem of polar wandering.  In the period from 1930 to 1933, Milankovitch worked on the problem of numerical secular rotation pole movements. The Earth as a whole he considered as a fluid body, which in the case of short-duration forces behaves as a solid body, but under an influence behaves as an elastic body. Using vector analysis he made a mathematical model of the Earth to create a theory of secular motion of the terrestrial poles. He derived the equation of secular trajectory of a terrestrial pole and also the equation of pole motion along this trajectory. The equations further led to a determination of the 25 most characteristic points with pole trajectories for both hemispheres. This mathematical calculation led Milanković to 16 important points from the past that form parts of early explorations; 8 points triggered future explorations. He drew a map of the path of the poles over the past 300 million years and stated that changes happen in the interval of 5 million years (minimum) to 30 million years (maximum). He found that the secular pole trajectory depends only on the configuration of the terrestrial outer shell and the instantaneous pole position on it, more precisely on geometry of the Earth mass. On this basis he could calculate the secular pole trajectory. Also, based on Milanković's model, the continental blocks sink into their underlying "fluidal" base, and slide around, 'aiming to achieve' isostatic equilibrium. In his conclusion about this problem, he wrote: For an extraterrestrial observer, the displacement of the pole takes place in such a way that the... Earth's axis maintains its orientation in space, but the Earth's crust is displaced on its substratum. Milankovitch published his paper on the subject entitled "Numerical trajectory of secular changes of pole’s rotation" in Belgrade in 1932.  At the same time, Milanković wrote four sections of Beno Gutenberg's "Handbook of Geophysics" (Handbuch der Geophysik) – "The Earth's Position and Movement in Space", "Rotational Movement of the Earth", "Secular shift of the Poles", and "Astronomic Means for Climate Study during the Earth's history" – published by Wegener's father-in-law Köppen in 1933. The lecture on the apparent shift of poles was held at a congress of Balkan mathematicians in Athens in 1934. That same year, Milanković published an article dedicated to the work Alfred Wegener under titled "Moving of the Earth's Poles – A Memory to Alfred Wegener".  Milankovitch's work on the trajectory of poles was well accepted only by Köppen's associates, because most of the scientific community was skeptical about Wegener and Milankovic's new theories. Later, in the 1950s and 1960s, development of the new scientific discipline in geophysics known as palaeomagnetism led to the key evidence on the basis of studying the records of Earth's magnetic field in rocks over geological time. Paleomagnetic evidence, both reversals and polar wandering data, led the revival of the theories of continental drift and its transformation into plate tectonics in the 1960s and 1970s. Unlike Milankovic's linear trajectory of poles, palaeomagnetism reconstructed the path of the poles over geological history to show the nonlinear trajectory.

Later life.

To collect his scientific work on the theory of solar radiation that was scattered in many books and papers, Milanković began his life's work in 1939. This tome was entitled "Canon of Insolation of the Earth and Its Application to the Problem of the Ice Ages", which covered his nearly three decades of research, including a large number of formulas, calculations and schemes, but also summarized universal laws through which it was possible to explain cyclical climate change and the attendant 11 ice ages – his namesake Milankovitch cycles.  Milanković spent two years arranging and writing the "Canon". The manuscript was submitted to print on 2 April 1941 – four days before the attack of Nazi Germany and its allies on the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. In the bombing of Belgrade on 6 April 1941, the printing house where his work was being printed was destroyed; however, almost all of the printed sheet paper remained undamaged in the printing warehouse. After the successful occupation of Serbia on 15 May 1941, two German officers and geology students came to Milanković in his house and brought greetings from Professor of Freiburg. Milanković gave them the only complete printed copy of the "Canon" to send to Soergel, to make certain that his work would be preserved. Milanković did not take part in the work of the university during the occupation, and after the war he was reinstated as professor.  The "Canon" was issued in 1941 by the Royal Serbian Academy, 626 pages in quarto, and was printed in German as "Kanon der Erdbestrahlung und seine Anwendung auf das Eiszeitenproblem". The titles of the six parts of the book are: During the German occupation of Serbia from 1941 to 1944, Milanković withdrew from public life and decided to write a "history of his life and work" going beyond scientific matters, including his personal life and the love of his father who died in his youth. His autobiography would be published after the war, entitled "Recollection, Experiences and Vision" in Belgrade in 1952.

History of science.

After the war, Milanković was vice president of the Serbian Academy of Sciences (1948–1958) and became a member of the Commission 7 for celestial mechanics in the International Astronomical Union in 1948. In the same year, he became a member of the Italian Institute of Paleontology. In November 1954, fifty years after receiving his original diploma, he received the Golden Doctor's diploma from the Technical University of Vienna. In 1955, he was also elected to the German Academy of Naturalists "Leopoldina" in Halle, Saxony-Anhalt.  At the same time, Milanković began publishing numerous books on the history of science, including "Isaac Newton and Newton's Principia" (1946), "The founders of the natural science Pythagoras – Democritus – Aristotle – Archimedes" (1947), "History of astronomy – from its beginnings up to 1727" (1948), "Through empire of science – images from the lives of great scientists" (1950), "Twenty-two centuries of Chemistry" (1953), and "Techniques in the ancient times" (1955).  Milutin suffered a stroke and died in Belgrade in 1958. He is buried in his family cemetery in Dalj.

Legacy.

After Milanković's death, most of the scientific community came to dispute his "astronomical theory" and no longer recognized the results of his research. But ten years after his death and fifty years from the first publication, Milanković's theory was again taken under consideration. His "book" was translated into English under the title "Canon of Insolation of the Ice-Age Problem" in 1969 by the Israel Program for Scientific Translations, and was published by the U.S. Department of Commerce and the National Science Foundation in Washington, D.C..  In the beginning, recognition came slowly, but later, the theory was proven to be accurate. Project CLIMAP (Climate: Long Range Investigation, Mapping and Production) finally resolved the dispute and proved the theory of Milankovitch cycles. In 1972, scientists compiled a time scale of climatic events in the past 700,000 years from deep-sea cores. They performed the analysis of the cores and four years later, came to the conclusion that in the past 500,000 years, climate has changed depending on the inclination of the Earth's axis of rotation and its precession. In 1988, a new major project COHMAP (Cooperative Holocene Mapping Project) reconstructed the patterns of global climate change over the last 18,000 years, again demonstrating the key role of astronomical factors. In 1989, the project SPECMAP (Spectral Mapping Project), showed that the climate changes are responses to changes in solar radiation of each of the three astronomical cycles.  In 1999, it was shown that variations in the isotopic composition of oxygen in the sediments at the bottom of the ocean follow Milankovitch theory. There are other recent studies that indicate the validity of the original Milankovitch theory. Although orbital forcing of Earth's climate is well accepted, the details of how orbitally-induced changes in insolation affect climate are debated.

On the Light.

Milanković authored two papers on relativity. He wrote his first paper "On the theory of Michelson's experiment" in 1912. He was doing research in this theory as of 1924. In fact his papers on this matter were on special relativity and both are on Michelson experiment (now known as Michelson–Morley experiment) which gave the strong evidence against aether theory. In the light of the Michelson experiment he discussed on the validity of the second postulate of special theory of relativity, that the speed of light is the same in every reference frame.

Revised Julian calendar.

Milanković proposed a revised Julian calendar in 1923. It made centennial years leap years if division by 900 left a remainder of 200 or 600, unlike the Gregorian rule which required that division by 400 left no remainder. In May 1923 a congress of some Eastern Orthodox churches adopted the calendar; however, only the removal of 1–13 October 1923 and the revised leap year algorithm were adopted by a number of Eastern Orthodox churches. The dates of Easter and related holy days are still computed using the Julian calendar. At the time of Milanković's proposal, it was suspected the period of rotation of Earth might not be constant, but it was not until the development of quartz and atomic clocks beginning in the 1930s that this could be proven and quantified. The variation in the period of rotation of Earth is the chief cause of long-term inaccuracy in both the Gregorian and Revised Julian calendars.

Awards and honors.

In honour of his achievements in astronomy, an impact crater on the far side of the Moon was given the name Milankovic at the 14th IAU General Assembly in 1970. His name is also given to a crater on Mars at the 15th IAU General Assembly in 1973. Since 1993 the Milutin Milankovic Medal has been awarded by the European Geophysical Society (called the EGU since 2003) for contributions in the area of long-term climate and modeling. A main belt asteroid discovered in 1936 has also been dubbed 1605 Milankovitch. At NASA, in their edition of "On the Shoulders of Giants", Milanković has been ranked among the top fifteen minds of all time in the field of earth sciences. He was awarded Order of Saint Sava and Order of the Yugoslav Crown.

Milutin Milanković ( ; 28 May 1879 – 12 December 1958) was Serbian mathematician, astronomer, climatologist, geophysicist, civil engineer and popularizer of science.

Milutin Milanković (kyrill. Милутин Миланковић, im deutschen Sprachraum auch "Milankovic" oder "Milankowitsch", im englischen Sprachraum "Milankovich" oder "Milankovitch" geschrieben; * 28. Mai 1879 in Dalj, damals Österreich-Ungarn; † 12. Dezember 1958 in Belgrad) war ein jugoslawischer Bauingenieur, Mathematiker und Geowissenschaftler.


Uses.

The word was a term used in Greek when discussing the concept of aristocracy. It became a fixed phrase by which the Athenian aristocracy referred to itself; in the ethical philosophers, the first of whom were Athenian gentlemen, the term came to mean the ideal or perfect man.  The phrase could be used both in a generic sense, or with certain specific force. As a generic term, it may have been used as the combination of distinct virtues, which we might translate as "handsome and brave", or the intersection of the two words "good" or "upstanding". Translations such as "gentleman" or "knight" have traditionally been suggested to convey the social aspect of the phrase, while "war hero" or the more cynical "martyr" are more recent versions, and emphasise the military element.  Its recorded usage dates from the second half of the 5th and in the 4th century B.C.. For example, in Plato's "Lysis", a young man is described as "imbued with kalokagathia".  There is thematic discussion of "kalokagathia" in Aristotle's "Eudemian Ethics", Book VIII, chapter 3 (1248b). And how a "kalos kagathos" (gentleman) should live is also discussed at length in Xenophon's Socratic dialogues, especially the "Oeconomicus".  In Aristotle, the term becomes important as a technical term used in discussions about Ethics.

Kalos.

The adjective means beautiful and encompasses meanings equivalent to English "good", "noble", and "handsome". The form given by convention is the masculine, but it was equally used of women (the feminine form is ) and could also describe animals or inanimate objects.  Plato, in his work "Republic", used the term (the neutral form) in his attempts to define ideals. However, his protagonist in the dialogue, Socrates, stated that he did not fully comprehend the nature of this.

Agathos.

This second adjective means "good" in a broad and general sense, and had no particular physical or aesthetic connotations, but could describe a person's excellence of character (ethical virtue), for example their bravery. In the 4th century, it often carried implications of dutiful citizenship.

Related terms.

In Aristotle's ethical works such as the Nicomachean Ethics and Eudemian Ethics, the term "megalopsuchia" ("greatness of soul", magnanimity) has been interpreted as being "large scale kalokagathia" by the scholar Jennifer Whiting (1998). Her interpretation is dependent upon the interpretation that for Aristotle, both kalokagathia and megalopsuchia, are not, in their true forms, virtues that come about only because people want to be honoured for doing good things.  The possession of the beautiful and the good has a correspondent in Latin: ("a healthy soul in a healthy body"). It is also seen as a target in balanced education of body and spirit.

Kalos kagathos or kalokagathos ( ), of which "kalokagathia" () is the derived noun, is a phrase used by classical Greek writers to describe an ideal of gentlemanly, especially in a military context.

Kalokagathia (), abgeleitet von oder zusammengezogen („schön und gut“), ist die Bezeichnung für ein griechisches Ideal der körperlichen und geistigen Vortrefflichkeit („Schönheit und Gutheit“). Der Begriff bezeichnet eine Verbindung von körperlicher Schönheit und geistigen Vorzügen, die als gesamthafte Vortrefflichkeit (Arete) der Person erscheint. Der Begriff spielt bei Sokrates, etwa in Platons Dialogen, oder mittelbar in Xenophons "Memorabilien" (III, 8) eine große Rolle. Im 5. Jahrhundert v. Chr. wurde der Begriff meist für Adlige verwendet, im 4. Jahrhundert v. Chr. allgemein für hervorragende Persönlichkeiten.


Etymology.

Before the year 1928 the official name of Den Helder was Helder. The origin of the name Helder is not entirely clear. The name Helder may have come from "Helle/Helde", which means "hill" or "hilly grounds", or from "Helre", which means a sandy ridge. Another explanation is that the name derived from "Helsdeur" (Hell's Door), likely because in the water between Den Helder and Texel (called Marsdiep) the current was so strong that many ships were lost.

History.

Huisduinen was the original older part of the city, whereas Helder itself was a nearby smaller hamlet. When a harbour was built near Helder the village began to grow and later became the seat of governance instead of Huisduinen. Due to its strategic location at the tip of the North Holland peninsula, multiple fortifications were built in the area.  Den Helder has played an important part in Dutch shipping. During the Dutch Golden Age, ships would be assembled near Den Helder and sail the world's oceans from there.  On 23January 1795, the French captured 14 Dutch ships and 850 guns in the town's deep-frozen harbour. In 1799 the city was the target of the Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland.  During the 1820s, the North Holland Canal was dug from Amsterdam to Den Helder. The lighthouse "Lange Jaap" was built in 1877 and is the tallest cast-iron lighthouse in Europe, at. In the Second World War most of the city was evacuated.

Geography.

Climate.

Den Helder is on the tip of a lowland peninsula jutting out into the North Sea Because of this, Den Helder's climate is heavily moderated by the maritime environment. Also, Den Helder is the sunniest city in the Netherlands.

Population centres.

The municipality of Den Helder consists of the following cities, towns, villages and/or districts: Den Helder, Huisduinen, Julianadorp, and the hamlets Friese Buurt and De Kooy.  The major areas of Den Helder are Old Den Helder, Nieuw-Den Helder, and De Schooten. Nieuw-Den Helder was built in the 1950s, following World War II, when there was a great need for additional housing. De Schooten was constructed in the 1960s.

Topography.

"Dutch Topographic map of Den Helder (town), March 2014."

Naval base.

Den Helder was the site of a naval base as early as the 18th century. An Anglo-Russian invasion force landed at Den Helder in August 1799 and captured the Batavian navy there (see Battle of Castricum). French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte, visiting Den Helder in 1811, was impressed with the town's strategic location and ordered the construction of a fort (Kijkduin) and naval dockyards (Willemsoord). The docks were built during the years 1813–1827. In 1947, it officially became the Royal Netherlands Navy's main centre of operations. Den Helder continues to be the navy's main base today. The Royal Netherlands Naval College is also located in the city, as is the Dutch Navy Museum.  The old naval dockyards of Willemsoord, located in the north of the city, now house restaurants, a cinema, and other recreational facilities. The naval docks and administration have been moved to a new location further east.

Transport.

The town is served by two railway stations:  Den Helder can be reached by these main roads:  These roads all have only two lanes. There is no highway leading to Den Helder.

Local government.

The municipal council of Den Helder consists of 31 seats, which are divided as follows (as of 2018 elections):

In popular culture.

The Frank Boeijen Groep song "Haast (rust roest)" contains the line " "'s avonds in Den Helder"". (English- In the evening in Den Helder) The Rob de Nijs song "Jan Klaassen de Trompetter" contains the line ""hij marcheerde van Den Helder tot Den Briel"". (English- He marched from Den Helder to Den Briel).  Voutlooz wrote a song about Den Helder

Den Helder () is a municipality and a city in the Netherlands, in the province of North Holland. Den Helder occupies the northernmost point of the North Holland peninsula. It is home to the country's main naval base. From here the Royal TESO ferryboat service operates the transportation link between Den Helder and the nearby Dutch Wadden island of Texel to the north.

Den Helder () ist eine niederländische Gemeinde an der Nordseeküste in der Provinz Nordholland. Am hatte sie laut CBS Einwohner.


Biography.

Tony Hillerman was born in Sacred Heart, Oklahoma to August Alfred Hillerman, a farmer and shopkeeper, and his wife, Lucy Grove. He was the youngest of their three children, and the second son. His paternal grandparents were born in Germany, and his maternal grandparents were born in England. He grew up in Pottawatomie County, Oklahoma, attending elementary and high school with Potawatomie children.  He was a decorated combat veteran of World War II, serving from August 1943 to October 1945. He served as a mortar-man in the 103rd Infantry Division. He earned the Silver Star, the Bronze Star, and a Purple Heart. He attended the University of Oklahoma after the war, meeting Marie Unzner, a student in microbiology. The couple wed and have one biological child and five adopted children.  From 1948–62, he worked as a journalist, moving to Santa Fe, New Mexico in 1952. In 1966, he moved his family to Albuquerque, where he earned a master's degree from the University of New Mexico. It was during his time as a writer for the "Borger News-Herald" in Borger, Texas that he became acquainted with the sheriff of Hutchinson County, the man upon whom he would pattern the main character in his Joe Leaphorn novels. He taught journalism from 1966 to 1987 at the University of New Mexico in Albuquerque, and also began writing novels. He lived there with his wife Marie until his death in 2008. At the time of his death, they had been married 60 years and had ten grandchildren.  A consistently bestselling author, he was ranked as New Mexico's 22nd wealthiest man in 1996. He wrote 18 books in his Navajo series. He wrote more than 30 books total, among them a memoir and books about the Southwest, its beauty and its history. His literary honors were awarded for his Navajo books. Hillerman's books have been translated into eight languages, among them Danish and Japanese.  Hillerman's writing is noted for the cultural details he provides about his subjects: Hopi, Zuni, European-American, federal agents, and especially Navajo Tribal Police. His works in nonfiction and in fiction reflect his appreciation of the natural wonders of the American Southwest and his appreciation of its people, particularly the Navajo. His mystery novels are set in the Four Corners area of New Mexico and Arizona, sometimes reaching into Colorado and Utah, with occasional forays to the big cities of Washington, D.C., Los Angeles and New York City. The protagonists are Joe Leaphorn and Jim Chee of the Navajo tribal police. Lt. Leaphorn was introduced in Hillerman's first novel, "The Blessing Way" (1970). Sgt. Jim Chee was introduced in the fourth novel, "People of Darkness". The two first work together in the seventh novel, "Skinwalkers", considered his breakout novel, with a distinct increase in sales with the two police officers working together.  Hillerman repeatedly acknowledged his debt to an earlier series of mystery novels written by the British-born Australian author Arthur W. Upfield and set among tribal aborigines in remote desert regions of tropical and subtropical Australia. The Upfield novels began to be published in 1928 and featured a half-European, half-aboriginal Australian hero, Detective-inspector Napoleon (Bony) Bonaparte. Bony worked with deep understanding of tribal traditions. The character was based on the achievements of an aborigine known as Tracker Leon, whom Upfield had met during his years in the Australian bush.  Hillerman discussed his debt to Upfield in many interviews and in his introduction to the posthumous 1984 reprint of Upfield's "A Royal Abduction." In the introduction, he described the appeal of the descriptions in Upfield's crime novels. It was descriptions both of the harsh outback areas and of "the people who somehow survived upon them" that lured him. "When my own Jim Chee of the Navajo Tribal Police unravels a mystery because he understands the ways of his people, when he reads the signs in the sandy bottom of a reservation arroyo, he is walking in the tracks Bony made 50 years ago."  He also mentioned Eric Ambler, Graham Greene and Raymond Chandler as authors who influenced him as he wrote the Leaphorn and Chee novels.  Tony Hillerman died on October 26, 2008, of pulmonary failure in Albuquerque at the age of 83.

Recognition beyond the US.

In an interview published in "Le Monde", Hillerman said his Navajo name means "He who is afraid of his horse." His novels were popular in France. Hillerman credits that popularity both to French curiosity about other cultures and to his translator, Pierre Bondil.

Legacy and honors.

Hillerman is considered one of New Mexico's foremost novelists. In Albuquerque, the Tony Hillerman Library was dedicated in 2008, and the Tony Hillerman Middle School (part of Volcano Vista High School) opened in 2009. "Dance Hall of the Dead", published in 1973 earned Hillerman the Grand Prix de Littérature Policière in 1987, a French international literary honor. Hillerman was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Literature (Litt.D.) from the University of New Mexico in 1990. He was awarded the Owen Wister Award in 2008 for "Outstanding Contributions to the American West."

Awards.

Hillerman was a decorated combat veteran of World War II; he earned the Silver Star, the Bronze Star, and a Purple Heart as a mortarman in the 103rd Infantry Division.  He won and was nominated for numerous awards for his writing and his work with other writers. His first nomination came in 1972, with his novel "The Fly on the Wall" being nominated for an Edgar Award in the "Best Mystery Novel" category. Two years later his novel "Dance Hall of the Dead", second book in the Leaphorn-Chee series, won the 1974 Edgar Award for Best Novel. He was again nominated for the "Best Mystery Novel" Edgar Award in 1979 for "Listening Woman" and lastly in 1989 for "A Thief of Time". Hillerman's non-fictional work "Talking Mysteries" was nominated in 1992 for the Edgar Award in the "Best Critical or Biographical" category.  In 1987, Hillerman received the Grand Prix de Littérature Policière for "Dance Hall of the Dead". In 1991, Hillerman received the MWA's Grand Master Award. Hillerman received the Nero Award for "Coyote Waits" and the Navajo Tribe's Special Friends of the Dineh Award.  Hillerman has also been successful at the annual Anthony Awards. His novel "Skinwalkers" won the 1988 Anthony Award for "Best Novel" and in the following year "A Thief of Time" was nominated for the 1989 Anthony Award in the same category. His next nomination was for his "Talking Mysteries" non-fictional work which was nominated at the 1992 Anthony Awards. His novel "Sacred Clowns" received a "Best Novel" nomination at the 1994 Anthony Awards; and the following year his short-story collection "The Mysterious West" won the 1995 Anthony Award in the "Best Anthology/Short Story Collection" category. His last win came at the 2002 Anthony Awards at which he won the "Best Non-fiction/Critical Work" award for his memoir "Seldom Disappointed".  Two of the Navajo Police novels won The Spur award, given by the Western Writers of America annually. "Skinwalkers" won the award in 1987 for Western Novel, and "The Shape Shifter" won in 2007 for Best Western Short Novel.  "Seldom Disappointed: A Memoir" won the Agatha Award in 2001.  Hillerman's novels were recognized at the Macavity Awards. "A Thief of Time" won the "Best Novel" award in 1989 and "Talking Mysteries" won the "Best Critical/Biographical" award in 1992. "Seldom Disappointed" also received a nomination in the "Best Biographical/Critical Mystery Work" category in 2002.  He received the Parris Award in 1995 by Southwest Writer's Workshop for his outstanding service to other writers. In 2002, Hillerman received the Agatha Malice Domestic Award for Lifetime Achievement, given by Malice Domestic for mystery novels in the spirit of Agatha Christie.

Bibliography.

Continuation of Leaphorn & Chee Series.

In 2013, Hillerman's daughter, Anne Hillerman published the first new novel since 2006 featuring Hillerman's Navajo Police characters, "Spider Woman's Daughter" (); the novel's protagonist is Jim Chee's wife, Officer Bernadette Manuelito. Leaphorn's involvement is curtailed in the first chapter of the first book, "Spider Woman's Daughter". Leaphorn is the victim of an assassination attempt, spends half of the book in a coma, and later was severely limited in his ability to communicate. Chee and Bernadette Manuelito are the crime solvers from that book forward in the series, with Leaphorn mentioned sporadically in the background but never fully active in the investigations. Her second book "Rock With Wings" () was released in 2015. "Song of the Lion" (), was released in 2017, followed by "Cave of Bones" () in 2018, and "The Tale Teller" in 2019.

Anthony Grove "Tony" Hillerman (May 27, 1925 – October 26, 2008) was an American author of detective novels and non-fiction works best known for his Navajo Tribal Police mystery novels. Several of his works have been adapted as theatrical and television movies.

Anthony Grove Hillerman (* 27. Mai 1925 auf einer Farm nahe Sacred Heart, Oklahoma; † 26. Oktober 2008 in Albuquerque, New Mexico) war ein US-amerikanischer Autor von Kriminalromanen. Hillerman galt als Autorität für die Kultur der Diné- und Hopi-Indianer.