Legal context.

Gradually, however, countries agreed that the open seas should be free to all shipping in peacetime and to neutral shipping in wartime. Great Britain accepted the principle in 1805; Russia, in 1824; and the United States (tacitly) in 1894. Many treaties, including the Treaty of Versailles, have dealt with the open seas, and currently the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea is an attempt to formalise this freedom.

Historic command of the sea during the age of sail.

National capabilities.

Historically, many powers attempted to extend command of the sea into peacetime, imposing taxes or other restrictions on shipping using areas of open sea. For example, Venice claimed the Adriatic, and exacted a heavy toll from vessels navigating its northern waters. Genoa and France each claimed portions of the western Mediterranean. Denmark and Sweden claimed to share the Baltic between them. Spain claimed dominion over the Pacific and the Gulf of Mexico, and Portugal over the Indian Ocean and all the Atlantic south of Morocco (Hall, 148-9).

Asymmetric countermeasures.

During the age of sail, there were two primary counter measures to another power holding control of the sea: smuggling, and privateering. Smuggling helped to ensure that a country could continue trading (and obtaining food and other vital supplies) even when under blockade, while privateering allowed the weaker power to disrupt the stronger power's trade. As these measures, which are examples of asymmetric warfare, came from non-governmental and sometimes criminal organizations, they fell into disfavor with stronger governments. An annex to the Treaty of Paris (1856) banned privateering. That treaty was an oddity in that it was ratified by relatively few countries, but quickly became the "de facto" law of the sea.

Historic command of the sea in the era of steam.

A more modern countermeasure, similar to privateering, was the use of submarine warfare by Germany during World War I and World War II to attack allied merchant shipping primarily in the Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, and Baltic Sea.

Historic command of the sea in the era of naval aviation.

During World War II, aircraft also became an effective countermeasure to command of the sea, since ships could not defend themselves well against air attack. The Battle of Britain was largely an attempt by Germany to eliminate the Royal Air Force, so that it would not be able to defend the Royal Navy from air attack and even to allow a maritime invasion of Great Britain proper.

Modern command of the sea.

Advanced navies, with access to surveillance satellites and large-scale submarine detection systems, can rarely be surprised at sea, but cannot be everywhere. Individual ships of advanced navies can be vulnerable at sea (e.g., the hit by an aircraft-delivered anti-ship missile while patrolling the Persian Gulf) or in port (e.g., by the suicide attack on the.)  "Blue-water" (high seas) naval capability means that a fleet is able to operate on the "high seas." While traditionally a distinction was made between the coastal brown-water navy (operating in the littoral zone to 200 nautical miles (370 km) and a seagoing blue-water navy, a new term, "green-water navy," has been created by the U.S. Navy, which refers to the coastal submarines and fast attack boats of many nations, the larger littoral combat corvettes and similar vessels of a substantial number of powers, and amphibious vessels ranging from elderly LSTs to complex S/VTOL carriers and other specialized ships.  In modern warfare blue-water navy implies self-contained force protection from sub-surface, surface and airborne threats and a sustainable logistic reach, allowing a persistent presence at range. In some maritime environments such a defence is given by natural obstacles, such as the Arctic ice shelf.  The US Navy studied a concept for an economically priced ship capable of surface and subsurface sea control with ASW helicopters and STOVL fighters for light air defense but not large enough to be well suited to power projection known as a Sea Control Ship. This small aircraft carrier was not built by the US although a long deck Amphibious assault ship equipped with STOVL fighters and ASW helicopters instead of its primary transport helicopters is operating in a secondary sea control role.

Requirements for modern sea control.

During the Falklands War, the British lacked long-range Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS), which led to ship losses and major damage to others, when the Argentinian attack aircraft came into the view of ship radar at approximately the same time they would fire antiship missiles, and only a short time before they made bombing attacks. A number of navies have learned this lesson. Many navies with STOVL carriers have developed helicopter-mounted AWACS like the British and Spanish Westland Sea King AEW, Italian EH-101 AEW, and the Russian Ka-31 AEW helicopter. Recently the French with a new larger CATOBAR aircraft carrier obtained the US E-2 Hawkeye AWACS aircraft.  An example for the difference between a blue-water navy and a green-water navy: "...The first should be a 'green-water active defense' that would enable the People's Liberation Army Navy to protect China's territorial waters and enforce its sovereignty claims in the Taiwan Strait and the South China Sea. The second phase would be to develop a blue-water navy capable of projecting power into the western Pacific... Liu [commander in chief of the PLAN 1982-88 and vice chairman of the Central Military Commission 1989-97] believed that in order to fulfill a blue-water capability, the PLAN had to obtain aircraft carriers..." Aircraft carriers are deployed with other specialized vessels in carrier battle groups, providing protection against sub-surface, surface and airborne threats.  As there is no clear definition of a blue-water navy, the status is disputed. Given the importance of naval aviation, the term may be considered to be strongly linked to the maintenance of aircraft carriers capable of operating in the oceans. "In the early 80s there was a bitter and very public battle fought over whether or not to replace Australia's last aircraft carrier, HMAS "Melbourne". Senior navy personnel warned without a carrier, Australia would be vulnerable to all types of threat. One ex-Chief of Navy went so far as to claim that we" (the Australians) "would no longer have a blue-water navy (one capable of operating away from friendly coasts)." Yet although the Royal Thai Navy operates a sea-going carrier, the RTN is not absolutely a "blue-water navy."

Countermeasures to imposed command.

While a "blue-water navy" can project sea control power into another nation's littoral, it remains susceptible to threats from less capable forces. Sustainment and logistics at range yield high costs and there may be a saturation advantage over a deployed force through the use of land-based air or surface-to-surface missile assets (whether on terrain-following or ballistic trajectories), diesel-electric submarines, or asymmetric tactics such as Fast Inshore Attack Craft. An example of this vulnerability was the October 2000 USS "Cole" bombing in Aden. In response to these threats, the U.S. Navy has developed Littoral Combat Ship (LCS).

Command of the sea (also called control of the sea or sea control) is a naval military concept regarding the strength of a particular navy to a specific naval area it controlled. A navy has command of the sea when it is so strong that its rivals cannot attack it directly. This dominance may apply to its surrounding waters (i.e., the littoral) or may extend far into the oceans, meaning the country has a blue-water navy. It is the naval equivalent of air supremacy.

Seeherrschaft ist ein machtpolitischer Begriff und steht für die Beherrschung von Seeverbindungslinien (sea lines of communication). Seeherrschaft kann global, ozeanweit und/oder in Randmeeren sowie Binnenmeeren ausgeübt werden. Bei bestehender Seeherrschaft wird eigener Seeverkehr geschützt und gegnerischer Seeverkehr unterbunden. Die Aufrechterhaltung der Seeherrschaft ist abhängig vom Durchsetzungsvermögen der stärksten Seemacht. Ein wesentliches Kriterium ist die Dauer der Seeherrschaft in einem Seegebiet, das nicht wie eine Landmasse permanent besetzt werden kann.


History.

The use of a cascode (sometimes verbified to "cascoding") is a common technique for improving analog circuit performance, applicable to both vacuum tubes and transistors. The name "cascode" was coined in an article written by Frederick Vinton Hunt and Roger Wayne Hickman in 1939, in a discussion on the application of voltage stabilizers. They proposed a cascode of two triodes (the first one with a common cathode setup, the second one with a common grid) as a replacement for a pentode, and so the name may be assumed to be an abbreviation of "casc(aded triode amplifier having characteristics similar to, but less noisy than, a single pent)ode".

Operation.

Figure 1 shows an example of a cascode amplifier with a common-source amplifier as the input stage driven by a signal source, "V". This input stage drives a common-gate amplifier as the output stage, with output signal "V".  As the lower FET is conducting, by providing a gate voltage, the upper FET conducts due to the potential difference now appearing between its gate and source.  The major advantage of this circuit arrangement stems from the placement of the upper field-effect transistor (FET) as the load of the input (lower) FET's output terminal (drain). Because at operating frequencies the upper FET's gate is effectively grounded, the upper FET's source voltage (and therefore the input transistor's drain) is held at nearly constant voltage during operation. In other words, the upper FET exhibits a low input resistance to the lower FET, making the voltage gain of the lower FET very small, which dramatically reduces the Miller effect feedback capacitance from the lower FET's drain to gate. This loss of voltage gain is recovered by the upper FET. Thus, the upper transistor permits the lower FET to operate with minimal negative (Miller) feedback, improving its bandwidth.  The upper FET gate is electrically grounded, so charge and discharge of the stray capacitance, "C", between drain and gate is simply through "R" and the output load (say "R"), and the frequency response is affected only for frequencies above the associated RC time constant "τ" = "C" "R"//"R", namely "f" = 1/(2"πτ"), a rather high frequency because "C" is small. That is, the upper FET gate does not suffer from Miller amplification of "C".  If the upper FET stage were operated alone using its source as input node (that is, common-gate (CG) configuration), it would have a good voltage gain and wide bandwidth. However, its low input impedance would limit its usefulness to very low-impedance voltage drivers. Adding the lower FET results in a high input impedance, allowing the cascode stage to be driven by a high-impedance source.  If one were to replace the upper FET with a typical inductive/resistive load and take the output from the input transistor's drain (that is, a common-source (CS) configuration), the CS configuration would offer the same input impedance as the cascode, but the cascode configuration would offer a potentially greater gain and much greater bandwidth.

Stability.

The cascode arrangement is also very stable. Its output is effectively isolated from the input both electrically and physically. The lower transistor has nearly constant voltage at both drain and source, and thus there is essentially "nothing" to feed back into its gate. The upper transistor has nearly constant voltage at its gate and source. Thus, the only nodes with significant voltage on them are the input and output, and these are separated by the central connection of nearly constant voltage and by the physical distance of two transistors. Thus in practice there is little feedback from the output to the input. Metal shielding is both effective and easy to provide between the two transistors for even greater isolation when required. This would be difficult in one-transistor amplifier circuits, which at high frequencies would require neutralization.

Biasing.

As shown, the cascode circuit using two "stacked" FETs imposes some restrictions on the two FETs — namely, the upper FET must be biased so its source voltage is high enough (the lower FET drain voltage may swing too low, causing it to saturate). Ensurance of this condition for FETs requires careful selection for the pair or special biasing of the upper FET gate, increasing cost.  The cascode circuit can also be built using bipolar transistors, or MOSFETs, or even one FET (or MOSFET) and one BJT. In the latter case, the BJT must be the upper transistor, otherwise the (lower) BJT will always saturate, unless extraordinary steps are taken to bias it. This circuit arrangement was very common in VHF television tuners when they employed vacuum tubes.

Advantages.

The cascode arrangement offers high gain, high bandwidth, high slew rate, high stability, and high input impedance. The parts count is very low for a two-transistor circuit

Disadvantages.

The cascode circuit requires two transistors and requires a relatively high supply voltage. For the two-FET cascode, both transistors must be biased with ample "V" in operation, imposing a lower limit on the supply voltage.

Dual-gate version.

A dual-gate MOSFET often functions as a "one-transistor" cascode. Common in the front ends of sensitive VHF receivers, a dual-gate MOSFET is operated as a common-source amplifier with the primary gate (usually designated "gate 1" by MOSFET manufacturers) connected to the input and the second gate grounded (bypassed). Internally, there is one channel covered by the two adjacent gates; therefore, the resulting circuit is electrically a cascode composed of two FETs, the common lower-drain-to-upper-source connection merely being that portion of the single channel that lies physically adjacent to the border between the two gates.

Mixer in superheterodyne receivers.

A cascode circuit is very useful as a multiplying mixer circuit in superheterodyne receivers. At the lower gate the RF signal is fed to the mixer, and at the upper gate the local oscillator signal is fed to the mixer. Both signals are multiplied by the mixer, and the difference frequency, the intermediate frequency, is taken from the upper drain of the cascode mixer.  This was further developed by cascoding whole differential-amplifier stages to form the balanced mixer, and then the "Gilbert cell" double-balanced mixer.

Other applications.

With the rise of integrated circuits, transistors have become cheap in terms of silicon die area. In MOSFET technology especially, cascoding can be used in current mirrors to increase the output impedance of the output current source.  A modified version of the cascode can also be used as a modulator, particularly for amplitude modulation. The upper device supplies the audio signal, and the lower is the RF amplifier device. A cascode may also be combined with a voltage ladder to form a high-voltage transistor. The input transistor may be of any low-"U" type, while the others, acting as stacked linear series voltage regulators, should be able to withstand a considerable fraction of the supply voltage. Note that for a large output-voltage swing, their base voltages should not be bypassed to ground by capacitors, and the uppermost ladder resistor should be able to withstand the full supply voltage. This shows that a linear series voltage regulator is actually a current buffer with its "input" and "output" designations swapped.

Two-port parameters.

The cascode configuration can be represented as a simple voltage amplifier (or more accurately, as a "g"-parameter two-port network) by using its input impedance, output impedance, and voltage gain. These parameters are related to the corresponding "g"-parameters below. Other useful properties not considered here are circuit bandwidth and dynamic range.

BJT cascode: low-frequency small-signal parameters.

The idealized small-signal equivalent circuit can be constructed for the circuit in figure 2 by replacing the current sources with open circuits and the capacitors with short circuits, assuming they are large enough to act as short circuits at the frequencies of interest. The BJTs can be represented in the small-signal circuit by the hybrid-pi model.

MOSFET cascode: low-frequency small-signal parameters.

Similarly, the small-signal parameters can be derived for the MOSFET version, also replacing the MOSFET by its hybrid-pi model equivalent. This derivation can be simplified by noting that the MOSFET gate current is zero, so the small-signal model for the BJT becomes that of the MOSFET in the limit of zero base current: where "V" is the.  The combination of factors "gr" occurs often in the above formulas, inviting further examination. For the bipolar transistor this product is (see hybrid-pi model):  In a typical discrete bipolar device the Early voltage "V" ≈ 100 V and the thermal voltage near room temperature is "V" ≈ 25 mV, making "gr" ≈ 4000, a rather large number. From the article on hybrid-pi model, we find for the MOSFET in the active mode:  At the 65-nanometer technology node, "I" ≈ 1.2 mA/μ of width, supply voltage is "V" = 1.1 V; "V" ≈ 165 mV, and "V = V-V ≈ 5%V" ≈ 55 mV. Taking a typical length as twice the minimum, "L" = 2 "L" = 0.130 μm and a typical value of λ ≈ 1/(4 V/μm "L"), we find 1/λ ≈ 2 V, and "gr" ≈ 110, still a large value. The point is that because "gr" is large almost regardless of the technology, the tabulated gain and the output resistance for both the MOSFET and the bipolar cascode are very large. That fact has implications in the discussion that follows.

Low-frequency design.

The g-parameters found in the above formulas can be used to construct a small-signal voltage amplifier with the same gain, input and output resistance as the original cascode (an equivalent circuit). This circuit applies only at frequencies low enough that the transistor parasitic capacitances do not matter. The figure shows the original cascode (Fig. 1) and the equivalent voltage amplifier or g-equivalent two-port (Fig. 4). The equivalent circuit allows easier calculations of the behavior of the circuit for different drivers and loads. In the figure a Thévenin equivalent voltage source with Thévenin resistance "R" drives the amplifier, and at the output a simple load resistor "R" is attached. Using the equivalent circuit, the input voltage to the amplifier is (see Voltage divider): which shows the importance of using a driver with resistance "R « R" to avoid attenuation of the signal entering the amplifier. From the above amplifier characteristics, we see that "R" is infinite for the MOSFET cascode, so no attenuation of input signal occurs in that case. The BJT cascode is more restrictive because "R = r".  In a similar fashion, the output signal from the equivalent circuit is  In low-frequency circuits, a high voltage gain is typically desired, hence the importance of using a load with resistance "R » R" to avoid attenuation of the signal reaching the load. The formulas for "R" can be used either to design an amplifier with a sufficiently small output resistance compared to the load or, if that cannot be done, to decide upon a modified circuit, for example, to add a voltage follower that matches the load better.  The earlier estimate showed that the cascode output resistance is very large. The implication is that many load resistances will not satisfy the condition "R » R" (an important exception is driving a MOSFET as the load, which has infinite low frequency input impedance). However, the failure to satisfy the condition "R » R" is not catastrophic because the cascode gain also is very large. If the designer is willing, the large gain can be sacrificed to allow a low load resistance; for "R" « "R" the gain simplifies as follows: This gain is the same as that for the input transistor acting alone. Thus, even sacrificing gain, the cascode produces the same gain as the single-transistor transconductance amplifier, but with wider bandwidth.  Because the amplifiers are wide bandwidth, the same approach can determine the bandwidth of the circuit when a load capacitor is attached (with or without a load resistor). The assumption needed is that the load capacitance is large enough that it controls the frequency dependence, and bandwidth is not controlled by the neglected parasitic capacitances of the transistors themselves.

High-frequency design.

At high frequencies, the parasitic capacitances of the transistors (gate-to-drain, gate-to-source, drain-to body, and bipolar equivalents) must be included in the hybrid pi models to obtain an accurate frequency response. The design goals also differ from the emphasis on overall high gain as described above for low-frequency design. In high frequency circuits, impedance matching at the input and output of the amplifier is typically desired in order to eliminate signal reflections and maximize power gain. In the cascode, the isolation between the input and output ports is still characterized by a small reverse transmission term g, making it easier to design matching networks because the amplifier is approximately unilateral.

The cascode is a two-stage amplifier that consists of a common-emitter stage feeding into a common-base stage. Compared to a single amplifier stage, this combination may have one or more of the following characteristics: higher input–output isolation, higher input impedance, high output impedance, higher bandwidth.

Die Kaskodenschaltung (nicht zu verwechseln mit der Kaskadenschaltung) ist eine elektrische Verstärkerschaltung mit mindestens zwei Elektronenröhren oder Transistoren, die in Serie geschaltet sind. Hauptvorteil ist der verschwindend geringe Millereffekt, der eine höhere Bandbreite erlaubt, aber auch hoher Eingangs- und Ausgangswiderstand.


History and construction.

By 1998, the Dallas Mavericks, then owned by H. Ross Perot, Jr., and the Dallas Stars were indicating their desire for a new arena to replace the aging and undersized Reunion Arena. Dallas taxpayers approved a new hotel tax and rental car tax to pay for a new arena to cover a portion of the funding, with the two benefiting teams, the Mavericks and the Stars, picking up the remaining costs, including cost overruns. The new arena was to be built just north of Woodall Rodgers Freeway near Interstate 35E on the site of an old power plant.  On March 18, 1999, American Airlines announced that it would be acquiring the naming rights for the arena for US$195 million. American Airlines is headquartered in Fort Worth and is based at Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport.  The first event occurred the next day with an Eagles concert. On the next night, the arena hosted the last show of Michael Flatley's Feet of Flames tour. The first sporting event took place on August 19, 2001, with the Dallas Sidekicks of the World Indoor Soccer League taking on the San Diego Sockers.  The AAC includes a practice court for the Mavericks, who used it for regular practices until 2017 when a separate facility was built in the Dallas Design District near the arena.  The Mavericks' lease on the AAC runs through to 2031, and once it runs out owner Mark Cuban has considered a new arena to replace the AAC.

Design.

Principal design work was carried out by the Driehaus Prize winner and New Classical architect David M. Schwarz of Washington D.C. American Airlines Center was designed to be the heart of a new urban, commercial area designed to reinvigorate the city of Dallas called Victory Park. The facility itself features a conservative, traditional design with sweeping brick façades and smooth arches, and has been graced with a number of awards (below). The interior includes retractable seating, public art and a state-of-the-art technological arena. Because of the Quonset hut-like appearance of its roof and the fact that American Airlines holds the naming rights some fans have come to refer to it as "The Hangar".

AT&T Plaza.

On the south side of the arena AT&T Plaza (also called Victory Plaza) serves as the principal entrance into the facility, designed by artist Athena Tacha in 2000. The plaza provides an open space with fountains flanked by retail and office buildings. With several HD video displays from Daktronics mounted on the side of the arena and office buildings, the plaza is often used for outdoor events and movie showings.  The arena also hosted the Junior Gold Championships Opening Ceremony. The Junior Gold championships is an annual bowling tournament every July, for the best youth bowlers in the country and in the world.

The American Airlines Center (AAC) is a multi-purpose arena, located in the Victory Park neighborhood in downtown Dallas, Texas. The arena serves as the home to the Dallas Mavericks of the National Basketball Association, and the Dallas Stars of the National Hockey League. The arena is also used for concerts and other live entertainment. It opened in 2001 at a cost of $420 million.

Das American Airlines Center ist eine Multifunktionsarena in der US-amerikanischen Stadt Dallas im Bundesstaat Texas. Es ist die sportliche Heimat der Dallas Mavericks aus der National Basketball Association (NBA) und der Dallas Stars aus der National Hockey League (NHL). Der Eigentümer ist die Stadt Dallas. Die Arena verfügt bei Basketball-Spielen über 19.200 Plätze, die durch Stehplätze bis auf 21.146 erhöht werden können. Zu Eishockey-Spielen sind es 18.532 Plätze, erweiterbar mit Stehplätzen bis auf 19.323. Als Konzertarena fasst die Halle 21.000 Besucher.


Definitions of whiteness.

Zeus Leonardo defines whiteness as "a racial discourse, whereas the category ‘white people’ represents a socially constructed identity, usually based on skin color". Steve Garner notes that "whiteness has no stable consensual meaning" and that "the meanings attached to 'race' are always time- and place-specific, part of each national racial regime".

Development of the field.

Studies of whiteness as a unique identity could be said to begin among black people, who needed to understand whiteness to survive, particularly in slave societies such as the American colonies and United States. An important theme in this literature is, beyond the general "invisibility" of blacks to whites, the unwillingness of white people to consider that black people study them anthropologically. American author James Weldon Johnson wrote in his 1912 novel "The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man" that "colored people of this country know and understand the white people better than the white people know and understand them". Author James Baldwin wrote and spoke extensively about whiteness, defining it as a central social problem and insisting that it was choice, not a biological identity. In "The Fire Next Time" (1963), a non-fiction book on race relations in the United States, Baldwin suggests that "White people in this country will have quite enough to do in learning how to accept and love themselves and each other, and when they have achieved this—which will not be tomorrow and may very well be never—the Negro problem will no longer exist, for it will no longer be needed."A major black theory of whiteness connects this identity group with acts of terrorism—i.e., slavery, rape, torture, and lynching—against black people, who were treated as sub-human.  White academics in the United States and the United Kingdom (UK) began to study whiteness as early as 1983, creating the idea of a discipline called "whiteness studies". The "canon wars" of the late 1980s and 1990s, a political controversy over the centrality of white authors and perspectives in United States culture, led the scholar Shelley Fisher Fishkin to ask "how the imaginative construction of 'whiteness' had shaped American literature and American history". The field developed a large body of work during the early 1990s, Fishkin describes it extending across the disciplines of "literary criticism, history, cultural studies, sociology, anthropology, popular culture, communication studies, music history, art history, dance history, humor studies, philosophy, linguistics, and folklore".  As of 2004, according to "The Washington Post", at least 30 institutions in the United States including Princeton University, the University of California at Los Angeles, the University of New Mexico and University of Massachusetts Amherst offer, or have offered, courses in whiteness studies. Teaching and research around whiteness often overlap with research on post-colonial theory and orientalism taking place in the Arts and Humanities, Sociology, Literature, Communications, and Cultural and Media Studies faculties and departments, among others (e.g. Kent, Leeds). Also heavily engaged in whiteness studies are practitioners of anti-racist education, such as Betita Martinez and the Challenging White Supremacy workshop.  One contribution to White Studies is Rich Benjamin's "Searching for Whitopia: An Improbable Journey to the Heart of White America". The book examines white social beliefs and white anxiety in the contemporary United States—in the context of enormous demographic, cultural, and social change. The book is often taught as a primer in White Studies on white racial identity in a "post-racial" US.  Another major contribution to whiteness studies is the analysis of whiteness as a phenomenon, not just localized to the US and Western Hemisphere, but also in the context of other post-colonial metropoles such as the Netherlands. Gloria Wekker’s "White Innocence: Paradoxes of Colonialism and Race" excavates the immutability and fluidity of white identity and its relationship to innocence in the context of post-colonial Netherlands in the first decade of the twenty-first century. Wekker identifies white innocence as a contemporary construction and denial [aggressive national forgetting] of the Netherlands role and proximity to European imperialism, racial stratification and hierarchy, and its contributions to the making of contemporary constructions of national belonging and cultural normativity (autochtoon vs. allochtonen).  In Wekker’s analysis, although a majority of the residents of the Netherlands are migrants, the process of stratifying Dutch from “Other” is facilitated through skin tone and non-Christian religious practices (“deviant”, non-White religions). In Wekker's account, the process of racialization is reserved for mid-to-late twentieth century migrant groups [i.e. Muslims, Black Surinamese, Black Antilleans], interchangeably as a means of delineating groups outside the constructed immutable “norms” of Dutch society. Ultimately, Wekker is illuminating the cultural and rhetorical maneuvering that occurs within Dutch popular culture, educational spaces, and national discourses that facilitate a normalizing, non-identity to whiteness and how this very concept is intricately connected to a longer historical nineteenth-century racial grammar that accompanied imperial expansion.

Areas of study.

Whiteness.

Whiteness studies draws on research into the definition of race, originating with the United States but applying to racial stratification worldwide. This research emphasizes the historically recent social construction of white identity. As stated by W. E. B. Du Bois in 1920: "The discovery of a personal whiteness among the world's peoples is a very modern thing,—a nineteenth and twentieth century matter, indeed." The discipline examines how white, Native, and African/black identities emerged in interaction with the institutions of slavery, colonial settlement, citizenship, and industrial labor. Scholars such as Winthrop Jordan have traced the evolution of the legally defined line between "blacks" and "whites" to colonial government efforts to prevent cross-racial revolts among unpaid laborers.  Princeton professor Nell Irvin Painter, in her 2010 book "The History of White People," says the idea of whiteness is not just a matter of biology but also includes "concepts of labor, gender, class, and images of personal beauty".(p. xi) The earliest European societies, including the Greeks and Romans, had no concept of race and classified people by ethnicity and social class, with the lowest class being slaves, most of whom were European in origin.(p. xi) Race science, developed in Europe in the 1800s, included intense analysis of different groups of Europeans, who were classified as belonging to three or four different races, with the most admirable being from northern Europe.(pp. 215–6) From the early days of the United States, whiteness was a criterion for full citizenship and acceptance into society. The American definition of whiteness evolved over time; initially groups such as Jews and southern Europeans were not regarded as white, but as skin color became the primary criterion, they were gradually accepted. Painter argues that in the 21st century the definition of whiteness - or more precisely the definition of "nonblackness" - has continued to expand, so that now "The dark of skin who happen to be rich... and the light of skin from any (racial background) who are beautiful, are now well on their way to inclusion."(pp. 389–90.)  Academic Joseph Pugliese is among writers who have applied whiteness studies to an Australian context, discussing the ways that Indigenous Australians were marginalized in the wake of British colonization of Australia, as whiteness came to be defined as central to Australian identity, diminishing Aboriginal identity in the process. Pugliese discusses the 20th-century White Australia policy as a conscious attempt to preserve the "purity" of whiteness in Australian society. Likewise Stefanie Affeldt considers whiteness "a concept not yet fully developed at the time the first convicts and settlers arrived down under" which, as a social relation, had to be negotiated and was driven forward in particular by the labour movement. Eventually, with the Federation of Australia, "[o]verlaying social differences, the shared membership in the 'white race' was the catalyst for the consolidation of the Australian colonies as the Commonwealth of Australia".

White backlash.

White backlash or white rage in association with or as a consequence of whiteness is an area of investigation in whiteness studies. Sociologist Matthew Hughey has described this examination of racially-based backlash within its historical context; "Another approach to the study of whiteness centres on the white "back-lash" against the advances born from the civil rights movement."  Political scientist Danielle Allen has analyzed the intersection of whiteness with North American demographic changes, stating how they can "provoke resistance from those whose well-being, status and self-esteem are connected to historical privileges of 'whiteness'". Discussing the method of this resistance, Veronica Strong-Boag's co-edited "Rethinking Canada: The Promise of Women's History" explores how white backlash in Canada attempts to frames the defending of white interests as a "defence of national identity", rather than an acknowledgement of the political action of whiteness.  Scholar George Yancy has explored the societal response to perceived loss of racial privilege in his 2018 book "Backlash"; how reactions derived from whiteness fluctuate between Robin DiAngelo's concept of white fragility versus the more extreme backlashes throughout history.

White education.

The study of white education and its intersection with whiteness is a continuing area of research in whiteness studies. Scholarly investigation has critiqued white-derived education as inevitably for the benefit of, organized by, and oriented towards white people. Horace Mann Bond was one of the early scholars to identify bias and privilege operating in white education systems. Using his role as Secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Education to promote universal public education in the US, Bond critiqued suggestions African Americans were not intelligent enough to participate in the same schools as white Americans and campaigned against calls for literacy tests for suffrage. He challenged the Southern Manifesto and identified bias for funding white education, rather than universal funding, even within the reformist movement for desegregated schools.  Whiteness and privilege have continued in US education after Jim Crow versions of the segregationist ideology have lost their legitimacy due to legal and political failures. Privacy and individualism discourses mask white fear and newer forms of exclusion in contemporary education according to scholar, Charles R. Lawrence III.

White identity.

Analyzing whiteness to forge new understandings of white identity has been a field of exploration for academics since the publications which largely founded modern whiteness studies in the mid-1990s. In exploring Ruth Frankenberg's works, and her interchanging use of the two concepts, the separation has been examined by scholars attempting to intellectually "disengtangle each from the other".  Sociologist Howard Winant, favoring a deconstructionist (rather than abolitionist) study of whiteness, suggests this methodology can help redefine and reorient understanding of white identity. In biological examination, whiteness studies has sought to expose how "white identity is neither pure nor unchanging – that its genealogy is mixed" in order to unearth biases within the white racial identity.

White privilege.

In 1965, drawing from insights from Du Bois and inspired by the Civil Rights Movement, Theodore W. Allen began a 40-year analysis of "white skin privilege", "white race" privilege, and "white" privilege. In a piece he drafted for a "John Brown Commemoration Committee", he urged that "White Americans who want government of the people" and "by the people" to "begin by first repudiating their white skin privileges". From 1967 to 1969 various versions of the pamphlet, "White Blindspot", containing pieces by Allen and Noel Ignatin (Noel Ignatiev), focused on the struggle against "white skin privilege" and significantly influenced Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) and sectors of the New Left. By June 15, 1969, "The New York Times" was reporting that the National Office of SDS was calling "for an all-out fight against 'white skin privileges'".  In 1974–1975, Allen extended his analysis of "white privilege", racial oppression, and social control to the colonial period with his ground-breaking "Class Struggle and the Origin of Racial Slavery: The Invention of the White Race." With continued research, he developed his ideas as his seminal two-volume "The Invention of the White Race" published in 1994 and 1997.  For almost forty years, Allen offered a detailed historical analysis of the origin, maintenance, and functioning of "white-skin privilege" and "white privilege" in such writings as: "White Supremacy in U.S. History" (1973); "Class Struggle and the Origin of Racial Slavery: The Invention of the White Race" (1975); "The Invention of the White Race," Vol. 1: "Racial Oppression and Social Control" (1994, 2012); "The Invention of the White Race," Vol. 2: "The Origin of Racial Oppression in Anglo-America" (1997, 2012); "Summary of the Argument of 'The Invention of the White Race'" Parts 1 and 2 (1998); "In Defense of Affirmative Action in Employment Policy" (1998); "'Race' and 'Ethnicity': History and the 2000 Census" (1999); and "On Roediger's Wages of Whiteness" (Revised Edition)";  In his historical work, Allen asserted that:  Laura Pulido writes about the relation of white privilege to racism. "White privilege [is] a highly structural and spatial form of racism... I suggest that historical processes of suburbanization and decentralization are instances of white privilege and have contributed to contemporary patterns of environmental racism."Pulido defines environmental racism as "the idea that nonwhites are disproportionately exposed to pollution".  Writers such as Peggy McIntosh say that social, political, and cultural advantages are accorded to whites in global society. She argues that these advantages seem invisible to white people, but obvious to non-whites. McIntosh argues that whites utilize their whiteness, consciously or unconsciously, as a framework to classify people and understand their social locations. In addition, even though many white people understand that whiteness is associated with privilege, they do not acknowledge their privilege because they view themselves as average and non-racist. Essentially, whiteness is invisible to white people.  For instance, "I think whites are carefully taught not to recognize white privilege, as males are taught not to recognize male privilege. So I have begun in an untouched way to ask what it is like to have white privilege. I have come to see white privilege as an invisible package of unearned assets which I can count on cashing in each day, but about which I was'meant' to remain oblivious" (188).McIntosh calls for Americans to acknowledge white privilege so that they can more effectively attain equality in American society. She argues, "To redesign social systems we need first to acknowledge their colossal unseen dimensions. The silences and denials surrounding privilege are the key political tool here. They keep the thinking about equality or equity incomplete, protecting unearned advantage and conferred dominance by making these taboo subjects" (192).  White privilege is also related to white guilt. As Shannon Jackson writes in the article, ""White Noises: On Performing White, On Writing Performance"" (1998), "The rhetorics of white guilt are tiresome, cliche, disingenuous, and everywhere. And now that the stereotype of 'the guilty white' is almost entrenched in its negativity as 'the racist white', people actively try to dis-identify from both."

White shift.

White racial shift or decline, which has been abbreviated to the phrase whiteshift, and its intersection or connectedness to whiteness, has been a source of study and academic research within the field of whiteness studies. In relation to demographic decline of white people, the phenomenon has been analyzed as producing "a formal re-articulation of whiteness as a social category" in relation to fear-based politics with the US. Academic Vron Ware has examined this fear-based element in the sociology of resentment, and its intersection with class and whiteness. Ware analyzed how white decline, and its portrayal in British media, facilitated a victim or grievance culture, particularly among white British working-class communities.  Political scientist Charles King has proposed that, in the context of the numerical decline of white Americans, whiteness is progressively revealed to be driven by social power, rather than biology.

Schools of thought.

Critical whiteness studies.

An offshoot of critical race theory, theorists of critical whiteness studies seek to examine the construction and moral implications of whiteness, in order to reveal and deconstruct its assumed links to white privilege and white supremacy. Barbara Applebaum defines it as the "field of scholarship whose aim is to reveal the invisible structures that produce and reproduce white supremacy and privilege", and "presumes a certain conception of racism that is connected to white supremacy". Anoop Nayak describes it as underpinned by the belief that whiteness is "a modern invention [which] has changed over time and place", "a social norm and has become chained to an index of unspoken privileges", and that "the bonds of whiteness can yet be broken/deconstructed for the betterment of humanity". There is a great deal of overlap between critical whiteness studies and critical race theory, as demonstrated by focus on the legal and historical construction of white identity, and the use of narratives (whether legal discourse, testimony or fiction) as a tool for exposing systems of racial power.

Whiteness and architecture.

In the early 21st century, architectural historians have published studies related to the construction of whiteness in the built environment. Studies have grappled with the exclusionary nature of the architectural profession, which erected barriers for nonwhite practitioners, the ways in which architects and designers have employed motifs, art programs, and color schemes that reflected the aspirations of European-Americans and, most recently, with the racialization of space.

Criticisms.

Writers David Horowitz and Douglas Murray draw a distinction between whiteness studies and other analogous disciplines. Writes Horowitz, "Black studies celebrates blackness, Chicano studies celebrates Chicanos, women's studies celebrates women, and white studies attacks white people as evil." Dagmar R. Myslinska, an Adjunct Associate Professor of Law at Fordham University, argues that whiteness studies overlooks the heterogeneity of whites' experience, be it due to class, immigrant status, or geographical location. Alastair Bonnett argues that whiteness studies treated "white" culture as a homogenous and stable "racial entity" - for example, Bonnett observes that whiteness researchers in Britain argued that white British people lived in a homogenous "white culture" (which Bonnett observed was never clearly described), with the researchers completely ignoring British culture's regional diversity, despite having ample opportunity to study it.  Barbara Kay, a columnist for the "National Post", has sharply criticized whiteness studies, writing that it "points to a new low in moral vacuity and civilizational self-loathing" and is an example of "academic pusillanimity." According to Kay, whiteness studies "cuts to the chase: It is all, and only, about white self-hate."  Kay noted the leanings of the field by quoting Jeff Hitchcock, co-founder and executive director of the Center for the Study of White American Culture (CSWAC) who stated in a 1998 speech: Regarding whiteness studies (WS) more broadly, Kay wrote: WS teaches that if you are white, you are branded, literally in the flesh, with evidence of a kind of original sin. You can try to mitigate your evilness, but you can't eradicate it. The goal of WS is to entrench permanent race consciousness in everyone — eternal victimhood for nonwhites, eternal guilt for whites — and was most famously framed by WS chief guru, Noel Ignatiev, former professor at Harvard University ["sic", Ignatiev was a Ph.D. student and then a tutor at Harvard, but never a professor], now teaching at the Massachusetts College of Art: "The key to solving the social problems of our age is to abolish the white race — in other words, to abolish the privileges of the white skin." In addition to such criticism in the mass media, whiteness studies has earned a mixed reception from academics in other fields. In 2001, historian Eric Arnesen wrote that "whiteness has become a blank screen onto which those who claim to analyze it can project their own meanings" and that the field "suffers from a number of potentially fatal methodological and conceptual flaws." First, Arnesen writes that the core theses of whiteness studies—that racial categories are arbitrary social constructs without definite biological basis, and that some white Americans benefit from racist discrimination of non-whites—have been common wisdom in academia for many decades and are hardly as novel or controversial as whiteness studies scholars seem to believe. Additionally, Arnesen accuses whiteness studies scholars of sloppy thinking; of making claims not supported by their sources; of overstating supporting evidence and cherry picking to neglect contrary information.  He notes that a particular datum almost entirely ignored by whiteness studies scholars is religion, which has played a prominent role in conflicts among various American classes. He says that a type of "keyword literalism" persists in whiteness studies, where important words and phrases from primary sources are taken out of their historical context. Whiteness has so many different definitions that the word is "nothing less than a moving target." Arnesen notes that whiteness studies scholars are entirely on the far left of the political spectrum, and suggests that their apparent vitriol towards white Americans is due in part to white workers not fulfilling the predictions of Marxist theory that the proletariat would overcome racial, national and class distinctions to unite and overthrow capitalism. He cites, as an example, David Roediger’s afterword to the seminal "Wages of Whiteness", which asserts that the book was written as a reaction to "the appalling extent to which white male workers voted for Reaganism in the 1980s." Arnesen argues that in the absence of supporting evidence, whiteness studies often rely on amateurish Freudian speculation about the motives of white people: "The psychoanalysis of whiteness here differs from the 'talking cure' of Freudianism partly in its neglect of the speech of those under study." Without more accurate scholarship, Arnesen writes that "it is time to retire whiteness for more precise historical categories and analytical tools."  In 2002 historian Peter Kolchin offered a more positive assessment and declared that, at its best, whiteness studies has "unfulfilled potential" and offers a novel and valuable means of studying history. Particularly, he praises scholarship into the development of the "concept" of whiteness in the United States, and notes that the definition and implications of a white racial identity have shifted over the decades. Yet Kolchin describes a "persistent sense of unease " with certain aspects of whiteness studies. There is no consensus definition of whiteness, and thus the word is used in vague and contradictory ways, with some scholars even leaving the term undefined in their articles or essays." Kolchin also objects to "a persistent dualism evident in the work of the best whiteness studies authors," who often claim that whiteness is a social construct while also arguing, paradoxically, that whiteness is an "omnipresent and unchanging" reality existing independent of socialization. Kolchin agrees that entering a post-racial paradigm might be beneficial for humanity, but he challenges the didactic tone of whiteness studies scholars who single out a white racial identification as negative, while praising a black or Asian self-identification. Scholars in whiteness studies sometimes seriously undermine their arguments by interpreting historical evidence independent of its broader context (e.g., Karen Brodkin's examination of American anti-semitism largely neglects its roots in European anti-semitism). Finally, Kolchin categorically rejects the argument—common amongst many whiteness scholars—that racism and whiteness are intrinsically and uniquely American, and he expresses concern at the "belief in the moral emptiness of whiteness [...] there is a thin line between saying that whiteness is evil and saying that whites are evil."  Theodore W. Allen, pioneering writer on "white skin privilege" and "white privilege" from the 1960s until his death in 2005, offered a critical review "On Roediger’s Wages of Whiteness" (Revised Edition). He personally put "whiteness" in quotes because he shied away from using the term. As Allen explained, "it’s an abstract noun, it’s an abstraction, it’s an attribute of some people, it’s not the role they play. And the white race is an actual objective thing. It’s not anthropologic, it’s a historically developed identity of European Americans and Anglo-Americans and so it has to be dealt with. It functions... in this history of ours and it has to be recognized as such....to slough it off under the heading of ‘whiteness,’ to me seems to get away from the basic white race identity trauma."In a scholarly debate with whiteness studies pioneer David Roediger, Eric Kaufmann, a scholar of political demography and identity politics and the author of "Whiteshift" (which was criticised for defending white identity politics), criticizes the field as a whole, arguing :"White Studies suffers from a number of serious flaws which should lead us to question whether this approach can continue to advance the frontiers of knowledge in the wider sphere of ethnic and racial studies".. These flaws include: 1) a constructivism which fails to recognise the cognitive and social processes that underpin social'reality'; 2) an excessive emphasis on ethnic boundaries as opposed to ethnic narratives, thereby overstating the degree of malleability possible in ethnic identity; 3) a tacit belief in white exceptionalism, which overemphasises the ideological character of whiteness and deifies whites; 4) an elision of dominant ethnicity and race; and 5) a threefold parochialism in terms of place, time horizon and the role of race in ethnic studies."Kaufmann then proposes, as an alternative approach to the study of white identity, the emerging concept of "dominant ethnicity", using Anthony D. Smith's definition of "ethnic group" as a "named, imagined, human community, many of whose members believe in a myth of shared ancestry and place of origin."

Whiteness studies is the study of the structures that produce white privilege, the examination of what whiteness is when analyzed as a race, a culture, and a source of systemic racism, and the exploration of other social phenomena generated by the societal compositions, perceptions and group behaviours of white people. An interdisciplinary arena of inquiry that has developed beginning in the United States from white trash studies and critical race studies, particularly since the late 20th century. It is focused on what proponents describe as the cultural, historical and sociological aspects of people identified as white, and the social construction of "whiteness" as an ideology tied to social status.

Weißsein (auch Weiß-Sein, von engl. "Whiteness") ist ein transdisziplinäres Studienfeld und beschreibt kulturelle, historische und soziologische Aspekte von Menschen, die sich als "weiß" identifizieren. Ebenso geht es um die soziale Konstruktion von Weißsein als Statuszeiger. Insgesamt wird damit eine Kategorie zur kritischen Analyse sozialer Normen verbunden. In Extremfällen wie der White Supremacy geht es um Konstrukte, die Rassismus rechtfertigen oder begünstigen. Als Teil eines in den 1980er Jahren eingetretenen Paradigmenwechsels in der angloamerikanischen Rassismusforschung führt die Analysekategorie „Weißsein“ solch rassifizierende Perspektiven auf den „Anderen“ wieder auf den Ursprung der Rassifizierung zurück. Ab 2005 hat das Konzept Eingang in wissenschaftliche Arbeiten im deutschen Sprachraum gefunden. Der daraus entstandene Begriff „Critical Whiteness“ ist keine einheitliche Theorie – verschiedene Gruppen, Autoren und Aktivisten benutzen ihn in unterschiedlicher Art und Weise.


Career.

Garrison was raised in both Miami, Florida and Philadelphia where he learned to play bass. Garrison came of age in the 1950s Philadelphia jazz scene, which included fellow bassists Reggie Workman and Henry Grimes, pianist McCoy Tyner and trumpeter Lee Morgan. Between 1957 and 1962, Garrison played and recorded with trumpeter Kenny Dorham; clarinetist Tony Scott; drummer Philly Joe Jones; and saxophonists Bill Barron, Lee Konitz, and Jackie McLean, as well as Curtis Fuller, Benny Golson, Lennie Tristano, and Pharoah Sanders, among others. In 1961, he recorded with Ornette Coleman, appearing on Coleman's albums Ornette on Tenor and The Art of the Improvisors. He also worked with Walter Bishop, Jr. and Cal Massey during the early years of his career.  He formally joined Coltrane's quartet in 1962, replacing Workman. The long trio blues "Chasin' the Trane" is one of his first recorded performances with Coltrane and Elvin Jones. Garrison performed on many Coltrane recordings, including "A Love Supreme". In concert with Coltrane, Garrison would often play unaccompanied improvised solos, sometimes as song introductions prior to the other musicians joining in. After John Coltrane's death, Garrison worked and recorded with Alice Coltrane, Hampton Hawes, Archie Shepp, Clifford Thornton and groups led by Elvin Jones.  Garrison also worked with Ornette Coleman during the 1960s, first recording with him in 1961 on "Ornette on Tenor". He and Elvin Jones recorded with Coleman in 1968, and have been credited with eliciting more forceful playing than usual from Coleman on the albums "New York Is Now!" and "Love Call".  In 1971 and 1972, Garrison taught as a Visiting Artist at Wesleyan University and Bennington College.

Personal life.

Jimmy Garrison had four daughters and a son. With his first wife Robbie he had three daughters, and with his second wife, dancer and choreographer Roberta Escamilla Garrison, he had two children, including jazz bassist Matt Garrison.  Jimmy Garrison died of lung cancer on April 7, 1976.  On June 25, 2019, "The New York Times Magazine" listed Jimmy Garrison among hundreds of artists whose material was reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.

Discography.

As sideman.

With Lorez Alexandria With Bill Barron With Walter Bishop Jr. With Benny Carter With Ornette Coleman With Alice Coltrane With John Coltrane With Ted Curson With Nathan Davis With Bill Dixon With Kenny Dorham With Curtis Fuller With Beaver Harris With Elvin Jones With Philly Joe Jones With Lee Konitz With Rolf Kühn and Joachim Kühn With Cal Massey With Jackie McLean With J. R. Monterose With Robert Pozar With Sonny Rollins With Tony Scott With Archie Shepp With Clifford Thornton With McCoy Tyner

James Emory Garrison (March 3, 1934 – April 7, 1976) was an American jazz double bassist. He is best remembered for his association with John Coltrane from 1961 to 1967.

James Emory „Jimmy“ Garrison (* 3. März 1934 in Miami; † 7. April 1976 in New York) war ein US-amerikanischer Jazz-Kontrabassist, der vor allem als Mitglied im so genannten „klassischen“ Quartett des Saxophonisten John Coltrane bekannt wurde. Garrisons Spiel, das von Zeitgenossen als besonders „druckvoll“ und „erdig“ beschrieben wurde, ist beispielsweise auf Coltranes legendärem Album "A Love Supreme", das am 9. Dezember 1964 aufgenommen wurde, zu hören.


History.

Originally built in the 14th century in Masovian Gothic style, the Cathedral served as a coronation and burial site for numerous Dukes of Masovia.  The Archcathedral was connected with the Royal Castle (Zamek Królewski w Warszawie) by an elevated 80-meter-long corridor that had been built by Queen Anna Jagiellonka in the late 16th century and extended in the 1620s after Michał Piekarski's failed 1620 attempt to assassinate King of Poland Sigismund III in front of the Cathedral.  After the resolution of the Constitution of May 3, 1791, at the end of the session at the Royal Castle, King Stanisław August Poniatowski went to the Cathedral of St. John to repeat the Oath of the Constitution in front of the Altar, in the face of God. Also the Marshals of the Great Sejm were carried to the Archcathedral on the shoulders of the enthusiastic deputies of the Sejm.  The church was rebuilt several times, most notably in the 19th century, it was preserved until World War II as an example of English Gothic Revival.  In 1944, during the Warsaw Uprising (August–October 1944), the Cathedral was a place of struggle between insurgents and advancing German army. The Germans managed to induct a tank loaded with explosives into the Cathedral, a huge explosion destroyed large part of the building. After the collapse of the Uprising, German "Vernichtungskommando" (Destruction Detachment) drilled holes into the walls for explosives and blew up the Cathedral destroying 90% of its walls.  The cathedral was rebuilt after the war. The exterior reconstruction is based on the 14th-century church's presumed appearance (according to an early-17th-century Hogenberg illustration and a 1627 Abraham Boot drawing), not on its prewar appearance.

Interior.

The profuse Early Baroque decoration inside from the beginning of the 17th century and magnificent painting on the main altar by Palma il Giovane depicting "Virgin and Child with St. John the Baptist and St. Stanisław" were destroyed in German bombing of the church on August 17, 1944. The remains of the church were blown up by the Germans in November 1944. One wall that somehow managed to survive was all that was left of the six-hundred-year-old edifice. This devastation of a Polish national monument was a part of the Planned destruction of Warsaw, which had officially begun after the collapse of the Warsaw Uprising.  The painting of the "Virgin and Child" was created in 1618 for King Sigismund III Vasa especially to place on the central altar of the St. John's Cathedral. As a masterpiece it was confiscated on Napoleon's order and transported to Paris. It was retrieved by Warsaw authorities in 1820s after the Congress of Vienna. It survived many wars and the bombing of Warsaw since it was painted, but did not survive World War II. Among the sculptures lost due to German bombardment, the most worthy of mentioning was a marble bust of Jan Franciszek Bieliński, voivode of Malbork (died 1685), carved by Jean-Joseph Vinache.  The interior reconstruction design considerably differed from the pre-war Cathedral, taking it back in time to its raw Gothic look, because very little of the cathedral's original furnishings has been preserved. The Cathedral is a three-nave building, two aisles are the same height as the main nave. On the right side from the front a belfry is situated, a passage to Dziekania Street is situated underneath it. There is a pulpit from 1959, designed by Józef Trenarowski and stalls which are a replica of the destroyed baroque ones, founded by King John III Sobieski. Moreover, there are many chapels, gravestones and epitaphs in the Cathedral. By the left aisle are numerous chapels. They are, in turn, from the main altar:  The painting that once belonged to the Polish kings John II Casimir Vasa, Michael Korybut Wiśniowiecki and John III Sobieski, was used during the battles.

Burials.

The crypts beneath the main aisle hold the remains of notable persons, including:

St. John's Archcathedral in Warsaw () is a Roman Catholic church in Warsaw's Old Town. St. John's is one of three cathedrals in Warsaw, but the only one which is also an archcathedral. It is the mother church of the archdiocese of Warsaw. St. John's Archcathedral is one of Poland's national pantheons and stands immediately adjacent to Warsaw's Jesuit church. Along with the city, the church has been listed by UNESCO as of cultural significance.

Die Johanneskathedrale, auch Johannesdom (polnisch: "Archikatedra św. Jana Chrzciciela"), in der Altstadt der polnischen Hauptstadt Warschau ist seit 1798 Domkirche des Erzbistums Warschau und zugleich älteste Warschauer Kirche. Das Gebäude selbst, das dem heiligen Johannes dem Täufer geweiht ist, befindet sich südlich des Altstädter Markts und stellt einen gotischen Neubau von 1948 bis 1956 dar.


Early life.

Clifford Joseph Harris Jr. was born on September 25, 1980, in Alabama, the son of Clifford "Buddy" Harris Sr. and Violeta Morgan. He was raised by his grandparents in Atlanta's Center Hill neighborhood just off Bankhead Highway. His father resided in New York City, and he would often go

Music career.

Career beginnings.

In 1996, T.I. befriended local rapper Big Kuntry King, together they sold mixtapes out of the trunk of their car. Kawan "KP" Prather, a record executive, discovered

2001–2002: "I'm Serious" and Atlantic Records deal.

T.I. released his debut album, "I'm Serious", in October 2001 through Arista Records. The album spawned the a single of the same name featuring Jamaican reggae artist Beenie Man on June 26, 2001. The single received little airplay and failed to chart. The album features guest appearances from his Southern hip hop group P$C, Jazze Pha, Too Short, Bone Crusher, Lil Jon, Pastor Troy and YoungBloodZ, as well as Pharrell Williams of American record production team The Neptunes (who called him "the Jay-Z of the South").  The production for "I'm Serious", was handled by The Neptunes, DJ Toomp, Madvac and The Grand Hustle

2003–2004: "Trap Muzik" and "Urban Legend".

T.I. released his second album "Trap Muzik" on August 19, 2003 through Grand Hustle Records; it debuted at number four and sold 109,000 copies in its first week. It spawned the singles "24s", "Be Easy", "Rubberband Man" and "Let's Get Away". The album features guest appearances from 8Ball & MJG, Jazze Pha, Bun B and Mac Boney; and was produced by Jazze Pha, Kanye West, David Banner, Madvac and DJ Toomp. Upon its release, "Trap Muzik" received generally favorable reviews from most music critics, who generally regarded it as a major improvement over his debut album, "I'm Serious". This included "Complex" naming the album one of the classic albums of the last decade in 2012. on

2005–2006: P$C album, "King" and "ATL".

In September 2005, T.I. teamed up with his Pimp $quad Click (P$C) cohorts, Big Kuntry King, Mac Boney, C-Rod and AK, to release P$C's debut studio album, "25 to Life". The album, which was preceded by several self-released mixtapes by P$C, peaked at No.10 on the US "Billboard" 200 chart. The album was supported by the lead single "I'm a King", which was also included on the soundtrack to the film "Hustle & Flow", a collection also released by T.I.'s label imprint Grand Hustle, under the aegis of Atlantic Records.  T.I.'s fourth album, "King", debuted at number one on the "Billboard" 200 chart in the first half of 2006, selling 522,000 copies in its first week. T.I. released "Front Back" and "Ride with Me" as promotional singles prior to the release of the album. The singles garnered little attention. The album's lead single "What You Know," became a hit in the U.S. and helped promote not only the album, but also "ATL," the film T.I. starred in that coincided with the album's release. The album also

2007: "T.I. vs. T.I.P.".

T.I. released his fifth album, "T.I. vs. T.I.P.", on July 3, 2007. The lead single from the album was "Big Shit Poppin' (Do It)," which was produced by Mannie Fresh and was released to radio stations on April 17, 2007. The second single, "You Know What It Is" featuring Wyclef Jean, was released June 12, 2007. "T.I. vs. T.I.P." sold 468,000 copies in the United States, according to

2008–2009: "Paper Trail".

In early 2008, T.I. collaborated with Mariah Carey on the "I'll Be Lovin' U Long Time" remix, peaking at number 58 on the U.S. Hot 100 and number 36 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs.  While under house arrest, T.I. began writing lyrics down on paper for his sixth studio album. The first official single from the album, titled "No Matter What," was released in April 2008. The music video was released in June 2008 on MTV's FN Premieres. The official lead single was "Whatever You

2010–2011: "No Mercy" and drug charges.

On March 26, 2010, T.I. was released from a halfway house where he had been serving the remainder of his prison sentence for weapons possession. Soon after his release he was in the studio working on his seventh studio album titled "King Uncaged". Jim Jonsin, the producer who previously worked with him on his single, "Whatever You Like" and R&B singer Trey Songz, were scheduled to work on the project.  T.I. made his first public appearance since prison, stepping out with then fiancée Tameka "Tiny" Cottle in support of her Alzheimer's research fundraiser "For the Love of Our Fathers" at Atlanta's Opera venue. "I am very well, very happy to be seen," said T.I., who joined Cottle onstage at the end of the benefit. T.I. released a new promotional single titled "I'm Back" on March 8, 2010. The single peaked at No. 44 on Billboard's Hot 100 charts. Around this

2011–2013: "Trouble Man: Heavy Is the Head".

On September 30, 2011, T.I. released "I'm Flexin'", the first promotional single from his upcoming eighth studio album. The song features vocals and production from Big K.R.I.T. T.I. reunited with Young Jeezy on "F.A.M.E." for Jeezy's album "TM103". "I'm Flexin" peaked at number sixty-six on Billboard Hot 100, while "F.A.M.E." peaked at number sixty-seven on Billboard Hip Hop/R&B. On October 18, T.I. made appearances on The Howard Stern Show and The View to promote his new novel, "Power & Beauty: A Love Story of Life on the Streets" and discuss other issues involving his time in prison. Later that day, he released the second promotional single, "Here Ye, Hear Ye" featuring Pharrell Williams under the alias "Sk8brd".  After his release from prison, T.I. appeared on several remixes including; "Spend It" by 2 Chainz, "Sleazy" by Kesha, "Niggas in Paris" with Jay-Z and Kanye West, "Hard White (Up in the Club)" by Yelawolf also featuring Slaughterhouse, "Ima Boss" by Meek Mill alongside a freestyle over Drake's "Headlines", and Lil Wayne's "She Will". He was also featured on southern rapper Future's second single "Magic", taken from his debut studio album "Pluto", which was the first song he hopped on after his release from prison according to Future.  T.I. revealed the title of his eighth studio album to be "Trouble Man". The title was partly inspired by Marvin Gaye's 1972 song of the same name, he revealed on "Billboard".

2013–2016: Post Atlantic and Bankroll Mafia.

On March 26, 2013, T.I. appeared alongside Pharrell, on Robin Thicke's lead single "Blurred Lines" from his album of the same name. The song quickly became a worldwide hit and peaked at number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100, making it T.I.'s fourth number one Hot 100 single. The song has also reached number one in 13+ countries, including the United Kingdom and Germany. In March 2013, Lil Wayne announced T.I. would be co-headlining the second "America's Most Wanted Tour". T.I. explained that the tour would begin on July5 and go through September 1, 2013. American rappers French Montana and 2Chainz, were later confirmed to join the tour, among others. The first "America's Most Wanted Tour", had taken place five years prior and featured Young Jeezy, Soulja Boy, Pleasure P, Jeremih and Young Money. On May 21, 2013, T.I. released a single titled "Wit Me" featuring Lil Wayne. The song was released in promotion for the tour and peaked at number 80 on the Hot 100 chart. In a July 2013 interview, with Power 98 FM, T.I. spoke on his then-upcoming album, "Trouble Man II: He Who Wears the Crown". While he didn't reveal many album specifics, he did promise a project that would make whoever decides to distribute the album very "happy": "I've been working on this one since the last one dropped. I haven't decided exactly where I'm going to take [the new

2016–present: "Us or Else" and "Dime Trap".

On July 22, 2016, during an interview with "Ebro in the Morning" on Hot 97, T.I. announced an EP titled "Us or Else". The EP "will be aimed at supporting the #BlackLivesMatter movement, and will speak explicitly about the twisted road race relations took in America to arrive at its current precarious state." On August 6, 2016, T.I. released the first single for "Us or Else", a song titled "We Will Not", in response to the turmoil caused by the injustices going on in America, namely police brutality following the deaths of Philando Castile and Alton Sterling. On August 31, 2016, T.I. released a new song off "Us or Else", titled "War Zone", exclusively

Future projects.

In February 2017, during an interview with "The Breakfast Club" radio show, T.I. revealed he would retire from making music after three more solo albums: "I'm ready to get the hell outta here, though. I got, like, two, I got, this next album and two, I got three more albums in my head, conceptualized. Once I get them out, I'm done. [Jeezy album?] We're still doing it.... [The next albums?] The next one is more like trap music. It’s "Trap Muzik" 2017. And the one after that, it’s gonna be more like a, uh, love as it pertains to a dope boy. And the one after that, that’s my final album. It’s called "Kill the King." The last album is "Kill the King." Simply because ever since my first album, I've put the title of 'King of the South' on me and

Other ventures.

Acting career.

In 2006, T.I. starred in his first film, "ATL", which was loosely based on the rapper's life growing up in Atlanta and attending a skating rink called "Cascade". The other cast members included Lauren London, Antwan Patton, Evan Ross, Mykelti Williamson, Jason Weaver and Keith David. "ATL", which was written by Tina Gordon Chism and Antwone Fisher, was produced by Timothy M. Bourne, Tionne Watkins and Will Smith, and was directed by Christopher Robinson. T.I. played the character Rashad Swann, an orphaned 17-year-old senior in high school. In its opening weekend, the film grossed a total of $11.5 million, ranking third in the United States box office, and went on to gross $21.2 million. In 2007, T.I. appeared in his second feature-film,

Television career.

In 2009, T.I. created a reality show, which aired on MTV, titled "T.I.'s Road to Redemption". The series, focusing on the 45 days before rapper T.I.'s March sentencing, hoped to encourage teenagers to avoid spending a life of crime by showing seven teenagers that there is another way.  On December 5, 2011, T.I.'s new reality show "" premiered on Vh1, after the first full episodes were leaked onto the internet.

Music and film producing.

T.I. has also served as an executive producer for several projects other than his own, including New Orleans-based rapper B.G.'s tenth album "Too Hood 2 Be Hollywood" (2009), Atlanta-based rapper B.o.B's debut album "The Adventures of Bobby Ray" (2010) and Australian rapper Iggy Azalea's debut EP "Glory" (2012), among others. Additionally in 2005, T.I. had executive produced the soundtrack to the film "Hustle & Flow", releasing the collection through his record label, Grand Hustle. Furthermore, T.I. has produced several song recordings, including for Mariah Carey, Cassidy, Rick Ross, Maino, B.o.B, Yung Joc, Young

Community work.

In addition to helping with Hurricane Katrina relief efforts, T.I. worked with troubled youths at Paulding Detention Center in Atlanta, provided scholarships for single parent families at Boys and Girls Clubs, and headlined the Boost Mobile Rockcorps concert at New York's Radio City Music Hall, which featured such performers as Fat Joe, Slim Thug, and Kanye West, and was held exclusively for community service volunteers. As part of his community service time, T.I. has come to a number of middle-grade and high schools in Georgia, where he speaks with the students in

Business ventures.

Forbes Magazine announced its first ever Hip-Hop Cash Kings list in early 2007, listing the top 20 hip-hop earning artists for the previous business year. T.I. was listed on their list four times. As in 2015, the rapper was again included in Forbes' annual list after earning $6 million.  T.I. opened his own nightclub, called Club Crucial, in Bankhead, Atlanta. It is considered one of the most popular clubs in Atlanta and features full entertainment centers with large flat-screen TVs, pool rooms, VIP rooms and food. Celebrities such as Monica, Big Boi, Mike Epps and Shawty Lo have made appearances there. The club also hosts weekly events such as Monday night "Open Mic Night", "Free Fridays", and "Celebrity Saturdays", where local hip-hop artists are known to come perform their songs at the club.  After the release of his hit single "Top Back", Chevrolet secured an endorsement deal with T.I. earlier in 2007, to promote their line of cars, with a focus on the new Impala. Due to his arrest for federal gun

Controversies.

Ludacris.

A dispute with Ludacris started when T.I. saw Disturbing tha Peace rapper I-20's video. In the video, a man wearing a shirt which said "Trap House" was being beaten. T.I. mistook the logo to refer to "Trap Muzik". G-Unit artist Young Buck asked fellow Southern rappers T.I. and Ludacris to appear on his new record on the track "Stomp". T.I. recorded a verse which contained a line that Young Buck considered to be an underhanded snub towards Ludacris: "Me gettin' beat down? / That's ludicrous." Young Buck spoke to Ludacris about the verse, to maintain his neutrality in the controversy. Ludacris then recorded the verse that can be found on the album. T.I's record company wanted Ludacris to change his verse before

Lil' Flip.

While T.I. was incarcerated in 2004, another popular southern rapper, Lil Flip, took issue with him over his "King of the South" claims which launched a much publicized feud. In an October 26, 2004 interview with "HipHopDX.com", T.I. said he'd heard comments about Flip's "lyrical ability" for a long time but told music journalist Bayer Mack he didn't speak on it because he "wasn't raised like that". T.I. said he was also upset Lil' Flip waited until his incarceration to criticize him. According to AllHipHop, T.I. and Lil' Flip had an altercation in Lil' Flip's neighborhood, the Cloverland

Shawty Lo.

In 2008, T.I. was involved in a highly publicized feud with Shawty Lo. The feud was characterized by Shawty Lo's track "Dunn Dunn", and T.I.'s reply in "What Up, What's Haapnin". The song "Dunn Dunn" appears to question T.I.'s roots in Bankhead. The music video for "What Up, What's Haapnin" was shot in Shawty Lo's housing project Bowen Homes, an apparent insult towards Shawty Lo. In an interview, T.I. insisted that

2016 United States presidential election.

In October 2015, T.I. received backlash when he was speaking on 2016 presidential candidate Hillary Clinton: "Not to be sexist but, I can’t vote for the leader of the free world to be a woman. Just because, every other position that exists, I think a woman could do well. But the president? It’s kinda like, I just know that women

Virginity tests on daughter.

In November 2019, T.I. received hundreds of disapproving tweets after telling the "Ladies Like Us" podcast that he accompanied his 18-year-old daughter annually to have her hymen gynaecologically checked to confirm her

Personal life.

Family.

In 2001, T.I. began a relationship with Xscape member Tameka "Tiny" Cottle. The couple married on July 30, 2010, in Miami Beach, Florida. Together, they have two sons and one daughter. In addition, T.I. has two sons with Lashon Dixon, and a daughter from a relationship with R&B singer Ms. Niko. Through his marriage

Suicide interventions.

In 2006, T.I. was at the scene of American rock band Creed's lead singer, Scott Stapp's suicide attempt. Stapp explained on VH1's "Big Morning Buzz Live" that he had attempted suicide in Miami by jumping off a balcony and T.I. "took care of the situation". Stapp said, "I laid out there for two and a half hours and my guardian angel showed up. He immediately took care of the situation and saved my life." T.I. and Stapp met while recording songs for the "Passion of the Christ" soundtrack in 2004, and bonded over their shared love of Alabama college sports. Stapp stated "I found out later it was the only room left in

Tax issues.

In August 2015, the IRS filed liens totaling more

Legal issues.

1994–2006: Drugs, weapons and assault.

Harris first began dealing drugs as a teenager, and by the age of 14, he had already been arrested several times. In March 2004, a warrant was issued for T.I.'s arrest after he violated his probation of a 1997 drug conviction, as well as a 1998 conviction for violating a state controlled substances act and for giving false information. He was sentenced to three years in prison. While imprisoned in Cobb County, Georgia, he filmed an unauthorized music video. In May 2004, he was released on probation. After being released, he earned a litany of probation violations in several counties around Georgia for offenses ranging from possession of a firearm to possession of marijuana.

2007–2009: Weapons conviction.

On October 13, 2007, federal authorities arrested Harris four hours before the BET Hip Hop Awards in Atlanta. He was charged with two felonies, possession of three unregistered machine guns and two silencers, and possession of firearms by a convicted felon. The arrest was made in the parking lot of a downtown shopping center, which a witness identified as the Walgreens drug store at the corner of North and Piedmont Avenues. Harris was arrested after allegedly trying to purchase the guns from a "cooperating witness" with the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives. According to federal officials, the witness had been cooperating with authorities a few days prior to the arrest, when the cooperating witness was arrested on charges of trying to purchase guns from a federal agent. The witness had been working as Harris' bodyguard since July, authorities said. Harris walked out of the Atlanta United States District Court after appearing before U.S. Magistrate Judge Alan J. Baverman on October 26, 2007. Judge Alan J. Baverman required Harris post a three million dollar

2010: 11 month sentence.

On September 1, 2010, T.I. and his wife Tiny were arrested for drug charges. The arrest for drug charges led to T.I. being sentenced on October 15, 2010 to 11 months in prison for violating the terms of his probation, specifically for possessing ecstasy, testing positive for opiates and associating with a convicted felon, namely his P$C cohort C-Rod. On October 25, the drug charges against T.I. were dropped. On November 1, T.I. reported back to the Forrest City Federal Facility to serve his 11-month sentence. His date of release was set to be September 29, 2011. On August

2018: Public disorder arrest.

On May 16, 2018, Harris was arrested outside of the gated community where he lives for misdemeanor charges of simple assault,

Clifford Joseph Harris Jr. (born September 25, 1980), better known by his stage names T.I. and Tip (often stylized as TIP or T.I.P.), is an American rapper, singer, actor, songwriter, producer, entrepreneur, record executive, and author. Harris signed his first major-label record deal in 1999 with Arista subsidiary LaFace. In 2001, Harris formed the Southern hip hop group P$C, alongside his longtime friends and fellow Atlanta-based rappers Big Kuntry King, Mac Boney, and C-Rod. Upon being released from Arista, Harris signed to Atlantic and subsequently became the co-chief executive officer (CEO) of his own label imprint, Grand Hustle Records, which he launched in 2003. Harris is also known as one of the artists who popularized the hip hop subgenre trap music, along with Jeezy and Gucci Mane.

T.I. (* 25. September 1980 in Atlanta, Georgia; eigentlich "Clifford Joseph Harris jr.") ist ein US-amerikanischer Rapper, Schauspieler und Filmproduzent. Früher verwendete er das Pseudonym „T.I.P.“, legte dieses jedoch ab, um Verwechslungen zwischen ihm und dem ebenfalls US-amerikanischen Rapper Q-Tip zu vermeiden. Er ist einer der wichtigsten Vertreter des Südstaaten-Raps, auch Dirty South genannt.


Early life.

Bonetti was born in Putney, County of London. His family moved to Worthing, Sussex in 1948. His parents ran a café on the seafront next to the Dome Cinema. They were Swiss emigrants to England. Bonetti attended St Mary's Catholic Primary School, Worthing. He shone at an early age, playing for Worthing.

Club career.

Chelsea.

Chelsea signed him from the Reading youth team after his mother had written to manager Ted Drake, requesting that he give her son a trial. Whilst a Chelsea junior, Bonetti made five appearances for Croydon Amateurs in the Surrey Senior League thanks to youth team coach Albert Tennant who was also coaching Croydon at that time. He made his first team debut in 1960, and a few weeks later helped the Chelsea youth team win the FA Youth Cup. From the 1960–61 season onward he was Chelsea's first-choice goalkeeper, a position he held more-or-less constantly for the next nineteen years. Chelsea were relegated in Bonetti's second full season, which saw the appointment of Tommy Docherty as manager. Bonetti emerged as a key figure in a talented young team which included Bobby Tambling, Terry Venables, John Hollins and Barry Bridges. The team went into the penultimate match of the season needing to beat promotion rivals Sunderland to have a chance of going up. Chelsea won 1–0, with Bonetti making a brilliant last minute save to deny George Mulhall and maintain his team's promotion chances; a 7–0 win over Portsmouth secured instant promotion back to the First Division.  The new Chelsea team challenged for honours during the 1960s, with Bonetti a key figure throughout, although more often than not the team narrowly missed out. The club won the League Cup in 1965 with a 3–2 aggregate victory over Leicester City. Leicester put Chelsea under heavy pressure in the second leg at Filbert Street, but an inspired performance from Bonetti helped secure a 0–0 draw, and thus the trophy for his team. For most of that season Chelsea were on course to add both the league title and the FA Cup, but ultimately missed out. They were beaten by Liverpool in the FA Cup; meanwhile, their title challenge ended with a few matches left, following a bust-up between Docherty and several of his first-team players (though not Bonetti). The disunity behind the scenes meant that a much-weakened team was fielded in a key match against Burnley, in which Bonetti conceded six goals.  Bonetti played in every match of Chelsea's Inter-Cities Fairs Cup run the following season, putting in a series of impressive displays against the likes of Roma, A.C. Milan and Barcelona, though the team was eventually knocked out in the semi-final, as they were in the FA Cup for the second consecutive year. The signing of Alex Stepney at the end of that season briefly threatened his position as Chelsea's first-choice goalkeeper, and he considered putting in a transfer request, but Stepney ultimately made only one appearance for the club and was sold to Manchester United a few months later. Chelsea eventually reached an FA Cup final in 1967, where they faced Tottenham Hotspur, but the team got outplayed on the day and Bonetti could do little to stop Spurs winning 2–1.  That was the closest he came to winning another trophy with Chelsea until 1970, by which time Docherty had been succeeded by Dave Sexton. In 1970, Chelsea again reached the FA Cup final and this time faced reigning league champions Leeds United. Over the two fiercely contested matches, Bonetti had what was perhaps the finest moment of his playing career. Chelsea were outplayed for large spells in the first final at Wembley Stadium and he made a series of crucial saves to help them emerge with a 2–2 draw. Shortly into the replay at Old Trafford, his left knee was badly injured after a challenge from Leeds' Mick Jones. He returned to the field after treatment, but was effectively playing on one leg for the rest of the match and was powerless to stop Jones scoring the opener a few minutes later. In spite of the injury, and being targeted by the Leeds forwards, he made crucial saves throughout the match, denying both Peter Lorimer and Terry Cooper, and resisted more pressure from Leeds after Chelsea had taken the lead in extra time to help secure a 2–1 win. Such were Bonetti's performances that season, he was voted runner-up in the FWA Footballer of the Year awards.  A year later, the team added the European Cup Winners' Cup after another replayed win in the final, this time over Spanish giants Real Madrid in Athens. Chelsea took a 2–0 lead in the replay, but Real dominated for much of the second half and it was another inspired performance from Bonetti that helped them hold on for a 2–1 win.  That was his last trophy with the club, although they narrowly missed out on more in the following years, losing in the 1972 League Cup final to Stoke City and in the semi-final of the same competition to Norwich City a year later. Financial and disciplinary problems within the club prevented them from building on their success.

St Louis Stars.

Bonetti left on a free transfer in 1975, joining the St. Louis Stars of the North American Soccer League. That year, he made 21 appearances for the team and helped them top the Central Division that summer and reach the play-off semi-final.

Return to Chelsea.

He then returned to Chelsea, where his experience proved invaluable in helping new manager Eddie McCreadie's young team gain promotion in 1976–77. Two years later, in May 1979, he played his final appearance for Chelsea, a 1–1 draw with Arsenal, having made a total of 729 appearances for the club in nineteen years – only Ron Harris has made more – and kept over 200 clean sheets. He conceded one goal or less in two-thirds of his appearances for Chelsea.

International career.

Bonetti earned seven caps for England, kept out of the team by Gordon Banks. He was a member of England's successful 1966 FIFA World Cup squad, but did not make an appearance.  Bonetti's England career is largely remembered for one match – the 1970 FIFA World Cup quarter-final against West Germany in Mexico. He was thrust into the starting line-up as a late replacement for Banks, who was suffering from severe food poisoning. During the match England relinquished a 2–0 second-half lead and lost 3–2 after extra time. Bonetti received a large amount of blame from the public for the loss, and never played for England again.  In the 1966 World Cup final only the 11 players on the pitch at the end of the 4–2 win over West Germany received medals. Following a Football Association-led campaign to persuade FIFA to award medals to all winning squad members, Bonetti was presented with his medal by prime minister Gordon Brown at a ceremony at 10 Downing Street on 10 June 2009.

Retirement.

After leaving Chelsea, Bonetti moved to the Isle of Mull where he ran a guesthouse and became a postman. While living in Scotland, he briefly came out of retirement to make several appearances for Dundee United as understudy to Hamish McAlpine. Following his retirement from playing, Bonetti moved into coaching and had spells with Chelsea and the England national team, as well as working with Kevin Keegan at Newcastle United, Fulham and Manchester City. During his time as a Chelsea coach, he was persuaded to play two matches for Isthmian League Division Two club Woking, including an FA Cup debut in a 1–0 win over Football Conference team Weymouth. At one time he held the record for the most appearances for a single club by a goalkeeper, but was overtaken in the 1990s by Portsmouth's Alan Knight.  Since 2005, Bonetti made several appearances for an Old England XI in various charity matches, notably against celebrity teams, usually coming on for the last 10 minutes of each match.  Bonetti died on 12 April 2020, aged 78, following a long illness.

Career statistics.

"Totals include one Charity Shield appearance in 1970–71."

Honours.

Chelsea  St. Louis Stars  England  Individual

Peter Philip Bonetti (27 September 1941 – 12 April 2020) was an English professional footballer who played as a goalkeeper for Chelsea, the St. Louis Stars, Dundee United and England. He was known for his safe handling, lightning reflexes and his graceful style, for which he was given the nickname "The Cat". He was one of several goalkeepers (Gordon West of Everton was another) who specialised in a one-armed throw which could achieve a similar distance to a drop kick.

Peter Phillip Bonetti (* 27. September 1941 in Wandsworth; † 12. April 2020) war ein Fußballtorwart. Er war für den Chelsea FC, die St. Louis Stars und die englische Nationalmannschaft aktiv.


Pullback of smooth functions and smooth maps.

Let be a smooth map between (smooth) manifolds "M" and "N", and suppose is a smooth function on "N". Then the pullback of "f" by "φ" is the smooth function "φ""f" on "M" defined by. Similarly, if "f" is a smooth function on an open set "U" in "N", then the same formula defines a smooth function on the open set "φ"("U") in "M". (In the language of sheaves, pullback defines a morphism from the sheaf of smooth functions on "N" to the direct image by "φ" of the sheaf of smooth functions on "M".)  More generally, if is a smooth map from "N" to any other manifold "A", then is a smooth map from "M" to "A".

Pullback of bundles and sections.

If "E" is a vector bundle (or indeed any fiber bundle) over "N" and "φ":"M"→"N" is a smooth map, then the pullback bundle "φ""E" is a vector bundle (or fiber bundle) over "M" whose fiber over "x" in "M" is given by ("φ""E") = "E".  In this situation, precomposition defines a pullback operation on sections of "E": if "s" is a section of "E" over "N", then the pullback section is a section of "φ""E" over "M".

Pullback of multilinear forms.

Let be a linear map between vector spaces "V" and "W" (i.e., Φ is an element of, also denoted ), and let  be a multilinear form on "W" (also known as a tensor – not to be confused with a tensor field – of rank, where "s" is the number of factors of "W" in the product). Then the pullback Φ"F" of "F" by Φ is a multilinear form on "V" defined by precomposing "F" with Φ. More precisely, given vectors "v", "v",..., "v" in "V", Φ"F" is defined by the formula  which is a multilinear form on "V". Hence Φ is a (linear) operator from multilinear forms on "W" to multilinear forms on "V". As a special case, note that if "F" is a linear form (or (0,1)-tensor) on "W", so that "F" is an element of "W", the dual space of "W", then Φ"F" is an element of "V", and so pullback by Φ defines a linear map between dual spaces which acts in the opposite direction to the linear map Φ itself:  From a tensorial point of view, it is natural to try to extend the notion of pullback to tensors of arbitrary rank, i.e., to multilinear maps on "W" taking values in a tensor product of "r" copies of "W", i.e.,. However, elements of such a tensor product do not pull back naturally: instead there is a pushforward operation from to given by  Nevertheless, it follows from this that if Φ is invertible, pullback can be defined using pushforward by the inverse function Φ. Combining these two constructions yields a pushforward operation, along an invertible linear map, for tensors of any rank.

Pullback of cotangent vectors and 1-forms.

Let "φ" : "M" → "N" be a smooth map between smooth manifolds. Then the differential of "φ", written "φ", "dφ", or "Dφ", is a vector bundle morphism (over "M") from the tangent bundle "TM" of "M" to the pullback bundle "φ""TN". The transpose of "φ" is therefore a bundle map from "φ""T""N" to "T""M", the cotangent bundle of "M".  Now suppose that "α" is a section of "T""N" (a 1-form on "N"), and precompose "α" with "φ" to obtain a pullback section of "φ""T""N". Applying the above bundle map (pointwise) to this section yields the pullback of "α" by "φ", which is the 1-form "φ""α" on "M" defined by for "x" in "M" and "X" in "T""M".

Pullback of (covariant) tensor fields.

The construction of the previous section generalizes immediately to tensor bundles of rank (0,"s") for any natural number "s": a (0,"s") tensor field on a manifold "N" is a section of the tensor bundle on "N" whose fiber at "y" in "N" is the space of multilinear "s"-forms By taking Φ equal to the (pointwise) differential of a smooth map "φ" from "M" to "N", the pullback of multilinear forms can be combined with the pullback of sections to yield a pullback (0,"s") tensor field on "M". More precisely if "S" is a (0,"s")-tensor field on "N", then the pullback of "S" by "φ" is the (0,"s")-tensor field "φ""S" on "M" defined by for "x" in "M" and "X" in "T""M".

Pullback of differential forms.

A particular important case of the pullback of covariant tensor fields is the pullback of differential forms. If "α" is a differential "k"-form, i.e., a section of the exterior bundle Λ"T"*"N" of (fiberwise) alternating "k"-forms on "TN", then the pullback of "α" is the differential "k"-form on "M" defined by the same formula as in the previous section: for "x" in "M" and "X" in "T""M".  The pullback of differential forms has two properties which make it extremely useful.  1. It is compatible with the wedge product in the sense that for differential forms "α" and "β" on "N", 2. It is compatible with the exterior derivative "d": if "α" is a differential form on "N" then

Pullback by diffeomorphisms.

When the map "φ" between manifolds is a diffeomorphism, that is, it has a smooth inverse, then pullback can be defined for the vector fields as well as for 1-forms, and thus, by extension, for an arbitrary mixed tensor field on the manifold. The linear map can be inverted to give  A general mixed tensor field will then transform using Φ and Φ according to the tensor product decomposition of the tensor bundle into copies of "TN" and "TN". When "M" = "N", then the pullback and the pushforward describe the transformation properties of a tensor on the manifold "M". In traditional terms, the pullback describes the transformation properties of the covariant indices of a tensor; by contrast, the transformation of the contravariant indices is given by a pushforward.

Pullback by automorphisms.

The construction of the previous section has a representation-theoretic interpretation when "φ" is a diffeomorphism from a manifold "M" to itself. In this case the derivative "dφ" is a section of GL("TM","φ""TM"). This induces a pullback action on sections of any bundle associated to the frame bundle GL("M") of "M" by a representation of the general linear group GL("m") (where "m" = dim "M").

Pullback and Lie derivative.

See Lie derivative. By applying the preceding ideas to the local 1-parameter group of diffeomorphisms defined by a vector field on "M", and differentiating with respect to the parameter, a notion of Lie derivative on any associated bundle is obtained.

Pullback of connections (covariant derivatives).

If ∇ is a connection (or covariant derivative) on a vector bundle "E" over "N" and "φ" is a smooth map from "M" to "N", then there is a pullback connection "φ"∇ on "φ""E" over "M", determined uniquely by the condition that

Suppose that is a smooth map between smooth manifolds "M" and "N". Then there is an associated linear map from the space of 1-forms on "N" (the linear space of sections of the cotangent bundle) to the space of 1-forms on "M". This linear map is known as the pullback (by "φ"), and is frequently denoted by "φ". More generally, any covariant tensor field – in particular any differential form – on "N" may be pulled back to "M" using "φ".

In verschiedenen Teilgebieten der Mathematik bezeichnet man als Pullback oder Rücktransport (auch: "Zurückziehung", "Rückzug") Konstruktionen, die ausgehend von einer Abbildung formula_1 und einem Objekt formula_2, das in irgendeiner Weise zu formula_3 gehört, ein entsprechendes, „entlang von formula_4 zurückgezogenes“ Objekt für formula_5 liefern; es wird häufig mit formula_6 bezeichnet.