History.

Some kind of limitation on the trade in alcohol can be seen in the Code of Hammurabi (ca.1772 BCE) specifically banning the selling of beer for money. It could only be bartered for barley: "If a beer seller do not receive barley as the price for beer, but if she receive money or make the beer a measure smaller than the barley measure received, they shall throw her into the water."  In the early twentieth century, much of the impetus for the prohibition movement in the Nordic countries and North America came from moralistic convictions of pietistic Protestants. Prohibition movements in the West coincided with the advent of women's suffrage, with newly empowered women as

Africa.

Nigeria.

In the British colony of Nigeria, missionary forces demanded prohibition of liquor, which proved highly unpopular. Both

South Africa.

During the coronavirus outbreak of 2020 alcohol sales, and even the transportation of alcohol outside of one's home, was made illegal. This order came into effect during the nation-wide lockdown on 27 March 2020. The purpose of the ban was intended to prevent drunken fights, reduce domestic

South Asia.

Afghanistan.

Sale of alcohol

Bangladesh.

In Bangladesh, alcohol is somewhat prohibited due to its proscription in the Islamic faith. However, the purchase and

India.

In India alcohol is a state subject and individual states can legislate prohibition, but currently most states do not have prohibition and sale/consumption is freely available in 25 out of 29 states. Prohibition is in force in the states of Gujarat, Bihar and Nagaland, parts

Maldives.

The Maldives ban the import of alcohol, x-raying all baggage on arrival.

Pakistan.

Pakistan allowed the free sale and consumption of alcohol for three decades from 1947, but restrictions were introduced by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto just weeks before he was removed as prime minister in 1977. Since then, only members of non-Muslim minorities such as Hindus, Christians and Zoroastrians are allowed to apply for alcohol permits. The monthly quota is dependent

Sri Lanka.

In 1955 Sri Lanka passed a law prohibiting adult women from buying alcohol. In January 2018, Finance Minister Mangala Samaraweera

West Asia.

Iran.

Since the 1979 Islamic Revolution, the sale and consumption of alcohol is

Kuwait.

The consumption, importation and brewing of,

Saudi Arabia.

The sale, consumption, importation and brewing

Yemen.

Alcohol is

Southeast Asia.

Brunei.

In Brunei, alcohol consumption and sale is banned in public. Non-Muslims are allowed to purchase a limited amount of alcohol from their point of embarcation overseas

Indonesia.

Alcohol sales are banned

Malaysia.

Alcohol is banned only for Muslims in Malaysia due to its Islamic faith and sharia law.

Philippines.

There are only restrictions during elections in the Philippines. Alcohol is prohibited from purchase two days prior to an election. The Philippine Commission on Elections may opt to extend the liquor ban. In

Thailand.

Alcohol is prohibited from being sold during election time, from 6 pm the day prior to voting, until the end of the day of voting itself. Alcohol is also prohibited on major Buddhist holy days, and sometimes on Royal Commemoration days, such as birthdays.  Thailand also enforces time-limited bans on alcohol on a daily basis. Alcohol can only be legally purchased in stores or restaurants between 11 am–2 pm and 5 pm–midnight. This law is enforced by all major retailers (most

Europe.

Czech Republic.

On 14 September 2012, the government of the Czech Republic banned all sales of liquor with more than 20% alcohol. From this date on it was illegal to sell such alcoholic beverages in shops, supermarkets, bars, restaurants, gas stations, e-shops etc. This measure was taken in response to the wave of

Nordic countries.

The Nordic countries, with the exception of Denmark, have had a strong temperance movement since the late 1800s, closely linked to the Christian revival movement of the late 19th century, but also to several worker organisations. As an example, in 1910 the temperance organisations in Sweden had some 330,000 members, which was about 6% of a population of 5.5 million. This heavily influenced the decisions of Nordic politicians in the early 20th century.  In 1907, the Faroe Islands passed a law prohibiting all sale of alcohol, which was in force until 1992. Very restricted private importation from Denmark was allowed from 1928 on.  In 1914, Sweden put in place a rationing system, the Bratt System, in force until 1955. A referendum in 1922 rejected an attempt to enforce total prohibition.  In 1915, Iceland instituted total prohibition. The ban for wine was lifted in 1922 and spirits in 1935, but beer remained prohibited until 1989 (circumvented by mixing light

Russian Empire and the Soviet Union.

In the Russian Empire, a limited version of a Dry Law was introduced in 1914. It continued

United Kingdom.

Although the sale or consumption of commercial alcohol has never been prohibited by law in the United Kingdom, historically, various groups in the UK have campaigned for the prohibition of alcohol; including the Society of Friends (Quakers), The Methodist Church and other non-conformists, as well as temperance movements such as Band of Hope and temperance Chartist movements of the nineteenth century.  Formed in 1853 and inspired by the Maine law in the United States, the United Kingdom Alliance aimed at promoting a similar law prohibiting the sale of alcohol in the UK. This hard-line group of prohibitionists was opposed by other temperance organisations who preferred moral persuasion to a legal ban. This division in the ranks limited the effectiveness of the temperance movement as a whole. The impotence of legislation in this field was demonstrated when the Sale of Beer Act 1854 which restricted Sunday opening

North America.

Canada.

Indigenous peoples in Canada were subject to prohibitory alcohol laws under the "Indian Act" of 1876. Sections of the "Indian Act" regarding liquor were not repealed for over a hundred years, until 1985.  An official, but non-binding, federal referendum on prohibition was held in 1898. Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier's government chose not to introduce

Mexico.

Some communities in the Chiapas state of southern Mexico are under the control of the radical leftist Zapatista Army of National Liberation, and often ban alcohol as part of what was described as "a collective decision". This prohibition has been used by many villages as a way to decrease domestic violence and has

United States.

Prohibition in the United States focused on the manufacture, transportation, and sale of alcoholic beverages; however, exceptions were made for medicinal and religious uses. Alcohol consumption was never illegal under federal law. Nationwide Prohibition did not begin in the United States until January 1920, when the Eighteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution went into effect. The 18th amendment was ratified in 1919, and was repealed in December 1933 with the ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment.

Temperance movement.

Concern over excessive alcohol consumption began during the American colonial era, when fines were imposed for drunken behavior and for selling liquor without a license. In the eighteenth century, when drinking was a part of everyday American life, Protestant religious groups, especially the Methodists, and health reformers, including Benjamin Rush and others, urged Americans to curb their drinking habits for moral and health reasons. In particular, Benjamin Rush believed Americans were drinking hard spirits in excess, so he created "A Moral and Physical Thermometer," displaying the progression of behaviors caused by the consumption of various alcohols. By the 1840s the temperance movement was actively encouraging individuals to immediately stop drinking. Music (a completely new genre) was composed and performed in support of the efforts, both in social contexts and in

18th Amendment to the Constitution.

In December 1917, Congress submitted a constitutional amendment on nationwide prohibition to the states for ratification. The new constitutional amendment prohibited "the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage purposes". It was ratified and became law on January 16, 1919, assuring its passage into law. On October 28, 1919, Congress passed the National Prohibition Act, also known as the Volstead Act, which provided enabling legislation to implement the Eighteenth Amendment. When the National Prohibition Act was passed on October 28, 1919, thirty-three of the forty-eight states were already dry. After a year's required delay, national prohibition began on January 16, 1920.  During the first years of Prohibition, the new law was enforced in regions such as the rural

Repeal.

Prohibition lost support during the Great Depression, which started in 1929. So-called "wets" – people in favor of repeal – argued that legal sales would reduce violent gang crime, increase employment and raise tax revenues. The repeal movement was initiated and financed by the Association Against the Prohibition Amendment, who worked to elect Congressmen who agreed to support repeal. The group's wealthy supporters included John D. Rockefeller, Jr., S. S. Kresge, and the Du Pont family, among others, who had abandoned the dry cause. Pauline Sabin, a wealthy Republican who founded the Women's Organization for National Prohibition Reform (WONPR),

Aftermath.

Following repeal, public interest in an organized prohibition movement dwindled. However, it survived for a while in a few southern and border states. To this day, there are still counties and parishes within the US known as "dry," where the sale of alcohol – liquor, and sometimes wine and beer – is prohibited. Some such counties/parishes/municipalities have adopted "Moist county" policies, however, in order to expand tax revenue. Some municipalities regulate when alcohol can be sold; an example is restricting or banning sales on Sunday, under the so-called "blue laws." Between 1832 and 1953, federal legislation prohibited the sale of alcohol to aboriginal Americans, with very limited success. After 1953, aboriginal American communities and reservations were permitted to pass their own local ordinances governing the sale of alcoholic beverages.

South America.

Venezuela.

In Venezuela, twenty-four hours before every election, the government prohibits the sale and distribution of alcoholic beverages throughout the national territory, including the restriction to all dealers,

Oceania.

Australia.

The Australian Capital Territory (then the Federal Capital Territory) was the first jurisdiction in Australia to have prohibition laws. In 1911, King O'Malley, then Minister of Home Affairs, shepherded laws through Parliament preventing new issue or transfer of licences to sell alcohol, to address unruly behaviour among workers building the new capital city. Prohibition was partial, since possession of alcohol purchased outside of the Territory remained legal and the few pubs that had existing licences could continue to operate. The Federal Parliament repealed the laws after residents of the Federal Capital

New Zealand.

In New Zealand, prohibition was a moralistic reform movement begun in the mid-1880s by the Protestant evangelical and Nonconformist churches and the Woman's Christian Temperance Union and after 1890 by the Prohibition League. It assumed that individual virtue was all that was needed to carry the colony forward from a pioneering society to a more mature one, but it never achieved its goal of national prohibition. However, both the Church of England and the largely Irish Catholic Church rejected prohibition as an intrusion of government into the church's domain, while the growing labor movement saw capitalism rather than alcohol as the enemy.  Reformers hoped that the women's vote, in which New Zealand was a pioneer, would swing the balance, but the women were not as well organized as in other countries. Prohibition had a majority in a national referendum in 1911, but needed a 60% vote to pass. The movement kept trying in the 1920s, losing three more referenda by close votes; it managed to keep in place a 6

Elections.

In many countries in Latin America, the Philippines, Thailand, Turkey and several US states, the sale but not the consumption of alcohol is prohibited before and during elections.

Prohibition is the act or practice of forbidding something by law; more particularly the term refers to the banning of the manufacture, storage (whether in barrels or in bottles), transportation, sale, possession, and consumption of alcoholic beverages. The word is also used to refer to a period of time during which such bans are enforced.

Prohibition ( ‚verhindern‘) bezeichnet das Verbot bestimmter Drogen. Ziel einer Prohibition ist es – in der Regel –, die Bevölkerung vor negativen Wirkungen der verbotenen Substanzen zu schützen; diese Ziele können religiös, politisch, wirtschaftlich oder aus gesundheitlicher Fürsorge (z. B. Suchtprävention) definiert und motiviert sein. Damit steht eine Prohibition in Konflikt mit Freiheits- und Persönlichkeitsrechten, wie beispielsweise persönlicher Selbstbestimmung, freiem Zugang zu Märkten etc.


Date format.

There is a large variety of formats for dates in use, which differ in the order of date components. These variations use the sample date of 31 May 2006: (e.g. 31/05/2006, 05/31/2006, 2006/05/31), component separators (e.g. 31.05.2006, 31/05/2006, 31-05-2006), whether leading zeros are included (e.g. 31/5/2006 vs. 31/05/2006), whether all four digits of the year are written (e.g., 31.05.2006 vs. 31.05.06), and whether the month is represented in Arabic or Roman numerals or by name (e.g. 31.05.2006, 31.V.2006 vs. 31 May 2006).

Gregorian, day–month–year (DMY).

This [[little-endian]] sequence is used by a majority of the world and is the preferred form by the [[United Nations]] when writing the full date format in official documents. This date format originates from the custom of writing the date as "the Nth day of [month] in the year of our Lord [year]" in Western religious and legal documents. The format has shortened over time but the order of the elements has remained constant. The following examples use the date of 9 November 2006. (With the years 2000–2009, care must be taken to ensure that [[Year 2000 problem|two digit years do not intend to be 1900–1909 or other similar years]].)

Gregorian, year–month–day (YMD).

In this format the most significant data item is written before lesser data items i.e. year before month before day. It is consistent with the [[Endianness#Big|big-endianness]] of the [[Indian decimal numbering system]], which progresses from the highest to the lowest order magnitude. That is, using this format textual orderings and chronological orderings are identical. This form is standard in East Asia, Iran, Lithuania, Hungary, and Sweden; and some other countries to a limited extent.  Examples for the 9th of November 2003:  It is also extended through the universal big-endian format clock time: 9 November 2003, 18h 14m 12s, or 2003/11/9/18:14:12 or (ISO 8601) 2003-11-09T18:14:12.

Gregorian, month–day–year (MDY).

This sequence is used primarily in the [[Philippines]] and the [[United States]]. This date format was commonly used alongside the little-endian form in the United Kingdom until the mid-20th century and can be found in both defunct and modern print media such as the "[[London Gazette]]" and "[[The Times]]", respectively. This format was also commonly used by many English-language print media in many former British colonies and also one of two formats commonly used in India during [[British Raj]] era until mid-20th century. In the United States, it is said as Sunday, November 9, for example, although usage of "the" isn't uncommon (e.g. "Sunday, November the 9th", and even "November the 9th, Sunday", are also possible and readily understood).  The modern convention is to avoid using the ordinal (th, st, rd, nd) form of numbers when the day follows the month (July 4 or July 4, 2006). The ordinal was common in the past, and is still sometimes used ([the] 4th [of] July or [[Independence Day (United States)|July 4th]]).

Gregorian, year–day–month (YDM).

This date format is used in [[Kazakhstan]], [[Latvia]], [[Nepal]], and [[Turkmenistan]]. According to the official rules of documenting dates by governmental authorities, the date format in Kazakh is written as YYYY.DD.MM, e.g. 2006.05.04 or 2006 5 April ().

Standards.

There are several standards that specify date formats:

Usage overloading.

Many numerical forms can create confusion when used in international correspondence, particularly when abbreviating the year to its final two digits, with no context.  For example, "07/08/06" could refer to either 7 August 2006 or July 8, 2006 (rarely in both cases: 1006), or 6 August 2007. In the [[United States]], dates are rarely written in purely numerical forms in formal writing, although they are very common elsewhere; when numerical forms are used, the month appears first. In the United Kingdom, while it is regarded as acceptable albeit less common to write "month-name day, year", this order is never used when written numerically. However, as an exception, the American shorthand "9/11" is widely understood as referring to the [[September 11 attacks|11 September 2001 terrorist attacks]].  When numbers are used to represent months, a significant amount of confusion can arise from the ambiguity of a date order; especially when the numbers representing the day, month, or year are low, it can be impossible to tell which order is being used. This can be clarified by using four digits to represent years, and naming the month; for example, "Feb" instead of "02". The ISO 8601 date order with four-digit years: YYYY-MM-DD (introduced in ISO 2014), is specifically chosen to be unambiguous. The ISO 8601 standard also has the advantage of being language independent and is therefore useful when there may be no language context and a universal application is desired (expiration dating on export products, for example). Many Internet sites use YYYY-MM-DD, and those using other conventions often use -MMM- for the month to further clarify and avoid ambiguity (2001-MAY-09, 9-MAY-2001, MAY 09 2001, etc.).  In addition, the [[International Organization for Standardization]] considers its ISO 8601 standard to make sense from a logical perspective. Mixed units, for example feet and inches, or pounds and ounces, are normally written with the largest unit first, in decreasing order. Numbers are also written in that order, so the digits of 2006 indicate, in order, the millennium, the century within the millennium, the decade within the century, and the year within the decade. The only date order that is consistent with these well-established conventions is year–month–day. A plain text list of dates with this format can be easily sorted by [[file manager]]s, [[word processor]]s, [[spreadsheet]]s, and other software tools with built-in sorting functions. Some database systems use an eight-digit YYYYMMDD representation to handle date values. Naming folders with YYYY-MM-DD at the beginning allows them to be listed in date order when sorting by name – especially useful for organising document libraries.  An early U.S. [[Federal Information Processing Standard]] recommended 2-digit years. This is now widely recognized as extremely problematic, because of the [[year 2000 problem]]. Some U.S. government agencies now use ISO 8601 with 4-digit years.  When transitioning from one date notation to another, people often write both styles; for example [[Old Style and New Style dates]] in the transition from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar.

Advantages for ordering in sequence.

One of the advantages of using the [[ISO 8601]] date format is that the [[lexicographical order]] ([[ASCIIbetical]]) of the representations is equivalent to the chronological order of the dates, assuming that all dates are in the same time zone. Thus dates can be sorted using simple string comparison algorithms, and indeed by any left to right [[collation]]. For example:  The YYYY-MM-DD layout is the only common format that can provide this. Sorting other date representations involves some [[parsing]] of the date strings. This also works when a time in 24-hour format is included after the date, as long as all times are understood to be in the same time zone.  ISO 8601 is used widely where concise, human readable yet easily computable and unambiguous dates are required, although many applications store dates internally as [[UNIX time]] and only convert to ISO 8601 for display. It is worth noting that all modern computer [[Operating Systems]] retain date information of files outside of their titles, allowing the user to choose which format they prefer and have them sorted thus, irrespective of the files' names.

Specialized usage.

Day and year only.

The U.S. military sometimes uses a system, which they call "Julian date format" that indicates the year and the actual day out of the 365 days of the year (and thus a designation of the month would not be needed). For example, "11 December 1999" can be written in some contexts as "1999345" or "99345", for the 345th day of 1999. This system is most often used in US military logistics, since it makes the process of calculating estimated shipping and arrival dates easier. For example: say a tank engine takes an estimated 35 days to ship by sea from the US to South Korea. If the engine is sent on 06104 (Friday, 14 April 2006), it should arrive on 06139 (Friday, 19 May). Note that outside of the US military and some US government agencies, including the [[Internal Revenue Service]], this format is usually referred to as "[[ordinal date]]", rather than "Julian date".  Such ordinal date formats are also used by many computer programs (especially those for mainframe systems). Using a three-digit [[Julian date|Julian day number]] saves one byte of computer storage over a two-digit month plus two-digit day, for example, "January 17" is 017 in Julian versus 0117 in month–day format. [[OS/390]] or its successor, [[z/OS]], display dates in yy.ddd format for most operations.  [[UNIX time]] stores time as a number in seconds since the beginning of the UNIX Epoch (1970-01-01).  Another "ordinal" date system ("ordinal" in the sense of advancing in value by one as the date advances by one day) is in common use in astronomical calculations and referencing and uses the same name as this "logistics" system. The continuity of representation of period regardless of the time of year being considered is highly useful to both groups of specialists. The astronomers describe their system as also being a "[[Julian date]]" system.

Week number used.

Companies in Europe often use year, week number, and day for planning purposes. So, for example, an event in a project can happen on w43 (week 43) or w43-1 (Monday, week 43) or, if the year needs to be indicated, on w0643 or w643 (year 2006 week 43; i.e., Monday 23 October-Sunday 29 October 2006).  The ISO does present a standard for [[ISO week date|identifying weeks]], but as it does not match up with the Gregorian calendar (the beginning and ending days of a given year do not match up), this standard is somewhat more problematic than the other standards for dates.

Expressing dates in spoken English.

In [[English language|English-language]] outside North America (mostly in Anglophone Europe and some countries in Australasia), full dates are written as "7 December 1941" (or "7th December 1941") and spoken as "the seventh of December, nineteen forty-one" (exceedingly common usage of "the" and "of"), with the occasional usage of "December 7, 1941" ("December the seventh, nineteen forty-one"). In common with most continental European usage, however, all-numeric dates are invariably ordered dd/mm/yyyy.  In [[Canada]] and the [[United States]], the usual written form is "December 7, 1941", spoken as "December seventh, nineteen forty-one" or colloquially "December the seventh, nineteen forty-one". [[Ordinal number (linguistics)|Ordinal]] numerals, however, are not always used when writing and pronouncing dates, and "December seven, nineteen forty-one" is also an accepted pronunciation of the date written "December 7, 1941". A notable exception to this rule is the [[Fourth of July]] (U.S. [[Independence Day (United States)|Independence Day]]).

External links.

[[Category:Calendars]]

A calendar date is a reference to a particular day represented within a calendar system. The calendar date allows the specific day to be identified. The number of days between two dates may be calculated. For example, "24 " is ten days after "14 " in the Gregorian calendar. The date of a particular event depends on the observed time zone. For example, the air attack on Pearl Harbor that began at 7:48 a.m. Hawaiian time on 7 December 1941 took place at 3:18 a.m. Japan Standard Time, 8 December in Japan.

Das Kalenderdatum, meist kurz Datum (Plural heute "Daten", früher oft "Data") genannt, ist die Benennung eines Tages im jeweiligen Kalenderjahr im Rahmen eines Kalenders. Beginn und Ende eines solchen Tages sind abhängig von der Zeitzone, auf die sich die Angabe bezieht.


Characteristics.

Cavemen are typically portrayed as wearing shaggy animal hides, and capable of cave painting like behaviorally modern humans of the last glacial period. Anachronistically, they are simultaneously shown armed with rocks or cattle bone clubs that are also adorned with rocks, unintelligent, and aggressive. Popular culture also frequently represents cavemen as living with or alongside dinosaurs, even though non-avian dinosaurs became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous period, 66 million years before the emergence of the "Homo sapiens" species.  The image of them living in caves arises from the fact that caves are where the preponderance of artifacts have been found from European Stone Age cultures, although this most likely reflects the degree of preservation that caves provide over the millennia rather than an indication of their typical form of shelter. Until the last glacial period, the great majority of hominins did not live in caves, being nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes living in a variety of temporary structures, such as tents and wooden huts (e.g. at Ohalo). Their societies were similar to those of many modern day indigenous peoples. A few genuine cave dwellings did exist, however, such as at Mount Carmel in Israel.  Stereotypical cavemen have traditionally been depicted wearing smock-like garments made of animal skin and held up by a shoulder strap on one side, and carrying large clubs approximately conical in shape. They often have grunt-like names, such as Ugg and Zog.

History.

Caveman-like heraldic "wild men" were found in European and African iconography for hundreds of years. During the Middle Ages, these creatures were generally depicted in art and literature as bearded and covered in hair, and often wielding clubs and dwelling in caves. While wild men were always depicted as living outside of civilization, there was an ongoing debate as to whether they were human or animal.  In Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's "The Lost World" (1912), ape-men are depicted in a fight with modern humans. Edgar Rice Burroughs adapted this idea for "The Land That Time Forgot" (1918). A genre of caveman movies emerged, typified by D. W. Griffith's "Man's Genesis" (1912); they inspired Charles Chaplin's satiric take, in "His Prehistoric Past" (1914) as well as "Brute Force" (1914), "The Cave Man" (1912), and later "Cave Man" (1934). From the descriptions, Griffith's characters cannot talk, and use sticks and stones for weapons, while the hero of "Cave Man" is a Tarzanesque figure who fights dinosaurs.  D. W. Griffith's "Brute Force", a silent film released in 1914, represents one of the earliest portrayals of cavemen and dinosaurs together, with its depiction of a "Ceratosaurus". The film reinforced the incorrect notion that non-avian dinosaurs co-existed with prehistoric man.  The anachronistic combination of cavemen with dinosaurs eventually became a cliché, and has often been intentionally invoked for comedic effect. The comic strips "B.C.", "Alley Oop", the Spanish comic franchise "Mortadelo y Filemón", and occasionally "The Far Side" and "Gogs" portray "cavemen" with dinosaurs. Gary Larson, in his "The Prehistory of the Far Side", stated he once felt that he needed to confess his cartooning sins in this regard: "O Father, I Have Portrayed Primitive Man and Dinosaurs In The Same Cartoon". The animated series "The Flintstones", a spoof on family sitcoms, portrays the Flintstones even using dinosaurs, pterosaurs and prehistoric mammals as tools, household appliances, vehicles, and construction machines.  Stereotypical cavemen are also often featured in advertising, including advertisements for Minute Maid. In early 2004, GEICO launched a series of television commercials and attempts at viral marketing, collectively known as the GEICO Cavemen advertising campaign, where GEICO announcers are repeatedly denounced by modern cavemen for perpetuating a stereotype of unintelligent, backward cavemen. The GEICO advertisements spawned a short-lived TV series called "Cavemen".

A caveman is a stock character representative of primitive man in the Paleolithic. The popularization of the type dates to the early 20th century, when Neanderthal Man was influentially described as "simian" or ape-like by Marcellin Boule and Arthur Keith.

Ein Höhlenmensch ist der Bewohner einer Höhle oder eines Abri. Das Wort war insbesondere im 19. Jahrhundert als Synonym für die Urmenschen gebräuchlich.


History.

A town on the Romanian side of the Chilia branch of the Danube, known as "Chilia Veche" (, translit. "Stara Kiliya") or "Older Chilia", was founded by the Greek Byzantines - κελλία, "kellia" in Greek being the equivalent of "granaries", a name first recorded in 1241, in the works of the Persian chronicler Rashid-al-Din Hamadani.  Kiliya is therefore sometimes referred to as "Nova Kiliya" (,, translit. "Novo Kiliya", Romanian: Chilia Nouă), or "New Kiliya". It was founded by Stephen the Great of Moldavia, in order to counteract the Ottoman Empire which had taken control over Chilia Veche in the 15th century. It was a major Moldavian port. However, it was eventually conquered by the Ottomans in 1484, who kept it until 1790, when it was taken by Russian army under the command of the general Ivan Gudovich during Russo-Turkish War (1787–1792). The "Times" of London reported that "35,000 of the inhabitants were involved in a general massacre," an incident that had "been celebrated in prose and poetry."  After being bombarded by the Anglo-French fleet in July 1854 during the Crimean War, it was given to Romania in the Treaty of Paris (1856). In 1878, Kiliya was transferred back to Russia together with Budjak. Between 1918 and 1940 it was again part of Romania, then integrated in the Soviet Union and the Ukrainian SSR (it was briefly held yet again by Romania, from 1941 to 1944, during World War II), and passed on to independent Ukraine after the Soviet downfall.  The oldest building in Kiliya is the semi-subterranean church of St. Nicholas, which may go back to 1485, although an old inscription in the church claims that it was founded on 10 May 1647.

Kiliya (; ; ; Moldovan (Cyrillic): Килия [-Ноуэ]; ;, "Kellía"; ) is a small city in Odessa Oblast (province) of southwestern Ukraine. It is the administrative center of Kiliya Raion (district), and is located in the Danube Delta, in the Bessarabian historic district of Budjak. The Chilia branch of the Danube river, which separates Ukraine from Romania, is named after Kiliya. Population:

Kilija (ukrainisch ; russisch, rumänisch "Chilia (Nouă)") ist eine ukrainische Stadt am nördlichen Ufer des Kilijaarmes, einem Deltamündungsarm der Donau. Sie liegt in der Nähe der rumänischen Grenze. Kilija war eine bedeutende Handelsstadt im Donaudelta, am nördlichen Mündungsarm (Kilijaarm) der Donau, einige Kilometer entfernt vom heutigen Dorf Chilia Veche, zu unterscheiden von dem stromabwärts an der Mündung gelegenen Licostomo sowie von Chilia Nouă, das am Ende des 14. Jahrhunderts auf dem linken Ufer gegründet wurde. Kilija, als byzantinische Stadt seit dem 11. Jahrhundert bekannt, erhielt seinen Namen nach einem 1324 erwähnten Getreidespeicher (t4 kellta). Um 1352 ging die Stadt aus byzantinischem Besitz an Genua über, das hier durch einen Konsul vertreten war. 1360–1361 besaß Kilija ein Kommunalhaus, die Griechenkirche St. Johannes, ein Arsenal und Landungsstege (scale) im Strom. Die Bevölkerung umfasste Griechen, Armenier, Walachen, Tataren und Ligurer, die Ausfuhr von Getreide, Wachs und Honig, Einfuhr dagegen von Wein und Tuchen betrieben. Vor 1368 gaben die Genuesen Kilija zugunsten der Wojewoden der Moldau auf. Die Stadt wurde als Ausgangspunkt der großen Handelswege (walachische Route nach Ungarn, moldawische Route nach Polen) im 15. Jahrhundert zum Zankapfel zwischen Ungarn, den rumänischen Fürsten, Polen und der Hohen Pforte. 1412 unter moldawische Kontrolle geraten, strebte bereits Sigismund von Luxemburg danach, Kilija für Ungarn zu gewinnen, was 1448 Johann Hunyadi gelang. 1465 eroberte Ștefan cel Mare die Stadt jedoch zurück, wodurch eine Serie von Konflikten mit Ungarn, der Walachei und dem Osmanischen Reich ausgelöst wurde. Nach einem gescheiterten Eroberungsversuch 1476 nahmen die Osmanen Kilia am 14. Juli 1484 ein. Bayezid II. siedelte hier deportierte Fischer aus Silistra an und machte die Stadt – im Rahmen der osmanischen Seeherrschaft – zum „Schlüssel der Ostländer“ mit intensiven Handelskontakten zu Syrien, Lemberg, Westeuropa und den Tatarenländern.


Historical introduction.

The concept of chemical equilibrium was developed after Berthollet (1803) found that some chemical reactions are reversible. For any reaction mixture to exist at equilibrium, the rates of the forward and backward (reverse) reactions are equal. In the following chemical equation with arrows pointing both ways to indicate equilibrium, A and B are reactant chemical species, S and T are product species, and "α", "β", "σ", and "τ" are the stoichiometric coefficients of the respective reactants and products:  The equilibrium concentration position of a reaction is said to lie "far to the right" if, at equilibrium, nearly all the reactants are consumed. Conversely the equilibrium position is said to be "far to the left" if hardly any product is formed from the reactants.  Guldberg and Waage (1865), building on Berthollet's ideas, proposed the law of mass action:  where A, B, S and T are active masses and "k" and "k" are rate constants. Since at equilibrium forward and backward rates are equal:  and the ratio of the rate constants is also a constant, now known as an equilibrium constant.  By convention the products form the numerator. However, the law of mass action is valid only for concerted one-step reactions that proceed through a single transition state and is not valid in general because rate equations do not, in general, follow the stoichiometry of the reaction as Guldberg and Waage had proposed (see, for example, nucleophilic aliphatic substitution by S1 or reaction of hydrogen and bromine to form hydrogen bromide). Equality of forward and backward reaction rates, however, is a necessary condition for chemical equilibrium, though it is not sufficient to explain why equilibrium occurs.  Despite the failure of this derivation, the equilibrium constant for a reaction is indeed a constant, independent of the activities of the various species involved, though it does depend on temperature as observed by the van 't Hoff equation. Adding a catalyst will affect both the forward reaction and the reverse reaction in the same way and will not have an effect on the equilibrium constant. The catalyst will speed up both reactions thereby increasing the speed at which equilibrium is reached.  Although the macroscopic equilibrium concentrations are constant in time, reactions do occur at the molecular level. For example, in the case of acetic acid dissolved in water and forming acetate and hydronium ions, a proton may hop from one molecule of acetic acid on to a water molecule and then on to an acetate anion to form another molecule of acetic acid and leaving the number of acetic acid molecules unchanged. This is an example of dynamic equilibrium. Equilibria, like the rest of thermodynamics, are statistical phenomena, averages of microscopic behavior.  Le Châtelier's principle (1884) predicts the behavior of an equilibrium system when changes to its reaction conditions occur. "If a dynamic equilibrium is disturbed by changing the conditions, the position of equilibrium moves to partially reverse the change". For example, adding more S from the outside will cause an excess of products, and the system will try to counteract this by increasing the reverse reaction and pushing the equilibrium point backward (though the equilibrium constant will stay the same).  If mineral acid is added to the acetic acid mixture, increasing the concentration of hydronium ion, the amount of dissociation must decrease as the reaction is driven to the left in accordance with this principle. This can also be deduced from the equilibrium constant expression for the reaction: If {HO} increases {CHCOH} must increase and must decrease. The HO is left out, as it is the solvent and its concentration remains high and nearly constant.  A quantitative version is given by the reaction quotient.  J. W. Gibbs suggested in 1873 that equilibrium is attained when the Gibbs free energy of the system is at its minimum value (assuming the reaction is carried out at constant temperature and pressure). What this means is that the derivative of the Gibbs energy with respect to reaction coordinate (a measure of the extent of reaction that has occurred, ranging from zero for all reactants to a maximum for all products) vanishes, signaling a stationary point. This derivative is called the reaction Gibbs energy (or energy change) and corresponds to the difference between the chemical potentials of reactants and products at the composition of the reaction mixture. This criterion is both necessary and sufficient. If a mixture is not at equilibrium, the liberation of the excess Gibbs energy (or Helmholtz energy at constant volume reactions) is the "driving force" for the composition of the mixture to change until equilibrium is reached. The equilibrium constant can be related to the standard Gibbs free energy change for the reaction by the equation  where R is the universal gas constant and T the temperature.  When the reactants are dissolved in a medium of high ionic strength the quotient of activity coefficients may be taken to be constant. In that case the concentration quotient, "K", where [A] is the concentration of A, etc., is independent of the analytical concentration of the reactants. For this reason, equilibrium constants for solutions are usually determined in media of high ionic strength. "K" varies with ionic strength, temperature and pressure (or volume). Likewise "K" for gases depends on partial pressure. These constants are easier to measure and encountered in high-school chemistry courses.

Thermodynamics.

At constant temperature and pressure, one must consider the Gibbs free energy, "G", while at constant temperature and volume, one must consider the Helmholtz free energy, "A", for the reaction; and at constant internal energy and volume, one must consider the entropy, "S", for the reaction.  The constant volume case is important in geochemistry and atmospheric chemistry where pressure variations are significant. Note that, if reactants and products were in standard state (completely pure), then there would be no reversibility and no equilibrium. Indeed, they would necessarily occupy disjoint volumes of space. The mixing of the products and reactants contributes a large entropy (known as entropy of mixing) to states containing equal mixture of products and reactants. The standard Gibbs energy change, together with the Gibbs energy of mixing, determine the equilibrium state.  In this article only the constant pressure case is considered. The relation between the Gibbs free energy and the equilibrium constant can be found by considering chemical potentials.  At constant temperature and pressure, the Gibbs free energy, "G", for the reaction depends only on the extent of reaction: "ξ" (Greek letter xi), and can only decrease according to the second law of thermodynamics. It means that the derivative of "G" with "ξ" must be negative if the reaction happens; at the equilibrium the derivative being equal to zero.  In order to meet the thermodynamic condition for equilibrium, the Gibbs energy must be stationary, meaning that the derivative of "G" with respect to the extent of reaction: "ξ", must be zero. It can be shown that in this case, the sum of chemical potentials of the products is equal to the sum of those corresponding to the reactants. Therefore, the sum of the Gibbs energies of the reactants must be the equal to the sum of the Gibbs energies of the products.  where "μ" is in this case a partial molar Gibbs energy, a chemical potential. The chemical potential of a reagent A is a function of the activity, {A} of that reagent.  (where "μ" is the standard chemical potential).  The definition of the Gibbs energy equation interacts with the fundamental thermodynamic relation to produce  Inserting "dN" = "ν dξ" into the above equation gives a Stoichiometric coefficient (formula_11) and a differential that denotes the reaction occurring once ("dξ"). At constant pressure and temperature the above equations can be written as  This results in:  By substituting the chemical potentials:  the relationship becomes:  which is the standard Gibbs energy change for the reaction that can be calculated using thermodynamical tables. The reaction quotient is defined as:  Therefore,  At equilibrium:  leading to:  and  Obtaining the value of the standard Gibbs energy change, allows the calculation of the equilibrium constant.

Addition of reactants or products.

For a reactional system at equilibrium: "Q" = "K"; "ξ" = "ξ".  Note that activities and equilibrium constants are dimensionless numbers.

Treatment of activity.

The expression for the equilibrium constant can be rewritten as the product of a concentration quotient, "K" and an activity coefficient quotient, "Γ".  [A] is the concentration of reagent A, etc. It is possible in principle to obtain values of the activity coefficients, γ. For solutions, equations such as the Debye–Hückel equation or extensions such as Davies equation Specific ion interaction theory or Pitzer equations may be used. However this is not always possible. It is common practice to assume that "Γ" is a constant, and to use the concentration quotient in place of the thermodynamic equilibrium constant. It is also general practice to use the term "equilibrium constant" instead of the more accurate "concentration quotient". This practice will be followed here.  For reactions in the gas phase partial pressure is used in place of concentration and fugacity coefficient in place of activity coefficient. In the real world, for example, when making ammonia in industry, fugacity coefficients must be taken into account. Fugacity, "f", is the product of partial pressure and fugacity coefficient. The chemical potential of a species in the real gas phase is given by so the general expression defining an equilibrium constant is valid for both solution and gas phases.

Concentration quotients.

In aqueous solution, equilibrium constants are usually determined in the presence of an "inert" electrolyte such as sodium nitrate NaNO or potassium perchlorate KClO. The ionic strength of a solution is given by where "c" and "z" stand for the concentration and ionic charge of ion type "i", and the sum is taken over all the "N" types of charged species in solution. When the concentration of dissolved salt is much higher than the analytical concentrations of the reagents, the ions originating from the dissolved salt determine the ionic strength, and the ionic strength is effectively constant. Since activity coefficients depend on ionic strength the activity coefficients of the species are effectively independent of concentration. Thus, the assumption that "Γ" is constant is justified. The concentration quotient is a simple multiple of the equilibrium constant. However, "K" will vary with ionic strength. If it is measured at a series of different ionic strengths the value can be extrapolated to zero ionic strength. The concentration quotient obtained in this manner is known, paradoxically, as a thermodynamic equilibrium constant.  To use a published value of an equilibrium constant in conditions of ionic strength different from the conditions used in its determination, the value should be adjusted.

Metastable mixtures.

A mixture may appear to have no tendency to change, though it is not at equilibrium. For example, a mixture of SO and O is metastable as there is a kinetic barrier to formation of the product, SO.  The barrier can be overcome when a catalyst is also present in the mixture as in the contact process, but the catalyst does not affect the equilibrium concentrations.  Likewise, the formation of bicarbonate from carbon dioxide and water is very slow under normal conditions but almost instantaneous in the presence of the catalytic enzyme carbonic anhydrase.

Pure substances.

When pure substances (liquids or solids) are involved in equilibria their activities do not appear in the equilibrium constant because their numerical values are considered one.  Applying the general formula for an equilibrium constant to the specific case of a dilute solution of acetic acid in water one obtains  For all but very concentrated solutions, the water can be considered a "pure" liquid, and therefore it has an activity of one. The equilibrium constant expression is therefore usually written as  A particular case is the self-ionization of water itself  Because water is the solvent, and has an activity of one, the self-ionization constant of water is defined as  It is perfectly legitimate to write [H] for the hydronium ion concentration, since the state of solvation of the proton is constant (in dilute solutions) and so does not affect the equilibrium concentrations. "K" varies with variation in ionic strength and/or temperature.  The concentrations of H and OH are not independent quantities. Most commonly [OH] is replaced by "K"[H] in equilibrium constant expressions which would otherwise include hydroxide ion.  Solids also do not appear in the equilibrium constant expression, if they are considered to be pure and thus their activities taken to be one. An example is the Boudouard reaction:  for which the equation (without solid carbon) is written as:

Multiple equilibria.

Consider the case of a dibasic acid HA. When dissolved in water, the mixture will contain HA, HA and A. This equilibrium can be split into two steps in each of which one proton is liberated. "K" and" K" are examples of "stepwise" equilibrium constants. The "overall" equilibrium constant, "β", is product of the stepwise constants. Note that these constants are dissociation constants because the products on the right hand side of the equilibrium expression are dissociation products. In many systems, it is preferable to use association constants. "β" and "β" are examples of association constants. Clearly and ; and For multiple equilibrium systems, also see: theory of Response reactions.

Effect of temperature.

The effect of changing temperature on an equilibrium constant is given by the van 't Hoff equation Thus, for exothermic reactions (Δ"H" is negative), "K" decreases with an increase in temperature, but, for endothermic reactions, (ΔH is positive) "K" increases with an increase temperature. An alternative formulation is At first sight this appears to offer a means of obtaining the standard molar enthalpy of the reaction by studying the variation of "K" with temperature. In practice, however, the method is unreliable because error propagation almost always gives very large errors on the values calculated in this way.

Effect of electric and magnetic fields.

The effect of electric field on equilibrium has been studied by Manfred Eigen among others.

Types of equilibrium.

Equilibrium can be broadly classified as heterogeneous and homogeneous equilibrium. Homogeneous equilibrium consists of reactants and products belonging in the same phase whereas heterogeneous equilibrium comes into play for reactants and products in different phases.  In these applications, terms such as stability constant, formation constant, binding constant, affinity constant, association/dissociation constant are used. In biochemistry, it is common to give units for binding constants, which serve to define the concentration units used when the constant's value was determined.

Composition of a mixture.

When the only equilibrium is that of the formation of a 1:1 adduct as the composition of a mixture, there are many ways that the composition of a mixture can be calculated. For example, see ICE table for a traditional method of calculating the pH of a solution of a weak acid.  There are three approaches to the general calculation of the composition of a mixture at equilibrium.

Mass-balance equations.

In general, the calculations are rather complicated or complex. For instance, in the case of a dibasic acid, HA dissolved in water the two reactants can be specified as the conjugate base, A, and the proton, H. The following equations of mass-balance could apply equally well to a base such as 1,2-diaminoethane, in which case the base itself is designated as the reactant A:  With T the total concentration of species A. Note that it is customary to omit the ionic charges when writing and using these equations.  When the equilibrium constants are known and the total concentrations are specified there are two equations in two unknown "free concentrations" [A] and [H]. This follows from the fact that [HA] = "β"[A][H], [HA] = "β"[A][H] and [OH] = "K"[H]  so the concentrations of the "complexes" are calculated from the free concentrations and the equilibrium constants. General expressions applicable to all systems with two reagents, A and B would be  It is easy to see how this can be extended to three or more reagents.

Polybasic acids.

The composition of solutions containing reactants A and H is easy to calculate as a function of p[H]. When [H] is known, the free concentration [A] is calculated from the mass-balance equation in A.  The diagram alongside, shows an example of the hydrolysis of the aluminium Lewis acid Al shows the species concentrations for a 5 × 10 M solution of an aluminium salt as a function of pH. Each concentration is shown as a percentage of the total aluminium.

Solution and precipitation.

The diagram above illustrates the point that a precipitate that is not one of the main species in the solution equilibrium may be formed. At pH just below 5.5 the main species present in a 5 μM solution of Al are aluminium hydroxides Al(OH), and, but on raising the pH Al(OH) precipitates from the solution. This occurs because Al(OH) has a very large lattice energy. As the pH rises more and more Al(OH) comes out of solution. This is an example of Le Châtelier's principle in action: Increasing the concentration of the hydroxide ion causes more aluminium hydroxide to precipitate, which removes hydroxide from the solution. When the hydroxide concentration becomes sufficiently high the soluble aluminate,, is formed.  Another common instance where precipitation occurs is when a metal cation interacts with an anionic ligand to form an electrically neutral complex. If the complex is hydrophobic, it will precipitate out of water. This occurs with the nickel ion Ni and dimethylglyoxime, (dmgH): in this case the lattice energy of the solid is not particularly large, but it greatly exceeds the energy of solvation of the molecule Ni(dmgH).

Minimization of Gibbs energy.

At equilibrium, at a specified temperature and pressure, and with no external forces, the Gibbs free energy "G" is at a minimum:  where μ is the chemical potential of molecular species "j", and "N" is the amount of molecular species "j". It may be expressed in terms of thermodynamic activity as:  where formula_51 is the chemical potential in the standard state, "R" is the gas constant "T" is the absolute temperature, and "A" is the activity.  For a closed system, no particles may enter or leave, although they may combine in various ways. The total number of atoms of each element will remain constant. This means that the minimization above must be subjected to the constraints:  where "a" is the number of atoms of element "i" in molecule "j" and "b" is the total number of atoms of element "i", which is a constant, since the system is closed. If there are a total of "k" types of atoms in the system, then there will be "k" such equations. If ions are involved, an additional row is added to the a matrix specifying the respective charge on each molecule which will sum to zero.  This is a standard problem in optimisation, known as constrained minimisation. The most common method of solving it is using the method of Lagrange multipliers (although other methods may be used).  Define:  where the "λ" are the Lagrange multipliers, one for each element. This allows each of the "N" and "λ" to be treated independently, and it can be shown using the tools of multivariate calculus that the equilibrium condition is given by  (For proof see Lagrange multipliers.) This is a set of ("m" + "k") equations in ("m" + "k") unknowns (the "N" and the "λ") and may, therefore, be solved for the equilibrium concentrations "N" as long as the chemical activities are known as functions of the concentrations at the given temperature and pressure. (In the ideal case, activities are proportional to concentrations.) (See Thermodynamic databases for pure substances.) Note that the second equation is just the initial constraints for minimization.  This method of calculating equilibrium chemical concentrations is useful for systems with a large number of different molecules. The use of "k" atomic element conservation equations for the mass constraint is straightforward, and replaces the use of the stoichiometric coefficient equations. The results are consistent with those specified by chemical equations. For example, if equilibrium is specified by a single chemical equation:,  where ν is the stochiometric coefficient for the "j" th molecule (negative for reactants, positive for products) and "R" is the symbol for the "j" th molecule, a properly balanced equation will obey:  Multiplying the first equilibrium condition by ν and using the above equation yields:  As above, defining ΔG  where "K" is the equilibrium constant, and ΔG will be zero at equilibrium.  Analogous procedures exist for the minimization of other thermodynamic potentials.

In a chemical reaction, chemical equilibrium is the state in which both reactants and products are present in concentrations which have no further tendency to change with time, so that there is no observable change in the properties of the system. This state results when the forward reaction proceeds at the same rate as the reverse reaction. The reaction rates of the forward and backward reactions are generally not zero, but equal. Thus, there are no net changes in the concentrations of the reactant(s) and product(s). Such a state is known as dynamic equilibrium.

Das chemische Gleichgewicht ist ein Zustand, in dem die Gesamtreaktion äußerlich betrachtet ruhend erscheint, also keine Veränderungen auf makroskopischer Ebene erkennbar sind. Die äußerlich beobachtbare Reaktionsgeschwindigkeit ist null. Trotzdem laufen die chemischen Reaktionen („Hin“- und „Rückreaktion“) weiterhin ab, und zwar gleich schnell in beide Richtungen.


Traditional Origin Story from Six Nations.

As described in, for example, Fenton (1987), the Creator ("Shonkwaia'tison" in Cayuga, lit. 'he has completed our bodies'), having just completed forming the earth and what was on it, was walking around admiring his handiwork when he noticed what appeared to be another man in the distance, walking toward him. They soon met, and Shonkwaia'tison asked the stranger where he had come from. The stranger replied, "I believe that I am the creator of this land, and I am walking around now admiring what I have done." Surprised, Shonkwaia'tison said, "No, you are wrong. It was I who created this land." They bickered back and forth like this for a little while, until finally Shonkwaia'tison said, "Fine then, let us have a test to see who actually did create this land." He pointed to a mountain in the distance. "See that mountain?" he said. "We will use our power to move it. The one who moves it the farthest must have the most power, and must therefore also be the creator of this land." The stranger agreed to this challenge, and added his own rule: "We will turn our backs," he said, "and when one's turn is up we will turn back around to see how far the mountain has moved." Shonkwaia'tison agreed to this, and so they turned.  The stranger went first. When he was satisfied that he had moved the mountain, they turned back around. Shonkwaia'tison was surprised to see that the mountain had indeed moved, although only a little bit. "Now it's my turn," Shonkwaia'tison said, and they turned their backs on the mountain once more. There was a commotion and noise behind them, and, out of curiosity, the stranger turned back around before they had agreed to it. Little did he know that Shonkwaia'tison had moved the mountain so close to the stranger's back that when he turned to look he struck his face on it. The force of the impact bent his nose and left one side of his face crooked. At this, the stranger conceded that Shonkwaia'tison was the more powerful of the two, and that he must also be the creator of the land and everything on it.  Shonkwaia'tison then had to decide what to do about the stranger. Because he had moved the mountain (if only a little bit), the stranger indeed was possessed of a certain degree of power, and Shonkwaia'tison thought that it would not do to let such a being remain on the earth; he was about to populate the earth with people, and to let this stranger coexist with them might not be a good thing. He told the stranger so, and proposed that he would have to remove him from the land. The stranger pleaded with Shonkwaia'tison and said that, if he was allowed to stay, he would help the people who Shonkwaia'tison was about to make.  "This is what I will do," the stranger said. "I have the power to control the wind, and I can protect the people in this way. If ever a strong wind or storm threatens them, I will use my cane and block it from destroying their settlements, and I can lift it and send it over their settlements so that it does not blow through. In addition to this, I have the power to heal sickness. If ever the people are struck down with illness they can call on me, and I will help them to get better. This is how they will do it. When they need aid of me in this way, they will create a mask whose face is in my image, and I will hand-pick the men who will create these masks. The very second that they lay the first strike in creating a mask, that fast will it have my power. When they use the mask they will prepare a certain kind of corn mush, and burn tobacco. The tobacco will form their words which I will hear, and I will come. They will refer to me as their grandfather, and I will help them as long as the earth remains." Shonkwaia'tison agreed to this, and allowed the stranger to stay on the earth.

Traditional Origin Story from Onondaga Nation.

Iroquois oral history tells the beginning of the False Face tradition. According to the accounts, the Creator Shöñgwaia'dihsum ('our creator' in Onondaga), blessed with healing powers in response to his love of living things, encountered a stranger, referred to in Onondaga as Ethiso:da' ('our grandfather') or Hado'ih (), and challenged him in a competition to see who could move a mountain. Ethiso:da' managed to make the mountain quake and move but a small amount. Shöñgwaia'dihsa'ih declared that Ethiso:da' had power but not enough to move the mountain significantly. He proceeded to move the mountain, telling Ethiso:da' not to look behind him. Turning his head quickly out of curiosity, the mountain struck the stranger in the face and left his face disfigured. Shöñgwaia'dihsum then employed Ethiso:da' to protect his children from disease and sickness. But knowing the sight of Ethiso:da' was not suitable for his children's eyes, Shöñgwaia’dihsum banished him to live in caves and great wooded forests, only to leave when called upon to cure or interact through dreams. Hado'ih then became a great healer, also known as "Old Broken Nose".

False Face Tradition Today.

To this day, the Iroquois believe that the being protects them in times of need, redirecting fierce winds that threaten them and healing those who are ill.  Various names are used to refer to this being among the Iroquois communities. "Etihsó:t Hadú7i7" (lit. 'our grandfather, he who drives it away') is used in Cayuga. "Gagöhsa"' (lit. 'a face') or "Sagojowéhgowa:" (lit. 'he defends or protects them; the Great Defender') in Seneca. Ethiso:da' (lit. 'our grandfather') in Onondaga. In English, he is most often referred to as simply "false face".

Masks.

The design of the masks is somewhat variable, but most share certain features. The eyes are deep-set and accented by metal. The noses are bent and crooked. The other facial features are variable. The masks are painted red and black. Most often they have pouches of tobacco tied onto the hair above their foreheads. Basswood is usually used for the masks although other types of wood are sometimes used. Horse tail hair is used for the hair, which can be black, reddish brown, brown, grey or white. Before the introduction of horses by the Europeans, corn husks and buffalo hair were used.  When making a mask, a man walks through the woods until he is moved by Hadú7i7 to carve a mask from a tree. Hadú7i7 inspires the unique elements of the mask's design and the resulting product represents the spirit himself, imbued with his powers. The masks are carved directly on the tree and only removed when completed. Masks are painted red if they were begun in the morning or black if they were begun in the afternoon.  Because the masks are carved into trees that are alive, they are similarly considered to be living and breathing. They are served parched whitecorn mush and given small pouches of tobacco as payment for services.

Ritual.

The False Face Society proper performs a ritual twice a year. The ceremony contains a telling of the False Face myth, an invocation to the spirits using tobacco, the main False Face ritual, and a doling out of mush at the end.  During the main part of the ritual, the False Face members, wearing masks, go through houses in the community, driving away sickness, disease and evil spirits. The False Face members use turtle shell rattles, shaking them and rubbing them along the floors and walls. The arrival of the False Faces is heralded by another medicine society that uses masks made of corn husk. If a sick person is found, a healing ritual may be performed using tobacco and singing. The tobacco is burned, and wood ashes are blown over the sick person.  The community then gathers at the longhouse where the False Faces enter and sit on the floor. The people bring tobacco which is collected as they arrive, and burned when the ceremony begins. The ceremony itself is meant to renew and restrengthen the power of the gathered masks, as well as the spirit of Hadu7i7 in general. The ritual continues with dancing. At the end of the ritual, corn mush is doled out to the assembled crowd, and everyone goes home.  The ritual is performed during the spring and fall. Other, smaller versions occur during the Midwinter Festival, and at an individual's home as requested.

Modern conflicts.

The Iroquois Traditionalist Society has opposed the sale of False Face masks to private collectors and museums. The Society is very sacred and not to be shared, in any form, with those who do not belong to either the society itself or the nation, whose members are sometimes involved in the curing rites without belonging to the society. Traditionalists insist that schools should not imitate the faces for projects. It is seen as a sign of disrespect to the Iroquois people and the False Face spirit. Many Iroquois also campaign to regain possession of masks that remain with private collectors or museums. Several Iroquois governments have pushed for the return of masks to the communities from which they came. The National Museum of the American Indian in Washington D.C. has returned many items of significant importance, including masks, and is still in the process of returning others.  The Onondaga Chief Tadadaho issued a statement online in 1995 about the Haudenosaunee policies regarding masks. These policies prohibit the sale, exhibition or representation in pictures of the masks to the public. They also condemn the general distribution of information regarding the medicine societies, as well as denying non-Indigenous People any right to examine, interpret, or present the beliefs, functions, or duties of these societies.

The False Face Society is probably the best known of the medicinal societies among the Iroquois, especially for its dramatic wooden masks. The masks are used in healing rituals which invoke the spirit of an old hunch-backed man. Those cured by the society become members. Also, echoing the significance of dreams to the Iroquois, anyone who dreams that they should be a member of the society may join.

Die Falschgesichter sind ein Maskenbund der Irokesen-Indianer. Dies ist wohl der bekannteste Medizinbund der Irokesen. Es gibt verschiedene Bezeichnungen für die "Hölzernen Masken". Die üblichste ist "Falschgesichter". Die Seneca und die Mohawk nennen sie einfach "Gesichter", die Onondaga dagegen "Buckel", der "Bucklige" (Hunchback). In der Literatur werden sie üblicherweise "Falschgesichter" genannt. Bei den Irokesen selbst ist dieser Bund unter dem Namen "Jadigon'sa shono" bekannt.


Achievements.

The Imperial Navy achieved some important operational feats. At the Battle of Coronel, it inflicted the first major defeat on the Royal Navy in over one hundred years, although the German squadron of ships was subsequently defeated at the Battle of the Falkland Islands, only one ship escaping destruction. The Navy also emerged from the fleet action of the Battle of Jutland having destroyed more ships than it lost, although the strategic

1871 to 1888, Kaiser Wilhelm I.

The unification of Germany under Prussian leadership was the defining point for the creation of the Imperial Navy in 1871. The newly created emperor, Wilhelm I, as King of Prussia, had previously been head of state of the strongest state forming part of the new empire. The navy remained the same as that operated by the empire's predecessor organisation in the unification of Germany, the North German Federation, which itself in 1867 had inherited the navy of the Kingdom of Prussia. Article 53 of the new Empire's constitution recognised the existence of the Navy as an independent organisation, but until 1888 it was commanded by army officers and initially adopted the same regulations as the Prussian army. Supreme command was vested in the emperor, but its first appointed chief was "General der Infanterie" (General of the Infantry) Albrecht von Stosch. Kiel on the Baltic Sea and Wilhelmshaven on the North Sea served as the Navy's principal naval bases. The former Navy Ministry became the Imperial Admiralty on 1 February 1872, while Stosch became formally an admiral in 1875. Initially the main task of the new Imperial Navy was coastal protection, with France and Russia seen as Germany's most likely future enemies. The Imperial Navy's tasks were then to prevent any invasion force from landing and to protect coastal towns from possible bombardment.  In March 1872 a German Imperial Naval

1888 to 1897, Kaiser Wilhelm II.

In June 1888 Wilhelm II became Emperor after the death of his father Frederick III, who ruled for only 99 days. He started his reign with the intention of doing for the navy what his grandfather Wilhelm I had done for the army. The creation of a maritime empire to rival the British and French empires became an ambition to mark Germany as a truly global great power. Wilhelm became Grand Admiral of the German Navy, but also was awarded honorific titles from all over Europe, becoming admiral in the British, Russian, Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Austro-Hungarian and Greek navies. On one occasion he wore the uniform of a British admiral to receive the visiting British ambassador. At this time the Imperial Navy had 534 officers and 15,480 men.  The concept of expanding naval power, inevitably at the cost of not expanding other forces, was opposed by the three successive heads of the German armed forces, Waldersee, Schlieffen and Moltke between 1888 and 1914. It would also have been more widely opposed, had the Kaiser's intentions been widely known. Instead, he proceeded with a plan to expand the navy slowly, justifying enlargement step by step.  In July 1888 Wilhelm II appointed Vice-Admiral Alexander von Monts as head of the admiralty. Monts oversaw the design of the, four of which were constructed by 1894 at a cost of 16 million marks each and displacement of 10,000 tons.  In 1889 Wilhelm II reorganised top level control of the navy by

1897 to 1906 Tirpitz and the Navy Bills.

On 18 June 1897 Rear-Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz was appointed State Secretary of the Navy, where he remained for nineteen years. Tirpitz advocated the cause of an expanded navy necessary for Germany to defend her territories abroad. He had great success in persuading parliament to pass successive Navy bills authorising expansions of the fleet. German foreign policy as espoused by Otto von Bismarck had been to deflect the interest of great powers abroad while Germany consolidated her integration and military strength. Now Germany was to compete with the rest. Tirpitz started with a publicity campaign aimed at popularising the navy. He created popular magazines about the navy, arranged for Alfred Thayer Mahan's "The Influence of Sea Power upon History", which argued the importance of naval forces, to be translated into German and serialised in newspapers, arranged rallies in support and invited politicians and industrialists to naval reviews. Various pressure groups were formed to lobby politicians and spread publicity. One such organisation, the navy league or "Flottenverein", was organized by principals in the steel industry (Alfred Krupp), ship yards and banks, gaining more than one million members. Political parties were offered concessions, such as taxes on imported grain, in exchange for their support for naval bills.  On 10 April 1898 the first Navy Bill was passed by the "Reichstag". It authorised the maintenance of a fleet of 19 battleships, 8 armoured cruisers, 12 large cruisers and 30 light cruisers to be constructed by 1 April 1904. Existing ships were counted in the total, but the bill provided for ships to be replaced every 25 years on an indefinite basis. Five million marks annually was allocated to run the navy, with a total budget of 408 million marks for shipbuilding. This would bring the German fleet to a strength where it could contemplate challenging France or Russia, but would remain clearly inferior to the world's largest fleet, the Royal Navy.  Following the Boxer rebellion in China and the Boer War, a second navy bill was passed on 14 June 1900. This approximately doubled the allocated number of ships to 38 battleships, 20 armoured cruisers, 38 light cruisers. Significantly, the bill set no overall cost limit for the building program. Expenditure for the navy was too great to be met from taxation: the Reichstag had limited powers to extend taxation without entering into negotiations with the constituent German states, and this was considered politically unviable. Instead, the bill was financed by massive loans. Tirpitz, in 1899 was already exploring the possibilities for extending the battleship total to 45, a target which rose to 48 by 1909. Tirpitz's ultimate goal was a fleet capable of rivaling the Royal Navy. As British public opinion was turned against Germany, Admiral Sir John Fisher twice – in 1904 and 1908 – proposed using Britain's current naval superiority to 'Copenhagen' the German fleet, that is, to launch pre-emptive strikes against the Kiel and Wilhelmshaven naval bases as the Royal Navy had done against the Danish navy in 1801 and 1807." Tirpitz argued that if the fleet could achieve two-thirds the number of capital ships possessed by Britain then it stood a chance of winning in a conflict. Britain had to maintain a fleet throughout the world and consider other naval powers, whereas the German fleet could be concentrated in German waters. Attempts were made to play down the perceived threat to Britain, but once the German fleet reached the position of equalling the other second-rank navies, it became impossible to avoid mention of the one great fleet it was intended to challenge. Tirpitz hoped that other second-rank powers might ally with Germany, attracted by its navy. The policy of commencing what amounted to a naval arms race did not properly consider how Britain might respond. British policy, stated in the Naval Defence Act of 1889, was to maintain a navy superior to Britain's two largest rivals combined. The British Admiralty estimated that the German navy would be the world's second largest by 1906.  Major reforms of the Royal Navy were undertaken, particularly by Fisher as First Sea Lord from 1904 to 1909. 154 older ships, including 17 battleships, were scrapped to make way for newer vessels. Reforms in training and gunnery were introduced to make good perceived deficiencies, which in part Tirpitz had counted upon to provide his ships with a margin of superiority. More capital ships were stationed in British home waters. A treaty with Japan in 1902 meant that ships could be withdrawn from East Asia, while the "Entente Cordiale" with France in 1904 meant that Britain could concentrate on guarding Channel waters, including the French coast, while France would protect British interests in the Mediterranean. By 1906 it was considered that Britain's only likely naval enemy was Germany. Five battleships of the were constructed from 1899 to 1904 at a cost of 22 million marks per ship. Five ships of the were built between 1901 and 1906 for the slightly greater 24 million marks each. Technological improvements meant that rapid fire guns could be made larger, so the "Braunschweig" class had a main armament of guns. Due to torpedo improvements in range and accuracy, emphasis was placed on a secondary armament of smaller guns to defend against them. The five s constructed between 1903 and 1908 had similar armament as the "Braunschweig" class, but heavier armour, for the slightly greater sum of 24.5 million marks each.  Development of armoured cruisers also continued. "Fürst Bismarck"s design was improved upon in the subsequent, completed in 1902. Two ships of the were commissioned in 1904, followed by two similar armoured cruisers commissioned in 1905 and 1906, at costs around 17 million marks each. and followed, between 1904 and 1908, and cost an estimated for 20.3 million marks. Main armament was eight guns, but with six and eighteen guns for smaller targets. Eight light cruisers were constructed between 1902 and 1907, developed from the earlier. The ships had ten guns and were named after German towns. was the first German cruiser to be fitted with turbine engines, which were also trialled in torpedo boat "S-125". Turbines were faster, quieter, lighter, more reliable and more fuel efficient at high speeds. The first British experimental design (the destroyer ) had been constructed in 1901 and as a result Tirpitz had set up a special commission to develop turbines. No reliable German design was available by 1903, so British Parsons turbines were purchased.

1906 to 1908, The Dreadnought and innovation: First "Novelle".

On 3 December 1906 the Royal Navy received a new battleship,. She became famous as the first of a new concept in battleship design, using all big gun, single size of calibre armament. She used turbine propulsion for greater speed and less space required by the machinery, and guns arranged so that three times as many could be brought to bear when firing ahead, and twice as many when firing broadside. The design was not a uniquely British concept as similar ships were being built around the world, nor was it uniquely intended as a counter to German naval expansion, but the effect was to immediately require Germany to reconsider its naval building program. The battleship design was complemented by the introduction of a variant with lighter armour and greater speed, which became the battlecruiser.  The revolution in design, together with improvements in personnel and training severely brought into question the German assumption that a fleet of two-thirds the size of the Royal Navy would at least stand a chance in an engagement. By 1906 Germany was already spending 60% of revenue upon the army. Either an enormous sum now had to be found to develop the navy further, or naval expansion had to be abandoned. The decision to continue was taken by Tirpitz in September 1905 and agreed by Chancellor Bernhard von Bülow and the Kaiser, while "Dreadnought" was still at the planning stage. The larger ships would naturally be more expensive, but also would require enlargement of harbours, locks and the Kiel canal, all of which would be enormously expensive. Estimated cost for new dreadnoughts was placed at 36.5 million marks for 19,000 tons displacement ships (larger than "Dreadnought" at 17,900 tons), and 27.5 million marks for battle-cruisers. 60 million mark was allocated for dredging the canal. The Reichstag was persuaded to agree to the program and passed a "Novelle" (a supplementary law) amending the navy bills and allocating 940 million marks for a dreadnought program and the necessary infrastructure. Two dreadnoughts and one battlecruiser were

1908 to 1912, Second "Novelle".

German expenditure on ships was steadily rising. In 1907, 290 million marks was spent on the fleet, rising to 347 million marks or 24 percent of the national budget in 1908, with a predicted budget deficit of 500 million marks. By the outbreak of World War I, one billion marks had been added to Germany's national debt because of naval expenditures. While each German ship was more expensive than the last, the British managed to reduce the cost of the succeeding generations of (3 ships) and (3) battleships. Successive British battlecruisers were more expensive, but less so than their German equivalents. Overall, German ships were some 30% more expensive than the British. This all contributed to growing opposition in the Reichstag to any further expansion, particularly when it was clear that Britain intended to match and exceed any German expansion program. In the fleet itself, complaints were beginning to be made in 1908 about underfunding and shortages of crews for the new ships. The State Secretary of the Treasury, Hermann von Stengel, resigned because he could see no way to resolve the budget deficit.  The elections of 1907 had returned a "Reichstag" more favourable to military exploits, following the refusal of the previous parliament to grant funds to suppress uprisings in colonies in German South-West Africa. Despite the difficulties, Tirpitz persuaded the Reichstag to pass a further "Novelle" in March 1908. This reduced the service life for ships from 25 years to 20 years, allowing for faster modernisation, and increased the building rate to four capital ships per year. Tirpitz's target was a fleet of 16 battleships and 5 battlecruisers by 1914, and 38 battleships and 20 battlecruisers by 1920. There were also to be 38 light cruisers, and 144 torpedo boats. The bill contained a restriction, that building would fall to two ships per year in 1912, but Tirpitz was confident of changing this at a later date. He anticipated that German industry, now heavily involved in shipbuilding, would back a campaign to maintain a higher construction rate.  Four battleships of the were laid down in 1909–10, with displacements of 22,800 tons, twelve guns in 6 turrets, reciprocating engines generating a maximum speed of 21 knots, and a price tag of 46 million marks. Again, the turret configuration was dictated by the need to use the centre of the ship for machinery, despite the disadvantage of the turret layout. The ships were now equipped with torpedoes. The s built between 1909 and 1913 introduced a change in design as turbine

1912 to 1914, Third "Novelle".

Spending on the navy increased inexorably year by year. In 1909 Chancellor Bernhard von Bülow and Treasury Secretary Reinhold von Sydow attempted to pass a new budget boosting taxes in an attempt to reduce the deficit. The Social Democratic parties refused to accept the increased taxes on goods, while the conservatives opposed increases in inheritance taxes. Bülow and Sydow resigned in defeat and Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg became Chancellor. His attempted solution was to initiate negotiations with Britain for an agreed slow down in naval building. Negotiations came to nothing when in 1911 the Agadir Crisis brought France and Germany into conflict. Germany attempted to 'persuade' France to cede territory in the Middle Congo in return for giving France a free hand in Morocco. The effect was to raise concerns in Britain over Germany's expansionist aims, and encouraged Britain to form a closer relationship with France, including naval cooperation. Tirpitz saw this once again as an opportunity to press for naval expansion and the continuation of the four capital ships per year building rate into 1912. The January 1912 elections brought a Reichstag where the Social Democrats, opposed to military expansion, became the largest party.  The German army, mindful of the steadily increasing proportion of spending going to the navy, demanded an increase of 136,000 men to bring its size closer to that of France. In February 1912 the British war minister, Viscount Haldane, came to Berlin to discuss possible limits to naval expansion. Meanwhile, in Britain, the First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill made a speech describing the German navy as a 'luxury', which was considered an insult when reported in Germany. The talks came to nothing, ending in recriminations over who had offered what. Bethmann-Hollweg argued for a guaranteed proportion of expenditure for the army, but failed when army officers refused to support him publicly. Tirpitz argued for six new capital ships, and got three, together with 15,000 additional sailors in a new combined military budget passed in April 1912. The new ships, together with the existing reserve flagship and four reserve battleships were to become one new squadron for the High Seas Fleet. In all the fleet would have five squadrons of eight battleships, twelve large cruisers and thirty small, plus additional cruisers for overseas duties. Tirpitz intended that with the rolling program of replacements, the existing coastal defence squadron of old ships would become a sixth fleet squadron, while the eight existing battle-cruisers would be joined by eight more as replacements for the large cruisers presently in the overseas squadrons. The plan envisaged a main fleet of 100,000 men, 49 battleships and 28 battlecruisers by 1920. The Kaiser commented of the British, "... we have them up against the wall."  Although Tirpitz had succeeded in getting more ships, the proportion of military expenditure on the navy declined in 1912 and thereafter, from 35% in 1911 to 33% in 1912 and 25% in 1913. This reflected a change in attitude amongst military planners that a land war in Europe was increasingly likely, and a turning away from Tirpitz's scheme for worldwide expansion using the navy. In 1912 General von Moltke commented, "I consider war to be unavoidable, and the sooner the better." The Kaiser's younger brother, Admiral Prince Heinrich of Prussia, considered that the cost of the navy was now too great. In Britain, Churchill announced an intention to build two capital ships for every one constructed by Germany, and reorganised the fleet to move battleships from the Mediterranean to Channel waters. A policy was introduced of promoting British naval officers by merit and ability rather than time served, which saw rapid promotions for Jellicoe and Beatty, both of whom had important roles in the forthcoming World War I. By 1913 the French and British had plans in place for joint naval action against Germany, and France moved its Atlantic fleet from Brest to Toulon, replacing British ships.  Britain also escalated the arms race by expanding the capabilities of its new battleships. The five 1912 of 32,000 tons would have guns and would be completely oil-fuelled, allowing a speed of 25 knots. For 1912–13 Germany concentrated on battlecruisers, with three ships of 27,000 tons and 26–27 knots maximum speed, costing 56–59 million marks each. These had four turrets mounting two 30.5 cm guns arranged in two turrets either end, with the inner turret superfiring over the outer. was the first German ship to have anti-aircraft guns fitted.  In 1913, Germany responded to the British challenge by laying down two battleships. These did not enter service until after the Battle of Jutland, so failed to take part in any major naval action of the war. They had displacement of 28,600 tons, a crew of 1,100 and a speed of 22 knots, costing 50 million marks. Guns were arranged in the same pattern as the preceding battle-cruisers, but were now increased to diameter. The ships had four 8.8 cm anti-aircraft and also sixteen 15 cm lighter guns, but were coal fuelled. It was considered that coal bunkers at the sides of the ship added to protection against penetrating shells, but Germany also did not have a reliable supply of fuel oil. Two more ships of the class were later laid down, but never completed.  Three light cruisers commenced construction in German yards in 1912–1913 ordered by the Russian Navy, costing around 9 million marks. The ships were seized at the outbreak of World War I becoming, and. Two larger cruisers, and were also commenced and entered service in 1915. More torpedo boats were constructed, with gradually increasing sizes having reached 800 tons for the V-25 to V-30 craft constructed by AG Vulcan in Kiel before 1914. In 1912 Germany created a Mediterranean squadron consisting of the battle-cruiser "Goeben" and light cruiser "Breslau".

World War I.

By the start of the First World War, the German Imperial Navy possessed 22 pre-Dreadnoughts, 14 dreadnought battleships and 4 battle-cruisers. A further three ships of the "König" class were completed between August and November 1914, and two "Bayern"-class battleships entered service in 1916. The battlecruisers "Derfflinger",, and were completed in September 1914, March 1916, and May 1917, respectively.  Admiral von Tirpitz became the commander of the Navy. The main fighting forces of the navy were to become the High Seas Fleet and the U-boat fleet. Smaller fleets were deployed to the German overseas protectorates, the most prominent being assigned to the East Asia Station at Tsingtao.  The German Navy's U-boats were also instrumental in the sinking of the passenger liner and auxiliary cruiser, the on 7 May 1915, which was one of the main events that led to the USA joining the war two years later in 1917.

Engagements.

Notable battles fought by the Navy were:  Notable minor battles: Minor engagements included the commerce raiding carried out by the "Emden",, and the sailing ship and commerce raider.  The Imperial Navy carried out land operations, e.g. operating the long-range Paris Gun which was based on a naval gun. The Siege of Tsingtao used naval troops as Tsingtao was a naval base, and also as the Imperial Navy was

Marines.

The Marines were referred to as "Seebataillone" (sea battalions). They served in

Naval aviation.

The "Marine-Fliegerabteilung" consisted of Zeppelins (airships), observation balloons and fixed-wing aircraft.  The main use of the Zeppelins was in reconnaissance over the North Sea and the Baltic, where the endurance of the craft led German warships to a number of Allied vessels. Zeppelin patrolling had priority over any other airship activity. During the entire war around 1,200 scouting flights were made. During 1915 the German Navy had some 15 Zeppelins in commission and was able to have two or more patrolling continuously at any one time. They kept the British ships from approaching Germany, spotted when and where the British were laying sea-mines, and later aided in the destruction of those mines. Zeppelins would sometimes land on the sea surface next to a minesweeper, bring aboard an officer and show him the lay of the mines. The Naval and Army Air Services also directed a number of strategic raids against Britain, leading the way in bombing techniques and also forcing the British to

Post war.

After the end of World War I, the bulk of the navy's modern ships (74 in all) were interned at Scapa Flow (November 1918), where the entire fleet (with a few exceptions)

Ranks and ratings.

The Imperial German Navy's rank and rating system combined that of Prussia's with the navies of other northern states.

The Imperial German Navy () was the navy created at the time of the formation of the German Empire. It existed between 1871 and 1919, growing out of the small Prussian Navy (from 1867 the North German Federal Navy), which primarily had the mission of coastal defence. Kaiser Wilhelm II greatly expanded the navy, and enlarged its mission. The key leader was Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, who greatly expanded the size and quality of the navy, while adopting the sea power theories of American strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan. The result was a naval arms race with Britain as the German navy grew to become one of the greatest maritime forces in the world, second only to the Royal Navy. The German surface navy proved ineffective during World War I; its only major engagement, the Battle of Jutland, was indecisive. However, the submarine fleet was greatly expanded and posed a major threat to the British supply system. The Imperial Navy's main ships were turned over to the Allies, but were scuttled at Scapa Flow in 1919 by German crews.

Kaiserliche Marine war von 1872 bis 1918 die offizielle Bezeichnung der Seestreitkräfte des Deutschen Kaiserreiches. Ursprünglich war sie auf die Küstenverteidigung hin ausgerichtet. Ab etwa 1900 entwickelte sie sich zu einer der größten und modernsten Kriegsflotten der Welt, was durch imperiale Bestrebungen und die Marinebegeisterung des deutschen Kaisers Wilhelm II. begünstigt wurde. 1914 war die Kaiserliche Marine nach der Royal Navy und vor der United States Navy die zweitstärkste Marine der Welt. Diese enorme Aufrüstung forderte Großbritannien als führende Seemacht heraus und führte zum Deutsch-Britischen Flottenwettrüsten. Es trug zum Beginn des Ersten Weltkriegs bei.