Internal structure.

The poem consists of ten cantos, each with a different number of stanzas (1102 in total). It is written in the decasyllabic "ottava rima", which has the rhyme scheme ABABABCC, and contains a total of 8816 lines of verse.  The poem is made up of four sections:  The narration concludes with an epilogue, starting in stanza 145 of canto X. The most important part of "Os Lusíadas", the "arrival in India", was placed at the point in the poem that divides the work according to the golden section at the beginning of Canto VII.

Key concepts.

The heroes.

The heroes of the epic are the Lusiads ("Lusíadas"), the sons of Lusus—in other words, the Portuguese. The initial strophes of Jupiter's speech in the "Concílio dos Deuses Olímpicos" (Council of the Olympian Gods), which open the narrative part, highlight the laudatory orientation of the author.  In these strophes, Camões speaks of Viriatus and Quintus Sertorius, the people of Lusus, a people predestined by the Fates to accomplish great deeds. Jupiter says that their history proves it because, having emerged victorious against the Moors and Castilians, this tiny nation has gone on to discover new worlds and impose its law in the concert of the nations. At the end of the poem, on the Island of Love, the fictional finale to the glorious tour of Portuguese history, Camões writes that the fear once expressed by Bacchus has been confirmed: that the Portuguese would become gods.  The extraordinary Portuguese discoveries and the "new kingdom that they exalted so much" (""novo reino que tanto sublimaram"") in the East, and certainly the recent and extraordinary deeds of the "strong Castro" (""Castro forte"", the viceroy Dom João de Castro), who had died some years before the poet's arrival to Indian lands, were the decisive factors in Camões' completion of the Portuguese epic. Camões dedicated his masterpiece to King Sebastian of Portugal.

The narrators and their speeches.

The vast majority of the narration in "Os Lusíadas" consists of grandiloquent speeches by various orators: the main narrator; Vasco da Gama, recognized as "eloquent captain" (""facundo capitão""); Paulo da Gama; Thetis; and the Siren who tells the future in Canto X. The poet asks the Tágides (nymphs of the river Tagus) to give him "a high and sublime sound,/ a grandiloquent and flowing style" (""um som alto e sublimado, / Um estilo grandíloquo e corrente""). In contrast to the style of lyric poetry, or "humble verse" (""verso humilde""), he is thinking about this exciting tone of oratory. There are in the poem some speeches that are brief but notable, including Jupiter's and the Old Man of the Restelo's.  There are also descriptive passages, like the description of the palaces of Neptune and the Samorim of Calicute, the "locus amoenus" of the Island of Love (Canto IX), the dinner in the palace of Thetis (Canto X), and Gama's cloth (end of Canto II). Sometimes these descriptions are like a slide show, in which someone shows each of the things described there; examples include the geographic start of Gama's speech to the king of Melinde, certain sculptures of the palaces of Neptune and the Samorim, the speech of Paulo da Gama to the Catual, and the Machine of the World ("Máquina do Mundo").  Examples of dynamic descriptions include the "battle" of the Island of Mozambique, the battles of Ourique and Aljubarrota, and the storm. Camões is a master in these descriptions, marked by the verbs of movement, the abundance of visual and acoustic sensations, and expressive alliterations. There are also many lyrical moments. Those texts are normally narrative-descriptive. This is the case with the initial part of the episode of the Sad Inês, the final part of the episode of the Adamastor, and the encounter on the Island of Love (Canto IX). All these cases resemble eclogues.  On several occasions the poet assumes a tone of lamentation, as at the end of Canto I, in parts of the speech of the Old Man of the Restelo, the end of Canto V, the beginning and end of Canto VII, and the final strophes of the poem. Many times, da Gama bursts into oration at challenging moments: in Mombasa (Canto II), on the appearance of Adamastor, and in the middle of the terror of the storm. The poet's invocations to the Tágides and nymphs of Mondego (Cantos I and VII) and to Calliope (beginning of Cantos III and X), in typological terms, are also orations. Each one of these types of speech shows stylistic peculiarities.

Synopses of Cantos.

Canto I.

The epic begins with a dedication section, with the poet paying homage to Virgil and Homer. The first line mimics the opening line of the "Aeneid", and pays a hopeful tribute to the young King Sebastião. The story then (in imitation of the classical epics) portrays the gods of Greece watching over the voyage of Vasco da Gama. Just as the gods had divided loyalties during the voyages of Odysseus and Aeneas, here Venus, who favors the Portuguese, is opposed by Bacchus, who is here associated with the east and resents the encroachment on his territory. We encounter Vasco da Gama's voyage "in medias res" as they have already rounded the Cape of Good Hope. At the urging of Bacchus, who is disguised as a Moor, the local Muslims plot to attack the explorer and his crew.

Canto II.

Two scouts sent by Vasco da Gama are fooled by a fake altar created by Bacchus into thinking that there are Christians among the Muslims. Thus, the explorers are lured into an ambush but successfully survive with the aid of Venus. Venus pleads with her father Jove, who predicts great fortunes for the Portuguese in the east. The fleet lands at Melinde where it is welcomed by a friendly Sultan.

Canto III.

After an appeal by the poet to Calliope, the Greek muse of epic poetry, Vasco da Gama begins to narrate the history of Portugal. He starts by referring to the situation of Portugal in Europe and the legendary story of Lusus and Viriathus. This is followed by passages on the meaning of Portuguese nationality and then by an enumeration of the warrior deeds of the 1st Dynasty kings, from Dom Afonso Henriques to Dom Fernando.  Episodes that stand out include Egas Moniz and the Battle of Ourique during Dom Afonso Henriques' reign, "formosíssima Maria" (the beautiful Maria) in the Battle of Salado, and Inês de Castro during Dom Afonso IV's reign.

Canto IV.

Vasco da Gama continues the narrative of the history of Portugal by recounting the story of the House of Aviz from the 1383–85 Crisis until the moment during the reign of Dom Manuel I when the armada of Vasco da Gama sails to India. The narrative of the Crisis of 1383–85, which focuses mainly on the figure of Nuno Álvares Pereira and the Battle of Aljubarrota, is followed by the events of the reigns of Dom João II, especially those related to expansion into Africa.  Following this incident, the poem narrates the maritime journey to India—an aim that Dom João II did not accomplish during his lifetime, but would come true with Dom Manuel, to whom the rivers Indus and Ganges appeared in dreams foretelling the future glories of the Orient. This canto ends with the sailing of the Armada, the sailors in which are surprised by the prophetically pessimistic words of an old man who was on the beach among the crowd. This is the episode of the Old Man of the Restelo.

Canto V.

The story moves on to the King of Melinde, describing the journey of the Armada from Lisbon to Melinde. During the voyage, the sailors see the Southern Cross, St. Elmo's Fire (maritime whirlwind), and face a variety of dangers and obstacles such as the hostility of natives in the episode of Fernão Veloso, the fury of a monster in the episode of the giant Adamastor, and the disease and death caused by scurvy. Canto V ends with the poet's censure of his contemporaries who despise poetry.

Canto VI.

After Vasco da Gama's narrative, the armada sails from Melinde guided by a pilot to teach them the way to Calicut. Bacchus, seeing that the Portuguese are about to arrive in India, asks for help of Neptune, who convenes a "Concílio dos Deuses Marinhos" (Council of the Sea Gods) whose decision is to support Bacchus and unleash powerful winds to sink the armada. Then, while the sailors are listening to Fernão Veloso telling the legendary and chivalrous episode of "Os Doze de Inglaterra" (The Twelve Men of England), a storm strikes.  Vasco da Gama, seeing the near destruction of his caravels, prays to his own God, but it is Venus who helps the Portuguese by sending the Nymphs to seduce the winds and calm them down. After the storm, the armada sights Calicut, and Vasco da Gama gives thanks to God. The canto ends with the poet speculating about the value of the fame and glory reached through great deeds.

Canto VII.

After condemning some of the other nations of Europe (who in his opinion fail to live up to Christian ideals), the poet tells of the Portuguese fleet reaching the Indian city of Calicut. A Muslim named Monçaide greets the fleet and tells the explorers about the lands they have reached. The king, Samorin, hears of the newcomers and summons them. A governor and official of the king, called the Catual, leads the Portuguese to the king, who receives them well. The Catual speaks with Monçaide to learn more about the new arrivals. The Catual then goes to the Portuguese ships himself to confirm what Monsayeed has told him and is treated well.

Canto VIII.

The Catual sees a number of paintings that depict significant figures and events from Portuguese history, all of which are detailed by the author. Bacchus appears in a vision to a Muslim priest in Samorin's court and convinces him that the explorers are a threat. The priest spreads the warnings among the Catuals and the court, prompting Samorin to confront da Gama on his intentions. Da Gama insists that the Portuguese are traders, not buccaneers. The king then demands proof from da Gama's ships, but when he tries to return to the fleet, da Gama finds that the Catual, who has been corrupted by the Muslim leaders, refuses to lend him a boat at the harbor and holds him prisoner. Da Gama manages to get free only after agreeing to have all of the goods on the ships brought to shore to be sold.

Canto IX.

The Muslims plot to detain the Portuguese until the annual trading fleet from Mecca can arrive to attack them, but Monçaide tells da Gama of the conspiracy, and the ships escape from Calicut. To reward the explorers for their efforts, Venus prepares an island for them to rest on and asks her son Cupid to inspire Nereids with desire for them. When the sailors arrive on the Isle of Love, the ocean nymphs make a pretense of running but surrender quickly.

Canto X.

During a sumptuous feast on the Isle of Love, Tethys, who is now the lover of da Gama, prophecies the future of Portuguese exploration and conquest. She tells of Duarte Pacheco Pereira's defense of Cochin (Battle of Cochin); the Battle of Diu fought by Francisco de Almeida and his son Lourenço de Almeida against combined Gujarati-Egyptian fleets; the deeds of Tristão da Cunha, Pedro de Mascarenhas, Lopo Vaz de Sampaio and Nuno da Cunha; and battles fought by Martim Afonso de Sousa and João de Castro. Tethys then guides da Gama to a summit and reveals to him a vision of how the (Ptolemaic) universe operates. The tour continues with glimpses of the lands of Africa and Asia. The legend of the martyrdom of the apostle St. Thomas in India is told at this point. Finally, Tethys relates the voyage of Magellan. The epic concludes with more advice to young King Sebastião.

Observations about some episodes.

The Council of the Olympic gods.

This episode, which comes right after the first strophe of the narration (no. 19 of Canto I) and depicts the entry of the caravan of carracks in the poem, sailing into the unknown upon the sheet of white foam of the Indian Ocean, has huge significance in the organization of the poem. The gods of the four corners of the world are reunited to talk about "the future matters of the East" (""as cousas futuras do Oriente""); in fact, what they are going to decide is whether the Portuguese will be allowed to reach India and what will happen next.  The gods are described by Jupiter as residents of the "shiny, / starry Pole and bright Seat" (""luzente, estelífero Pólo e claro Assento""); this shiny, starry Pole and bright Seat or Olympus had already been described before as "luminous"; the Gods walk on the "beautiful crystalline sky" (""cristalino céu fermoso""), to the Milky Way. In strophes 22 and 23 they are also said to be shining. Jupiter is described as the "Father" (""Padre"" – archaic Portuguese for 'father') who "vibrates the fierce rays of Vulcan" (""vibra os feros raios de Vulcano"") and presides from a "crystalline seat of stars" (""assento de estrelas cristalino""), carrying "a gleaming crown and sceptre / of another rock clearer than diamond" (""hua coroa e ceptro rutilante / de outra pedra mais clara que diamante""). Jupiter's chair is a crystalline seat of stars and the rest of the Olympian furniture is equally ornate: "In shiny seats, enamelled / of gold and pearls, under there were / the other gods (...)" (""Em luzentes assentos, marchetados / de ouro e perlas, mais abaixo estavam / os outros Deuses (...)"").  During the council, the behaviour of the gods is described as disgraceful. It starts as "Reason and Order demanded" ""a Razão e a Ordem concertavam"", but it ends in insubordination, to which Mars brutally puts an end.  Jupiter, after the end of his speech, entirely neglects the guidance of the other Gods, so two parties are formed: the party of Venus, favourable to the Portuguese, and the party of Bacchus, defending the interests of this god who wanted to stop the Portuguese from reaching their goal. The council ends by accepting the point of view earlier expressed by Jupiter; however, Bacchus will not accept this.  The speech that Jupiter uses to start the meeting is a finished piece of oratory. It opens with an exordium (1st strophe), in which, after an original welcome, Jupiter briefly defines the subject. This is followed, in the ancient rhetorical fashion, by the narration (the past shows that the intention of the Fados is the same one that the orator presented). There is then a confirmation of suggestions already put forth in the narration of the 4th strophe. This episode then ends with two strophes of peroration, where Jupiter appeals to the benevolence of the gods concerning the sons of Lusus, with Jupiter's speech eventually settling the debate.

A lyric-tragic episode.

The episode, usually known as "of Inês de Castro", is one of the most famous of "Os Lusíadas" (canto iii, stanzas 118–135). It is normally classified as a lyric, thus distinguishing it from the more common war episodes. The episode discusses destiny, and leads the action to its tragic end, even something close to the "coir" (apostrophes).  The nobility of the characters is also emphasised, in a way that is intended to create feelings of sympathy when the protagonist suffers. This technique is used most strongly when Inês fears the orphaning of her children more than losing her own life and she begs for the commutation of capital punishment for an exile in Siberia (Cítia) or in Libya in order to have an opportunity to raise her children, and she is compared with "the young beautiful Policena". Strophes 134 and 135 are written to evoke this pity.

Adamastor.

The Adamastor episode is divided into three segments. The first, a theophany, goes from strophe 37 to 40; the second, which in chronological-narrative terms is a prolepsis, occupies strophes 41 to 48; finally, the third part, a marine eclogue with some points of contact with Écloga III of Camões, ends in strophe 59.  The vigorous theophany that the first part describes is in the following verses: "Chill the flesh and the hairs/ to me and all [the others] only by listening and seeing him" (""Arrepiam-se as carnes e os cabelos / a mi e a todos só de ouvi-lo e vê-lo""). This is intended to convey pure fear, the imminent threat of annihilation. The evil demigod is preceded by a black cloud, which appears above the heads of the sailors. Expressing the surprise he experiences, Gama quotes himself: "Oh divine power – [I] said – sublimated, / what divine threat or what secret / this clime and this sea presents to us / that seems a bigger thing than a storm?" (""Ó potestade – disse – sublimada, / que ameaço divino ou que segredo / este clima e este mar nos apresenta, / que mor cousa parece que tormenta?"") The "strange Colossus" (""estranhíssimo Colosso""): "Rude son of the Earth" (""Filho aspérrimo da Terra"") is described as having: "huge stature", "squalid beard", "earthy colour", "full of earth and crinkly of hairs / blacken the mouth, yellow the teeth" (""disforme estatura"", ""barba esquálida"", ""cor terrena"", ""cheios de terra e crespos os cabelos / a boca negra, os dentes, amarelos"").  Such emphasis on the appearance of Adamastor is intended to contrast with the preceding scenery, which was expressed as: "seas of the South" (""mares do Sul""): "(...) / the winds blowing favourably / when one night, being careless/ watching in the cutting bow, / (...)" (""(...) / prosperamente os ventos assoprando, / quando hua noite, estando descuidados / na cortadora proa vigiando, / (...)""). The final marine eclogue conforms to a pattern that is common to many of Camões' lyrical compositions: falling in love, forced separation, grieving over the frustrated dream.

The eclogue of the Island of Love.

The "locus amoenus": the strophes that come after strophe 52 of Canto IX, and some of the main parts that appear from strophe 68 to 95 describe the scenery where the love encountered between the sailors and the Nymphs take place. The poet also talks about the fauna that live there and of fruits produced instantly. It is portrayed as a paradise.  The allegory in the second part of Canto IX sees Camões describing the scene between the sailors – whom the Nymphs were expecting – prepared by Venus. Given in an allegoric sense: The Canto is ended with the poet communicating to the reader:

The Machine of the World.

In Canto X, before the sailors return home the Siren invites Gama to the spectacle of the Machine of the World ("Máquina do Mundo") with these words: The Machine of the World is presented as the spectacle unique, divine, seen by "corporeal eyes". In the words of literary historian António José Saraiva, "it is one of the supreme successes of Camões", "the spheres are transparent, luminous, all of them are seen at the same time with equal clarity; they move, and the movement is perceptible, although the visible surface is always the same. To be able to translate this by the "painting that talks" is to achieve one of the highest points in universal literature."

Responses.

Manuel de Faria e Sousa wrote a commentary about the work in the 17th century. Published after Sousa's death, the work was originally written in Spanish and eventually translated into Portuguese in the 19th century.

Os Lusíadas (), usually translated as The Lusiads, is a Portuguese epic poem written by Luís Vaz de Camões ( – 1580) and first published in 1572. It is widely regarded as the most important work of Portuguese literature and is frequently compared to Virgil's "Aeneid" (1st c. BC). The work celebrates the discovery of a sea route to India by the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama (1469–1524). The ten cantos of the poem are in ottava rima and total 1,102 stanzas.

Die Lusiaden,, sind ein Epos des Dichters Luís de Camões und ein klassisches Werk der portugiesischen Literatur, das 1572 erstmals gedruckt wurde. Das Werk schildert, vom humanistischen Geist der Renaissance getragen, in Versform (angelehnt an Homers "Odyssee") die idealisierte Geschichte Portugals. Protagonist des Werkes ist der portugiesische Seefahrer Vasco da Gama, den Schwerpunkt der Handlung bildet die Schilderung des neu entdeckten Seewegs nach Indien. Mit zahlreichen Verweisen auf die Mythologie sowie das klassische Altertum gelten die Lusiaden wegen ihrer Qualität, aber auch wegen ihres großen Patriotismus als größtes Zeugnis der portugiesischen Literatur. Sie sind König Sebastian von Portugal gewidmet.


Early life.

Spadolini was born in Florence in 1925. In his youth, working in a public library, Spadolini was a republican and fascist-aligned activist, and wrote for the periodical "Italia e Civiltà" ("Italy and Civilization"), near to Giovanni Gentile, and in a number, Spadolini explicited his anti-Masonry, anti-liberalism and anti-semitism. In 1944, during the Italian Civil War, he joined in to the Italian Social Republic.  In the post-war time (1945–1950), Spadolini revised the majority of his old ideas, and became a moderate conservative to liberal. He also rejected his old anti-semitism for Zionism. He studied law at the University of Florence and shortly after graduation, was appointed professor of contemporary history in the faculty of political science. He also became a political columnist for several newspapers, like "Il Borghese", "Il Messaggero" and "Il Mondo", becoming editor-in-chief of the Bologna paper "Il Resto del Carlino" in 1955, doubling its circulation during his tenure. In 1968, Spadolini moved to Milan where he took over the editorship of Italy's largest newspaper, "Corriere della Sera", which job he held until leaving journalism to enter politics. In 1972, he was elected as a senator, going on to serve as minister of the environment and then minister of education. Then in 1979, he was appointed secretary of the small but powerful Italian Republican Party (PRI).  As a journalist, he sometimes used the pseudonym Giovanni dalle Bande Nere. Before entering politics, he was editor of" Il Corriere della Sera "from 1968 to 1972.  Giovanni Spadolini served as Ministro dei Beni e delle Attività culturali (Minister for Cultural Assets and Activities) from 1974 to 1976.  He was leader of the Italian Republican Party (PRI) from 1979 to 1987, during both the 10th and the 11th Legislatures.

Prime Minister.

He served as Prime Minister of Italy from 1981 to 1982, the first since 1945 not to be a member of the Christian Democracy. He pledged to fight corruption (in particular a scandal involving certain Italian political figures connected with a Masonic lodge known as P2) and mounting terrorist violence.  In foreign policy, he was a non-interventionist but also moderately Americanist. In particular, he shifted away from Italy's previous pro-Arab policy, refusing to meet Yasser Arafat during his official visit to Italy to protest the murder of Stefano Gaj Taché, an Italian Jewish child, by PLO terrorists, and suggesting that the Bologna train station bombing may have been perpetrated by the PLO and Gaddafi's Libya, in spite of a majority accusing neo-fascists.  In 1982, after a political crisis between the Minister of the Treasury Beniamino Andreatta (DC) and the Minister of Finances Rino Formica (PSI), Spadolini resigned and formed a new cabinet identical to the former, that collapsed in November when Bettino Craxi's Socialist Party withdrew support.

Later life.

However, under his rule, the PRI obtained 5% of all votes for the first time in the 1983 general election.  From 1987 to April 1994, he was President of the Italian Senate. He became Acting President of Italy on 28 April 1992, upon the resignation of President Francesco Cossiga, for a month. Following the electoral success of Silvio Berlusconi's Forza Italia, he lost the chairmanship of the Senate to Carlo Scognamiglio Pasini by a single vote. He died four months later in Rome.

Giovanni Spadolini (21 June 1925 – 4 August 1994) was a Republican Italian politician, the 44th Prime Minister of Italy, the first since 1945 to not to be a member of Christian Democracy, and a newspaper editor, journalist and a historian.

Giovanni Spadolini (* 21. Juni 1925 in Florenz; † 4. August 1994 in Rom) war ein italienischer Journalist, Historiker und Politiker des linksliberalen Partito Repubblicano Italiano.


Plot.

While oceanographer Steve Zissou is working on his latest documentary at sea, his best friend and chief diver, Esteban du Plantier, is eaten by a 10-meter-long, luminescently-spotted creature Zissou describes as a "jaguar shark." For his next project, Zissou is determined to document the shark's destruction.  The crew aboard Zissou's aging research vessel "Belafonte" includes his estranged wife Eleanor, chief strategist and financial backer; Pelé dos Santos, a safety expert and Brazilian guitarist who sings David Bowie songs in Portuguese; and Klaus Daimler, the German first mate who views Zissou and Esteban as father figures. Minor crew members include Vikram Ray, cameraman; Bobby Ogata, frogman; Vladimir Wolodarsky, physicist and soundtrack composer; Renzo Pietro, sound man; and Anne-Marie Sakowitz, script girl. Also included is a recent group of unpaid interns from the University of North Alaska. However, the "Team Zissou" venture has hit a decline; they have not released a successful documentary in nine years.  Ned Plimpton is a longtime Zissou fan whose mother has recently died, and he believes that Zissou is his father. After they meet at Zissou's latest premiere, Ned takes leave from his job as an airline pilot in Kentucky to join his crew. As Oseary Drakoulias, Zissou's producer, can not find anyone to finance their latest documentary, Ned offers his inheritance. Eleanor feels her husband is taking advantage of Ned and leaves. A pregnant reporter, Jane Winslett-Richardson, comes to chronicle the voyage. Both Ned and Zissou are infatuated with Jane, and a rivalry develops between them. Klaus becomes envious of the attention Zissou pays to Ned.  On their mission to find the jaguar shark, the "Belafonte" steals tracking equipment from a remote station owned by Alistair Hennessey, a more successful oceanographer and Zissou's nemesis. They then sail into unprotected waters and are attacked by Filipino pirates, who steal Ned's money and kidnap Bill Ubell, a "bond company stooge" assigned to the project. They are then rescued by Hennessey and towed to Port-au-Patois. Sakowitz, along with all but one of the interns, jumps ship once they reach port.  Zissou convinces Eleanor to rejoin the "Belafonte", and then leads the crew on a rescue mission. They track Bill to an abandoned hotel on a remote island, saving him along with Hennessey, whom the pirates have also kidnapped. Ned and Zissou then make one last search for the shark in the ship's helicopter, but the aircraft malfunctions and they crash. Ned dies from his injuries and is buried at sea. Prior to Ned's death, Eleanor revealed to Jane that Zissou is sterile, therefore Ned could not have been his son.  Zissou finally tracks down the shark in a submersible but he decides not to kill it, both because of its beauty and not having any more dynamite. At the premiere of the finished documentary (which is dedicated to Ned), Zissou receives a standing ovation while waiting outside the theater for the premiere to finish. The crew returns triumphantly to the ship the next day.

Production.

Literary inspiration.

Though the characters were inspired by such American novels as "The Great Gatsby" and "The Magnificent Ambersons", the plot has been compared to "Moby-Dick".  Writing about the metaphorical aspects of the film's setting—somewhere in the Mediterranean—film critic Elena Past says that the underwater scenes, because they are central to the storyline, make "The Life Aquatic" similar in some ways to "Respiro". Both films set out a "Mediterranean state of being" where "having left the security of land, the characters in both films are suddenly confronted with the precarious nature of human existence, as the films that depict them tackle the challenges of representing the submarine world."

Music.

The soundtrack to "The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou" contains a style typical of other Wes Anderson films. Mark Mothersbaugh, a member of Devo, composed the score, as he has for many of Anderson's other films. The film also features many rock songs from the 1960s-1980s, and several instrumental pieces composed by Sven Libaek for the underwater documentary television series "Inner Space". Additionally, the film and soundtrack feature Seu Jorge performing David Bowie songs in Portuguese on the acoustic guitar. Jorge, who also plays the character of Pelé dos Santos, performs some of these cover songs live, in character during the film, mostly with modified lyrics reflecting Jorge's own experiences working on the film. The ending scene depicting the beauty of the shark features the song "Starálfur" by Sigur Rós.  "The Life Aquatic" is Anderson's first film not to feature a Rolling Stones song.

Reception.

Box office.

The film grossed a total of $24,020,403 domestically after twelve weeks in release, less than half its $50 million production budget. It took in a further $10,788,000 internationally, bringing the total gross to $34,808,403.

Critical response.

Initial reviews of the film were mixed. The film has a 56% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 223 reviews, with an average rating of 6.07/10; the website's consensus states: "Much like the titular oceanographer, "The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou"s overt irony may come off as smug and artificial – but for fans of Wes Anderson's unique brand of whimsy, it might be worth the dive." The film has a 62/100 weighted average score on Metacritic, indicating "generally favorable reviews".  Anthony Lane, a film reviewer for "The New Yorker", agreed with the conventional criticism of Anderson's deadpan style: that the underreaction of Anderson's characters used to be "hip" but has now become "frozen into a mannerism." He said that "some stretches of action" in the film are being "lightly held within quotation marks," with an "unmistakable air of playacting" in even the most violent scenes. He also criticized the film's deliberately "weird" set ups, which leave the viewer with "the impression of having nearly drowned in some secret and melancholy game."  In the years since its initial release it has developed a cult following, and it underwent a critical reevaluation. Many critics view it more favorably, and some, such as Mike D'Angelo of "The A.V. Club", consider the film to still be "undervalued" when compared to the rest of Anderson's filmography.

Home media.

Two home video formats of the film were released on DVD in May 10, 2005: a 1-disc version and a 2-disc version, both as part of the Criterion Collection. This is Anderson's third film to be released in the collection, after "Rushmore" and "The Royal Tenenbaums". The Criterion Blu-ray was released on May 27, 2014.

The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou is a 2004 American comedy-drama film directed, co-written, and co-produced by Wes Anderson. It is Anderson's fourth feature-length film and was released in the United States on December 25, 2004. It was written by Anderson and Noah Baumbach and was filmed in and around Naples, Ponza, and the Italian Riviera.

Die Tiefseetaucher (Originaltitel: "The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou") ist ein Film von Wes Anderson aus dem Jahr 2004 über eine skurrile Expedition eines Meeresforscherteams.


Early life.

Ajahn Chah was born on 17 June 1918 near Ubon Ratchathani in the Isan region of northeast Thailand. His family were subsistence farmers. As is traditional, Ajahn Chah entered the monastery as a novice at the age of nine, where, during a three-year stay, he learned to read and write. The definitive 2017 biography of Ajahn Chah "Stillness Flowing" He left the monastery to help his family on the farm, but later returned to monastic life on 16 April 1939, seeking ordination as a Theravadan monk (or bhikkhu). According to the book "Food for the Heart: The Collected Writings of Ajahn Chah", he chose to leave the settled monastic life in 1946 and became a wandering ascetic after the death of his father. He walked across Thailand, taking teachings at various monasteries. Among his teachers at this time was Ajahn Mun, a renowned meditation master in the Forest Tradition. Ajahn Chah lived in caves and forests while learning from the meditation monks of the Forest Tradition. A website devoted to Ajahn Chah describes this period of his life:

Thai forest tradition.

During the early part of the twentieth century Theravada Buddhism underwent a revival in Thailand under the leadership of outstanding teachers whose intentions were to raise the standards of Buddhist practise throughout the country. One of these teachers was the Venerable Ajahn Mun Bhuridatta. Ajahn Chah continued Ajahn Mun's high standards of practice when he became a teacher.  The monks of this tradition keep very strictly to the original monastic rule laid down by the Buddha known as the vinaya. The early major schisms in the Buddhist sangha were largely due to disagreements over how strictly the training rules should be applied. Some opted for a degree of flexibility (some would argue liberality), whereas others took a conservative view believing that the rules should be kept just as the Buddha had framed them. The Theravada tradition is the heir to the latter view. An example of the strictness of the discipline might be the rule regarding eating: they uphold the rule to only eat between dawn and noon. In the Thai Forest Tradition, monks and nuns go further and observe the 'one eaters practice', whereby they only eat one meal during the morning. This special practice is one of the thirteen dhutanga, optional ascetic practices permitted by the Buddha that are used on an occasional or regular basis to deepen meditation practice and promote contentment with subsistence. Other examples of these practices are sleeping outside under a tree, or dwelling in secluded forests or graveyards.

Monasteries founded.

After years of wandering, Ajahn Chah decided to plant roots in an uninhabited grove near his birthplace. In 1954, Wat Nong Pah Pong monastery was established, where Ajahn Chah could teach his simple, practice-based form of meditation. He attracted a wide variety of disciples, which included, in 1966, the first Westerner, Venerable Ajahn Sumedho. Wat Nong Pah Pong includes over 250 branches throughout Thailand, as well as over 15 associated monasteries and ten lay practice centers around the world.  In 1975, Wat Pah Nanachat (International Forest Monastery) was founded with Ajahn Sumedho as the abbot. Wat Pah Nanachat was the first monastery in Thailand specifically geared towards training English-speaking Westerners in the monastic Vinaya, as well as the first run by a Westerner.  In 1977, Ajahn Chah and Ajahn Sumedho were invited to visit the United Kingdom by the English Sangha Trust who wanted to form a residential sangha. 1979 saw the founding of Cittaviveka (commonly known as Chithurst Buddhist Monastery due to its location in the small hamlet of Chithurst) with Ajahn Sumedho as its head. Several of Ajahn Chah's Western students have since established monasteries throughout the world.

Later life.

By the early 1980s, Ajahn Chah's health was in decline due to diabetes. He was taken to Bangkok for surgery to relieve paralysis caused by the diabetes, but it was to little effect. Ajahn Chah used his ill health as a teaching point, emphasizing that it was "a living example of the impermanence of all things...(and) reminded people to endeavor to find a true refuge within themselves, since he would not be able to teach for very much longer". Ajahn Chah would remain bedridden and ultimately unable to speak for ten years, until his death on January 16, 1992, at the age of 73.

Chah Subhaddo (, known in English as Ajahn Chah, occasionally with honorific titles "Luang Por" and "Phra") also known by his honorific name "Phra Bodhiñāṇathera" (, Chao Khun Bodhinyana Thera; 17 June 1918 – 16 January 1992) was a Thai Buddhist monk. He was an influential teacher of the "Buddhadhamma" and a founder of two major monasteries in the Thai Forest Tradition.

Ajahn Chah (Thai:, RTGS: Phra Achan Cha, Aussprache: ; auch "Cha Suphattho" oder "Chah Subhaddo" (); offiziell: "Phra Phothiyan Thera" oder "Bodhiñāṇa Thera" (); * 17. Juni 1918 bei Ubon Ratchathani, Thailand; † 16. Januar 1992 in Amphoe Warin Chamrap, Provinz Ubon Ratchathani) war ein theravada-buddhistischer Mönch der thailändischen Kammatthana-Waldmönchstradition. Ab den 1970er-Jahren wuchs sein Ruf, ein ausgezeichneter Lehrer auch für westliche Theravada-Mönche zu sein, stetig an. Dies führte zu einer Reihe Gründungen von Klöstern in Europa, den USA, Australien und Neuseeland, die sich auf ihn berufen.


Prelude and Armies.

Cassius Dio wrote that during the winter of 280/279 BC both sides prepared for the next battle. In the spring of 279 BC, Pyrrhus invaded Apulia. Many places were captured or capitulated. The Romans came upon him near Asculum and encamped opposite him. In Plutarch's account, after resting his army, Pyrrhus marched to Asculum to confront the Romans.  According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Pyrrhus had 70,000 infantry, of whom 16,000 were Greeks. The Romans had more than 70,000 infantry, of whom about 20,000 were Romans (four legions which at the time had 4,000 men), the rest being troops from allies. The Romans had about 8,000 cavalry and Pyrrhus had slightly more, plus nineteen elephants. The 1st century AD Roman senator Frontinus estimated a strength of 40,000 men for both sides. Pyrrhus had men from Thesprotia, Ambracia, and Chaon, two cities and a district in Epirus, and mercenaries from the Aetolians, Acarnanians, and Athamanians. These Greeks fought in the Macedonian Phalanx battle formation. He had cavalry squadrons from Thessaly. The Greeks of the city of Tarentum, in southern Italy, were allies of Pyrrhus. Pyrrhus also had allies from three Italic peoples in southern Italy: the Bruttii, Lucani, and Samnites. Among the allies of Rome mentioned by Dionysius of Halicarnassus there were the Frentani, Marrucini, Paeligni, Dauni, and Umbrians. There might also have been contingents from the Marsi and Vestini, who were also allies of Rome.  Since Pyrrhus' elephants had caused much terror and destruction in the Battle of Heraclea, the Romans devised special wagons against them. They were four-wheeled and had poles mounted transversely on upright beams. They could be swung in any direction. Some had iron tridents, spikes, or scythes, and some had ‘cranes that hurled down heavy grappling irons’. Many poles protruded in front of the wagons and had fire-bearing grapnels wrapped in cloth daubed with pitch. The wagons carried bowmen, hurlers of stones, and slingers who threw iron caltrops and men who threw grapnels on fire against the trunks and faces of the elephants. The Romans had 300 such wagons.  Pyrrhus lined up the Macedonian phalanx of the Epirots and Ambracians, mercenaries from Tarentum with white shields, and the Bruttii and Lucani allies on the right wing. The Thesprotians and Chaonians were deployed in the centre next to the Aetolian, Acarnanian, and Athamanian mercenaries. The Samnites formed the left wing. On the right wing of the cavalry were the Samnite, Thessalian, and Bruttii squadrons and Tarentine mercenaries. On the left wing were the Ambracian, Lucanian, and Tarentine squadrons and Acarnanian, Aetolian, Macedonian, and Athamanian mercenaries. He divided the light infantry and the elephants into two groups and placed them behind the wings, on a slightly elevated position. Pyrrhus had an agema of 2,000 picked cavalrymen behind the battle line to help hard-pressed troops. The Romans had their first and third legions on the right wing. The first faced the Epirot and Ambracian phalanx and the Tarentine mercenaries. The third faced the Tarentine phalanx with white shields and the Bruttii and Lucani. The fourth legion formed the centre. The second legion was on the right wing. The Latins, Volsci, and Campanians (who were part of the Roman Republic) and Rome's allies were divided into four legions which were mingled with the Roman legions to strengthen all the lines. The light infantry and wagons which were to be deployed against the elephants were outside the line. Both the Roman and the allied cavalry were on the wings.

The battle.

In Plutarch's account, the battle was fought over two days. In the accounts of Cassius Dio and Dionysius of Halicarnassus it lasted one day. According to Plutarch the battle was won by Pyrrhus, according to Cassius Dio, it was won by the Romans. Dionysius of Halicarnassus did not state what the outcome of the battle was.

Plutarch's account.

By Plutarch's account the battle lasted two days. After resting his army, Pyrrhus marched to Asculum to confront the Romans. However, he was forced into an area where, due to the wooded banks of the river, he could not deploy the cavalry or use his elephants against the Romans. The fighting was fierce and many were killed or wounded, before the battle was interrupted by nightfall. During the night Pyrrhus sent a detachment to occupy the unfavourable areas of the field so that he could fight and deploy his elephants on level ground. He put many archers and slingers between the elephants and charged in compact formation. The Romans could not use sidelong shifts or make counter-movements as on the previous day. They had to fight on level ground in a frontal attack. They fought fiercely with their swords against the Macedonian spears, in an attempt to repulse the enemy troops before the elephants could charge. Despite their resistance, they were eventually driven back by the elephants and fled to their camp.

Cassius Dio's account.

Cassius Dio wrote that the two sides avoided each other for several days. There were rumours that Publius Decius Mus (one of the two consuls for 279 BC) was getting ready to devote himself like his father and grandfather. In a devotio a Roman commander sacrificed his life by launching himself into the enemy ranks as a vow to the gods in exchange for victory when the Roman troops were overwhelmed. This galvanised the Roman soldiers. The rumour alarmed the Italic followers of Pyrrhus, who believed that Decius' death would ruin them. Pyrrhus endeavoured to reassure them and ordered them to seize alive anyone who wore the garments the Decii family used when devoting themselves. He sent a man to tell Publius Decius that he would not succeed in his intent and after being taken alive he would die miserably. The Roman consuls replied that there was no need to resort to a devotio because the Romans would defeat him without it.  In Cassius Dio's version of the battle, the river between the two camps was not easy to ford. The Romans asked whether Pyrrhus would choose to cross it unmolested or whether he would allow them to do so unharmed so that the two forces would fight intact, thus giving an accurate test of their valour. Pyrrhus, confident of the strength of his elephants, allowed the Romans to cross the river. However, the Romans deployed their wagons against the elephants, shooting fire and missiles. The Romans gradually forced the Greeks back until Pyrrhus moved the elephants to the other end of the line, away from the wagons. He used them to charge the Roman cavalry, which was routed by the elephants before they even got close. Meanwhile, some Dauni had set out against the camp of the Greeks. This won the battle for the Romans because when Pyrrhus sent some of his men against them, the rest suspected that the camp had fallen and that their companions had fled. Because of this they gave way. Many fell and Pyrrhus and many of his officers were wounded. Others died later because of lack of food and of medical supplies. Pyrrhus withdrew to Tarentum before the Romans became aware of this. The Romans did not pursue him because many of their men were wounded. They went into winter quarters in Apulia, while Pyrrhus sent for soldiers and money from home and went on with his other preparations.

Dionysius of Halicarnassus' account.

In the account of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, the Roman cavalry engaged in hand-to-hand, stationary combat, and the Greek cavalry engaged in flanking manoeuvres. When the Romans were pursued by the Greeks, they turned their horses around and fought the infantry. When the battle was even, the Greeks swerved to the right, counter-marched past one another and then turned to charge the enemy. The right wing of the infantry of each army was the stronger one. The Macedonian phalanx repulsed the first Roman legion and the Latins who fought alongside it. Pyrrhus ordered the elephants to charge the part of the Roman line which was in difficulty. The Romans sent the wagons against them, with some initial success. Then the men leading the elephants stopped driving them forward and threw down spears. Lightly-armed Greek troops attacked the wagons and those who manned them fled into the nearest infantry line, throwing it into confusion. The Bruttii and Lucanians in the middle of the formation of Pyrrhus fled when they were repulsed by the Roman fourth legion. When the line was broken through, the Tarentines also fled. Pyrrhus sent part of the agema and part of the cavalry on the right wing to help this weakened line.  Some of the Daunians from Arpi (4000 infantry and 4000 cavalry), who had been sent to help, got close to Pyrrhus’ camp by chance while travelling on a road that led to the enemy's rear. They decided to attack the camp, and after having heard from some prisoners that it had but a few guards, attacked on all sides. Pyrrhus sent the elephants and the bravest cavalrymen to the camp, but it was taken and set on fire before they arrived. The Daunians fled to a hill which could not be ascended by horses or elephants. The enemy detachment then attacked the third and fourth legions, which had routed their opponents. After fleeing up a steep and wooded hill, they lined up in battle order. Although the horses and elephants of Pyrrhus could not pursue them, many were killed or wounded by bowmen and slingers. Pyrrhus sent forward the Athamanians, the Acarnanians and some of the Samnites. The Romans sent forward some cavalry squadrons, and the two forces clashed with many casualties at the bottom of the hill. Both sides recalled their troops just before sunset. The Romans crossed the river to reach their camp. Pyrrhus, whose forces had lost the tents, pack-animals and baggage which were kept in the camp, encamped on a hill and spent the night outdoors and without food. Many of the wounded died as a result of the conditions.

Aftermath.

Plutarch noted that according to Hieronymus of Cardia the Romans lost 6,000 men and that, according to Pyrrhus' own commentaries, he lost 3,505 men. He wrote that Dionysius of Halicarnassus made "no mention of two battles at Asculum, nor of an admitted defeat of the Romans" and that (in a passage which is now lost) Dionysius wrote that over 15,000 men on both sides fell in the battle. Plutarch also wrote that Pyrrhus said to someone who was congratulating him: "If we are victorious in one more battle with the Romans, we shall be utterly ruined." This was because he lost a great part of the forces he had brought to Italy and most of his commanders. He could not call up more men from home and his allies in Italy were becoming indifferent. The Romans, instead, could quickly replenish their forces "as if from a fountain gushing forth indoors", and did not lose courage or determination in defeat.  Realising that he could not win a war against the Romans, Pyrrhus accepted a request from the Greek city-states of eastern and southern Sicily to help them against the Carthaginians in western Sicily. He went to Sicily and campaigned there for three years. His allies in southern Italy were aggrieved because he abandoned them. He took over all the Carthaginian domains in Sicily except for the stronghold of Lilybaeum. His siege of this city was unsuccessful. After this he wanted to build a large fleet to invade Carthage's home territory in Africa. He needed to man and equip these ships and to do this he treated the Greek city-states despotically. These cities turned against him. He was forced to return to southern Italy. He fought the Romans at the Battle of Beneventum (275 BC), where he was defeated. He then left Italy and returned to Epirus.

The Battle of Asculum took place in 279 BC between the Roman Republic under the command of the consuls Publius Decius Mus and Publius Sulpicius Saverrio, and the forces of King Pyrrhus of Epirus. The battle took place during the Pyrrhic War, after the Battle of Heraclea of 280 BC, which was the first battle of the war. There exist accounts of this battle by three ancient historians: Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Plutarch, and Cassius Dio. Asculum was in Lucanian territory, in southern Italy.

Die Schlacht bei Asculum (oder auch Ausculum) fand 279 v. Chr. in der Nähe der heutigen Stadt Ascoli Satriano statt und wurde zwischen den Römern und dem König der Molosser, Pyrrhus von Epirus (319–272 v. Chr.), ausgetragen.


Leisure and tourism.

The old quarter of the town has winding streets of cobbled stones and overhanging houses constructed of stone and timber. Many have religious and secular sculptures on their façades.  One of these houses is "la Maison dite de la duchesse Anne", or the "so-called Duchess Anne’s house", which is now a museum, open to the public. This house is said to be one of the oldest in the town. Local legend has it that it derives its name from the fact that the Duchesse Anne of Brittany visited the house during her Tro Breizh pilgrimage. This seems unlikely, though, as construction on the house started in the 1520s and Anne of Brittany died in 1514.  The Museum of the Jacobins in Morlaix, housed in a former convent, traces the history of Finistère.  Morlaix is a popular location for sea sports enthusiasts with a diverse array of activities on offer including surfing, sand buggying and kite flying. Visitors can also find beautiful coastal paths for walks. Inland activities include bowling, golf, horse-riding and many more. There are also a cinema and a swimming pool.

Marina.

A tidal river that almost completely dries out at low tide reaches the town of Morlaix where there is a lock into a marina.

Breton language.

The municipality launched a linguistic plan concerning the Breton language through Ya d'ar brezhoneg on 27 June 2008.  In 2008, 6.45% of primary-school children attended bilingual schools.  The Diwan school in Morlaix, founded around 1988, was originally located in very old apartments. In January 2008 the mayor offered the Diwan school a move to a more suitable location, an empty school. In June 2008 the new mayor decided that the Diwan school should move location once again. The town council wanted to use their building to open a new public school. However the replacement building chosen for the Diwan school was in a very bad shape.

Population.

Inhabitants of Morlaix are called in French "Morlaisiens".

Economy.

Brit Air, a regional airline and Air France subsidiary, is at Morlaix Airport in Morlaix. In 2013 the airline merged with HOP!

Education.

Morlaix has six public primary schools, four private primary schools, three public junior high schools, two public senior high schools/sixth-form colleges, two private junior high schools, and one public senior high/sixth-form.  Public schools:  Private schools:

International relations.

Morlaix is twinned with:

Morlaix (; ) is a commune in the Finistère department of Brittany in northwestern France. It is a sub-prefecture of the department.

Morlaix ("Montroulez" auf Bretonisch) ist eine französische Gemeinde mit Einwohnern (Stand ) im Département Finistère in der Region Bretagne. Morlaix ist Hauptort ("chef-lieu") des gleichnamigen Kantons und Unterpräfektur des gleichnamigen Arrondissements.


Ideology.

Hassan Ngeze in 1990 created the "Hutu Ten Commandments" that served as the basis of Hutu Power ideology. The "Commandments" called for the supremacy of Hutus in Rwanda, calling for exclusive Hutu leadership over Rwanda's public institutions and public life, complete segregation of Hutus from Tutsis, and complete exclusion of Tutsis from public institutions and public life. Hutu Power ideology reviled Tutsis as outsiders bent on restoring a Tutsi-dominated monarchy, and idealized all things Hutu.  The Commandments declared that any form of relationship between Hutus and Tutsi women was forbidden; and that any Hutu who "marries a Tutsi woman", "befriends a Tutsi woman", or "employs a Tutsi woman as a secretary or a concubine" was a traitor to the Hutu people. It denounced Tutsis as dishonest in business whose "only aim is the supremacy of his ethnic group"; and declared that any Hutu who did business with a Tutsi was a traitor to the Hutu people. The Commandments declared that "The Hutu should stop having mercy on the Tutsi" and referred to the Tutsis as "common Tutsi enemy".

History.

Background.

The Rwandan kingdom was traditionally ruled by a Tutsi mwami, or king; Historical evidence suggests that Hutu and Twa were included in government, although the Twa significantly less so than Hutu, who were more numerous. The Tutsi/Hutu divide has been referred to as a caste system. A Hutu could gain Tutsi status through marriage or through success. Tutsis, being primarily pastoralists, had a more valuable place in Rwandan society than the agriculturalist Hutu, and the hunter-gatherer and potter Twa.  The society created conceptions of social status based on the groups' traditional pursuits: the Twa, working most directly with the earth (through pottery), were considered impure; the Hutu, still working with the ground but less so than the Twa, were in turn considered less pure than the above-ground Tutsi. When Germany, and later Belgium, colonized the kingdom, they interpreted the local division of races or ethnicity through the Hamitic hypothesis. European authors such as John Hanning Speke wrote of the Tutsi as being of Hamitic origin, having constituted a Hamitic invasion from modern Ethiopia, bringing civilization to the Negroid race. As a result, the colonial administration favored the Tutsi at the expense of Hutu and Twa. In addition, they imposed a system of identity cards and ethnic classification in censuses, which reinforced an artificial ethnic division and contributed to tensions between groups. In reality, the Tutsi, Hutu, and Twa possessed little cultural or genetic distinction.

Shift in Belgian colonial rule.

Toward the end of Belgian rule, the government began to favor the Hutu, who were organizing for more influence. More significantly, the Belgian administration feared the rise of Communism and a Pan-African socialist regime led by Congo-Léopoldville's Patrice Lumumba. Then-Belgian High Resident Guy Logiest set up the first democratic elections in Rwanda to avoid more radical politics. As the majority population, the Hutu elected their candidates to most positions in the new government.

Formation.

The first elected president Grégoire Kayibanda, an ethnic Hutu, used ethnic tensions to preserve his own power. Hutu radicals, working with his group (and later against it), adopted the Hamitic hypothesis, portraying the Tutsi as outsiders, invaders, and oppressors of Rwanda. Some Hutu radicals called for the Tutsi to be "sent back to Abyssinia", a reference to their supposed homeland. This early concept of Hutu Power idealized a "pre-invasion" Rwanda: an ethnically pure territory dominated by the Hutu.

Under Habyarimana.

In 1973, general and defense minister Juvénal Habyarimana, an ethnic Hutu supported by more radical northern Rwandans, overthrew Kayibanda and had him and his wife killed. Many of his supporters were from his district in the north, descendants of Hutu kingdoms that had been semi-autonomous before the colonial period. The resulting administration proved better for Tutsis, as government-sponsored violence was more sporadic than under Kayibanda.  With economic conditions difficult, and threatened by the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) invasion, Habyarimana turned to inflaming ethnic tensions.

Spokespersons.

Hutu Power acquired a variety of spokesmen. Hassan Ngeze, an entrepreneur recruited by the government to combat the Tutsi publication "Kanguka", created and edited "Kangura", a radical Hutu Power newsletter. He published the "Hutu Ten Commandments", which included the following:  "Radio Télévision Libre des Mille Collines" broadcast radio shows suggesting the end to toleration of the Tutsi, repeating the Hutu Ten Commandments, and building support for the Hutu Power ideology. Two main voices of RTLM were announcers Valérie Bemeriki and Georges Ruggiu. The repetition of Hutu Ten Commandments was an attempt to incite and mobilize the population to commit genocide against the Tutsi, who were portrayed as threatening the social and political order achieved since independence, and as envisioned by the "Akazu". Politician Léon Mugesera gave a speech in November, 1992, allegedly stating, "Do not be afraid, know that anyone whose neck you do not cut is the one who will cut your neck...Let them pack their bags, let them get going, so that no one will return here to talk and no one will bring scraps claiming to be flags!" The radio programs frequently referred to the Tutsi as "inyenzi", a Kinyarwanda word meaning 'cockroach', though the term had also been a self-description by members of the Tutsi Rwanda Patriotic Front.

Mobilization for genocide.

During the attempted negotiations (Arusha Accords) between the Rwandan government and the RPF, radical Hutus began alleging that Habyarimana was being manipulated by Tutsis and non-radical Hutus. They maligned then-Prime Minister Agathe Uwilingiyimana. Following Habyarimana's assassination, an act that at the time people speculated was done by Tutsi extremists, Hutu Power forces mobilized militia, most notably "Interahamwe", and mobs to carry out the mass killings of the Rwandan genocide. The Presidential Guard of the army killed Prime Minister Uwilingiyimana and several other leading moderate government officials.

Aftermath.

The defeat of the government by the RPF ended the genocide, and the Hutu Power movement was defeated and suppressed. Many Hutu Power spokesmen were arrested after the genocide, charged and put on trial. Ngeze was convicted and sentenced to 35 years' imprisonment. In 2005, Mugesera was deported from Canada to Rwanda to stand trial for his role in the killings.

Hutu Power was a racist and ethnosupremacist ideology propounded by Hutu extremists in Rwanda. It led to the 1994 Rwandan genocide against the Tutsi. Hutu Power political parties and movements included the "Akazu", the Coalition for the Defence of the Republic and its "Impuzamugambi" paramilitary militia, and the governing National Republican Movement for Democracy and Development and its "Interahamwe" paramilitary militia.

Hutu-Power ist der inoffizielle Name einer rechtsextremistischen Hutu-Bewegung, die sich die Vertreibung und später die Ausrottung aller Tutsi zur Ideologie gemacht hat.


Personal life.

Trezeguet was born in Rouen, Normandy, France, but grew up in Buenos Aires, Argentina. He is the son of Argentine parents: his father, Jorge Trezeguet, a former Argentinian footballer who now works as his agent, and his mother, Beatriz. David Trezeguet has a younger sister.  Trezeguet was married to Beatriz Villalba for 13 years, they have two sons together, Aarón (born 2000) and Noraan (born 2008). Beatriz is from Alicante, Spain. They divorced in 2012.

Club career.

Platense.

Trezeguet began his career at Platense in the Argentine Primera División, where he played his first professional game on 12 June 1994 as a 16-year-old in a 1–1 tie against Gimnasia y Esgrima de La Plata. After just five matches with the team, he moved to his native country to play for AS Monaco.

Monaco.

In 1995, he was close to joining Paris Saint-Germain, but the deal was cancelled after the two clubs failed to agree a deal. Shortly afterwards, he opted to join Monaco. Monaco coach Jean Tigana was "impressed" by Trezeguet who scored 5 goals in trial, signing a deal which saw him earn 15,000 francs a month.  Trezeguet spent two seasons with Monaco B, having made just nine appearances in total for the club's first team during his first two seasons. In 1998, Trezeguet scored the fastest ever goal in terms of velocity in UEFA Champions League history in a quarter-final match against Manchester United. The shot that resulted in a goal was clocked at 97.6 mph (157.3 km/h). With Monaco, he won Ligue 1 twice and was named Ligue 1 Young Player of the Year in 1998. He scored a total of 60 goals in 113 appearances for the French club and it was here that he made his name as a potent goalscoring poacher.

Juventus.

During his first season with Juventus, under manager Carlo Ancelotti, Trezeguet managed 14 goals in Serie A, despite being predominantly utilised as a substitute striker, behind Filippo Inzaghi, who started alongside Alessandro Del Piero. Juventus missed out on the 2000–01 Serie A title that season, finishing in second place behind Roma. In his second season at the club, under manager Marcello Lippi, he scored 24 league goals in 34 league matches to finish as the Serie A top goalscorer, along with Dario Hübner of Piacenza, as Juventus won the 2001–02 Serie A title. That same season, he was named Serie A Footballer of the Year and Serie A Foreign Footballer of the Year, also reaching the final of the 2001–02 Coppa Italia; he also scored eight goals in ten UEFA Champions League appearances, although the club were eliminated in the second round of the competition. In January 2002, a car carrying Trezeguet and teammates Mark Iuliano, Gianluca Zambrotta and Enzo Maresca after a 3–1 win over Hellas Verona, collided with two others; none of the four players were injured in the accident. In his third season, his appearances were limited by injuries, although he still helped Juventus to defend the Serie A title, also winning the 2002 Supercoppa Italiana and scoring four goals in ten appearances as Juventus reached the 2003 UEFA Champions League Final. In the final, Trezeguet was one of three Juventus players to have their penalty saved by Milan keeper Dida, as Juventus lost 3–2 on penalty kicks after a 0–0 draw. This would be the closest Trezeguet ever got to winning the Champions League. During the 2003–04 season, Trezeguet helped the team to win a second consecutive Supercoppa Italiana title, scoring a goal during the match, also reaching another Coppa Italia final, although their European and domestic league campaigns would be less successful, despite his 16 goals in Serie A that season, as the club finished the league in third place. In 2004, Brazilian legend Pelé included Trezeguet in the FIFA 100, his list of the 125 greatest living footballers. Although Trezeguet won the 2004–05 Serie A and 2005–06 Serie A titles with Juventus, scoring 23 league goals in the 2005–06 season, Juventus were caught in the 2006 Italian football scandal that rocked Italian football, and along with Milan, Fiorentina, Lazio, and Reggina were accused of match fixing. While the players had no part in the scandal, Juventus were subsequently stripped of their 2004–05 and 2005–06 titles, relegated to Serie B, and were to start the 2006–07 season with a deficit of 30 points, eventually reduced to nine points on appeal. Following the enforced relegation to Serie B, the club lost several of its star players, including Fabio Cannavaro to Real Madrid, Gianluca Zambrotta to FC Barcelona, Adrian Mutu to Fiorentina, and Zlatan Ibrahimović to Internazionale. Trezeguet's compatriots Lilian Thuram and Patrick Vieira also left Juventus, for Barcelona and Inter, respectively. Manager Fabio Capello defected to Real Madrid and former Juventus legend and Trezeguet's former France teammate and captain, Didier Deschamps, was appointed the new manager of Juve. As one of the club's star players, Trezeguet was heavily linked to a move away from Juventus, but he ultimately stayed with the "Bianconeri" to help the club return to Italy's top flight.  On 16 September 2006, before Juventus' Serie B match against Vicenza, he was awarded a commemorative plate in recognition of his 125 career goals. On 19 May 2007, Juventus achieved promotion to Serie A after a 5–1 win over Arezzo. Trezeguet scored the fifth goal which made the promotion mathematically possible. Despite the successful return to Serie A, and an eventual Serie B title, the season was not without controversy. After scoring a goal in Juventus' final match of the 2006–07 Serie B season against Spezia, Trezeguet made a gesture toward the club president, making a number 15 with his fingers – the number of goals he scored throughout the Serie B season – which was followed by a hand gesture which, in Italian, means "I'm out of here". Juventus, however, announced on 25 June 2007 that Trezeguet had renewed his contract until 2011.  During the 2007–08 Serie A season, Trezeguet scored 20 league goals and was second only to teammate and club captain Alessandro Del Piero for the "Capocannoniere". Juventus finished third in the league to qualify for the Champions League after missing out on the tournament for two consecutive seasons.  In the 2008–09 season, Trezeguet sustained a groin injury that kept him out for most of the season. Trezeguet finally made his return on 4 February 2009 against Napoli in the Coppa Italia and had a goal controversially disallowed. Nevertheless, he was one of the players who scored in the penalty shootout, which Juventus won 4–3. Trezeguet would shortly get his first goal of 2009 in a 2–0 win against Palermo in late February – a match where he received the captaincy for the first time in his professional career. Juventus finished the season in second place in the league, also reaching the semi-finals of the Coppa Italia and the round of 16 of the UEFA Champions League.  On 9 December 2009, Trezeguet scored his 168th goal for Juventus in a 4–1 defeat to Bayern Munich in the 2009–10 UEFA Champions League, making him the club's highest-ever foreign goalscorer, surpassing Omar Sívori's total of 167 goals. At the end of the 2009–10 season, Trezeguet ranked fourth among Juventus' all-time top goalscorers with 171 goals. In August 2010, he was released from the remaining 12 months of his contract by Juventus.

Hércules.

On 28 August 2010, Trezeguet completed his move to newly promoted La Liga team Hércules CF on a two-year deal; the club is based in his then wife's hometown. He made his debut on 11 September in a 2–0 surprise victory against defending champions Barcelona. Eight days later, Trezeguet scored his first goal for the club, a conversion from the penalty spot in a 2–1 loss against Valencia CF. He was unable to prevent relegation for the side, however, and left the club at the start of the summer of 2011. Trezeguet made 31 league appearance and scored 12 goals, making him the club's top goalscorer for the season.

Baniyas.

On 30 August 2011, Trezeguet completed his move to UAE Pro-League side Baniyas SC on a one-year deal. On 21 November 2011, his contract was mutually terminated due to an injury which had kept him sidelined for most of the season. Trezeguet only appeared in the opening league match and a fixture in the Etisalat Emirates Cup for Baniyas.

River Plate.

On 19 December 2011, Trezeguet moved to River Plate in Argentina on a three-year contract, shortly after the club was relegated to the Argentine second division for the first time in its history. Trezeguet, a childhood fan of River, having grown up in Buenos Aires, spoke of it as his dream move, saying, "Being here is a unique feeling, motivated by everything that River represents." On 19 January 2012, Trezeguet scored in his first appearance for River Plate in a friendly match against Racing Club de Avellaneda.  He made his official debut on 13 February 2012. He played his first match at Estadio Monumental the following week and scored his first official goal for River Plate after coming on as a substitute. On 26 February, he scored his second official goal, again after coming on as a substitute on the second half. Trezeguet scored his first double in River Plate on 10 March against Defensa y Justicia, the first goal giving River Plate a 2–1 lead, while the second one tying the match 3–3. In the next match, he played for the first time in the starting XI and scored in the first half to maintain his excellent scoring form for River Plate.  Trezeguet would later state that the adrenaline he gets while playing for River surpasses any other moment he experienced in his career, including winning the 1998 FIFA World Cup with France and scoring the golden goal in the finals of UEFA Euro 2000: "I am feeling things that I have never felt before. Not with Juventus, nor with Monaco and not even at international level with France. Being a River fan and seeing the passion that exists in this team, all the people and all the pressure, I have more adrenaline than ever before."  In the final match of the championship against Almirante Brown on 23 June, Trezeguet secured victory by scoring both of River's goals to seal promotion back to the top flight; Trezeguet also missed a penalty during the match. Trezeguet finished his first season at River Plate with 13 goals in 18 matches, finishing sixth behind the team's top goalscorer, Fernando Cavenaghi.  On 9 September 2012, he scored his first goal in the Primera División Argentina against Newell's Old Boys in a 3–3 draw. He would later score against Estudiantes de La Plata in a 1–0 win and also against Colón de Santa Fe in a 2–1 victory.  Despite being a key member of the River Plate squad which returned to the Primera División Argentina, it was decided in June by head coach and manager Ramón Díaz that he would no longer be a part of the team's squad, despite fan protests.

Newell's Old Boys.

On 22 July 2013, Trezeguet joined Newell's Old Boys on a one-year deal. He made his debut on 18 August coming on as a substitute for Víctor Aquino in the 73rd minute, his side drew 0–0 with Belgrano de Córdoba. In his second game for the NOB he scored his first goal in the 90th minute against Atletico Rafaela, they won the game 2–0. On 1 November, Trezeguet scored his 300th career goal against Colón de Santa Fe and 11 minutes later followed up with his 301st career goal and subsequently the equaliser, drawing 2–2 on the night.  On 16 March 2014, Trezeguet was subbed on in the 78th minute for Ezequiel Ponce. In the 83rd minute he scored the second goal of the game with his side winning 2–0 against Racing Club de Avellaneda, a team which Trezeguet's former Juventus teammate Mauro Camoranesi played for and was subbed on earlier in the match.

FC Pune City.

On 30 July 2014, Trezeguet signed for Indian Super League franchise Pune City. Trezeguet scored his first goal for the club against FC Goa, by the virtue of which, his franchise registered their first victory in the tournament. This was followed by his second and his last goal in ISL, which came in a defeat against Kerala Blasters FC.  On 20 January 2015, it was announced that Trezeguet had retired as a player and was set to join the Juventus management team. It was confirmed by Trezeguet's agent.

International career.

As a French–Argentinian, Trezeguet was eligible to play for France or Argentina.  Trezeguet first competed internationally in the French youth squad alongside Thierry Henry, Willy Sagnol, and William Gallas, and played in the 1997 FIFA World Youth Championship. In the lead up to the 1998 World Cup in France, Aimé Jacquet gave younger players such as David Trezeguet, Henry and Patrick Vieira the chance to display their talent, and all three were eventually selected for the World Cup ahead of experienced French players including David Ginola. Trezeguet scored one goal in the tournament, in the 4–0 win over Saudi Arabia, as France went on to win the World Cup, defeating Brazil 3–0 in the final at the Stade de France. Two years later France were crowned European champions after defeating Italy 2–1 in the Euro 2000 final, courtesy of Trezeguet's golden goal in extra time from a Robert Pires assist.  Although ranked first in the world, France was not very successful in the 2002 World Cup, being eliminated in the group stage without scoring a single goal, despite David Trezeguet, Thierry Henry and Djibril Cissé being the top goalscorers respectively in Serie A, the Premier League and Ligue 1 that season. The failure was then followed up by a quarter-final exit at Euro 2004 at the hands of unheralded Greece with Trezeguet scoring just one goal in the tournament in a 2–2 draw against Croatia. However, with the return of Zinedine Zidane from brief international retirement, France would go on to reach the final of the 2006 World Cup. Throughout the tournament, Trezeguet found himself out of place in Raymond Domenech's 4–2–3–1 formation which only used one striker – a position allocated to Thierry Henry. On 9 July 2006, Trezeguet took part in the final, coming on as a substitute. The match, against Italy, went to a penalty shootout and Trezeguet was the only player from either team to miss his penalty, his shot hitting the crossbar, as Italy won 5–3 on penalty kicks after a 1–1 draw.  On 19 October 2007, Trezeguet threatened to quit France after being overlooked for two Euro 2008 qualifying matches by coach Raymond Domenech. On 26 March 2008, Trezeguet was selected for a friendly against England to replace the injured Karim Benzema, which would turn out to be his last appearance for France as he was subsequently not chosen for the squad that competed in Euro 2008.  On 9 July 2008, he announced his retirement from international football, finishing his France career ranked third among France's all-time top goalscorers with 34 goals from 71 caps. He cited "the awful Euro 2008 and the reappointment of the coach" being the main reasons for this decision, and also added "I see football differently from how they see it in France. Euro 2008 was very negative, but what annoys me more is that Domenech is staying."

Style of play.

Trezeguet was a prolific, complete, and talented striker, who was gifted with pace, power, instinct, and an eye for goal. A highly opportunistic player, he was excellent at taking advantage of chances and loose balls in the area, and was an accurate striker of the ball, known for his clinical finishing, as well as his ability to score with few touches, due to his ability to shoot first time and finish off chances from close range, even when off-balance or from awkward positions. He was capable of scoring with either foot, despite being naturally right footed, as well as with his head, and excelled in the air; he was also known for having a penchant for scoring acrobatic goals. Although he wasn't particularly talented, skillful, or known for his link-up play, he was also highly regarded for his positional sense, anticipation, reactions, offensive movement, and his ability to lose his markers, as well as for his skill at playing with his back to goal, courtesy of his solid technique. Considered to be one of the best strikers of his generation, due to the number of goals he scored for Juventus he gained the nicknames: "Cobra", "Trezegol", and "Re David" (King David, in Italian), during his time at the club. Despite his ability, his playing time throughout his career was often limited by injuries.

Honours.

AS Monaco  Juventus  River Plate  France  Individual  Orders

David Sergio Trezeguet (; born 15 October 1977) is a French former footballer who played as a striker. Trezeguet began his career in Argentina with Club Atlético Platense at the age of eight, progressing through their youth system to their first team, where he made his debut in the Primera División in 1994. After one season, he transferred to Ligue 1 side AS Monaco, where he would form a striking partnership with international teammate Thierry Henry, winning the league in the 1996–97 season. He left the club in 2000, having scored 52 goals in 93 Ligue 1 appearances and having claimed two Ligue 1 championships and the 1997 Trophée des champions. In 2000, Trezeguet signed for Serie A club Juventus for a transfer fee of £20 million. With 24 goals, he was the joint recipient of the "Capocannoniere" award for top scorer as his team won the 2001–02 Serie A title; Trezeguet also scored eight goals in 10 Champions League appearances as Juventus reached the second round of the tournament. Despite struggling with injuries the following season, he won another league title with the club, and also scored four goals in 10 Champions League appearances as Juventus reached the final of the tournament, eventually losing 2–3 on penalties to Milan, as Trezeguet missed his spot kick in the resulting shoot-out. Overall, Trezeguet scored 138 goals in 245 league appearances for Juventus, making him the fourth-highest goalscorer in the club's history. Later in his career he had brief spells in Spain, the United Arab Emirates, Argentina and India.

David Trezeguet (* 15. Oktober 1977 in Rouen, Frankreich) ist ein ehemaliger französischer Fußballspieler. Der Welt- und Europameister von 1998 bzw. 2000 spielte von 2000 bis 2010 für den italienischen Rekordmeister Juventus Turin. Seine größten Stärken waren das Kopfballspiel und seine extreme Kaltschnäuzigkeit vor dem Tor. Michel Platini verglich ihn einmal mit Paolo Rossi und gab ihm den Spitznamen "Trezegol".


Advantages.

The primary advantage of using data access objects is the relatively simple and rigorous separation between two important parts of an application that can but should not know anything of each other, and which can be expected to evolve frequently and independently. Changing business logic can rely on the same DAO interface, while changes to persistence logic do not affect DAO clients as long as the interface remains correctly implemented.  All details of storage are hidden from the rest of the application (see information hiding). Thus, possible changes to the persistence mechanism can be implemented by just modifying one DAO implementation while the rest of the application isn't affected. DAOs act as an intermediary between the application and the database. They move data back and forth between objects and database records. Unit testing the code is facilitated by substituting the DAO with a test double in the test, thereby making the tests independent of the persistence layer.  In the general context of the Java programming language, Data Access Objects as a design concept can be implemented in a number of ways. This can range from a fairly simple interface that separates the data access parts from the application logic, to frameworks and commercial products. DAO coding paradigms can require some skill. Technologies like Java Persistence API and Enterprise JavaBeans come built into application servers and can be used in applications that use a JavaEE application server. Commercial products like TopLink are available based on object-relational mapping (ORM). Popular open source ORM software include Doctrine, Hibernate, iBATIS and JPA implementations such as Apache OpenJPA.

Disadvantages.

Potential disadvantages of using DAO include leaky abstraction, code duplication, and abstraction inversion. In particular, the abstraction of the DAO as a regular Java object can hide the high cost of each database access, and can also force developers to trigger multiple database queries to retrieve information that could otherwise be returned in a single operation using SQL set operations. If an application requires multiple DAOs, one might find oneself repeating essentially the same create, read, update, and delete code for each DAO. This boiler-plate code may be avoided however, by implementing a generic DAO that handles these common operations.

Hypothetical use scenario.

Imagine a situation where you own a successful company that has received contracts to develop an application for two different clients. The specifications for the application are nearly identical for the two clients. Both clients manage data using SQL databases, but one company uses a proprietary database and the other uses an open source alternative, which implies that your application's persistence layer will need to be implemented in two different ways. Further, as new clients arise, additional implementations may be needed. In this case, using the Data Access Object pattern would ensure the right amount of abstraction and encapsulation required to access any of the varying backend databases.

In computer software, a data access object (DAO) is a pattern that provides an abstract interface to some type of database or other persistence mechanism. By mapping application calls to the persistence layer, the DAO provides some specific data operations without exposing details of the database. This isolation supports the single responsibility principle. It separates what data access the application needs, in terms of domain-specific objects and data types (the public interface of the DAO), from how these needs can be satisfied with a specific DBMS, database schema, etc. (the implementation of the DAO).

Data Access Object (DAO, für "Datenzugriffsobjekt") ist ein Entwurfsmuster, das den Zugriff auf unterschiedliche Arten von Datenquellen (z. B. Datenbanken, Dateisystem) so kapselt, dass die angesprochene Datenquelle ausgetauscht werden kann, ohne dass der aufrufende Code geändert werden muss. Dadurch soll die eigentliche Programmlogik von technischen Details der Datenspeicherung befreit werden und flexibler einsetzbar sein. DAO ist also ein Muster für die Gestaltung von Programmierschnittstellen (APIs). Wenn eine Programmiersprache keine Trennung von Schnittstellendefinition und -Implementierung ermöglicht, muss ein DAO die definierte Schnittstelle unmittelbar implementieren.