Flagellation of Christ (Piero della Francesca)

Die Geißelung Christi (Piero della Francesca)

Description.

The theme of the picture is the Flagellation of Christ by the Romans during his Passion. The biblical event takes place in an open gallery in the middle distance, while three figures in the foreground on the right-hand side apparently pay no attention to the event unfolding behind them. The panel is much admired for its use of linear perspective and the air of stillness that pervades the work, and it has been given the epithet "the Greatest Small Painting in the World" by the art historian Kenneth Clark.  The painting is signed under the seated emperor – "the work of Piero of Borgo Santo Sepolcro" (his town).  "The Flagellation" is particularly admired for the realistic rendering of the hall in which the flagellation scene is situated in relation to the size of the figures and for the geometrical order of the composition. The portrait of the bearded man at the front is considered unusually intense for Piero's time.

Interpretations.

Much of the scholarly debate surrounding the work concerns the identities or significance of the three men at the front. Depending on the interpretation of the subject of the painting, they may represent contemporary figures or people related to the passion of Christ, or they may even have multiple identities. The latter is also suggested with respect to the sitting man on the left, who is in one sense certainly Pontius Pilate, a traditional element in the subject. The notion of two time frames in the composition is derived from the fact that the flagellation scene is illuminated from the right while the supposedly "modern" outdoor scene is illuminated from the left. Originally the painting had a frame on which the Latin phrase "Convenerunt in Unum" ("They came together"), taken from Psalm 2, ii in the Old Testament, was inscribed. This text is cited in Book of Acts 4:26 and related to Pilate, Herod and the Jews.

Conventional.

According to a conventional interpretation still upheld in Urbino, the three men would be Oddantonio da Montefeltro, Duke of Urbino between his advisors, Manfredo dei Pio and Tommaso di Guido dell'Agnello, who were murdered together on July 22, 1444. Both advisers were held responsible for Oddantonio's death due to their unpopular government, which led to the fatal conspiracy. Oddantonio's death would be compared, in its innocence, to that of Christ. The painting would then have been commissioned by Federico da Montefeltro, who succeeded his half brother Oddantonio as Lord of Urbino. According to another interpretation, the two men to the left and right of the youth would represent Serafini and Ricciarelli, both citizens of Urbino, who allegedly murdered Oddantonio together with his two bad advisors. Against these interpretations speaks the written contract signed by Federico and the citizens of Urbino, ́that he would not bear in remembrance the offenses inflicted on Oddantonio, that no one would be punished for it and that Federico would protect all who may be compromised in these crimes ́. Moreover, Oddantonio's corpse was buried in an unnamed grave. A painting dedicated to the memory of Duke Oddantonio and to his rehabilitation would thus have been a case of betrayal to the citizens of Urbino.

Dynastic.

Another traditional view considers the picture a dynastic celebration commissioned by Duke Federico da Montefeltro, Oddantonio's successor and half-brother. The three men would simply be his predecessors. This interpretation is backed by an 18th-century inventory in the Urbino Cathedral, where the painting once was housed, and in which the work is described as "The Flagellation of Our Lord Jesus Christ, with the Figures and the Portraits of Duke Guidubaldo and Oddo Antonio". However, since Duke Guidobaldo was a son of Federico born in 1472, this information has to be erroneous. Instead, the rightmost figure may represent Oddantonio's and Federico's father Guidantonio.

Political-theological (Ginzburg).

According to this other old-fashioned view, the figure in the middle would represent an angel, flanked by the Latin (Catholic) and the Greek (Orthodox) Churches, whose division created strife in the whole of Christendom.  The seated man on the far left watching the flagellation would be the Byzantine emperor John VIII Palaiologos, as identified by his clothing, particularly the unusual red hat with upturned brims which is present in a medal by Pisanello. In the variant of this interpretation, proposed by Carlo Ginzburg, the painting would be in fact an invitation by Cardinal Bessarion and the humanist Giovanni Bacci to Federico da Montefeltro to take part in the crusade. The young man would be Bonconte II da Montefeltro, who died of plague in 1458. In this way, the sufferings of Christ are paired both to those of the Byzantines and of Bonconte.  Silvia Ronchey and other art historians agree on the panel being a political message by Cardinal Bessarion, in which the flagellated Christ would represent the suffering of Constantinople, then besieged by the Ottomans, as well as the whole of Christianity. The figure on the left watching would be sultan Murad II, with John VIII on his left. The three men on the right are identified as, from left: Cardinal Bessarion, Thomas Palaiologos (John VIII's brother, portrayed barefoot as, being not an emperor, he could not wear the purple shoes with which John is instead shown) and Niccolò III d'Este, host of the council of Mantua after its move to his lordship of Ferrara.  Piero della Francesca painted the "Flagellation" some 20 years after the fall of Constantinople. But, at the time, allegories of that event and of the presence of Byzantine figures in Italian politics were not uncommon, as shown by Benozzo Gozzoli's contemporary Magi Chapel in the Palazzo Medici-Riccardi in Florence.

Kenneth Clark.

In 1951, the art historian Kenneth Clark identified the bearded figure as a Greek scholar, and the painting as an allegory of the suffering of the Church after the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453, and of the proposed crusade supported by Pope Pius II and discussed at the Council of Mantua. Again, the man in the far left would be the Byzantine Emperor.

Marilyn Aronberg Lavin.

Another explanation of the painting is offered by Marilyn Aronberg Lavin in "Piero della Francesca: The Flagellation".  The interior scene represents Pontius Pilate showing Herod with his back turned, because the scene closely resembles numerous other depictions of the flagellation that Piero would have known.  Lavin identifies the figure on the right as Ludovico III Gonzaga, Marquis of Mantua, and the figure on the left as his close friend, the astrologer Ottavio Ubaldini della Carda, who lived in the Ducal Palace. Ottavio is dressed in the traditional garb of an astrologer, even down to his forked beard. At the time the painting is thought to have been made, both Ottavio and Ludovico had recently lost beloved sons, represented by the youthful figure between them. Note that the youth's head is framed by a laurel tree, representing glory. Lavin suggests that the painting is intended to compare the suffering of Christ with the grief of the two fathers. She suggests that the painting was commissioned by Ottavio for his private chapel, the Cappella del Perdono, which is in the Ducal Palace at Urbino and which has an altar whose facade is the exact size of the painting. If the painting was on the altar, the perspective in the painting would have appeared correct only to someone kneeling before it.

David A. King.

An interpretation developed by David King, director (1985–2007) of the Institute for the History of Science in Frankfurt, Germany, establishes a connection between the painting and the Latin inscription on an astrolabe presented in Rome in 1462 by Regiomontanus to his patron Cardinal Bessarion. The discovery that this epigram was an acrostic was made by Berthold Holzschuh, a member of King's medieval instrument seminar, in 2005. The hidden meanings in the vertical axes include references to Bessarion, Regiomontanus, and the 1462 gift that was intended to replace a 1062 Byzantine astrolabe in Bessarion's possession (now in Brescia). In the same year Holzschuh discovered that the main axes of the epigram corresponded to the main vertical axes of the painting, which pass through the eyes of the Christ figure and those of the bearded man. It was clear that the letters BA IOANNIS on the left of the epigram and the letters SEDES on the right might refer to Basileus (Emperor) Ioannis VIII on his throne. This inspired King to search for monograms of names across the epigram (for example, INRI for Christ and RGO for Regiomontanus), and he found some 70 possibly relevant names corresponding to the 8+1 figures. King thus established dual or multiple identities for each of the eight persons and one classical figure who would eventually feature in the painting. Both Regiomontanus and Bessarion were known to Piero (their common interest was Archimedes), and both Regiomontanus' and Piero's copies of Archimedes' works have been preserved. King hypothesises that donor and donee of the 1462 astrolabe might have conceived the make-up of the painting together with Piero. The young man in cardinal red can now be identified as the eager young German astronomer Regiomontanus, the new protégé of the Cardinal Bessarion. However, his image embodies, amongst others, three brilliant young men close to Bessarion who had recently died: Buonconte da Montefeltro, Bernardino Ubaldini dalla Carda and Vangelista Gonzaga. Each of the images of persons in the painting, as well as of the classical figure atop the column behind Christ, is polysemous. The painting itself is polysemous. One of the several purposes of the painting was to signify hope for the future in the arrival of the young astronomer into Bessarion's circle as well as to pay homage to the three dead young men. Another was to express Bessarion's sorrow that his native Trebizond had fallen to the Turks in 1461, for which he held the Byzantine ruler responsible.

John Pope-Hennessy.

Sir John Pope-Hennessy, the art historian, argued in his book "The Piero della Francesca Trail" that the actual subject of the painting is "The Dream of St. Jerome." According to Pope-Hennessy,  As a young man St Jerome dreamt that he was flayed on divine order for reading pagan texts, and he himself later recounted this dream, in a celebrated letter to Eustochium, in terms that exactly correspond with the left-hand side of the Urbino panel.  Pope-Hennessy also cites and reproduces an earlier picture by Sienese painter Matteo di Giovanni that deals with the subject recorded in Jerome's letter, helping to validate his identification of Piero's theme.

Influence.

The painting's restraint and formal purity strongly appealed when Piero was first "discovered," especially to admirers of cubist and abstract art. It has been held in especially high regard by art historians, with Frederick Hartt describing it as Piero's "most nearly perfect achievement and the ultimate realisation of the ideals of the second Renaissance period".  The painting is referred to in Len Deighton's 1978 novel, "SS-GB".

The Flagellation of Christ (probably 1468–1470) is a painting by Piero della Francesca in the Galleria Nazionale delle Marche in Urbino, Italy. Called by one writer an "enigmatic little painting," the composition is complex and unusual, and its iconography has been the subject of widely differing theories. Kenneth Clark placed "The Flagellation" in his personal list of the best ten paintings, calling it "the greatest small painting in the world".

Die Geißelung Christi ist ein Öl-Tempera-Gemälde Piero della Francescas. Das 59 cm × 81 cm messende Tafelbild ist ein frühes Beispiel konsequent angewandter Zentralperspektive und gehört zur Sammlung der Galleria Nazionale della Marche in Urbino. Der genaue Entstehungszeitpunkt und die Bedeutung des Bildes sind umstritten.


History.

George Reid adopted a strategy of trying to reorient the party system along Labour vs non-Labour lines – prior to the 1906 election, he renamed his Free Trade Party to the Anti-Socialist Party. Reid envisaged a spectrum running from socialist to anti-socialist, with the Protectionist Party in the middle. This attempt struck a chord with politicians who were steeped in the Westminster tradition and regarded a two-party system as very much the norm. The Commonwealth Liberal Party was formed in response to Labor forming its second government under Andrew Fisher in 1908. Under considerable pressure from middle- and upper-class interests, Alfred Deakin, the leader of the Protectionists, and Joseph Cook, leader of the Anti-Socialists, joined forces in order to counter Labor's growing popularity. In 1909, the two parties at a meeting in Melbourne's Parliament House agreed to merge into the CLP, based on a shared anti-Labor platform. Deakin was the new party's first leader, with Cook as deputy leader. The merger didn't sit well with several of the more liberal Protectionists, who defected to Labor or sat as independents.  Between them, the Protectionists and Anti-Socialists held a majority of seats on the floor of the House of Representatives. As a result, the newly merged party used its numbers to force Fisher to hand power to Deakin. However, the CLP was defeated by Labor at the 1910 election, which saw Labor with an elected majority in both houses, the first federal occurrence for a party.  Cook took over the leadership from Deakin shortly before the 1913 election and won government by a single seat. However, only a year later, Cook deliberately introduced a bill abolishing preferential treatment for public-service union members. Cook knew the Labor-controlled Senate would vote the bill down, giving him an excuse to call a double dissolution election, the first time one would be called. When the Senate rejected the bill twice, Cook called the 1914 election. The CLP was again defeated with Labor again winning a majority in both houses.  The CLP remained in opposition until November 1916, when it reached a confidence and supply agreement with Prime Minister Billy Hughes, who had recently been expelled from Labor for supporting conscription in World War I and organised his followers as the National Labor Party. In February 1917, the CLP and National Labor formally merged to form the Nationalist Party of Australia. Although the merged party was dominated by former Liberals, Hughes became its leader with Cook as his deputy. Hughes would stay on as Prime Minister until the 1922 election where the new Country Party of Australia (later The Nationals) stripped the Nationalists of their majority, and demanded his resignation in exchange for confidence and supply. Stanley Bruce subsequently became Prime Minister.  The Commonwealth Liberal Party is often referred to by the retronym "Deakinite Liberal Party" in order to distinguish it from the later Liberal Party of Australia, which was officially founded in 1945.

Associated bodies.

Australian Liberal Union.

The Australian Liberal Union was established in November 1911, following a conference in Melbourne attended by representatives of liberal organisations in each state. The conference resolved that the state-based organisations should co-operate more closely during federal election campaigns. The council of the new body was to consist of three representatives from each state.  A second interstate conference was held in Melbourne in May 1912, with Senator Joseph Vardon presiding. A constitution for the Australian Liberal Union was adopted, where it was agreed that the organisation would be governed by an annual conference. The constitution provided that the union would regularly confer with the federal parliamentary party, and that its work would be confined to federal politics. The state organisations would remain in charge of state politics, but would select federal candidates. The conference also debated a fighting platform for the next federal election, which was not issued until 13 June. It comprised 20 planks.  A third conference was held in Melbourne in August 1913, postponed and moved from Sydney due to a smallpox outbreak. The inaugural address at the conference was given by the incumbent prime minister and parliamentary Liberal leader Joseph Cook. David Gordon was elected president of the organisation. An updated platform was issued in October. Another meeting was held in March 1914, and in October 1915 Joseph Cook stated that a meeting of the executive was planned to be held.

State bodies.

In Victoria, the primary organisation supporting the parliamentary Liberals was named the Commonwealth Liberal Party, which Alfred Deakin launched with himself as president on 25 May 1909 at the Melbourne Town Hall. According to Deakin's biographer Judith Brett, the CLP did not spread beyond Victoria and "in fact scarcely beyond Deakin and his family, who provided most of its office bearers". His son-in-law Herbert Brookes was Deakin's "right-hand man", serving as party treasurer and chief fundraiser, while Deakin's daughter Ivy Brookes was founder and secretary of the CLP women's section, intended to form a liberal counterpart to the more conservative Australian Women's National League. In 1911, the CLP renamed itself the People's Liberal Party, as part of an abortive merger with the People's Party (a rural liberal organisation). In July 1911, the PLP launched a monthly magazine, the "Liberal", which was financed and edited by Herbert Brookes. Deakin wrote anonymous articles for the publication, which was short-lived.  The New South Wales Federal Liberal League was established in July 1909 to help elect Liberal candidates to federal parliament. It was established by delegates from the Liberal and Reform Association, the People's Reform League, the Liberal and Progressive League, and the three equivalent women's branches. Dugald Thomson was chosen as the organisation's president and Archdale Parkhill as its secretary. Joseph Cook was given the title of "leader". The league began conducting preselection ballots and endorsing candidates for federal parliament later in the year.

The Commonwealth Liberal Party (CLP, also known as the Deakin–Cook Party, The Fusion, or the Deakinite Liberal Party) was a political movement active in Australia from 1909 to 1917, shortly after Federation. The CLP came about as a result of a merger between the two non-Labor parties, the Protectionist Party and the Anti-Socialist Party (formerly Free Trade Party) which most of their MPs accepted. The CLP is the earliest direct ancestor of the current Liberal Party of Australia.

Die Commonwealth Liberal Party (CLP; auch bekannt als The Fusion) war eine politische Partei in Australien, die 1909 aus einem Zusammenschluss der Free Trade Party von George Reid mit der Protectionist Party von Alfred Deakin hervorging.


Early life.

Houston was born near Franklin, Tennessee on January 17, 1811 to David Ross Houston and Hannah Pugh Reagan. The paternal grandson of Scots-Irish immigrants, Houston and his family moved near Florence, Alabama at age 16. There, Houston worked on the family farm and read law at Judge George Coalter's office. He eventually studied law at a school in Harrodsburg, Kentucky.

Early career.

After graduating law school, Houston returned to Lawrence and was elected to the Alabama House of Representatives in 1831 as a Jacksonian Democrat, representing Lauderdale County. In 1834, Governor John Gayle appointed Houston to be district solicitor, but he was defeated in the subsequent election to that office. He then moved to Limestone County and continued to practiced law. In 1837, Houston was elected in his own right to be solicitor, and held that office until 1841.

U.S. House of Representatives.

In 1840, Houston was elected as a Democrat to the United States House of Representatives. During his tenure, he chaired the House Military Affairs Committee, the House Ways and Means Committee, and the House Judiciary Committee.  As a Southern Unionist, Houston was one of only four southern Democrats to not sign Senator John C. Calhoun's "Address of the Southern Delegates in Congress to their Constituents" in 1849, which questioned the federal government's right to limit slavery in territories won in the Mexican–American War. Opposition to the congressman grew, and he didn't seek re-election in 1848.  Houston ran for Congress again in 1850 and won. In December 1860, Houston was chosen to represent Alabama in the so-called "Committee of Thirty-Three". The Committee adopted the Corwin Amendment, which would have amended the United States Constitution so that Congress could never abolish slavery.

Civil War and Reconstruction.

Following the outbreak of the American Civil War, Houston resigned his office and returned home. Two of his sons fought for the Confederate States of America, but Houston himself stayed out of the war. In 1862, Houston's property was ransacked by Union general Ivan Turchin.  Houston presented his credentials as a Senator-elect from Alabama during Reconstruction, but the Republican Party refused to seat him. Houston attended President Andrew Johnson's 1866 National Union Convention to oppose the Radical Republicans. Houston attempted to become a U.S. Senator again in 1867, but was defeated by former Governor John A. Winston. Like in the Civil War, Houston would play no part in Reconstruction in Alabama.

Governor of Alabama.

In 1874, Houston ran a successful campaign for governor, garnering 53% of the vote and ousting incumbent David P. Lewis. Houston's election was the start of a long line of Democratic governors of the state, not being broken until 1986. Houston ran on a platform of "redeeming" the state and promising honesty and economy as opposed to Republican profligacy. The Democrats also intimidated many Republican voters, especially blacks. Houston served as a Bourbon Democrat, advocating conservatism, limited government, and white supremacy. As governor, the state legislature approved the creation of one of the nation's first public health boards. Though it was created in 1875, no monies were appropriated to it until 1879. With a shrinking population, Governor Houston advocated for immigration into Alabama, with limited success. He expanded the state's contract lease system, in which prisoners, mostly black, would be leased to private contractors.  Governor Houston also attempted to reform the state's educational system. However, his efforts were unsuccessful due to his administration's inherited debt from railroad bonds. Houston created a three-man commission, headed by himself, to study the debt issue and to recommend a program to retire it. Tirstam B. Bethea of Mobile and Levi W. Lawler of Talladega served as the other two commissioners. Both Lawler and Houston had history of working as railroad directors, creating a conflict-of-interest. The commission eventually set the legitimate debt at $12.5 million. Bondholders of the Republican-controlled Alabama and Chattanooga Railroad were the most adversely affected.  Houston advocated a constitutional convention to replace the constitution adopted in 1868. Voters approved the new constitution in 1875. Among other things, the constitution declared that the state could never again secede from the union and banned educational and property qualifications for voting or holding office. Also, the constitution eliminated the position of lieutenant governor.

Personal life.

In May 1835, Houston married Mary I. Beatty and had eight children, four of whom died in childhood. His wife died before 1860, and Houston remarried in 1861 to Ellen Irvine, who bore him two additional children. By 1860, Houston was a successful cotton planter and possessed 78 slaves.

Death.

Houston was finally elected to the United States Senate in 1878, but died in Athens on December 31, 1879. He was buried in Athens City Cemetery.

George Smith Houston (January 17, 1811 – December 31, 1879) was an American Democratic politician who was the 24th Governor of Alabama from 1874 to 1878. He was also a congressman and senator for Alabama.

George Smith Houston (* 17. Januar 1811 im Williamson County, Tennessee; † 31. Dezember 1879 in Athens, Alabama) war ein US-amerikanischer Politiker (Demokratische Partei), der den Bundesstaat Alabama in beiden Kammern des US-Kongresses vertrat. Zudem war er dessen 24. Gouverneur.


Biography.

Early life and education.

Donald Peterson was born in Winona, Mississippi, on October 22, 1933. Peterson graduated from Winona High School in 1951. One of his high school teachers said, "I never did hear any adverse criticism of him by students or teachers. He was just superior."  Peterson desired financial help for college, and after listening to a Navy recruiter's speech, elected to join a service academy. He enrolled in the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, and received a Bachelor of Science degree in 1955, electing to join the Air Force. He was commissioned as a second lieutenant.  After working with Air Training Command until 1960, he was asked if he would be interested in getting a degree in nuclear engineering so he could join a program involving aircraft powered by a nuclear reactor. He enrolled in nuclear engineering at the U.S. Air Force Institute of Technology. Six months before graduation, the program was cancelled. He earned his Master of Science degree in 1962. He also worked towards his Ph.D at the University of Texas.

USAF career.

After graduating from West Point in 1955, his assignments included four years as a flight instructor and military training officer with the Air Training Command, three years as a nuclear systems analyst with the Air Force Systems Command, and one year as a fighter pilot with Tactical Air Command, including three months of combat weapons training.  He was a graduate of the Aerospace Research Pilot School at Edwards Air Force Base, California, and was one of the third group of astronauts assigned to the USAF Manned Orbiting Laboratory (MOL) program.  He logged over 5,300 hours flying time, including more than 5,000 hours in jet aircraft.

NASA career.

Peterson became a NASA astronaut in September 1969 after the MOL program was cancelled. He served on the astronaut support crew for Apollo 16.  Peterson retired from the United States Air Force with the rank of colonel after having completed more than 24 years of active service, but continued his assignment as a NASA astronaut in a civilian capacity. His areas of responsibility included engineering support, man/machine interface, and safety assessment.  Medical issues likely prevented Peterson from training as a space shuttle pilot. He was a mission specialist on STS-6, which launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on April 4, 1983. He was accompanied by Paul J. Weitz (spacecraft commander), Col. Karol J. Bobko (Pilot), and Dr. Story Musgrave (Mission Specialist). The crew had a combined 111 years of flying experience and an average age of 48 years and 5 months. The crew was dubbed "The Geritol Bunch" for their high experience.  During this maiden voyage of the spacecraft "Challenger", the STS-6 crew conducted numerous experiments in materials processing, recorded lightning activities, deployed the first tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS-A), and activated three Getaway Specials. Peterson and Musgrave conducted the Shuttle program's first extravehicular activity (EVA) to test the new suit, the Shuttle airlock, and new tools and techniques for construction and repair outside a spacecraft. After 120 hours of orbital operations STS-6 landed on the concrete runway at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on April 9, 1983. With the completion of this flight, Don Peterson had logged 4 hours 15 minutes in extravehicular activity and a total of 120 hours in space.

Post-NASA career.

Peterson resigned from the NASA Astronaut Corps in November 1984, and worked as a consultant in the area of manned aerospace operations.

Personal life and death.

Peterson married Bonnie Ruth Love in 1957. They had three children. She died in 2017. He died on May 27, 2018, at his home in El Lago, Texas, of Alzheimer's disease and bone cancer, at the age of 84.

Honors.

He was awarded the Air Force Commendation Medal, the Meritorious Service Medal, and the JSC Group Achievement Award (1972).

Donald Herod Peterson (October 22, 1933 – May 27, 2018) was a United States Air Force officer and NASA astronaut. Peterson was originally selected for the Air Force Manned Orbiting Laboratory (MOL) program, but, when that was canceled, he became a NASA astronaut in September 1969. He was a mission specialist on STS-6 on board "Challenger". During the mission Peterson performed a spacewalk to test the new airlock and space suits. He logged 120 hours in space. Peterson retired from NASA in 1984.

Donald Herod Peterson (* 22. Oktober 1933 in Winona, Bundesstaat Mississippi, USA; † 27. Mai 2018) war ein US-amerikanischer Astronaut.


Family background and early life.

Paulina was a member of the plebeian gens Lollia. Paulina was the second daughter of Marcus Lollius with Volusia Saturnina, while her elder sister was Lollia Saturnina.  Her father, Marcus Lollius was the son born to the Roman Politician and Military Officer Marcus Lollius from his wife Valeria. Valeria was one of the daughters of the literary patron, consul Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus and a sister to the Roman Senators Marcus Valerius Messalla Messallinus and Marcus Aurelius Cotta Maximus Messalinus. Her possible paternal uncle may have been Publius Lollius Maximus, however this is unclear and he was at least a close relation.  Her mother Volusia Saturnina, came from an ancient and distinguished Senatorial family, that never rose above the Praetorship which was of eques status. She was the daughter of the prefect, Quintus Volusius from his wife Claudia. Her father served under Cicero in 51 BC to 50 BC in Cilicia and was a pupil of his in oratory. Claudia was a daughter of Pompey’s officer Drusus Claudius Nero and a sister of praetor, Tiberius Claudius Nero, as Volusia Saturnina was a first cousin to Roman emperor Tiberius and his brother, the General Nero Claudius Drusus.  Paulina was born and raised in Rome and became very wealthy after inheriting the estates of her relatives. She inherited the large fortune from her paternal grandfather, thus was the heiress of Marcus Lollius.

Marriages and rivals.

The first husband of Paulina was Publius Memmius Regulus, a man of consular rank, who served as a suffect consul in 31 and later, as a Roman Governor. Tacitus describes him as a man of 'dignity, who was a person of influence and good name', who died in 62. Paulina bore a son called Gaius Memmius Regulus.  In 38, Paulina was with Regulus at the province he was governing when Caligula ordered her to leave her husband upon overhearing a remark about the beauty of her grandmother. She was forced to divorce Regulus and marry Caligula, becoming his third wife and Roman Empress that same year. Caligula divorced her after six months of marriage, ostensibly because she was infertile, and forbade her to sleep with or associate with another man.  In 48, Paulina became a rival to the sister of Caligula, Agrippina the Younger. Paulina was considered as a choice as the fourth wife of the paternal uncle of Caligula, the Roman emperor Claudius, following the death of the third wife of Claudius, the Roman empress Valeria Messalina. In 49, Agrippina the Younger married Claudius. Sometime after, Agrippina the Younger had Paulina charged with sorcery, accused of having entered into forbidden consultations with astrologers. Without a hearing, the property of Paulina (including her gardens) was confiscated and she was sent into exile. Tacitus reported that Paulina was forced to commit suicide under the watch of a colonel of the Guards and implied that this was done under the orders of Agrippina the Younger. A sepulchre was not erected in her honor until the reign of the Roman emperor Nero.

Reputation.

Paulina is mentioned in Natural History by Pliny the Elder. Pliny the Elder mentions Paulina as an example of Roman ostentation for wearing a large share of her inheritance to a dinner party in the form of jewellery worth to the value of 50 million sesterces. She would wear her jewels in her hair, round her neck, arms and fingers. The complaint of Pliny the Elder was made in the context of Rome spending enormous amounts for importing Ancient Tamil Nadu's 'useless' pepper and pearls, as worn by Paulina even around her shoes.

In fiction.

Paulina is a character in the novel series, "I, Claudius" written by Robert Graves.

Lollia Paulina, also known as Lollia Paullina (15-49) was a Roman Empress for six months in 38 as the third wife and consort of the Roman emperor Caligula. Outside of her term as a Roman Empress, she was a noble Roman woman who lived in the Roman Empire of the 1st century.

Lollia Paulina (* vor 26; † 49) war die dritte Ehefrau des römischen Kaisers Caligula. Lollia Paulina war die Enkelin des Marcus Lollius, der 21 v. Chr. Konsul gewesen war. In erster Ehe war sie mit Publius Memmius Regulus verheiratet. Kurz nach dem Tod seiner Schwester Drusilla im Jahr 38 zwang Caligula Memmius, ihn mit seiner Frau zu verloben. Laut Sueton ließ er sie extra aus Mösien, wo ihr Ehemann Statthalter war, herbeiholen, weil er von der früheren Schönheit ihrer Großmutter erfahren hatte. Schon ein halbes Jahr später ließ er sich wieder von ihr scheiden.


History.

Foundation.

The Monastery was founded in 1164 by the Cambro-Norman Knight Robert FitzStephen (c 1123—1183). In the 12th century, Cistercian monks from Whitland Abbey, Narbeth, Carmarthenshire started to construct a religious settlement on the banks of the "Afon Fflur" (from which the present Abbey takes its name), a short distance from the present site. This was at a time of fast expansion of the Cistercian order. The site of this first settlement is known as "Hen Fynachlog" (the Old Monastery).  Around 1164 the Abbey of Strata Florida was founded through the patronage of Rhys ap Gruffydd. In 1184, a further charter was issued by Lord Rhys, reaffirming Strata Florida as a monastery under the patronage of Deheubarth, a principality of South Wales. Several descendants of the Lord Rhys have been buried at this Abbey, including 11 princes of the Welsh royal house of Dinefwr of Deheubarth during the 12th and 13th centuries Notable burials include Prince Gruffydd ap Rhys II and poet Dafydd ap Gwilym.  The church was consecrated in 1201.

Medieval period.

Strata Florida became an important and powerful religious centre. Around 1238, Prince Llywelyn ap Iorwerth held a council at Strata Florida. It was here that he made the other Welsh leaders acknowledge his son Dafydd as his rightful successor. Strata Florida controlled many farms throughout Wales; these "granges" provided the monastery with food and income. The most important primary historical source for early Welsh history, the "Brut y Tywysogion", was compiled at Strata Florida.  In 1401, during the early years of Owain Glyndŵr's rebellion, Strata Florida Abbey was taken by King Henry IV and his son. The monks were deemed to be sympathetic to Glyndŵr, so they were evicted from the monastery, which was plundered. Henry IV turned the religious buildings into a military base as he planned to capture or defeat any Welsh rebel forces active in the area. By 1402 the Earl of Worcester held the Abbey for the English Crown with a garrison of several hundred men-at-arms, archers and foot soldiers. It continued to be used as a military base for further campaigns against the Welsh rebels in 1407 and 1415.  The monastic site was returned to the Cistercians with the end of the Glyndŵr rebellion.

Dissolution.

Beginning in 1539, Henry VIII used his dissatisfaction with the Catholic Church in Rome to dissolve and sack the monasteries of England and Wales. Strata Florida Abbey was dissolved in 1539 by church commissioners. The buildings and their contents were valued and then sold off. The church and most of the ancillary buildings were demolished for building materials such as the window glass and stone as well as the roof tiles and lead. However, the refectory and dormitory were rebuilt as "Ty Abaty", a house for the local gentry. The property has been owned by a number of notable families including the Steadmans and the Powells of Nanteos. Much of the former monastic lands of the Cistercian abbey at Strata Florida were given to Thomas Cromwell, 1st Earl of Essex who sold them on to Sir John Vaughan, of Trawsgoed. Through his marriage to Jane Stedman, daughter of John Stedman of Ystrad Fflur and Cilcennin, he gained more land on which to create the large Trawsgoed estate.  The present parish church of St. Mary, within the boundaries of the graveyard, may have been built with stone taken from the monastic site.

Abandonment.

Following its dissolution, the site of Strata Florida Abbey was left to deteriorate. It was not until the coming of the railways in the late 19th century that interest in the site was rekindled. Stephen Williams, a railway engineer, was surveying a possible route through the area when he took an interest in the ruins. As Williams was a founder member of the Cambrian Archaeological Association, he invited the group to the site in 1848. Following this visit the Association leased the Abbey site in order to create better displays and presentations to the public.  Williams, who was to become a leading expert on the archaeology of the Cistercian Order, was placed in charge of excavations. Over the next few years, he removed huge amounts of spoil, to uncover the majority of remains that are still on view today. Interest in the ruins brought in wealthy Victorians by railway., a principal station on the Carmarthen Aberystwyth Line, was named after the Abbey.  About the Abbey the 1851 "Illustrated London Reading Book" says:

Current status.

The site was designated as a Scheduled Ancient Monument in 1919 and is now in the care of Cadw. It has a variety of ruins. The only substantive structure remaining of the monastery is the main entrance archway. The Great West Door to the Abbey Church has low walls marking the extent of the church and its six subsidiary chapels. A modern roof protects an area of excavated work medieval tiling. The small on-site museum has some of these tiles on display. One of the best-known is one depicting a medieval gentleman admiring himself in a mirror.  The graveyard next to the Abbey ruins is still used for burials. A memorial to the Welsh language poet, Dafydd ap Gwilym, who is interred here is next to an ancient yew tree. A stone memorial in the Chapter House commemorates the princes who are buried at Strata Florida. It is a replica; the original is housed in the site's small museum.

Archaeological research.

Geophysical surveys by the University of Wales, Lampeter and its successor University of Wales, Trinity Saint David, have found several large structures. These include what is thought to be possibly the gatehouse to the Abbey's inner precincts. There is no definitive evidence for a kiln that made tiles for the Abbey to be found in the surrounding woods.  Excavations of the possible gatehouse have revealed a number of medieval pottery tile sherds, indicating that the building may have also housed a chapel, possibly over the entrance way. The building was later reused as a residence and possibly as agricultural buildings. At some point a substantial frontage was built over the original gateway road to create space between the two flanking buildings. The structure then fell into disrepair and was lost.  A number of field boundaries have also been identified. Two leats that may have increased water flow into the Nant Glasffrwd were studied. It is believed they were used to run a mill further downstream. Iron working slag was discovered within the monastic precincts., the excavations at Strata Florida are ongoing.

Strata Florida Abbey () () is a former Cistercian abbey situated just outside Pontrhydfendigaid, near Tregaron in the county of Ceredigion, Wales. The abbey was founded in 1164. "Strata Florida" is a Latinisation of the Welsh "Ystrad Fflur"; "Valley of Flowers". The Welsh word "ystrad" is synonymous with "strath" and "dale", while "fflur" ("flower") is also the name of the nearby river.

Strata Florida Abbey (Stratflur; walisisch: Abaty Ystrad Fflur) ist eine ehemalige Zisterzienserabtei 27 km südöstlich von Aberystwyth bei Pontrhydfendigaid in Ceredigion (früher Cardiganshire und Dyfed) in Wales.


General information.

The municipality of Tjeldsund was established on 1 January 1909 when it was separated from the large Lødingen Municipality. Tjeldsund encompassed the eastern part of Lødingen prior to the division. Initially, Tjeldsund had a population of 1,404.  During the 1960s, there were many municipal mergers across Norway due to the work of the Schei Committee. On 1 January 1964, the western part of the island of Tjeldøya (population: 297) was transferred to Tjeldsund Municipality from Lødingen Municipality, uniting the whole island within the same municipality. On the same date, the unpopulated "Ramnes" area of Evenes Municipality was also transferred to Tjeldsund Municipality.  On 1 January 2020, the municipality merged with the neighboring Skånland Municipality and at the same time the new municipality became a part of the newly formed Troms og Finnmark county (prior to the merger, Skånland was located in the old Troms county and Tjeldsund was in Nordland county).

Name.

The municipality is named after the Tjeldsundet strait between the islands of Tjeldøya and Hinnøya. The first element is the (uncompounded) Old Norse name of Tjeldøya ("Tjöld" or "Tjalda") and the last element is "sund" which means "strait" or "sound". The name of the island is probably derived from the word "tjald" which means "tent" or the similar word "tjaldr" which means "oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus)".

Coat of arms.

The coat of arms was granted on 29 June 1990. The arms show a blue-colored Anthony's cross on a silver or white background. The Anthony's cross is a canting of the letter T, the first letter of the name Tjeldsund.

Churches.

The Church of Norway has four parishes () within the municipality of Tjeldsund. It is part of the Trondenes prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Nord-Hålogaland.

Geography.

Since 1 January 2020, Tjeldsund is located in Troms og Finnmark county on the border with Nordland county to the south and west. Tjeldsund is partially located on the island of Tjeldøya which is surrounded by the Ofotfjorden on the south, the Tjeldsundet strait to the west and north, and the Ramsundet strait to the east. The island is connected to the mainland by the Ramsund Bridge. The rest of the municipality is on the mainland to the east of Tjeldøya plus a small area on the island of Hinnøya to the north of Tjeldøya. The municipalities of Evenes (in Nordland) and Gratangen (in Troms og Finnmark) lie to the east of Tjeldsund, Harstad, Kvæfjord, and Ibestad (in Troms og Finnmark) lie to the north, Lødingen to the west, and Narvik to the south.

Government.

All municipalities in Norway, including Tjeldsund, are responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, unemployment and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads. The municipality is governed by a municipal council of elected representatives, which in turn elect a mayor. The municipality falls under the Ofoten District Court and the Hålogaland Court of Appeal.

Municipal council.

The municipal council () of Tjeldsund is made up of 21 representatives that are elected to four year terms. The party breakdown of the council is as follows:

Mayors.

The mayors of Tjeldsund (incomplete list):

Tjeldsund () is a municipality in Troms og Finnmark county, Norway. The southwestern part of the municipality is part of the traditional district of Ofoten and the rest of the municipality is part of Central Hålogaland. The administrative centre of the municipality is the village of Evenskjer. Other important villages include Fjelldal, Myklebostad, Grovfjord, Renså, Sandstrand, Tovik, and Ramsund. Norges Brannskole (Norway's education and training center for firemen) is situated in Fjelldal. Marinejegerkommandoen is based south of Ramsund.

Tjeldsund (nordsamisch Dielddanuorri) ist eine norwegische Kommune in der Provinz (Fylke) Troms og Finnmark. Das Zentrum der Kommune ist der Ort Hol. Im Rahmen der Kommunenreform in Norwegen ging wurde zum 1. Januar 2020 die Kommune Skånland eingegliedert.


Description.

The trunks are tree-shaped and stand in groups individually or because of root shoots. The trunk becomes up to 4 m high and 35 to 60 cm wide. The crown is open and woolly brown.  The numerous leaves are stiff, straight or slightly curved and spread horizontally, usually at right angles to the crown. The leaves are 1 to 1.5 m long, 18 to 20 cm. The petiole is 17 to 30 cm long, bare, and is circular in cross section. The leaflets are young silvery slightly, yellowish in old age. They are tight and upper leaf area they overlap. At the tip of the leaf and towards the base, the leaflets become smaller, but not thorny. The middle leaflets are 10 to 17 cm long and 7 to 8 mm wide. At the bottom, 7 to 9 leaf veins are clearly prominent, the leaf margin is not serrated, but the leaf tip carries a sharp thorn.  The female cones are single or up to six. They are barrel-shaped, 25 to 30 cm long and 15 to 20 cm in diameter. The color of the pin is yellow, but it is covered with yellow gray to brown wool. The stem is short, so that the pin appears sitting. The sporophylls are 4.5 to 5 cm long. The side of the sporophyll lying on the journal surface is flat, 25 mm high, 45 to 50 mm wide, almost smooth under the wool with the exception of one skirt. The sarcotesta of the seed is pale yellow to pale yellow-orange to maturity. The sclerotesta is long-ovate to approximately spherical, slightly flattened, 24 to 33 mm long, 16 to 20 mm in diameter, medium brown, with 10 to 13 flat, but distinct longitudinal furrows.  The male cones are in third to twelfth. They are cylindrical, 20 to 40 cm long with a diameter of 6 to 10 cm, towards the top narrower and covered with brown wool. The stem is short, so that the pin appears sitting. The sporophylls are 25 to 28 mm long. The side of the sporophyll lying on the journal surface is 7 mm high and 17 to 20 mm wide, with a beak about 5 mm long. The sporangia form a single spot with a large sterile area at the base and the tip of the sporophyll.

Encephalartos friderici-guilielmi is a species of cycad that is native to Eastern Cape province and KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa at elevations of 700 up to 1400 meters.

Encephalartos friderici-guilielmi ist ein Vertreter der Palmfarne (Cycadales) und gehört zur Gattung der Brotpalmfarne ("Encephalartos"). Die Art ist nach dem preußischen König Friedrich Wilhelm III. (1770–1840) benannt.


Early years.

Welker started his football career at Heritage Hall High School in Oklahoma City. In his junior year, he helped lead the Chargers to the 2A State Football championship over Tishomingo High School. In that game, Welker had three touchdowns, over 200 all-purpose yards, a 47-yard field goal, and an interception. In his high school career, he rushed for 3,235 yards and 53 rushing touchdowns to go along with recording 174 receptions for 2,551 receiving yards and 27 receiving touchdowns. On defense, he recorded 22 interceptions, three pick-sixes, 581 tackles, and nine fumble recoveries. He handled some kicking duties and recorded 165 extra points made and 35 field goals converted. As a punt returner, he scored seven touchdowns. Also, in 1999, he was named "The Daily Oklahoman" All-State Player of the Year, as well as Oklahoma State Player of the Year by "USA Today".  Welker played in the 2000 Oil Bowl, scoring a 40-yard field goal for the Oklahoma team in the 11–9 loss. Out of high school, Welker was not heavily recruited, as he was considered to be too small to play at the college level. However, after a recruit at Texas Tech backed out of his scholarship, it was offered to Welker. Said Welker of the experience:  "I was thinking I'd get a scholarship somewhere. When it didn't happen when it was supposed to, on signing day, I was pretty hurt by it.... In the end, I don't think I could've picked a better school than Texas Tech."

College career.

While attending Texas Tech University, Welker played for the Texas Tech Red Raiders. His last-minute signing proved to be very beneficial for the Red Raider football team. Based on a highlight reel from high school, Welker earned the nickname "The Natural", given to him by his recruiter, and then running backs coach at Texas Tech, Art Briles, before his freshman year for his versatility and big-game performances.

2000 season.

Welker made his collegiate debut in the 2000 season opener against Utah State. He recorded an eight-yard punt return in the 38–16 victory. Two weeks later, in a 26–0 victory over Louisiana–Lafayette, he recorded a 63-yard punt return for a touchdown. He had four total punt returns on the day for 102 net yards for a 25.5 average On October 7, against Baylor, he recorded his first collegiate reception on a 37-yard catch in the 28–0 victory. On October 28, in a 45–39 victory over Kansas, he had five receptions for 72 yards to go along with a 42-yard rushing touchdown. In addition, he recorded a punt return that went 66 yards for a touchdown. As a freshman, he had 26 receptions for 334 yards. In addition, he recorded 17 kickoff returns for 308 net yards for a 18.0 average and 28 punt returns for 353 net yards for a 12.6 average and two punt return touchdowns.

2001 season.

In the Red Raiders' 2001 season opener, a 42–30 victory over New Mexico, Welker had four receptions for 40 receiving yards and his first collegiate receiving touchdown on a pass by quarterback Kliff Kingsbury. On October 13, in a 38–19 victory over Kansas State, he had six receptions for 102 yards and two touchdowns. In the following game, a 41–31 loss at Nebraska, he had four receptions for 47 yards to go along with an 85-yard kickoff return for a touchdown. On November 3, he recorded a season-high 11 receptions for 64 yards in the 12–0 victory over Texas A&M. As a sophomore, he had 50 receptions for 582 yards and five touchdowns.

2002 season.

Welker started the 2002 season off with a strong individual performance of five receptions for 112 yards and two touchdowns in the 45–21 loss to Ohio State. In the next game, he turned in another great effort with nine receptions for 153 yards in the 24–14 victory over SMU. The following week against Ole Miss, he had four receptions for 40 yards to go along with a 71-yard punt return for a touchdown in the 42–28 victory. On October 5, against Texas A&M, he had 10 receptions for 120 yards and a touchdown to go along with an 88-yard punt return for a touchdown in the 48–47 shootout victory. On November 16, against Texas, he had 14 receptions for 169 yards and two touchdowns in the 42–38 victory. In the 2002 Tangerine Bowl, he had three receptions for 20 yards and a touchdown to go along with a 59-yard punt return for a touchdown in the 55–15 victory over Clemson. As a junior, he had 86 receptions for 1,054 yards and seven receiving touchdowns to go along with 57 punt returns for 752 net yards and three punt returns for touchdowns. In the Big 12 conference, his total receptions finished third, receiving yards finished sixth, and receiving touchdowns finished seventh. He led the conference and finished second in the NCAA with his total punt return yardage.

2003 season.

In the first three games of the 2003 season, Welker totaled 16 receptions for 183 touchdowns but recorded a punt return touchdown in a 58–10 victory over SMU in that stretch. In his fourth game, against Ole Miss, he had 10 receptions for 131 yards and a touchdown in the 49–45 victory. On October 4, against Texas A&M, he had six receptions for 114 yards and two touchdowns in the 59–28 victory. On October 18, against Oklahoma State, he had 10 receptions for 129 yards and two touchdowns in the 51–49 loss.. On November 1, against Colorado, he had five receptions for 91 yards and a receiving touchdown to go along with a 58-yard punt return for a touchdown in the 26–21 victory. In his final collegiate game, in the 2003 Houston Bowl against Navy, he had seven receptions for 107 yards in the 38–14 victory. As a senior, he had 97 receptions for 1,099 yards and nine touchdowns to go along with a four-yard rushing touchdown.  Over his four-year career, he had 259 receptions for 3,019 yards and 21 touchdowns and 79 rushes for 456 yards and two touchdowns. He totaled eight touchdowns returning punts in his career, which currently places him a second place tie with Antonio Perkins for the NCAA record, and behind Dante Pettis, who finished with nine.  In 2003, Welker won the Mosi Tatupu Award, given annually to the best special teams player in college football. Welker was also named to the "Sports Illustrated" All-Decade Team as a punt returner.  After his senior season at Texas Tech, Welker was not invited to the NFL Scouting Combine.

Professional career.

San Diego Chargers (2004).

Welker, who went undrafted during the 2004 NFL Draft, signed as an undrafted free agent with the San Diego Chargers. Welker made the Chargers out of training camp, but was released after the first game of the season when the Chargers claimed safety Clinton Hart off waivers. Head coach Marty Schottenheimer later acknowledged that in terms of roster cuts, releasing Welker was the "biggest mistake [he] ever made".

Miami Dolphins (2004–2006).

2004 season.

After the Chargers released Welker, he passed through waivers. Although the Chargers offered him a slot on their practice squad, Welker chose to sign with the Miami Dolphins instead, where he was mostly used on special teams. Playing against the New England Patriots on October 10, 2004, Welker became the second player in NFL history to return a kickoff and a punt, kick an extra point and a field goal, and make a tackle in a single game. For this performance, Welker earned AFC Special Teams Player of the Week. On December 20, Welker had a 71-yard punt return to set up Miami's first touchdown in a 29–28 victory over the Patriots on "Monday Night Football". In the regular season finale against the Baltimore Ravens, he had a 95-yard kickoff return touchdown in the 30–23 loss. Overall, he finished the 2004 season with 61 kickoff returns for 1,415 net yards (23.20 average) and a kickoff return touchdown to go along with 43 punt returns for 464 net yards (10.79 average).

2005 season.

During training camp at the beginning of the 2005 season, Welker was promoted to the third wide receiver spot after Chris Chambers and Marty Booker. He finished the 2005 season with 29 receptions for 434 yards. In addition, he had 43 punt returns for 390 yards, a 9.1-yard average (11th in the NFL), and 61 kickoff returns for 1,379 yards, a 22.6-yard average (20th in the NFL).

2006 season.

After rumors that he would be cut during the preseason, Welker started off being a bright spot in the struggling Dolphins' offense. Through five games, he netted a team-high 29 catches and team-high 299 yards. On October 8, 2006, he was a reliable target for back-up quarterback Joey Harrington, recording a then career-high nine catches for 77 yards in a 20–10 loss to the New England Patriots. For the season, he had a team-best 67 receptions for 687 yards and one touchdown. He returned 48 kickoffs for 1,048 yards (22.2 average) and 41 punts for 378 yards (9.2 average).

New England Patriots (2007–2012).

Trade to New England.

On March 1, 2007, the Dolphins offered Welker, a restricted free agent, a second-round tender of $1.35 million for a one-year contract. News reports indicated the New England Patriots, who were interested in Welker, had originally considered signing him to an offer sheet. Miami would have had seven days to match the offer. According to "The Boston Globe", that sheet would have contained a poison pill provision that would have made the offer difficult for the Dolphins to match. Ultimately, however, the Patriots decided not to use such an offer and traded their 2007 second-round draft pick and a seventh-round draft pick to the Dolphins for Welker.

2007 season.

Welker's first season as a Patriot eclipsed his 2006 season as a Dolphin; he bettered his totals for receptions, touchdowns, and yardage in his first ten games. In Week 1, a 38–14 victory over the New York Jets, he caught the first of the Patriots' record 75 touchdowns, equaling the one receiving touchdown he had scored in his three seasons with the Dolphins. He set career highs for single-game yardage three times in 2007: in the Patriots' Week 6 48–27 win over the Dallas Cowboys, Welker had 11 catches for 124 yards and two touchdowns (all career bests); the next week, a 49–28 victory over the Miami Dolphins, he had nine catches for 138 yards and two more touchdowns (the most receiving yards of any NFL player that week); and in Week 12, a 31–28 victory over the Philadelphia Eagles, he had 13 receptions for 149 yards. In Week 15, a 20–10 victory over the New York Jets, Welker reached 1,000 receiving yards for the first time in his career; in Week 16, against the Miami Dolphins, he recorded his 101st reception of the season, tying the Patriots franchise record set by Troy Brown in 2001. In Week 17, in a game against the New York Giants, he caught 11 more passes, setting the Patriots franchise record for catches with 112, and tying Bengals receiver T. J. Houshmandzadeh for most receptions in the 2007 NFL season. He also set an NFL record for most catches in a first season with a new team. Welker, who finished the season with 1,175 yards and eight touchdowns, received one vote for NFL Offensive Player of the Year, an award won by his quarterback, Tom Brady, and was voted to his first AP All-Pro Team (second team).  In his first two postseason games, the against the Jacksonville Jaguars and the against the San Diego Chargers, Welker had 16 receptions for 110 yards and two touchdowns. He tied the then-Super Bowl record of 11 receptions in a single game in the Patriots' 17–14 loss to the New York Giants in Super Bowl XLII.

2008 season.

Despite the season-ending injury to quarterback Tom Brady in Week 1 against the Kansas City Chiefs, he continued to amass receptions at the same pace through the first half of the season with Matt Cassel at quarterback: through eight games, he had 56 receptions, but only one touchdown reception. He had six or more receptions in each of the Patriots' first 11 games, breaking Jimmy Smith's mark of eight games at the start of the Jacksonville Jaguars' 2001 season.  Welker had what was, at the time, the longest pass play of his NFL career in the Patriots' 48–28 victory over the Miami Dolphins in Week 12: on 2nd-and-8 from their own 15, Welker caught a five-yard pass from Matt Cassel, before eluding a pair of defenders tip-toeing and running down the left sideline to the Miami 21, for a total of 64 yards, 59 yards after the catch. Welker broke the 1,000-yard mark for the second consecutive season in Week 14 against the Seattle Seahawks, catching 12 passes for 134 yards, and catching a pass on the Patriots' two-point conversion. He finished the season with a league-leading 96 receptions, for 1,002 yards (ninth in the NFL, third in the AFC). Against the Oakland Raiders one week later, Welker became the first player in Patriots history, and the eighth in NFL history, to have back-to-back 100-reception seasons; the previous player to do it was his teammate Randy Moss, while he was a Viking, in 2002 and 2003, and Brandon Marshall accomplished the feat in the same seasons as Welker.  Welker was fined $10,000 by the NFL for celebrating a December 21 touchdown against the Arizona Cardinals in Week 16 by lying down in the snow by the endzone and using his body to make a snow angel, violating a recent NFL rule change making going to ground after a touchdown unsportsmanlike conduct.  Welker was selected to attend the 2009 Pro Bowl as a reserve, and was again named to the AP All-Pro Second Team.

2009 season.

Welker started off the 2009 season with 12 receptions for 93 receiving yards in a 25–24 victory over the Buffalo Bills. He was sidelined in Weeks 2 and 3, against the New York Jets and Atlanta Falcons, respectively, with a knee injury; rookie wide receiver Julian Edelman took his place in the lineup. In the Week 6 game against the Tennessee Titans on October 18, Welker caught 10 passes for 150 yards, a new career high (at the time), and two touchdowns. The second of Welker's touchdowns was Tom Brady's NFL record fifth touchdown in a single quarter. Welker set career marks again in the Patriots' Week 11 rematch against the Jets: targeted 17 times, he caught 15 passes — at the time the highest single-game total for any player in the NFL in 2009 — for 192 yards, and added 11 rushing yards on a reverse. In Week 13 against the Dolphins, Welker recorded 167 receiving yards to eclipse the 1,000-yard mark for the third straight season. In the 22–21 loss to the Dolphins, Welker tallied 167 yards on 10 catches, including a season long 58-yard reception over the middle. In the Patriots' Week 14 win at home against the Carolina Panthers, Welker caught 10 passes (out of 19 total completions for Brady) for 105 yards. This gave him 105 receptions in just 11 games and Welker led the NFL in receptions at that point. The performance also made Welker the fourth receiver in NFL history (after Jerry Rice, Herman Moore, and Marvin Harrison, and tied with Brandon Marshall who did it in the same seasons as Welker) to catch 100 passes in three consecutive seasons. In Week 16, Welker caught 13 passes, giving him seven games with double-digit receptions. This gave him the record for most double digit reception games in a single season, passing Marvin Harrison. He accomplished this despite missing two games earlier in the season. In a Week 17 loss to the Houston Texans, Welker suffered a knee injury after getting hit by Bernard Pollard in the first quarter while running upfield to make his only reception of the game. He suffered a torn MCL and ACL in his left knee and was unable to participate in the Patriots' Wild Card loss to the Baltimore Ravens. He was placed on injured reserve on January 6, 2010.  Welker finished the season with a league-high 123 receptions, the second-highest total in NFL history, and finished second in yardage, behind Houston's Andre Johnson. He was also selected to represent the AFC in the Pro Bowl for the second consecutive year, and, for the first time in his career, was named to the All-Pro First Team. Because of the knee injury he could not play in the Pro Bowl, and was replaced on the Pro Bowl roster by teammate Randy Moss.

2010 season.

Welker rehabilitated his knee during the 2010 offseason with the goal of being ready for the 2010 season opener, while many analysts expected that he would start the season on the Physically Unable to Perform list, and some even speculated that he would miss the entire 2010 season.  Nonetheless, Welker played in the Patriots' Week 1 38–24 victory against the Cincinnati Bengals, and led all Patriots receivers with eight catches for 64 yards and two touchdowns; those catches included Brady's first pass attempt of the season and his first touchdown pass. In the Patriots' Week 9 34–14 loss to the Cleveland Browns, after an injury to kicker Stephen Gostkowski, Welker was asked to kick an extra point for the first time since he did so in 2004 against the Patriots; he converted the attempt. Welker had two touchdown catches in the Patriots' 45–24 win over the Detroit Lions on Thanksgiving. He recorded a season-high in receiving yards with 115 on eight receptions in a Week 14 36–7 victory over the Chicago Bears. He finished the 2010 season with 86 receptions for 848 yards and seven touchdowns in 15 games with 11 starts. He was named to the 2011 Pro Bowl as an injury replacement to Houston Texans wide receiver Andre Johnson.  In the playoff loss to the New York Jets in the, Welker was benched for the teams' first offensive series for making a series of foot references in a press conference that took shots at a foot fetish of Jets' coach Rex Ryan. He had seven receptions for 57 yards in the 28–21 loss.

2011 season.

In the Patriots' 38–24 Week 1 win over the Miami Dolphins, Welker caught a 99-yard pass from Tom Brady. Tying the NFL record for longest play from scrimmage, it was the 12th such play in NFL history, and the first for the Patriots. The play accounted for the majority of Welker's yards in an eight-catch effort for 160 receiving yards and two receiving touchdowns.  In Week 3, in the Patriots' 34–31 loss to the Buffalo Bills, Welker recorded career-highs with 16 receptions for 217 yards and two touchdowns. In so doing, he tied wide receiver Troy Brown's franchise record of 16 receptions in a single game and broke Terry Glenn's franchise record of 214 yards, set in 1999. The game also marked Welker's 64th consecutive regular-season game with a reception (i.e., in every game he had played thus far as a Patriot), breaking tight end Ben Coates's record of 63 games (set 1992 to 1996). It was Welker's second game with at least 15 receptions, a feat previously done only by Brandon Marshall with the Denver Broncos.  In Week 5, in the Patriots' win over the New York Jets, Welker caught five passes for 124 yards, including a 73-yard catch-and-run in which Welker beat Eric Smith and was chased down by Darrelle Revis at the eight-yard line.  In Week 14, against the Washington Redskins, Welker recorded his 100th reception of the season, giving him four seasons with at least 100 receptions, tying the NFL record shared by Marvin Harrison and Jerry Rice. He also set a personal best with his ninth receiving touchdown. In the Patriots' Week 16 rematch against the Dolphins, Welker had 12 receptions for 138 yards, bringing him to a franchise-record 1,518 receiving yards, besting Randy Moss' 2007 record of 1,493 yards.  Through 15 games, Welker led the NFL in receptions, receiving yards, yards per game, and receptions for first downs, and ranked in the top five in receiving touchdowns and receptions of 20 yards or more. He finished the season with 122 receptions (tied for fourth-highest total in NFL history), 1,569 receiving yards and 98.5 yards per game (both second to Calvin Johnson of the Detroit Lions), and 77 receptions for first down (tied with Johnson for the NFL lead). He also had a career-high nine touchdown receptions. In the against the Denver Broncos, he had six receptions for 55 receiving yards and a receiving touchdown in the 45–10 victory. In the against the Baltimore Ravens, he had six receptions for 53 receiving yards. The Patriots reached Super Bowl XLVI where they faced off against the New York Giants in a rematch of Super Bowl XLII. In the Super Bowl, Welker had seven catches for 60 yards, but the Patriots lost to the Giants again, this time by a score of 21–17. Late in the fourth quarter with a little over four minutes remaining, with the Patriots ahead 17–15 and on the Giants' 44-yard line, Welker dropped a pass with both hands on the ball. Welker was near the Giants' 20-yard line. The Patriots were forced to punt and set up the Giants' eventual game-winning drive.

2012 season.

In the Patriots' Week 1 win over the Tennessee Titans, with three receptions for 14 yards in the 34–13 victory, Welker tied former Patriots receiver Troy Brown's franchise record for receptions; he took sole possession of the franchise record for receptions a week later against the Arizona Cardinals with five receptions for 95 yards. In Week 3, against the Baltimore Ravens, he had eight receptions for 142 yards in a narrow 31–30 loss. On October 14, in a 24–23 loss to the Seattle Seahawks, he had 10 receptions for 138 yards and a touchdown. During the Week 13 game against the Miami Dolphins, Welker, with, 12 receptions, set the NFL record for the most games with 10 or more receptions, tying him with 49ers legend and Hall of Famer Jerry Rice. It was his 17th game accomplishing the feat. He also set the NFL record for most games with 10 or more catches and 100 or more yards. With his 16th such performance, he moved ahead of Jerry Rice and Andre Johnson. Overall, he finished the 2012 season with 118 receptions for 1,354 receiving yards and six touchdowns. He ended the season tied with Chicago Bears receiver Brandon Marshall for second in receptions with 118, behind Detroit's Calvin Johnson. In the against the Houston Texans, he had eight receptions for 131 receiving yards in the 41-28 victory. In the loss to the Baltimore Ravens, he had eight receptions for 117 receiving yards and one receiving touchdown in the 28–13 loss.

Patriots career summary.

After joining the Patriots, Welker caught more passes than any player in the league in the period between 2007-2012, and ranks in the top five in yardage. Welker reached 500 receptions with the Patriots in just 70 games, an NFL record. Welker holds the franchise record for consecutive games with receptions, having caught a pass in every game (regular season and postseason) he has played as a Patriot. As of Week 2 of the 2012 regular season, Welker also holds the all-time Patriots franchise record for receptions, breaking in just 79 games the record of Troy Brown who played more than twice as many games as a Patriot (192 regular-season games). Welker ranks third in receiving yards behind Brown and Stanley Morgan.

Denver Broncos (2013–2014).

On March 13, 2013, Welker signed a two-year, $12 million contract with the Denver Broncos. Welker's signing with Denver was a result of Welker and the New England Patriots being unable to agree to a contract.

2013 season.

In his debut with the Broncos, Welker had nine receptions for 67 yards and two touchdowns in the 49–27 victory over the Baltimore Ravens. His two receiving touchdowns were part of a record seven thrown by quarterback Peyton Manning In Week 4, in a 52–20 victory over the Philadelphia Eagles, he had seven receptions for 76 yards and two touchdowns. By Week 11, Welker had more touchdowns than he had the entire previous season with New England (six), and as many as he had in any season with the Patriots (nine). He caught a touchdown pass in eight of the first ten games of the 2013 season.  In Week 14 against the Tennessee Titans, Welker took a hit to the head on a play across the middle late in the second quarter, and his neck bent awkwardly on the play. Welker previously suffered a concussion in Week 11 against the Kansas City Chiefs. He did not play for the rest of the regular season. Welker was part of the Broncos' historic offense which saw five players record at least ten touchdowns on the season.  On December 30, the day after Denver's 34-14 victory over the Oakland Raiders, head coach John Fox announced that Welker was cleared to play in the Broncos's Divisional Round playoff game against the San Diego Chargers on January 12, 2014. He had six receptions for 38 yards and a touchdown in the 24–17 victory in the. On January 19, Welker earned his third win and Super Bowl appearance after he helped the Broncos defeat his former team, New England Patriots, 26-16. Welker had four receptions for 38 yards in the victory. He failed to get his first Super Bowl ring as the Broncos lost to the Seattle Seahawks, 43-8 in Super Bowl XLVIII. He had eight catches for 84 yards in the loss, the third such loss in the Super Bowl for Welker.

2014 season.

During the third preseason game on August 23, Welker was diagnosed with a concussion after a hit by Houston Texans safety D. J. Swearinger, his third in 10 months. On September 2, the NFL suspended Welker for the first four games of the 2014 NFL season for violating the league's performance-enhancing drug policy after he failed a drug test due to amphetamines. On September 12, Welker's suspension was lifted due to the NFL's new drug policy. Welker made his season debut in Week 3 with six catches for 60 yards in an overtime 26–20 loss to the Seattle Seahawks. In a Week 5 game against the Arizona Cardinals on October 5, Welker passed Rod Smith for the most receptions by an undrafted player in NFL history. In a Week 7 game against the San Francisco 49ers, Welker caught his first touchdown of the season and it was Peyton Manning's 508th career touchdown pass, which tied Brett Favre for the most all-time. Overall, he finished the 2014 season with 49 receptions for 464 receiving yards and two receiving touchdowns. In the against the Indianapolis Colts, he had a 20-yard reception in the 24–13 loss. Welker did not re-sign with the Broncos and became a free agent.

St. Louis Rams.

On November 9, 2015, the St. Louis Rams signed Welker to a one-year, $1.8 million contract including incentives. He appeared in eight games, but started none, and had 13 receptions for 102 yards for the Rams in the 2015 season. The 2015 season was Welker's last in the NFL as a player.

NFL career statistics.

Super Bowls.

Source: Pro-Football-Reference.com

Coaching career.

Houston Texans.

On January 30, 2017, Welker began his coaching career and was hired by the Houston Texans as an offensive assistant and special teams assistant coach under head coach Bill O'Brien.

San Francisco 49ers.

On February 27, 2019, Welker was hired by the San Francisco 49ers to be their wide receivers coach under head coach Kyle Shanahan.

Personal life.

Welker was born in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, and is a Christian. He is a citizen of the Cherokee Nation, and has a grandmother who lives within Cherokee Nation jurisdiction in Sequoyah County, Oklahoma.  While attending Texas Tech University, Welker was a Texas Epsilon chapter member of the Phi Delta Theta fraternity. Welker graduated from Texas Tech University in 2003 with a Bachelor of Business Administration degree in Management from the Rawls College of Business.  In 2007, Welker established the 83 Foundation (after his NFL uniform number). The foundation, renamed the Wes Welker Foundation in December 2009, states that its goal is "to influence at-risk youth, by encouraging their full potential through athletics and positive role models". Its work primarily benefits schools and other organizations in Welker's hometown of Oklahoma City.  In 2012, Welker married former swimsuit model and 2005 Miss Hooters Pageant Winner Anna Burns. They have three children. Welker owns a chestnut-colored gelding racehorse called Undrafted, trained by Wesley Ward. In 2014, Undrafted notched his first win in the Grade 3 Jaipur Invitational Stakes at Belmont. Undrafted also won the Group 1 2015 Diamond Jubilee Stakes at Ascot Racecourse.

Wesley Carter Welker (born May 1, 1981) is an American football coach and former player who is the wide receivers coach for the San Francisco 49ers of the National Football League (NFL). He previously served as an assistant coach for the Houston Texans. He played college football for the Texas Tech Red Raiders and was signed by the San Diego Chargers as an undrafted free agent in 2004. Welker went on to also play for the Miami Dolphins, New England Patriots, Denver Broncos, and St. Louis Rams.

Wesley Carter „Wes“ Welker (* 1. Mai 1981 in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma) ist ein US-amerikanischer American-Football-Spieler auf der Position des Wide Receivers und des Kick Returners. Er spielte unter anderem bei den New England Patriots, Denver Broncos und St. Louis Rams in der National Football League (NFL) und ist aktuell ein Wide Receiver Coach bei den San Francisco 49ers.


Description.

When compared to the Type 85, the Type 89 is slightly larger and heavier. The hull is made of welded steel, and provides protection against small arms fire. The vehicle carries a maximum of 15 including crew. The driver sits in the front left of the hull, and has a single piece hatch, which opens to the left. The driver is provided with three day periscopes which cover the front and right of the vehicle. One of the driver's periscopes can be replaced by a night vision device. The commander sits behind the driver and has a single piece hatch.  The air-cooled, turbocharged diesel engine sits to the right rear of the driver. It has a large intake located in the top of the hull, with an exhaust on the right hand side. The engine feeds a manual transmission with five forward gears and one reverse gear. Track is driven at the front by a drive sprocket, and passes over five dual rubber-typed road wheels and track-return rollers, then loops over an idler at the rear, before returning to the front again.  A 12.7 millimetre calibre machine gun is located in an open mount at the front of a small hatch in the center of the hull which opens into the troop compartment. The gun can traverse through 360 degrees and can be elevated to an angle of 90 degrees. Two oblong roof hatches and a large rear door provide access to the troop compartment. On either side of the forward hull, a cluster of four 76 mm smoke grenade dischargers is mounted.  The vehicle is amphibious, a folding trim board stowed at the front of the hull needs to be raised, and the vehicle can then propel itself in the water using its tracks. Standard equipment includes an NBC system, a Type 889 or CWT-167 radio, and a Type 803 or CYY-168 intercom system.

The Norinco Type 89 tracked armoured fighting vehicle is a Chinese armoured personnel carrier. It was developed from the earlier export market Type 85 AFV vehicle. It entered service in the late 1990s and was first shown publicly in 1999. There are approximately 1,000 in service. It has the industrial index of WZ534 and although it was mainly developed for the PLA, there is also an export version YW534.

Der ZSD89 (alternative Bezeichnung Typ 89 oder YW 534) ist ein chinesischer Transportpanzer, der in den späten 1980er-Jahren von Norinco entwickelt wurde und beim Heer der Volksbefreiungsarmee verwendet wird.


Early life.

Pollard attended Albert G. Lane Manual Training High School in Chicago, also known as "Lane Tech," where he played football, baseball, and ran track. He then went to Brown University, majoring in chemistry. Pollard played halfback on the Brown football team, which went to the 1916 Rose Bowl. He was the first black football player at Brown. He became the first black running back to be named to Walter Camp's All-America team. He later played pro football with the Akron Pros, the team he would lead to the NFL (APFA) championship in 1920. In 1921, he became the co-head coach of the Akron Pros, while still maintaining his roster position as running back. He also played for the Milwaukee Badgers, Hammond Pros, Gilberton Cadamounts, Union Club of Phoenixville and Providence Steam Roller. Some sources indicate that Pollard also served as co-coach of the Milwaukee Badgers with Budge Garrett for part of the 1922 season. He also coached the Gilberton Cadamounts, a non-NFL team. In 1923 and 1924, he served as head coach for the Hammond Pros.  Pollard, along with all nine of the black players in the NFL at the time, were removed from the league at the end of the 1926 season, never to return again. He spent some time organizing all-black barnstorming teams, including the Chicago Black Hawks in 1928 and the Harlem Brown Bombers in the 1930s.  Pollard coached Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)'s football team during the 1918 to 1920 seasons and served as athletic director of the school's World War I era Students' Army Training Corps. During 1918–1919, he led the team to a victorious season defeating Howard University's Bisons 13–0 in the annual Thanksgiving classic as well as Hampton (7–0) on November 9, 1918, and teams of military recruits at Camp Dix (19–0) on November 2, 1918, and Camp Upton (41–0). By the fall of 1920, he had begun to play for Akron, missing key Lincoln losses to Hampton (0–14) and Howard (0–42), much to the consternation of the alumni and administration. Paul Robeson was enlisted by Lincoln's alumni to coach the Thanksgiving 1920 game against Howard.  Pollard later criticized Lincoln's administration, saying they had hampered his ability to coach and had refused to provide adequate travel accommodations for the team. "Prior to the Hampton game, the team was compelled to go to Hampton by boat, sleeping on the decks and under portholes," he told a reporter. "No cabins were provided, nor were they given a place to sleep after reaching Hampton. They lost the game through lack of rest." He also blamed the school for not providing the proper equipment. "I, myself, bought and paid $200 out of my pocket for football shoes for the team." He missed the 1920 Howard game, he said, because his Lincoln salary was so low that he was compelled to augment it with pay from Akron.

Later life.

In the 1930s, Pollard founded his own professional football team, the Brown Bombers. The Depression ended the Brown Bombers’ run in 1938, and Pollard went on to other ventures, including a talent agency, tax consulting and film and music production. He produced "Rockin' the Blues" in 1956, which included such performers as Connie Carroll, The Harptones, The Five Miller Sisters, Pearl Woods, Linda Hopkins, Elyce Roberts, The Hurricanes, and The Wanderers. Pollard also published the "New York Independent News" from 1935 to 1942, purportedly the first black-owned tabloid in New York City.

Frederick Douglass "Fritz" Pollard (January 27, 1894 – May 11, 1986) was an American football player and coach. He was the first African American head coach in the National Football League (NFL). Pollard and Bobby Marshall were the first two African American players in the NFL in 1920. Football pioneer Walter Camp ranked Pollard as "one of the greatest runners these eyes have ever seen."

Frederick Douglass „Fritz“ Pollard (* 27. Januar 1894 in Chicago, Illinois; † 11. Mai 1986 in Silver Spring, Maryland) war ein afroamerikanischer American-Football-Spieler, Trainer und Manager, sowie ein Musikproduzent. Pollard gilt als Pionier des „Schwarzen Footballs“, als Spieler der Brown University kam er als zweiter Afroamerikaner zu All-America-Ehren und in den 1920er Jahren wurde Pollard zum ersten schwarzen Quarterback und Cheftrainer in der Profiliga NFL. Nach dem Beschluss der NFL-Besitzer, Schwarze vom Spielbetrieb der NFL auszuschließen, organisierte er mehrere erfolgreiche unabhängige Footballprofiteams für Schwarze. Nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg zunächst fast in Vergessenheit geraten, wurde er zur Leitfigur des steigenden Selbstbewusstsein der schwarzen Football-Gemeinde und schließlich auf öffentlichen Druck 2005 in die Pro Football Hall of Fame aufgenommen.


Common names.

Black-speckled palm-pitviper, speckled palm viper, black-spotted palm viper, yellow-spotted palm viper.

Description.

Adults may exceed, although most are less than in length. They are relatively slender and have a prehensile tail. Two exceptionally large females were reported by Hammack and Antonio (1991) that measured and.  The color pattern usually consists of an emerald green (rarely yellowish green) ground color with strong black mottling. There may also be pale green dorsal blotches that have black edges. The belly is yellowish green and lightly mottled with black. The head is heavily mottled with black on top, often with black parietal stripes. There is also a clearly defined postocular stripe running back towards the angle of the jaw. The iris is heavily stippled and appears almost black. The tongue is also black. Juveniles have a similar color pattern, although it is more pale and the tip of the tail is black.

Geographic range.

Found in the mountains of Costa Rica and Panama. Also found in the cloud forests of the Cordillera Central and the Cordillera de Talamanca at 1,150-2,400 m altitude. The type locality given is "Vulcan von Barbo" (Volcán Barba, Costa Rica).  According to Campbell and Lamar (2004), this species prefers medium to high elevations from 1,150 to over 3,000 m, and is found from the Cordillera Tilarán and Cordillera Central in the southeastern Alajuela province in Costa Rica, southeast through the Cordillera de Talamanca to Chiriquí province in Panama. It occurs on both the Atlantic and Pacific slopes.

Habitat.

This species inhabits high montane forest and lower montane wet forest and cloud forest. It has a limited range and is generally considered relatively rare, even though it is locally common in habitat that has not been disturbed. However, Picado (1931) mentioned that they soon disappear from cultivated areas.

Venom.

Fatalities have been reported, with the bite symptoms including intense pain, nausea and asphyxia.

Bothriechis nigroviridis is a venomous pit viper species found in the mountains of Costa Rica and Panama. No subspecies are currently recognized. The specific name is derived from the Latin "niger" (black) and "viridis" (green) in reference to its distinctive color pattern.

Die Schwarzgefleckte Palmlanzenotter ("Bothriechis nigroviridis"), auch Schwarzgelbe Palmenlanzenotter, ist eine Art der Palmlanzenottern ("Bothriechis") innerhalb der Grubenottern (Crotalinae). Ihr Verbreitungsgebiet ist auf die Gebirgsregionen Costa Ricas und Panamas beschränkt.


Development of the modern bow.

Tourte spent 8 years as a watchmaker's apprentice before finally becoming an apprentice to his luthier father, Nicolas Pierre Tourte "père" (c.1700 - 1764). After his father's death, Tourte, in collaboration with the violin virtuoso G. B. Viotti, made important changes in the form of the bow in the Classical period between 1785 and 1790. They lengthened them slightly, to 74 – 75 centimetres, and used more wood in the tip and a heavier nut.  Tourte's bows are made from pernambuco wood, the most usual form of wood used on professional bows today, bent by being exposed to heat. Tourte's bows tended to be heavier than previous models, with more wood at the tip of the bow counterbalanced by a heavier frog (the device connecting the hair to the stick at the end nearest the player's hand).  They generally have a usable hair-length of around 65 cm, and the balance point is 19 cm from the frog. The bows were elegantly fluted through half, or sometimes the whole, of their length. The curve in the wood was created by heating the wood thoroughly and then bending it. Before Tourte, bows had been cut to the desired bend. The final important change credited to Tourte is the screw in the nut to moderate the tension in the hair. This propelling and withdrawing screw is found on virtually all modern violin bows. He is also credited with the invention of the spreader block, which fixes the hair of the bow in a flat ribbon, and so prevents tangling.  At the height of his career, a single Tourte bow fetched 15 Louis d'Or. Tourte destroyed any bow that was not entirely faultless before it left his workshop. He never varnished his bows but only rubbed them with pumice powder and oil. The Tourte pattern was followed by Dominique Peccatte, Jacob Eury, Nicolas Maire, François Lupot, Nicolas Maline, Joseph Henry and Jean Pierre Marie Persois.

Quotes.

"The French bow maker François-Xavier Tourte, more commonly known as François Tourte or Tourte le jeune, is often referred to as 'the inventor of the modern bow,' or 'the Stradivari of the bow.' His bows, dating from the end of the eighteenth century and the early decades of the nineteenth, had a marked effect upon the timbre of violins and upon performance practice, enabling new forms of expression and articulation to be developed, and in particular, facilitating the increased use of legato. François Joseph Fétis's entry in the second, expanded edition of his "Biographie Universelle des Musiciens et Bibliographie Générale de la Musique" (1860–65) has until recently been the only source of biographical information about François Tourte. Some thirty documents recently discovered in French archives provide further fresh insight into this maker's life and work." Stewart Pollens, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York  "Tourte - French family of bowmakers and luthiers. It Nicolas Pierre Tourte and his sons Nicolas Léonard and François Xavier and perhaps Charles Tourte, son of Nicolas Léonard. In addition, at least two channelled (canalé) bows dating from about 1750–60 exist bearing the brand-stamp A.TOURTE." - Paul Childs

François Xavier Tourte (1747 – 25 April 1835) was a French bow maker who made a number of significant contributions to the development of the bow of stringed instruments, and is considered to be the most important figure in the development of the modern bow. Because of this, he has often been called the Stradivari of the bow.

François Xavier Tourte (* 1747 oder 1748 in Paris; † 25. April 1835 ebenda), genannt "le jeune" (der Jüngere) war ein französischer Bogenbauer. Er wird oft als der „Stradivari des Bogens“ bezeichnet, da er die Bauweise des modernen Streichinstrumenten-Bogens vergleichbar stark prägte wie der italienische Meister den Bau der eigentlichen Instrumente. Seine Innovationen haben im Wesentlichen bis heute Bestand. Die physikalischen Gesetzmäßigkeiten, denen die Abmessungen von Tourte-Bögen folgen, konnten erst Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts von Jean-Baptiste Vuillaume nachgewiesen werden und geben der Forschung insoweit Rätsel auf, als sie mathematische Kenntnisse und eine Präzision der Messgenauigkeit voraussetzen, über die selbst ein hochspezialisierter Handwerker des späten 18. Jahrhunderts kaum verfügt haben kann.


Personal life.

In 1949, Davidson was born to Francis and Annette Davidson, the former a businessman and the latter a concert pianist. He was the third of four children, and had little opportunity to be around horses until his family moved to Westport, Massachusetts, when he was a child. A family friend introduced Davidson to horses, and he began attending Pony Club events. He bought, trained and sold horses until he found a championship horse in Irish Cap, the horse that took him to his first gold medal at the 1974 World Eventing Championship. Davidson went to college at Iowa State University with a veterinary major, but left in his third year to train with the United States Equestrian Team (USET).  In 1974, Davidson married Carol Hannum, a top rider and daughter of Nancy Hannum, who owns extensive property in Pennsylvania surrounding Davidson's Chesterland Farm. In 1976, Davidson's son, Bruce "Buck" Oram Davidson, Jr., was born, followed by a daughter, Nancy Fraser Davidson, in 1977. In 2006, Davidson's first grandson, Oram, was born to Nancy. Buck Davidson is also an internationally competitive event rider, competing in high-level events such as the Rolex Kentucky Three Day along with his father.  In 2002, at a competition in Massachusetts, Davidson's horse suffered a fall in a freak accident. The horse, High Scope, broke his neck and died instantly, while Davidson was taken to the intensive care unit at Massachusetts Memorial Hospital. After being treated for injuries, Davidson was released. In 2010, Davidson missed that year's Rolex Three Day Event in Kentucky after undergoing surgery to repair herniated discs in his back.

Career.

Competition.

At 18, Davidson participated in a tryout for aspiring eventers run by Neil Ayer and Jack le Goff, who were trying to build the United States team to an international level. He had talent, and according to LeGoff, "He didn't know which diagonal he was posting when he came to me. Two years later, he was riding in the Olympics." Davidson was chosen, and began training with the USET in a four-year, seven-day-a-week program in Gladstone, New Jersey.  Davidson won team eventing medals at Olympic Games in 1972, 1976, 1984 and 1996, and also competed at the 1988 Games. In the 1972 Games, at age 22, he took individual eighth, while the American team won silver. At the 1976 Summer Olympics, the team won gold while Davidson came in tenth individually. In 1984, Davidson, who finished 13th individually, was the lowest scoring member of the gold-medal-winning United States team. At the 1988 Games, Davidson took 18th, while the American team did not finish the competition. In 1996, Davidson did not compete as an individual, but the American team again took silver.  Outside of the Olympics, Davidson also competed repeatedly at the Eventing World Championships and the Pan-American Games. He took both an individual and a team gold at the 1974 World Championships, and another individual gold at the 1978 Championships. Davidson's victory at the 1974 Championships aboard Irish Cap made him the first American ever to win the event, and his win in 1978 aboard Might Tango made him the first rider of any nationality to win back-to-back championships. In this event, the inexperienced Might Tango was Davidson's backup horse after Irish Cap went lame, leading to a scenario which "Sports Illustrated" likened to "a junior high school quarterback leading USC to victory in the Rose Bowl". Might Tango's inexperience led to increased tiredness and rumors that the activity made him go into shock, but Davidson replied that the horse was just "very tired" and praised him for his stamina. The United States also took a team bronze at the 1978 championships. In 1990, Davidson took an individual bronze at the World Championships in Stockholm, Sweden. In 1998, Davidson competed at the World Equestrian Games in Rome, where he took an individual 21st place, as well as helping the US to a team 4th.  At the 1975 Pan American Games, he took both the individual and the team silver; he followed this up by an individual gold and a team silver at the 1995 Games.  He has also ridden at the Badminton Horse Trials, where he is one of only two Americans to win that event, and he also holds the honor of having the most wins at the Rolex Three Day Event with six victories. Through his 1974 World Championship victory, Davidson is credited with helping to create the Rolex event, as this victory allowed the US to host the 1978 World Championships. The 1978 event turned into an annual competition that eventually became the Rolex Kentucky Three-Day, which was the first and continues to be the only four-star eventing competition in the United States. Davidson has competed at the event almost every year since it began.  In 1993 and 1995, Davidson held the top place in the world eventing rankings compiled by the FEI, and between 1980 and 1995, he was annually named the leading rider for the United States Eventing Association.

Other.

In 2002, Davidson was named as one of the 50 most influential horsemen of the 20th century by the equine magazine "The Chronicle of the Horse". In 2009, Davidson was inducted to the United States Eventing Association Hall of Fame, along with his horse Irish Cap. In 2003, another horse ridden by Davidson, Plain Sailing, had also been inducted.  Davidson is also known for his success in finding and training the horses that he rides at the international level. Irish Cap was purchased at the age of five years, JJ Babu and Dr. Peaches as yearlings and Might Tango as a two-year-old ex-racehorse – all ended as championship horses. He is currently a Thoroughbred breeder, and at his Chesterland Farm he says that "the ultimate in the sport is to breed, train and win, to carry the whole system right on through."

Bruce Oram Davidson (born December 31, 1949, in Rome, New York) is an American equestrian who competes in the sport of eventing. He grew up in a family uninterested in horses, but began to compete in Pony Club events after a family friend introduced him to riding. He began college at Iowa State University, but left in his third year to train full-time with the United States Equestrian Team. In 1974, he married, and his two children were born in 1976 and 1977. His son, Bruce Davidson Jr., has followed in his footsteps to become a top eventing rider.

Bruce Oram Davidson (* 31. Dezember 1949 in Rome, New York) ist ein US-amerikanischer Pferdezüchter und Vielseitigkeitsreiter. Mit zwei Olympiasiegen und drei Weltmeistertiteln gehört er zu den erfolgreichsten Reitern dieser Disziplin.