History.

In 1644, Cardinal Giambattista Pamphilj of the powerful Pamphilj family, who already owned a palace between the Piazza Navona and the Via Pasquino, became Pope Innocent X. With this election came the desire for a larger more magnificent building to reflect his family's increased prestige. Further land was bought, the architect Girolamo Rainaldi received the commission and construction began in 1646. The new project was to incorporate some existing buildings, including the former palace of the Pamphilj (whose decoration by Agostino Tassi was partially preserved) and the Palazzo Cibo.  In 1647, the Baroque architect Francesco Borromini was consulted about the design and he made a series of new proposals for the palace. However, the prevailing preference was for Rainaldi's more staid and conservative design. Borromini's limited contributions included the stucco decoration of the salone (the main room) and design of the Gallery, located at first floor level between the rest of the palace and the church of St. Agnese next door. The Gallery extends through the width of the block with a large Serliana window at either end.  Between 1651 and 1654, the painter Pietro da Cortona was commissioned to decorate the Gallery vault. His secular fresco cycle depicts scenes from the life of Aeneas, the legendary founder of Rome, as recounted by Virgil. The Pamphili claim to be descended from Aeneas. Unlike the large spacious volume of the Palazzo Barberini in which he had painted his fresco celebrating the reign of Innocent's predecessor, Urban VIII Barberini, the Pamphilj Gallery was long with a low vault which meant that a single viewpoint to see the frescoes was not possible. So Cortona devised a series of scenes around a central painted framed ‘Apotheosis of Aeneas’ into the Olympian heavens. The elaborate doorframes regularly spaced along the longer walls of the Gallery display a combination of motifs typically used by Borromini and by Cortona  The plan has three courtyards. The rooms on the "piano nobile" (the first floor) have frescoes and friezes by artists such as Giacinto Gimignani, Gaspard Dughet, Andrea Camassei, Giacinto Brandi, Francesco Allegrini, and Pier Francesco Mola.  Carlo Rainaldi, the son of Girolamo, completed the building around 1650.  The new palazzo became the home of Innocent's widowed and unpopular sister-in-law Olimpia Maidalchini, who was his confidante and advisor and, more scurrilously, reputed to be his mistress. She was the mother of Camillo Pamphilj, the one time cardinal, who through his marriage came into the possession of the Palazzo Aldobrandini, now known as the Palazzo Doria Pamphilj.  Confusingly, until the unification of the Doria and Pamphilj surnames both palazzi were known as Palazzo Pamphilj, or in the case of today's Doria Pamphilj sometimes "Palazzo Pamfilio". Both spellings Pamphilj and Pamphili are in common Italian usage, even though the family prefers Pamphilj.

Bibliography.

Leonie Stephanie. "The Palazzo Pamphilj in Piazza Navona: Constructing Identity In Early Modern Rome" (Studies in Baroque Art), 2008, Harvey Miller. Magnuson Torgil. "Rome in the Age of Bernini", volume II, Almquist & Wiksell, Stockholm, 1986, Chapter 1 Innocent X (1644-1655)

Palazzo Pamphilj, also spelled Palazzo Pamphili, is a palace facing onto the Piazza Navona in Rome. It was built between 1644 and 1650.

Der Palazzo Pamphilj oder Palazzo Pamphili ist ein Palast an der Piazza Navona in Rom. Er wurde zwischen 1644 and 1650 im Stil des Hochbarock erbaut.


History.

The first conservatory in Mainz was established around 1882 and was named after its founder: "Paul Schumacher'sches Conservatorium der Musik". The city of Mainz bought the institution and its buildings in 1920, intending to create a municipal university of music ("Musikhochschule"). The first director was Hans Rosbaud. In 1922, the institution was granted the right to educate and examine music teachers.  In 1936, the Musikhochschule Frankfurt was declared the only "Musikhochschule" of the region. The Mainz institution was named "Peter-Cornelius-Konservatorium".  From 1953, Günter Kehr was the director of the conservatory, from 1966 Volker Hoffmann who expanded elementary music training and also focused on the training of professionals. Gerhard Scholz was director from 1998. A new building was opened in 2008, celebrating 125 years of tradition.

Program.

The "Musikschule" (music school) is the largest in the state, with 140 examined teachers training around 3,500 students from age three months to 80. All instruments of a classical orchestras and voice are taught. The students can meet and perform together in several ensembles and choirs. They also perform at "Klassenvorspiel" (class recital), concerts and a competition.  The "Studienabteilung" educates music teachers, in close cooperation with the Hochschule für Musik Mainz. The pedagogical programs are held by the conservatory.  The "Junges Ensemble" (young ensemble) is an offer to young singers to perform on the stages of the Staatstheater Mainz, in collaboration with the theatre and the university.

Directors.

Some of the conservatory directors have become known internationally:

The Peter Cornelius Conservatory ("Peter-Cornelius-Konservatorium der Stadt Mainz", PCK) is the conservatory in Mainz, the capital of the German state Rhineland-Palatinate. It dates back to a first conservatory founded around 1882. It is named after the composer Peter Cornelius who was born in Mainz. It trains both professionals and amateurs, focused of the interplay of both aspects of music-making.

Das Peter-Cornelius-Konservatorium der Stadt Mainz ist ein Konservatorium in Mainz, das die musikalische Ausbildung von Laien und Berufsmusikern unter einem Dach vereint. Es ist benannt nach dem Komponisten Peter Cornelius.


Phylogeny.

The separation of the genus "Iridomyrmex" from its most recent common ancestor began around 12 million years ago. Its sister group, "Froggattella", has only two species, even though both genera are the same age. In comparison to other Indo-Australian genera in the subfamily Dolichoderinae, the clade of which it is a part is 23 million years old, meaning that it is rather young. However, the fossil species that have been found are from the Eocene and Oligocene. The following cladogram shows the phylogenetic position of "Iridomyrmex" among the Indo-Australian genera:

Taxonomy.

The genus "Iridomyrmex" was first described by Austrian entomologist Gustav Mayr in 1862, but it had no designated type species until 1903. By then, the type species was designated as "Formica detecta", a synonym of "Iridomyrmex purpureus". The genus was placed in the subfamily Dolichoderinae in 1878, the same year the subfamily was established. Since the establishment of the genus, it suffered taxonomic misunderstanding due to the gradual development of unrelated ants being designated into the genus by early researchers who failed to identify easily recognisable features that would make them distinct from the genus "Iridomyrmex".  Myrmecologist William Brown, Jr., was perhaps the first person to question the monophyly of the genus, mentioning that the Argentine ant, a former member of "Iridomyrmex", differed from the rest of the genus. The first proper revisions of the genus began in the 1990s, and 91 species were transferred to six genera; only 62 species remained after these revisions. These species were placed into the genera "Anonychomyrma", "Doleromyrma", "Linepithema", "Ochetellus", "Papyrius" and "Philidris". In 2011, the genus was revised again, and 79 species and five extinct species were now present, 31 of which were newly described. Four species were placed in different genera while 25 species and subspecies were classified as synonyms. According to one source, 350 Australian "Iridomyrmex" species may be present.  The scientific name of the genus, "Iridomyrmex", meaning "rainbow ant", refers to their blue-green iridescent sheen. The word "Irido", meaning "rainbow", derives from Ancient Greek, and "myrmex", another Greek word, means "ant".

Species.

[extinct species are marked with †]

Description.

Unlike other genera in Dolichoderinae, the front margin of the clypeus is not below the mandibles; instead, it is located above them. The eyes are located on top of the ants' head, and they are noticeably distant from the mandibles. These ants range from small to medium; members of the "I. conifer" species group measure, being reddish-brown in colour with a distinctive propodeum, while members of the "I. purpureus" species group are the largest at. Worker castes are rarely polymorphic.  Based on observations, "Iridomyrmex" workers can be deformed when they are born. For example, a captured specimen had its propodeum and gaster fused together, and the petiole was still present but enlarged. Despite the deformity, the worker was still able to forage with little trouble.

Distribution and habitat.

Ants of this genus are found in many countries and islands, spanning several continents. In the Oceanian region, these ants are found in Fiji, Indonesia, New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. In Australia, they are found in every state and territory. In New Zealand, this genus has been introduced to the country, establishing themselves in both the North Island and South Island. In Asia, they are found in Burma, East Timor, India, Malaysia and the Philippines. "I. anceps" is the only known ant of this genus present in the Middle East, having been introduced to the United Arab Emirates. "I. rufoniger" was introduced to Brazil through human activity. Populations are present on the islands of Norfolk Island and Phillip Island in Oceania. Extinct species were native to countries beyond the modern distribution of the genus; fossils have been found in China, France and the United States. The genus "Iridomyrmex" inhabits rural, arid, and semi-arid areas. Nests are found in "Acacia", "Agathis", "Banksia", "Casuarina" and "Eucalyptus" woodland, in pastures, "Callitris" forests, city parks, farmlands, grasslands, heath, sand dunes, savanna woodland, swamps, urban gardens, wet rain-forests, wet and dry sclerophyll woodland, and even in buildings such as hotels and houses.  Most of these ants nest in soil, but some prefer to live under rocks, rotten wood, and in some cases in sandy beaches and footpaths. Certain species will avoid nesting in sandy soil. Nests will vary in appearance; most species live in small mounds with a single entrance, while other species create large mounds covered in pebbles with multiple entrances. Some colonies are known to create "super-nests": workers construct many nests connected through established paths, extending up to in length. In one extreme case, a single colony was found to occupy over 10 hectares of land with 85 individual nests and 1,500 entrance holes. While meat ants are never aggressive to their nest mates, they will be aggressive to those who live in different nests within the same colony. Nests may be above or below ground, with some species such as "I. conifer" alternating between the two; during winter, nests will be constructed above in twigs, with the ants moving back underground during the warmer months. Underground nests are located near areas where food sources are present. Colonies will relocate their nests to areas where there are reasonable levels of sunlight during winter.

Behaviour and ecology.

Most "Iridomyrmex" species are aggressive ants that will attack anything which attacks or disturbs their nests or trails they forage on. This is noticeable with particular member species of the "I. purpureus" species group, where they will pour out of their nest and attack and kill all intruders. Even smaller species show similar behaviours to these ants and will also swarm out of their nests to bite and spray iridomyrmecin, a defensive chemical found in the genus. Because of their large numbers, aggression, and activeness, "Iridomyrmex" ants are ecologically dominant in Australia, and several species are known to obtain exclusive possession to food sources and prevent other insects from using them. These ants will also affect foraging behaviours of other ant nests living nearby due to how active they are and their large numbers.  While "Iridomyrmex" ants are known for their aggression, some are more timid and shy; workers will run and hide if they are disturbed and avoid contact with other ant species. When nests are disturbed, workers will not attack; instead, they will relocate their brood and disregard other disturbances should they occur. Workers will hide in leaves and other vegetation, and in some cases, "I. victorianus" workers may remain still until any threat or danger subsides.  Meat ants engage in ritualised fights to maintain and resolve boundary disputes with neighbouring colonies. When individuals from separate colonies meet, they will engage each other until appeasement occurs. A meat ant detects a foreign worker by intense antennation and gaping of the mandibles, and will also stretch themselves upward to appear taller and larger, suggesting that meat ants do this in a display of size matching. Once the ants have finished fighting, they will groom themselves and search for another ant. Such disputes between colonies may continue for months or even years in the same area, and escalated fights that result in serious injury or death are rare.

Foraging.

All species are predators and scavengers. "Iridomyrmex" ants tend to many Hemiptera insects and butterfly larvae to receive honeydew. Workers forage and scavenge for small insects, and they collect nectar from flowers and hunt for prey. "Iridomyrmex" ants normally forage on the ground, but most species will forage up into trees and vegetation to look for food. Most ants are diurnal foragers, but some are nocturnal. These nocturnal ants will sometimes become active during the day, but this depends on the suitability of the weather. They will also block their entrance holes when it is daytime; however, "I. bigi" is nocturnal and never comes out during the day. In a few species, a nest will not be placed in a shaded area; this is so it can warm up during the early mornings and workers can forage shortly after sunrise.

Diet.

"Iridomyrmex" primarily feeds on sweet foods such as nectar and honeydew. They hunt for insects and other ants to feed to their young, and workers are particularly attracted to seeds with elaiosomes. They collect these seeds, remove the elaiosomes, and then discard the seeds. The seedlings that sprout from these seeds benefit from proximity to the aggressive "Iridomyrmex" ants, giving them a better chance of survival. Colonies sometimes nest in termite mounds, and so the termites are regularly preyed on by "Iridomyrmex"; no evidence for any kind of relationship (other than a predatory one) is known. Juvenile cane toads are often preyed on, as certain "Iridomyrmex" species such as "I. purpureus" and "I. ruburrus" are immune to the toxins released by the cane toads. As a result, placing "Iridomyrmex" nests in habitats which house cane toads have been suggested as a method of controlling the cane toad population. The meat ant is the only known ant in Australia that feeds on guano.

Predators.

Some invertebrate species specialise in predation of "Iridomyrmex" ants. One spider in particular, the cursorial spider "Habronestes bradleyi", is a specialist predator against these ants and will use the alarm pheromones that are released by the ants during territorial disputes to locate them. The Australian thorny devil lizard ("Moloch horridus") is a sit and wait predator that primarily preys on "Iridomyrmex" ants, and one lizard will reject specific species in this genus while eating others. The blind snake "Ramphotyphlops nigrescens" follows trails laid by these ants to locate them as a potential prey species and will eat the broods of some species, while ground beetles dig burrows near ant nests to prey on workers passing by.  A prominent predator is the short-beaked echidna ("Tachyglossus aculeatus") that eats the virgin queens during nuptial flight due to their high percentage of fat. Echidnas do not consume "Iridomyrmex" ants all year; instead, they usually attack nests during August to October, which is when the winged females and males, known as alates emerge from their nest. Queens will also face more threats during nuptial flight or after; birds such as currawongs, magpies and ravens, attracted by recently excavated soil, will dig out nests shortly after the queens have founded their colonies. Parasitic flatworms in the class Cestoda are known to infect "Iridomyrmex".

Life cycle and reproduction.

Nuptial flight occurs throughout the year in humid and warm climates. The alates begin to emerge from their nest and immediately climb onto tall structures (such as tree trunks, fence-posts, or long flora) where they begin to fly and copulate. Depending on the species, a queen either mates with a single male or with multiple males. Observations show that meat ant males begin to fly first, followed by the queens. Groups of 20 to 40 queens will approach the top of the nest and fly once they are warm enough, and this would proceed multiple times for many days until the climate changes or all of the queens have withdrawn from the nest. After mating, the males soon die and the queens proceed to search for a suitable nest to establish her colony. Finding a location to nest is dangerous, as birds and other ants prey on them; disease and starvation are other causes of death in queens. While most queens will establish a nest by herself, nests can be established when queens cooperate with each other, are adopted into an existing colony, or by "budding" (also called "satelliting" or "fractionating"), where a subset of the colony including queens, workers and brood (eggs, larvae and pupae) leave the main colony for an alternative nest site. 10% of queens will cooperate with another queen during colony foundation. Once a queen has excavated a chamber, she will lay around 20 eggs that develop into larvae in less than a month. These eggs take 44 to 61 days to fully develop and emerge as adults. Mature nests range in size, from a few hundred to over 300,000 workers. Most colonies are monogyne, meaning it only has a single queen, but some colonies can have as many as four. Oligogynous colonies also exist, in which multiple queens are present, but they are tolerated equally by workers birthed from different mothers and antagonism exists among queens. Brood discrimination is known based on recognition of kin, and queens will look after their own brood and neglect other brood laid by different queens. Queens display intolerance to each other when the first generation of workers is present, and the queens will separate from each other once the colony grows to a certain size.

Symbiosis.

"Iridomyrmex" ants share symbiotic relationships with many caterpillars, aphids and coccids. Workers protect these caterpillars and will sometimes take them to their feeding chambers inside the nest. In the genus "Jalmenus", workers attend to the butterflies "Jalmenus clementi" (turquoise hairstreak), "Jalmenus daemeli" (emerald hairstreak), "Jalmenus eichhorni" (northern hairstreak),"Jalmenus evagoras" (imperial hairstreak) "Jalmenus icilius" (amethyst hairstreak), "Jalmenus inous" (varied hairstreak) and "Jalmenus lithochroa" (Waterhouse's hairstreak). In the genus "Ogyris", attendants include "Ogyris amaryllis" (satin azure), "Ogyris olane" (olane azure) and "Ogyris oroetes" (silky azure). Additional species workers attend include "Anthene lycaenoides" (pale ciliate blue), "Candalides heathi" (rayed blue), "Candalides margarita" (trident pencil-blue), "Deudorix diovis" (bright cornelian), "Euchrysops cnejus" (gram blue), "Lampides boeticus" (pea blue), "Leptotes plinius" (plumbago blue), "Lucia limbaria" (chequered copper), "Nesolycaena caesia" (Kimberly spotted opal), "Neolucia agricola" (fringed heath-blue) and "Theclinesthes serpentata" (saltbush blue). "I. bicknelli" is an effective pollinator of "Microtis parviflora", and one study suggests the pollen is not harmed by contact of these ants.  Meat ants have been observed blocking banded sugar ant nesting holes with pebbles and soil to prevent them from leaving their nest during the early hours of the day. The ants counter this by preventing meat ants from leaving their nest by blocking their nesting holes with debris, a behaviour known as nest-plugging. If meat ant nests are encroached by trees or other shade, banded sugar ants may invade and take over the nest, since the health of the colony may deteriorate from overshadowing. Members of an affected meat ant colony later move to a nearby satellite nest that is placed in a suitable area, while invading banded sugar ants fill nest galleries up with a black resinous material.

Interaction with humans.

In rural Australia, meat ants are important to farmers as they place animal carcasses on their nests. In a matter of weeks, the entire carcass will be consumed and reduced to bones. However, "Iridomyrmex" ants are sometimes considered pests, due to these ants entering human houses to feed on food and soil disturbance. Eradication of nests can be difficult, as nests can be repopulated from a rival colony or adjoining nests which were not affected. Particular species have adapted rather well to urbanisation; during the early days in Canberra, newly constructed suburbs provided new nest sites for meat ants, and populations flourished. Other factors include plantations enriched with valuable food sources and home gardens. Workers also cause problems for those who are "Citrus" producers; they will affect the biological control of Hemiptera insects, specifically those who produce honeydew.

Iridomyrmex, or the rainbow ant (referring to its blue-green iridescent sheen) is a genus of ant first described by Austrian entomologist Gustav Mayr in 1862. He placed it in the subfamily Dolichoderinae of the family Formicidae. There are 79 described species and five fossil species. Most of these ants are native to Australia; others are found in several countries and islands in Asia and other areas in Oceania, and they have been introduced to Brazil, New Zealand and the United Arab Emirates. Fossil species are known from China, France and the United States.

Iridomyrmex ist eine Gattung der Ameisen. Sie kommen mit 79 Arten und Unterarten von Indien und China bis nach Australien und Neukaledonien vor. Weitere sieben Arten sind aus fossilen Funden bekannt. Mit 63 vorkommenden Arten sind sie die artenreichste und auch häufigste Gattung der Ameisen in Australien.


Operational history.

Front dispositions 22 June 1941.

The 1939 partition of Poland according to the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact established a new western border with no permanent defense installations, and the army deployment within the Front created weak flanks.  At the outbreak of war with Germany, the Western Special Military District was, in accordance with Soviet pre-war planning, immediately converted into the Western Front, under the District's commander, Army General Dmitry Pavlov. The main forces of the Western Front were concentrated forward along the frontier, organized in three armies. To defend the Białystok salient, the front fielded the 10th Army, under Lieutenant General Konstantin Golubev, supported by the 6th Mechanized Corps and 13th Mechanised Corps, under Major Generals Mikhail Khatskilevich and Pyotr Akhliustin. On 10th Army's left flank was 4th Army, under Lieutenant General Aleksandr Korobkov, supported by the 14th Mechanised Corps, under Major General Stepan Ilich Oborin; and on the right the 3rd Army, under Lieutenant General Vasily Ivanovich Kuznetsov supported by the 11th Mechanized Corps, under Major General Dmitry Karpovich Mostovenko. To the rear were 13th Army, under Lieutenant General Pyotr Filatov. This army initially existed as a headquarters unit only, with no assigned combat forces.  Among forces of Frontal designation were the 2nd Rifle Corps (100th, 161st Rifle Divisions), 21st Rifle Corps (17th, 24th, 37th Rifle Division), 44th Rifle Corps (64th, 108th Rifle Divisions), 47th Rifle Corps (55th, 121st, 143rd Rifle Divisions), 50th Rifle Division, 4th Airborne Corps (7th, 8th, 214th Airborne Brigades) commanded by Alexey Zhadov at Minsk, and the 58th (Sebezh), 61st (Polotsk), 63rd (Minsk-Slutsky), 64th (Zambrow) and 65th (Mozyr) Fortified Regions. Mechanised forces in reserve included the 20th Mechanized Corps under Major General Andrey Nikitin at Minsk and the 17th Mechanized Corps, under Major General Mikhail Petrov, slightly further forward at Slonim. Altogether, on 22 June the Western Special Military District fielded 671,165 men, 14,171 guns and mortars, 2,900 tanks and 1,812 combat aircraft.  The Western Front was on the main axis of attack by the German Army Group Centre, commanded by Field Marshal Fedor von Bock. German plans for Operation Barbarossa called for Army Group Centre's Second Panzer Group, under Colonel General Heinz Guderian, to attack south of Brest, advance through Slonim and Baranovichi, turning north-east towards Minsk where it would be met by Colonel General Hermann Hoth's Third Panzer Group, which would attack Vilnius, to the north of the Białystok salient, and then turn south-east. In addition to the two panzer groups. Army Group Centre also included Field Marshal Günther von Kluge's Fourth Army and Colonel General Adolf Strauss' Ninth Army. Air support was provided by Field Marshal Albert Kesselring's Luftflotte 2 which contained more than half the German aircraft committed to the attack on the Soviet Union.

Defeat on the Frontiers 22–28 June.

The war started disastrously for the Western Front with the Battle of Białystok-Minsk. The German Ninth and Fourth Armies of Army Group Centre penetrated the border north and south of the Białystok salient. The Front's tanks and aviation at airfields were annihilated by German air strikes.  Soviet command and control suffered almost complete breakdown, worst hit was 4th Army which failed to establish communications both with headquarters above and below it. Attempts to launch a counter-attack with 10th Army on 23 June were unsuccessful. That same day the German Third Panzer Group captured Vilnius after outflanking 3rd Army. On 24 June Pavlov again attempted to organize a counter-attack, assigning his deputy Lieutenant General Ivan Boldin the command of 6th and 11th Mechanized Corps and 6th Cavalry Corps, commanded by Major General Ivan Semenovich Nikitin. With this mobile force Boldin was to attack northward from the Białystok region towards Grodno to prevent encirclement of Soviet forces in the salient.  This attempted counter-attack was also fruitless. Almost without any interference from Soviet fighters, Fliegerkorps VIII's close support aircraft were able to break the backbone of Western Front's counter-attack at Grodno. 6th Cavalry Corps was so badly mauled by this aerial onslaught against its columns that it was unable to deploy for attack. Jagdgeschwader 53's Hermann Neuhoff recalled:  Of 6th Mechanized Corps' 1212 tanks, only about 200 reached their assembly areas due to air attacks and mechanical breakdowns, and even they ran out of fuel by the end of the day. The same fate awaited the 243 tanks of 11th Mechanized Corps, ordered to attack towards Grodno on 25 June. 6th Cavalry Corps suffered 50% casualties and its commander, Nikitin, was captured. The attempted attack allowed many Soviet forces to escape from the Białystok region towards Minsk, but this brought only temporary relief. With both the German Second and Third Panzer Groups racing towards Minsk on Western Front's southern and northern flanks, a new encirclement threatened.  In the evening of 25 June, the German 47th Panzer Corps cut between Slonim and Vawkavysk, forcing the attempted withdrawal of troops in the salient to avoid encirclement and opening the southern approaches to Minsk.  Pavlov dispatched orders to disengage and withdraw into new defences behind the Shchara River, but the few units receiving the orders were unable to break contact with the enemy. Hounded by constant air attacks, Pavlov's forces fled eastward on foot. The bridges over the Shchara destroyed by air attacks, most of 10th Army was not able to cross the river. Further east 13th Army, which had received orders to assemble various withdrawing forces into the defence of Minsk, had its headquarters ambushed by German spearheads and its defence plans captured. Pavlov then ordered his 20th Mechanized and 4th Airborne Corps, until then held in reserve, to halt the Germans at Slutsk. However 20th Mechanized Corps had only 93 older tanks and 4th Airborne had to deploy on foot from lack of aircraft. Neither proved any threat to the advancing Second Panzer Group.  On 27 June 1941, German Second and Third Panzer Groups striking from south and north linked up near Minsk, surrounding and eventually destroying the Soviet 3rd, 10th and 13th Armies, and portions of the 4th Army, in total about 20 divisions, while the remainder of the 4th Army fell back eastwards toward the Berezina River. On 28 June 1941, the Ninth and Fourth German Armies linked east of Białystok splitting the encircled Soviet forces into two pockets: a larger Białystok pocket containing the Soviet 10th Army and a smaller Navahrudak pocket.  In the first 18 days of the war, Western Front had suffered 417 790 casualties, lost 9 427 guns and mortars, 4 799 tanks and 1 777 combat aircraft, and practically ceased to exist as a military force.  The Front commander, General of the Army Dmitri G. Pavlov, and the Front Staff were recalled to Moscow. There they were accused of intentional disorganization of defense and retreat without battle, sentenced as traitors, and executed. The families of the traitors were repressed according to NKVD Order no. 00486. This order dealt with families of traitors of Motherland. (They were rehabilitated in 1956.)

Western Front reorganized 28 June – 2 July.

Furious over the loss of Minsk on 28 June, Stalin replaced the disgraced Pavlov with Colonel General Andrey Yeryomenko as commander of Western Front. Arriving at Front headquarters at Mogilev on morning 29 June, Yeryomenko was faced with the daunting task of restoring order to the Western Front's defences. To accomplish this task he had initially only the remnants of 4th and 13th Armies, of which the former had been reduced to the equivalent of a division in strength. On 1 July he ordered 13th Army to fall back to the Berezina River and defend the sectors between the towns of Kholkolnitza, Borisov and Brodets. Further south 4th Army were to defend the Berezina from Brodets through Svisloch to Bobruisk. To reinforce the Front's defences the elite 1st Moscow Motor Rifle Division was rushed from Moscow Military District to Borisov. This division, commanded by Colonel Yakov Kreizer, was at full strength with two motorized regiments, one tank regiments and 229 tanks. However, by that date Yeryomenko's defense line on the Berezina had already been rendered obsolete by Guderian's Panzer Divisions. on 29 June 3rd Panzer Division captured a bridgehead at Bobruisk from 4th Army's 47th Rifle Corps and on 30 June 4th Panzer Division seized the railroad bridge at Svisloch from 4th Airborne Corps, cutting off one that corps' three brigades and most of the 20th Mechanized Corps.  Then on 2 July Stalin appointed Semyon Konstantinovich Timoshenko, Marshal of the Soviet Union and People's Commissar for Defence, to command the Western Front, with Yeryomenko and Marshal Semyon Budyonny as his deputies. At the same time Stalin transferred four armies, 19th Army, 20th Army, 21st Army and 22nd Army, from Marshal Budyonny's Group of Reserve Armies to Western Front. After a telephone conversation with Timoshenko, Stalin added a fifth reserve army, the weak 16th Army, as well.  Timoshenko's orders were to defend the Western Dvina River-Dniepr River line. To this end the front deployed on its northern flank 22nd Army, under Lieutenant General Filipp Afansasevich Ershakov, to defend the sector from Sebezh southward to the Western Dvina and then south along that river from north of Polotsk to Beshenkovichi. South of 22nd Army the 20th Army, under Lieutenant General Pavel Alekseyevich Kurochkin, was to defend the gap between the rivers from Beshenkovichi on the Western Dvina to Shklov on the Dnepr, supported by 5th Mechanized Corps, under Major General Ilya Alekseyenko, and 7th Mechanized Corps, under Major General Vasilii Ivanovich Vinogradov. 19th Army, under Lieutenant General Ivan Stepanovich Konev, that time regrouping northward from the Kiev region, was to defend the Vitebsk region to the rear of 22nd and 20th Armies. 19th Army included 23rd Mechanized Corps under Major General Mikhail Akimovich Miasnikov. On the front's southern flank 21st Army, under Lieutenant General Vasily Gerasimenko, including 25th Mechanized Corps under Major General Semyon Krivoshein, was to defend the sector from Rogachev to Rechitsa. The remnants of 4th and 13th Armies were to fall back and regroup at the Sozh River in 21st Army's rear. In early July Stalin relieved Korobkov, the commander of 4th Army, and had him executed for treason. He was replaced by Colonel Leonid Mikhaylovich Sandalov Finally the 16th Army, under Lieutenant General Mikhail Fedorovich Lukin, was kept in reserve in the Smolensk region.

German advance to the Dniepr 2–9 July.

The Western Front had been given a brief respite to erect new defences while the Germans reduced the pockets created during the Białystok-Minsk battles. With the Minsk pocket nearly digested, the German Panzer Groups resumed their offensive against Western Front on 2 July. On the Front's northern flank the advance of Hoth's forces were hampered by poor weather. LVII Motorised Corps made the best progress, but encountered heavy resistance from Soviet 22nd Army's 62nd Rifle Corps on the approaches to Polotsk, which led the German corps commander, Adolf-Friedrich Kuntzen, to reroute his 19th Panzer Division northward to Disna on the southern bank of the Western Dvina. XXXIX Motorised Corps, hindered by poor road conditions and resistance from Soviet 20th Army and 5th and 7th Mechanized Corps, in two days only advanced as far as Lepel. Further south Borisov, defended by the remnants of 13th Army and the Borisov Tank School, fell to 18th Panzer Division of 2nd Panzer Group's XXXXVII Motorised Corps on 2 July, the Germans capturing the road bridge intact despite Yeryomenko's personal instructions that it be destroyed. Timoshenko was instructed by the Stavka (the Soviet High Command) to restore the situation with Kreizer's 1st Moscow Motor Rifle Division. XXXXVI Motorised Corps also captured a bridgehead across the Berezina on 2 July when the SS Motorized Division "Das Reich" captured Pogost, but were then for two days hindered by 13th Army and 4th Army's 4th Airborne and 20th Mechanized Corps. On the southern flank the remnants of 4th Army's Rifle Divisions were only able to offer light resistance to the German XXIV Motorised Corps, instead the attackers were repeatedly halted by destroyed bridges at the Berezina, Ola, Dobosna and Drut Rivers.  Kreizer launched his counter-attack against the German bridgehead at Borisov on 3 July, but the defenders had been forewarned by radio intercepts and air reconnaissance, and with their superior tactics beat back this isolated Soviet attack. Defeated, Kreizer accordingly withdrew behind the Nacha River and fought a fighting withdrawal towards Orsha where it was aided by the arrival of 20th Army. Also on 3 July the spearheads of XXIV Motorised Corps reached the rain swollen Dniepr, with the 3rd Panzer Division arriving at the river north of Rogachev and 4th Panzer Division advancing to Bykhov. By nightfall Western Front could report that remnants of 4th and 13th Armies had been able to retreat across the Dniepr, however hardly anything of 3rd and 10th Armies remained. Moreover, parts of 13th Army and 17th Mechanized Corps were still west of the Dniepr. Accordingly, Timoshenko ordered his 21st Army to shore up its defences along the river and help the withdrawal by sending out forces to spoil the German advance. On 4 July 19 Panzer Division seized a bridgehead across the Western Dvina at Disna from the defending 51st Rifle Corps of Soviet 22nd Army, where it was reinforced by the German 18th Motorised Division.

The Smolensk pocket.

The Front took part in the fierce Battle of Smolensk (1941), which managed to disrupt the German "blitzkrieg" for two months. The Germans successfully encircled and destroyed large parts of Soviet 16th, 19th, and 20th Armies.  During July the Western Front's area of responsibility was reduced by the formation of the new Central and Reserve Fronts.  Stiffening Soviet resistance in the centre, convinced Hitler to put a temporary halt to the advance towards Moscow and divert Army Group Centre's armour towards Leningrad and Kiev.

The Soviet Dukhovshchina Offensive.

On 17 August Western Front launched an offensive towards Dukhovshchina as part of a larger Soviet attempt to counter-attack. However, despite some local successes, the offensive failed to breach the German defenses and the offensive was called off 10 September.  Newly promoted Colonel General Ivan Konev took over command in September when Timoshenko was transferred south to restore the situation in the then ongoing Battle of Kiev.

The Vyazma pocket.

On 2 October German forces resumed their advance on Moscow with the launch of Operation Typhoon. The Western Front again suffered immense losses when large parts of its forces were encircled near Vyazma.

Assault on Moscow.

When Zhukov took over on 10 October, the Soviet Reserve Front had just been disbanded and its forces incorporated into Western Front, but given the pounding that Soviet forces had suffered, the force numbered only 90,000 men. 16th Army (Soviet Union) under Konstantin Rokossovsky held at Volokolamsk, and General L.A. Govorov had 5th Army, recently raised from 1st Guards Rifle Corps, and soon to include the 32nd Rifle Division at Mozhaisk. The 43rd Army was under General K.D. Golubev at Maloyaroslavets, and the 49th Army was near Kaluga under General I. G. Zakharin. 49th Army had been formed in August 1941 and initially assigned to Reserve Front. On 1 September 1941, 49th Army comprised 194th, 220th, and 248th Rifle Divisions, and 4th Division of People's Militia. Meanwhile, 33rd Army was forming at Naro-Fominsk under General Lieutenant M.G. Yefremov, and was to be assigned to Zhukov's command.  The Soviets just managed to halt the German advance in the Battle of Moscow, leading to further furious fighting in the Battles of Rzhev just to the west. In May 1942 the Front's air forces became the 1st Air Army.

Later operations in World War II.

The Front appears to have controlled the three armies - the 5th Army, 33rd Army, and 10th Guards Army- which formed the assault force in the Battle of Smolensk (1943). On 1 August 1943 the 70th Rifle Corps was listed on the Soviet order of battle, as a headquarters with no troops assigned, directly subordinate to the front.  On 24 April 1944, the Front was divided into the 2nd Belorussian Front and 3rd Belorussian Front.

Status Today.

The Russian Ground Troops continue the Soviet Army's organizational arrangement of having Military Districts that have both a wartime territorial administration role and the capability to generate formation headquarters (HQs) to command Fronts. This was emphasized by reports of a Moscow Military District exercise in April 2001, when the district's units were to be divided into two groups, ‘one operating for the western front and the other for the wartime military district’.  It appears likely that the Western Front is still an active formation held within the Headquarters of the Moscow Military District. Plans probably call for it to be mobilised as part of the Russia-Belarus Regional Grouping of Troops (Forces).

The Western Front was a front of the Red Army, one of the Red Army Fronts during World War II.

Die Westfront () war eine militärische Formation der Roten Armee während des Deutsch-Sowjetischen Krieges (1941–1945). Die Front wurde am 22. Juni 1941 aus dem Westlichen Besonderen Militärbezirk (vor Juli 1940 als Weißrussischer Militärbezirk bezeichnet) gebildet und bestand bis zum 24. April 1944, als sie in 3. Weißrussische Front umbenannt wurde. Mit 1418 Tagen bestand sie als einzige Front die gesamte Dauer des Krieges zwischen der Sowjetunion und Deutschland.


Membership.

The IRU has member organizations in the following countries:.

Structure.

The IRU consists of four bodies: Congress, Parliament, Presidium, and Court of Justice.  The "Congress" of the IRU includes delegates from member organizations, in proportion to the total Romani population in that country. Delegates can make individual recommendation for the IRU, and together, they may choose whether to accept the IRU programme.  Unlike the Congress, the "Parliament" of IRU is made up of a single representative (and one substitute) from each member country. Parliament accepts reports on the situation of Romani peoples around the world, and decides the domestic and international policies of the IRU. Delegates must also approve each year's budget.  The "Presidium" serves as the IRU's executive, and conducts work through sub-commissions on "foreign policy, social and economic affairs, cultural and educational affairs, human rights, internal affairs, financial and budgetary matters, legal and legislative matters, issues relating to Central and Eastern Europe, and issues relating to America, Asia and Australia." It may request studies and reports on a variety of topics, and make formal recommendations to other IRU bodies, or to individual countries or organizations.  Members of the "Court of Justice" are independent judges, elected for their personal integrity, regardless of their membership in the IRU. The Court is tasked with observing all bodies of the IRU and ensuring their observance of the organization's rules and regulations.

Roma Virtual Network (RVN).

"Roma Virtual Network" is a public, non-partisan, non-profit grass-roots organization under the umbrella of ERIO and of IRU.  It provides the international Romany community and friendly non-Romany organizations and individuals with useful information on Roma issues in a variety of languages via the Internet. Established on 19 July 1999, by Valery Novoselsky, member of IRU, it has been started as a private initiative and gained the recognition of national and international, governmental and non-governmental NGOs dealing with Roma issues, especially in Europe. It contains 32 electronic mailing lists in 15 languages with a total membership of over 22 000 e-mail addresses.  RVN aims to help the cooperation and exchange of information within Roma organizations and individuals, between Roma and non-Roma organizations and individuals and also between Roma NGOs and official institutions. It relates with the variety of Roma-related political, cultural, economic and social issues on local and international levels, aiming to support the improvement of the Roma situation in Europe and other regions of the world. It offers also on-line support, besides for IRU, also for various other Gypsy organizations, like Domari: The Society of Gypsies in Israel, RomNews Network and Unión Romaní.

History.

In 1959, Ionel Rotaru founded The World Gypsy Community (CMG) in France. While members were mostly French, the organization made contacts in Poland, Canada, Turkey, and other countries. When the French government dissolved the CMG in 1965, a breakaway group formed the International Gypsy Committee (IGC) under the leadership of Vanko Rouda. When the 1971 World Romani Congress adopted the self-appellation of "Roma" rather than gypsy, the IGC was renamed the "Komiteto Lumniako Romano" (International Rom Committee or IRC), and Rouda was re-confirmed as president. The Committee became a member of the Council of Europe the following year. The Committee was changed again at the 1978 World Romani Congress and given its present name. It was given consultative status at the United Nations Economic and Social Council the following year. The Union became a registered NGO with UNICEF in 1986. In 1993, it was promoted to Category II, Special Consultative Status at the United Nations.  More recently, the IRU has also sought recognition for its own passports.  The main source of income is the membership fees of the individual members, and member organizations.

Institutional links.

The IRU has institutional links with: - the Council of Europe. - OSCE (ODHIR). - UNHCHR. - UNO - ERTF. The IRU has memorandum of understanding and cooperation with Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Czech Republic and other countries with a view to the "continuous improvement of the situation and living conditions of the Roma.

The International Romani Union () is an organization active for the rights of the Romani people. Its seat is in Prague.

Die International Roma Union oder "International Romani Union", auf Romanes: "Romano Internacionalno Jekhethanibe" (IRU) ist die wichtigste transnationale Interessenvertretung für Roma. Sie ist Dachverband zahlreicher nationaler und regionaler Organisationen und wurde auf dem 2. Welt-Roma-Kongress (WRC) im April 1978 in Genf gegründet.


Plot.

Cléo Victoire (played by Corinne Marchand) is having a tarot card reading with a fortune teller, who tells her that there is a widow in Cléo's life, who is completely devoted to her, but is also a terrible influence (her maid, Angèle). The fortune teller also sees that Cléo has recently met a generous young man, which she confirms, claiming that she doesn't see him too often, but he got her into the music industry. The fortune teller then says that she will meet a talkative young man. There is also an evil force in Cléo's life: a doctor. The fortune teller then pulls the hanged man card, meaning that Cléo is ill, potentially with cancer. She then proceeds to pull the death tarot card, and Cléo requests that the fortune teller read her palm. After examining her lifeline, the fortune teller remains silent before telling Cléo that she does not read hands, leading Cléo to believe that she is doomed.  While distraught from her visit to the fortune teller, Cléo reminds herself "as long as I'm beautiful, I'm alive" and that death is ugly. She meets her maid, Angèle, at a café and recounts the results of the tarot card reading, claiming that if it's cancer, she'll kill herself. Cléo cries in the café, even though there are people around, including the owner of the café. Cléo and Angèle proceed to go hat shopping, where Cléo only pays attention to the black fur hats, despite Angèle constantly reminding her that it's summertime. The black hats all beckon her, and she eventually picks out a black, winter hat. Cléo wants to wear the hat home, but Angèle reminds her that it's Tuesday, and it's bad luck to wear something new on a Tuesday. They have the shopkeeper send the hat to Cléo's home, and Cléo and Angèle take a taxi home in time for Cléo's rehearsal. The taxi driver is a woman, and Cleo and Angele find her to be an interesting character.  On the ride home, one of Cléo's songs plays, and they listen to the radio, discussing current news including the Algerian War, rebels who have been recently arrested, the Vienna Conference, President John F. Kennedy of the United States, and even Édith Piaf's recent surgery. Towards the end of the taxi ride, Cléo grows nauseous and attributes it to her illness. Upon returning home, Cléo cannot breathe, and Angèle tells her to do some exercise. Angèle helps her change into her clothes for rehearsal while Cléo is stretching out on a pull-up bar. She then lights a cigarette and relaxes in her bed. Before Cléo's lover, the man who the fortune teller mentioned earlier, enters the building, Angèle tells Cléo not to tell him that she's ill, because men "hate weakness". Her lover, a very busy man, tells her that he only has time to stop by for a kiss and that he'll be able to take her on vacation soon. Cléo tells him that she's ill, but he doesn't take her seriously. Cléo thinks that she's too good to men who are all egoists, to which Angèle agrees.  Once Cléo's lover leaves, Bob, a pianist, and Maurice, a writer, arrive at her home for her rehearsal. Bob and Maurice pretend to be doctors once Angèle tells them that Cléo is ill, because "all women like a good joke." However, Cléo does not find their joke funny, as no one is taking her illness seriously but her. Bob goes to the piano, and they begin to practice some of Cléo's songs. As they practice, Cléo's mood quickly darkens after singing the song "Sans Toi." Cléo feels like all people do is exploit her and that it won't be long until she's just a puppet for the music industry. Saying that everyone spoils her but no one loves her, Cléo leaves everyone behind in her home.  On the way to a café, Cléo passes a street performer swallowing frogs and spitting them back out on a huge wave of water. She plays one of her songs at a jukebox in the café and is upset when no one seems to notice the music playing in the background. Instead of remaining at the café, Cléo goes to a sculpting studio to visit her old friend, Dorothée, who is modelling nude for an artist. Once she's finished, Dorothée claims that her body makes her happy, not proud, and Dorothée drives Cléo to her home. Cléo tells her friend that she is dying of cancer. Dorothée returns the car to her lover, a projectionist, and they watch a silent movie from the projection booth, which jokingly shows a woman dying. Leaving the cinema, Cléo accidentally breaks a mirror, which she claims is a bad omen. Cléo and Dorothée then take a taxi, and pass a crime scene where a man was killed. Dorothée tells her that the broken mirror was meant for that man, not Cléo.  Having dropped Dorothée off at her apartment, Cléo has the taxi driver take her to a park (Parc Montsouris). By a bridge on a river, Cléo meets Antoine, a soldier on leave from the Algerian War. Antoine helps Cléo realize her selfishness, and asks her to accompany him to the train station to return to the war if he accompanies her to the hospital to get her test results. Before leaving, Antoine confides in Cléo about his thoughts on the war, and that in Algeria, they die for nothing, and that scares him. He also tells Cléo that girls always seem to be afraid to give themselves completely to someone and that they're afraid of losing something close to them, so they love by halves. Cléo realizes that that describes her perfectly. Antoine and Cléo go to the hospital by bus, and the doctor who tested Cléo for her possible cancer isn't in, despite the fact that he told her he'd be present at 7 pm that day. Cléo and Antoine sit on a bench outside, as Cléo is still determined that the doctor will be there. While Cléo has come to terms with her illness and is able to face the test results with courage thanks to Antoine's help, the doctor rolls by in his car and tells her that Cléo will be fine and completely cured with two months of treatment. Cléo says that her fear seems to be gone, and she seems happy. She tells Antoine that they have plenty of time together before he leaves to go back to Algeria as a soldier. For the first time in at least two hours, Cléo seems to be happy as she looks at Antoine.

Themes.

While the film takes place in France, away from the Algerian front, the influence of Algerian war for independence is still strong. The war greatly affected France during the 1950s and 1960s, where the demands for decolonization were the strongest. The soldier who Cléo meets towards the end of the film, Antoine, is on temporary leave from fighting in Algeria. Antoine also builds on the theme of existentialism that the film conveys, with his claims that the people in Algeria are dying for nothing. There are also protests on the street that Cléo encounters while taking a taxi back to her home.  "Cléo from 5 to 7" embodies the stereotypes that men subject women to and their oppressiveness. Cléo commonly complains that no one takes her seriously since she's a woman, and that the men think that she's faking her illness for attention. She seems to go along with these stereotypes as well, as many women in France did, telling herself essentially that beauty is everything by saying "as long as I'm beautiful, I'm alive."  Beginning in the 1940s, the French intellectual scene was dominated by existentialism, a movement in philosophy that would greatly influence art in France well into the 1960s. "Cléo from 5 to 7" is largely an existential film, as for the entirety of the film, Cléo struggles with her existence and the potential of facing her mortality. The impending results of her medical exam and the mere possibility that she may be diagnosed with cancer leaves Cléo open to an existential mind where she is aware of her own mortality. Further, upon meeting Antoine, the soldier talks about the deaths of the Algerian War, and that they are dying for nothing and without a purpose, further appealing to the existential philosophy.

Cléo from 5 to 7 ( ) is a 1962 French Left Bank film by Agnès Varda. The story starts with a young singer, Florence "Cléo" Victoire, at 5pm on June 21, as she waits until 6:30pm to hear the results of a medical test that will possibly confirm a diagnosis of cancer. The film is noted for its handling of several of the themes of existentialism, including discussions of mortality, the idea of despair, and leading a meaningful life. The film also has a strong feminine viewpoint belonging to French feminism and raises questions about how women are perceived, especially in French society. Mirrors appear frequently to symbolize self-obsession, which Cléo embodies.

Cleo – Mittwoch zwischen 5 und 7 ist ein französisch-italienischer Spielfilm aus dem Jahr 1961. Er zählt zu den Klassikern der französischen Nouvelle Vague.


History.

Precolonial era.

The region of Bicol was closely allied with the Kedatuan of Madja-as confederation, which was located on Panay island. According to the Maragtas, two datus and their followers, who followed Datu Puti, arrived at Taal Lake, with one group later settling around Laguna de Bay, and another group pushing southward into the Bicol peninsula, placing the Bicolanos between people from Luzon and people from the Visayas. An ancient tomb preserved among the Bicolanos, discovered and examined by anthropologists during the 1920s, refers to some of the same deities and personages mentioned in the "Maragtas".

Spanish colonial period.

In 1573, on his second expedition to this region, the conquistador Juan de Salcedo landed in a village and named it Naga because of the abundance of narra trees ("naga" in Bikol).  In 1575, Captain Pedro de Chávez, the commander of the garrison left behind by Salcedo, founded on the site of the present business centre (across the river from the original Naga) a Spanish city which he named La Ciudad de Cáceres, in honor of Francisco de Sande, the governor-general and a native of the city of Cáceres in Spain. It was by this name that it was identified in the papal bull of August 14, 1595, which established the see of Cáceres, together with those of Cebú and Nueva Segovia, and made it the seat of the new bishopric under the archdiocese of Manila.  In time, the Spanish city and the native village merged into one community and became popularly known as Nueva Cáceres, to distinguish it from its namesake in Spain. It had a city government as prescribed by Spanish law, with an "ayuntamiento" and "cabildo" of its own. At the beginning of the 17th century, there were only five other "ciudades" in the Philippines. Nueva Cáceres remained the capital of the Ambos Camarines provinces and later of the Camarines Sur province until the formal creation of the independent chartered city of Naga under the Philippine Republic.  For hundreds of years during the Spanish colonial era, Naga grew to become the center of trade, education, and culture, and the seat of ecclesiastical jurisdiction in Bicol.

American colonial period.

With the advent of American rule, the city was reduced to a municipality. In 1919, it lost its Spanish name and became officially known as Naga.

World War II and Japanese occupation.

Naga came under Japanese occupation on December 18, 1941, following the Japanese invasion of Legaspi a few days earlier.  In 1945, toward the end of World War II, combined U.S. and Philippine Commonwealth troops—of the United States Army, Philippine Commonwealth Army, Philippine Constabulary, as well as Bicolano guerrilla resistance groups—liberated Naga from imperial Japanese troops.

Independent Philippines.

After Naga was liberated from the Japanese, Naga began rebuilding. Having suffered only a few casualties, Naga was able to rebuild quickly after the war. After many petitions, Naga became a city on June 18, 1948, when it acquired its present city charter; and its city government was inaugurated on December 15 of the same year by virtue of Republic Act No. 305.

Geography.

Naga is located within the province of Camarines Sur at the southeastern tip of Luzon, southeast of Manila, the nation's capital, and near the center of the Bicol Region. It is surrounded on all sides by forests and by rich agricultural and fishing areas. It has an area of and is located on the serpentine and historic Naga River, at the confluence of the Naga and Bikol rivers. Thus, it has always been an ideal place for trade, and as center for schools, church, and government offices. Included in its territory is Mount Isarog, a declared protected area known as Mount Isarog Natural Park.

Climate.

According to the Köppen climate classification system, Naga has a tropical savanna climate.  The weather in the city from March to May is hot and dry, with temperatures ranging from. The typhoon season is from June to October, and the weather then is generally rainy. From November to February, the climate is cooler with temperatures ranging from. The average year-round humidity is 77%.

Barangays.

Naga is politically subdivided into 27 barangays.

Demographics.

Religion.

Roman Catholicism.

The city is the ecclesiastical seat of the Archdiocese of Caceres, which oversees the Catholic population in the Bicol Region, whose archbishop is the primate of the region. This dominant faith is supported by the presence of old and influential Catholic institutions, from universities to churches run by different religious institutes, notably the Ateneo de Naga University by the Jesuits; the Universidad de Santa Isabel by the Daughters of Charity; the Naga Metropolitan Cathedral, which is the oldest cathedral that is still standing in Luzon outside Metro Manila; Peñafrancia Basilica Minore, which is the largest Catholic structure in Southern Luzon in terms of size and land area; Our Lady of Peñafrancia Shrine; the historic San Francisco Church; and Peñafrancia Museum.

Protestants and evangelicals.

Protestant denominations in the city include Seventh-day Adventists and Bible Baptists, whose churches are located along Magsaysay Avenue, while other Protestants attend the Methodist Church which is among the old structures along Peñafrancia Avenue.  The "Assemblies of God" maintains a fast-growing ministry in Naga. Aside from Naga Bethel Church (formerly Naga Bethel Temple), which is located on Felix Plazo Street, other local congregations are Philippians Christian Fellowship (in barangays San Felipe), Gethsemane Christian Ministries (in Carolina), and outreach ministries in other barangays.

Other Christian sects.

The largest minority religion in Naga is Iglesia Ni Cristo (INC). INC has several chapels in different barangays in the city, and the local congregation is the largest in the district.  There is also a concentration of Jesus Miracle Crusade ministries in the city.

Islam, Buddhism and other faiths.

Muslims, Sikhs, and Taoists can also be found in the city.

Language.

The Coastal Bikol-Central dialect of the Coastal Bikol language is the dominant dialect spoken by the population in Naga. Central Standard Bikol is also the basis for other dialects in the Bicol Region. The majority of the city's population can understand and speak English, Filipino, and Tagalog. Because of the influx of people from the Rinconada area that are studying in different universities, Rinconada Bikol can also be heard in different schools and throughout the city. Some Nagueños have varying degrees of proficiency with Rinconada Bikol, due to the fact that the southern half of Pili, which is the boundary between Rinconada Bikol and Coastal Bikol speakers, is just few kilometers away from Naga. Although the main language is Bikol, and the medium of instruction in school is English, people in Naga usually tell time and count in Spanish.

Isarog Agta Language.

In 2010, UNESCO released its 3rd volume of "Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger", where three critically endangered languages were in the Philippines. One of these is the "Isarog Agta" language, of the Isarog Agta people, who live on Mount Isarog and are one of the original Negrito settlers in the Philippines, belonging to the Aeta people classification but with language and belief systems unique to their own culture and heritage.  Only five Isarog Agta spoke their indigenous language in the year 2000. The language was classified as "Critically Endangered", meaning the youngest speakers are grandparents and older, speak the language partially and infrequently, and hardly pass the language to their children and grandchildren. If the remaining 150 Isarog Agta do not pass their native language to the next generation, it will be extinct within one to two decades.

Economy.

Naga is the Bicol Region's center of commerce and industry. Strategically located at the heart of Bicol, Naga is the trade center in Bicol for goods from Visayas and Manila.  Naga is cited as one of the "Most Business-Friendly Cities in Asia", is considered to be one of the Philippines's Top-10 cities, and is a "most competitive city" of the Philippines. Some entrepreneurs cited the city as the most business-friendly in the region.

Business districts.

Downtown Naga is located in the southern part of the city. It is bordered, on the north, by the Naga University Belt and, on the south, by the historical Naga City Peoples Mall or simply Naga City Community Supermarket. It encompasses the three plazas of Naga: The Plaza Quince Martires, The Plaza Quezon, and the Plaza Rizal, which is the center of Central Business District 1 (CBD-1). Downtown Naga is the location of local businesses that sell local delicacies and native products from neighboring municipalities and provinces.  A second business district is located along Panganiban Drive, and Roxas, Ninoy and Cory avenues. It is also the location of 3 shopping complexes, a bus terminal, and the Camarines Sur Industrial and Technological Park, which houses several business process outsourcing offices.

South Riverfront Growth Area.

South Riverfront is composed of the whole of Barangay Sabang except those areas that are socialized housing sites or are otherwise excluded by the Naga City land-use plan for commercial or industrial development. It is bordered by CBD-1 (to the east), the Naga River, and the town of Camaligan, Camarines Sur.

Magsaysay district.

The main road in the city is Magsaysay Avenue, or Boulevard, which runs from Bagumbayan Road (Naga-Calabanga–Siruma–Garchitorena–Partido North Road), connecting it to Magsaysay district, where accommodations and restaurants catering to travelers are found. Businesses are open until late at night, with some shops open 24/7. Naga also has its share of fastfood restaurant chains. The city hall, provincial capitol, and several provincial offices are also located in the district, around the Peñafrancia Basilica.

Banking and finance.

In 2017, the banks in the city numbered around 66, excluding Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas. The city hosts the regional bank offices of Banco De Oro, Philippine National Bank, Development Bank of the Philippines, Metrobank, RCBC, Allied Bank, China Banking Corporation, Philtrust Bank, UnionBank of the Philippines, Philippine Veterans Bank, Asia United Bank, Maybank, Asia United Bank, Bank of Commerce, East West Bank, Bank of Makati, Bank of the Philippine Islands, and the Philippine Postal Savings Bank.

Shopping malls.

SM City Naga is the largest and most-visited shopping mall in the Bicol Region. Robinsons Place Naga opened in 2017. Nagaland E-Mall is in Downtown Naga. LCC Central Mall Naga is located on Felix Plazo Street. Gaisano Mall Naga is near the Bicol Medical Center. The Vista Mall is located on Maharlika Highway, in Barangay Del Rosario. There are two Puregold supermarkets in Naga. Avenue Square is the region's first "lifestyle center", built in 2005 along Magsaysay Avenue. There are also leisure hubs in the city, the majority being along Magsaysay Avenue, since that street is the center of nightlife in the region.

IT–business process outsourcing.

Naga was cited as one of the best places to conduct information technology–business process outsourcing (IT–BPO) activities in the Philippines.  The city currently has three IT parks—Naga City IT Park, Camarines Sur Industrial and Technological Park, and Naga City Technology Center.  IBM constructed their own call center office in front of SM City Naga.

Culture.

Naga is considered to be Bicol's cultural center, due to the largest festival in the region, the Peñafrancia Festival, being held in the city.

Festivals.

The Peñafrancia Festival.

The city celebrates the feast of "Nuestra Señora de Peñafrancia" (Our Lady of Peñafrancia), the patroness of the Bicol Region. Starting on the second Friday of September each year, the 10-day feast, the largest Marian devotion in the country. The start of the festival is signalled by a procession (or "Translacion") when the centuries-old image of the Blessed Virgin Mary is transferred from its shrine at the Peñafrancia Basilica Minore de Nuestra Señora de Peñafrancia to the 400-year-old Naga Metropolitan Cathedral. Coinciding with nine days of novena prayer at the cathedral, the city celebrates with parades, pageants, street parties, singing contests, exhibits, concerts, and other activities. Finally, on the third Saturday of September, the image is returned, shoulder-borne by so-called "voyadores", to the basilica via the historic Naga River. The following day marks the feast day of Our Lady of Peñafrancia, when Pontifical High Masses are celebrated in the basilica, attended by hundreds of thousands of faithful devotees.

Kamundagan Festival.

Naga celebrates the Kamundagan Festival every Christmas. It begins with the lighting of the Christmas Village in the Plaza Quezon Grandstand.

Kinalas Festival.

Naga celebrates the Kinalas Festival during its yearly anniversary of chartership or cityhood. It honors the most famous local delicacies, kinalas and siling labuyo, with a food contest.

Food and delicacies.

Naga is known for some native foods and delicacies.  Kinalas and lug-lug are noodle soup dishes served Bicol style, similar to "mami" except for a topping of what looked like a pansit palabok sauce, and the meaty dark soup made from boiling a cow's or a pig's head until the flesh falls off. Kinalas is from the old Bicol word "kalas", which refers to the "fall off the bone" meat that is placed on top of the noodles. The soup is the broth of beef bone and bone marrow (sometimes skull and brain included) or what Manileños call "bulalo". The soup is topped with very tender meat slices that also came from the pig's head. It is usually served hot with an egg, and sprinkled with roasted garlic and spring onions. Kalamansi and patis may be added according to taste. Kinalas is usually paired with Baduya, or with Banana or camote cue.  Other delicacies, such as, "buko" juice, "nata de coco", and "pan de Naga" are found in the city.

Sports.

The Metro Naga Sports Complex, in Barangay Pacol, has Olympic-sized swimming pools, tennis courts, and a track oval.  The Naga City Coliseum, renamed the Jesse M. Robredo Coliseum in honor of the late DILG secretary and former mayor of Naga, is the largest indoor arena in southern Luzon.

Transportation.

Airport.

The city is served by the Naga Airport (WNP) located in Barangay San Jose in the neighboring town of Pili. It has a runway of and thus is capable of handling only small aircraft.

Railways.

Naga is the regional head office and the center point of the Philippine National Railway's Bicol Line.  Naga—along with those of adjacent towns and cities, from Tagkawayan, Quezon Province, to Ligao, Albay—is served daily by the Bicol Express. There is a plan for extending the line to Legazpi in the near future.

Roads and bridges.

, Naga's total road network is in length, of which are paved with concrete, with asphalt overlay, with asphalt, are gravel, while are dirt. This translates to an increase of since 1998.  The city is connected to the capital Manila by the Quirino, Andaya, and Maharlika highways.

Land vehicles.

The most common vehicles used for intra-city travel are public-utility jeepneys (PUJ), trimobiles, and "padyaks".  Public utility jeepneys and multicabs, a total of 323 units, are a major mode of intra-city transport used by regular commuters.  Trimobiles are the most famous and most used land transport in the city. There are 1,500 units available for hire while 1,150 are for private use. There is now stiffer competition among drivers, which creates a wide range of problems, such as fare overcharging, refusal to convey passengers, an uneven distribution of trimobile service resulting in a shortage of transport service in some areas of the city, and rampant traffic violations.  Padyaks can be used in subdivision and barangay transportation. They provide a moderate amount of speed for those travelling to the city center.  Inter-town trips are served by 403 filcab vans and 708 jeepneys, while inter-provincial trips are served by an average of 300 airconditioned and non-airconditioned buses and 88 Filcab vans.  Recently, about 50 taxi units became available in the city. They use the new SM Naga City mall as a waiting area for passengers.

Public services.

Health care.

Naga is the medical center of the Bicol Region. It has the largest hospitals in the region. The government-owned Bicol Medical Center and Camarines Sur Provincial Hospital, and the Universidad de Sta Isabel – Mother Seton Hospital, owned and operated by the Daughters of Charity, which are considered the largest hospitals in the region in size and accommodation. The Metropolitan Naga Medical District, in Naga, is the only medical district in Bicol.  Bicol Medical Center (BMC), the largest hospital in the region, is located in Concepcion Pequeña. It offers specialty training in internal medicine, pediatrics, general surgery, obstetric and gynecology, anesthesiology, radiology, ophthalmology, otolaryngology, orthopedics, and traumatology. It is also a base hospital of the Helen Keller Foundation, where eye specialists from all over the country are trained and later assigned to different parts of the Philippines.  Universidad de Santa Isabel - Mother Seton Hospital (USI – MSH), is the largest private hospital in the region by number of admissions, medical equipment facilities, number of beds available, physical structure, and number of board-certified medical consultants. It is the only private hospital in Bicol offering specialty training programs, accredited by the Philippine Medical Association's component society, in major fields of medicine, such as internal medicine, pediatrics, and general surgery.  Camarines Sur Provincial Hospital is another government-owned hospital in the region. It was founded in 1989, by Republic Act 9963, and is one of the first-class hospitals in the Philippines.  The Plaza Medica houses the Naga Endocrine Laboratory (also called the "Endolab"), a modern hormone laboratory and facility.  Bicol Access Health Centrum is another large hospital located in the city. It houses the Regional Disease Research Center, the first and only in the region.  Several secondary and tertiary hospitals can be found in the city.

Waste management and disposal.

Solid waste.

The main pollutants in the city come in the form of solid waste generated daily. Generally, these wastes come from various sources: residential, commercial, industrial, and institutional.  Naga generates approximately 85.8 tons of waste per year, based on the latest 2009 estimates, where agricultural waste makes up a little more than one-fourth (26%) of the total volume. Food waste makes up a slightly smaller share, at 23%. Paper-based materials compose 12%, while other categories contribute smaller percentages.  Solid wastes are disposed of and collected via the city's garbage trucks, which traverse ten routes on a daily basis. Collected wastes are then dumped at the dump site in Barangay Balatas, where they are segregated according to type of waste, and whether biodegradable or non-biodegradable.

Liquid waste.

A study of wastewater treatment facilities is incorporated in the proposed septage management ordinance, where the city will be very strict in forcing compliance with proper waste treatment by housing and establishment owners. The local water-utility agency has made the Metro Naga Water District its local partner in providing septage services, in exchange for adding environmental fees to water bills.  The new wastewater treatment facility of SM City Naga, operational since April 20, 2009, has a capacity of 500 cubic meters per day; but at present, it is treating only around 200.

Environmental awards.

The Naga City government's concern for the environment has been nationally and internationally recognized. In 1998, it received the Dubai International Award as one of the Top-10 World Best Practices in Improving the Living Environment, for Naga's Participatory Planning Initiatives. It received the 1995, 1998, and 1999 Cleanest "AA" Slaughterhouse Awards given by the Department of Agriculture (DA) and the National Meat Inspection Commission (NMIC). In 1994, Naga was a regional winner as the Cleanest and Greenest in Bicol. While in June 2001, LGU Naga City received the Saringgaya Award from the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) for Distinguished Contributions in the Development of Environmental Programs in Region V.

Fire safety.

The Naga City Fire Station is one of the most well equipped fire stations in the country. Other fire stations include Naga Chin Po Tong Fire Brigade, and the Naga White Volunteers.

Police and law enforcement.

The city is the location of two of the largest police stations in the Bicol Region. The historic Naga City Police Station, which had been the military base of operations of the Guardia Civil in the region, during the time of Spanish rule. Another police office, located in Barangay Concepcion Grande, is the provincial office of the Philippine National Police for Camarines Sur.

Education.

Naga is the home of the six largest universities in the Bicol Region. The city is also the home of several colleges.

Tertiary education.

Ateneo de Naga University is a Jesuit university and the largest Catholic university in the Bicol Region. The school has been accredited by PAASCU since 1979 and is the first university in the Philippines to achieve PAASCU Institutional Accreditation, on top of its Autonomous and Level III status. It is a "center of excellence" in teacher education, and a center of development in business administration, entrepreneurship, and information technology. It has produced animators for the country since it launched its bachelor's degree in animation.  The Universidad de Santa Isabel was inaugurated on April 12, 1869, as a private Catholic university owned and run by the Daughters of Charity and is the "first normal school for women in the Philippines and Southeast Asia and the Heritage and Historical University of Bicol". It was established by six sisters of the order who arrived in the Bicol Region on April 4, 1868, with the Bishop of Caceres, Francisco Gainza, O.P., the founder of Colegio de Santa Isabel.  University of Nueva Caceres was the very first university in south Luzon, outside of Manila, and is considered to be largest in the region, due to its attendance and size, that offers courses from kindergarten to graduate school. Founded by Dr. in 1948, it has grown to become one of the leading institutions of higher learning in the Philippines. All course offerings are recognized by the government, and the colleges of Arts and Sciences, Education, and Commerce are accredited by the Philippine Association of Colleges and Universities Commission on Accreditation (PACU-COA). Its College of Engineering and Architecture is now one of the few regional centers for technological education in the Philippines.  Technical colleges in the city include the Bicol State College of Applied Sciences and Technology, Naga College Foundation, AMA Computer University, and STI College. Specialized computer schools include Worldtech Resources Institute (WRI), Philippine Computer Foundation College (PCFC), and Computer Communication Development Institute (CCDI).  The country's oldest live-in Christian higher educational institute for the clergy was established in the city in the early part of the 18th century. The Holy Rosary Seminary ("El Seminario del Santissimo Rosario"), a Roman Catholic seminary run by the Archdiocese of Caceres, has produced 22 bishops, including the first Filipino bishop, Jorge Barlin, and the first Filipino cardinal to work in the Roman Curia, Jose Tomas Sanchez. The seminary has contributed, as well, to the national heritage, through José María Panganiban, Tomás Arejola, and seven of the Fifteen Martyrs of Bicol. On January 29, 1988, the National Historical Institute declared the Holy Rosary Seminary a National Historical Landmark.

Secondary and primary education.

The government-run Camarines Sur National High School registers over 15,000 enrollees every school year, and it is the biggest secondary school in the region. Among other secondary schools in the city is the Tinago National High School.  Naga City Science High School was established in Naga in 1994. It has pilot curricula, including the Spanish curriculum, which is the third one in the Philippines, and the journalism curriculum, which allows students to receive training and exposure to college-level situations. The school is consistently a champion at the "Doon Po Sa Amin" national documentary contest.  Two schools in the city, Saint Joseph School (SJS) and Naga Hope Christian School (NHCS), cater to Filipino-Chinese students.  Naga Parochial School (NPS) is the largest parochial school in the region; it receives 850 enrollees yearly. It is run by priests of the Archdiocese of Caceres. It is the first PAASCU-accredited parochial school in the Philippines. Some members of the clergy (63 as of 2007 with 3 bishops) assigned to the city are alumni of the school. Well-known personalities—such as the late Raul Roco, Jesse Robredo, Francis Garchitorena, Luis R. Villafuerte, Jaime Fabregas, Jonathan Dela Paz Zaens, Archbishop Tito Yllana, and Bishop Jose Rojas—are graduates of NPS.  Private schools—such as Arborvitae Plains Montessori, Inc.; Naga City Montessori School; and the Village Montessori School—can be found in the city. Tutorial and review centers for higher education are also found in the city.

Media.

Television networks.

All of the major television broadcasting channels' regional offices are located in the city. ABS-CBN Corporation expanded its network in Bicol by establishing ABS-CBN Naga, which operates ABS-CBN channel 11 Naga, ABS-CBN Sports and Action Naga and MOR! Local shows such as TV Patrol Bicol, Marhay na Aga Kapamilya are broadcast throughout the region via ABS-CBN Regional, which is also stationed in the city. TV5 Network Inc.'s TV5 airs shows via channel 22, GMA Network's channel 7 and GMA News TV channel 28 are also available.

Cable and satellite TV.

The city's cable and satellite TV companies include South Luzon Cable and DCTV Cable Network Naga (Formerly SkyCable Naga).

Radio stations.

Naga has a number of FM and AM radio stations, some of which operate 24 hours daily.

', officially the'(Central Bikol: "Ciudad nin "; Rinconada Bikol: "Syudad ka "; ; ), or simply referred to as City, is a independent component city in the Bicol Region,. It is also the third oldest royal city in the country.According to the, it has a population of people.

Naga (Bikolano "Ciudad nin Naga", Filipino "Lungsod ng Naga", „Stadt Naga“) ist eine philippinische Stadt. Sie liegt im südöstlichen Teil der Insel Luzon in der Bicol Region in der Provinz Camarines Sur etwa 280 km südöstlich von Manila. Es wird Bikolano, Filipino/Tagalog und Englisch gesprochen.


History.

Johan Lundgren, Jr., an IT student/aviation enthusiast attending Luleå University of Technology in Sweden, created the site "Pictures of Modern Airliners" in 1996. Lundgren had been working on the site during his military service. It initially hosted only his own aircraft photos before a new section was created for other photographers to upload their photos.  In 1997, Lundgren transitioned to a new site entitled "Airliners.net" and established a web server in his dormitory room. Three more servers were added, and eventually all servers were relocated to the computer rooms at the university. Lundgren started investing all of his time into the site, although he received help from a growing number of volunteers.  On 27 July 2007, Lundgren announced that the site would be acquired by Demand Media. It was sold to the company for US$8.2 million. Reasons behind the decision included the difficulty of managing the rapidly growing site, which was by that point supported by 25 servers.  A revamped site was launched on 14 June 2016.

Membership.

The site offers free membership, using online advertising instead as a source of revenue. Before the June 2016 redesign, Airliners.net provided three levels of membership: the Photographer Account, Premium Membership and First Class Membership. The latter two required payment while a Photographer Account could be created for free.

Features.

The site has two main features: the photo database and the forum. The database contains over 2.7 million photos with over 8.6 billion total views as of June 2016. All photos undergo screening prior to being admitted to the database, which can be searched by various factors including aircraft type, the airport at which the photo was taken and the aircraft registration. The forum is divided into ten subforums: Civil Aviation; Travel, Polls & Preferences; Technical/Operations; Aviation Hobby; Aviation Photography; Photography Feedback; Trip Reports; Military Aviation & Space Flight; Non-Aviation; and Site Related. Airliners.net also offers a complimentary newsletter service and a database of information on aircraft types developed with the help of Aerospace Publications.

Airliners.net is an aviation website that includes an extensive photo database of aircraft and airports, as well as a forum catering to aviation enthusiasts. Created by Johan Lundgren, Jr., the site originated in 1996 as "Pictures of Modern Airliners". It was acquired by Demand Media (now known as Leaf Group) in 2007 and underwent a major redesign in 2016.

Airliners.net ist eine Luftfahrt-Website, die vor allem eine Foto-Datenbank mit mehr als 3 Millionen Einträgen (2019) von Flugzeugen, Hubschraubern und anderen Fluggeräten sowie luftfahrtbezogener Infrastruktur (beispielsweise Flughäfen, Flugzeugträger) anbietet. Außerdem findet sich auf der Seite eine Wissensdatenbank zum Thema Verkehrsflugzeuge.


History.

The Student Loan Marketing Association was originally created in 1972 as a government-sponsored enterprise (GSE) and began privatizing its operations in 1997, a process it completed at the end of 2004 when Congress terminated its federal charter, ending its ties to the government. The company remains the country's largest originator of federally insured student loans. Through its specialized subsidiaries and divisions, Sallie Mae also provides debt management services as well as business and technical products to a range of business clients, including colleges, universities and loan guarantors.  In 2005, Sallie Mae was among 53 entities that contributed the maximum of $250,000 to the second inauguration of President George W. Bush.  In August 2006, Sallie Mae acquired Upromise, a company that provides rebates to buyers of certain brands, which can be applied to college savings accounts. Sallie Mae and Upromise plan to market comprehensive financial packages to parents and students, including investment plans, financial aid information, and student loans.  On April 16, 2007, Sallie Mae announced that an investor group led by J.C. Flowers & Co. signed an agreement to purchase Sallie Mae for approximately $25 billion. Had the transaction completed, J.C. Flowers along with private-equity firm Friedman Fleischer & Lowe would have owned 50.2% of Sallie Mae, and Bank of America and JPMorgan Chase would each have owned 24.9%. Sallie Mae would have ceased to be a publicly traded company. The deal fell through in September 2007, with the buyers blaming adverse changes to the business's outlook as a result of the College Cost Reduction and Access Act of 2007 and the tightening of global credit markets following the 2007 subprime mortgage financial crisis. Sallie Mae subsequently began legal action, only to drop it in January 2008 upon completion of a $31 billion funding round, including funding from Bank of America.  On April 6, 2009, Sallie Mae announced that it will move 2,000 jobs back to the U.S. within the next 18 months as it shifts call center and other operations from overseas.  On March 31, 2010, Sallie Mae announced the impending layoff of 2,500 employees in response to the signing of new legislation calling for the federal government to lend directly to students, bypassing institutions like Sallie Mae.  On July 1, 2010, Sallie Mae announced that it will be moving its headquarters from Reston, Virginia, to its existing facility in Newark, Delaware, in 2011.  On September 17, 2010, it was announced that Sallie Mae will acquire federally insured loans from Citigroup-owned Student Loan Corporation worth $28 billion.  On February 25, 2014, Sallie Mae announced the new name for the student loan side which will be called "Navient".

Corporate information.

The Sallie Mae corporate headquarters is in Newark, Delaware. Sallie Mae has offices in Newton, Massachusetts; Indianapolis, Indiana; Salt Lake City, Utah; and Reston, Virginia.

Corporate board.

Raymond J. Quinlan is chairman of the Board of Directors. He joined the board in 2014 replacing previous chairman Anthony P. Terracciano—formerly president of First Union Corporation (now Wells Fargo). Quinlan is also the chief executive office of Sallie Mae. He took over as CEO when the company announced its strategic separation in May 2014. Albert Lord held the positions of vice chairman and CEO until his retirement 2013. Lord joined Sallie Mae in 1981, took over as CEO in 1995, and led the company's privatization. On May 29, 2013, the board announced Jack Remondi as Lord's successor.

Awards.

Through The Fund's work, Sallie Mae was named among "BusinessWeek"'s Top 15 Corporate Philanthropists in 2004. The "Washington Business Journal" identified the company as the top local corporate philanthropist in 2005.  The Sallie Mae Fund earned the 2007 Insight Award for Customer Advocacy in Financial Services (from Insight Forums, LLC). The award recognizes financial communications initiatives that proactively enable customers to make fully informed choices.  In the early 2010s, "Kiplinger’s Personal Finance" recognized Sallie Mae Bank as the Best Online Savings Account, the Best Money Market Account. “the best place to stash cash,” and the Best Savings Account.

Controversies.

A "60 Minutes" segment (originally aired May 7, 2006) examined Sallie Mae, including its business practices. Elizabeth Warren, then a professor at Harvard Law School and sharp critic of what she characterizes as unfair lending practices and later a US Senator, questioned Sallie Mae's dual role as lender and collector of student loans.  In February 2007, New York Attorney General Andrew Cuomo launched an investigation into alleged deceptive lending practices by student loan providers, including The College Board, EduCap, Nelnet, Citibank, and Sallie Mae. On April 11, 2007, Cuomo ended his investigation of Sallie Mae and announced that Sallie Mae had voluntarily agreed to change its lending standards to satisfy a new code of conduct for student loan practices established by Cuomo, and to donate $2 million (USD) to a fund devoted to educating college-bound students about their loan options.  On October 10, 2007, documents surfaced showing that Sallie Mae was attempting to use the Freedom of Information Act to force colleges to turn over students' personal information. The university involved, the State University of New York system, was expected to decline the request and be forced to defend its position in court.  In December 2007, a class action lawsuit was brought against Sallie Mae in a Connecticut federal court alleging that the company discriminated against African American and Hispanic private student loan applicants by charging them high interest rates and fees. The lawsuit also alleged that Sallie Mae failed to properly disclose private student loan terms to unsuspecting students. New York Attorney General Andrew Cuomo, raised similar concerns about possible student loan redlining in June 2007. The lawsuit was settled and dismissed in 2011. Under the terms of the settlement, Sallie Mae agreed to make a $500,000 donation to the United Negro College Fund and the attorneys for the plaintiffs received $1.8 million in attorneys' fees.  On January 31, 2008, SLM Corporation had a lawsuit for failing to adequately reserve for losses in Sallie Mae's non-traditional portfolio and paid $35,000,000 for settlement.  A False Claims suit was filed against Sallie Mae by former U.S. Department of Education researcher, Dr. Oberg. The suit alleges that Sallie Mae and other lenders deliberately overcharged the U.S. government. The findings by Oberg were labeled among higher education policy analysts as the 9.5 scandal.  On February 20, 2014, Illinois Attorney General Lisa Madigan’s office announced that an investigation into Sallie Mae's debt collection practices and loan servicing practices had been opened.  On November 9, 2005, former Sallie Mae employee Michael Zahara filed a federal lawsuit against the company, alleging that it had a pattern and practice of granting forbearance in a purposeful effort to increase total student loan debt. On October 29, 2008, permission was granted to his legal counsel to withdraw from the case, citing "From counsel’s perspective, a breakdown in trust has resulted from the discovery that Relator has been arrested for extortion, the circumstances surrounding that arrest, and Relator’s failure to disclose the arrest to counsel." On March 12, 2009, the court ruled "dismissal without prejudice" because "the plaintiff has failed to obtain substitute counsel by the deadline." Zahara was seeking new counsel.

SLM Corporation (commonly known as Sallie Mae; originally the Student Loan Marketing Association) is a publicly traded U.S. corporation that provides consumer banking. Its nature has changed dramatically since it was set up in 1973. At first, it was a government entity that serviced federal education loans. It then became private and started offering private student loans, although at one point it had a contract to service federal loans.

Die SLM Corporation (Student Loan Marketing Association), allgemein als Sallie Mae bekannt, ist ein US-amerikanisches Kreditinstitut. Früher war das Unternehmen vor allem für die Vergabe von Studienkrediten bekannt.