History.

Disk II.

Apple did not originally offer a disk drive for the Apple II, which used data cassette storage like other microcomputers of the time. Apple early investor and executive Mike Markkula asked cofounder Steve Wozniak to design a drive system for the computer after finding that a checkbook-balancing program Markkula had written took too long to load from tape. Wozniak knew nothing about disk controllers, but while at Hewlett-Packard he had designed a simple, five-chip circuit to operate a Shugart Associates drive.  The Apple II's lack of a disk drive was "a glaring weakness" in what was otherwise intended to be a polished, professional product. Speaking later, Osborne 1 designer Lee Felsenstein stated, "The difference between cassette and disk systems was the difference between hobbyist devices and a computer. You couldn't have expected, say, VisiCalc, to run on a cassette system." Recognizing that the II needed a disk drive to be taken seriously, Apple set out to develop a disk drive and a DOS to run it. Wozniak spent the 1977 Christmas holidays adapting his controller design, which reduced the number of chips used by a factor of 10 compared to existing controllers. Still lacking a DOS, and with Wozniak inexperienced in operating system design, Steve Jobs approached Shepardson Microsystems with the project. On April 10, 1978 Apple signed a contract for $13,000 with Shepardson to develop the DOS.  Shortly after the disk drive project began in late 1977, Steve Jobs made several trips to Shugart's offices announcing that he wanted a disk drive that would cost just $100. After Wozniak finished studying IBM disk controller designs, Jobs then demanded that Shugart sell them a stripped disk drive that had no controller board, index sensor, load solenoids, or track zero sensor. Although puzzled by this request, Shugart complied and provided Apple with 25 drive mechanisms that they could use as prototypes in developing a disk system for the Apple II. The prototypes received the designation of SA-390.  Wozniak studied North Star Computers and others' more complex floppy controllers. He believed that his simpler design lacked their features, but realized that they were less sophisticated; for example, his could use soft-sectored disks. Following the Shugart controller's manual, Wozniak attempted to develop an FM-type controller with 10 sector per track storage, but realized that Group Coded Recording could fit 13 sectors per track. Wozniak called the resultant Disk II system "my most incredible experience at Apple and the finest job I did", and credited it and VisiCalc with the Apple II's success.  The Disk II was very successful for Apple, being the cheapest floppy disk system ever sold up to that point and immensely profitable for the company, in addition to having nearly 20% more storage space than standard FM drives. For a while, the only direct competitor in the microcomputer industry was the TRS-80 Model I, which had used only standard FM storage for 85k. Both the Atari 8-bit and Commodore 64's disk drives' throughputs were much slower than the Disk II's 15 KB/s, seriously affecting their ability to compete in the business market. However, the advantage of Wozniak's design was somewhat nullified when the cost of double-density MFM controllers dropped only a year after the Disk II's introduction.  The initial Disk II drives (A2M0003) were modifications of the Shugart SA-400, which was the first commercially available -inch diskette drive. Apple purchased only the bare drive mechanisms without the standard SA-400 controller board, replaced it with Wozniak's board design, and then stamped the Apple rainbow logo onto the faceplate. Early production at Apple was handled by two people, and they assembled 30 drives a day. By 1982, Apple switched to Alps drives for cost reasons.  Normal storage capacity per disk side was 113.75 KB with Apple DOS 3.2.1 and earlier (256 bytes per sector, 13 sectors per track, 35 tracks per side), or 140 KB with DOS 3.3 and ProDOS (256 bytes per sector, 16 sectors per track, 35 tracks per side). The 16-sector hardware upgrade introduced in 1980 for use with DOS 3.3 modified only the controller card firmware to use a more efficient GCR code called "6 and 2 encoding". Neither the drive itself nor the physical bit density was changed. This update had the disadvantage of not automatically booting older 13 sector Apple II software.  Since the Disk II controller was completely software-operated, the user had total control over the encoding and format so long as it was within the physical limits of the drive mechanism and media. This also allowed software companies to use all sorts of ingenious copy protection schemes.  The Shugart SA-400, from which the Disk II was adapted, was a single-sided, 35-track drive. However, it was common for users to manually flip the disk to utilize the opposite side, after cutting a second notch on the diskette's protective shell to allow write-access. Most commercial software using more than one disk side was shipped on such "flippy" disks as well. Only one side could be accessed at once, but it did essentially double the capacity of each floppy diskette, an important consideration especially in the early years when media was still quite expensive.  In the Disk II, the full-height drive mechanism shipped inside a beige-painted metal case and connected to the controller card via a 20-pin ribbon cable; the controller card was plugged into one of the bus slots on the Apple's mainboard. The connector is very easy to misalign on the controller card, which will short out a certain IC in the drive; if later connected correctly, a drive damaged this way will delete data from any disk inserted into it as soon as it starts spinning, even write-protected disks such as those used to distribute commercial software. This problem resulted in numerous customer complaints and repairs, which led to Apple printing warning messages in their user's manuals to explain how to properly install the connector. They used different connectors that could not be misaligned in later drives. DB-19 adapters for the original Disk II were eventually available for use with Apple's later connector standard.  Up to 14 drives could be attached to one Apple II or Apple IIe computer - two drives per controller card, one card per slot, and there were seven usable slots per computer. While the DOS and ProDOS operating systems worked equally well with the card in any of the normal slots (i.e. all except slot 0 of the Apple II/II+ or the special memory expansion slots of the later models), Apple's printed manuals suggested using slot 6 for the first controller card; most Apple II software expects this slot to be used for the main -inch disk drive and fails otherwise. A Bell & Howell version of the Disk II was also manufactured by Apple in a black painted case, which matched the color of the Bell & Howell version of the Apple II Plus, which Apple was already manufacturing.

Disk III.

In 1978, Apple intended to develop its own "FileWare" drive mechanism for use in the new Apple /// and Lisa business computers then being developed. They quickly ran into difficulties with the mechanisms, which precluded them from being incorporated in the Apple ///. That machine thus continued to use the same Shugart design as the Disk II.  The first variation of the Disk II introduced for the Apple ///, called the Disk III (A3M0004), used the identical drive mechanism inside a modified plastic case with a proprietary connector. With some modification both drives are interchangeable. Though Apple sought to force the purchase of new drives with the Apple ///, many former Apple II users quickly devised a way to adapt their existing and cheaper Disk II drives, however only one external Disk II was supported in this manner. The Disk III was the first to allow daisy chaining of up to three additional drives to the single 26-pin ribbon cable connector on the Apple ///, for a total of 4 floppy disk drives – the Apple /// was the first Apple to contain a built-in drive mechanism. The Apple III Plus changed its 26-pin connector to a DB-25 connector, which required an adapter for use with the Disk III.

FileWare.

In 1983, Apple finally announced a single and dual external drive ("UniFile" and "DuoFile") implementing the 871-kilobyte "FileWare" mechanism used in the original Apple Lisa, as a replacement for the Disk II & /// drives. However, due to the reliability problems of the Apple-built "Twiggy" drive mechanisms, the products never shipped.

DuoDisk.

In 1983, along with the introduction of the Apple IIe, Apple initially offered a combination of two, two third-height, 140-kilobyte Disk II drive mechanisms side-by-side in a single plastic case, called the DuoDisk 5.25 (A9M0108), which could not be daisy-chained. The unit was designed to be stacked on top of the computer, and beneath the monitor. Each unit required its own disk controller card (as each card could still control only two drives) and the number of units was thus limited to the number of available slots; in practice, few uses of the Apple II computer can make good use of more than two -inch drives, so this limitation mattered little. Originally released with a DB-25 connector, to match that of the Apple III Plus, it was the first to adopt Apple's standard DB-19 floppy drive connector.

Disk IIc.

The Disk IIc (A2M4050) was a half-height -inch floppy disk drive introduced by Apple Computer in 1984 styled for use alongside the Apple IIc personal computer, the only Apple II to contain a -inch built-in disk drive mechanism. The disk port on the original IIc was only designed to control one additional, external -inch disk drive, and as such, this particular drive omitted a daisy-chain port in back. It was possible to use it on other Apple II models, so long as it came last in the chain of drive devices (due to lacking a daisy-chain port); but since the Disk IIc was sold without a controller card, the Apple IIc computer needing none, it had to be adapted to an existing Disk II controller card in this case. Essentially the same as the full-height Disk II, Apple sold the Disk IIc for US$329, and other companies later sold similar drives for less.

-inch drive.

In 1984, Apple had opted for the more modern, Sony-designed -inch floppy disk in late-model Lisas and the new Apple Macintosh. Accordingly, they attempted to introduce a new -inch 800-kilobyte floppy disk format for the Apple II series as well, to eventually replace the 140-kilobyte Disk II format. However, the external UniDisk 3.5 drive required a ROM upgrade (for existing Apple IIc machines; new ones shipped after this time had it from the factory) or a new kind of disk controller card (the so-called "Liron Card", for the Apple IIe) to be used. The much larger capacity and higher bitrate of the -inch drives made it impractical to use the software-driven Disk II controller because the 1-megahertz 6502 CPU in the Apple II line was too slow to be able to read them. Thus a new and much more advanced (and correspondingly expensive) hardware floppy controller had to be used. And many original Apple IIs could not use the new controller card at all without further upgrades. Also, almost all commercial software for the Apple II series continued to be published on -inch disks which had a much larger installed base. For these reasons the -inch format was not widely accepted by Apple II users. The Apple 3.5 Drive used the same 800-kilobyte format as the UniDisk 3.5", but it did away with the internal controller, which made it cheaper. Unlike all earlier Apple II drives, it was designed to work with the Macintosh too, and among Apple II models, it was compatible only with the Apple IIGS and the Apple IIc+ models, which both had a faster main CPU. On the Apple IIGS, whose improved audiovisual capacities really demanded a higher-capacity disk format as well, the -inch format was accepted by users and became the standard format. Though Apple eventually offered a 1.44-megabyte SuperDrive with matching controller card for the Apple II series as well, the -inch Disk II format drives continued to be offered alongside the newer -inch drives and remained the standard on the non-IIGS models until the platform was discontinued in 1993.  Officially, the following -inch drives could be used on the Apple II:  The 400-kilobyte and 800-kilobyte Macintosh external drives (M0130 and M0131) are incompatible with standard Apple II controllers as they do not support the drives' automatic disk eject feature, although they could be used with third-party controllers.

UniDisk 5.25" and Apple 5.25 Drive.

Along with the UniDisk 3.5", Apple introduced the UniDisk 5.25 (A9M0104) in a plastic case, which modernized the appearance of the Disk II to better match the Apple IIe. Since the UniDisk 5.25" could fully replace the Disk II in all its uses, the original Disk II was canceled at this point. This was followed in 1986 by a Platinum-gray version which was renamed Apple 5.25 Drive (A9M0107), companion to the Apple 3.5 Drive, and introduced alongside the first Platinum-colored computer, the Apple IIGS. Essentially these were both single half-height Disk II mechanisms inside an individual drive enclosure, just like the Disk IIc had been. All of these drives introduced a daisy chain pass-through port. While the drives are essentially interchangeable among Apple II computers, both with each other and with the earlier drives, only the Apple 5.25 Drive can be used with the Apple IIe Card on a Macintosh LC.

Apple PC 5.25" Drive.

There is one -inch drive made by Apple that is completely incompatible with all the drives named above. In 1987 Apple sought to better compete in the IBM dominated business market by offering a means of cross-compatibility. Alongside the release of the Macintosh SE & Macintosh II, Apple released the Apple PC 5.25" Drive which required a separate custom PC 5.25 Floppy Disk Controller Card, different for each Mac model. It is the only -inch drive manufactured by Apple that can be used by the Macintosh.  This drive was for use with industry standard double-sided -inch 360-kilobyte formatted flexible disks. It was similar in appearance to the Disk IIc. Through the use of a special Macintosh Apple File Exchange utility shipped with it, the drive could read files from, and write files to, floppy disks in MS-DOS formats. Software "translators" could convert documents between WordStar and MacWrite, among others. This drive is not just incompatible with all Apple II computers, but also with the Apple IIe Card for the Macintosh LC; it cannot be used to allow a Macintosh to read from or write to -inch Apple II formatted disks either.  This drive was made obsolete by the industry-wide adoption of -inch disks and was replaced by the -inch Apple FDHD Drive, which could not only read and write all then-existing native Macintosh, DOS and Windows formats, but the Apple II ProDOS format as well.

Disk II Cable Pinout.

This table shows the pinout of the original 1979 Disk II controller and newer 1983 Uni/Duo Disk I/O controller (655-0101).  The circuitry of these two controllers are identical. The Disk II header pin numbering is per the Disk II controller card silkscreen and the circuit schematic given in the DOS 3.3 manual. The Uni/Duo Disk D-19 pinout is taken from the "Apple //c Reference Manual, Volume 1".  NOTES:

The Disk II Floppy Disk Subsystem, often rendered as Disk ][, is a -inch floppy disk drive designed by Steve Wozniak and manufactured by Apple Computer, Inc. It went on sale in June 1978 at a retail price of US$495 for pre-order; it was later sold for $595 () including the controller card (which can control up to two drives) and cable. The Disk II was designed specifically for use with the Apple II personal computer family to replace the slower cassette tape storage. These floppy drives cannot be used with any Macintosh without an Apple IIe Card as doing so will damage the drive or the controller.

Die Disk II war ein 51⁄4-Zoll-Diskettenlaufwerk, welches von Steve Wozniak entwickelt und von Apple Computer hergestellt wurde. Das Gerät erschien zum ersten Mal im Jahre 1978 auf dem Markt zu einem Preis von US$ 495 auf Vorbestellungen, später wurde es für $ 595 zusammen mit der Controllerkarte und entsprechenden Kabeln verkauft. Die Disk II wurde als Laufwerk für den Apple-II-Computer entwickelt, wodurch das langsamere Kassettenlaufwerk zur Datenspeicherung abgelöst wurde. Die normale Speicherkapazität pro Diskettenseite betrug 114 KB bis zum Apple-Betriebssystem (Apple DOS) DOS 3.2.1, oder 140 KB mit dem 1980 erschienenen DOS 3.3 sowie dem späteren ProDOS. Der Schreib- und Lesezugriff erfolgte nur einseitig. Die Rückseite der Diskette konnte nur benutzt werden, wenn die Diskette gewendet und mit einer zweiten Schreibkerbe versehen wurde (z. B. mit einem Diskettenlocher). (Verdopplung der Speicherkapazität, aber nicht gleichzeitig)


Early life.

Noe Canjura was born in 1922 in Apopa, a village in the Republic of El Salvador in Central America, to a humble family of landless peasants. The infertile soil of the region meant survival was difficult. Canjura worked in a sawmill- often spending the night there- to pay part of his school expenses and lessen the load on his father.  He developed an interest in drawing at the age of seventeen, subsequently studying painting at the Academy of Painting of Valero Lecha in San Salvador from 1942 to 1946. From 1942 onward, Canjura's work was exhibited throughout El Salvador, and later also in Guatemala. In 1948 he embarked on study in Mexico City; there, he was strongly influenced by Diego Rivera, then at the height of his fame. Canjura later gained inspiration from the art of Gauguin, particularly his concepts of formal order in painting and the use of curves. That year also saw his first exhibition in the United States.

Life in Paris.

In 1949, supported by a five-year government scholarship, Canjura went to France to study at the École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts. Despite influence from the work of Courbet and Le Nain, he preferred to represent the sombre, harsh living conditions of his native country. He had his first one-man show in Paris in 1953, and lived there from then on. To support himself he undertook manual labour. His marriage to Madeleine Bachelet, also an artist, brought a greater financial security that allowed him to dedicate himself to his art. Returning briefly to El Salvador in 1957, the influence of his life in Paris led him to see his country from a new perspective, and colour and light came to play a greater part in his works. The city of Paris purchased four of Canjura's paintings between 1959 and 1965 for its permanent collection.  Canjura was a member of the Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts and the Salon de la Jeune Peinture. He was a regular exhibitor, and invited every year to Maurice Boitel's group in the Salon "Comparaisons". The National Museum of El Salvador and the Hamishka Leomanouth Museum at Ein Harod, Israel also purchased his paintings. He was awarded the "Prune d'Argent" by the Salon Peintres de Provence in 1965.

Death and legacy.

Canjura died in Morienval, France on September 29, 1970, aged 48, and buried at the cemetery of Notre Dame de Morienval. He was survived by his daughter and granddaughter.  He is regarded as 'an almost mythical figure in El Salvador- the barefoot goatherd... who went on to be a successful artist in Paris'; his work is considered to be influenced by 'the memory of the dramatic colors and of the tropical light of El Salvador'. His time in France led to the development of 'an increasingly abstract style of luminous colours and diffused shapes'.

References.

Specific

Noe Canjura (Apopa, El Salvador, August 14, 1922 - Morienval, France, September 29, 1970) was a Salvadoran painter and a prominent figure in 20th century modern art in France. His art was 'imbued with a social conscience and laden with religious symbolism'.

Noé Canjura (* 14. August 1922 in Apopa, El Salvador; † 29. September 1970 in Morienval, Frankreich) war ein salvadorianischer Maler.


History.

It was named after Chevalier de Coëtivy, commander of the Ile de France who first sighted the island in 1771. In 1908 it was transferred from Mauritius to Seychelles. In 1970 the island was purchased by the parastatal Seychelles Marketing Board (SMB). In 1989, SMB began producing shrimp. Coëtivy Island became famous for its shrimp farms (black tiger prawn) and shrimp processing plant that operated on the island. Large scale production began on August 1992. However, in 2008, due to hard financial times, the plant closed. in 2009, the island became the site of an active prison (Ministry of Internal Affairs choice) for low security prisoners and a rehabilitation center for drug abusers. Visitation is strictly controlled and access is only possible by private airplane charter. by 2020, the Prison should be increased to capacity of 600 inmates. by 2020, the island is expected to have more residential apartments.

Geography.

The island has an area of, is low and heavily wooded.

Demographics.

The island has a population of 260.

Economy.

The islanders are mostly farmers. They produce vegetables which are sold in markets on Mahé. The main production activities on the island include farming, livestock, charcoal production, salted fish production and coconut processing which include production of copra, pounac and coconut oil.

Administration.

The island belongs to Outer Islands District. Being an island with a small population, there are not any government buildings or services. For many services, people have to go to Victoria, which is a difficult task.

Transport.

The island is bisected by a airfield that follows the long east–west axis. The island is occasionally serviced by an Island Development Company (IDC) aircraft from Mahé.

Economics.

The inhabitants on the island are engaged in very small scale farming and fishing which are mainly for the island consumption.

Flora and fauna.

The island is known for its rich fish life.

Coëtivy Island is a small coral island in the Seychelles south of Mahé, at. Along with Île Platte, the nearest neighbor northwest, it comprises the Southern Coral Group and therefore belongs to the Outer Islands.

Coëtivy ist eine zur Republik der Seychellen gehörende Insel im Indischen Ozean. Sie liegt etwa 290 km südlich der Hauptinsel Mahé und zählt zu den sogenannten Outer Islands der Seychellen. Gemeinsam mit der nördlich gelegenen Île Platte bildet Coëtivy die Gruppe der „Südlichen Koralleninseln“. Ihren Namen erhielt die Insel von Chevalier de Coëtivy, welcher sie 1771 entdeckte.


Overview.

Highly accelerated life testing (HALT) techniques are important in uncovering many of the weak links of a new product. These discovery tests rapidly find weaknesses using accelerated stress conditions. The goal of HALT is to proactively find weaknesses and fix them, thereby increasing product reliability. Because of its accelerated nature, HALT is typically faster and less expensive than traditional testing techniques.  HALT is a test technique called test-to-fail, where a product is tested until failure. HALT does not help to determine or demonstrate the reliability value or failure probability in field. Many accelerated life tests are test-to-pass, meaning they are used to demonstrate the product life or reliability.  It is highly recommended to perform HALT in the initial phases of product development to uncover weak links in a product, so that there is better chance and more time to modify and improve the product.  HALT uses several stress factors (decided by a Reliability Test Engineer) and/or the combination of various factors. Commonly used stress factors are temperature, vibration, and humidity for electronics and mechanical products. Other factors can include voltage, current, power cycling and combinations of them.

Typical HALT procedures.

Environmental stresses are applied in a HALT procedure, eventually reaching a level significantly beyond that expected during use. The stresses used in HALT are typically hot and cold temperatures, temperature cycles, random vibration, power margining, and power cycling. The product under test is in operation during HALT and is continuously monitored for failures. As stress-induced failures occur, the cause should be determined, and if possible, the problem should be repaired so that the test can continue to find other weaknesses.  Output of the HALT gives you: 1. Multiple failure modes in the product before it is subjected to demonstration testing 2. Operating limits of the product (upper and lower). These can be compared with a designer's margin or supplier specifications 3. Destruct limits of the product (limit at which product functionality is lost and no recovery can be made)

Test chambers.

A specialized environmental chamber is required for HALT. A suitable chamber also has to be capable of applying pseudo-random vibration with a suitable profile in relation to frequency. The HALT chamber should apply random vibration energy to 10,000 Hz in 6 DOF (degrees of freedom). Sometimes HALT chambers are called repetitive shock chambers because pneumatic air hammers are used to produce vibration. The chamber should also be capable of rapid changes in temperature, 50 degrees C/minute should be considered a minimum rate of change. Usually high power resistive heating elements are used for heating and liquid nitrogen (LN2) is used for cooling.

Fixtures.

Test fixtures must transmit vibration to the item under test. They must also be open in design or use air circulation to produce rapid temperature change to internal components. Test fixtures can use simple channels to attach the product to the chamber table or more complicated fixtures sometimes are fabricated.

Monitoring and failure analysis.

The equipment under test must be monitored so that if the equipment fails under test, the failure is detected. Monitoring is typically performed with thermocouple sensors, vibration accelerometers, multimeters and data loggers. Common causes of failures during HALT are from weak product design, poor workmanship, and poor manufacturing. Failures to individual components such as resistors, capacitors, diodes, printed circuit boards occur because of these issues.

Military application.

HALT is conducted before qualification testing. By catching failures early, flaws are found earlier in the acceptance process, eliminating repetitive later-stage reviews.

A highly accelerated life test (HALT), is a stress testing methodology for enhancing product reliability. HALT testing is currently in use by major manufacturing and research & development organizations to improve product reliability in a variety of industries, including electronics, computer, medical, and military.

Ein Highly Accelerated Life Test (abgekürzt HALT, englisch für "stark beschleunigte Grenzlastprüfung") ist ein qualitatives Testverfahren mit dem Ziel, vorzugsweise elektronische und elektromechanische Baugruppen noch im Entwicklungsstadium einer beschleunigten Alterung auszusetzen, um Schwachstellen und Designfehler aufdecken zu können. Die dabei gewonnenen Erkenntnisse fließen in das Gerätedesign und den Produktionsprozess ein, wodurch die Robustheit und damit die Zuverlässigkeit des Produktes verbessert werden. Das Verfahren wird seit den 1980er Jahren angewandt.


Plot.

Arun Sharma (Sunny Deol) is a spy working for India's spy agency Research and Analysis Wing (RAW). He sets up a spy network under the identity of Major Batra to get information about Pakistani terrorist activities across the India-Pakistan border. Reshma (Preity Zinta), who is from the same village, joins this network; Arun trains Reshma to spy and they fall in love. Reluctantly, he sends her across the border to work undercover as a maidservant in Colonel Hidayatulla's (Deep Dhillon) house. Hidayatulla is associated with terrorists Isaq Khan and Maulana Azhar.  Reshma's identity as a spy is identified in front of Isaq Khan, Maulana Azhar and Colonel Hidayatulla. She escapes and returns to India with important information. Arun expresses his love for Reshma and proposes marriage to her. The ceremony is cut short when terrorists attack the venue. Reshma goes missing and Arun is presumed dead.  Arun realizes Isaq Khan and Maulana Azhar are responsible for the attack. He fakes his own death and plans to infiltrate their terrorist network. Arun follows them to Canada and discovers they are planning to create a nuclear bomb. Reshma is found to be alive in Pakistan and in the care of Dr. Salman; she is taken to Canada and has surgery on her legs. Her doctor is Shaheen (Priyanka Chopra), who is the daughter of Mr. Zakaria (Kabir Bedi), an associate of Isaq Khan. Reshma learns Arun is alive and is in Canada.  Arun changes his identity to that of nuclear scientist called Wahid, who is working at a Canadian nuclear research organization. Wahid pretends to be in love with Shaheen because he wants to become a part of Zakaria's group, and marries Shaheen to win their trust. Reshma meets Wahid at the time of his marriage to Shaheen. Arun is very happy to see Reshma alive but knows they cannot be together so she leaves. Reshma is heartbroken at the wedding.  Arun exposes Maulna Azhar, Zakaria and Isaq Khan's plan to obtain a nuclear bomb. The Canadian and Indian governments find out the terrorists' plan has been destroyed by Arun. The terrorists hijack a train to escape. Arun comes to the rescue. Shaheen dies while helping Arun, who kills Isaq Khan and the other terrorists. Arun returns to Kashmir and tells the story to his colleague, and meets Reshma in Kashmir. Arun and Reshma are finally married.  Credits adapted from Bollywood Hungama.

Production.

Director Anil Sharma had planned to make "The Hero: Love Story of a Spy" before the release of his record-breaking film "" (2001). Sharma said he wanted to make an espionage film and contemplated making something like James Bond for a long time but realised Indian films did not have the budget that is needed to make a film on such a scale. Sharma then thought of making a film based on India's spy network and, unlike his last historical film, set it in the early 2000s. His idea was to make a family film with no sex and violence. After the success of "Gadar: Ek Prem Katha", Sharma decided to make "The Hero: Love Story of a Spy", which was written by Shaktimaan. As a part of his research for the film, Sharma interacted with Army personnel to understand the working methods of its intelligence section.  The Shah brothers of Time Magnetics—Dhirajlal Shah, Hasmukh Shah and Pravin Shah—were engaged to produce the film. Aiming for high production values, Sharma mounted the film on a huge budget and scale he said was needed for a story of this proportion. He also said the film was a risk, especially when the Indian film industry was going through a slump. Sharma defended the huge budget, saying "But everything is risky; even walking on the street is risky. I knew before I started how much it would cost. I think the two years I gave to the film are more important than the budget. The money may come back, the time won't. Films these days don't work because filmmakers don't give enough time to them."  Sharma had cast Sunny Deol, who starred in "Gadar: Ek Prem Katha", in the role of an Indian spy. The director felt that the film was very different from their previous collaboration because Deol played a "subtle spy" who did not "scream and shout" (Deol's trademark in his films). Deol streaked his hair blond and wore several disguises in the film, which made him uncomfortable. Preity Zinta was cast in the female lead as a naive Kashmiri village girl while Priyanka Chopra was cast in the supporting role of a Pakistani-born Canadian doctor. Kabir Bedi and Amrish Puri completed the cast. The costumes for the cast was designed by Simple Kapadia, Abu Jani, Sandeep Khosla, Neeta Lulla and Sheetal India. Sanjay Dhabade was the production designer for the film. Several huge sets were constructed, including a massive glass house on water. The cinematography was handled by Kabir Lal.  Principal photography took place in Kullu and Manali in India, and at locations in Canada and Switzerland. Some of the filming was done in Lonavala and Film City. Half of the film was shot in India while the other half was filmed in Canada and Switzerland. Filming in freezing weather conditions in Canada and Switzerland proved to be difficult for the cast, who had to be transported to rooms with heaters every five minutes. Sometimes the temperatures fell to. The action set pieces were designed by Allan Amin and international action experts were hired to coordinate the stunts. In one of the "heavy duty" action scenes, eight helicopters were used in the filming. The producers of the film engaged the professional wrestler Big Guido as Bedi's bodyguard for an action sequence. For one scene, Deol had to jump off an tall peak, which he felt was difficult. The climax of the film was shot at Jungfrau in temperatures of. To shoot the scene, Lal propped himself on top of an open helicopter to capture the Jaungfrau Heights from in. The shot took two hours to film. After landing, he collapsed and was immediately rushed to the hospital. The songs were choreographed by Ganesh Acharya. The film was edited by Suresh Urs.

Soundtrack.

The soundtrack of "The Hero: Love Story of a Spy" was composed by Uttam Singh, and the lyrics were written by Anand Bakshi and Javed Akhtar. Initially Bakshi was the sole lyricist on the soundtrack but during production he fell ill. Bakshi wrote the lyrics for a few songs after his recovery but after his death, Akhtar was brought in to write the lyrics for the rest of the songs. The film contains six original tracks with vocals provided by Udit Narayan, Alka Yagnik, Jaspinder Narula, Sunidhi Chauhan, Sardool Sikander and Hariharan. The soundtrack was released on 20 February 2003 by Times Music.  Bollywood Hungama said the soundtrack does not have "anything great or extraordinary to offer" and that the music is below expectations considering the budget and scale of the film. Planet Bollywood rated the album 6 out of 10, calling it "simply passable, nothing spectacular" and saying the music is not what was expected from such a big film. The reviewer said "Dil Main Hai Pyar" is the best song on the album, noting "its enjoyable characteristics" and saying it had "the potential to become very popular".

Budget and trade analysis.

After the record-breaking success of Deol's and Sharma's previous collaboration "Gadar: Ek Prem Katha" which became the highest-grossing Indian film of all time at that point of time, their next collaboration was highly anticipated and a lot was expected from it. According to Taran Adarsh, there were "gargantuan" expectations from the new film. "The Hero: Love Story of a Spy" was much talked about for its budget and scale. Adarsh said the producers had spared no expenses in making it a film of "epic proportions" and "grand production values", writing, "The money spent is visible in every frame, the grand look of the film just cannot be overlooked". The film was also talked about for including stunts that were new to Bollywood cinema.  Industry experts and trade analysts declared "The Hero: Love Story of a Spy" the most expensive Indian film ever made at that point, with some estimating its budget between 50 to 55 million. According to Box Office India, the film had a budget of 35 million, including the production and marketing cost. Sharma refused to confirm the exact budget but agreed it was an expensive film, telling Subhash K. Jha; "The producers have gone on record about the budget. I cannot tell you the exact cost. But yes, it is an expensive film". The director, however, was extremely unhappy with the hype around the film's budget because he did not want to raise audience expectations. Rajesh Thadani said the film should have been made on a lower budget because the economics of film-making had changed and that restraining a film's budget was "the need of the hour". A distributor told Rediff.com making such a costly film in the 2000s was not a viable proposition and that audiences had become extremely unpredictable. He added; ""Devdas", with all its hype, barely managed to recover its cost. For "The Hero" to succeed, it will have to do better than "Devdas"."  When "The Hero: Love Story of a Spy" was in production, revenues of the Bollywood film Industry were declining and many were hopeful the film would help revive the industry. The film's trailers and promos created "enormous" to "positive" buzz in the public and media, but some trade analysts were sceptical about its high budget and its potential box-office earnings. An editor of "Box Office" said the recovery of the cost of a film like this, which had been filmed on "an extra-large canvas", was impossible from the Indian market alone. He said big-budget films like this mostly rely on overseas markets, which was uncertain for this film because it offered nothing new to overseas audiences as a "James Bond type of movie" that had been done several times before. Trade analyst Amod Mehra was more hopeful about the film, saying he hoped it would help revive the Bollywood film industry, which had "virtually gone dead", and that "the public is anticipating something as thrilling and fast-paced as "Gadar". If he has kept the pulse of the public in mind, I see no reason why [the film] won't run well."

Release.

As "The Hero: Love Story of a Spy" was nearing its release, the 2003 Bollywood Producers' strike prevented the release of new Hindi films in theaters after 1 April 2003. Deol was displeased about the strike because he felt postponing a big film like this was not an affordable option, saying; "When a producer has spent so much money promoting and publicising a film like "The Hero", how is he expected to scrap his campaign, postpone his film and start from scratch?". "The Hero: Love Story of a Spy" was released on 11 April 2003 on 500 screens despite the ongoing ban on the release of Hindi films. The film had a good opening at the box office, collecting 22.2 million on its opening day and 63.1 million in its opening weekend in India, and had the worldwide opening-weekend revenue of over 111.5 million. In its first week, the film collected over 107 million at the domestic box office and over 188.2 worldwide. In a report published in Rediff.com, Jha said the strike proved to be beneficial for "The Hero: Love Story of a Spy" because it had sustained a steady second-week run. During its box office run, the film grossed 414.5 million in India and over 36.8 million in the overseas market, making a worldwide gross of over 451.3 million. It was the third-highest-grossing Indian film of the year but the film's box-office gross was considered to be below expectations due to the high cost of production.  "The Hero: Love Story of a Spy" was released by Time as a single-disc, NTSC-format DVD on 8 July 2003 across all regions. A DVD version released by Venus Records contains some bonus features, including a "making-of" documentary and a collection of Deol's songs. A Video CD version was released at the same time. Tip Top Video released the film internationally on an an-regions, PAL-Widescreen format DVD. A VHS version was released on 1 September 2003. Another version of the DVD was later released by Moser Baer across all regions on an NTSC-format single disc.

Reception.

"The Hero: Love Story of a Spy" garnered mixed reviews from critics. Deepa Gumaste of Rediff.com praised the film, calling it a "comicbook spy movie", comparing it to "Die Another Day" and "", and writing; "At last an original "desi" spy who combines the guile and charm of James Bond and the raw appeal of Rambo!" She said the cinematography is a "treat for the eyes with exquisite footage of the picturesque landscapes" and wrote; "For once in a Hindi film, foreign locations have actually been put to good use". Lawrence Van Gelder of "New York Times" was appreciative of the film, noting its "multiple pleasures" and writing; "Stretching from the snow-capped peaks of Kashmir to the ski slopes of Canada, mingling gunplay, spectacular explosions and chases with songs, dances and romance, this colorful Indian spy adventure constitutes the cinematic equivalent of the delightful and inconsequential escapism of a 700-page summer beach novel".  Sify gave "The Hero: Love Story of a Spy" film three out of five, writing; "The central theme gets more spice with a love story giving much role to play for Preity and Priyanka. The action sequences are well shot and Sunny essays his role with skill as usual." Kevin Thomas of "Los Angeles Times" called the film "straightforward escapist fare" with the sensibility of an "old-fashioned comic-book", and said it "may be corny" and "unintentionally amusing at times" but it is also "a lot of fun" and has "all the classic elements of a Bollywood blockbuster taken to a spectacular level". The BBC's Manish Gajjar called the film "great escapist" cinema and praised the performances, writing; "the role of Ravi Khanna was tailor- made for Sunny Deol. He got a chance to exhibit the various looks of a secret agent... Preity Zinta is radiantly refreshing throughout the film whilst ex-Miss World, Priyanka Chopra appears natural considering that this is her debut film".  Derek Elley of "Variety" said "The Hero: Love Story of a Spy" is "wildly over-the-top" but "undeniably entertaining". Praising the performances, Elley wrote; "Deol makes a solid, rather than exciting hero, better in military duds than his increasingly outre disguises, and Puri overacts wildly as the villain. Femme leads are much more engaging, with Zinta typically sparky and likable, and mega-looker Chopra making a solid screen debut as a modern urban miss." Anupama Chopra of "India Today" said the narrative has flair, noting the love story, including the courtship and consequent separation that has "emotional vigour" works to some extent but the spying part is a problem. She wrote; "The leads try hard—Deol appears suavely sincere and Zinta vulnerable—but Shaktiman's script doesn't hold. The incendiary dialogue got whistles but the comic-book discussions on nuclear bombs were a sleeping pill." Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama criticised the "superficial" writing but praised the technical aspects of the film, such as the "terrific" visuals and "awe-inspiring" action sequences, and said it "lacks the soul to make you cry and make your heart go out for the on-screen characters... [the film] has gloss and hype as its trumpcards, but... lacks in emotions, music and a taut screenplay".

The Hero: Love Story of a Spy is a 2003 Indian spy thriller film that was directed by Anil Sharma and produced by Time Magnetics. The film stars Sunny Deol, Preity Zinta, Miss World 2000 Priyanka Chopra, Kabir Bedi and Amrish Puri. It marked the Bollywood film debut of Chopra. Written by Shaktimaan, the film tells the story of an undercover Research and Analysis Wing (RAW) agent who must gather intelligence about cross-border terrorism and stop the terrorist responsible for it, and his separation from his fiance.

The Hero: Love Story of a Spy ist ein indischer Film aus dem Jahr 2003 von Anil Sharma. Mit Kosten von 550 Millionen Rupien handelt es sich um den bis dato teuersten indischen Film.


"Poetic Edda".

Though not originally included in the "Codex Regius", "Gróttasöngr" is included in many later editions of the "Poetic Edda". "Gróttasöngr" is the work song of two young slave girls bought in Sweden by the Danish King Frodi (cf. "Fróði" in the "Prose Edda"). The girls are brought to a magic grindstone to grind out wealth for the king and sing for his household.  The girls ask for rest from the grinding but are commanded to continue. Undaunted in their benevolence, the girls proceed to grind and sing, wishing wealth and happiness for the King. The King, however, is still not pleased and continues to order the girls to grind without interruption.  King Frodi is ignorant of their lineage and the girls reveal that they are descended from mountain giants. The girls recount their past deeds, including moving a flat-topped mountain and revealing that they had actually created the grinding stone they are now chained to. They tell him that they had advanced against an army in Sweden and fought "bearlike warriors", had "broken shields", supported troops, and overthrown one prince while supporting another. They recount that they had become well known warriors.  The girls then reflect that they have now become cold and dirty slaves, relentlessly worked, and living a life of dull grinding. The girls sing that they are tired, and call to King Frodi to wake up so that he may hear them. They announce that an army is approaching, that Frodi will lose the wealth they've ground for him, that he will also lose the magic grindstone, and that the army will burn the settlement and overthrow Frodi's throne in Lejre. They are grinding this army into existence via the magic stone. They then comment that they are "not yet warmed by the blood of slaughtered men".  The girls continue to grind even harder and the shafts of the mill-frame snap. They then sing a prophecy of vengeance mentioning Hrólfr Kraki, Yrsa, Fróði and Halfdan: Now filled with a great rage, the girls grind even harder until finally the grinding mechanism collapses and the magical stone splits in two. With the impending army soon to arrive, one of the girls finishes the song with: <poem style="margin-left:2em"> Frodi, we have ground to the point where we must stop, now the ladies have had a full stint of milling! </poem>

"Prose Edda".

Snorri relates in the "Prose Edda" that Skjöldr ruled the country that we today call Denmark. Skjöldr had a son named Friðleifr who succeeded him on the throne. Friðleifr had a son who was named Fróði who became king after Friðleifr, and this was at the time when Caesar Augustus proclaimed peace on earth and the Christian figure Jesus was born. The same peace ruled in Scandinavia, but there it was called "Fróði's peace". The North was so peaceful that no man hurt another, even if he met his father's or his brother's killer, free or tied. No man was a robber and a golden ring could rest on the moor of Jelling for a long time.  King Fróði visited Sweden and its king Fjölnir, and from Fjölnir he bought two female slave giantesses named Fenja and Menja who were big and strong. In Denmark, there was a pair of magical mill stones; the man who ground with them could ask them to produce anything he wished. However, they were so big that no man was strong enough to use them. This mill was called "Grótti" and it had been given to Fróði by Hengikjopt.  Fróði had Fenja and Menja tied to the mill and asked them to grind gold, peace and happiness for himself. Then he gave them neither rest nor sleep longer than the time of a song or the silence of the cuckoo. In revenge Fenja and Menja started to sing a song named the "song of Grótti" (the poem itself) and before they ended it, they had produced a host led by a sea-king named Mysing. Mysing attacked Fróði during the night, killed him, and left with rich booty. This was the end of the Fróði peace.  Mysing took Grótti as well as Fenja and Menja and asked them to grind salt. At midnight, they asked Mysing if he did not have salt enough, but he asked them to grind more. They only ground for a short while before the ships sank. A giant whirlpool ("maelstrom" from "mal" "mill" and "ström" "stream") was formed as the sea started rushing through the center of the mill stone. Then the sea begun turning salt.

Modern cultural references.

Viktor Rydberg's apprehension of unregulated capitalism at the dawn of the industrial age is most fully expressed in his acclaimed poem "Den nya Grottesången" ("The New Grotti Song") in which he delivered a fierce attack on the miserable working conditions in factories of the era, using the mill of "Grottasöngr" as his literary backdrop.  Grottasöngr appears as part of Johannes V. Jensen's novel "The Fall of the King". The author edited his prose text into a prose poem that was included in his first poetry collection published in 1906. Jensen later reflected on the Grottasöngr in his book "Kvinden i Sagatiden".  The Raven Tower by Ann Leckie also draws inspiration from the Grottasöngr in the character of the Strength and Patience of the Hill.

Grottasöngr (or Gróttasöngr; Old Norse: 'The Mill's Songs', or 'Song of Grótti') is an Old Norse poem, sometimes counted among the poems of the "Poetic Edda" as it appears in manuscripts that are later than the "Codex Regius". The tradition is also preserved in one of the manuscripts of Snorri Sturluson's "Prose Edda" along with some explanation of its context.

Der Gróttasöngr (auch "Grottasöngr"; altisländisch: "Grottis Gesang") ist eine altnordische Dichtung. Der Text ist in einer der Handschriften von Snorri Sturlusons Snorra-Edda überliefert und wird zu den Gedichten der Lieder-Edda gerechnet. Er besteht aus einer Prosa-Einleitung, die die Vorgeschichte berichtet, sowie dem Gedicht aus zweiundzwanzig Strophen unterschiedlicher Länge.


Background.

In the 17th century, Hamburg was an important coastal town, well fortified but an attractive target to pirates. Particularly troubled by the corsairs of the Barbary Coast, and following the loss in June 1622 of eight fully laden cargo ships, the city determined that it needed to create a fleet of armed convoy ships to protect its interests, escorting merchant and other vessels.  The plans for the construction of "Leopoldus Primus" and the probably largely identical "Wapen von Hamburg" started in 1663. The first mention of these plans can be found in the "Minutes of the Admiralty" of 4 June 1663. While previously they had relied for protection on converted merchant ships, Hamburg now looked to full-fledged warships. On 23 September, the council proposed to build two frigates, and the citizenry voted to enact the plan.  Not much is known about the construction of the "Leopoldus Primus". Construction was delayed for unknown reasons, and for several years there were debates about who should take charge of funding the ships, but construction finally began, led by an unknown Dutch ship-master, in 1667. Builders of the period were secretive, so plans were not recorded or shared. The Hamburg sculptor Christian Precht, also known for his work in churches, was hired to create a representation of Leopold I for the stern. This figure is now on display at the Museum of Hamburg History.  The naming of such an important vessel after a strict Catholic Emperor in distant Vienna for a city like Hamburg, Lutheran and uninterested in imperial affairs, was quite unusual. A handwritten contemporary poem suggests that the ship was named for the association of Leopold with military success, perhaps against the Ottoman Empire at the Battle of Saint Gotthard.  The ship was operational in 1668, at some point between April and September. Her first captain was Leopoldus M. Dreyer.

Construction, equipment and crew.

There are few records describing the size and appearance of "Leopoldus Primus" or her sister ship, "Wapen von Hamburg". Dimensions are unknown. What is known is that the ship was built on the model of leading Dutch design. Wolfgang Quinger, in "Wappen von Hamburg I" (1980), suggests that the pair may have been more or less replicas of the Dutch ship "Aemilia". If this is so, "Leopoldus Primus" would have had a length of about and a width of almost. To get over the shoals in the river Elbe, the hull was probably built after the "Rotterdam form". The ship was elaborately decorated with Baroque carvings and sculptures.  The "Leopoldus" had 54 guns. The heaviest caliber were on the lower gun deck with the lighter on the upper aft decks. When the ship was docked for a length time in Hamburg, the guns could be unloaded and moved to the ramparts of the city to protect it, as was done during a Danish attack on Hamburg in 1686.  "Leopoldus Primus" had a crew, depending on length and purpose of travel, from around 150 to 250 men, of which about 15 to 20 were officers, including the captain and his lieutenant as well as ministers and the commander of the soldiers. The crew was not stable, but employed for the duration of the trip. Voluntary recruits rather than being pressed into service, they were expected to equip themselves, and more died from diseases caused by unclean conditions on the ship than from battle, at as high a rate as four to one. The 40 to 60 soldiers aboard were better trained and disciplined, taken from the ranks of the city's soldiery or reassigned from other convoy ships.

Operations and decommissioning.

The success of "Leopoldus Primus" is supported by many reports. Captain Berend Jacobsen Karpfanger took her through a number of successful battles against pirates. One highlight is Karpfanger's defense against five French ships in the Elbe estuary on 11 September 1678. Fifty whaling ships were returning to Hamburg from Greenland when the frigates attacked. After a 12-hour battle, two of the French frigates were sunk and the rest put to flight. None of the Hamburg ships were lost, although "Leopoldus Primus" sustained slight damages. Only two of the crew of "Leopoldus" were killed, with one man injured. In other activities, the ship was used in 1686 to protect Hamburg from Denmark.  In 1702, "Leopoldus Primus" was the oldest of the three then existing Hamburg convoy ships when it was badly damaged in a storm. Her captain, Captain Schroeder, had to take port in Falmouth, and it was determined that she was not worth the expense of repair. Schroeder reported this to Hamburg, who rejected a proposal to sell the ship and instead brought her home. There, they determined that if repaired she might continue to sail for another decade. They repaired her at a cost of 3500 marks (1166 pounds) and she was back on the seas, voyaging to Greenland, in 1703.  Before her next trip, concerns that she was not seaworthy were raised, and although some felt she could still manage the voyage to England a few more times, others felt the cost of further repairs was a poor risk. Thirty-six years after embarking on her career as the first convoy ship, "Leopoldus Primus" was taken out of commission. In 1705, she seems to have been scrapped, probably in Hamburg.  Overall, "Leopoldus Primus" undertook 22 trips to the Iberian Peninsula, three trips to England and nine trips to protect whalers to Greenland. Among the convoy ships of Hamburg, she had more missions than any other with the "Admiralität von Hamburg", which had 32, as her closest rival.

The Leopoldus Primus, also called "Leopold I", was the first convoy ship commissioned to protect the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg. She was designed for use against piracy on the trade routes to Spain, Portugal, and West Africa and to accompany whalers to Greenland. Named in honor of Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I, she was put into service in 1668 and scrapped in 1705 after 34 major missions. She was probably identical with the Wapen von Hamburg, which went into service shortly after her.

Die Leopoldus Primus war im späten 17. Jahrhundert das erste Konvoischiff der Freien Reichsstadt Hamburg. Sie wurde für den Einsatz gegen die Piraterie auf den Handelsrouten nach Spanien, Portugal und Westafrika und zur Begleitung von Walfängern nach Grönland gebaut und war nach dem römisch-deutschen Kaiser Leopold I. benannt. Sie wurde 1668 in Dienst gestellt und nach 34 großen Fahrten 1705 abgewrackt. Sie war wahrscheinlich baugleich mit der bekannteren "Wapen von Hamburg (I)", die kurze Zeit später in Dienst gestellt wurde.


Orbit and classification.

Located in the outermost part of the main-belt, "Oulu" is a member of the Hilda family, a large orbital group of asteroids that are thought to have originated from the Kuiper belt. They orbit in a 3:2 orbital resonance with the gas giant Jupiter, meaning that for every 2 orbits Jupiter completes around the Sun, a Hildian asteroid will complete 3 orbits. As it does not cross the path of any of the planets, it will not be pulled out of orbit by Jupiter's gravitational field, and will likely remain in a stable orbit for thousands of years.  It orbits the Sun at a distance of 3.4–4.6 AU once every 7 years and 11 months (2,891 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.15 and an inclination of 6° with respect to the ecliptic. In 1938, "Oulu" was first identified as at Bergedorf Observatory. Its observation arc, however, begins one month after its official discovery observation.

Physical characteristics.

"Oulu" is characterized as a dark and reddish P-type asteroid in the Tholen taxonomy, of which only a few dozens bodies are currently known.

Slow rotator and likely tumbler.

In May 2009, a rotational lightcurve of "Oulu" was obtained from photometric observations by Slovak astronomer Adrián Galád at Modra Observatory. Lightcurve analysis gave a rotation period of 132.3 hours with a brightness variation of 0.33 in magnitude (). It is among the top few hundred slow rotators.  "Oulu" is likely in a state of non-principal axis rotation, which is commonly known as tumbling. It is the largest such object ever observed "(also see List of tumblers)".

Diameter and albedo.

According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite, and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, "Oulu" measures between 65.00 and 91.05 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo between 0.031 and 0.06.  The "Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link" agrees with IRAS, that is, an albedo of 0.0366 and a diameter of 82.72 kilometers using an absolute magnitude of 9.62. In May 2002, Vasilij Shevchenko and Edward Tedesco observed an occultation by "Oulu", that gave a diameter of 65.0 kilometers with an occultation albedo of 0.0594.

Naming.

This minor planet was named for the northern Finnish town Oulu, the birthplace of the discoverer. The official was published by the Minor Planet Center on 30 January 1964 ().

1512 Oulu, provisional designation, is a dark Hildian asteroid, slow rotator and possibly the largest known tumbler orbiting in the outermost region of the asteroid belt. With a diameter of approximately 80 kilometers, it belongs to the fifty largest asteroids in the outer main-belt. The body was discovered on 18 March 1939, by Finnish astronomer Heikki Alikoski at Turku Observatory in Southwest Finland and named for the Finnish town Oulu.

(1512) Oulu ist ein Asteroid des Hauptgürtels, der am 18. März 1939 von dem finnischen Astronomen Heikki A. Alikoski in Turku entdeckt wurde.


Biography.

Personal life and education.

Roughgarden was born as Jonathan David Roughgarden in Paterson, New Jersey, United States. She received a Bachelor of Science in biology and a Bachelor of Arts in Philosophy from University of Rochester in 1968 and later a Ph.D. in biology from Harvard University in 1971. In 1998, Roughgarden came out as transgender and changed her name to Joan, making a coming out post on her website on her 52nd birthday.

Teaching.

Roughgarden worked as an instructor and Assistant Professor of Biology at the University of Massachusetts Boston from 1970 to 1972. In 1972 she joined the faculty of the Department of Biology at Stanford University. After becoming full professor she retired in 2011, and became Emeritus Professor. She founded and directed the Earth Systems Program at Stanford and has received awards for service to undergraduate education. In 2012 she moved to Hawaii, where she became an adjunct professor at the Hawaiʻi Institute of Marine Biology. In her academic career, Roughgarden advised 20 Ph.D and 15 postdoctoral students.

Writing and research.

Roughgarden has authored books and over 180 scientific articles. In addition to a textbook on ecological and evolutionary theory in 1979, Roughgarden has carried out ecological field studies with Caribbean lizards and with barnacles and their larvae along the California coast. In her 2004 book, "Evolution’s Rainbow," Joan analyzes how biology can influence sexuality and gender identity and emphasizes the substantial diversity within categories like gay, lesbian, and trans. The main point of her book is to be a critique to Darwin's theory of sexual selection.  An article published by her lab on these ideas received criticism in the pages of the journal "Science". Forty scientists produced ten critical letters, some of which were vitriolic. However, Roughgarden, quoted as being "not altogether surprised" by the volume of dissent, argued that her team had replied to most of the criticisms.  In her 2009 book "The Genial Gene," the case against sexual selection theory is continued and social-selection theory presented as an alternative. It lists 26 phenomena not explained by current sexual-selection theory that are better explained by social selection. According to Roughgarden, sexual selection theory derives from a view of natural behavior predicated on the selfish-gene concept, competition and deception, whereas the social-selection theory derives from teamwork, honesty, and genetic equality. She continues to make analytical studies that social selection is a more credible explanation in terms of population as a whole, as sexual selection is confined to interaction between individuals.  Roughgarden has written on the relationship between Christianity and science. Her book "Evolution and Christian Faith: Reflections of an Evolutionary Biologist" presents scripture passages that emphasize her belief that the Bible does not conflict with evolutionary biology and relates Christianity and evolution by asserting that all life is interconnected, as members of a faith community are connected. Roughgarden opposes the theories of creationism and intelligent design, but asserts her belief in God's involvement in evolution. She attended and was a speaker at the symposium in November 2006.

Awards and honors.

Roughgarden has served as associate editor of several academic journals, including "Philosophy and Theory in Biology" (since 2008), "American Naturalist" (1984–1989), "Oecologia" (1979–1982), and "Theoretical Population Biology" (1975–1986). She was the Vice-Chair and Chair of Theoretical Ecology Section of the Ecological Society of America during 2002–2003. She has served on the Nonprofit Organization Board for the Oceanic Society (San Francisco), the EPA Science Advisory Board Committee on Valuating the Protection of Ecological Systems and Services, and the science advisory boards of the Pacific Ocean Conservation Network (California), and the Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary (Santa Barbara).

Joan Roughgarden (born on 13 March 1946) is an American ecologist and evolutionary biologist. She is well known for her theistic evolutionism and critical studies on Charles Darwin's theory of sexual selection.

Joan E. Roughgarden (* 13. März 1946 in Paterson, New Jersey als Jonathan Roughgarden) ist eine US-amerikanische Autorin, Hochschullehrerin und Biologin.


United States.

The Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution provides that "In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right... to be confronted with the witnesses against him".  "Hearsay is a statement, other than one made by the declarant while testifying at the trial or hearing, offered in evidence to prove the truth of the matter asserted." Per Federal Rule of Evidence 801(d)(2)(a), a statement made by a defendant is admissible as evidence only if it is inculpatory; exculpatory statements made to an investigator are hearsay and therefore may not be admitted as evidence in court, unless the defendant testifies. When an out-of-court statement offered as evidence contains another out-of-court statement it is called double hearsay, and both layers of hearsay must be found separately admissible.  There are several exceptions to the rule against hearsay in U.S. law. Federal Rule of Evidence 803 lists the following:  Also, some documents are self-authenticating under Rule 902, such as (1) domestic public documents under seal, (2) domestic public documents not under seal, but bearing a signature of a public officer, (3) foreign public documents, (4) certified copies of public records, (5) official publications, (6) newspapers and periodicals, (7) trade inscriptions and the like, (8) acknowledged documents (i.e. by a notary public), (9) commercial paper and related documents, (10) presumptions under Acts of Congress, (11) certified domestic records of regularly conducted activity, (12) certified foreign records of regularly conducted activity.

England and Wales.

In England and Wales, hearsay is generally admissible in civil proceedings, but is only admissible in criminal proceedings if it falls within a statutory or a preserved common law exception, all of the parties to the proceedings agree, or the court is satisfied that it is in the interests of justice that the evidence is admissible.  Section 116 of the Criminal Justice Act 2003 provides that, where a witness is unavailable, hearsay is admissible where a) the relevant person is dead; b) the relevant person is unfit to be a witness because of his bodily or mental condition; c) the relevant person is outside the UK and it is not reasonably practicable to secure his attendance; d) the relevant person cannot be found; e) through fear, the relevant person does not give oral evidence in the proceedings and the court gives leave for the statement to be given in evidence.  The two main common law exceptions to the rule that hearsay is inadmissible are "res gestae" and confessions.

Canada.

Hearsay evidence is generally inadmissible in Canada unless it falls within one of the established common law exceptions. As a result of the Supreme Court's decision in "R. v. Khan" and subsequent cases, hearsay evidence that does not fall within the established exceptions can be admitted where established that such evidence is both "necessary and reliable". Additionally, hearsay evidence that would otherwise be admissible as an exception can nonetheless be excluded if it is "not" necessary and reliable, as in "R. v. Starr".

Australia.

The rules of evidence differ among the states and the Commonwealth; the Commonwealth, Victoria, New South Wales, Tasmania, and the Australian Capital Territory all share similar hearsay provisions in their Uniform Evidence Acts; the other states rely upon the common law. As elsewhere, hearsay is usually inadmissible, outside of interlocutory proceedings, unless it falls within one of the hearsay exceptions.

Uniform Evidence Act.

Hearsay is dealt with under Part 3·2. There are several local peculiarities with its treatment. s 59 defines the 'fact' of a hearsay statement as being something 'that it can reasonably be supposed that the person intended to assert by the representation'. Hearsay rule confines the potentially broad number of assertions it might cover by this broad definition of representation to only intended representations adduced to prove existence of the asserted facts. In "Lee v The Queen", the term'representation' was used to apply to statements and to conduct and was used to encompass all those statements or that conduct would convey to the observer.  The extraordinary s 60 allows a statement's use as hearsay if it is admitted for a non-hearsay purpose, although the application of s 60 may be limited by s 137 (which is essentially the discretion formerly known as Christie.) s 72 excepts 'evidence of a representation about... the traditional laws and customs of an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander group', although this arguably would have fallen into the 'public right' exception at common law. Confessions are called 'admissions' by the Act (which quite foreseeably led to the confusion whereby counsel apply for the 'admission of the admission'.) They are dealt with separately under Part 3·4, which lifts the hearsay rule. The Act's dictionary defines 'admission' broadly enough to include anything that might be used against the accused. The other sections in the Part for the most part codify, roughly, the common-law rules.

Malaysia.

In Malaysia, hearsay evidence is generally not allowed. However, the Evidence Act 1950 permitted a few exceptions, such as section 6, 73A, etc.

New Zealand.

Hearsay evidence is covered by sections 16-22 of the Evidence Act 2006. Previously inadmissible, the 1989 decision of the Court of Appeal in "R v Baker" created a common law exception to the hearsay rule based on reliability, which was codified in the Evidence Act. Pursuant to s 4(1) of the Act, a hearsay statement is a statement made by someone other than a witness (in the proceedings) that is offered to prove the truth of its contents. Under section 17 of this Act a hearsay statement is generally not admissible in any court proceeding. Though section 18 states when a hearsay statement may be able to be given in court. This is when the statement is reliable, the statement maker is unavailable to be called as a witness or it would provide undue expense and delay if that person was required to be a witness. There are also a number of specific exceptions such as statements in business records. Other exceptions include state of mind evidence (see R v Blastland) and whether the statement is tendered to prove the fact it was uttered or made, rather than to prove the truth of its contents (see DPP v Subramaniam).

Norway.

Even if Norway has a maxim of "free evidence" (any statement, object, forensics or other matters that may apply) to be entered and admitted in court, hearsay is in conflict with the defense counsel's or prosecution's ability to cross examine, as the witness who relayed the original statement is not present in court. In practice, hearsay is then not allowed.

Sri Lanka.

In Sri Lanka, hearsay evidence is generally not allowed. However, the Evidence Ordinance recognizes a few exceptions such as "res gestae" (recognised under Section 6) and common intention (recognised under Section 10)and some other exceptions from section 17 to section 39. Some other exceptions are provided by case law (see "Subramaniam v. DPP" [1956] 1 WLR 956 (PC)).

Sweden.

Sweden allows hearsay evidence. Sweden applies a principle of admissibility of evidence which means that there are very few restrictions on what evidence is allowed in court. It is then up to the court to evaluate the reliability of the evidence presented.

Hong Kong.

In Hong Kong, hearsay is generally admissible in civil proceedings under the statutory regime. Section 46 of the Evidence Ordinance provides that evidence shall not be excluded on the ground that it is hearsay in civil proceedings unless: the party against whom the evidence is to be adduced objects to the admission of the evidence; as well as: the court is satisfied, having regard to the circumstances of the case, that the exclusion of the evidence is not prejudicial to the interests of justice. Sections 47A to 51 provides for safeguards in relation to hearsay evidence admissible under section 46 so as to avoid abuses of the general admission:  The courts shall draw inferences from the circumstances as to the weight attached to hearsay evidence, in particular:  The new civil regime also preserves a number of common law exceptions that are unaffected by the statutory safeguards except for the section 47A safeguard relating to notice. In criminal proceedings, the law relating to hearsay has not been substantially changed in Hong Kong, and the common law regime remains the rules followed by the Hong Kong criminal courts. Hearsay evidence is inadmissible in all criminal cases except for common law and statutory exemptions, which include: admissions and confessions, dying declarations, declarations in the course of duty, declarations against interest, co-conspirator's rule, statements in public documents, out-of-court statements, evidence in former proceedings, and "Res gestae".  Statutory exceptions in criminal cases include: negative assertions (s.17A Evidence Ordinance), bank records (ss.19B and 20 Evidence Ordinance), documentary records compiled by a person under a duty (s.22 Evidence Ordinance), computer records (s.22A Evidence Ordinance), and agreed written statements (s.65B Criminal Procedure Ordinance).

Hearsay evidence, in a legal forum, is testimony from a witness under oath who is reciting an out-of-court statement, content of which is being offered to prove the truth of the matter asserted.

Hörensagen ist etwas, das eine Person nur aus Erzählungen anderer erfahren hat. Umgangssprachlich bedeutet die Redensart "das ist nur Hörensagen", man könne auf diese Mitteilung nicht bauen. Der deutsche Ausdruck entspricht in etwa der lateinischen Wendung "relata refero".


Statements of the lemma (symmetric version).

Let "A", "A"..., "A" be a sequence of events such that each event occurs with probability at most "p" and such that each event is independent of all the other events except for at most "d" of them.  Lemma I (Lovász and Erdős 1973; published 1975) If then there is a nonzero probability that none of the events occurs.  Lemma II (Lovász 1977; published by Joel Spencer) If where "e" = 2.718... is the base of natural logarithms, then there is a nonzero probability that none of the events occurs.  Lemma II today is usually referred to as "Lovász local lemma".  Lemma III (Shearer 1985) If then there is a nonzero probability that none of the events occurs.  The threshold in Lemma III is optimal and it implies that the bound is also sufficient.

Asymmetric Lovász local lemma.

A statement of the asymmetric version (which allows for events with different probability bounds) is as follows:  Lemma (asymmetric version). Let formula_5 be a finite set of events in the probability space Ω. For formula_6 let formula_7 denote the neighbours of formula_8 in the dependency graph (In the dependency graph, event formula_8 is not adjacent to events which are mutually independent). If there exists an assignment of reals formula_10 to the events such that  then the probability of avoiding all events in formula_12 is positive, in particular  The symmetric version follows immediately from the asymmetric version by setting  to get the sufficient condition  since

Constructive versus non-constructive.

Note that, as is often the case with probabilistic arguments, this theorem is nonconstructive and gives no method of determining an explicit element of the probability space in which no event occurs. However, algorithmic versions of the local lemma with stronger preconditions are also known (Beck 1991; Czumaj and Scheideler 2000). More recently, a constructive version of the local lemma was given by Robin Moser and Gábor Tardos requiring no stronger preconditions.

Non-constructive proof.

We prove the asymmetric version of the lemma, from which the symmetric version can be derived. By using the principle of mathematical induction we prove that for all formula_8 in formula_18 and all subsets formula_19 of formula_18 that do not include formula_8, formula_22. The induction here is applied on the size (cardinality) of the set formula_23. For base case formula_24 the statement obviously holds since formula_25. We need to show that the inequality holds for any subset of formula_26 of a certain cardinality given that it holds for all subsets of a lower cardinality.  Let formula_27. We have from Bayes' theorem  We bound the numerator and denominator of the above expression separately. For this, let formula_29. First, exploiting the fact that formula_8 does not depend upon any event in formula_31.  Expanding the denominator by using Bayes' theorem and then using the inductive assumption, we get  The inductive assumption can be applied here since each event is conditioned on lesser number of other events, i.e. on a subset of cardinality less than formula_34. From (1) and (2), we get  Since the value of "x" is always in formula_36. Note that we have essentially proved formula_37. To get the desired probability, we write it in terms of conditional probabilities applying Bayes' theorem repeatedly. Hence,  which is what we had intended to prove.

Example.

Suppose 11"n" points are placed around a circle and colored with "n" different colors in such a way that each color is applied to exactly 11 points. In any such coloring, there must be a set of "n" points containing one point of each color but not containing any pair of adjacent points.  To see this, imagine picking a point of each color randomly, with all points equally likely (i.e., having probability 1/11) to be chosen. The 11"n" different events we want to avoid correspond to the 11"n" pairs of adjacent points on the circle. For each pair our odds of picking both points in that pair is at most 1/121 (exactly 1/121 if the two points are of different colors, otherwise 0), so we will take "p = 1/121".  Whether a given pair ("a", "b") of points is chosen depends only on what happens in the colors of "a" and "b", and not at all on whether any other collection of points in the other "n" − 2 colors are chosen. This implies the event ""a" and "b" are both chosen" is dependent only on those pairs of adjacent points which share a color either with "a" or with "b".  There are 11 points on the circle sharing a color with "a" (including "a" itself), each of which is involved with 2 pairs. This means there are 21 pairs other than ("a", "b") which include the same color as "a", and the same holds true for "b". The worst that can happen is that these two sets are disjoint, so we can take "d" = 42 in the lemma. This gives  By the local lemma, there is a positive probability that none of the bad events occur, meaning that our set contains no pair of adjacent points. This implies that a set satisfying our conditions must exist.

In probability theory, if a large number of events are all independent of one another and each has probability less than 1, then there is a positive (possibly small) probability that none of the events will occur. The Lovász local lemma allows one to relax the independence condition slightly: As long as the events are "mostly" independent from one another and aren't individually too likely, then there will still be a positive probability that none of them occurs. It is most commonly used in the probabilistic method, in particular to give existence proofs.

Das Lovász-Local-Lemma ist ein Hilfssatz aus der Wahrscheinlichkeitstheorie. Es verallgemeinert das Argument, dass die stochastische Unabhängigkeit von Ereignissen mit positiver Wahrscheinlichkeit eine positive Wahrscheinlichkeit für das Eintreten aller Ereignisse impliziert, auf Situationen, in denen nicht alle Ereignisse unabhängig sind. Sein Name beruht darauf, dass es lokale Eigenschaften zu einem globalen Ergebnis zusammensetzt. Es findet am häufigsten Anwendung in probabilistischen Ansätzen, um Existenzbeweise zu führen. 1975 wurde es von László Lovász und Paul Erdős bewiesen.


Etymology.

The name of the town is derived from the Armenian word of "jermuk" (ջերմուկ) or "jermook", in Western Armenian "chermoug" meaning "warm mineral spring", first mentioned during the 13th century by historian Stepanos Orbelian in his work "History of the Sisakan Province".

History.

Jermuk occupies an area which is historically considered as part of the Vayots Dzor canton of the Syunik province of Greater Armenia. It was first mentioned during the 13th century by historian Stepanos Orbelian in his work "History of the Province of Sisakan". The remains of an ancient cyclopean fortress and the ruins of an 8th-century basilica testify that the region around the fountains of Jermuk has been settled long before the 13th century. The area of Jermuk has been ruled by the Siunia dynasty between the 10th and 13th centuries, when Vayots Dzor was part of the Kingdom of Syunik. The princes of Syunik regarded the mineral springs of Jermuk as healing and built several pools filled with it, thereby making the little town their holiday destination. During the Middle Ages, the Silk Road passed through the area of Vayots Dzor, particularly the road that currently links the town of Martuni with Yeghegnadzor to the northwest of Jermuk.  At the beginning of the 16th century, Eastern Armenia fell under the Safavid Persian rule. The territory of Jermuk became part of the "Erivan Beglarbegi" and later the Erivan Khanate. The period between the 16th and 17th centuries is considered to be the darkest period in the history of Vayots Dzor. The region was turned into a frequent battlefield between the invading troops of the Turkic and Iranian tribes. As a result, many significant monuments and prosperous villages were destroyed and the population was displaced. In 1747, Jermuk became part of the newly-formed Nakhichevan Khanate.  As a result of the Treaty of Turkmenchay signed between the Russian Empire and Persia in 1828 following the Russo-Persian War of 1826–28, many territories of Eastern Armenia—including Vayots Dzor—became part of the Russian Empire. In 1828–30, many Armenian families from the Iranian towns of Salmas and Khoy were resettled in Eastern Armenia, particularly in the areas that later became part of the Erivan Governorate in 1840. The first wave of Armenian settlers arrived in the Vayots Dzor region in 1828–29. Under the Russian rule, the town of Jermuk witnessed a significant growth and development. During the 1830s, the Russian geologist G. Voskoboynikov arrived in Armenia and began explorations on Jermuk's geographical depth as well as the contents and characteristics of Jermuk waters. His observations on Jermuk were published in the "Mountain Magazine" journal in 1831, and later in 1855, in the "Caucasian Calenda" magazine. Voskoboynikov's works were the first scientific talks on Jermuk.  In the 1860s, all of the historic pools of Jermuk built by the Orbelian princes of Syunik were renovated by "Gevorg Khanagyan", following a resolution by the Russian government. Today, those baths which are called "Pristav Pools" and preserved as historical monuments. In 1870, Jermuk became part of the newly-formed Sharur-Daralagezsky Uyezd within the Erivan Governorate.  In 1931, Jermuk was included in the newly-formed Azizbekov raion of Soviet Armenia. The first urban development plan of Jermuk was introduced by architect P. Msryan in 1945. The 2nd plan was composed in 1952 by architect P. Manukyan. The plan was later modified at the beginning of the 1960s.  Between 1918 and 1920 Jermuk was included within the short-lived Republic of Armenia. After the Sovietization of Armenia, Jermuk and the surrounding territories became one of the regions that resisted the Soviet rule and formed the unrecognized Republic of Mountainous Armenia under the leadership of Garegin Nzhdeh. However, after falling to the Bolsheviks in July 1921, Jermuk became part of the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic. In 1961, Jermuk was incorporated into an urban settlement within the Azizbekov raion. The first sanatorium was opened in 1962, followed by the 2nd one in 1963 and the mineral water spa centre in 1966, thus setting for the fertile activity of the Jermuk health resort centre, in order to turn Jermuk into a modern resort for all Soviet nationals. In 1967, Jermuk was granted the status of a town of republican subordination.  With the gradual development of the services, the population of Jermuk reached up to 9,000 during the 1980s. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, and as a result of the post-independence economic crisis of Armenia, the population has drastically declined to less than 5,000 during the 1st decade of the 21st century. In 1995, Jermuk became part of the newly-formed Vayots Dzor Province as per the 1995 administrative reforms. However, many development plans have been implemented in Jermuk during the recent years, in order to further develop the town as a summer resort and a winter tourism destination, including the nearby village of Kechut and the defunct airfield of Jermuk. Many new hotels and health centers were opened, many sanatoriums were rehabilitated, and the 1st phase of the cableway of the ski resort was entirely renovated.

Geography and climate.

The town is located at a height of 2080 meters above sea level, within the mountains of Vayots Dzor, among thick forests, on a plateau divided into two parts by the gorge of Arpa River, 170 km south-east of Yerevan. The town is dominated by the Vardenis mountain range from the north and the Vayk range from the south. The height of the surrounding mountains ranges between 2500 and 3500 meters, all covered with forests and alpine meadows.  The forests of Jermuk are rich with oak and hornbeam trees, as well as with dog rose, wild pear, plum and juniper plants. Animals like foxes, rabbits, badgers and bears could be found there.  However, the town is mainly famous with its hot springs (geysers). Its name itself is derived from this fact, as the word "jermuk" means "geyser" in the Armenian language. The waterfall of Jermuk on Arpa river has a height of 70 meters.  The town is characterized with alpine climate providing mild weather during the summers with cold and snowy climate during the long-lasting winters. The annual precipitation level is.

Demographics.

Until 1988, the town had a small Azerbaijani community among a majority of Armenians. However, after the breakout of the Nagorno-Karabakh War in 1988–1989, the Azeris of the town left for Azerbaijan. Simultaneously, the town received 1,154 Armenian refugees from Azerbaijan.  Here is the population timeline of Jermuk since 1959: Currently, the town is almost entirely populated by ethnic Armenians who belong to the Armenian Apostolic Church. The regulating body of the church is the Diocese of Vayots Dzor, seated in Yeghegnadzor. The town's church of Surp Gayane was consecrated on November 17, 2007. It was built through the donations of businessman Ashot Arsenyan. The architect of the church is Samvel Aghajanyan.

Culture.

Old caves dating to the Bronze Age are found in the Arpa River gorge at the north of Jermuk, along with a group of small chapels dating back to the Middle Ages.  The Jermuk branch of the National Gallery of Armenia was opened in 1972. It is home to many paintings and sculptures, mainly composed by several Soviet-Armenian artists such as Haroutiun Galentz, Martiros Saryan and others. The town is also home to a public library.  Upon the efforts of sculptor Hovhannes Muradyan, a group of sculptures known as the "Alley of fedayis" was opened in Jermuk between 1988 and 1992, depicting many figures of Armenian fedayis who fought against the Ottoman Empire.  In 2004, the Statue of Israel Ori was opened at the centre of Jermuk, composed by Gagik Stpanyan.  Jermuk is home to the "Snowman Festival" regularly organized in February on a yearly basis.

Transportation.

Jermuk is connected with the M-2 Motorway through the regional H-42 Road. The town is connected with Yerevan and the nearby cities through buses and minibuses.  The town has a small airstrip at its southern edge, near the Kechut Reservoir.

Economy.

Industry.

The natural water bottling industry has its deep roots in the town of Jermuk. The first factory known as "Jermuk Mayr Gortsaran" was founded in 1951. Nowadays, Jermuk is home to many large water bottling factories, with the largest one being the "Jermuk Group" operating since 1999. In 2015–16, "Jermuk Mayr Gortsaran" was acquired by "Jermuk Group", where a new production line was launched in order to increase the capacity of the factory and boost exports.  The bottled water branded as Jermuk is largely exported to several markets around the world.

Tourism.

Another key sector in the economy of Jermuk is tourism. The town is home to several health resorts and spas, and is one of the main touristic destinations for those who visit Armenia. Visitors come for the natural environment of Jermuk and the mountains of Vayots Dzor (3000 meters), the waterfalls, the curing water pools, hotels and health spas, sanatoriums, the cableway and alpine sports facilities. It is considered the centre of medical tourism in Armenia.  Gndevank Monastery dating back to the 10th century, is one of the most attractive nearby destinations. It is located just west of Jermuk.  The town is home to a number of prominent resorts and sanatoriums, including Hyatt Place Jermuk, Gladzor Sanatorium, Olympia Sanatorium, Jermuk Armenia Health Spa, Ararat Health Spa, Jermuk Moscow Health Resort, Jermuk Ashkharh Health Center, and Jermuk Resort & Spa. There are also many small hotels and guest houses in Jermuk.  Jermuk is among the 3 towns of Armenia that are allowed to accommodate gambling houses and activities (along with Tsaghkadzor and Sevan).

Sport.

Jermuk is one of the major centres for winter sports in Armenia. A 900-meters long cableway serves the ski area located at the southeast of the town. The works for the second phase of the ski lift are ongoing in order to boost the winter tourism in the region.  Jermuk is a regular venue for international chess tournaments. Each year during the summer, the town hosts the FIDE Grand Prix Jermuk chess tournament.  The town has a large - though derelict - indoor sports palace dating back to the Soviet days.

International relations.

Twin towns – Sister cities.

Jermuk is twinned with:

Jermuk (), is a mountain spa town and the centre of the urban community of Jermuk in Vayots Dzor Province at the south of Armenia, at a road distance of 53 km east of the provincial capital Yeghegnadzor. It was considered one of the popular destinations for medical tourism in the Soviet Union.

Dschermuk (, in wissenschaftlicher Transliteration J̌ermowk, IPA: []) ist ein Kurort in Armenien. Dschermuk hatte bei der Volkszählung 2011 4346 Einwohner und liegt in einer landschaftlich reizvollen Gegend der Provinz Wajoz Dsor, in der es viele Thermalquellen gibt. Deshalb wurde Dschermuk zu Sowjetzeiten zu einem bekannten Kurort ausgebaut. Außerdem wird hier Mineralwasser abgefüllt. Die Zufahrtsstraße führt oberhalb des Arpa-Tals am Kloster Gndevank vorbei.


West Stand.

The stand is made up of two tiers, with only the upper tier covered, but at the expense of several supporting columns for the roof structure. The seats are the originals from the early 1900s, and from here you get a decent view with moderate legroom. In spite of the restricted views and modest facilities, the West Stand remains a popular vantage point for many fans. The lower tier of the West Stand is uncovered and offers a great view of the action.  The roof of the West Stand is corrugated iron. This also houses the main television gantry, which is accessed from the upper tier seating area by a temporary ladder.  At the end of the 1990s, the then stadium owners Barnsley Football Club were considering re-developing the West Stand after several seasons of high attendances; however, with the rapid decline in fortunes of the football club, subsequent sale of the stadium and new club ownership, these plans are unlikely to come to fruition in the near future.  The stand also incorporates a traditional players' tunnel in the center. While this is used for access to some of the facilities underneath the stand, the main players' tunnel now feeds out from the north-west corner, following the relocation of the changing rooms to the North Stand.  The West Stand has a total seating capacity of 4,752.

East Stand.

The East Stand is a two-tier development, completed in 1993. Funded in part by the football trust, the stand has a capacity of 7,492 and replaced a large covered terrace known as the Brewery Stand. The East Stand was designed by NYP Architects, as was the North Stand and the Corner Stand. With the completion of the East Stand, Barnsley FC became the first football club in Yorkshire to incorporate 'executive boxes' into their stadium.  Because of the sloped land on which Oakwell Stadium is built, the rear of the East Stand is much taller than it is from the pitch side, meaning that a climb to the upper-tier seating area requires many more steps than a spectator may anticipate; however, several lifts are available.

The CK Beckett Stand.

Built in 1995, CK Beckett is the current name for what is traditionally known as the 'Pontefract Road End' or 'Ponty End'. Some fans continue to call it the 'ORA Stand', in reference to its original sponsors. It is also known as the Van Damme Stand.  With a capacity of 4,508, the CK Beckett Stand is a large covered single-tier seating area behind the goal on the south side of the stadium.  This part of the stadium also houses the club superstore, the box office, and general administration offices.

The North Stand.

The North Stand is the most recent addition to Oakwell Stadium and is a large covered singled-tiered seating area with a capacity of 6,257 spectators.  As this stand is generally reserved for away supporters, its full capacity is rarely utilized, although during the 2006–07 season, Sheffield Wednesday, Derby County, Birmingham City, Leicester City and Sunderland fans all filled the end, and Sunderland and Derby County also took up half of the West Stand. In the 2009–10 season, Sheffield Wednesday, and Newcastle United fans filled the stand with Newcastle fans also taking half of the West Stand.  At a cost of £4.5 million (including several academy facilities that it accommodates), it has been a cause for debate ever since its construction. However, at the time it was built, Barnsley had only just been relegated from the FA Premier League and were planning for a possible return.

The Wakefield Audi Corner Stand.

Built in the summer of 1998 and originally known as 'The Welcome Windows Stand', the structure provides further executive areas and disabled facilities for viewing an event.  Access to this area was also incorporated into the neighbouring East Stand on several levels; the spectator capacity of the structure is 202.  In August 2015 Barnsley announced the new sponsor of the stand, renaming it to the Brittania Drilling Limited Stand. However, on October 9th 2018, the sponsor changed yet again, to Wakefield Audi.

Other uses.

In recent years Oakwell Stadium has rarely been used by anyone other than Barnsley FC, apart from the occasional 'celebrity' charity football match.  Wakefield Trinity Wildcats rugby league club used the stadium for their first game in the Super League in 1998.  Non-league football club Wakefield and Emley used the stadium for an FA Cup tie against Rotherham in 1998, choosing a larger neutral venue as opposed to the traditional option of'switching' the tie to the home of the team which was drawn away.  Premier League side Manchester City used the stadium for their first qualifying round UEFA Cup game in July 2008, since the pitch at the City Of Manchester Stadium was unsuitable for football after the summer's commercial activities, such as boxing and music concerts, and was being re-turfed.

Tragedy.

On 27 December 1920, Horace Fairhurst, a full-back for the visiting Blackpool, received a blow to the head during the league encounter. He died at home eleven days later as a result of the injury.

Transport.

Barnsley Interchange, with rail services to Sheffield, Leeds, Wakefield, Chesterfield, Nottingham, and Huddersfield, is around half a mile from Oakwell, or around a ten-minute walk, mostly uphill.

Oakwell is a multi-purpose sports development in Barnsley, South Yorkshire, England used primarily by Barnsley Football Club for playing their home fixtures, and those of their reserves.

Das Oakwell Stadium bezeichnet eine Sportanlage in Barnsley, Vereinigtes Königreich, zu der eine Sporthalle, zwei Stadien und verschiedene Trainingsplätze gehören. Meistens wird unter Oakwell Stadium jedoch das größte, 23.287 Zuschauer fassende, auch "The Barn" genannte Fußballstadion, verstanden. Das kleinere Stadion hat 2.200 Plätze.