History.

Rao Jodha, the chief of the Rathore clan, is credited with the origin of Jodhpur in India. He founded Jodhpur in 1459 as the capital of Marwar (Mandore was the previous capital). He was one of Ranmal's 24 sons and became the fifteenth Rathore ruler. One year after his accession to the throne, Jodha decided to move his capital to the safer location of Jodhpur, as the one thousand years old Mandore fort was no longer considered to provide sufficient security.  With the trusted aid of Rao Nara (son of Rao Samra), the Mewar forces were subdued at Mandore. With that, Rao Jodha gave Rao Nara the title of Diwan. With the help of Rao Nara, the foundation of the fort was decided on 12 May 1459 by Jodha on a rocky hill to the south of Mandore. This hill was known as Bhakurcheeria, the mountain of birds. According to legend to build the fort he had to displace the hill's sole human occupant, a hermit called Cheeria Nathji, the lord of birds. Cheeria Nathji was a man with the local population as his followers and hence influential in the region. When requested to move he refused categorically. This happened many times. Rao Jodha then took extreme measures and sought help from another more powerful saint, the female warrior sage of Charan caste Shri Karni Mata of Deshnok.On request of the king she came and asked Cheeria Nathji to quit immediately. Seeing a superior power he left at once but cursed Rao Jodha with words "Jodha! May your citadel ever suffer a scarcity of water!". Rao Jodha managed to appease the hermit by building a house and a temple in the fort. Seeing the influence of Karni Mata Rao Jodha then invited her to lay down the foundation stone of the Mehrangarh Fort and the same was carried out by her. Today only the forts of Bikaner and Jodhpur remain in the hands of Rathors, both had their foundation stone laid by Shri Karni Mata. All other Rajput forts of Rajasthan were abandoned for some or the other reasons by the respective clans. Only the Rathors of Jodhpur and Bikaner have their forts with them till date. This fact is considered a miracle by the local population and is attributed to Shri Karni Mata. Rao Jodha also granted villages of Mathania and Chopasni to the two Charan warlords who were sent by him to request Shri Karni Mata to come to Jodhpur.  To ensure that the new site proved propitious; he buried a man of the Meghwal caste called "Raja Ram Meghwal", who offered his services voluntarily, alive in the foundations as this was considered auspicious those days. "Raja Ram Meghwal" was promised that in return his family would be looked after by the Rathores. To this day his descendants still live in Raj Bagh, "Raja Ram Meghwal's" Garden.  Mehrangarh (etymology: 'Mihir' (Sanskrit) -sun or Sun-deity; 'garh' (Sanskrit)-fort; i.e.'Sun-fort'); according to Rajasthani language pronunciation conventions, 'Mihirgarh' has changed to 'Mehrangarh'; the Sun-deity has been the chief deity of the Rathore dynasty. Though the fortress was originally started in 1459 by Rao Jodha, founder of Jodhpur, most of the fort which stands today dates from the period of Jaswant Singh of Marwar (1638–78). The fort is located at the centre of the city spreading over on top of a high hill. Its walls, which are up to high and wide, protect some of the most beautiful and historic palaces in Rajasthan. Khandwaliya community one of the old traditional community had the knowledge of breaking the big stones made this fort with others.  Entry to the fort is gained through a series of seven gates. The most famous of the gates are: Within the fort are several brilliantly crafted and decorated palaces. These include, Moti Mahal (Pearl Palace), Phool Mahal (Flower Palace), Sheesha Mahal (Mirror Palace), Sileh Khana and Daulat Khana. The museum houses a collection of palanquins, howdahs, royal cradles, miniatures, musical instruments, costumes, and furniture. The ramparts of the fort house preserved old cannon (including the famous Kilkila), and provided a breath-taking view of the city.

Galleries in Mehrangarh Museum.

Elephant's howdahs.

The howdahs were a kind of two-compartment wooden seat (mostly covered with gold and silver embossed sheets), which were fastened onto the elephant's back. The front compartment, with more leg space and a raised protective metal sheet, was meant for kings or royalty, and the rear smaller one for a reliable bodyguard disguised as a fly-whisk attendant.

Palanquins.

Palanquins were a popular means of travel and circumambulation for the ladies of the nobility up to the second quarter of the 20th century. They were also used by male nobility and royals on special occasions.

Daulat Khana - Treasures of Mehrangarh Museum.

This gallery displays one of the most important and best-preserved collections of fine and applied arts of the Mughal period of Indian history, during which the Rathore rulers of Jodhpur maintained close links with the Mughal emperors. It also has the remains of Emperor Akbar.

Armoury.

This gallery displays a rare collection of armour from every period in Jodhpur. On display are sword hilts in jade, silver, rhino horn, ivory, shields studded with rubies, emeralds and pearls and guns with gold and silver work on the barrels. The gallery also has on display the personal swords of many emperors, among them outstanding historical piece like the Khaanda of Rao Jodha, weighing over 3 kg, the sword of Akbar the Great and the sword of Timur.

Paintings.

This Gallery displays colours of Marwar-Jodhpur, the finest example of Marwar paintings.

The Turban Gallery.

The Turban Gallery in the Mehrangarh Museum seeks to preserve, document and display the many different types of turbans once prevalent in Rajasthan; every community, region, and festival having had its own head-gear.

Tourist attractions in Mehrangarh.

National Geological Monument.

The Jodhpur Group - Malani Igneous Suite Contact on which the Mehrangarh Fort has been built has been declared a National Geological Monument by the Geological Survey of India to encourage Geotourism in the country. This unique geological feature is part of the Malani Igenus Suite seen in the Thar desert region, spread over an area of 43,500 km. This unique geological feature represents the last phase of igneous activity of Precambrian age in the Indian Subcontinent.

The Mataji Temple.

The chamunda Mataji was Rao Jodha's favorite goddess, he brought her idol from the old capital of Mandore in 1460 and installed her in Mehrangarh (Maa chamunda was the "kul devi" of the Pratihara rulers of Mandore). She remains the Maharaja's and the Royal Family's Isht Devi or adopted goddess and is worshipped by most of Jodhpur's citizens as well. Crowds throng Mehrangarh during the Dussehra celebrations.

Rao Jodha Desert Rock Park.

Rao Jodha Desert Rock Park, spreads over 72 hectares, adjoining Mehrangarh Fort. The park contains ecologically restored desert and arid land vegetation. The park was created in 2006 to try and restore the natural ecology of a large, rocky area adjoining and below the fort and opened to the public in February 2011. The area in and around the park contains distinctive volcanic rock formations such as rhyolite, with welded tuff, and breccia, sandstone formations. The park includes a Visitors Centre with Interpretation Gallery, a native plant nursery, small shop and cafe.

2008 Stampede.

A human stampede occurred on 30 September 2008, at the Chamunda Devi temple inside of the Mehrangarh Fort, in which 249 people were killed and more than 400 injured.

Culture.

The fort has musicians performing folk music at the entrance and houses museum, restaurants, exhibitions, and craft bazaars. The fort was one of the filming locations for Disney's 1994 live-action film "The Jungle Book", as well as the 2012 film "The Dark Knight Rises". Principal photography for the latter commenced on 6 May 2011. The Emraan Hashmi starrer Awarapan was also shot here. In 2015, the fort was used to record a collaborative album by musicians including Israeli composer Shye Ben Tzur, English composer and Radiohead guitarist Jonny Greenwood, and Radiohead producer Nigel Godrich. The recording was the subject of a documentary, "Junun," by the American director Paul Thomas Anderson. In March 2018, the film crew for the flop Bollywood film Thugs of Hindostan used the fort as one of its shooting locations; actor Amitabh Bachchan left a reflective post about his experience there on his official blog.

Mehrangarh, located in Jodhpur, Rajasthan, is one of the largest forts in India. Built in around 1459 by Rao Jodha, the fort is situated above the city and is enclosed by imposing thick walls. Inside its boundaries there are several palaces known for their intricate carvings and expansive courtyards. A winding road leads to and from the city below. The imprints of the impact of cannonballs fired by attacking armies of Jaipur can still be seen on the second gate. To the left of the fort is the "chhatri" of Kirat Singh Soda, a soldier who fell on the spot defending Mehrangarh.

Mehrangarh (oder "Meherangarh") ist der Name einer Festungsanlage im nordwestindischen Bundesstaat Rajasthan. Sie befindet sich auf einer Höhe von 123 Metern auf einem Einzelfelsen und überragt die Stadt Jodhpur, von dieser führt eine sich den Berg entlang windende fünf Kilometer lange Straße hinauf.


Early life.

Zane was born in Chicago, Illinois, to Thalia and William George Zane, Sr., both of whom were amateur actors and founders of a school for medical technicians. His parents are both of Greek descent (from Chios through his mother and Mani through his father), and his family's original surname, "Zanetakos", was anglicized to "Zane" by his parents, who also raised him Greek Orthodox. He has an older sister, Lisa Zane, who is an actress and singer. After completing a year abroad in Switzerland at The American School in Switzerland (TASIS), Zane graduated from Francis W. Parker School and attended Harand Camp of the Theater Arts, located in Elkhart Lake, Wisconsin.

Career.

1980s.

Zane's first two screen roles were in the science fiction films "Back to the Future" in 1985 and "Critters" in 1986, around the same time he appeared in the music video for Sheena Easton's song "Do It For Love". In 1988 he played Tony Gambini alongside Jessica Fletcher in "Murder, She Wrote: A Very Good Year for Murder". Zane also appeared in an episode of "Matlock" entitled "The Nurse". In 1989 he reprised his henchman role in "Back to the Future Part II". Earlier that same year, Zane gained international recognition with the role of villain Hughie Warriner in the thriller "Dead Calm", alongside Nicole Kidman and Sam Neill. He also starred in the NBC film, "The Case of the Hillside Stranglers" (1989).

1990s.

Zane's first starring role was in a 1990 independent film, the low budget science fiction thriller "Megaville". In 1990, he also co-starred in the film "Memphis Belle", a film version of a 1944 film about a World War II Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress bomber, as the bombardier. Zane also forayed into television work, and in 1991 he appeared as John Justice Wheeler in several episodes of David Lynch's hit TV-show "Twin Peaks". In 1992 Zane co-starred alongside Tilda Swinton in the film adaptation of Virginia Woolf's novel "". In 1993, he played the Shakespearean actor "Mr. Fabian" in "Tombstone", took a starring role in "Sniper" and played a playboy named Harry, posing as the elusive, albeit fake Damon Bradley alongside Marisa Tomei and Robert Downey Jr. in "Only You".  He also starred in a couple of "Tales from the Crypt" productions, including "Tales From the Crypt Presents: Demon Knight", where he played a henchman of Satan called The Collector, and the episode "Well-Cooked Hams", where he played a poorly skilled magician who killed to steal good tricks from other magicians. In 1996, Zane played the eponymous classic comic book hero in the big budget action film "The Phantom", based on Lee Falk's comic.  Zane played the snobbish millionaire misanthrope Caledon Hockley in James Cameron's 1997 blockbuster "Titanic". This role as Rose's (played by Kate Winslet) fiancé earned him an MTV Movie Award nomination for "Best Villain" and a Blockbuster Entertainment Award. He was also nominated for a SAG award.  In 1998, he starred in and produced "I Woke Up Early the Day I Died", a silent film based on Ed Wood's last script, intended as a parody on bad filmmaking. He won several awards at the B-Movie Film Festival, including Best Movie and Best Actor, for this work. The year after, he starred opposite Timothy Dalton, Bruce Payne, Sean Pertwee and Leonor Varela (who became his fiancé after shooting ended) in a TV-movie about Cleopatra. Zane played the part of Mark Antony.  The same year, he voiced John Rolfe in Disney's "" and Etrigan the Demon in an episode of "The New Batman Adventures".

2000s.

Zane was instrumental in realizing the critically acclaimed film "The Believer", which won the Grand Jury Prize at Sundance Film Festival in 2001. In it, he portrayed neo-Nazi Curtis Zampf, and starred opposite Ryan Gosling. The same year, he also had a cameo as himself in the comedy "Zoolander".  Zane appeared on Broadway in "Chicago", where he played lawyer Billy Flynn.  Zane also had a recurring role in the television series "Charmed" in which he played poetry-loving ex-demon Drake. He also provided the voice of Ansem, the main antagonist of the 2002 video game "Kingdom Hearts". Archive audio of Zane was later used for "", and though he was originally to continue voicing the character throughout future installments, Zane was replaced by Richard Epcar for the rest of the series from "Kingdom Hearts II" onwards. Zane's performance, however, was kept for the "Kingdom Hearts Final Mix" remaster in "Kingdom Hearts HD 1.5 ReMix".  In 2006, Zane starred in Arthur Allan Seidelman's West End production of "Six Dance Lessons in Six Weeks" as an acerbic gay dance instructor opposite Claire Bloom. The same year, he appeared in the Turkish film "Valley of the Wolves Iraq" ("Kurtlar Vadisi: Irak" in Turkish), part of the Kurtlar Vadisi franchise. The film tells the story of the U.S. Army run amok in Iraq, eventually brought into check by a Turkish soldier. Zane plays Sam William Marshall, a cruel U.S. soldier who is the main antagonist in the film. He took over Timothy Olyphant's role as Christina Applegate's ex-boyfriend on "Samantha Who?". The show, however, was not renewed for the 2009–2010 season.  Zane is a principal at RadioactiveGiant, a film and television production and distribution company. Zane stars in the action/thriller film "The Kill Hole".

2010s.

In January 2017, Zane appeared in a commercial for KFC as a gold-colored Colonel Sanders to pitch the restaurant chain's newest limited-time flavor, Georgia Gold Honey Mustard BBQ chicken. Zane also appeared in an episode of "Community", season 6's "Advanced Safety Features".

Personal life.

Zane was married to actress Lisa Collins from 1989 until 1995. He was also engaged for a time to Chilean actress Leonor Varela, his co-star in the television film "Cleopatra" (1999).  Zane was later engaged to marry British model turned actress Kelly Brook, whom he met when starring with her in the movie "Survival Island" (2005), also known as "Three". They split in April 2008, got back together again shortly thereafter, then ended the relationship in August 2008. Zane dated Croatian model Jasmina Hdagha in 2010, but they broke up later that year.  Through a friend he met American model Candice Neil who is the mother of his two daughters and to whom he is also currently engaged. Their first daughter, Ava Catherine, was born in 2011, and their second daughter, Gia, was born in 2014.  In 1999, Zane participated in the first Gumball 3000 rally, driving a 1964 Aston Martin DB5.  Zane is also a painter whose art style is that of abstract expressionism. He has had numerous solo and group exhibitions.

Other media projects.

Zane executive-produced a CD by bluesman Tim O'Connor that includes three songs from "Dead Calm", in which Zane had one of the lead roles.

William George Zane Jr. (born February 24, 1966) is an American actor. He played antagonist Caledon Hockley in the epic romantic disaster film "Titanic" (1997). His other films include "Back to the Future" (1985) and its sequel "Back to the Future Part II" (1989), "Dead Calm" (1989), the television series "Twin Peaks" (1991), "Tombstone" (1993), "Demon Knight" (1995), "The Phantom" (1996) and the video game "Kingdom Hearts" (2002).

Billy Zane (* 24. Februar 1966 in Chicago, Illinois als "William George Zane, Jr.") ist ein US-amerikanischer Schauspieler. Er ist der jüngere Bruder der Schauspielerin Lisa Zane.


How it is used.

A ceiling balloon is a small, usually red, (fluted) rubber balloon commonly measuring 76 mm (3 in) across prior to inflation, inflated to ~40 cm (~15.75 in) diameter. After inflation the balloon is taken outside and released. By timing the balloon from release until it enters the cloud a ceiling height can be obtained. When correctly inflated the balloon will rise at rate of 140 m/min (460 ft/min). The bases of clouds are very rarely flat and solid, so the ceiling height is not when the balloon disappears but when the colour begins to fade. The balloon can also be used to measure the vertical visibility into a layer of fog or blowing snow. In this case the balloon will begin to fade as soon as it is released, so the vertical visibility is when the balloon disappears. If the balloon is visible for a considerable distance into the cloud layer the observer should make note of it as it is of importance to aircraft.  The ceiling balloon is a reliable, safe and simple way to get an indication of the height of clouds. However, it does suffer from some disadvantages that the observer must be aware of. Rain and wet snow may slow the ascent of the balloon, giving a falsely high ceiling and high winds and poor visibility may cause the balloon to appear to enter the cloud before it actually does. As the balloon rises at a rate of 140 m/min (460 ft/min) it will take over five minutes for the balloon to reach 700 m (2300 ft). Beyond this height the ability to follow the balloon, even with binoculars, is poor, as even the slightest movement of the eye off the balloon will almost certainly ensure that it vanishes.  At night when it is not practical to use a balloon the ceiling projector is used. However, during twilight it may be impossible to use the ceiling projector and then a pibal (pilot balloon) light may be used. This is a simple flashlight bulb attached to a battery. To charge the battery it is immersed in water for three minutes and then tied to the balloon prior to inflation. These are rarely used today.

Technical details.

The balloons and associated equipment are usually stored in a cabinet mounted on a wall close to the gas cylinders. The cabinet has three doors one of which opens down and to it the filler stand is attached. At the top of the filler stand is a "L" shaped pipe with two rings, a small one on the bottom and a larger one on the top called the inflation nozzle. The rings stop the tube from dropping through the stand or rising too far when the balloon is inflated. The top ring has several grooves cut into it, to help grip the balloon which is fitted to it.  At the bottom of the pipe is a weight that, when the precise amount of gas has been added, will lift to indicate the balloon is full. A rubber hose is attached to this pipe and passes through the filler stand twice. The first hole is larger than the tube to permit movement, while the second is used to hold the tubing in place.  From there the tube runs to a needle valve that controls the amount of gas flowing to the balloon. A second tube will then run from the valve to a regulator valve that is attached to the gas cylinder. This valve has two pressure gauges attached. One showing the total pressure remaining in the gas cylinder and the second showing the amount of gas flowing through the tubing. Typically the cylinder, which is made of steel and weighs about 140 lb (65 kg). It contains the equivalent of about 200 ft (5.7 m) of gas at standard pressure, stored at a pressure of 2000 psi (14 megapascals) and will inflate approximately 120 balloons (according to a nominal diameter of 45 cm).  On the opposite side of the cabinet is space to store balloons, string and pibal lights. The gas used to fill the balloon is helium or hydrogen. Because of its low cost ceiling balloons are often filled with hydrogen gas, but sometimes helium is used.  The balloon is attached to the inflation nozzle and a piece of string is wound around the neck. After donning safety glasses and hearing protection a check is made to ensure the needle valve is fully closed. The main valve on the cylinder is then opened, followed by the regulator valve. Next, the needle valve is opened and the balloon begins to inflate. As the balloon reaches the correct size the inflation nozzle will begin to lift. At this point the needle valve is closed along with the regulator valve and cylinder valve. The string is then used to tie off the balloon neck to ensure that no gas can escape.  Caution must be used during inflation due to the occasional faulty balloon and its failure. If the person inflating the balloon is not wearing goggles or hearing protectors then eye or ear damage can result.

A ceiling balloon also called a pilot balloon or pibal, is used by meteorologists to determine the height of the base of clouds above ground level during daylight hours. In the past, and sometimes today, a theodolite was used to track the balloon in order to determine the speed and direction of winds aloft. The principle behind the ceiling balloon is that timing of a balloon with a known ascent rate (how fast it climbs) from its release until it disappears into the clouds can be used to calculate the height of the bottom of the clouds.

Ein Pilotballon wird von den Meteorologen benutzt, um die Höhe der Unterseite der Wolken über dem Erdboden während der Tagesstunden festzustellen. Der Ballon wird dazu derart befüllt, dass seine Aufstiegsgeschwindigkeit bekannt ist. Aus der gemessenen Zeitspanne zwischen dem Start des Ballons und seinem Eintauchen in die Wolke kann man so auf die Höhe der Wolkenuntergrenze schließen. Durch die Verfolgung der Flugbahn, früher mit einem Theodolit, heute mittels Radar oder GPS, können Richtung und Geschwindigkeit von Höhenwinden bestimmt werden.


Geography.

Balkh Province is situated in the northern part of Afghanistan, bordering Turkmenistan in the north-west, bordering Uzbekistan in the north, Tajikistan in the north-east, Kunduz Province in the east, Samangan Province in the south-east, Sar-e Pol Province in the south-west and Jowzjan Province in the west. The province covers an area of 16,840 km2. Nearly half of the province is mountainous or semi-mountainous terrain (48.7%) while half of the area (50.2%) is made up of flat land.

History.

Ancient history.

The Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC, also known as the "Oxus civilization") is the modern archaeological designation for a Bronze Age culture of Central Asia, dated to ca. 2200–1700 BCE, located in present-day Turkmenistan, northern Afghanistan, southern Uzbekistan and western Tajikistan, centered on the upper Amu Darya (Oxus), in area covering ancient Bactria. Its sites were discovered and named by the Soviet archaeologist Viktor Sarianidi (1976). Bactria was the Greek name for the area of "Bakhlo" (modern Balkh), in what is now northern Afghanistan, and "Margiana" was the Greek name for the Persian satrapy of Margu, the capital of which was Merv, in today's Turkmenistan.  The early Greek historian Ctesias c. 400 BCE (followed by Diodorus Siculus) alleged that the legendary Assyrian king Ninus had defeated a Bactrian king named Oxyartes in ca. 2140 BC, or some 1000 years before the Trojan War. Ever since the discovery of cuneiform enabled actual Assyrian records to be deciphered in the 19th century, however, historians have ascribed little value to the Greek account.  According to some writers, Bactria was the homeland of Indo-European tribes who moved south-west into what is today Iran and into the north-western Indian Subcontinent (modern day Pakistan and India) around 2500–2000 BCE. Later, it became the northern province of the Achaemenid Empire. It was in these regions, where the fertile soil of the mountainous country is surrounded by the Turanian desert, that the prophet Zoroaster (Zarathushtra) was said to have been born and gained his first adherents. Avestan, the language of the oldest portions of the Zoroastrian "Avesta", was one of the old Iranian languages, and is the oldest attested member of the Eastern Iranian branch of the Iranian language family.  It is suggested by E. Herzfeld that Bactria once belonged to the Median empire. It was annexed by the Achaemenid Persians in the 6th century BCE and together with Margiana it formed the twelfth satrapy of the Achaemenids. After Darius III of Persia was defeated by Alexander the Great and killed in the ensuing chaos, his murderer Bessus, the satrap of Bactria, tried to organize a national resistance based on his satrapie but was captured by other warlords and delivered to Alexander. He was then tortured and killed.  Alexander the Great conquered Sogdiana and Persia. However, in the south, beyond the Oxus, he met strong resistance. After two years of war Bactria was occupied by the Macedonians, but Alexander never successfully subdued the people. After Alexander's death, the Macedonian Empire was eventually divided up between several generals in Alexander's army. Bactria became part of Seleucus I, the founder of the Seleucid Empire.  "The famed Bactrian Empire of a thousand cities, wallowing in wealth (opulentissimum illud mille urbium Bactrianum imperium)"  The many difficulties against which the Seleucid kings had to fight and the attacks of Ptolemy II of Egypt gave Diodotus, satrap of Bactria, the opportunity to declare independence (about 255 BCE) and conquer Sogdiana. He was the founder of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom. Diodotus and his successors were able to maintain themselves against the attacks of the Seleucids—particularly from Antiochus III the Great, who was ultimately defeated by the Romans (190 BCE).  The Greco-Bactrians were so powerful that they were able to expand their territory as far as India:  The Greco-Bactrians used Greek language for administrative purposes, and the local Bactrian language was also Hellenized, as suggested by its adoption of the Greek alphabet and Greek loanwords. In turn, some of these words were also borrowed by modern Pashto, the language of Afghanistan. The weakness of the Greco-Bactrians was shown by its sudden and complete overthrow, first by the Sakas, and then by the Yuezhi (who later became known as Kushans), who had conquered Bactria by the time of the visit of the Chinese envoy Zhang Qian (circa 127 BCE), who had been sent by the Han emperor to investigate lands to the west of China.  Under the Sassanids the province would become part of the area known as Khorasan.  "Kujula Kadphises", the Guishuang "xihou" (or prince) of the Da Yuezhi, united the region in the early 1st century and laid the foundations for the powerful, but short-lived, Kushan Empire (1st to 3rd century CE), which was then overcome by the Sassanians from Persia. The name Daxia appears in Chinese from the 3rd century BCE to designate a mythical kingdom to the West, possibly a consequence of the first contacts with the expansion of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, and then is used by the explorer Zhang Qian in 126 BCE to designate Bactria. The reports of Zhang Qian were put in writing in the "Shiji" ("Records of the Grand Historian") by Sima Qian in the 1st century BCE. They describe an important urban civilization of about one million people, living in walled cities under small city kings or magistrates. Daxia was an affluent country with rich markets, trading in an incredible variety of objects, coming as far as Southern China. By the time Zhang Qian visited Daxia, there was no longer a major king, and the Bactrian were suzerains to the nomadic Yuezhi, who were settled to the north of their territory beyond the Oxus (Amu Darya). Overall Zhang Qian depicted a rather sophisticated but demoralized people who were afraid of war.  Following these reports, the Chinese Emperor Wu Di was informed of the level of sophistication of the urban civilizations of Ferghana, Bactria and Parthia, and became interested in developing commercial relationship with them:  These contacts immediately led to the dispatch of multiple embassies from the Chinese, which helped to develop the Silk Road.

Modern history.

presently shia muslims form the vast majority of province approx 70% while sunnies being the rest

Politics and governance.

The current governor of the province is Ishaq Rahgozar. The city of Mazar-i-Sharif is the capital of the province. All law enforcement activities throughout the province are controlled by the Afghan National Police (ANP). Balkh's border with Uzbekistan is monitored by the Afghan Border Police (ABP). The provincial police chief represents the Ministry of the Interior in Kabul. The ANP is backed by other Afghan National Security Forces (ANSF), including the National Directorate of Security (NDS) and NATO-led forces.

Healthcare.

The percentage of households with clean drinking water increased from 8% in 2005 to 15% in 2011. The percentage of births attended to by a skilled birth attendant increased from 0% in 2005 to 20% in 2011.

Education.

The overall literacy rate (6+ years of age) increased from 12% in 2005 to 23% in 2011. The overall net enrolment rate (6–13 years of age) increased from 22% in 2005 to 46% in 2011.  The total population of the province is about 1,245,100, which is a multi-ethnic and mostly Persian-speaking (40% Tajik, 25% Hazara) society.  According to the Naval Postgraduate School:Balkh is ethnically diverse, including substantial Tajik, Hazara, Pashtuns, Arab, Uzbek, Turkomen, and Sunni Hazara (Kawshi) communities.  According to the World Food ProgramAround 66% of the population of Balkh lives in rural districts while 34% lives in urban areas. Around 51% of the population is male and 49% is female. The major ethnic groups living in Balkh province are Tajiks and Hazaras followed by Uzbek, Pashtuns, Turkman, Arab and Baluch. Farsi is spoken by more or less 65% of the population. The second most frequent language is Uzbeki_turkmeni, spoken by 25% of the population, followed by Pashto (7%) and others (3%).<br>Balkh province also has a very small population of Kuchis or nomads whose numbers vary in different seasons.

Districts.

Balkh province is divided into 15 districts.

Sport.

The locals of Balkh take great pride in their sporting history and culture. Every Nowruz (Persian New Year), Balkh is the site of many sporting events. Buzkashi is a traditional horse riding sport of the region and is very popular in this province. Pehlwani is also a popular sport in the province. However, the most popular presently and for the last 50 years has been Soccer, this was evident in the Balkh team Simorgh Alborz F.C. finishing runners up in the inaugural Afghan Premier League and in their contributions to the National Team.

Balkh (Pashto and, "Balx") is one of the 34 provinces of Afghanistan, located in the north of the country. It is divided into 15 districts and has a population of about 1,245,100, which is multi-ethnic and mostly a Persian-speaking society. The city of Mazar-i-Sharif serves as the capital of the province. The Mazar-e Sharif International Airport and Camp Marmal sit on the eastern edge of Mazar-i-Sharif.

Farah (Paschtu/Dari: ) ist eine Provinz in Westafghanistan. Die Hauptstadt dieser Provinz ist die gleichnamige Stadt Farah. Die meisten der 507.400 Bewohner dieser Provinz sind Paschtunen und Tadschiken bzw. Farsiwan, wobei die Eigenbezeichnung der persischsprachigen Bevölkerung in Farah "Farsiwan" ist. Die gesprochene Sprache ist Dari, wobei hier der sogenannte Herati-Dialekt verbreitet ist. Der Name "Farah" kommt aus dem Arabischen und bedeutet „Fröhlichkeit“ und „Feier“ ().


History.

The influence of rhythmic sounds and drums to enter altered states of consciousness is used in different indigenous tribes (see Shamanic music), as well as optical stimulation produced by the flickering light of camp fires or pressing lightly on the eyeballs. This “stroboscopic photo-stimulation produces "photic driving", the alpha type of brain electrical activity associated with an altered state in which people are susceptible to suggestion.” ( p. 12).  The first scientific observations were made by William Charles Wells in the 1790s who described different effects of binocular vision. His results were later transferred to be applied in binaural beats. Visual experiments with flickering lights were conducted in the 1940s by William Grey Walter who used stroboscopic light flashes to measure their effects on brain activity, assessed with EEG. He reported effect not just on visual areas but on the whole cortex.  During the '60s and '70s the interest in different methods to induce altered states without the use of drugs were rising. Some of the induced states by rhythmic light and sound combinations were even described as psychedelic-like, while these claims lack adequate measurements for their similarity. In this line, numerous nightclubs began using strobes to maximize the effects of the music for dancing.  The development of alpha EEG feedback (see neurofeedback) is an important starting point for biofeedback and its explicit use for entering altered states of consciousness. In these decades, Jack Schwarz built one of the first mind machines using rhythmic sounds and variable frequency lights in goggles to produce certain mental states. Enterprises started to produce different types of mind machines and some scientists followed the line of research to explore if and how these devices elicit effects on brain processes.  In the late 1980s and early 1990s Farley initiated an investigation concerning medical claims made by some manufacturers and sellers. The FDA concluded that Light and Sound Machines were not medical devices and did not warrant regulation. Sellers and manufacturers were given guidelines for how they could advertise these devices, and were required to include a disclaimer and cautionary document with each machine. Nowadays, mind machines are rediscovered by some teenage cultures as so called “digital drugs”, a legal way to enter altered states of consciousness.

Application.

Mind machines include flashing light devices, which are similar to the Brion Gysin dreamachine in that both produce a flickering visual field. Unlike flashing light devices, the dreamachine can be used by several people at once, but has few, if any, technical features.

Technical setting.

Mind machines typically consist of a control unit, a pair of headphones and/or strobe light goggles. The unit controls the sessions and drives the LEDs in the goggles. Professionally, they are usually referred to as Auditory Visual Stimulation Devices (AVS devices). Also mind machines are offered that can connect to the Internet for updates download of new session material.

Application rate.

One session normally takes between 15 and 60 minutes. During a session the user should lie relaxed, and place the glasses on the eyes, which should remain closed during the whole session. Many machines have pre-programmed sessions which vary in parameters like light brightness, audio pitch or beat frequency but also give the opportunity for the user to create a custom session. Typically one session consists of a series of segments. Within one segment parameters change in a constant way. Mind machines are often used together with biofeedback or neurofeedback equipment in order to adjust the frequency on the fly, while proof for their effectiveness is lacking.

Description of altered states.

Perceptual changes.

Light & sound mind machines can have various effects on the user. Most users describe seeing a flashing light, others perceive swirling patterns that have been compared to psychedelic light shows or fractals. A few users report seeing detailed, virtual reality like scenes. But also tactile and emotional changes are reported after a 6 Hz photic stimulation, as well as auditory hallucinations like binaural beats.

Changes in brain activity.

Sessions will typically aim to address the target frequencies which correspond to delta (1-3 hertz), theta (4–7 Hz), alpha (8–12 Hz) or beta brain waves (13–40 Hz). Those frequency bands can be adjusted by the user based on the desired effects.  For relaxation, often a reduction from beta waves to lower alpha or theta frequencies is observed. It is aimed to reach a level of “slow alpha” (8 Hz). Glickson (1986) states that an alpha frequency of 10 Hz is optimal for perceiving visual hallucinations. He assumes that it's the change in alpha activity and not the alpha activity itself that is facilitating an altered state of consciousness.

After effects.

Even if research is not sufficient so far, Michael Hutchison and other scientists report strong tranquilizing effects that lasted up to 3 days. After several sessions it is observed that users can produce a desired brain state with the associated brainwaves easier and deliberately.

Other information.

Therapeutic Use.

Clinical research has been done on the use of auditory and visual stimulation to improve cognitive abilities in learning-disabled children as well as in the treatment of autism and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, lacking enough evidence to conclude that these treatments show efficacy, several studies indicate the potential to increase effects on IQ and reading levels in primary students (cite Olmstead, 2005), but also improvements in inattention and impulsiveness in children with ADHD (cite Siever).

Safety.

Rapidly flashing lights may be dangerous for people with photosensitive epilepsy or other nervous disorders. It is thought that one out of 10,000 adults will experience a seizure while viewing such a device; about twice as many children will have a similar ill effect.

Regulation.

Mind machine devices are legally available throughout the United States from many sources.  With some exceptions, these devices commonly do not have FDA approval for medical applications in the USA. They have been found by a U.S. district court to be Class III medical devices, and consequentially require FDA pre-market approval for all medical uses. One company making medical claims for a possibly unsafe device has been shut down and seen their devices destroyed.

A mind machine (aka "brain machine" or "light and sound machine") uses pulsing rhythmic sound, flashing light, electrical or magnetic fields, or a combination of these, to alter the frequency of the user's brainwaves. Mind machines can induce deep states of relaxation, concentration, and in some cases altered states of consciousness, which have been compared to those obtained from meditation and shamanic exploration. Photic mind machines work with flickering lights embedded in sunglasses or a lamp that sits on a tripod above your head or facing you. You then "Watch" with your eyes closed.

Als Mindmachine werden audiovisuelle Stimulationsgeräte bezeichnet, die mit Hilfe von gepulstem Licht und Ton beim Anwender Einfluss auf dessen EEG-Wellen nehmen sollen und damit bestimmte Bewusstseinszustände erreichen sollen. Typischerweise besteht eine Mindmachine aus einem Kopfhörer und einer Spezialbrille, die mit Leuchtdioden (LEDs) als Lichtquelle besetzt ist.


Geography.

Badakhshan is primarily bordered by Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province and Khatlon Province in Tajikistan to the north and east. In the east of the province a long spur called the Wakhan Corridor extends above northern Pakistan's Chitral and Northern Areas to a border with China. The province has a total area of, most of which is occupied by the Hindu Kush and Pamir mountain ranges.  Badakhshan was a stopover on the ancient Silk Road trading path and China has shown great interest in the province after the fall of the Taliban, helping to reconstruct roads and infrastructure.  According to the World Wildlife Fund, Badakhshan contains temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands, as well as Gissaro-Alai open woodlands along the Pamir River. Common plants found in these areas include pistachio, almond, walnut, apple, juniper, and sagebrush.  Montane grasslands and shrublands are existent in the province, with the Hindu Kush alpine meadow in the high mountains in the northern and southwestern regions.  The Wakhan corridor contains two montane grassland and shrubland regions: the Karakoram-West Tibetan Plateau alpine steppe and in the Pamir Mountains and Kuh-e Safed Khers in Darwaz region.  South of Fayzabad the terrain becomes dominated by deserts and xeric shrublands. Common vegetation includes thorny bushes, zizyphus, acacia, and Amygdatus. Paropamisus xeric woodlands can be found in the province's northwestern and central areas. Common vegetation includes almond, pistachio, willows, and sea-buckthorn.

History.

The area has a long history like the rest of Afghanistan, dating to its conquering by the Achaemenid Empire and beyond. Badakhshan etymologically derives from the Middle Persian word "badaxš", an official title. The suffix of the name, -"ān", means the region belonged to someone with the title "badaxš."  The territory was ruled by the Uzbek Khanate of Bukhara between the early 16th century and the mid-18th century. It was given to Ahmad Shah Durrani by Murad Beg of Bukhara after a treaty of friendship was reached in or about 1750 and became part of the Durrani Empire. It was ruled by the Durranis followed by the Barakzai dynasty, and was untouched by the British during the three Anglo-Afghan Wars that were fought in the 19th and 20th centuries. It remained peaceful for about 100 years until the 1980s Soviet–Afghan War at which point the Mujahideen began a rebellion against the central Afghan government.  During the 1990s, much of the area was controlled by forces loyal to Burhanuddin Rabbani and Ahmad Shah Massoud, who were "de facto" the national government until 1996. Badakhshan was the only province that the Taliban did not conquer during their rule from 1996 to 2001. However, during the course of the wars a non-Taliban Islamic emirate was established in Badakhshan by Mawlawi Shariqi, paralleling the Islamic Revolutionary State of Afghanistan in neighboring Nuristan. Rabbani, a Badakhshan native, and Massoud, were the last remnants of the anti-Taliban Northern Alliance during the peak of Taliban control in 2001.  Badakhshan was thus one of the few provinces of the country that witnessed little insurgency in the Afghan wars – however during the 2010s Taliban insurgents managed to attack and take control of several districts in the province.  On 26 October 2015, the 7.5 Mw Hindu Kush earthquake shook northern Afghanistan with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII ("Severe"). This earthquake destroyed almost 30,000 homes, left several hundred dead, and more than 1,700 injured.

Politics and governance.

The current Governor of the province is Shah Waliullah Adeeb. His predecessors were Munshi Abdul Majid and Baz Mohammad Ahmadi. The borders with neighboring Tajikistan, China, and Pakistan are monitored by the Afghan Border Police (ABP). All law enforcement activities throughout the province are handled by the Afghan National Police (ANP). A provincial Police Chief is assigned to lead both the ANP and the ABP. The Police Chief represents the Ministry of the Interior in Kabul. The ANP is backed by the military, including the NATO-led forces.  Fayzabad, the capital of Badakhshan province, sits on the Kokcha River and has an approximate population of 50,000. The chief commercial and administrative center of northeast Afghanistan and the Pamir region, Fayzabad also has rice and flour mills.

Transportation.

Fayzabad Airport serves the province with regular direct flights to Kabul.

Healthcare.

The percentage of households with clean drinking water increased from 13% in 2005 to 21% in 2011. The percentage of births attended to by a skilled birth attendant increased from 1.5% in 2003 to 2% in 2011.

Education.

The overall literacy rate (6+ years of age) fell from 31% in 2005 to 26% in 2011. The overall net enrolment rate (6–13 years of age) increased from 46% in 2005 to 68% in 2011.

Economy.

Despite massive mineral reserves, Badakhshan is one of the most destitute areas in the world. Opium poppy growing is the only real source of income in the province and Badakhshan has one of the highest rates of maternal mortality in the world, due to the complete lack of health infrastructure, inaccessible locations, and bitter winters of the province. BORNA Institute of Higher Education being the first private university located on the bank of Kokcha river.  Lapis lazuli has been mined in the Sar-e-Sang mines, located in the Kuran wa Munjan District of Badakhshan, for over 6,000 years. The mines were the largest and most well-known source in ancient times. Most recent mining activity has focused on lapis lazuli, with the proceeds from the lapis mines being used to fund Northern Alliance troops, and before that, anti-Soviet Mujahideen fighters. Recent geological surveys have indicated the location of other gemstone deposits, in particular rubies and emeralds. It is estimated that the mines at Kuran wa Munjan District hold up to 1,290 tonnes of azure (lapis lazuli). Exploitation of this mineral wealth could be key to the region's prosperity.

Sport.

The province is represented in Afghan domestic cricket competitions by the Badakhshan Province cricket team BORNA Cricket Club which belong to BORNA Institute of Higher Education is coming up with its own team and will be groomed by the experts in the field of cricket.

Demography.

The population of the province is about 904,700, which is a multi-ethnic rural society. Dari-speaking, Tajiks make up the majority followed by Uzbeks, Hazaras, Pashtuns, Kyrgyz, Qizilbash, and others. There are also speakers of the following Pamiri languages: Shughni, Munji, Ishkashimi, and Wakhi.  The inhabitants of the province are mostly Sunni Muslims, although there are also some Ismaili Shias.  Historical population estimates for Badakhshan province are as follows:

Badakhshan Province (, "Badaxšān wilāyat") is one of the 34 provinces of Afghanistan, located in the farthest northeastern part of the country between Tajikistan and Pakistan’s Gilgit-Baltistan region. It shares a 56.5-mile (91 km) border with China.

Badachschan (auch "Badakhshan", Paschtu/Dari ) ist eine afghanische Provinz, die sich im äußersten Nordosten des Landes befindet. Die Provinz hat eine Fläche von 44.836 km2. Die Provinzhauptstadt ist Faizabad. Badachschan hat etwa 966.800 Einwohner. Im Norden grenzt Badachschan an Tadschikistan (Region Berg-Badachschan), im Südosten an Pakistan und im äußersten Osten an die Volksrepublik China. Die Hauptsprache ist Dari.


Medieval heritage.

Despite its relatively modern origin, Tokmok stands in the middle of the Chuy Valley, which was a prize sought by many medieval conquerors. The ruins of Ak-Beshim, the capital of the Western Turkic Khaganate, are situated 8 km southwest from Tokmok. Yusuf Has Hajib Balasaguni, author of the Kutadgu Bilig is said to have been born in this area.  About 15 km south of Tokmok is the 11th-century Burana Tower, located on the grounds of an ancient citadel of which today only a large earthen mound remains. This is believed to be the site of the ancient city of Balasagun, founded by the Sogdians and later for some time the capital of the Kara-Khanid empire. A large collection of ancient gravestones and bal-bals is nearby. Excavated Scythian artifacts have been moved to museums in St. Petersburg and Bishkek.

Demographics.

According to the Population and Housing Census of 2009, the population of Tokmok was 53,231.  The population of Tokmok is mostly made up of Kyrgyz and ethnic Russians. Other ethnic groups include Dungans and Uzbeks.

Geography.

Climate.

Tokmok has a hot summer Mediterranean continental climate (Köppen climate classification "Dsa"). The average annual temperature is 9.5 °C (49.1 °F). The warmest month is July with an average temperature of 23.3 °C (73.9 °F) and the coolest month is January with an average temperature of −5.3 °C (22.5 °F). The average annual precipitation is 434.2mm (17") and has an average of 108.3 days with precipitation. The wettest month is April with an average of 70mm (2.8") of precipitation and the driest month is August with an average of 12.1mm (0.5") of precipitation.

Industry.

The glass manufacturer Interglass LLC is based in Tokmok. The Tokmok plant produces about 2,800 tons of liquid glass per day and 600 tons of glass is produced of the mass per day. Annual production is 200 000 tons. At present, raw materials for glass production are mainly provided by Russia and Kazakhstan.

Tokmok (, "Tokmok" ('hammer');, "Tokmak") is a city in the Chuy Valley, northern Kyrgyzstan, east of the country's capital of Bishkek, with a population of 53,231 in 2009. Its geographical location is ; its altitude is 816 m above sea level. From 2004 to 2006, it was the administrative seat of Chuy Region. Just to the north is the Chu River and the border with Kazakhstan.

Tokmok (kirgisisch Токмок; russ. Токмак/"Tokmak") ist eine Stadt im Norden von Kirgisistan. Sie liegt am Südufer des Flusses Tschüi, der hier die Grenze zu Kasachstan bildet.


Background.

After the death of Rudolph I at Germersheim on 15 July 1291, his son Albert I was to be the most suitable successor to the throne of the Holy Roman Empire. However, Albert's undignified personality (ubiquitously called "Albert the One-Eyed", due to an open eye socket from a battle injury;) and his bad attitude dismayed the prince electors. Mostly, though they feared too strong a kingship of the son of former king Rudolph I, who controlled one of the strongest domestic power bases in the empire. At the Imperial Diet near Frankfurt the following year, they resolved to elect Adolf of Nassau-Weilburg, a cousin of one of the electors, a man with very little domestic power. Although Albert publicly recognized Adolf's election with good grace, he was driven by irreconcilable anger and plotted against him. Once king, Adolf of Nassau-Weilburg was determined to forge his own power base and attempted to seize Thuringia and Meissen from the Wettins. As he had repeatedly abused his royal prerogative, Adolf was - without electoral process - declared banished by the electors. Adolf, however, defending his royal rights, went on campaign against the Austrian.  Albrecht had already followed the Archbishop of Mainz's (one of the electors) request, to move to the Rhine and engage Adolf, who, however opposed Albrecht's troops with a strong army of his own. Prior to the decisive battle, near Ulm and Breisach Albrecht avoided the troops of Adolf, who intended to stop him marching west. Albrecht then advanced north through the Upper Rhine valley towards Mainz. Albrecht's army included contingents from the Habsburg territories, Hungary, Switzerland and those of Henry II, Prince-Bishop of Constance, summoned at the fortified city of Alzey and seized the castle. Albrecht received the news of Adolf's deposition on June 23, 1298.  Adolf approached from the imperial city of Worms, in order to relieve Alzey Castle. His forces consisted of contingents from the Taunus, Adolf's home region, the Electoral Palatinate, Franconia, Lower Bavaria, Alsace and St. Gallen.

Battle.

Albrecht initially avoided a collision, but then on July 2, 1298 deployed his troops in a strategically favorable position on the "Hasenbühl", a hill near Göllheim. Göllheim community is located south of Alzey between Kaiserslautern and Worms, near the "Donnersberg" massif.  Johannes von Geissel describes the exact course of the battle in his 1835 monograph T"he Battle of Hasenbühl and the King's Cross at Göllheim". The battle was fought in three engagements and lasted from the morning until the early afternoon. Accordingly, the battle remained undecided for many hours and, even after Adolf's death, did it not end immediately. The third engagement proved to be decisive. Adolf, who is said to have rushed to attack, was possibly slain by a Raugrave named Georg. Thereupon a large part of Adolf's army dissolved and fled, others continued to fight until they learnt about Adolf's death. According to Geissel's monograph, 3,000 battle horses perished on the losing side, while the winners fared not much better. The result of the battle was generally considered as a judgment of God. Nevertheless, Albrecht insisted on a formal election by the electors, which took place in Frankfurt on July 27, 1298. As the kingship returned to the Habsburgs, the conflicts of interest between the electors and the king continued.  Adolf's widow, Imagina of Isenburg-Limburg, saw her husband's coffin transferred from Rosenthal Abbey to Speyer Cathedral by emperor Henry VII in 1309. There he was buried alongside his rival Albrecht, who had been murdered in 1308 by his own nephew Johann. Imagina had a memorial cross erected on the battlefield near Göllheim, which was designed in the early Gothic style. In the 19th century a chapel was built around it and it has been preserved to this day.

The Battle of Göllheim was fought on 2 July 1298 between the forces of duke Albert I of Habsburg and king Adolf of Germany over the prince electors' decision, without electoral act, to dethrone Adolf and proclaim Albrecht the new king. Adolf lost his life in the battle.

Die Schlacht bei Göllheim, seltener auch Schlacht auf dem Hasenbühl, fand am 2. Juli 1298 auf dem "Hasenbühl" statt, einem Hügel auf der Gemarkung der nordpfälzischen Ortsgemeinde Göllheim (im heutigen Bundesland Rheinland-Pfalz), zwischen den Truppen des habsburgischen Herzogs Albrecht von Österreich und des römisch-deutschen Königs Adolf von Nassau. Ursache der kriegerischen Auseinandersetzung waren die Absetzung Adolfs durch die Kurfürsten und die Proklamation Albrechts zum Gegenkönig gewesen. Adolf verlor bei der Schlacht sein Leben.


History.

The group was founded in September 2003, as an umbrella organization for guerrillas, with former members of Ansar al-Islam who had fled to Iran after a 2003 joint operation by Iraqi and US forces. Their goal was to expel U.S. occupation forces from Iraq.  Following the twin Sunni and Shiite uprisings of the spring and summer of 2004, and the subsequent decrease in U.S patrols and the creation of "no-go" areas in the Sunni Triangle, Ansar al-Sunna was believed to be part of a loose coalition of insurgent groups (also including guerrillas from al-Tawhid wal Jihad) controlling the Sunni cities of Fallujah, Ramadi, Samarra, and Baquba (U.S. offensives later largely wrested control from Baquba, Fallujah, and Samarra, although underground guerrilla resistance forces still had a strong presence in those cities).  The United States and Iraqi Interim governments linked Ansar al-Sunna with Abu Musab al-Zarqawis, Jama'at al-Tawhid wal-Jihad (al-Qaeda in Iraq). In October 2004 Ansar al-Sunna released a video beheading of a Turkish truck driver on its website. The kidnappers on the video identified themselves as members of al-Tawhid wal Jihad (Source: MERIA). However a letter intercepted by the American military in January 2007 revealed the two groups had begun feuding.  In July 2007 representatives of the Jaish Ansar al-Sunna were instrumental in forming an alliance of Sunni militant groups to prepare for the withdrawal of American and allied forces. The new alliance was composed of seven groupings explicitly excluding al-Qaeda and the Baath-party. This delimitation revealed a split between al-Qaeda and Ansar al-Sunna over tactics, alleged attacks on Iraqi Shia civilians being a main point of difference.  In December 2007, the leader of the Ansar al-Sunnah, Abu Abdullah al-Shafi, issued a communique acknowledging that the group was simply another name for Ansar al-Islam. The communique went on to state that from that point on, they would return to operating under the name of Ansar al-Islam.  A small group still using the name "Jamaat Ansar al-Sunna" has been active in the surge of militant activity in 2014.

Suicide bombings.

Jaish Ansar al-Sunna claimed responsibility for several suicide bombings in Iraq, including the devastating attacks on the offices of two main Kurdish political parties, KDP and PUK, in Irbil on February 1, 2004, that killed at least 109 people. The strikes were one of the bloodiest attacks launched by insurgents since the start of the war.  It produced tapes and CDs that marked the "last testaments" of six bombers from previous attacks, three of whom appeared non-Iraqi. Its name also appeared with eleven other insurgent groups on leaflets passed out in the Sunni Triangle cities of Ramadi and Fallujah from January 31, 2004 to February 1, 2004. The leaflets detailed the insurgency's plan for seizing Iraqi cities following the departure of coalition forces.  It also had a strong presence in Mosul where it launched an offensive in November 2004 along with other foreign fighters and militant groups. After the Battle of Mosul (2004) the group maintained pockets of resistance in the western part of the city. It continued to clash with units such as the 1st Battalion, 25th Infantry Regiment and it claimed responsibility for a major suicide bombing of the dining hall at the US base in Mosul on December 21, 2004 that killed 22 people, including 14 American soldiers. The attacker was reportedly a suicide bomber wearing an explosive vest under the uniform of an Iraqi security officer. The suicide bomber's name was Abu Museli.

Jamaat Ansar al-Sunnah ( "Jama'at 'Anṣār as-Sunnah", "Assembly of the Helpers of Sunnah"), also known as Jaish Ansar al-Sunna, was an Iraqi Sunni insurgent group that fought against US Troops and their local allies during the Iraq War. The group was primarily based in northern and central Iraq, and included mostly Iraqi (Both Sunni Arab and Sunni Kurdish) fighters. In 2007, it split into two groups; one began operating under the name Ansar al-Islam, and the second group called itself Ansar al-Sunnah Shariah Committee, before changing its name to Ansar al-Ahlu Sunnah in 2011.

Dschaysch Ansar as-Sunnah () ist eine militante kurdisch-arabische Islamistengruppierung sunnitischer Prägung, die eine radikale Deutung des Islams und des Heiligen Krieges im Irak vertritt.


Signs and symptoms.

The most common symptoms in impingement syndrome are pain, weakness and a loss of movement at the affected shoulder. The pain is often worsened by shoulder overhead movement and may occur at night, especially when lying on the affected shoulder. The onset of the pain may be acute if due to an injury or insidious if due to a gradual process such as an osteoarthritic spur. The pain has been described as dull rather than sharp, and lingers for long periods of time, making it hard to fall asleep. Other symptoms can include a grinding or popping sensation during movement of the shoulder.  The range of motion at the shoulder may be limited by pain. A painful arc of movement may be present during forward elevation of the arm from 60° to 120°. Passive movement at the shoulder will appear painful when a downward force is applied at the acromion but the pain will ease once the force is removed.

Causes.

When the arm is raised, the subacromial space (gap between the anterior edge of the acromion and the head of the humerus) narrows; the supraspinatus muscle tendon passes through this space. Anything that causes further narrowing has the tendency to impinge the tendon and cause an inflammatory response, resulting in impingement syndrome. Such causes can be bony structures such as subacromial spurs (bony projections from the acromion), osteoarthritic spurs on the acromioclavicular joint, and variations in the shape of the acromion. Thickening or calcification of the coracoacromial ligament can also cause impingement. Loss of function of the rotator cuff muscles, due to injury or loss of strength, may cause the humerus to move superiorly, resulting in impingement. Inflammation and subsequent thickening of the subacromial bursa may also cause impingement.  Weight training exercises where the arms are elevated above shoulder height but in an internally rotated position such as the upright row have been suggested as a cause of subacromial impingement. Another common cause of Impingement syndrome is restrictions in the range movement of the scapulo-thoracic surfaces. Commonly, a rib (or ribs) between rib 2 and rib 7/8 on the side of the impingement, may jut out slightly and/or feel hard when the person springs on it/them. When this occurs, the scapula is raised and anteverted (angled forwards). This in turn pushes the acromion and the humeral head out of its usual anatomical position placing pressure downwards at the head of the humerus at the position of the nerve thus causing the impingement syndrome. This is visibly demonstrated by a slightly raised and protracted shoulder girdle. Note: the humerus anteverts in this position causing a more protrusive section of the humerus to press upwards towards the acromion.

Mechanism.

The scapula plays an important role in shoulder impingement syndrome. It is a wide, flat bone lying on the posterior thoracic wall that provides an attachment for three different groups of muscles. The intrinsic muscles of the scapula include the muscles of the rotator cuff- the subscapularis, infraspinatus, teres minor and supraspinatus. These muscles attach to the surface of the scapula and are responsible for the internal and external rotation of the glenohumeral joint, along with humeral abduction. The extrinsic muscles include the biceps, triceps, and deltoid muscles and attach to the coracoid process and supraglenoid tubercle of the scapula, infraglenoid tubercle of the scapula, and spine of the scapula. These muscles are responsible for several actions of the glenohumeral joint. The third group, which is mainly responsible for stabilization and rotation of the scapula, consists of the trapezius, serratus anterior, levator scapulae, and rhomboid muscles and attach to the medial, superior, and inferior borders of the scapula. Each of these muscles has their own role in shoulder function and must be in balance with each other in order to avoid shoulder pathology.  Abnormal scapular function is called scapular dyskinesis. One action the scapula performs during a throwing or serving motion is elevation of the acromion process in order to avoid impingement of the rotator cuff tendons. If the scapula fails to properly elevate the acromion, impingement may occur during the cocking and acceleration phase of an overhead activity. The two muscles most commonly inhibited during this first part of an overhead motion are the serratus anterior and the lower trapezius. These two muscles act as a force couple within the glenohumeral joint to properly elevate the acromion process, and if a muscle imbalance exists, shoulder impingement may develop.  The scapula may also be misplaced if a rib deep to it is not moving correctly. Often in the case of Shoulder Impingement Syndrome, the scapula may be anteverted such that the shoulder on the affected side appears protracted. The ribs that may cause such an anteversion of the scapula include ribs 2–8.

Diagnosis.

Impingement syndrome can be diagnosed by a targeted medical history and physical examination, but it has also been argued that at least medical imaging (generally X-ray initially) and/or response to local anesthetic injection is necessary for workup.  On physical exam, the physician may twist or elevate the patient's arm to test for reproducible pain (the Neer sign and Hawkins-Kennedy test). These tests help localize the pathology to the rotator cuff; however, they are not specific for impingement. Neer sign may also be seen with subacromial bursitis.

Response to local anesthetic.

The physician may inject lidocaine (usually combined with a steroid) into the bursa, and if there is an improved range of motion and decrease in pain, this is considered a positive "Impingement Test". It not only supports the diagnosis for impingement syndrome, but it is also therapeutic.

Imaging.

Plain x-rays of the shoulder can be used to detect some joint pathology and variations in the bones, including acromioclavicular arthritis, variations in the acromion, and calcification. However, x-rays do not allow visualization of soft tissue and thus hold a low diagnostic value. Ultrasonography, arthrography and MRI can be used to detect rotator cuff muscle pathology. MRI is the best imaging test prior to arthroscopic surgery. Due to lack of understanding of the pathoaetiology, and lack of diagnostic accuracy in the assessment process by many physicians, several opinions are recommended before intervention.

Treatment.

Impingement syndrome is usually treated conservatively, but sometimes it is treated with arthroscopic surgery or open surgery. Conservative treatment includes rest, cessation of painful activity, and physical therapy. Physical therapy treatments would typically focus at maintaining range of movement, improving posture, strengthening shoulder muscles, and reduction of pain. NSAIDs and ice packs may be used for pain relief.  Therapeutic exercises might be favorable intervention compared to passive treatment approaches, electroherapy and placebo, Exercises may helps to regain the scapulo-humeral rhythm and scapular control which may reduce pain.

Steroids.

Therapeutic injections of corticosteroid and local anaesthetic may be used for persistent impingement syndrome. The total number of injections is generally limited to three due to possible side effects from the corticosteroid. A 2017 review found corticosteroid injections only give small and transient pain relief.

Surgery.

A number of surgical interventions are available, depending on the nature and location of the pathology. Surgery may be done arthroscopically or as open surgery. The impinging structures may be removed in surgery, and the subacromial space may be widened by resection of the distal clavicle and excision of osteophytes on the under-surface of the acromioclavicular joint. Damaged rotator cuff muscles can be surgically repaired.  A 2019 review found that the evidence does not support decompression surgery in those with more than 3 months of shoulder pain without a history of trauma.

History.

Impingement syndrome was reported in 1852. Impingement of the shoulder was previously thought to be precipitated by shoulder abduction and surgical intervention focused on lateral or total acromionectomy. In 1972, Charles Neer proposed that impingement was due to the anterior third of the acromion and the coracoacromial ligament and suggested surgery should be focused on these areas. The role of anteriorinferior aspect of the acromion in impingement syndrome and excision of parts of the anteriorinferior acromion has become a pivotal part of the surgical treatment of the syndrome.

Criticism.

Subacromial impingement is not free of criticism. First, the identification of acromion type shows poor intra- and inter-observer reliability. Second, a computerized three-dimensional study failed to support impingement by any portion of the acromion on the rotator cuff tendons in different shoulder positions. Third, most partial-thickness cuff tears do not occur on bursal surface fibers, where mechanical abrasion from the acromion does occur. Fourth, it has been suggested that bursal surface cuff tears could be responsible for subacromial spurs and not the opposite. And finally, there is growing evidence that routine acromioplasty may not be required for successful rotator cuff repair, which would be an unexpected finding if acromial shape had a major role in generating tendon lesions. In summary, despite being a popular theory, the bulk of evidence suggest that subacromial impingement probably does not play a dominant role in many cases of rotator cuff disease.

Shoulder impingement syndrome is a syndrome involving tendonitis (inflammation of tendons) of the rotator cuff muscles as they pass through the subacromial space, the passage beneath the acromion. It is particularly associated with tendonitis of the supraspinatus muscle. This can result in pain, weakness, and loss of movement at the shoulder.

Als Impingement-Syndrom (engl. „Zusammenstoß“) bezeichnet man in der Orthopädie und Unfallchirurgie eine Funktionsbeeinträchtigung der Gelenkbeweglichkeit. Es entsteht zumeist durch Degeneration oder Einklemmung von Kapsel- oder Sehnenmaterial.


History.

Establishment.

Initially, Nurhaci's forces were organized into small hunting parties of about a dozen men related by blood, marriage, clan, or place of residence, as was the typical Jurchen custom. In 1601, with the number of men under his command growing, Nurhaci reorganized his troops into companies of 300 households. Five companies made up a battalion, and ten battalions a banner. Four banners were originally created: Yellow, White, Red, and Blue, each named after the color of its flag. By 1614, the number of companies had grown to around 400. In 1615, the number of banners was doubled through the creation of "bordered" banners. The troops of each of the original four banners would be split between a plain and a bordered banner. The bordered variant of each flag was to have a red border, except for the Bordered Red Banner, which had a white border instead.  The banner armies expanded rapidly after a string of military victories under Nurhaci and his successors. Beginning in the late 1620s, the Jurchens incorporated allied and conquered Mongol tribes into the Eight Banner system. In 1635, Hong Taiji, son of Nurhaci, renamed his people from Jurchen to Manchu. That same year the Mongols were separated into the Mongol Eight Banners (Manchu:, "monggo gūsa"; ).

Invasions of Korea.

Under Hong Taiji, the banner armies participated in two invasions of Korea under the Joseon dynasty, first in 1627 and again in 1636. As a consequence, Korea was forced to end its former relationship with the Ming dynasty and become a Qing tributary instead.

Conquest of the Ming.

Initially, Chinese troops were incorporated into the existing Manchu Banners. When Hong Taiji captured Yongping in 1629, a contingent of artillerymen surrendered to him. In 1631, these troops were organized into the so-called Old Han Army under the Chinese commander Tong Yangxing. These artillery units were used decisively to defeat Ming general Zu Dashou's forces at the siege of Dalinghe that same year. In 1636, Hong Taiji proclaimed the creation of the Qing dynasty.  Between 1637 and 1642, the Old Han Army, mostly made up of Liaodong natives who had surrendered at Yongping, Fushun, Dalinghe, etc., were organized into the Han Chinese Eight Banners (Manchu: "nikan cooha" or "ujen cooha"; ). The original Eight Banners were thereafter referred to as the Manchu Eight Banners (Manchu:, "manju gūsa"; ). Although still called the "Eight Banners" in name, there were now effectively twenty-four banner armies, eight for each of the three main ethnic groups (Manchu, Mongol, and Chinese).  Among the Banners gunpowder weapons, such as muskets and artillery, were specifically wielded by the Chinese Banners.  After Hong Taiji's death, Dorgon, commander of the Solid White Banner, became regent. He quickly purged his rivals and took control over Hong Taiji's Solid Blue Banner. By 1644, an estimated two million people were living in the Eight Banners system. That year, the Chinese rebel Li Zicheng captured Beijing and the last emperor of the Ming dynasty, Chongzhen, committed suicide. Dorgon and his bannermen joined forces with Ming defector Wu Sangui to defeat Li at the Battle of Shanhai Pass and secure Beijing for the Qing. The young Shunzhi Emperor was then enthroned in the Forbidden City.  Ming defectors played a major role in the Qing conquest of China. Han Chinese generals who defected to the Manchus were often given women from the Imperial Aisin Gioro family in marriage while the ordinary soldiers who defected were given non-royal Manchu women as wives. The Qing differentiated between Han bannermen and ordinary Han civilians. Han bannermen were made out of Han Chinese who defected to the Qing up to 1644 and joined the Eight Banners, giving them social and legal privileges in addition to being acculturated to Manchu culture. So many Han defected to the Qing and swelled up the ranks of the Eight Banners that ethnic Manchus became a minority within the Banners, making up only 16% in 1648, with Han bannermen dominating with 75% and Mongol Bannermen making up the rest. It was this multi-ethnic force, in which Manchus were only a minority, which conquered China for the Qing. Hong Taiji recognized that Ming Han Chinese defectors were needed by the Manchus in order to assist in the conquest of the Ming, explaining to other Manchus why he needed to treat the Ming defector General Hung Ch'eng-ch'ou leniently.  The Qing showed in propaganda targeted towards the Ming military that the Manchus valued military skills to get them to defect to the Qing, since the Ming civilian political system discriminated against the military. The three Liaodong Han Bannermen officers who played a massive role in the conquest of southern China from the Ming were Shang Kexi, Geng Zhongming, and Kong Youde and they governed southern China autonomously as viceroys for the Qing after their conquests. Normally the Manchu Bannermen acted as reserve forces while the Qing foremost used defected Han Chinese troops to fight as the vanguard during their conquest of China.  The Liaodong Han Chinese military frontiersmen were prone to mixing and acculturating with (non-Han) tribesmen. The Mongol officer Mangui served in the Ming military and fought the Manchus, dying in battle against a Manchu raid. The Jurchen Manchus accepted and assimilated Han Chinese soldiers who defected. Liaodong Han Chinese transfrontiersmen soldiers acculturated to Manchu culture and used Manchu names. Manchus lived in cities with walls surrounded by villages and adopted Chinese style agriculture before the Qing conquest of the Ming. The Han Chinese transfrontismen abandoned their Han Chinese names and identities and Nurhaci's secretary Dahai might have been one of them.  There were not enough ethnic Manchus to conquer China, so they relied on defeating and absorbing Mongols, and more importantly, adding Han Chinese to the Eight Banners. The Manchus had to create an entire "Jiu Han jun" (Old Han Army) due to the massive number of Han Chinese soldiers who were absorbed into the Eight Banners by both capture and defection, Ming artillery was responsible for many victories against the Manchus, so the Manchus established an artillery corps made out of Han Chinese soldiers in 1641 and the swelling of Han Chinese numbers in the Eight Banners led in 1642 of all Eight Han Banners being created. It was defected Ming Han Chinese armies which conquered southern China for the Qing.  When Dorgon ordered Han civilians to vacate Beijing's inner city and move to the outskirts, he resettled the inner city with the Bannermen, including Han Chinese bannermen, later, some exceptions were made to allowing to reside in the inner city Han civilians who held government or commercial jobs.  The Qing relied on the Green Standard soldiers, made out of defected Han Chinese Ming military forces who joined the Qing, in order to help rule northern China. It was Green Standard Han Chinese troops who actively military governed China locally while Han Chinese Bannermen, Mongol Bannermen, and Manchu Bannermen who were only brought into emergency situations where there was sustained military resistance.  Manchu Aisin Gioro princesses were also married to Han Chinese official's sons.  The Manchu Prince Regent Dorgon gave a Manchu woman as a wife to the Han Chinese official Feng Quan, who had defected from the Ming to the Qing. The Manchu queue hairstyle was willingly adopted by Feng Quan before it was enforced on the Han population and Feng learned the Manchu language.  To promote ethnic harmony, a 1648 decree from Shunzhi allowed Han Chinese civilian men to marry Manchu women from the Banners with the permission of the Board of Revenue if they were registered daughters of officials or commoners or the permission of their banner company captain if they were unregistered commoners. It was only later in the dynasty that these policies allowing intermarriage were done away with. The decree was formulated by Dorgon.  The Guangzhou massacre of Ming loyalist Han forces and civilians in 1650 by Qing forces, was entirely carried out by Han Chinese Bannerman led by Han Chinese Generals Shang Kexi and Geng Jimao.  The Manchus sent Han Bannermen to fight against Koxinga's Ming loyalists in Fujian. The Qing carried out a massive depopulation policy clearances forcing people to evacuated the coast in order to deprive Koxinga's Ming loyalists of resources, this has led to a myth that it was because Manchus were "afraid of water". In Fujian, it was Han Bannermen who were the ones carrying out the fighting and killing for the Qing and this disproved the entirely irrelevant claim that alleged fear of the water on part of the Manchus had to do with the coastal evacuation and clearances. Even though a poem refers to the soldiers carrying out massacres in Fujian as "barbarian", both Han Green Standard Army and Han Bannermen were involved in the fighting for the Qing side and carried out the worst slaughter. 400,000 Green Standard Army soldiers were used against the Three Feudatories besides 200,000 Bannermen.

Revolt of the Three Feudatories.

In the Revolt of the Three Feudatories Manchu Generals and Bannermen were initially put to shame by the better performance of the Han Chinese Green Standard Army, who fought better than them against the rebels and this was noted by the Kangxi Emperor, leading him to task Generals Sun Sike, Wang Jinbao, and Zhao Liangdong to lead Green Standard soldiers to crush the rebels. The Qing thought that Han Chinese were superior at battling other Han people and so used the Green Standard Army as the dominant and majority army in crushing the rebels instead of Bannermen. In northwestern China against Wang Fuchen, the Qing put Bannermen in the rear as reserves while they used Han Chinese Green Standard Army soldiers and Han Chinese Generals like Zhang Liangdong, Wang Jinbao, and Zhang Yong as the primary military forces, considering Han troops as better at fighting other Han people, and these Han generals achieved victory over the rebels. Sichuan and southern Shaanxi were retaken by the Han Chinese Green Standard Army under Wang Jinbao and Zhao Liangdong in 1680, with Manchus only participating in dealing with logistics and provisions. 400,000 Green Standard Army soldiers and 150,000 Bannermen served on the Qing side during the war. 213 Han Chinese Banner companies, and 527 companies of Mongol and Manchu Banners were mobilized by the Qing during the revolt.  The Qing forces were crushed by Wu from 1673–1674. The Qing had the support of the majority of Han Chinese soldiers and Han elite against the Three Feudatories, since they refused to join Wu Sangui in the revolt, while the Eight Banners and Manchu officers fared poorly against Wu Sangui, so the Qing responded with using a massive army of more than 900,000 Han Chinese (non-Banner) instead of the Eight Banners, to fight and crush the Three Feudatories. Wu Sangui's forces were crushed by the Green Standard Army, made out of defected Ming soldiers.

Territorial expansion.

Koxinga's rattan shield troops became famous for fighting and defeating the Dutch in Taiwan. After the surrender of Koxinga's former followers on Taiwan, Koxinga's grandson Zheng Keshuang and his troops were incorporated into the Eight Banners. His rattan shield soldiers (Tengpaiying) 藤牌营 were used against the Russian Cossacks at Albazin.  Under the Kangxi and Qianlong emperors, the Eight Banners participated in a series of military campaigns to subdue Ming loyalists and neighboring states. In the Qianlong Emperor's celebrated Ten Great Campaigns, the banner armies fought alongside troops of the Green Standard Army, expanding the Qing empire to its greatest territorial extent. Though partly successful, the campaigns were a heavy financial burden on the Qing treasury, and exposed weaknesses in the Qing military. Many bannermen lost their lives in the Burma campaign, often as the result of tropical diseases, to which they had little resistance.

Later history.

Although the banners were instrumental in the Qing Empire takeover of China proper in the 17th century from the Ming dynasty, they began to fall behind rising Western powers in the 18th century. By the 1730s, the traditional martial spirit had been discarded, as the well-paid Bannerman spent their time gambling and theatergoing. Subsidizing the 1.5 million men, women and children in the system was an expensive proposition, compounded by embezzlement and corruption.  Destitution in the northeastern garrisons led many Manchu Bannermen to abandon their posts and in response the Qing government either sentenced them with penal slavery or death.  In the 19th century, the Eight Banners and Green Standard troops proved unable to put down the Taiping Rebellion and Nian Rebellion on their own. Regional officials like Zeng Guofan were instructed to raise their own forces from the civilian population, leading to the creation of the Xiang Army and the Huai Army, among others. Along with the Ever Victorious Army of Frederick Townsend Ward, it was these warlord armies (known as "yongying") who finally succeeded in restoring Qing control in this turbulent period.  John Ross, a Scots missionary who served in Manchuria in the 19th century, wrote of the bannermen, "Their claim to be military men is based on their descent rather than on their skill in arms; and their pay is given them because of their fathers' prowess, and not at all from any hopes of their efficiency as soldiers. Their soldierly qualities are included in the accomplishments of idleness, riding, and the use of the bow and arrow, at which they practice on a few rare occasions each year."  During the Boxer Rebellion, 1899–1901, 10,000 Bannermen were recruited from the Metropolitan Banners and given modernized training and weapons. One of these was the Hushenying. Many Manchu Bannermen in Beijing supported the Boxers and shared their anti-foreign sentiment. The Manchu Bannermen were devastated by the fighting during the Boxer Rebellion, sustaining enormous casualties during the war and subsequently being driven into desperate poverty.  Zhao Erfeng and Zhao Erxun were two important Han Bannermen in the late Qing.  By the late 19th century, the Qing Dynasty began training and creating New Army units based on Western training, equipment and organization. Nevertheless, the banner system remained in existence until the fall of the Qing in 1911, and even beyond, with a rump organization continuing to function until the expulsion of Puyi (the former Xuantong emperor) from the Forbidden City in 1924.  At the end of the Qing dynasty, all members of the Eight Banners, regardless of their original ethnicity, were considered by the Republic of China to be Manchu.  Han Bannermen became an elite political class in Fengtian province in the late Qing period and into the Republican era.  In addition to sending Han exiles convicted of crimes to Xinjiang to be slaves of Banner garrisons there, the Qing also practiced reverse exile, exiling Inner Asian (Mongol, Russian and Muslim criminals from Mongolia and Inner Asia) to China proper where they would serve as slaves in Han Banner garrisons in Guangzhou. Russian, Oirats and Muslims (Oros. Ulet. Hoise jergi weilengge niyalma) such as Yakov and Dmitri were exiled to the Han banner garrison in Guangzhou. In the 1780s after the Muslim rebellion in Gansu started by Zhang Wenqing (張文慶) was defeated, Muslims like Ma Jinlu (馬進祿) were exiled to the Han Banner garrison in Guangzhou to become slaves to Han Banner officers. The Qing code regulating Mongols in Mongolia sentenced Mongol criminals to exile and to become slaves to Han bannermen in Han Banner garrisons in China proper.

Organization.

At the highest level, the eight banners were categorized according to two groupings. The three "upper" banners (both Yellow Banners and the Plain White Banner) were under the nominal command of the emperor himself, whereas the five "lower" banners were commanded by others. The banners were also split into a "left wing" and a "right wing" according to how they would be arrayed in battle. In Beijing, the left wing occupied the eastern banner neighborhoods and the right wing occupied the western ones.  The smallest unit in a banner army was the company, or "niru" (), composed nominally of 300 soldiers and their families. The term "niru" means "arrow" in the Manchu language, and was originally the Manchu name for a hunting party, which would be armed with bows and arrows. 15 companies (4,500 men) made up one "jalan" (). 4 "jalan" constituted a "gūsa" (banner), with a total of 60 companies, or 18,000 men. The actual sizes often varied substantially from these standards.

Ethnic composition.

Initially, the banner armies were primarily made up of individuals from the various Manchu tribes. As new populations were incorporated into the empire, the armies were expanded to accommodate troops of different ethnicities. The banner armies would eventually encompass three principal ethnic components: the Manchus, the Han, and the Mongols, and various smaller ethnic groups, such as the Xibe, the Daur, and the Evenks.  When the Jurchens were reorganized by Nurhaci into the Eight Banners, many Manchu clans were artificially created as a group of unrelated people founded a new Manchu clan (mukun) using a geographic origin name such as a toponym for their hala (clan name).  There were stories of Han migrating to the Jurchens and assimilating into Manchu Jurchen society and Nikan Wailan may have been an example of this. The Manchu Cuigiya 崔佳氏 clan claimed that a Han Chinese founded their clan. The Tohoro 托和啰 (Duanfang's clan) claimed Han Chinese origin. The Han Chinese Banner Tong 佟 clan of Fushun in Liaoning falsely claimed to be related to the Jurchen Manchu Tunggiya 佟佳 clan of Jilin, using this false claim to get themselves transferred to a Manchu banner in the reign of the Kangxi emperor.  The transfer of families from Han Banners or Bondservant status (booi) to Manchu Banners, switching their ethnicity from Han to Manchu was called "Taiqi" (抬旗) in Chinese. They would be transferred to the "upper three" Manchu Banners. It was a policy of the Qing to transfer to immediate families (the brothers, father) of the mother of an Emperor into the upper three Manchu Banners and having "giya" 佳 appended to the end of their surname to Manchufy it. It typically occurred in cases of intermarriage with the Qing Aisin Gioro Imperial family, and the close relatives (fathers and brothers) of the concubine or Empress would get promoted from the Han Banner to the Manchu Banner and become Manchu. The Han Bannerwoman Empress Xiaoyichun and her entire family were transferred to the Manchu Banners due to her status as the mother of an Emperor and their surname was change from Wei 魏 to Weigiya 魏佳.  The Qing said that "Manchu and Han are one house" 滿漢一家 and said that the difference was "not between Manchu and Han, but instead between Bannerman and civilian" 不分滿漢,但問旗民 or 但問旗民,不問滿漢.  Select groups of Han Chinese bannermen were mass transferred into Manchu Banners by the Qing, changing their ethnicity from Han Chinese to Manchu. Han Chinese bannermen of Tai Nikan 台尼堪 (watchpost Chinese) and Fusi Nikan 撫順尼堪 (Fushun Chinese) backgrounds into the Manchu banners in 1740 by order of the Qing Qianlong emperor. It was between 1618-1629 when the Han Chinese from Liaodong who later became the Fushun Nikan and Tai Nikan defected to the Jurchens (Manchus). These Han Chinese origin Manchu clans continue to use their original Han surnames and are marked as of Han origin on Qing lists of Manchu clans.  Manchu families adopted Han Chinese sons from families of bondservant Booi Aha (baoyi) origin and they served in Manchu company registers as detached household Manchus and the Qing imperial court found this out in 1729. Manchu Bannermen who needed money helped falsify registration for Han Chinese servants being adopted into the Manchu banners and Manchu families who lacked sons were allowed to adopt their servant's sons or servants themselves. The Manchu families were paid to adopt Han Chinese sons from bondservant families by those families. The Qing Imperial Guard captain Batu was furious at the Manchus who adopted Han Chinese as their sons from slave and bondservant families in exchange for money and expressed his displeasure at them adopting Han Chinese instead of other Manchus. These Han Chinese who infiltrated the Manchu Banners by adoption were known as "secondary-status bannermen" and "false Manchus" or "separate-register Manchus", and there were eventually so many of these Han Chinese that they took over military positions in the Banners which should have been reserved for Manchus. Han Chinese foster-son and separate register bannermen made up 800 out of 1,600 soldiers of the Mongol Banners and Manchu Banners of Hangzhou in 1740 which was nearly 50%. Han Chinese foster-son made up 220 out of 1,600 unsalaried troops at Jingzhou in 1747 and an assortment of Han Chinese separate-register, Mongol, and Manchu bannermen were the remainder. Han Chinese secondary status bannermen made up 180 of 3,600 troop households in Ningxia while Han Chinese separate registers made up 380 out of 2,700 Manchu soldiers in Liangzhou. The result of these Han Chinese fake Manchus taking up military positions resulted in many legitimate Manchus being deprived of their rightful positions as soldiers in the Banner armies, resulting in the real Manchus unable to receive their salaries as Han Chinese infiltrators in the banners stole their social and economic status and rights. These Han Chinese infiltrators were said to be good military troops and their skills at marching and archery were up to par so that the Zhapu lieutenant general couldn't differentiate them from true Manchus in terms of military skills. Manchu Banners contained a lot of "false Manchus" who were from Han Chinese civilian families but were adopted by Manchu bannermen after the Yongzheng reign. The Jingkou and Jiangning Mongol banners and Manchu Banners had 1,795 adopted Han Chinese and the Beijing Mongol Banners and Manchu Banners had 2,400 adopted Han Chinese in statistics taken from the 1821 census. Despite Qing attempts to differentiate adopted Han Chinese from normal Manchu bannermen the differences between them became hazy. These adopted Han Chinese bondservants who managed to get themselves onto Manchu banner roles were called kaihu ren (開戶人) in Chinese and dangse faksalaha urse in Manchu. Normal Manchus were called jingkini Manjusa.  Commoner Manchu bannermen who were not nobility were called irgen which meant common, in contrast to the Manchu nobility o the "Eight Great Houses" who held noble titles.  Jiang Xingzhou 姜興舟, a Han bannerman lieutenant from the Bordered Yellow Banner married a Muslim woman in Mukden during Qianlong's late reign. He fled his position due to fear of being punished for being a bannerman marrying a commoner woman. He was sentenced to death for leaving his official post but the sentence was commuted and he was not executed.  In the late 19th century and early 1900s, intermarriage between Manchus and Han bannermen in the northeast increased as Manchu families were more willing to marry their daughters to sons from well off Han families to trade their ethnic status for higher financial status.

Banner soldiers.

From the time China was brought under the rule of the Qing dynasty, the banner soldiers became more professional and bureaucratized. Once the Manchus took over governing, they could no longer satisfy the material needs of soldiers by garnishing and distributing booty; instead, a salary system was instituted, ranks standardized, and the Eight Banners became a sort of hereditary military caste, though with a strong ethnic inflection. Banner soldiers took up permanent positions, either as defenders of the capital, Beijing, where roughly half of them lived with their families, or in the provinces, where some eighteen garrisons were established. The largest banner garrisons throughout most of the Qing dynasty were at Beijing, followed by Xi'an and Hangzhou. Sizable banner populations were also placed in Manchuria and at strategic points along the Great Wall, the Yangtze River and Grand Canal.

The Eight Banners (in Manchu: "jakūn gūsa", ) were administrative and military divisions under the Later Jin and the Qing dynasty of China into which all Manchu households were placed. In war, the Eight Banners functioned as armies, but the banner system was also the basic organizational framework of all of Manchu society. Created in the early 17th century by Nurhaci, the banner armies played an instrumental role in his unification of the fragmented Jurchen people (who would later be renamed the "Manchu" under Nurhaci's son Hong Taiji) and in the Qing dynasty's conquest of the Ming dynasty.

Als Acht Banner (mandsch.: gūsa, ) wurden im China der Qing-Dynastie die Militär- und Verwaltungseinheiten bezeichnet, in die alle mandschurischen Familien eingeteilt waren.


Life.

Nievo was born and raised in Padua, during the time the Veneto region was ruled by the Austrian Empire. His father was a lawyer. Nievo studied law at the University of Padua, but upon graduating, he refused to join his father's profession as it would imply submission to the Austrian government. He was politically inspired by Giuseppe Mazzini's thought and wanted to join the struggle for the independence of Veneto and a united Italy. In 1860 he fought with Giuseppe Garibaldi's Expedition of the Thousand, who, after having defeated the Bourbon army in Sicily and Southern Italy, gave those regions to the King of Sardinia Victor Emmanuel II. On 18 February 1861, in fulfilment of Nievo's hopes, Italy was unified under the House of Savoy. Shortly afterwards, in March, Nievo died in a shipwreck in the Tyrrhenian Sea.  Ippolito Nievo appears in the Umberto Eco novel, "The Prague Cemetery". In this novel, Nievo's ship was secretly blown up by the fictional protagonist Simonini in order to destroy the financial documents.

"Confessions of an Italian".

Nievo is best known for his novel "Confessions of an Italian", tr. from the Italian by Frederika Randall, introduction by Lucy Riall, Penguin, London, 2014; an abridged English translation appeared under the title "The Castle of Fratta" in 1957. Written between December 1857 and August 1858, the work is in twenty-three chapters. Nievo died before it could receive its final editing. Nievo himself did not find a publisher, and it was only in 1867, six years after the writer's death, that the novel was published under the title "Confessioni di un ottuagenario" ("Confessions of an octogenarian"). The author's original title, by which the book is now generally known, was "Le Confessioni d'un italiano", but this seemed to be too "political" for the times.  The novel is both historical (its background is events in Italy in the last decades of the 18th century and the first half of the 19th century) and psychological, being based upon the memories of "Carlo Altoviti", the main character and first-person narrator. It is widely considered the most important novel about the Italian Risorgimento.

Influences.

There are analogies between W. M. Thackeray's novel "Henry Esmond" and Ippolito Nievo's "Confessions of an Italian", both in the fundamental structure of the plot, in the psychological outlines of the main characters, in frequent episodes and in the use of metaphors.

Other works.

Nievo wrote also poetry ("Versi", 1854–55), short stories, mainly set in the countryside of Friuli, the region where Nievo lived as a young boy, and novels ("Il conte pecoraio", "Angelo di bontà", "Il barone di Nicastro").  His political engagement was reflected in two essays: "Venezia e la libertà d'Italia" (1860) and "Frammento sulla rivoluzione nazionale" (published 1929).

External links.

Deaths due to shipwreck

Ippolito Nievo (; 30 November 1831 – 4 March 1861) was an Italian writer, journalist and patriot. His "Confessions of an Italian" is widely considered the most important novel about the Italian Risorgimento.

Ippolito Nievo (* 30. November 1831 in Padua; † 4. März 1861 im Tyrrhenischen Meer bei einem Schiffsunglück) war ein italienischer Schriftsteller.