Structure.

Cradleboards are used for the first few months of an infant's life, when a portable carrier for the baby is a necessity. Some cradleboards are woven, as with the Apache. Woven cradleboards are made of willow, dogwood, tule, or cattail fibres. Wooden cradleboards are made by the Iroquois and Penobscot. Navajo cradleboards are made with a Ponderosa pine frame with buckskin laces looped through the frame.  Whatever materials are used to make cradleboards, they share certain structural elements. Cradleboards are built with a broad, firm protective frame for the infant's spine. A footrest is incorporated into the bottom of the cradleboard, as well as a rounded cover over the infant's head that arcs out from the cradleboard, similar to a canopy or a modern-day baby carriage hood. The purpose of this headpiece is to provide shade for the infant, since it could be covered with an animal skin, or a blanket in winter to protect against the elements in colder climates. The headpiece also provides extra head protection in case anything bumps against the cradleboard. Ornaments and sacred amulets are often attached to the headpiece as well, for example "beaded umbilical cord cases, and dream catchers or medicine wheels", to amuse and help the infant develop his or her eyesight.  The inside of the cradleboard is padded with a lining of fresh plant fibres, such as sphagnum moss, cattail down, or shredded bark from juniper or cliffrose. The lining serves as a disposable diaper, although the Navajo could clean and reuse the lining made of shredded juniper or cliffrose bark. These plant fibres have antiseptic properties, and thus nurture healthy skin in the infant. The Chippewa tradition was to make a lining for the cradleboard usually from moss growing in cranberry marshes, which is smoked over a fire to kill insects, then rubbed and pulled to soften it. In cold weather, the infant's feet may be wrapped in rabbit skin with the fur facing inward. The moss lining is surrounded by a birch bark tray insert placed into the cradleboard, which could be removed for cleaning.

Use.

Cradleboards have been used in cultures ranging from the sub-Arctic regions of present-day Canada, down to Mexico and Central America. In Arctic regions, cold weather does not make a cradleboard feasible for the infant's survival, and infants are carried by being placed in a sling worn under the mother's parka. Cradleboards were widely used by indigenous people across present-day North America. Cradleboards are used by the Kickapoo people in Mexico and were used by Aztecs and the Seri people and Mayan communities as far south as Belize. In present-day South America, most indigenous cultures used slings or pouches, sometimes called a "rebozo", for carrying infants rather than cradleboards. Cradleboards were used in the southernmost part of the continent, however, in the Patagonia region.  Cradleboards were used during periods when the infant's mother had to travel or otherwise be mobile for work, and needed to protect the infant. The cradleboard could be carried on the mother's back, using support from "tumplines", or "burden straps" that would wrap around her forehead, chest or shoulders; if she carried a pack as well as the cradleboard, the pack strap would go around her chest and the cradleboard strap would go around her forehead. The cradleboard can also be stood up against a large tree or rock if the infant is small, or hung from a pole (as inside an Iroquois longhouse), or even hung from a sturdy tree branch. They were also used when longer travel was required, as the cradleboard could be attached to a horse for transportation.  In the southwest United States and northern Mexico, among cultures such as the Hopi and Apache, infants would spend most of their day and night in the cradleboard, being taken out of it for progressively longer periods, for up to five times per day. When the infant reaches the age when it can sit up unsupported, it is then gradually weaned from the use of the cradleboard, and spends progressively less time in it. At this time, the infant may use a second, larger cradleboard that replaces the first. By the time the infant is a year old and begins to walk, they are generally finished with cradleboard use.  Cradleboard use and its effect on mother-infant interaction has been studied in Navajo communities. It has been shown that cradleboard use has no significant negative effect on this development. In the first few months of infancy, cradleboards have a soothing effect on babies. After 6 months of age or more, infants begin to resist being placed in cradleboards more vigorously as they become more mobile, and they are often placed in the cradleboard with their arms and hands free, so that they can play with objects hung from the cradleboard for their amusement.

Developmental dysplasia of the hips.

Cradleboard use has been associated with increased incidence of developmental dysplasia of the hip. The technique requires straightening the legs, which encourages dislocation of the femur and malformation of the acetabulum. This can be avoided by placing padding between the baby's legs to keep the knees slightly bent with the hips angled outwards. Some modern cradleboard users contend that the small 1968 study of Navajo babies was intentionally designed to denigrate a traditional cultural practice.

Cradleboards (,, ) are traditional protective baby-carriers used by many indigenous cultures in North America and throughout northern Scandinavia amongst the Sámi. There are a variety of styles of cradleboard, reflecting the diverse artisan practises of indigenous cultures. Some indigenous communities in North America still use cradleboards.

Das Wiegenbrett (englisch "cradleboard") ist eine Tragevorrichtung für Säuglinge und wurde besonders bei den Indianern Nordamerikas benutzt. Das Wiegenbrett wurde auf dem Rücken getragen, seitlich ans Pferd gehängt, im Tipi und Wigwam an Stangen befestigt oder einfach aufrecht stehend irgendwo angelehnt. Es hatte die Form einer festen Tasche, die nur den Kopf und manchmal die Arme des Babys frei ließ. Das Wiegenbrett war im Rückenteil hinter dem Kopf gepolstert und mit Federdaunen, Moos, weichen Tierhäuten oder Baumwolle gefüttert. Je nach Stamm bestanden Wiegenbretter aus verschiedenartigen Materialien und hatten unterschiedliche Formen. Wiegenbretter bewahrte man in der Familie auf und verwendete sie immer wieder. Sie galten bei manchen Stämmen als heilig. Häufig schnitzte man die Zahl der Babys, die in ihr getragen worden waren, als Kerben hinein. Normalerweise blieb ein Baby etwa ein Jahr lang in der Wiege oder so lange, bis es laufen konnte. Starb das Baby jedoch, so wurde das Wiegenbrett häufig mit ihm bestattet.


Ethos.

The station describes itself as "the world's first radio art station" which aims to provide a radical alternative to mainstream broadcasting. Resonance 104.4 FM features programmes made by musicians, artists and critics who represent the diversity of London’s arts scenes, with regular weekly contributions from nearly two hundred musicians, artists, thinkers, critics, activists and instigators; plus numerous unique broadcasts by artists on the weekday "Clear Spot".  The station presents material ranging from a programme presented by the staff of the experimental music magazine "The Wire" to "Calling All Pensioners", which aims to inform the elderly about local events and benefits entitlement. Live music sessions are featured on shows such as "Hello Goodbye", "You Are Hear", Hooting Yard on the Air, and "Glass Shrimp". Other shows include foreign-language programmes aimed at communities in London that are not served by other broadcasters.  In addition to locally produced programming, Resonance is a member of Radia and a rebroadcaster of American news program "Democracy Now!". Resonance FM has received a Sony Award nomination for "The Good Drugs Guide", a documentary series presented by Piers Gibbon and David McCandless. The station has been profiled in the pages of "The Guardian", "The Independent on Sunday", "The Daily Telegraph" and the "Morning Star" amongst others.  In 2006 the station was nominated for "The Community Award" by the Sony Radio Academy Awards, but has won the Radio Academy Nations and Regions Award for London for three consecutive years between 2009 and 2011 Station manager Ed Baxter was nominated for "Programmer of the Year" by the Sony Radio Academy Awards in 2010.

History.

The London Musicians' Collective originally put together a four-week programme of radio art as part of 1998's Meltdown festival at the South Bank Centre, curated by John Peel. The station operated from the Royal Festival Hall on a month-long Restricted Service Licence on 107.3 FM.  Phil England, an organiser of the original broadcast, described the origins of the station in a text written to accompany the printed programme. The aim, he wrote, was "to raise the specter of radio art in a country where the notion has no common currency".  After a four-year hiatus, the station returned on 1 May 2002 as part of the Ofcom Access Radio Pilot Scheme from studios on Denmark Street in the Soho area of London's West End.  Resonance was awarded a five-year Community Radio licence in December 2005, enabling the station to broadcast 24/7. Ofcom extended the station's FM broadcasting licence in July 2010.  Resonance FM resumed scheduled broadcasting in September 2007 after a short hiatus whilst moving into a new studio building on Borough High Street, Southwark; a short walk from the area where they launched in 1998.  In 2011, Resonance presented a six-week exhibit at the Raven Row Gallery Exhibit in East London. The exhibition theme was the relation of sound to art, and included work from Max Eastley and Takehisa Kosugi.

Broadcasting.

The station is broadcast from a transmitter on the roof of Guy's Hospital at London Bridge on 104.4 MHz FM. The transmission power is low compared with London's main radio stations due to the terms of its community radio licence. It can be received throughout central London but does not cover the whole Greater London area. Interference from local pirate radio stations, particularly at weekends, has been and is a problem in some areas. It can also be streamed from the station's web site. Resonance uploads every show to its SoundCloud account throughout each day.

Funding.

The station receives funding grants from Arts Council England as part of the national portfolio funding programme, which began in 2012. The grant for 2012–2013 was £160,000; 2013–2014 £163,680; 2014–2015 £167,936.

Resonance 104.4 FM is a London based non-profit community radio station specialising in the arts run by the London Musicians' Collective (LMC). The station is staffed by four permanent staff members, including programme controller Ed Baxter and over 300 volunteer technical and production staff.

Resonance 104.4 FM ist ein britischer nichtkommerzieller Lokalradiosender. Er sendet in London auf der UKW-Frequenz 104,4 MHz, ist im Internet zu empfangen und bietet Podcasts an. Betreiber ist die London Musicians Collective.


Mechanism.

In the first step, the halogen disproportionates in the presence of hydroxide to give the halide and hypohalite (example with bromine, but reaction is the same in case of chlorine and iodine; one should only substitute Br for Cl or I):  formula_1  If a secondary alcohol is present, it is oxidized to a ketone by the hypohalite:  If a methyl ketone is present, it reacts with the hypohalite in a three-step process:  1. Under basic conditions, the ketone undergoes keto-enol tautomerization. The enolate undergoes electrophilic attack by the hypohalite (containing a halogen with a formal +1 charge).  2. When the α(alpha) position has been exhaustively halogenated, the molecule undergoes a nucleophilic acyl substitution by hydroxide, with CX being the leaving group stabilized by three electron-withdrawing groups. In the third step the CX anion abstracts a proton from either the solvent or the carboxylic acid formed in the previous step, and forms the haloform. At least in some cases (chloral hydrate) the reaction may stop and the intermediate product isolated if conditions are acidic and hypohalite is used.

Scope.

Substrates are broadly limited to methyl ketones and secondary alcohols oxidizable to methyl ketones, such as isopropanol. The only primary alcohol and aldehyde to undergo this reaction are ethanol and acetaldehyde, respectively. 1,3-Diketones such as acetylacetone also give the haloform reaction. β-ketoacids such as acetoacetic acid will also give the test upon heating. Acetyl chloride and acetamide don't give this test. The halogen used may be chlorine, bromine, iodine or sodium hypochlorite. Fluoroform (CHF) cannot be prepared by this method as it would require the presence of the highly unstable hypofluorite ion. However ketones with the structure RCOCF do cleave upon treatment with base to produce fluoroform; this is equivalent to the second and third steps in the process shown above.

Applications.

Laboratory scale.

This reaction forms the basis of the iodoform test which was commonly used in history as a chemical test to determine the presence of a methyl ketone, or a secondary alcohol oxidizable to a methyl ketone. When iodine and sodium hydroxide are used as the reagents a positive reaction gives iodoform, which is a solid at room temperature and tends to precipitate out of solution causing a distinctive cloudiness.  In organic chemistry, this reaction may be used to convert a terminal methyl ketone into the analogous carboxylic acid.

Industrially.

It was formerly used to produce iodoform, bromoform, and even chloroform industrially.

As a by-product of water chlorination.

Water chlorination can result in the formation of haloforms if the water contains suitable reactive impurities (e.g. humic acid). There is a concern that such reactions may lead to the presence of carcinogenic compounds in drinking water.

History.

The haloform reaction is one of the oldest organic reactions known. In 1822, Georges-Simon Serullas added potassium metal to a solution of iodine in ethanol and water to form potassium formate and iodoform, called in the language of that time "hydroiodide of carbon". In 1832, Justus von Liebig reported the reaction of chloral with calcium hydroxide to form chloroform and calcium formate. The reaction was rediscovered by Adolf Lieben in 1870. The iodoform test is also called the Lieben haloform reaction. A review of the Haloform reaction with a history section was published in 1934.

The haloform reaction is a chemical reaction where a haloform (CHX, where X is a halogen) is produced by the exhaustive halogenation of a methyl ketone (RCOCH, where R can be either a hydrogen atom, an alkyl or an aryl group), in the presence of a base. The reaction can be used to transform acetyl groups into carboxyl groups or to produce chloroform (CHCl), bromoform (CHBr), or iodoform (CHI) and also cyanide.

Die Haloform-Reaktion (auch Einhorn-Reaktion) ist eine organisch-chemische Reaktion. Dabei werden Methylketone durch Einwirkung von Hypohalogeniten bzw. Halogenen (Chlor, Brom oder Iod) in alkalischer Lösung unter Verlust der Methylgruppe zur Carbonsäure gespalten. Aus dem abgespaltenen Kohlenstoffatom entsteht dabei ein Trihalogenmethan.


Early life.

Bauer was born on February 16, 1915, in Waterloo, Ontario. He was the second of 11 children to Edgar and Alice Bauer; His elder brother Frank was later Mayor of Waterloo and he had nine younger siblings: Eugene, Jerome, Alice, David, Raymond, Mary, Rita, Therese and Margaret. Edgar was a Knight of the Order of St. Sylvester, Waterloo city councilor and executive in the Bauer family's automotive parts business.  The Bauer children learned to play hockey in a backyard rink, and Bobby grew up playing youth hockey in Kitchener–Waterloo before moving to Toronto in 1930 where he attended St. Michael's College School and played junior first with the St. Michael's Buzzers in 1930–31 followed by three years with the St. Michael's Majors. In 1933–34, Bauer recorded 15 points in 13 Memorial Cup playoff games to help the Majors capture the Dominion junior championship. Bauer played his final year of junior in 1934–35 with the Kitchener Greenshirts where he first played with Milt Schmidt and Woody Dumart, who was then a defenceman.

Playing career.

All three players were signed by the Boston Bruins, and Bauer was assigned to the Boston Cubs of the Canadian-American Hockey League (CAHL) for the 1935–36 season. He scored 15 goals for the Cubs in 48 games, then was promoted to the Providence Reds of the International-American Hockey League (IAHL) in 1936–37. It was with the Reds that Bauer as right wing, Schmidt at centre and Dumart, who moved up to left wing, were first placed together as a line. Owing to their shared German heritage, the trio were initially called the "Sauerkrauts" by Providence coach Albert Leduc, though the name was shortened and they were known as the "Kraut Line" for the majority of their careers. Following a season in which Bauer recorded 18 points in 44 games with the Reds, the Bruins recalled him to Boston for the team's final game of the regular season. He made his NHL debut on March 21, 1937, and scored his first goal in a 6–1 victory over the Chicago Black Hawks.  The Kraut Line earned full-time spots in Boston beginning in 1937–38; Bauer recorded a team-leading 20 goals in his rookie season as the trio led the Bruins to the team's first of four consecutive Prince of Wales Trophy wins as the NHL's best team in the regular season. Following a 31-point regular season in 1938–39, Bauer added five points in 12 playoff games and was named to the NHL's second All-Star Team. The Bruins eliminated the New York Rangers, then defeated the Toronto Maple Leafs four games to one to capture Boston's first Stanley Cup championship in ten years. In 1939–40, Schmidt led the NHL in points with 52 while Dumart and Bauer finished second and third respectively with 43 each. It was the first time in league history that three linemates finished in the top three spots in NHL scoring. Bauer was again named a second team All-Star, and with only two penalties in minutes (PIM), won the Lady Byng Trophy for the first time. A 39-point season in 1940–41 with only two PIM earned Bauer his third consecutive appearance on the All-Star Team and a second Lady Byng Trophy. In the playoffs, the Bruins reached the 1941 Stanley Cup Finals where they defeated the Detroit Red Wings in four straight games. Bauer scored the Stanley Cup winning goal midway through the second period of a 3–1 victory in the deciding game. Following the outbreak of the Second World War, all three members of the Kraut Line enlisted with the Canadian military by signing up for home defence. At the same time, anti-German sentiment led to efforts to change the trio's nickname. They were briefly called the "Buddy Line" and the "Kitchener Kids", though they were again referred to as the Kraut Line following the war.  The trio were called to active duty in January 1942, forcing them to leave the Bruins midway through the 1941–42 season. In their final game with the Bruins, the Kraut Line recorded eight points in a dominating victory over the Montreal Canadiens. Following the contest, players from both teams fêted the trio, hoisting them up on their shoulders and parading them around the ice. Bauer was overwhelmed by the moment: "The ovation, at the height of my youth, sort of grabbed me." Schmidt, Dumart and Bauer were the first NHL players to join the Royal Canadian Air Force, and while training in Ottawa, they joined the Ottawa RCAF Flyers of the Quebec Senior Hockey League (QSHL). The trio helped the Flyers win the Allan Cup as Canadian senior champions. Bauer was sent to Halifax to continue his training and played with the Dartmouth RCAF team in 1942–43. Bauer, who served as a radio technician, was dispatched to the United Kingdom where he, Schmidt and Dumart were members of a bomber squadron. However, he was returned to Canada in 1944 after being ruled invalid due to a bout of sciatica caused by an old hockey injury. He played with a team in Toronto until the war's conclusion.  Returning to the Bruins for the 1945–46 NHL season, Bauer was reunited with his Kraut Line teammates. Unlike many players who had left for the war, he remained in peak form. However, after scoring 22 points that season, Bauer contemplated retirement. He chose to return for one additional season and was named the Bruins captain for 1946–47. Bauer had his best year in the NHL: he recorded a team-leading 30 goals and finished seventh overall in league scoring with 54 points. He was named to a fourth All-Star Team and won the Lady Byng Trophy for the third time. Following the season, he announced his retirement.

Coaching career.

Returning to Kitchener, Bauer joined the Bauer Skate Company, his father-in-law's hockey equipment business. He also began his coaching career with the Ontario Hockey Association (OHA)'s Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters and, late in the 1947–48 season, joined the Kitchener-Waterloo Dutchmen in the OHA senior division. After recording 15 points in eight games, Bauer scored 38 and 24 points in the following two seasons and helped the Dutchmen reach the OHA finals in three consecutive years between 1948 and 1950. He again retired as a player in 1950, but came back in 1951–52 for a final season with Kitchener-Waterloo. Late in the season, he also played in one final game with the Bruins. The team was celebrating "Milt Schmidt-Woody Dumart appreciation night" and convinced Bauer to come out of retirement to reunite the Kraut Line for one game on March 18, 1952. The trio were presented gifts in honour of their service to the team and sport. In the contest itself, Bauer scored one goal in a 4–0 victory over Toronto and assisted (along with Dumart) on Schmidt's 200th career goal – at the time a rare feat; Schmidt was one of only five active players at that point to have reached the mark.  Ending his playing career, Bauer became coach, general manager and president of the Dutchmen in 1952. He coached the team to two OHA senior championships and Allan Cup victories: 1952–53 and 1954–55. As the top senior team in the nation, the Dutchmen were sent to Italy to represent Canada at the 1956 Winter Olympics. Bauer was pleased with the way his team adapted to European rules and the Dutchmen were expected to bring home the gold medal. However, the team was shocked by the American entry, a 4–1 loss. Though they still had a chance at gold due to the round robin format of the tournament, the Dutchmen were defeated by the Soviet Union – at the time a relatively unknown and emerging hockey power – by a 2–0 score despite outshooting the Soviets 23–9. Canada was relegated to the bronze medal, at the time the worst finish in the nation's Olympic hockey history.  Bauer retired as a coach following the Olympics. However, the Dutchmen, augmented by players loaned from other teams, were again sent to represent Canada at the 1960 Winter Olympics. The team's coach, Bill Durnan resigned following a six-game losing streak, and after several other candidates were unable to take the necessary time off to coach the squad at the tournament, the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association (CAHA) convinced Bauer to return. The Canadians lost only one game in the tournament, to the United States. The final game of the tournament had been scheduled between Canada and the Soviet Union as it was expected to be the gold medal match-up. However the Americans won all of their games. Consequently, the match determined the silver medal, which Canada claimed with an 8–5 victory.

Personal life.

Bauer partnered in a Guelph-based electronics company and resided in Kingston with his wife Marguerite and sons Bobby Jr., and Bradley. He also partnered with Woody Dumart in a stick manufacturing company and was a director of the Kitchener Rangers hockey club. His brother, Father David Bauer, convinced CAHA officials in 1962 to abandon the practice of sending a club team to represent Canada internationally in favour of building a true Canadian National Team. Bobby assisted his brother's efforts in creating the team by sharing his coaching knowledge and helping to formulate how the team was to be formed. The first national team played at the 1964 Winter Olympics where it finished a controversial fourth. On September 16, 1964, Bauer suffered a heart attack while golfing and died at the age of 49. He was posthumously inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame by the veterans committee in 1996.

Robert Theodore "Bobby" Bauer (February 16, 1915 – September 16, 1964) was a Canadian professional ice hockey right winger who played 10 seasons in the National Hockey League (NHL) for the Boston Bruins. He was a member of the famed "Kraut Line" with teammates Milt Schmidt and Woody Dumart. The trio led the Bruins to two Stanley Cup championships and became the first line to finish first, second and third in NHL scoring, in 1939–40. Bauer was named to the All-Star Team four times and was a three-time winner of the Lady Byng Trophy, awarded for gentlemanly conduct combined with a high calibre of play. He recorded only 36 penalties in minutes in 327 games.

Robert Theodore „Bobby“ Bauer (* 16. Februar 1915 in Waterloo, Ontario; † 16. September 1964) war ein kanadischer Eishockeyspieler und -trainer, der von 1935 bis 1952 für die Boston Bruins in der National Hockey League spielte.


History.

The settlement of the island of Pico occurred much later than most islands, partly due to greater interest shown in the other islands of the Central Group. For a time, only small herds, deposited by property-owners from Faial and Terceira, along with their caretakers (some of whom were slaves), were the only inhabitants of the island. It was not until the Infanta Beatriz proceeded to reorganize island administration and promote a greater colonization of the islands of the Central Group (between 1470 and 1480) that this changed. In 1483, Faial and Pico were integrated into one Captaincy, under the Fleming Josse van Huerter, and settlers were encouraged to colonize the island of Pico. But even still, the area of Madalena, with its rocky coastal plain, did not attract many new settlers and the community did not expand significantly until the municipality was created in 1723.  By the first quarter of the 18th century, the municipality of Madalena was already entrenched in the ""wine cycle"" which had multiplied the riches of its landowners and increased the desire of local settlers for emancipation from the Captaincy of Faial. The introduction of grapes to the island had occurred almost immediately with the first settlers, along with the cultivation of wheat and production of wine and olive oil (that were staples of the traditionally Mediterranean Christian culture at the time). In the 15th and 16th Century, the vineyards had been a source of subsistence, then export, because the soils and rocky terrain had made it almost impossible to develop a viable cereal culture. The diffusion of vineyards, that began in the 17th Century, was a consequence of the soil and the conquest of markets for Pico's "verdelho wines". The uniquely Piquense culture of grape growing on the ground, or in volcanic rock patches, allowed the establishment of an industry and opened new markets for products originating in Madalena. In the second half of the 17th Century, the collapse of the woad industry, which supported many of the Azorean islands, and the decline of Iberian hegemony (Portugal was in a dynastic union with Spain at the time) in the North America, created a syndrome of crisis on the islands. The growth in viticulture onto better quality soils allowed an improvement of the castes, and a growth in the reputation and credibility of Piquense wines. In addition, new markets in North America and Brazil improved exports, which had primarily relied on English patronage and purchases.  The growth of wine exports from Pico elevated the neighboring town of Horta to the status of municipality, since all international shipments were made from the island's sheltered port, creating a socio-economic disparity between the disenfranchised Piquense "workers" and the entrepreneurs/landowners from Faial. Along with a demographic growth on Madalena, this shift raised cries for the emancipation of Madalena and the island of Pico. In fact, Father Gaspar Frutuoso and Friar Agostinho de Montalverne certified that the colonists in Madalena had tripled by the 17th Century; in 1587, there were less than 3000 inhabitants and around 9000 by 1695, forcing the remodelling of the local church. Pico moved "up the ladder" of urban hierarchies from fifth largest centre in the Azores to fourth, behind São Miguel, Terceira and Faial. By the middle of the 18th century the population was over 19000 inhabitants. The municipality was created on March 8, 1723.  In 1793, and between 1800–02, Madalena contributed to 80% of the domestic sales on the island of Pico, primarily from brands of wines to markets in the New World, the Baltics, India and Macau. Until the early 19th century, exports were handled from Horta, where most of the mercantile fleets would make call (owing to its superior services and sheltered bay). But, the island's growth ultimately supported the construction of a sheltered anchorage in Madalena, that would become the port.  Yet, as Madalena became the predominant center on the island, it was hit by the phylloxera plague, which destroyed many of the vineyards and began a period of economic deprivation. A diversification of economic activities was the only way to resolve these problems and improve the situation. The fruit industry, and in particular the citrus orchards, became an important staple in the ports of Horta and Madalena. Whaling also developed, but it had its most profound effects in the communities that circled the island, yet not within the jurisdiction of Madalena.  In the 20th Century, the dairy industry continued the boom and bust cycle, while ecotourism centered on Pico and the histo-cultural nature of the island developed after European integration.

Geography.

The municipality comprises the following six parishes:

Madalena () is a municipality along the western coast of the island of Pico, in the Portuguese Azores. The population in 2011 was 6,049, in an area of 147.12 km2. The municipality is fronted by the stratovolcano Pico in the eastern frontier, and the Faial Channel which divides Pico from the island of Faial seven kilometers away. It is encircled almost entirely by the Atlantic Ocean except in the east, where it is bordered by São João (Lajes do Pico) in the southeast, and Santo António (São Roque do Pico) in the northeast.

Madalena () ist eine Hafenstadt mit Einwohnern (Stand ) auf der Insel Pico der Inselgruppe der Azoren, die zu Portugal gehören.


History.

Background (1870–1916).

In 1870, Charles Taze Russell and others formed a group in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania to study the Bible. During the course of his ministry, Russell disputed many beliefs of mainstream Christianity including immortality of the soul, hellfire, predestination, the fleshly return of Jesus Christ, the Trinity, and the burning up of the world. In 1876, Russell met Nelson H. Barbour; later that year they jointly produced the book "Three Worlds," which combined restitutionist views with end time prophecy. The book taught that God's dealings with humanity were divided dispensationally, each ending with a "harvest," that Christ had returned as an invisible spirit being in 1874 inaugurating the "harvest of the Gospel age," and that 1914 would mark the end of a 2520-year period called "the Gentile Times," at which time world society would be replaced by the full establishment of God's kingdom on earth. Beginning in 1878 Russell and Barbour jointly edited a religious journal, "Herald of the Morning". In June 1879 the two split over doctrinal differences, and in July,

Reorganization (1917–1942).

In January 1917, the Watch Tower Society's legal representative, Joseph Franklin Rutherford, was elected as its next president. His election was disputed, and members of the Board of Directors accused him of acting in an autocratic and secretive manner. The divisions between his supporters and opponents triggered a major turnover of members over the next decade. In June 1917, he released "The Finished Mystery" as a seventh volume of Russell's "Studies in the Scriptures" series. The book, published as the posthumous work of Russell, was a compilation of his commentaries on the Bible books of Ezekiel and Revelation, plus numerous additions by Bible Students

Continued development (1942–present).

Nathan Knorr was appointed as third president of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society in 1942. Knorr commissioned a new translation of the Bible, the "New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures", the full version of which was released in 1961. He organized large international assemblies, instituted new training programs for members, and expanded missionary activity and branch offices throughout the world. Knorr's presidency was also marked by an increasing use of explicit instructions guiding Witnesses in their lifestyle and conduct, and a greater use of congregational judicial procedures to enforce a strict moral code.  From 1966, Witness publications and convention talks built anticipation of the possibility that Christ's thousand-year reign might begin in late 1975 or shortly thereafter. The number of baptisms increased significantly, from about 59,000 in 1966

Organization.

Jehovah's Witnesses are organized hierarchically, in what the leadership calls a "theocratic organization", reflecting their belief that it is God's "visible organization" on earth. The organization is led by the Governing Body—an all-male group that varies in size, but since January 2018 has comprised eight members, all of whom profess to be of the "anointed" class with a hope of heavenly life—based in the Watch Tower Society's Warwick headquarters. There is no election for membership; new members are selected by the existing body. Until late 2012, the Governing Body described itself as the representative and "spokesman" for God's "faithful and discreet slave class" (then approximately 10,000 self-professed "anointed" Jehovah's Witnesses). At the 2012 Annual Meeting of the Watch Tower Society, the "faithful and discreet slave" was defined as referring to the Governing Body only. The Governing Body directs several committees that are responsible for administrative functions, including publishing, assembly programs and evangelizing activities. It appoints all branch committee members and traveling overseers, after they have been recommended by local branches, with traveling overseers supervising circuits of congregations within their jurisdictions. Traveling overseers appoint local elders and ministerial servants, and while branch offices may appoint regional committees for matters such as Kingdom Hall construction or disaster relief. The leadership and supporting staff lives in properties owned by the organization worldwide referred to as "Bethel" where they operate as a religious community and administrative unit. Their living expenses and those of other full-time volunteers are covered by the organization along with a basic monthly stipend.  Each congregation has a body of appointed unpaid male elders and ministerial servants. Elders maintain general responsibility for congregational governance, setting meeting times, selecting speakers and conducting meetings, directing the public preaching work, and creating "judicial committees" to investigate and decide disciplinary action for cases involving sexual misconduct or doctrinal breaches. New elders are appointed by a traveling overseer after recommendation by the existing body of elders. Ministerial servants—appointed in a similar manner to elders—fulfill clerical and attendant duties, but may also teach and conduct meetings. Witnesses do not use "elder" as a title to signify a formal clergy-laity division, though elders may employ ecclesiastical privilege regarding confession of sins.  Baptism is a requirement for being considered a member of Jehovah's Witnesses. Jehovah's Witnesses do not practice infant baptism, and previous baptisms performed by other denominations are not considered valid. Individuals undergoing baptism must affirm publicly that dedication and baptism identify them "as one of Jehovah's Witnesses in association with God's spirit-directed organization," though Witness publications say baptism symbolizes personal dedication to God and not "to a man, work or organization." Their literature emphasizes the need for members to be obedient and loyal to Jehovah and to "his organization," stating that individuals must remain part of it to receive God's favor and to survive Armageddon.

Beliefs.

Sources of doctrine.

Jehovah's Witnesses believe their denomination is a restoration of first-century Christianity. Doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses are established by the Governing Body, which assumes responsibility for interpreting and applying scripture. The Governing Body does not issue any single, comprehensive "statement of faith", but prefers to express its doctrinal position in a variety of ways through publications published by the Watch Tower Society. Their publications teach that doctrinal changes and refinements result from a process of progressive revelation, in which God gradually reveals his will and purpose, and that such enlightenment or "new light" results from the application of reason and study, the guidance of the holy spirit, and direction from Jesus Christ and angels. The Society also teaches that members of the Governing Body are helped by the holy spirit to discern "deep truths", which are then considered by the entire Governing Body before it

Jehovah.

Jehovah's Witnesses emphasize the use of God's name, and they prefer the form "Jehovah"—a vocalization of God's name based on the Tetragrammaton. They believe that Jehovah is the only true God, the creator of all

Jesus.

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus is God's only direct creation, that everything else was created through Christ by means of God's power, and that the initial unassisted act of creation uniquely identifies Jesus as God's "only-begotten Son". Jesus served as a redeemer and a ransom sacrifice to pay for the sins of humanity. They believe Jesus died

Satan.

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Satan was originally a perfect angel who developed feelings of self-importance and craved worship. Satan influenced Adam and Eve to disobey God, and humanity subsequently became participants in a challenge involving the competing claims of Jehovah and Satan to universal sovereignty. Other angels who sided with Satan became demons.

Life after death.

Jehovah's Witnesses believe death is a state of non-existence with no consciousness. There is no Hell of fiery torment; Hades and Sheol are understood to refer to the condition of death, termed the "common grave". Jehovah's Witnesses consider the soul to be a life or a living body that can die. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that humanity is in a sinful state, from which release is only possible by means of Jesus' shed blood as a ransom, or atonement, for the sins of humankind.  Witnesses believe that

God's Kingdom.

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that God's Kingdom is a literal government in heaven, ruled by Jesus Christ and 144,000 "spirit-anointed" Christians drawn from the earth, which they associate with Jesus' reference to a "new covenant". The kingdom is viewed as

Eschatology.

A central teaching of Jehovah's Witnesses is that the current world era, or "system of things", entered the "last days" in 1914 and faces imminent destruction through intervention by God and Jesus Christ, leading to deliverance for those who worship God acceptably. They consider all other present-day religions to be false, identifying them with "Babylon the Great", or the "harlot", of Revelation 17, and believe that they will soon be destroyed by the United Nations, which they believe is represented in scripture by the scarlet-colored wild beast of Revelation chapter 17. This development will mark the beginning of the "great tribulation". Satan will subsequently use world governments to attack Jehovah's Witnesses, an action that will prompt God to begin the war of Armageddon, during which all forms of government and all people not counted as Christ's "sheep" will be destroyed. After Armageddon, God will extend his heavenly kingdom to include earth, which will

Practices.

Worship.

Meetings for worship and study are held at Kingdom Halls, which are typically functional in character, and do not contain religious symbols. Witnesses are assigned to a congregation in whose "territory" they usually reside and attend weekly services they refer to as "meetings" as scheduled by congregation elders. The meetings are largely devoted to study of Watch Tower Society literature and the Bible. The format of the meetings is established by the group's headquarters, and the subject matter for most meetings is the same

Evangelism.

Jehovah's Witnesses are perhaps best known for their efforts to spread their beliefs, most notably by visiting people from house to house, distributing literature published by the Watch Tower Society in 700 languages. The objective is to start a regular "Bible study" with any person who is not already a member, with the intention that the student be baptized as a

Ethics and morality.

All sexual relations outside of marriage are grounds for expulsion if the individual is not deemed repentant; homosexual activity is considered a serious sin, and same-sex marriages are forbidden. Abortion is considered murder. Suicide is considered to be "self-murder" and a sin against God. Modesty in dress and grooming is frequently emphasized. Gambling, drunkenness, illegal drugs, and tobacco use are forbidden. Drinking of alcoholic beverages is permitted in moderation.  The family structure is patriarchal. The husband is considered to have

Disciplinary action.

Formal discipline is administered by congregation elders. When a baptized member is accused of committing a serious sin—usually cases of sexual misconduct or charges of apostasy for disputing Jehovah's Witness doctrines—a judicial committee is formed to determine guilt, provide help and possibly administer discipline. Disfellowshipping, a form of shunning, is the strongest form of discipline, administered to an offender deemed unrepentant. Contact with disfellowshipped individuals is limited to direct family members living in the same home, and with congregation elders who may invite disfellowshipped persons to apply for reinstatement; formal business dealings may continue if contractually or financially obliged. Witnesses are taught that avoiding social and spiritual interaction with disfellowshipped individuals keeps

Separateness.

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the Bible condemns the mixing of religions, on the basis that there can only be one truth from God, and therefore reject interfaith and ecumenical movements. They believe that only Jehovah's Witnesses represent true Christianity, and that other religions fail to meet all the requirements set by God and will soon be destroyed. Jehovah's Witnesses are taught that it is vital to remain "separate from the world." The Witnesses' literature defines the "world" as "the mass of mankind apart from Jehovah's approved servants" and teach that it is morally contaminated and ruled by Satan. Witnesses are taught that association with "worldly" people presents a "danger" to their faith, and are instructed to minimize social contact with non-members to better maintain their own standards of morality. Attending university is discouraged and trade schools are suggested as an alternative.  Jehovah's Witnesses believe their highest allegiance belongs to God's kingdom, which is viewed as an

Rejection of blood transfusions.

Jehovah's Witnesses refuse blood transfusions, which they consider a violation of God's law based on their interpretation of Acts 15:28, 29 and other scriptures. Since 1961 the willing acceptance of a blood transfusion by an unrepentant member has been grounds for expulsion from the group. Members are directed to refuse blood transfusions, even in "a life-or-death situation". Jehovah's Witnesses accept non-blood

Demographics.

Jehovah's Witnesses have an active presence in most countries, but do not form a large part of the population of any country.  For 2018, Jehovah's Witnesses reported approximately 8.7 million "publishers"—the term they use for members actively involved in preaching—in about 120,000 congregations. For the same year, they reported over 2 billion hours spent in preaching activity, and conducted Bible studies with more than 10 million individuals (including those conducted by Witness parents with their children). Jehovah's Witnesses estimate their worldwide annual growth since 2018

Sociological analysis.

Sociologist James A. Beckford, in his 1975 study of Jehovah's Witnesses, classified the group's organizational structure as "Totalizing", characterized by an assertive leadership, specific and narrow objectives, control over competing demands on members' time and energy, and control over the quality of new members. Other characteristics of the classification include likelihood of friction with secular authorities, reluctance to co-operate with other religious organizations, a high rate of membership turnover, a low rate of doctrinal change, and strict uniformity of beliefs among members. Beckford identified the group's chief characteristics as "historicism" (identifying historical events as relating to the outworking of God's purpose), "absolutism" (conviction that Jehovah's Witness leaders dispense absolute truth), "activism" (capacity to motivate members to

Opposition.

Controversy surrounding various beliefs, doctrines and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses has led to opposition from governments, communities, and religious groups. Religious commentator Ken Jubber wrote that "Viewed globally, this persecution has been so persistent and of such intensity that it would not be inaccurate to regard Jehovah's Witnesses as the most persecuted group of Christians of the twentieth century."

Persecution.

Political and religious animosity against Jehovah's Witnesses has at times led to mob action and government oppression in various countries. Their stance regarding political neutrality and their refusal to serve in the military has led to imprisonment of members who refused conscription during World War II and at other times where national service has been compulsory. Their religious activities are currently banned or restricted in some countries, including China, Vietnam and some Islamic states.  Authors including William Whalen, Shawn Francis Peters and former Witnesses Barbara Grizzuti Harrison,

Legal challenges.

Several cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses have been heard by Supreme Courts throughout the world. The cases generally relate to their right to practice their religion, displays of patriotism and military service, and blood transfusions.  In the United States, legal challenges by Jehovah's Witnesses prompted a series of

Criticism and controversy.

Jehovah's Witnesses have received criticism from mainstream Christianity, members of the medical community, former members and commentators regarding their beliefs and practices. The movement has been accused of doctrinal inconsistency and reversals, failed predictions, mistranslation of the Bible, harsh treatment of former members and autocratic and coercive leadership. Criticism has also focused on their rejection of blood transfusions, particularly in life-threatening medical situations, and failing to report cases of sexual abuse to the authorities. Many of the claims are denied by Jehovah's Witnesses and some have also been disputed by courts and religious scholars.

Free speech and thought.

Doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses are established by the Governing Body. The denomination does not tolerate dissent over doctrines and practices; members who openly disagree with the group's teachings are expelled and shunned. Witness publications strongly discourage followers from questioning doctrine and counsel received from the Governing Body, reasoning that it is to be trusted as part of "God's organization". It also warns members to "avoid independent thinking", claiming such thinking "was introduced by Satan the Devil" and would "cause division". Those who openly disagree with official teachings are condemned as "apostates" who are "mentally diseased".  Former members Heather and Gary Botting compare the cultural paradigms of the denomination to George Orwell's "Nineteen Eighty-four", and Alan Rogerson describes the group's leadership as totalitarian. Other critics charge

New World Translation.

Various Bible scholars, including Bruce M. Metzger and MacLean Gilmour, have said that while scholarship is evident in "New World Translation", its rendering of certain texts are inaccurate and biased in favor of Witness practices and doctrines. Critics of the

Unfulfilled predictions.

Watch Tower Society publications have claimed that God has used Jehovah's Witnesses (and formerly, the International Bible Students) to declare his will and has provided advance knowledge about Armageddon and the establishment of God's kingdom. Some publications also claimed that God has used Jehovah's Witnesses and the International Bible Students as a modern-day prophet. George D. Chryssides stated, "while prediction may be part of a biblical prophet's role, the root meaning of prophecy is that of proclaiming God's word." He went on to say that, "Jehovah's Witnesses... are the recipients of prophecy, who regard themselves as invested with the interpretation of biblical writings." With these interpretations, Jehovah's Witnesses' publications have made various predictions about

Handling of sexual abuse cases.

Jehovah's Witnesses have been accused of having policies and culture that help to conceal cases of sexual abuse within the organization. The group has been criticized for its "two witness rule" for church discipline, based on its application of scriptures at Deuteronomy 19:15 and Matthew 18:15–17, which requires sexual abuse to be substantiated by secondary evidence if the accused person denies any wrongdoing. In cases where corroboration is lacking, the Watch Tower Society's instruction is that "the elders will leave the matter in Jehovah's hands". A former member of the headquarters staff, Barbara Anderson, says the policy effectively requires that there be another witness to an act of molestation, "which is an impossibility". Anderson says the policies "protect pedophiles rather than protect the children." Jehovah's Witnesses maintain that they have a strong policy to protect children, adding that the best way to protect children is by educating parents; they also state that they do not sponsor activities that separate children from parents.  The group's failure

Jehovah's Witnesses is a millenarian restorationist Christian denomination with nontrinitarian beliefs distinct from mainstream Christianity. The group reports a worldwide membership of approximately 8.68 million adherents involved in evangelism and an annual Memorial attendance of over 20 million. Jehovah's Witnesses are directed by the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses, a group of elders in Warwick, New York, United States, which establishes all doctrines based on its interpretations of the Bible. They believe that the destruction of the present world system at Armageddon is imminent, and that the establishment of God's kingdom over the earth is the only solution for all problems faced by humanity.

Die Zeugen Jehovas (Eigenbezeichnung: Jehovas Zeugen; ) sind eine christliche, chiliastisch ausgerichtete und nichttrinitarische Religionsgemeinschaft, die sich kirchlich organisiert. Sie bezeichnen ihre innere Verfassung als theokratische Organisation. Sie gingen aus der "Internationalen Vereinigung Ernster Bibelforscher" hervor, die im ausgehenden 19. Jahrhundert in den Vereinigten Staaten von Charles Taze Russell gegründet wurde.


Prizes.

Originally, $2,000 was awarded for the most human-seeming program in the competition. The prize was $3,000 in 2005 and $2,250 in 2006. In 2008, $3,000 was awarded.  In addition, there are two one-time-only prizes that have never been awarded. $25,000 is offered for the first program that judges cannot distinguish from a real human and which can convince judges that the human is the computer program. $100,000 is the reward for the first program that judges cannot distinguish from a real human in a Turing test that includes deciphering and understanding text, visual, and auditory input. Once this is achieved, the annual competition will end.

Competition rules and restrictions.

The rules have varied over the years and early competitions featured restricted conversation Turing tests but since 1995 the discussion has been unrestricted.  For the three entries in 2007, Robert Medeksza, Noah Duncan and Rollo Carpenter, some basic "screening questions" were used by the sponsor to evaluate the state of the technology. These included simple questions about the time, what round of the contest it is, etc.; general knowledge ("What is a hammer for?"); comparisons ("Which is faster, a train or a plane?"); and questions demonstrating memory for preceding parts of the same conversation. "All nouns, adjectives and verbs will come from a dictionary suitable for children or adolescents under the age of 12." Entries did not need to respond "intelligently" to the questions to be accepted.  For the first time in 2008 the sponsor allowed introduction of a preliminary phase to the contest opening up the competition to previously disallowed web-based entries judged by a variety of invited interrogators. The available rules do not state how interrogators are selected or instructed. Interrogators (who judge the systems) have limited time: 5 minutes per entity in the 2003 competition, 20+ per pair in 2004–2007 competitions, 5 minutes to conduct "simultaneous" conversations with a human and the program in 2008-2009, increased to 25 minutes of simultaneous conversation since 2010.

Criticisms.

The prize has long been scorned by experts in the field, for a variety of reasons.  It is regarded by many as a publicity stunt. Marvin Minsky scathingly offered a "prize" to anyone who could stop the competition. Loebner responded by jokingly observing that Minsky's offering a prize to stop the competition effectively made him a co-sponsor.  The rules of the competition have encouraged poorly qualified judges to make rapid judgements. Interactions between judges and competitors was originally very brief, for example effectively 2.5 mins of questioning, which permitted only a few questions. Questioning was initially restricted to "whimsical conversation", a domain suiting standard chatbot tricks.  Competition entrants do not aim at understanding or intelligence but resort to basic ELIZA style tricks, and successful entrants find deception and pretense is rewarded.  Reporting of the annual competition often confuses the imitation test with intelligence, a typical example being Brian Christian's introduction to his article "Mind vs. Machine" in The Atlantic, March 2011, stating that "in the race to build computers that "can think like humans", the proving ground is the Turing Test".

Contests.

2006.

In 2006, the contest was organised by Tim Child (CEO of Televirtual) and Huma Shah. On August 30, the four finalists were announced:  The contest was held on 17 September in the VR theatre, Torrington Place campus of University College London. The judges included the University of Reading's cybernetics professor, Kevin Warwick, a professor of artificial intelligence, John Barnden (specialist in metaphor research at the University of Birmingham), a barrister, Victoria Butler-Cole and a journalist, Graham Duncan-Rowe. The latter's experience of the event can be found in an article in "Technology Review". The winner was 'Joan', based on Jabberwacky, both created by Rollo Carpenter.

2007.

The 2007 competition was held on October 21 in New York City. The judges were: computer science professor Russ Abbott, philosophy professor Hartry Field, psychology assistant professor Clayton Curtis and English lecturer Scott Hutchins.  No bot passed the Turing test, but the judges ranked the three contestants as follows:  The winner received $2,250 and the annual medal. The runners-up received $250 each.

2008.

The 2008 competition was organised by professor Kevin Warwick, coordinated by Huma Shah and held on October 12 at the University of Reading, UK. After testing by over one hundred judges during the preliminary phase, in June and July 2008, six finalists were selected from thirteen original entrants - artificial conversational entity (ACE). Five of those invited competed in the finals:  In the finals, each of the judges was given five minutes to conduct simultaneous, split-screen conversations with two hidden entities. Elbot of Artificial Solutions won the 2008 Loebner Prize bronze award, for "most human-like" artificial conversational entity, through fooling three of the twelve judges who interrogated it (in the human-parallel comparisons) into believing it was human. This is coming very close to the 30% traditionally required to consider that a program has actually passed the Turing test. Eugene Goostman and Ultra Hal both deceived one judge each that it was the human.  Will Pavia, a journalist for The Times, has written about his experience; a Loebner finals' judge, he was deceived by Elbot and Eugene. Kevin Warwick and Huma Shah have reported on the parallel-paired Turing tests.

2009.

The 2009 Loebner Prize Competition was held September 6, 2009 at the Brighton Centre, Brighton UK in conjunction with the Interspeech 2009 conference. The prize amount for 2009 was $3,000.  Entrants were David Levy, Rollo Carpenter, and Mohan Embar, who finished in that order.  The writer Brian Christian participated in the 2009 Loebner Prize Competition as a human confederate, and described his experiences at the competition in his book "The Most Human Human".

2010.

The 2010 Loebner Prize Competition was held on October 23 at California State University, Los Angeles. The 2010 competition was the 20th running of the contest. The winner was Bruce Wilcox with Suzette.

2011.

The 2011 Loebner Prize Competition was held on October 19 at the University of Exeter, Devon, United Kingdom. The prize amount for 2011 was $4,000.  The four finalists and their chatterbots were Bruce Wilcox (Rosette), Adeena Mignogna (Zoe), Mohan Embar (Chip Vivant) and Ron Lee (Tutor), who finished in that order.  That year there was an addition of a panel of junior judges, namely Jean-Paul Astal-Stain, William Dunne, Sam Keat and Kirill Jerdev. The results of the junior contest were markedly different from the main contest, with chatterbots Tutor and Zoe tying for first place and Chip Vivant and Rosette coming in third and fourth place, respectively.

2012.

The 2012 Loebner Prize Competition was held on the 15th of May in Bletchley Park in Bletchley, Buckinghamshire, England, in honor of the Alan Turing centenary celebrations. The prize amount for 2012 was $5,000. The local arrangements organizer was David Levy, who won the Loebner Prize in 1997 and 2009.  The four finalists and their chatterbots were Mohan Embar (Chip Vivant), Bruce Wilcox (Angela), Daniel Burke (Adam), M. Allan (Linguo), who finished in that order.  That year, a team from the University of Exeter's computer science department (Ed Keedwell, Max Dupenois and Kent McClymont) conducted the first-ever live webcast of the conversations.

2013.

The 2013 Loebner Prize Competition was held, for the first time on the Island of Ireland, on September 14 at the Ulster University, Magee College, Derry, Northern Ireland, UK.  The four finalists and their chatbots were Steve Worswick (Mitsuku), Dr. Ron C. Lee (Tutor), Bruce Wilcox (Rose) and Brian Rigsby (Izar), who finished in that order.  The judges were Professor Roger Schank (Socratic Arts), Professor Noel Sharkey (Sheffield University), Professor Minhua (Eunice) Ma (Huddersfield University, then University of Glasgow) and Professor Mike McTear (Ulster University).  For the 2013 Junior Loebner Prize Competition the chatbots Mitsuku and Tutor tied for first place with Rose and Izar in 3rd and 4th place respectively.

2014.

The 2014 Loebner Prize Competition was held at Bletchley Park, England, on Saturday 15 November 2014. The event was filmed live by Sky News. The guest judge was television presenter and broadcaster James May.  After 2 hours of judging, 'Rose' by Bruce Wilcox was declared the winner. Bruce will receive a cheque for $4000 and a bronze medal. The ranks were as follows:  Rose - Rank 1 ($4000 & Bronze Medal); Izar - Rank 2.25 ($1500); Uberbot - Rank 3.25 ($1000); and Mitsuku - Rank 3.5 ($500).  The Judges were Dr Ian Hocking, Writer & Senior Lecturer in Psychology, Christ Church College, Canterbury; Dr Ghita Kouadri-Mostefaoui, Lecturer in Computer Science and Technology, University of Bedfordshire; Mr James May, Television Presenter and Broadcaster; and Dr Paul Sant, Dean of UCMK, University of Bedfordshire.

2015.

The 2015 Loebner Prize Competition was again won by 'Rose' by Bruce Wilcox.  The judges were Jacob Aaron, Physical sciences reporter for New Scientist; Rory Cellan-Jones, Technology correspondent for the BBC; Brett Marty, Film Director and Photographer; Ariadne Tampion, Writer.

2016.

The 2016 Loebner Prize was held at Bletchley Park on 17 September 2016. After 2 hours of judging the final results were announced. The ranks were as follows:

Winners.

Official list of winners.

The Loebner Prize is an annual competition in artificial intelligence that awards prizes to the computer programs considered by the judges to be the most human-like. The format of the competition is that of a standard Turing test. In each round, a human judge simultaneously holds textual conversations with a computer program and a human being via computer. Based upon the responses, the judge must decide which is which.

Der Loebner-Preis ist ein von Hugh Gene Loebner seit 1991 ausgeschriebener Preis. Mit ihm soll der Programmierer des ersten Computerprogramms ausgezeichnet werden, welches einem starken Turing-Test über 25 Minuten standhält.


Career.

Steeplechaser.

Born in Zürich, he started his career in athletics as a specialist in the 3000 metres steeplechase. He earned All-American honours competing for the Washington Huskies while studying at the University of Washington. It was in the steeplechase that he made his first international appearances for Switzerland. He was selected for the 1999 World Championships in Athletics and finished eighth in his heat. He made his Olympic debut the following year at the 2000 Sydney Olympics and was again knocked out in the heats after an eighth place finish.  The 2001 season marked an improvement in his performances: he set a personal best and Swiss record in the steeplechase with a time of 8:22.24 at the FBK Games in Hengelo in July. He made a global final for the first time at the 2001 World Championships and finished in thirteenth place with a time of 8:31.43. A month later he competed at the 2001 Summer Universiade and had his first international podium finish, taking the bronze medals in both the steeplechase and 5000 metres. At the end of the year he participated at the 2001 European Cross Country Championships, held on home turf in Thun, and he took fifth place in a field of 77 runners.

Switch to flat running.

He began to expand his event repertoire and doubled up in the steeplechase and 5000 metres races at the 2002 European Athletics Championships. He failed to reach the steeplechase final but managed twelfth in the 5000 m event final. He began to focus on running the flat distances thereafter. He made his world cross country running debut in 2003, finishing in eighteenth place in the short race at the 2003 IAAF World Cross Country Championships. He was the best Swiss performer at the event, heading the national team (including Viktor Röthlin) to seventh in the rankings. He was also chosen for the 2003 World Championships and reached the final of the 5000 m. He ended up in 13th place, but he was one of only two Europeans in the world final, alongside Juan Carlos de la Ossa of Spain. He also ran in the event at the 2004 Athens Olympics, but did not make it past the heats stage on his second Olympic appearance.  He competed at the 2005 IAAF World Cross Country Championships and was 28th in the short race. He had greater success on the track by winning the gold medal over 3000 metres at the 2005 European Cup. He elected to run the 10,000 metres at the 2005 World Championships and broke Markus Ryffel's long-standing national record with a run of 27:53.16 for fourteenth place. The following year he retained his 3000 m title at the 2006 European Cup and came close to a 10,000 m medal at the 2006 European Athletics Championships, where he finished in fourth place. He closed the year with a top ten finish at the 2006 European Cross Country Championships.

Road and retirement.

He began to change his focus to road running in 2007. He set a course record of 31:08 at the Reusslauf in Bremgarten that February. He made his half marathon debut at the Rotterdam Half Marathon and stepped up to the full marathon distance in October, running at the Cologne Marathon, which he finished in a time of 2:15:08. A series of injuries affected his running from 2007 to 2009. He returned his focus to the track and reached the 10,000 m final at the 2010 European Athletics Championships in Barcelona, finishing in sixth place.  Belz announced his retirement from international competition at the end of 2010, citing his desire to focus on both his family and his work as a specialist in sports economics. He is married to Anita Brägger, another Swiss Olympic runner.

Christian Belz (born 11 September 1974) is a Swiss long-distance runner. He was initially a steeplechaser and represented Switzerland in the event at the World Championships in Athletics in 1999 and 2001 as well as the 2000 Summer Olympics. He broke the national record with a run of 8:22.24 in June 2001. Later that year he won two bronze medals at the 2001 Summer Universiade.

Christian Belz (* 11. September 1974 in Zürich) ist ein ehemaliger Schweizer Langstreckenläufer. Er ist Schweizer Rekordhalter im Hindernislauf und 18-facher Schweizer Meister sowie zweifacher Teilnehmer an Olympischen Sommerspielen.


Career.

Fischer-Z.

Having played the punk and new wave circuit through the early 1970s, Watts formed the band Fischer-Z with Steve Skolnik at Brunel University in 1976. Arriving at a point where punk, art wave, and reggae crossed over, they secured a record deal with UA in 1978 alongside the Buzzcocks, The Stranglers, and Dr. Feelgood.  Their first album, "Word Salad", was released in 1979 and was a cult success in the UK (John Peel supported the single "Remember Russia"), but an even bigger critical success and commercial start across continental Europe. There were substantial appearances on The Old Grey Whistle Test and a first Top of the Pops with "The Worker" single. The second album, entitled "Going Deaf for a Living" (1980), reinforced Watts' trademark insightful and humorous view of the world set against strong melodies. It included the track, "So Long", his first chart hit single across Europe and in Australia. The band toured extensively throughout Europe and also made their first trip to America. European success was growing fast and the demand for a new album brought Watts back with the powerfully atmospheric "Red Skies Over Paradise" (1981). A performance at Pinkpop Festival that summer followed and also a performance on the bill with Bob Marley on his final European festival tour.  Watts split up Fischer-Z in summer 1981.

Solo career and Fischer-Z reformation.

His first solo album, "One More Twist", was released in 1982 along with the debut solo single, "One Voice", and was followed in 1983 by "The Iceberg Model" (1983). This project incorporated Dexys Midnight Runners' brass section, strings, improvisations and experimental techniques usually associated with modern classical music. The "Quick Quick Slow" album (1984) followed, which he released as "The Cry".  "Reveal", Watts' seventh studio album, appeared early in 1988. This included his biggest single success to date, "The Perfect Day". Fans found it difficult to differentiate between Watts' identity and that of his band Fischer-Z. This was a new sound and totally different personnel. His reluctance to perform older classic material in its original arrangement and his total emphasis on new work has become his trademark. "My only obligation is to be good, not to play what the audience want." The album represented a commercial high point, but coincided with a lengthy period of personal and family upheaval for Watts.  A second album in this series, "Fish's Head", arrived a year later (1989). Including the single "Say No". In this period Watts performed to 167,000 people at a Peace Festival in East Berlin along with James Brown. He was interviewed about Thatcherism on German national news. After a change of record companies, Watts combined two different sets of recordings to produce the "Destination Paradise" album (1992). The title track was a chart single and it once again demonstrated Watts' acute observation of political events. "Will You Be There?" was another chart single and was adopted by the fans as a firm live favourite. Watts' next project was the "Kamikaze Shirt" album (1994). The single "Human Beings", was a harrowing indictment of the low value of human life in many parts of the world. "Protection", the first single from his next album "Stream" (1995), also dealt with the dark area of child exploitation.  1997 saw the release of one of "Thirteen Stories High" (1997). Until then, Watts had worked with a variety of musicians and band line-ups. Instruments had been arranged around his song structures. From this point in his career he was to turn this method on its head. "Bigbeatpoetry" (1999) and the "Spiritual Headcase Remixes" (2000) signalled a much more radical approach to making music. This, Watts' thirteenth album, combined his poetry, prose and song lyrics with Ingo Worner's DJ beats, audio collages and dance floor rhythms. The title track, "Bigbeatpoetry", was a substantial 'Beat' style poem half-spoken over a simple hip-hop beat.  His next album, "Real Life Is Good Enough" (2004), was recorded spontaneously in a raw 'back to basics' fashion. This was organic multimedia in a different form, the CD accompanied by a 60-page book of related poetry and short stories. "It Has To Be" (2006) was the album that followed as a sequel to "Real Life Is Good Enough". Again, Watts travelled and explored, with the intention of collecting strangers''real-life stories', filmed by Sarah Vermeersch.  His next "Morethanmusic" (2011) reinforces his reputation as "an artist in music and words." Instead of releasing singles, Watts made exhibitions of artifacts and wrote customised songs.  "World Go Round" (2013 – present), Watts new project, entitled "World Go Round", is a multimedia combination of a play entitled "The Last Picasso", an album called "World Go Round" and poetry book called "The Grand National Lobotomy". Watts is performing the play at the Edinburgh Festival alongside a world tour incorporating different local musicians at each venue and with a variety of musical styles.

John Watts is a British musician and multimedia artist. He was born into a family of singers on 27 December 1954 in Frimley, Surrey. Watts began his career as a mental health worker having studied clinical psychology before finding success as a musician with his band Fischer-Z. He currently lives and works in Brighton, UK.

John Malcolm Watts (* 27. Dezember 1954 in Harrow) ist ein britischer Sänger, Gitarrist und Dichter. Internationale Bekanntheit erlangte Watts seit Ende der 1970er Jahre als Sänger, Gitarrist und Gründer, Mastermind der Gruppe Fischer-Z. Nach Auflösung der Gruppe durch ihn begann Watts 1982 eine Solokarriere. 1987 reaktivierte er den Namen Fischer-Z. Diesen Formationen gehört allerdings außer John Watts kein weiteres Gründungsmitglied von Fischer-Z an.


Life and career.

Powers was born in Buffalo, New York but has lived in California since 1959. He studied English Literature at Cal State Fullerton, and earned his B.A. in 1976. It was there that he first met James Blaylock and K. W. Jeter, both of whom remained close friends and occasional collaborators; the trio have half-seriously referred to themselves as "steampunks" in contrast to the prevailing cyberpunk genre of the 1980s. Powers and Blaylock invented the poet William Ashbless while they were at Cal State Fullerton.  Another friend Powers first met during this period was noted science fiction writer Philip K. Dick; the character named "David" in Dick's novel "VALIS" is based on Powers. When "Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?" was retitled "Blade Runner" to tie-in with the movie based on the novel, Dick dedicated it to Tim and Serena Powers.  Powers' first major novel was "The Drawing of the Dark" (1979), but the novel that earned him wide praise was "The Anubis Gates", which won the Philip K. Dick Award, and has since been published in many other languages.  Powers also teaches part-time in his role as Writer in Residence for the Orange County High School of the Arts and California School of the Arts in San Gabriel Valley in the Creative Writing Conservatory, as well as Chapman University, where Blaylock teaches. He also taught part-time at the University of Redlands.  Powers and his wife, Serena Batsford Powers, currently live in Muscoy, California. He has frequently served as a mentor author as part of the Clarion science fiction/fantasy writer's workshop.

Timothy Thomas "Tim" Powers (born February 29, 1952) is an American science fiction and fantasy author. Powers has won the World Fantasy Award twice for his critically acclaimed novels "Last Call" and "Declare". His 1987 novel "On Stranger Tides" served as inspiration for the "Monkey Island" franchise of video games and was optioned for adaptation into the.

Tim Powers (* 29. Februar 1952 in Buffalo) ist ein US-amerikanischer Science-Fiction-Autor. Bekannt wurde er durch seinen 1983 mit dem Philip K. Dick Award ausgezeichneten Zeitreise-Roman "Die Tore zu Anubis Reich" (englischer Originaltitel "The Anubis Gates"). Er zählt zur so genannten Kalifornischen Gruppe von Autoren um Philip K. Dick. Er schreibt zusammen mit James Blaylock auch unter dem gemeinsamen Pseudonym William Ashbless.


History.

Dawsonville was founded in 1857 as seat of the newly formed Dawson County. It was incorporated as a town in 1859 and as a city in 1952. The community and the county are named for state senator William Crosby Dawson.

Geography.

Dawsonville is located at 34°25′N 84°7′W.  According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, of which, or 0.26%, is water.  The community is at the junction of State Routes 9, 53, and 136. SR 9 leads northeast to Dahlonega and south to Cumming, while SR 53 leads southeast to U.S. Route 19 and west to Jasper. SR 136 also leads to Jasper, on a route that runs further to the north through the southern end of the Blue Ridge Mountains.  Amicalola Falls, north of the center of Dawsonville, is one of the seven natural wonders of Georgia.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 619 people, 234 households, and 153 families residing in the city. The population density was 320.9 people per square mile (123.8/km2). There were 257 housing units at an average density of 133.2 per square mile (51.4/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 97.58% White, 0.16% Native American, 0.97% from other races, and 0.65% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.00% of the population.  There were 234 households out of which 31.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44.0% were married couples living together, 15.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.6% were non-families. 29.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.31 and the average family size was 2.88.  In the city, the population was spread out with 22.8% under the age of 18, 12.4% from 18 to 24, 31.5% from 25 to 44, 22.0% from 45 to 64, and 11.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 114.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 117.3 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $34,327, and the median income for a family was $39,000. Males had a median income of $27,500 versus $25,125 for females. The per capita income for the city was $20,207. About 12.3% of families and 11.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13.3% of those under age 18 and 15.7% of those age 65 or over.

Recreation.

Auto racing.

The city's community is known in auto racing circles for its long tradition of involvement in the sport; many racing skills originally developed as a consequence of moonshine activity in the area. Dawsonville celebrates this every October with the yearly "Mountain Moonshine Festival".  Dawsonville is the home of retired NASCAR driver Bill Elliott, who won the Winston Cup championship in 1988 and was inducted into the NASCAR Hall of Fame in 2015, and his son Chase Elliott, who currently races in the NASCAR Cup Series. Bill Elliott's nickname is "Awesome Bill from Dawsonville". The city hall has a racing theme as well. Following a significant racing accomplishment made by Bill or Chase Elliott, such as a win, the siren on the Dawsonville Pool Room near the city square goes off to let the town know.

Education.

Dawson County School District.

The Dawson County School District holds pre-school to grade twelve, and consists of three elementary schools, two middle schools, and a high school. The district has 219 full-time teachers and 3,036 students.  The Dawson County School System is a charter system.

Dawsonville is a city and the county seat of Dawson County, Georgia, United States. The population was 2,536 at the 2010 census, up from 619 in 2000.

Dawsonville ist eine Stadt und zudem der "County Seat" des Dawson County im US-Bundesstaat Georgia mit 2536 Einwohnern (Stand: 2010).


Etymology.

The word steak originates from the mid-15th century Scandinavian word "steik", or "stickna"' in the Middle English dialect, along with the Old Norse word "steikja". The "Oxford English Dictionary's" first reference is to "a thick slice of meat cut for roasting or grilling or frying, sometimes used in a pie or pudding; especially a piece cut from the hind-quarters of the animal." Subsequent parts of the entry, however, refer to "steak fish", which referred to "cod of a size suitable for cutting into steaks", and also "steak-raid", which was a custom among Scottish Highlanders of giving some cattle being driven through a gentleman's land to the owner. An early written usage of the word "stekys" comes from a 15th-century cookbook, and makes reference to both beef or venison steaks.

Production.

Livestock for meat to be used as steak cuts may be raised on a farm or ranch. The meat from various wild game may also be used for steak cuts.

Marketing and sales.

Countries with enough suitable land for grazing animals, in particular cattle, have a history of production and culinary use of steak. Such countries include Argentina, Ireland, New Zealand, Australia, South Africa, the United States, and the United Kingdom. In Asian countries, such as China and South Korea, steak is traditionally sliced and stir-fried and served in smaller amounts as part of a mixed dish.

Argentina.

In Argentina, beef represents a large portion of the country's export market. A total of 11.8 million animals was harvested in 2010. The country has one of the largest consumptions of beef per capita worldwide, and much of it is grilled steak. Beef steak consumption is described as part of the "Argentine national identity". In 2010, 244,000 cattle producers were in Argentina. In Argentina, steakhouses are referred to as "parrillas", which are common throughout the country. Portion sizes of steak dishes in Argentine restaurants tend to be large, with steaks weighing over being commonplace. "Asado" is a traditional dish that often includes steak and is also the standard word for "grilled" in Argentina and other countries. "Asado" is considered a national dish of the country.

Australia.

Domestic and international marketing of Australian beef is undertaken by Meat & Livestock Australia, a corporation which runs programs related to quality assurance, sustainable production, and environmental considerations, through organizations such as Meat Standards Australia.

Ireland.

The Irish agricultural beef market is a contributor to the economy of Ireland. A significant amount of Irish beef is exported to other countries, with over 50% going to the United Kingdom.

New Zealand.

The "Steak of Origin" competition has been run for a decade on behalf of the Beef+Lamb Corporation of New Zealand. It "aims to find the most tender and tasty sirloin steak" in the country. Criteria for judging claims to include tenderness, pH, marbling and percentage cooking loss", but while these data are collected for each entrant steak, only the shear force (correlated to perceived tenderness) determines qualification to a tasting panel, at which objective taste from a panel determines the winner. The pH is used solely to disqualify entrants and neither the'marbling' or the cooking loss have any effect on the outcome of the competition at any stage. Their parallel competition, which they run for lamb legs (glammies) does take into account some of these other metrics when weighting the entrants for their ranking within the competition.

United Kingdom.

According to a survey by trade magazine "Caterer and Hotelkeeper", the most popular dinner menu in British restaurants in the 1980s included steak: prawn cocktail, steak and Black Forest gateau.  Cattle breeds such as Hereford or Aberdeen Angus date back to the 1700s, and farmers continue to raise cattle sired by registered pedigree bulls. Bullocks, which live outdoors year-round, grow slowly as they would in their natural habitat, ultimately producing a distinctly tender meat. Around 2,200,000 cattle are slaughtered for beef each year in the United Kingdom.

United States.

In the United States, cuts of beef for retail sale include various beefsteaks, as well as stew meat and hamburger meat. In the U.S. "circa" 1956, about 24% of retail beef cuts were steaks.  Beef production is the largest single agricultural venture in the United States, with 687,540 farms raising cattle and over a million in the production process, as of the 2007 Agriculture Census. On average, a single farm typically raises about 50 cattle at a time, with 97% of the cattle farms classified as one of these small family farms. These smaller farms average a gross cash income of $62,286 per year as of 2007.

Cooking.

Beef steaks are commonly grilled or occasionally fried. Grilled beef steaks can be cooked at different temperatures, or for different lengths of time; the resulting cooked steak ranges from blue (very rare) to overdone. The most common characteristics of a rare steak is a soft, cold, red center. The outside is seared for flavor, while the inside is cooked to suit the diner's preference. Steaks cooked well done are usually cooked throughout the entire cut of meat. For example, a beefsteak cooked well done will not have any pinkness in the middle when sliced. Uncooked beef steak can be served raw, such as in steak tartare.  Fish steaks are generally cooked for a short time, as the flesh cooks quickly, especially when grilled. Fish steaks, such as tuna, can also be cooked to various temperatures, such as rare and medium rare. The different cuts of steak are – rib eye, sirloin, tenderloin, rump, porterhouse, and t-bone.  Cuts of steak are quite dissimilar between countries owing to different methods of cutting up the carcass. The result is that a steak found in one country is not the same as in another, although the recipes may be the same, differing "only in their sauces, butters, or garnitures".  Most important is trying to achieve Maillard reaction on meat to ensure that restaurant-quality steak results each time.

Dining.

Steak has become a popular dish in many places around the world, cooked in domestic and professional kitchens, and is often a primary ingredient in a menu. It is used in small amounts in an "hors d'oeuvre", in an "entrée" dish or, more usually, in a larger amount as the main course. Steak has also been an important breakfast dish, especially for people undertaking hard outdoor work, such as farmers. Diners ordering steak at a restaurant typically advise the chef or waiter of their preferences regarding the degree of cooking, using the terms "rare", "medium rare", "medium", "medium well", or "well done". Print appearances of this use of "rare" are found as early as around 1615. A steak knife is a specialized piece of cutlery to make cutting the steak easier; it is sharper than other knives and may have a serrated edge.

Steak clubs.

Beefsteak Clubs were once part of London's club life. They were described as "a club of ancient institution in every theatre; when the principal performers dined one day in the week together (generally Saturday), and authors and other geniuses were admitted members." Dr Johnson's club in Ivy lane was originally a Beef-Steak Club and the "Rump-Steak or Liberty Club" was in existence from 1733–34. The present-day Beefsteak Club, established in 1876, is at 9 Irving Street, London. Among its members are many notable people.

Steakhouses.

A steakhouse is a restaurant that specializes in beefsteaks and other individual portions of meat. Chophouses started in London in the 1690s, and served individual portions of meat, known as chops. The houses were normally only open for men; for example, women were only admitted to Stone's Chop House in 1921. Accounts of travellers in 19th-century London refer to their "dining off mutton chop, rump steak and a 'weal' cutlet", as well as hams and sirloins.  Delmonico's restaurant in New York City, which opened in 1827 and stayed open for almost 100 years, has been described as "the most famous steak restaurant in American history". Delmonico steak refers to a method of preparation from one of several cuts of beef (typically the rib cut) prepared Delmonico style, originally from the mid-19th century.  Hundreds of restaurants continue to specialize in serving steak, describing themselves as "steakhouses", competing for culinary awards and aiming for culinary excellence.

Sauces and condiments.

Classic sauces and seasonings to accompany steak include: Commercially produced bottled sauces for steak and pre-mixed spices are also popular. In 2012 in the U.S., A1 Steak Sauce had slightly over 50% of the market share for all meat sauce products, and was the category leader. Montreal steak seasoning is a spice mix used to flavor steak and grilled meats that was based on the pickling dry-rub mix used in preparing Montreal smoked meat.

Cultural significance.

Steak and other meat products can be frozen and exported, but before the invention of commercial refrigeration, transporting meat over long distances was impossible. Communities had to rely on what was locally available, which determined the forms and tradition of meat consumption. Hunter-gathering peoples cut steaks from local indigenous animals. For example, Sami cuisine relies partly on the meat of the reindeer; the Inuit diet uses locally caught sea-mammal meat from whales; Indigenous Australians ate kangaroo; and indigenous North American food included bison steak. In the Middle East, meat recipes from medieval times onwards simply state "meat" without specifying the kind or cut; "apart from an occasional gazelle, kid or camel", only lamb and mutton were eaten because cattle were seldom bred.  In contemporary Argentina, where steak consumption is very high, steak is a significant part of the national cuisine and the "asado" has the status of a national dish. In Austria, the national dish is "Wiener Schnitzel", which is a type of steak made from veal. Advice on butchery and recipes for American black bear steak and chops is provided by New Jersey (US) government.

Protests.

Vegans are against the production and consumption of steak as they view the slaughter and treatment of cows as unethical. Vegan activists regularly hold protests against steakhouses.

Types.

Beefsteak.

Many types of beefsteak exist. The more tender cuts of beef, from the loin and rib, are cooked quickly, using dry heat, and served whole. Less tender cuts from the chuck or round are cooked with moist heat or are mechanically tenderized ("e.g." cube steak). Beef steak can be cooked to a level of very rare (bleu, a cold raw center), rare, medium rare, medium, medium well, or well done. Pittsburgh rare is charred on the outside. Beef, unlike some other meats, does not need to be cooked through. Food-borne human illnesses are not normally found within a beef steak, though surfaces can potentially be contaminated from handling, thus very rare steak (seared on the outside and raw within) is generally accepted as safe.  Beef steak is graded for quality, with higher prices for higher quality. Generally, the higher the quality, the more tender the beef, the less time is needed for cooking, or the better the flavor. For example, beef tenderloin is the most tender and wagyu, such as Kobe beef from Japan, is known for its high quality and commands a high price. Steak can be cooked relatively quickly compared to other cuts of meat, particularly when cooked at very high temperatures, such as by broiling or grilling.  The quality and safety of steak as a food product is regulated by law. Australia hase National Meat Accreditation standards; Canada has the Canadian Beef Grading Agency; in the United Kingdom, the Food Standards Agency is responsible; in the United States, young beef is graded by the United States Department of Agriculture as Select, Choice or Prime, where "Prime" refers to beef of the highest quality, typically that which has significant marbling. In 1996 in the U.S., only 2.4% of cattle were graded as prime, and most Prime beef is sold in restaurants and hotels. The wide range of quickly prepared and well-known beef steak dishes includes minute steak, steak sandwiches, and steak and eggs. "Surf and turf", which combines meat and fish, requires more time to prepare. Steak meat is also often minced, shredded, chopped finely or formed to create a range of dishes, including steak burgers, that retain the name "steak". Other such dishes include:

Fish steak.

Fish steaks are cut perpendicular to the spine and include bones. Although their delicate flesh requires quicker cooking than beef, steaks from swordfish, halibut, tuna, salmon, and mahi-mahi can be grilled. They are frequently cooked whole or as fillets. Fish steaks may also be poached or baked using a court bouillon, wine or sauce or cooked "en papillote".  Commercial sashimi tuna steaks may have their coloration fixated by the use of flushing with carbon monoxide (CO), whereby CO is pumped into bags containing the tuna, which is then stored at 4 °C. The duration of time for color fixation to occur varies per the size of the meat. For example, a 2-inch tuna steak takes 24 hours for color fixation to be completed using this process. When used, color fixation using CO occurs prior to the vacuum sealing of tuna steaks for storage. In Japan, color fixation using CO is prohibited.

Lamb steak.

Lamb steaks come from a range of cuts and are a versatile ingredient that can be used in a range of dishes. It is commonly found sliced into salads.

Pork steak.

Pork steaks are generally cut from the shoulder of the pig, but can also be cut from the loin or leg of the pig. Shoulder steaks are cut from the same primal cut of meat most commonly used for pulled pork, and can be quite tough without long cooking times due to the high amount of collagen in the meat; therefore, pork shoulder steaks are often cooked slower than a typical beef steak, and may be stewed or simmered in barbecue sauce during cooking.  Cooked gammon steaks are a component of a full breakfast, whereas steaks from a rolled pork loin are more likely to be served at lunch.  A Boston butt is a pork steak originating from colonial New England, where butchers would pack less valuable cuts of pork in barrels, called butts.

Chicken steak.

Thick sliced or chopped and formed chicken is used to create mainly traditional southern dishes such as chicken fried chicken. This may also refer to beef cuts such as a hip steak or a shoulder blade steak, or a small portion of chuck steak with a visible line of white connective tissue.

Vegetarian alternatives.

Sliced vegetables can be used as vegetarian nonmeat "steak" alternatives, such as cauliflower, portobello mushrooms, and eggplant. Beans and legumes (such as soybeans) have also been used to form steak-like foods. Watermelon steaks are sliced and cooked pieces of watermelon.  In 2019, the European Union included steak as one of the protected designations under a revised regulation that passed with 80% approval. The decision will be put to member states and the European commission. The change was “designed to protect meat-related terms and names exclusively for edible parts of the animals”. It was felt that “steak should be kept for real steak with meat” and that a new name was needed for new non-meat products so that people know what they are eating.

A steak () is a meat generally sliced across the muscle fibers, potentially including a bone. It is normally grilled, though can also be pan-fried. It is often grilled in an attempt to replicate the flavor of steak cooked over the glowing coals of an open fire. Steak can also be cooked in sauce, such as in steak and kidney pie, or minced and formed into patties, such as hamburgers.

Ein Steak (, aus altnordisch "Steik", „Braten“, zu "steikja" „am Spieß braten“; vgl. ; "steikt", „gebraten“) ist eine zum Kurzbraten oder Grillen geeignete Rindfleischscheibe. Steaks, die von anderen Tier- und Fleischarten stammen, tragen einen entsprechenden Hinweis in ihrer Bezeichnung (z. B. "Kalbssteak", "Schweinesteak", "Putensteak", "Hirschsteak" usw.). Auch quer zur Wirbelsäule geschnittene Scheiben von größeren, festfleischigen Fischen wie Schwertfisch, Thunfisch, Hai oder Lachs werden als Steaks bezeichnet.


Life and work.

Kiepenheuer was born in 1910 in Weimar, Germany, as a son of the publisher Gustav Kiepenheuer. After the divorce of his parents in 1923 he stayed with his mother. In 1929, he began his studies of physics, astronomy and mathematics at the Berlin Institute of Technology and the University of Berlin. He spent one semester in Paris where he visited the Meudon observatory. He later worked at the Göttingen Observatory where he tried to develop a method to measure the UV radiation of the Sun. After an unsuccessful attempt at Jungfraujoch, he realized that the elevation of 3,454 meters was insufficient for this measurement. The balloon-borne instruments of Erich Regener proved to be more useful and Regener was able to measure the UV radiation of the Sun at a height of more than 30 km. Kiepenheuer also improved aerial cameras and tested them during World War II in high-altitude flights over the United Kingdom. Until the end of the war, Kiepenheuer worked under the supervision of Johannes Plendl. The effect of solar activity on shortwave communication stimulated the observations of the Sun. For this purpose, Kiepenheuer built a network of solar observatories and also used the already existing observatories in the occupied areas of Europe. By 1942, this network spanned from Simeiz in the Crimea in the east to Paris in the west, and from Tromsö, Norway in the north to Syracuse, Sicily in the south. After the war, Kiepenheuer benefited from his close connections with researchers all over Europe and managed to slowly establish a scientific network for solar observations.  Together with the solar telescopes at the Schauinsland, Kiepenheuer established the Fraunhofer Institute near Freiburg in 1943. He was able to keep the solar telescopes in Schauinsland after the Second World War. In 1954, he opened a new solar telescope on the Italian island of Capri. The Fraunhofer Institute was named after the physicist Joseph von Fraunhofer and had no connection to the later institutes of the Fraunhofer Society, which were independently named after the same person. Kiepenheuer served as the head of his Institute until his death in 1975. He helped to establish collaboration between several European countries in building a European solar observatory. He was also active in the development of new telescopes. After his death, a new telescope was built on the Spanish island of Tenerife, and therefore, the outdated observatory at Capri was closed in 1988.

Honors.

In 1978, his Institute was renamed the Kiepenheuer Institute for Solar Physics

Karl-Otto Kiepenheuer (10 November 1910 – 23 May 1975) was a German astronomer and astrophysicist. His research focused on the Sun, and for that purpose he initiated construction of several solar telescopes and founded the Kiepenheuer Institute for Solar Physics.

Karl-Otto Kiepenheuer (* 10. November 1910 in Weimar; † 23. Mai 1975 in Ensenada, Mexiko), war ein deutscher Astronom und Astrophysiker.