Types.

The most common types of discounts and allowances are listed below.

Dealing with payment.

Prompt payment discount.

"Trade discounts" are deductions in price given by the wholesaler or manufacturer to the retailer at the list price or catalogue price. "Cash discounts" are reductions in price given to the debtor to motivate the debtor to make payment within specified time. These discounts are intended to speed payment and thereby provide cash flow to the firm. They are sometimes used as a promotional device.

Preferred payment method discount.

Some retailers (particularly small retailers with low margins) offer discounts to customers paying with cash, to avoid paying fees on credit card transactions.

Partial payment discount.

Similar to the Trade discount, this is used when the seller wishes to improve cash flow or liquidity, but finds that the buyer typically is unable to meet the desired discount deadline. A partial discount for whatever payment the buyer makes helps the seller's cash flow partially.

Sliding scale.

A discount offered based on one's ability to pay. More common with non-profit organizations than with for-profit retail.

Forward dating.

This is where the purchaser doesn’t pay for the goods until well after they arrive. The date on the invoice is moved forward - example: purchase goods in November for sale during the December holiday season, but the payment date on the invoice is January 27.

Seasonal discount.

These are price reductions given when an order is placed in a slack period (example: purchasing skis in April in the northern hemisphere, or in September in the southern hemisphere). On a shorter time scale, a happy hour may fall in this category. Generally, this discount is referred to as "X-Dating" or "Ex-Dating". An example of X-Dating would be:

Dealing with trade.

Bargaining.

Bargaining is where the seller and the buyer negotiate a price below the original asking price.

Trade discount.

Trade discounts, also called functional discounts, are payments to distribution channel members for performing some function. Examples of these functions are warehousing and shelf stocking. Trade discounts are often combined to include a series of functions, for example 20/12/5 could indicate a 20% discount for warehousing the product, an additional 12% discount for shipping the product, and an additional 5% discount for keeping the shelves stocked. Trade discounts are most frequent in industries where retailers hold the majority of the power in the distribution channel (referred to as channel captains).  Trade discounts are given to try to increase the volume of sales being made by the supplier.  The discount described as trade rate discount is sometimes called "trade discount". Trade discount is the discount allowed on retail price of a product or something. for e.g. Retail price of a cream is 25 and trade discount is 2% on 25.

Trade rate discount.

A trade rate discount, sometimes also called "trade discount", is offered by a seller to a buyer for purposes of trade or reselling, rather than to an end user. For example, a pharmacist might offer a discount for over-the-counter drugs to physicians who are purchasing them for dispensing to the physicians' own patients. A seller supplying both trade or resellers, and the general public will have a general list price for anybody, and will offer a trade discount to bona-fide trade customers.

Trade-in credit.

Trade-in credit, also called trade-up credit, is a discount or credit granted for the return of something. The returned item may have little monetary value, as an old version of newer item being bought, or may be worth reselling as second-hand. The idea from a seller's viewpoint is to offer some discount but have the buyer showing some "counter action" to earn this special discount. Sellers like this as the discount granted is not just "given for free" and makes future price/value negotiations easier. Buyers have the advantage of getting some value for something no longer used. Examples can be found in many industries.

Dealing with quantity.

These are price reductions given for bulk purchasing. The rationale behind them is to obtain economies of scale and pass some (or all) of these savings on to the customer. In some industries, buyer groups and co-ops have formed to take advantage of these discounts. Generally there are two types:

Cumulative quantity discount.

Cumulative quantity discounts, also called accumulation discounts, are price reductions based on the quantity purchased over a set period of time. The expectation is that they will impose an implied switching cost and thereby bond the purchaser to the seller.

Non-cumulative quantity discount.

These are price reductions based on the quantity of a single order. The expectation is that they will encourage larger orders, thus reducing billing, order filling, shipping, and sales personnel expenses.

Dependence of price on quantity.

An extreme form of quantity discount occurs when, within a quantity range, the price does not depend on quantity: This also applies in the case of a service where the "quantity" is time. For example, an entrance ticket for a zoo is usually for a day. If you leave in the middle of the day, the price is the same. Other examples are multi-day passes to amusement parks or season tickets to sporting events.  If one has to buy more than one wants, we can distinguish between the surplus just not being used, or the surplus being a nuisance, e.g. because of having to carry a large container.

Dealing with customer characteristics.

The following discounts have to do with specific characteristics of the customer.

Disability discount.

A discount offered to customers with what is considered to be a disability.

Educational or student discount.

These are price reductions given to members of educational institutions, usually students but possibly also to educators and to other institution staff. The provider's purpose is to build brand awareness early in a buyer's life, or build product familiarity so that after graduation the holder is likely to buy the same product, for own use or for an employer, at its normal price. Providers also offer student discounts as means of offering a product within the budget of a student, which would otherwise be too expensive, thus gaining extra sales. Educational discounts may be given by merchants directly, or via a student discount program.

Employee discount.

A discount offered by a company to employees who buy its products.  In 2005, the American automakers ran an "employee discount" for all customers promotional campaign in order to entice buyers, with some success.

Military discount.

A discount offered to customers who are or were members of a military service. Types of military discounts include discounts for active-duty military, veterans, retired military personnel, and military spouses or dependents. In the United States, military discounts frequently require proof of ID to show eligibility such as a DD Form 214, DD Form 215, or DD Form 217 from any branch of the Armed Forces, TRICARE Cards, Veterans Affairs Cards Uniformed Services Privilege and Identification Cards (USPIC) or other official documentation. Eligibility for military discounts can also be verified online or via mobile by verification companies like SheerID.

Age-related discounts.

Toddler discount, child discount, kid discount.

A discount, or free service, offered to children younger than a certain age, commonly for admission to entertainments and attractions, restaurants, and hotels. There may be a requirement that the child be accompanied by an adult paying full price. Small children often travel free on public transport, and older ones may pay a substantially discounted price; proof of age may be required.

Young person's discount.

Discounts are sometimes offered to young people below a certain age who are neither children nor in education.

Senior discount.

A discount offered to customers who are above a certain relatively advanced age, typically a round number such as 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, and 75; the exact age varies in different cases. The rationale for a senior discount offered by companies is that the customer is assumed to be retired and living on a limited income, and unlikely to be willing to pay full price; sales at reduced price are better than no sales. Non-commercial organizations may offer concessionary prices as a matter of social policy. Free or reduced-rate travel is often available to older people (see, for example, Freedom Pass). In United States most grocery stores offer senior discounts, starting for those age 50 or older, but most discounts are offered for those over 60.

Special prices offered to friends of the seller.

A discounted price offered to friends of the salesperson, an attitude which is parodied in the stereotype of a salesman saying "It costs [such-and such], but for you..." In Australia, New Zealand, and the UK, discounts to friends are known as "mates' rates." In French this discount is known as "prix d'ami". In Spain this is known as "precio de amigo" in Spanish, or "preu d'amic" in Catalan. In German the term "Freundschaftspreis" is commonly used.

Special prices offered to local residents.

Discounts are common in tourist destinations. In Hawaii, for example, many tourist attractions, hotels, and restaurants charge a deeply discounted price to someone who shows proof that they live in Hawaii; this is known as a "Kama'aina discount," after the Hawaiian word for an old-timer or native. It is also known outside of Hawaii but in the Hawaiian islands as a resident discount.

Discount card.

Sometimes a document, typically a plastic card similar to a payment card, is issued as proof of eligibility for discounts. In other cases, existing documents proving status (as student, disabled, resident, etc.) are accepted. Documentation may not be required, for example, for people who are obviously young or old enough to qualify for age-related discounts. In some cases, the card may be issued to anyone who asks.

Coupons.

A discount, either of a certain specified amount or a percentage to the holder of a voucher, usually with certain terms. Commonly, there are restrictions as for other discounts, such as being valid only if a certain quantity is bought or only if the customer is older than a specified age. Coupons are often printed in newspapers, brochures, and magazines, or can be downloaded from the Internet.

Rebates.

A refund of part or sometimes the full price of the product following purchase, though some rebates are offered at the time of purchase. A particular case is the promise of a refund in full if applied for in a restricted date range some years in the future; the hope is that the promise will lure customers and increase sales, but that the majority will fail to meet the conditions for a valid claim.

Discounts and allowances are reductions to a basic price of goods or services. They can occur anywhere in the distribution channel, modifying either the manufacturer's list price (determined by the manufacturer and often printed on the package), the retail price (set by the retailer and often attached to the product with a sticker), or the list price (which is quoted to a potential buyer, usually in written form).

Ein Rabatt (von ital.: "rabbattere" = abschlagen, abziehen) ist ein Nachlass vom Listenpreis einer Ware oder Dienstleistung oder von dem Preis, den der Unternehmer in sonstiger Weise allgemein ankündigt oder fordert (Netto-Verkaufspreis) oder ein Sonderpreis, der wegen der Zugehörigkeit zu bestimmten Verbraucherkreisen, Berufen, Vereinen oder Gesellschaften eingeräumt wird. Rabatte werden als Kaufanreize in der Preispolitik eingesetzt und sowohl für den Offline-Einkauf als auch zunehmend im Online-Handel genutzt (Online Couponing). Die Berechnung erfolgt bei der Preiskalkulation. Rabatte werden meist in Prozent vom Listenpreis als Rabattsatz angegeben. Eine dem Geldrabatt ähnliche Wirkung entfaltet das Anbieten, Ankündigen oder Gewähren von Zugaben. Zugaben sind Rabatte in Güterform. Keine Rabatte sind allgemeine Preissenkungen oder Warenrückvergütungen.


Need and placement.

Roadside hazards must be assessed for the danger they pose to traveling motorists based on size, shape, rigidity, and distance from the edge of travelway. For instance, small roadside signs and some large signs (ground-mounted breakaway post) often do not merit roadside protection as the barrier itself may pose a greater threat to general health and well-being of the public than the obstacle it intends to protect. In many regions of the world, the concept of clear zone is taken into account when examining the distance of an obstacle or hazard from the edge of travelway.  Clear zone, also known as clear recovery area or horizontal clearance is defined (through study) as a lateral distance in which a motorist on a recoverable slope may travel outside of the travelway and return their vehicle safely to the roadway. This distance is commonly determined as the 85th percentile in a study comparable to the method of determining speed limits on roadways through speed studies and varies based on the classification of a roadway. In order to provide for adequate safety in roadside conditions, hazardous elements such as fixed obstacles or steep slopes can be placed outside of the clear zone in order to reduce or eliminate the need for roadside protection.  Common sites for installation of traffic barrier:  When barrier is needed, careful calculations are completed to determine length of need. The calculations take into account the speed and volume of traffic volume using the road, the distance from the edge of travelway to the hazard, and the distance or offset from the edge of travelway to the barrier.

Types and performance.

Traffic barriers are categorized in two ways: by the function they serve, and by how much they deflect when a vehicle crashes into them.

Functions.

Roadside barriers are used to protect traffic from roadside obstacles or hazards, such as slopes steep enough to cause rollover crashes, fixed objects like bridge piers, and bodies of water. Roadside barriers can also be used with medians, to prevent vehicles from colliding with hazards within the median.  Median barriers are used to prevent vehicles from crossing over a median and striking an oncoming vehicle in a head-on crash. Unlike roadside barriers, they must be designed to be struck from either side.  Bridge barrier is designed to restrain vehicles from crashing off the side of a bridge and falling onto the roadway, river or railroad below. It is usually higher than roadside barrier, to prevent trucks, buses, pedestrians and cyclists from vaulting or rolling over the barrier and falling over the side of the structure. Bridge rails are usually multi-rail tubular steel barriers or reinforced concrete parapets and barriers.  Work zone barriers are used to protect traffic from hazards in work zones. Their distinguishing feature is they can be relocated as conditions change in the road works. Two common types are used: temporary concrete barrier and water-filled barrier. The latter is composed of steel-reinforced plastic boxes that are put in place where needed, linked together to form a longitudinal barrier, then ballasted with water. These have an advantage in that they can be assembled without heavy lifting equipment, but they cannot be used in freezing weather.

Stiffness.

Barriers are divided into three groups, based on the amount they deflect when struck by a vehicle and the mechanism the barrier uses to resist the impact forces. In the United States, traffic barriers are tested and classified according to the AASHTO Manual for Assessing Safety Hardware (MASH) standards, which recently superseded Federal Highway Administration NCHRP Report 350. Barrier deflections listed below are results from crash tests with a pickup truck traveling, colliding with the rail at a 25 degree angle.  Flexible barriers include cable barriers and weak post corrugated guide rail systems. These are referred to as flexible barriers because they will deflect when struck by a typical passenger car or light truck. Impact energy is dissipated through tension in the rail elements, deformation of the rail elements, posts, soil and vehicle bodywork, and friction between the rail and vehicle.  Semi-rigid barriers include box beam guide rail, heavy post blocked out corrugated guide rail and thrie-beam guide rail. Thrie-beam is similar to corrugated rail, but it has three ridges instead of two. They deflect : more than rigid barriers, but less than flexible barriers. Impact energy is dissipated through deformation of the rail elements, posts, soil and vehicle bodywork, and friction between the rail and vehicle. Box beam systems also spread the impact force over a number of posts due to the stiffness of the steel tube.  Rigid barriers are usually constructed of reinforced concrete. A permanent concrete barrier will only deflect a negligible amount when struck by a vehicle. Instead, the shape of a concrete barrier is designed to redirect a vehicle into a path parallel to the barrier. This means they can be used to protect traffic from hazards very close behind the barrier, and generally require very little maintenance. Impact energy is dissipated through redirection and deformation of the vehicle itself. Jersey barriers and F-shape barriers also lift the vehicle as the tires ride up on the angled lower section. For low-speed or low-angle impacts on these barriers, that may be sufficient to redirect the vehicle without damaging the bodywork. The disadvantage is there is a higher likelihood of rollover with a small car than the single slope or step barriers. Impact forces are resisted by a combination of the rigidity and mass of the barrier. Deflection is usually negligible.  An early concrete barrier design was developed by the New Jersey State Highway Department. This led to the term Jersey barrier being used as a generic term, although technically it applies to a specific shape of concrete barrier. Other types include constant-slope barriers, concrete step barriers, and F-shape barriers.  Concrete barriers usually have smooth finishes. At some impact angles, coarse finishes allow the drive wheel of front wheel drive vehicles to climb the barrier, potentially causing the vehicle to roll over. However, along parkways and other areas where aesthetics are considered important, reinforced concrete walls with stone veneers or faux stone finishes are sometimes used. These barrier walls usually have vertical faces to prevent vehicles from climbing the barrier.

Barrier end treatments.

Early traffic barrier designs often paid little attention to the ends of the barriers, so they either ended abruptly in blunt ends, or sometimes featured some flaring of the edges away from the side of the barrier facing traffic. Vehicles that struck blunt ends at the wrong angle could stop too suddenly or have steel rail sections penetrate into the passenger compartment, resulting in severe injuries or fatalities. As a result, a new style of barrier terminals were developed in the 1960s in which the installers were directed to twist the guardrail 90 degrees and bring its end down so that it would lie flat at ground level (so-called "turned-down" terminals). While this innovation prevented the rail from penetrating the vehicle, it could also vault a vehicle into the air or cause it to roll over, since the rising and twisting guardrail formed a ramp. These crashes often led to vehicles flying at high speed into the very objects which guardrails or barriers were supposed to protect them from in the first place.  To address the vaulting and rollover crashes, energy-absorbing terminals were developed. The first generation of these terminals in the 1970s were breakaway cable terminals, in which the rail curves back on itself and is connected to a cable that runs between the first and second posts (which are often breakaway posts). The second generation, in the 1990s and 2000s, feature a large steel impact head that engages the frame or bumper of the vehicle. The impact head is driven back along the guide rail, dissipating the vehicle's kinetic energy by bending or tearing the steel in the guide rail sections. A guide rail may also be terminated by curving it back to the point that the terminal is unlikely to be hit end-on, or, if possible, by embedding the end in a hillside or cut slope. An alternative to energy absorbing barrier terminals are impact attenuators. These are used for wider hazards that cannot be effectively protected with a one-sided traffic barrier.  Recycled tyres have been proposed for highway crash barriers, but most governments prefer sand-filled crash barriers because they have excellent absorption characteristics and are easier to erect and dismantle.  A Fitch Barrier is a type of impact attenuator consisting of a sand-filled plastic barrels, usually yellow colored with a black lid. Fitch barriers are often found in a triangular arrangement at the end of a guard rail between a highway and an exit lane (the area known as the gore), along the most probable line of impact. The barriers in front contain the least sand, with each successive barrel containing more, so that when a vehicle collides with the barrels they shatter, the kinetic energy is dissipated by scattering the sand and the vehicle decelerates smoothly instead of violently striking a solid obstruction, reducing the risk of injury to the occupants. Fitch barriers are widely popular due to their effectiveness, low cost, and ease of setup and repair or replacement.  Types of end treatments:

Traffic barriers (sometimes called Armco barriers, also known in North America as guardrails or guard rails and in Britain as crash barriers) keep vehicles within their roadway and prevent them from colliding with dangerous obstacles such as boulders, sign supports, trees, bridge abutments, buildings, walls, and large storm drains, or from traversing steep (non-recoverable) slopes or entering deep water. They are also installed within medians of divided highways to prevent errant vehicles from entering the opposing carriageway of traffic and help to reduce head-on collisions. Some of these barriers, designed to be struck from either side, are called median barriers. Traffic barriers can also be used to protect vulnerable areas like school yards, pedestrian zones, and fuel tanks from errant vehicles.

Eine Schutzplanke (umgangssprachlich und in der Schweiz fachsprachlich, sonst veraltet, auch Leitplanke, in Österreich auch Leitschiene) ist eine passive Schutzeinrichtung (Rückhaltesystem) aus zumeist Stahl an Straßen. Sie dient im Wesentlichen dazu, das Abkommen eines Fahrzeugs von der (mehrspurigen) Fahrbahn zu verhindern und Bereiche außerhalb der Fahrbahn vor einem Fahrzeuganprall zu schützen.


Related languages.

East Low German belongs to the dialect continuum of the continental West Germanic languages. It developed from the older Middle Low German.  In the West it fades into West Low German. The distinction is usually made referring to the plural endings of the verbs: East Low German endings are based on the old first person ending: -e(n), whereas West Low German endings are based on the old second person ending: -(e)t. The categorization of the Low German dialects into an Eastern and a Western group is not made by all linguists.  In the South, it fades into East Central German. The difference is that the East Low German varieties have not been affected by the High German consonant shift. The areas affected by the High German consonant shift are still expanding today, especially the Berlinerisch dialect that is gaining ground on the Brandenburgisch dialect by which it is surrounded.

Dialects.

East Low German dialects are:  It also includes Plautdietsch (originating from Danzig), which is spoken by Mennonites in North America, Mexico and a few other places in the world. In Berlin a version of Brandenburgisch was spoken in medieval times until the city took up an East Central German dialect that incorporated Brandenburgisch elements and developed into today's Berlin[er]isch.  "Baltendeutsch" is a High German variety influenced by East Low German formerly spoken by Germans in the Baltic states.

Pomeranian dialects.

In Pomerania, several dialects of East Low German are, or were, spoken:  The German dialects of Pomerania are compiled and described in the "Pommersches Wörterbuch" ("Pomeranian Dictionary"), a dictionary of the German dialects spoken within the Province of Pomerania's borders in 1936.  East Pomeranian dialect of East Low German is also spoken in Brazil (see Pomerode, in Santa Catarina, Santa Maria de Jetibá, in Espírito Santo, and Arroio do Padre, Morro Redondo, Turuçu, Canguçu, São Lourenço do Sul and Pelotas, in Rio Grande do Sul).

History.

By the early Middle Ages, Pomerania was largely populated by Slavic Pomeranians and Liuticians, who spoke the Pomeranian and Polabian languages. During the High Middle Ages, Germans from northern parts of the Holy Roman Empire settled in Pomerania as part of the medieval Ostsiedlung. Most Slavic Pomeranians gradually became Germanized. The new Pomeranian dialects which emerged from the admixture of the Low German dialects of the settlers are classified as East Low German.  After World War II, Germans east of the Oder-Neisse line were expelled to post-war Germany. Most varieties of East Pomeranian dialect have largely died out in the following decades as the expellees were assimilated into their new homes, although West Pomeranian and Central Pomeranian are still spoken in Vorpommern (Western or Hither Pomerania), part of the German state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern.  As a result of German immigration to Brazil, there are still some communities speaking East Pomeranian in Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina and Espírito Santo.

Writers.

Fritz Reuter and Heinrich Bandlow are among the most famous East Low German writers.

East Low German () is a group of Low German dialects spoken in north-eastern Germany as well as by minorities in northern Poland. Together with West Low German dialects, it forms a dialect continuum of the Low German language. Before 1945, the dialect was spoken along the entire then-German-settled Baltic Coast from Mecklenburg, through Pomerania, West Prussia into certain villages of the East Prussian Klaipėda Region.

Ostniederdeutsch (ebenso wie andere niederdeutsche Mundarten umgangssprachlich häufig als „Plattdeutsch“ bezeichnet) umfasst in Deutschland hauptsächlich jene niederdeutschen Dialekte, die in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Brandenburg und im Norden Sachsen-Anhalts, in der Altmark und in den Gebieten östlich der Oder gesprochen werden oder wurden. International sprechen vor allem Nachkommen mennonitischer Auswanderer mit Plautdietsch einen Dialekt des Ostniederdeutschen.


Eastern churches.

While in the Roman Catholic Church, the Words of Institution are considered to be the moment of Transubstantiation (when, according to religious tradition, the eucharistic elements would change from bread and wine into the actual Body and Blood of Christ), the Eastern Orthodox Churches do not hold this belief. Instead, the Epiclesis is believed to be the moment at which this change is completed. However, the actual process of change is not considered to begin at this moment, but begins with the Liturgy of Preparation—it is merely completed at the Epiclesis.  The Epiclesis is considered to be essential to the validity of the Sacred Mystery (sacrament), and in the 20th century, when Western Rite Orthodox parishes began to be established, it was necessary to add an Epiclesis to their Eucharistic rites, if one was not already there (for instance, those parishes which desired to use the Anglican Missal.)

East Syriac.

In its pure form, the ancient anaphora of the Divine Liturgy of Addai and Mari does include an epiclesis. It does not use the Words of Institution, although they appear directly and indirectly in other parts of the rite (and is therefore considered to be implicit).

Liturgy of St. James.

In the Liturgy of Saint James, according to the form in which it is celebrated on the island of Zakynthos, Greece, the anaphora is as follows:

Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom.

In the Divine Liturgy of Saint John Chrysostom an epiclesis is present (explicit); the priest says:

Liturgy of St. Basil the Great.

In the Liturgy of Saint Basil the Great according to the Greek recention of the prayers, the liturgical actions described above for the Liturgy of Saint John Chrysostom are the same. The formula is as follows:

Roman Rite.

Implicit epiclesis.

It is sometimes said that, in the Roman Rite of Mass, the prayer "Quam oblationem" of the Roman Canon represents an implicit epiclesis:  The Roman Canon mentions the Holy Spirit explicitly only once, in the final doxology: "Through him [Christ], and with him, and in him, O God, almighty Father, in the unity of the Holy Spirit, all glory and honour is yours, for ever and ever."  The Catechism of the Catholic Church considers an at least implicit epiclesis to be a vital part of the sacrament: "At the heart of the Eucharistic celebration are the bread and wine that, by the words of Christ and the invocation of the Holy Spirit, become Christ's Body and Blood."  Nicholas Cabasilas was of the opinion that the functional epiclesis in the Roman Rite is instead the prayer "Supplices te rogamus", which, like the explicit epicleses in the Byzantine Rite, is placed after the anamnesis and oblation:  In Western Rite Orthodox parishes, an epicleses, modified from that of the Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, is inserted into the Roman canon, immediately before the supplices. The addition of an epicleses was originally suggested by Joseph Overbeck, the first person to make serious petitions for the restoration of an Orthodox western rite. This opinion on the need of an epicleses was shared by the Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church, who added an epicleses to the modified book of common prayer, later known as the Divine Liturgy of St. Tikhon. When the Gregorian Liturgy was approved for use in 1961, the Overbeck missal was approved for use, including the epicleses. This epicleses shares most of its text with that of the Liturgy of St. John, but with certain omissions, streamlining it better into the canon.  And we beseech, Thee, O Lord, to send down Thy Holy Spirit upon (us and upon) these offerings, that He would make this bread the precious body of Thy Christ, and that which is in this cup, the precious blood of Thy Son, our Lord Jesus Christ. Transmuting/Changing (them) by the Holy Spirit  Many variances exist in the exact text of the epicleses, due to translation inconsistency and different schools of thought on how the modified canon should be handled (e.g. should the elevation of the host and chalice remain?)

Explicit epicleses.

The additional Eucharistic Prayers (EP) introduced into the Roman Rite in the 1969 revision have both a pre-consecration and a post-consecration epiclesis.

Protestantism.

Anglicanism and Lutheranism.

Anglicans in the USA and American Lutheran Eucharistic prayers and newer Old Catholic anaphoras, tend to follow the Eastern practice of treating the Words of Institution as a warrant for the action, with the Epiclesis following the anamnesis/oblation. For example, after the Words of Institution, the epiclesis in Eucharistic Prayer B in the American Book of Common Prayer (which is found in the Canadian "Book of Alternative Service" and several other Anglican liturgies) reads:  After the Words of Institution in the Lutheran Book of Worship, for example, the epiclesis in Eucharistic Prayer III reads:  Lutheran and Anglican divines have also argued that in earlier liturgies of theirs in which an Epiclesis and unity with the one sacrifice of Christ may not have seemed explicit, it was stated as the point of the consecration in other parts of the rite, notably in required exhortations.

Methodism.

According to a 2003 report of the British Methodist Church, "His Presence Makes The Feast: Holy Communion in the Methodist Church": "The one Spirit by whom we are all baptised into the one body (1 Corinthians 12:13) is the same Spirit who unites us in and with the body of Christ in Holy Communion. The Holy Spirit at work in the Church of the Acts of the Apostles brings into effect a witnessing and preaching community in which there is apostolic teaching, fellowship, prayer and the breaking of the bread (Acts 2:42)." The epiclesis of the Methodist liturgy draws from both the Anglican tradition, such as the 1549 Prayer Book, and the liturgical renewal movement of the 20th century that focused upon liturgies of the ancient church, such as the early rite of Hippolytus. From these traditions, John Wesley, the founder of Methodism, inherited the notion that the Holy Spirit was to be invoked to make real and true all that God had promised to bestow on the faithful through Holy Communion. This theology of epiclesis is evidenced in several Methodist hymns written by Charles Wesley, the brother of John Wesley. The epiclesis used in The United Methodist Church is as follows:  The traditional rite of Holy Communion used before the publication of the 1989 hymnal did not include an explicit epiclesis. The traditional text, with slight revisions, is Word and Table IV, and it contains a 16 word, two line epiclesis, as follows:  Another epiclesis used in the Methodist Church in Great Britain is as follows:

Use in other sacraments.

A similar invocation of the Holy Spirit by the priest in some other sacraments is also called an epiclesis. The Eastern Orthodox Church holds that such an epiclesis is necessary for the validity of the Holy Mystery (sacrament) of marriage; the Roman Catholic Church holds that it is not, since for them the bride and groom are the ministers of that sacrament.  An epiclesis also appears in the Orthodox rite of Baptism. Baptism in the Roman Rite includes an epiclesis as part of the blessing of the baptismal water:  In the Roman Rite sacrament of Confirmation, the bishop invokes the Holy Spirit upon those being confirmed:  Other epicleses include that in the Eastern Orthodox Great Blessing of Waters on the feast of the Theophany.

The epiclesis (also spelled epiklesis; from "invocation" or "calling down from on high") is the part of the Anaphora (Eucharistic Prayer) by which the priest invokes the Holy Spirit (or the power of God's blessing) upon the Eucharistic bread and wine in some Christian churches.

Epiklese (von, kontrahiert ‚ich rufe an, rufe herbei‘) bedeutet zunächst allgemein seit der Antike die Anrufung eines oder mehrerer Götter und ist solchermaßen wichtiger Bestandteil jedes Gebetes.


History.

Loiret is one of the original 83 departments that was created during the French Revolution on March 4, 1790 by order of the National Constituent Assembly. The new departments were to be uniformly administered and approximately equal to one another in size and population. It was created from the former province of Orléanais which was too large to continue in its previous form.  The Loire Valley was occupied in Palaeolithic times as attested by numerous archaeological sites in the department. The Celts were here, bringing crafts and trades, and the Romans occupied the area after the Gallic Wars. They built roads and founded cities such as Cenabum, on the site of present-day Orléans, and Sceaux-du-Gâtinais. Around 451, the Huns invaded the region but were repelled before reaching Cenabum. The Franks reached the Loire and Clovis I reigned in the area. A time of peace and prosperity ensued during the reign of Charlemagne.

Geography.

The department of Loiret was historically in the province of Orléans in north central France, and along with the departments of Loir-et-Cher and Eure-et-Loir now forms the region Centre-Val de Loire. To the north of Loiret lie the departments of Eure-et-Loir, Essonne and Seine-et-Marne, to the east lies Yonne, to the southeast Nièvre, to the south Cher, and to the west Loir-et-Cher.  The department consists of mostly flat low-lying land through which flows the River Loire. This river enters the department near Châtillon-sur-Loire in the southeast, flows northwestwards to Orleans where it turns to flow south west, leaving the department near Beaugency. The Canal d'Orléans connects the Loire River at Orléans to a junction with the Canal du Loing and the Canal de Briare in the village of Buges near Montargis. The River Loire and these canals formed important trading routes before the arrival of the railways. The River Loiret, after which the department is named, is long and joins the Loire southwest of Orléans. Its source is at Orléans-la-Source, and its mouth at Saint-Hilaire-Saint-Mesmin. Other rivers in the department, are the River Loing, a right-bank tributary of the Loire, and the River Ouanne which flows into the Loing.  The department has a total area of and is from west to east and from north to south. Large parts of the land are used for agriculture, and these are separated by low wooded hills and some forested areas. The northwestern part of the department is in the wheat-growing region known as Beauce, an undulating plateau with some of France's best agricultural land. This area was popular with the French aristocracy in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance period, and there are many historic châteaux in the department including Château d'Augerville, Château de Bellegarde, Château de Gien, Château du Hallier, Château de Meung-sur-Loire, Château de Sully-sur-Loire and Château de Trousse-Barrière.  The part of the department south of the River Loire is known as the Sologne and is an area of heathland and marshland, interspersed by hills where vines are grown. The eastern part of the department is known as Gâtinais and was part of a province of that name. Until the beginning of the 21st century, it used to be renowned for the production of saffron, but the crop could not be mechanised, and production dwindled as the cost of production became too high.

Economy.

Of the of land in the department, are arable, are vines, are pasture, are forested, are plantations and orchards and are unproductive moorland and heathland. The soil is in general fertile and productive; the Beauce is the main wheat-growing region, oats are widely cultivated and rye is also grown. Other crops include fruit, asparagus, saffron and herbs. Vines are cultivated and wine produced, and the area is noted for its fruit preservation. Bee-keeping also takes place and honey is produced. Loiret has little industrial development, and commerce is centred about the sale of corn, timber, cattle, chestnuts, cider, honey, flour, fruits, fish, salt, saffron and wool. The only minerals extracted are stone, limestone, marl and clay.

Transport.

The department benefits from its proximity to Paris to which it has good transport links. Orléans does not yet have a TGV but is connected to Paris via fast express trains. The A71 autoroute links Paris with Orléans and Clermont-Ferrand, the A10 autoroute links Paris with Orléans and Bordeaux, and the Route nationale 20 links Paris with Orléans, Limoges, Toulouse and Spain.

Tourism.

Orléans is a popular tourist destination and is associated with Joan of Arc. The Cathedral of Sainte-Croix was built in the Gothic style between 1278 and 1329, destroyed by Protestant forces in 1568, and rebuilt between the 17th and 19th centuries.

Loiret (; ) is a department in the Centre-Val de Loire region of north-central France. The department takes its name from the river Loiret, a left-bank tributary of the Loire; the river Loiret is located wholly within the department. The capital of the department is Orléans, which is about southwest of Paris. As well as being the regional capital, it is a historic city on the banks of the Loire. It has a large central area with many historic buildings and mansions, and a cathedral, dating back to the thirteenth century, that was rebuilt after Protestant forces destroyed it in 1568. Loiret is famous for its

Das Département Loiret [] ist das französische Département mit der Ordnungsnummer 45. Es liegt in der Mitte des Landes in der Region Centre-Val de Loire und ist nach dem Fluss Loiret benannt.


Etymology.

The name "Minerva" stems from Proto-Italic "*meneswo" ('intelligent, understanding'), and ultimately from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) "*menos" ('thought'). Helmut Rix (1981) and Gerhard Meiser (1998) have proposed the PIE derivative "*menes-ueh2" ('provided with a mind, intelligent') as the transitional form.

Origin.

Following the Greek myths around Athena, she was born of Metis, who had been swallowed by Jupiter, and burst from her father's head, fully armed and clad in armor. Jupiter forcibly impregnated the titaness Metis, which resulted in her attempting to change shape (or shapeshift) to escape him. Jupiter then recalled the prophecy that his own child would overthrow him as he had Saturn, and in turn, Saturn had Caelus.  Fearing that their child would be male, and would grow stronger than he was and rule the Heavens in his place, Jupiter swallowed Metis whole after tricking her into turning herself into a fly. The titaness gave birth to Minerva and forged weapons and armor for her child while within Jupiter's body. In some versions of the story, Metis continued to live inside of Jupiter's mind as the source of his wisdom. Others say she was simply a vessel for the birth of Minerva. The constant pounding and ringing left Jupiter with agonizing pain. To relieve the pain, Vulcan used a hammer to split Jupiter's head and, from the cleft, Minerva emerged, whole, adult, and in full battle armor.

Presence in Mythology.

Minerva is a prominent figure in Roman Mythology. She appears throughout many famous myths. Many of the stories of her Greek counterpart Athena are attributed to Minerva in Roman mythology, such as that of the naming of Athens resulting from a competition between Minerva and Neptune (mythology), in which Minerva created the olive tree.

Minerva and Arachne.

Arachne was a mortal highly proficient in weaving and embroidery. Not only were her finished works that were beautiful, but also her process, so much so that nymphs would come out of their natural environments to watch her work. Arachne boasted that her skills could beat those of Minerva, and if she were wrong she would pay the price for it. This angered Minerva, and she took the form of an old woman to approach Arachne, offering her a chance to take back her challenge and ask forgiveness. When Arachne refused, Minerva rid herself of her disguise and took Arachne up on her challenge. Arcachne began to weave a tapestry which showed the shortcomings of the gods, while Minerva depicted her competition with Neptune and the gods looking down with disgust on mortals who would dare to challenge them. Minerva's weaving was meant as a final warning to her foe to back down. Minerva was insulted by the scenes which Arachne was weaving, and destroyed it. She then touched Arachne on the forehead which made her feel shame for what she had done, leading her to hang herself. Minerva then felt bad for the woman, and brought her back to life. However, Minerva transformed her into a spider as punishment for her actions, and hanging from a web would forever be a reminder to Arachne of her actions which offended the gods. This story also acted as a warning to mortals not to challenge the gods.

Minerva and Medusa.

Medusa was once a beautiful human, her beauty rivaled that of Minerva. Because of this Minerva turned her into a monster, replacing her hair with hissing snakes and removing her charm. Medusa turned any living creature she looked upon into stone. When Perseus approached Medusa he used her reflection in his shield to avoid contact with her eyes, and then beheaded her. He delivered the severed head to Minerva, who placed its image on her Aegis.

Taming of Pegasus.

When Perseus beheaded Medusa some of the blood spilled onto the ground, and from it came Pegasus. Minerva caught the horse and tamed it before gifting the horse to the Muses. It was a kick from the hoof of Pegasus which opened the fountain Hippocrene. When Bellerophon later went to fight the Chimera (mythology) he sought to use Pegasus in the fight. In order to do this he slept in Minerva's temple, and she came to him with a golden bridle. When Pegasus saw Bellerophon with the bridle the horse immediately allowed Bellerophon to mount, and they defeated the Chimera.

Turning Aglauros to Stone.

Metamorphoses by Ovid tell the story of Minerva and Aglauros. When Mercury comes to seduce mortal virgin Herse, her sister Aglauros is driven by her greed to help him. Minerva discovers this and is furious with Aglauros. She seeks the assistance of Envy, who fills Aglauros with so much envy for the good fortune of others that she turns to stone. Mercury fails to seduce Herse.

Minerva and Hercules.

Minerva assisted the hero Hercules. In Hyginus' "Fabulae" she is said to have helped him kill the Hydra (30.3).

Minerva and Odysseus.

Minerva assisted the hero Odysseus. Hyginus describes in his work "Fabulae" that Minerva changes Odysseus' appearance in order to protect and assist him multiple times (126).

Inventing the Flute.

Minerva is thought to have invented the flute by piercing holes into boxwood. She enjoyed the music, but became embarrassed by how it made her face look when her cheeks puffed out to play. Because of this she threw it away and it landed on a riverbank where it was found by a satyr.

Worship in Rome and Italy.

Minerva was worshipped at several locations in Rome, most prominently as part of the Capitoline Triad. She was also worshipped at the Temple of Minerva Medica, and at the "Delubrum Minervae", a temple founded around 50 BC by Pompey on the site now occupied by the church of "Santa Maria sopra Minerva".  The Romans celebrated her festival from March 19 to March 23 during the day which is called, in the neuter plural, Quinquatria, the fifth day after the Ides of March, the nineteenth, an artisans' holiday. This festival was of deepest importance to artists and craftsmen as she was the patron goddess of crafting and arts. According to Ovid (Fasti 3.809) the festival was 5 days long, and the first day was said to be the anniversary of Minerva's birth, so no blood was to be shed. The following four days were full of games of "drawn swords" in honour of Minerva's military association. Suetonius tells us (Life of Domitian 4.4) that Domitian celebrated the Quinquatria by appointing a college of priests who were to stage plays and animal games in addition to poetry and oratory competitions. A lesser version, the "Minusculae Quinquatria", was held on the Ides of June, June 13, by the flute-players, as Minerva was thought to have invented the flute. In 207 BC, a guild of poets and actors was formed to meet and make votive offerings at the temple of Minerva on the Aventine Hill. Among others, its members included Livius Andronicus. The Aventine sanctuary of Minerva continued to be an important center of the arts for much of the middle Roman Republic.  As "Minerva Medica", she was the goddess of medicine and physicians. As "Minerva Achaea", she was worshipped at Lucera in Apulia where votive gifts and arms said to be those of Diomedes were preserved in her temple.  We know due to the Acta Arvalia that a cow was sacrificed to Minerva on October 13th 58 AD along with many other scrifices to celebrate the anniversary of Nero coming to power. On January 3rd 81 AD, as a part of the New Year vows, two cows were sacrificed to Minerva (among many others) to secure the well-being of the emperor Titus, Domitian Caesar, Julia Augusta, and their children. On January 3rd 87 AD there is again record of a cow being sacrificed to Minerva among the many sacrifices made as a part of the New Year vows.  In "Fasti" III, Ovid called her the "goddess of a thousand works" due to all of the things she was associated with. Minerva was worshipped throughout Italy, and when she eventually became equated with the Greek goddess Athena, she also became a goddess of battle. Unlike Mars, god of war, she was sometimes portrayed with sword lowered, in sympathy for the recent dead, rather than raised in triumph and battle lust. In Rome her bellicose nature was emphasized less than elsewhere.  According to Livy's "History of Rome" (7.3), the annual nail marking the year, a process where the praetor maximus drove a nail into to formally keep track of the current year, happened in the temple of Minerva because she was thought to have invented numbers.  There is archaeological evidence to suggest that Minerva was worshipped not only in a formal civic fashion, but also by individuals on a more personal level.

Roman coinage.

Minerva is featured on the coinage of different Roman emperors. She often is represented on the reverse side of a coin holding an owl and a spear among her attributes.

Worship in Britain During Roman Occupation.

During the Roman occupation of Britain, it was common for carpenters to own tools ornamented with images of Minerva to invoke a greater amount of protection from the goddess of crafts. Some women would also have images of her on accessories such as hairpins or jewellery. She was even featured on some funerary art on coffins and signet rings.

Bath.

During Roman rule Minerva became equated with the Celtic goddess Sulis, to the degree where their names were used both together and interchangeably. and was believed to preside over the healing hot springs located in Bath. Though Minerva is not a water deity, her association with intellectual professions as "Minerva Medica" she could also be thought of as a healing goddess, the epigraphic evidence present makes it clear that this is how Minerva was thought of in Bath.  Some of the archaeological evidence present in Bath leads scholars to believe that it was thought Minerva could provide full healing from things such as rheumatism via the hot springs if she was given full credit for the healing.  The temple of Sulis Minerva was known for having a miraculous altar-fire which burned coal as opposed to the traditional wood.

Carrawburgh.

There is evidence of worship of Minerva Medica in Carrawburgh due to archaeological evidence such as a relief depicting her and Aesculapius.

Etruscan Menrva.

Stemming from an Italic moon goddess "*Meneswā" ('She who measures'), the Etruscans adopted the inherited Old Latin name, "*Menerwā", thereby calling her Menrva. It is presumed that her Roman name, Minerva, is based on this Etruscan mythology. Minerva was the goddess of wisdom, war, art, schools, and commerce. She was the Etruscan counterpart to Greek Athena. Like Athena, Minerva burst from the head of her father, Jupiter (Greek Zeus), who had devoured her mother (Metis) in an unsuccessful attempt to prevent her birth.  By a process of folk etymology, the Romans could have linked her foreign name to the root "men-" in Latin words such as "mens" meaning "mind", perhaps because one of her aspects as goddess pertained to the intellectual. The word "mens" is built from the Proto-Indo-European root "*men-"'mind' (linked with memory as in Greek Mnemosyne/μνημοσύνη and "mnestis"/μνῆστις: memory, remembrance, recollection, "manush" in Sanskrit meaning mind).  The Etruscan Menrva was part of a holy triad with Tinia and Uni, equivalent to the Roman Capitoline Triad of Jupiter-Juno-Minerva.

Modern depictions and references of Minerva.

Universities and educational establishments.

As a patron goddess of wisdom, Minerva frequently features in statuary, as an image on seals, and in other forms at educational institutions. Listings of this can be found on Minerva in the emblems of educational establishments.

Literature.

She is remembered in "De Mulieribus Claris", a collection of biographies of historical and mythological women by the Florentine author Giovanni Boccaccio, composed in 136162. It is notable as the first collection devoted exclusively to biographies of women in Western literature.. Poet Elizabeth Carter is famously portrayed in an outfit inspired by Minerva, and also wrote poems in her honour.

Minerva (, ; ) is the Roman goddess of wisdom and strategic warfare, and the sponsor of arts, trade, and strategy. Minerva is not a patron of violence such as Mars, but of defensive war only. From the second century BC onward, the Romans equated her with the Greek goddess Athena. Minerva is one of the three Roman deities in the Capitoline Triad, along with Jupiter and Juno.

Minerva ist eine römische Göttin, die insbesondere von den Sabinern, Etruskern und Latinern verehrt wurde. Die Etrusker nannten sie "Menrva".


Overview.

The area of Berlin was one of the first to abandon East Low German as a written language, which occurred in the 16th century, and later also as a spoken language. That was the first dialect of Standard German with definite High German roots but a Low German substratum apparently formed ("Berlinerisch" may therefore be considered an early form of "Missingsch"). Only recently has the new dialect expanded into the surroundings, which had used East Low German.  Since the 20th century, Berlinese has been a colloquial standard in the surrounding Brandenburg region. However, in Berlin proper, especially in the former West Berlin, the dialect is now seen more as a sociolect, largely through increased immigration and trends among the educated population to speak Standard German in everyday life.  Occasionally, the dialect is found on advertising.

Phonology.

Berlinese pronunciation is similar to that of other High German varieties. Nevertheless, it maintains unique characteristics, which set it apart from other variants. The most notable are the strong contraction trends over several words and the rather irreverent adaptation of foreign words and anglicisms that are difficult to understand for many speakers of Upper German speakers. Also, some words contain the letter j (representing IPA: [j]) instead of g, as is exemplified in the word for "good", in which "gut" becomes "jut".

Grammar.

Berlinese grammar contains some notable differences from that of Standard German. For instance, the accusative case and dative case are not distinguished. Similarly, conjunctions that are distinguished in standard German are not in Berlinese. For example, in Standard German, "wenn" (when, if) is used for conditional, theoretical or consistent events, and "wann" (when) is used for events that are currently occurring or for questions. There is no difference between the two in Berlinese.  Genitive forms are also replaced by prepositional accusative forms, some still with an inserted pronoun: "dem sein Haus" (the his house) rather than the standard "sein Haus" (his house). Plural forms often have an additional -s, regardless of the standard plural ending.  Words ending in "-ken" are often written colloquially and pronounced as "-sken".

Pronouns.

Personal pronoun: Interrogative pronoun:

Berlin German, or Berlin dialect (High German: "Berliner Dialekt", "Berliner Mundart", "Berlinerisch" or "Berlinisch"), is the dialect of Lusatian-New Marchian German spoken in the city of Berlin as well as its surrounding metropolitan area. It originates from a Brandenburgisch dialect. However, several phrases in Berlin German are typical of and unique to the city, indicating the manifold origins of immigrants, such as the Huguenots from France.

Der Berliner Dialekt (auch als "Berliner Mundart", "Berlinisch" oder "Berliner Jargon" bezeichnet; Eigenbezeichnung: "Berlinerisch") ist der Dialekt, der im Großraum Berlin-Brandenburg gesprochen wird. Im Zusammenhang mit einem oft derben, aber herzlichen Humor wird diese Ausdrucksweise auch als „Schnauze mit Herz“ ("Berliner Schnauze") bezeichnet. Beim Berlinerischen handelt es sich sprachwissenschaftlich nicht um einen Dialekt, sondern um einen (selten anzutreffenden) „Metrolekt“, eine in großstädtischen Zentren aus einer Mischung vieler unterschiedlicher Mundarten entstehende Stadtsprache. Die Entwicklung des Berlinerischen hat die Sprache des umliegenden Landes Brandenburg beeinflusst und das regionale, ursprünglich in der Mark Brandenburg gesprochene Niederdeutsch verdrängt. Die stärkste Ausprägung hat diese „neue“ Sprache in den städtischen Bereichen Berlins erfahren. So existieren in Berlin bislang Wörter und Spitznamen, die noch nicht in die Sprache des Umlands gefunden haben. Als Sprache ist sie ständigen Wandlungen unterworfen, sodass verschiedene Angaben hier so vielleicht nicht mehr zutreffen. Zur Aussprache und üblichen Schreibweisen siehe Berlinerische Grammatik.


Overview.

The three major functions of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning are interrelated, especially with the need to provide thermal comfort and acceptable indoor air quality within reasonable installation, operation, and maintenance costs. HVAC systems can be used in both domestic and commercial environments. HVAC systems can provide ventilation, and maintain pressure relationships between spaces. The means of air delivery and removal from spaces is known as room air distribution.

Individual systems.

In modern buildings, the design, installation, and control systems of these functions are integrated into one or more HVAC systems. For very small buildings, contractors normally estimate the capacity and type of system needed and then design the

District networks.

Although HVAC is executed in individual buildings or other enclosed spaces (like NORAD's underground headquarters), the equipment involved is in some cases an extension of a larger district heating (DH) or district cooling (DC) network, or a combined DHC network. In such cases, the operating and maintenance aspects are simplified and metering becomes necessary to bill for the energy that is consumed, and in some cases energy that is returned

History.

HVAC is based on inventions and discoveries made by Nikolay Lvov, Michael Faraday, Willis Carrier, Edwin Ruud, Reuben Trane, James Joule, William Rankine, Sadi Carnot, and many others.  Multiple inventions within this time frame preceded the beginnings of first comfort air conditioning system, which was designed in 1902

Heating.

Heaters are appliances whose purpose is to generate heat (i.e. warmth) for the building. This can be done via central heating. Such a system contains a boiler, furnace, or heat pump to heat water, steam, or air in a central location such as a furnace room in a home, or a mechanical room in a large building. The heat can be transferred by convection, conduction, or radiation. Space heaters are used to heat single rooms and only consist of a single unit.

Generation.

Heaters exist for various types of fuel, including solid fuels, liquids, and gases. Another type of heat source is electricity, normally heating ribbons composed of high resistance wire (see Nichrome). This principle is also used for baseboard heaters and portable heaters. Electrical heaters are often used as backup or supplemental heat for heat pump systems.

Distribution.

Water/steam.

In the case of heated water or steam, piping is used to transport the heat to the rooms. Most modern hot water boiler heating systems have a circulator, which is a pump, to move hot water through the distribution system (as opposed to older gravity-fed

Air.

Warm air systems distribute heated air through duct work systems of supply and return air through metal or fiberglass ducts. Many systems use the same ducts to distribute air cooled by an evaporator coil for air conditioning. The air supply is normally filtered through air cleaners to remove dust and pollen particles.

Dangers.

The use of furnaces, space heaters, and boilers as a method of indoor heating could result in incomplete combustion and the emission of carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, formaldehyde, volatile organic compounds, and other combustion byproducts. Incomplete combustion occurs when there is insufficient oxygen; the inputs are fuels containing various contaminants and the outputs are harmful byproducts, most dangerously carbon monoxide, which is a tasteless and odorless gas

Ventilation.

Ventilation is the process of changing or replacing air in any space to control temperature or remove any combination of moisture, odors, smoke, heat, dust, airborne bacteria, or carbon dioxide, and to replenish oxygen. Ventilation often refers to the intentional delivery of the outside air to the building indoor space. It is one of the most important factors for maintaining acceptable indoor air quality in buildings. Methods for ventilating a building may be divided into "mechanical/forced" and "natural" types.

Mechanical or forced ventilation.

Mechanical, or forced, ventilation is provided by an air handler (AHU) and used to control indoor air quality. Excess humidity, odors, and contaminants can often be controlled via dilution or replacement with outside air. However, in humid climates more energy is required to remove excess moisture from ventilation air.  Kitchens and bathrooms typically have mechanical exhausts to control odors and sometimes humidity. Factors in

Natural ventilation.

Natural ventilation is the ventilation of a building with outside air without using fans or other mechanical systems. It can be via operable windows, louvers, or trickle vents when spaces are small and the architecture permits. ASHRAE defined Natural ventilation as the flow of air through open windows, doors, grilles, and other planned building envelope penetrations, and as being driven by natural and/or artificially produced pressure differentials.  In more complex schemes, warm air is allowed to rise and flow out high building openings to the outside (stack effect), causing cool outside air to be drawn into low building openings. Natural ventilation schemes can use very little energy, but care must be taken to ensure comfort. In warm or humid climates, maintaining thermal comfort solely via natural ventilation might not

Airborne diseases.

Natural ventilation is a key factor in reducing the spread of airborne illnesses such as tuberculosis, the common cold, influenza and meningitis. Opening doors and windows are good ways to maximize natural ventilation, which would make the risk of airborne contagion much lower than with costly and maintenance-requiring mechanical systems. Old-fashioned clinical areas with high ceilings and large windows provide greatest protection. Natural ventilation costs little and is maintenance free, and is particularly suited to limited-resource settings and tropical climates, where the burden of TB and institutional TB transmission is highest. In settings where respiratory isolation is difficult and climate permits, windows and doors should be opened to reduce the risk of airborne contagion. Natural ventilation requires little maintenance and is inexpensive.

Air conditioning.

An air conditioning system, or a standalone air conditioner, provides cooling and/or humidity control for all or part of a building. Air conditioned buildings often have sealed windows, because open windows would work against the system intended to maintain constant indoor air conditions. Outside, fresh air is generally drawn into the system by a vent into a mix air chamber for mixing with the space return air. Then the mixture air enters an indoor or outdoor heat exchanger section where the air is to be cooled down, then be guided to the space creating positive air pressure. The percentage of return air made up of fresh air can usually be manipulated by adjusting the opening of this vent. Typical fresh air intake is about 10% of the total supply air.  Air conditioning and refrigeration are provided through the removal of heat. Heat can be removed through radiation, convection, or conduction. The heat transfer medium is a refrigeration system, such as water, air, ice, and chemicals are referred to as refrigerants. A refrigerant is employed either in a heat pump system in which a compressor is used to drive thermodynamic refrigeration cycle, or in a free cooling system which uses pumps to circulate a cool refrigerant (typically water or a glycol mix).  It is imperative that the air conditioning horsepower is sufficient for the area being cooled. Underpowered air conditioning system will lead to power wastage and inefficient usage. Adequate horsepower is required for any air conditioner installed.

Refrigeration cycle.

The refrigeration cycle uses four essential elements to cool, which are compressor, condenser, metering device and evaporator.  In variable climates, the system may include a reversing valve that switches from heating in

Free cooling.

Free cooling systems can have very high efficiencies, and are sometimes combined with seasonal thermal energy storage so that the cold of winter can be used for summer air conditioning. Common storage mediums are deep aquifers or a natural underground rock mass accessed via a cluster of small-diameter, heat-exchanger-equipped boreholes. Some systems with small storages are hybrids, using free cooling early in the cooling season, and later employing a heat pump to chill the circulation coming from the storage. The heat pump is added-in because the storage acts as a heat sink when the system is in cooling (as opposed to charging) mode,

Packaged vs. split system.

Central, "all-air" air-conditioning systems (or package systems) with a combined outdoor condenser/evaporator unit are often installed in North American residences, offices, and public buildings, but are difficult to retrofit (install in a building that was not designed to receive it) because of the bulky air ducts required. (Minisplit ductless systems are used in these situations.) Outside of North America, packaged systems are only used in limited applications involving large indoor space such as stadiums, theatres or exhibition halls.  An alternative to packaged systems is the use of separate indoor and outdoor coils in split systems. Split systems are preferred and widely used worldwide except in North America. In North America, split systems are most often seen in residential applications, but they are gaining popularity in small commercial buildings. The

Dehumidification.

Dehumidification (air drying) in an air conditioning system is provided by the evaporator. Since the evaporator operates at a temperature below the dew point, moisture in the air condenses on the evaporator coil tubes. This moisture is collected at the bottom of the evaporator in a pan and removed by

Maintenance.

All modern air conditioning systems, even small window package units, are equipped with internal air filters. These are generally of a lightweight gauze-like material, and must be replaced or washed as conditions warrant. For example, a building in a high dust environment, or a home with furry pets, will need to have the filters changed more often than buildings without these dirt loads. Failure to replace these filters as needed will contribute to a lower heat exchange rate, resulting in wasted energy, shortened equipment life, and

Energy efficiency.

Since the 1980s, manufacturers of HVAC equipment have been making an effort to make the systems they manufacture more efficient. This was originally driven by rising energy costs, and has more recently been driven by increased awareness of environmental issues. Additionally, improvements to the HVAC system efficiency can also help increase occupant health and productivity. In the US, the EPA has imposed tighter restrictions over the years. There are several methods for making HVAC systems more efficient.

Heating energy.

In the past, water heating was more efficient for heating buildings and was the standard in the United States. Today, forced air systems can double for air conditioning and are more popular.  Some benefits of forced air systems, which are now widely used in churches, schools and high-end residences, are A drawback is the installation cost, which can be slightly higher than traditional HVAC systems.  Energy

Ground source heat pump.

Ground source, or geothermal, heat pumps are similar to ordinary heat pumps, but instead of transferring heat to or from outside air, they rely on the stable, even temperature of the earth to provide heating and air conditioning. Many regions experience seasonal temperature extremes, which would require large-capacity heating and cooling equipment to heat or cool buildings. For example, a conventional heat pump system used to heat a building in Montana's low temperature or cool a building in the highest temperature ever recorded in the US— in Death Valley, California, in 1913 would require a large amount of energy due to the extreme difference between inside and outside air temperatures. A few feet below the earth's surface, however, the

Ventilation energy recovery.

Energy recovery systems sometimes utilize heat recovery ventilation or energy recovery ventilation systems that employ heat exchangers

Air conditioning energy.

The performance of vapor compression refrigeration cycles is limited by thermodynamics. These air conditioning and heat pump devices "move" heat rather than convert it from one form to another, so "thermal efficiencies" do not appropriately describe the performance of these devices. The Coefficient-of-Performance (COP) measures performance, but this dimensionless measure has not been adopted. Instead, the Energy Efficiency Ratio ("EER") has traditionally been used to characterize the performance of many HVAC systems. EER is the Energy Efficiency Ratio based on

Demand controlled kitchen ventilation.

Demand controlled kitchen ventilation (DCKV) is a building controls approach of controlling the volume of kitchen exhaust and supply air in response to the actual cooking loads in a commercial kitchen. Traditional commercial kitchen ventilation systems operate at 100% fan

Air filtration and cleaning.

Air cleaning and filtration removes particles, contaminants, vapors and gases from the air. The filtered and cleaned air then is used in heating, ventilation and air conditioning. Air cleaning and filtration should be taken in account when protecting our building environments.

Clean air delivery rate and filter performance.

Clean air delivery rate is the amount of clean air an air cleaner provides to a room or space. When determining CADR, the amount of airflow in a space is taken into account. For example, an air cleaner with a

HVAC industry and standards.

The HVAC industry is a worldwide enterprise, with roles including operation and maintenance, system design and construction, equipment manufacturing and sales, and in education and research. The HVAC industry was historically regulated by the manufacturers of HVAC equipment, but regulating and standards organizations such as HARDI, ASHRAE, SMACNA, ACCA, Uniform Mechanical Code, International Mechanical Code, and AMCA have been established to support the industry and encourage high standards and achievement.  The starting point in carrying out an estimate both for cooling and heating depends on the exterior climate and interior specified conditions. However, before taking up the heat load calculation, it is necessary to find fresh air requirements for each area in detail, as pressurization is an important consideration.

International.

ISO 16813:2006 is one of the ISO building environment standards. It establishes the general principles of building environment design. It takes into account the need to provide a healthy indoor environment for

North America.

United States.

In the United States, HVAC engineers generally are members of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), EPA Universal CFC certified (for installation and service of CFC HVAC devices), or locally engineer certified such as a Special to Chief Boilers License issued by the state or, in some jurisdictions, the city. ASHRAE is an international technical society for all individuals and organizations interested in HVAC. The Society, organized into regions, chapters, and student branches, allows exchange of HVAC knowledge and experiences for the benefit of the field's practitioners and the public. ASHRAE provides many opportunities to participate in the development of new knowledge via, for example, research and its many technical committees. These committees typically meet twice per year at the ASHRAE Annual and Winter Meetings. A popular product show, the AHR Expo, has been held in conjunction with each winter ASHRAE meeting. The Society has approximately 50,000 members and has headquarters in Atlanta, Georgia.  The most recognized standards for HVAC design are based on ASHRAE data.

Europe.

United Kingdom.

The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers is a body that covers the essential Service (systems architecture) that allow buildings to operate. It includes the electrotechnical, heating, ventilating, air conditioning, refrigeration and plumbing industries. To train as a building services engineer, the academic requirements are GCSEs (A-C) / Standard Grades (1-3) in Maths and Science, which are important in measurements, planning and theory. Employers will often want a degree in a branch of engineering, such as building environment engineering, electrical engineering or mechanical engineering. To become a full member of CIBSE, and so also to be registered by the Engineering Council

Australia.

The Air Conditioning and Mechanical Contractors Association of Australia (AMCA), Australian

Asia.

Asian architectural temperature-control have different priorities than European methods. For example, Asian heating traditionally focuses on maintaining temperatures of objects such as the floor or furnishings such as Kotatsu tables and directly warming people, as opposed to the Western focus, in modern periods, on designing air systems.

Philippines.

The Philippine Society of Ventilating, Air Conditioning and Refrigerating Engineers (PSVARE) along with Philippine Society of

India.

The Indian Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers (ISHRAE) was established to promote the HVAC industry in India. ISHRAE is an associate of ASHRAE. ISHRAE was started at Delhi in 1981 and a chapter was started in Bangalore in 1989. Between 1989 & 1993, ISHRAE chapters were formed in all major cities in India.

Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) is the technology of indoor and vehicular environmental comfort. Its goal is to provide thermal comfort and acceptable indoor air quality. HVAC system design is a subdiscipline of mechanical engineering, based on the principles of thermodynamics, fluid mechanics and heat transfer. "Refrigeration" is sometimes added to the field's abbreviation, as HVAC&R or HVACR or "ventilation" is dropped, as in HACR (as in the designation of HACR-rated circuit breakers).

Die Klimatechnik ist ein Teilgebiet der Versorgungstechnik mit der Aufgabe Lufttemperatur, -feuchte und -qualität (CO-Gehalt) in einem Raum auf die gewünschten Werte zu regeln.