First generation (XA10; 1994).

The first-generation RAV4, known as the XA10 series, was constructed on a unique platform that shared Carina and Corolla elements. It launched in Japan in May 1994. Design and development commenced in 1989 under code-name 153T, with design approval and start of production development in the second half of 1991 on the 3-door version and in 1993 for the 5-door version. In March 1995, the 5-door was launched and introduced to the US in January 1996, with standard dual airbags.  The XA10 series was available in both three and five door versions. In the US, a 2.0-liter straight-four producing was available. Both front-wheel drive and all-wheel drive were available, and the RAV4 could be had with either a five-speed manual or four-speed automatic transmission. It was named the "1997 Automobile of the Year" by Automobile Magazine. The 1996-1997 model years had headlamps with a bracket push in type, dual filament bulb. The front running/turn signal lamps used older round socket dual filament bulbs. The rear used round socket type bulbs as well. In 1997 for the 1998 model year, the RAV4 was slightly restyled on the front and rear fascias, and a soft top three-door was made available. Power was increased slightly to. In June 1999, the two-door hardtop was dropped from the American lineup, leaving the five-door and soft top models. The 1998-2000 models used a single filament headlamp, with two different beams per housing (low and high beam) opposed to the original single beam with dual filaments. The rear lamps use the more modern rectangular style bulbs (7440/7443). The interior has subtle changes such as different colored seats, different colored door panels, extra cup holders on certain models (cigarette lighter/cup holder duo), and a digital odometer. In Japan, the 2.0-liter "3S-GE BEAMS" engine with was also available. Some variants of the 1998 Toyota RAV4 were labeled as SXA11 rather than XA10, paired with an owner given name of "RAV 4.1".  Some models were manufactured without a digital clock but a plastic cover instead. However the wiring for the clock is still behind the dash, thus a clock can be installed in models sold without.  Models with manual transmissions that are FWD will have a cover on the dash where in Automatic Transmission models would have the ECT Power button or the Center Differential Lock on Manual Transmission models with AWD.

RAV4 EV.

The RAV4 EV is a plug-in, all-electric variant of the RAV4. Produced from 1997 to 2003 for fleet lease, this "zero emission" model was only offered for public sale for seven months in 2002, in very small quantities in California. Powered by an advanced Nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) battery pack capable of storing 27 kWh, the RAV4 EV can go up to between charges, and came with a battery warranty. A total of 1,484 units were leased and/or sold in California, and as of mid-2012, almost 500 units were still in use.

Second generation (XA20; 2000).

The second generation RAV4, known as the XA20 series, went on sale in July 2000. Like the previous model, the XA20 was available in three- and five-door configurations and was constructed on a platform that shared Carina and Corolla elements. Development began in 1995, with a design freeze in the first half of 1998. Styling was done at Calty Design Research Incorporated (also simply known as Calty) by Yasuhide Hosoda and Kevin Hunter from 1996 to 1997.  The second generation RAV4 was originally offered in a number of trim levels in the UK: NV was front-wheel drive, while NRG, GX, and VX were permanent four-wheel drive with differing levels of equipment. Although the RAV4 was available as a three-door in Europe, Asia and Australia, the American model was only available in a five-door configuration. A 1.8-liter inline-four engine (only with 2WD) producing, 2.0-liter inline-four engine producing, 2.4-liter inline-four engine producing, and a D-4D diesel engine were available. Some RAV4s came with anti-lock braking system, electronic stability control, air conditioning, a height-adjustable driver's seat, cruise control, a six-speaker CD stereo and power windows, mirrors and seats. A sport package added a mesh grille, bonnet scoop, color-keyed door handles, a roof rack, silver sport pedals, heated mirrors, gray-painted bumpers and fender flares, and sport fabric seats. Other options included alloy wheels, heated seats, a sunroof and keyless entry. 16-inch wheels were standard; larger tires were available on all-wheel-drive models.  In Australia, the RAV4 came in base Edge and upmarket Cruiser models in both three- and five-door configurations. The main differentiation between the two models was in appearance. Edge models came with unpainted grey bumpers and side cladding, mirrors, and door handles, and featured steel rims. Cruiser models gained body-colored (painted) bumpers and moldings, mirrors, and door handles, alloy wheels, and ABS brakes. All models came equipped with a brand-new 2.0-liter four-cylinder engine featuring VVT (variable valve timing), resulting in improved power and torque, as well as fuel consumption. Permanent all-wheel-drive was a feature. Options were ABS brakes (on the Edge), and air conditioning (on all models). The second generation RAV4 enjoyed success in Australia, where it became the best-selling SUV in the country in 2001, overtaking its rival the Honda CR-V for the first time.  In late 2003, the 2004 model RAV4 was given a styling update, improved equipment, and, in certain markets, a new engine. In the United States the safety structure was improved and Vehicle Stability Control made standard. The RAV4's 2.0-liter engine was upgraded with a new 2.4-liter engine in the US, producing and. Other countries got mostly 5-door models with the 2.0 liter VVT-i engine. Automatic electric air conditioning also became available. European models got a new catalytic converter because of the new European emission policy. The new model also got an electric throttle.  In Australia, for the facelift, the base Edge was renamed CV, and gained standard air conditioning (previously an option). The CV also received painted bumpers, which came in either silver or body-colored shades, depending on the body color. In addition, the model range was given a subtle facelift, consisting largely of a new front bumper with circular fog lights and white turn signals instead of the older orange lights. In 2005, a new "CV Sport" model was added to the range in Australia, which included a non-functional bonnet scoop, giving the RAV4 a more aggressive appearance. The CV Sport model was short-lived, lasting only a year, and was introduced primarily to stimulate sales until the new model arrived in early 2006.  The second generation RAV4 had the highest proportion of female drivers among all makes and models in the United States, with the possible exception of the Volkswagen New Beetle, according to 2003–2004 registration and survey data.

Third generation (XA30; 2005).

The Toyota RAV4 was redesigned for the 2006 model year, using an all-new platform, and was first unveiled at the 2005 Frankfurt Motor Show. It uses an electric power steering (EPS) system.  The third generation RAV4 is offered in two versions: a short- or a long-wheelbase model. The short-wheelbase model is sold only in Japan, Europe and New Zealand (diesel only in NZ), with the long-wheelbase RAV4 sold in Australia, New Zealand and North America. Since 2007, the extended-length RAV4 is also sold alongside its shorter counterpart in Japan as the Toyota Vanguard, albeit with a revised front-end body work incorporating a revised grille, bumper, bonnet and headlamps. When the larger XA40 arrived in 2012, the short wheelbase model was kept in production for the Japanese market and sold instead of the new version until 2016.  Japanese models went on sale in 2005 at "Toyota NETZ" dealers. The 3-door was dropped in the beginning of 2007, leaving Toyota without a mini SUV until the 2009 Toyota Urban Cruiser, which is sold in Europe, North America (as the Scion xD) and Japan (as the Toyota ist). The XA30 series RAV4 was sold in Japan until July 2016, where the XA40 is not to be offered. Toyota discontinued the Vanguard in November 2013 in favour of the redesigned XU60 Harrier. As the RAV4 continued to grow, it became expensive to own in Japan due to the exterior dimensions and engine displacement placing it in the upper tax bracket as defined by Japanese government dimension regulations and annual road tax obligations.  It is also the first generation of RAV4 to be offered in regular (for Asian and European markets, dropping the spare wheel from the rear) and extended (for North American and Australian markets) versions. The extended-length RAV4 is larger by 21% in interior volume from the last generation and now has an available third-row seat for children (North America and Japan only). The RAV4 can still be had in either front-wheel-drive or all-wheel-drive in North America and Japan; however most countries only sell the all-wheel-drive version.  In 2008 (for the 2009 model year) RAV4 was given a mid-cycle refresh in some markets, featuring a number of changes, including an all-new four-cylinder engine, and a redesigned front end and tweaked rear end. The Limited model gets a different front grille and bumper cover from other models. The Sport model features a bigger spoiler and red badging along with an option on the V6 model to have a rear door without the externally mounted spare tire (run-flat tires are used on this model). New features/options include turn signals integrated into the side mirrors, backup camera (with monitor built into rear-view mirror), satellite navigation, smart keyless entry, a push button starter, a multi-function instrument cluster display, etc. Much of the interior remains as before. In 2009, it was also the first time for the Canadian market to have a 2WD model sold in Canada.  In 2011 (for the 2012 model year) the RAV4 underwent another, light, facelift.  The vehicles were built in Toyota's Tahara, Aichi assembly plant, and under contract by Toyota Industries in its Nagakusa, Obu, Aichi plant. Beginning in November 2008, vehicles for the North American market were built in the Toyota Motor Manufacturing Canada Inc., Second Plant. Beginning in March 2009, Chinese models began production by Tianjin FAW Toyota Motor Co. Ltd. in a joint-venture plant in Tianjin, China.  In 2015, the XA30 series RAV4 was awarded the WheelsTV pre-owned vehicle of the year title.  Model ranges include "X", "G", and "Sport", replacing "RAV4 L" and "RAV4 J". The "X" and "G" can be ordered with either front-wheel-drive or AWD. The "Sport" model with over fenders is AWD only. The extended-length RAV4 is sold in Japan as the Toyota Vanguard, released on August 30, 2007. It is sold in five- and seven-passenger versions and slots between the regular RAV4 and Kluger. As it is often the case in Japan-only vehicles, the Vanguard comes loaded with high-tech gadgets, including steering-assisted stability control, keyless entry and satellite navigation. The Toyota Vanguard was facelifted in 2010.  In Australia, the RAV4 is sold in four-cylinder base "CV", "Cruiser", "Cruiser L" and the limited edition "Altitude" trim levels, and "CV6", "SX6", and "ZR6" are 6-cylinder variants. The V6 was available from 2007.  In Malaysia, the 2.0-liter and 2.4-liter automatic variant is available, both in "X" and "G" trim. This model uses the "1AZ-FE" four-cylinder, inline 16-valve engine with DOHC and VVT-i. The output for the 2.0-liter RAV4 in Malaysia is at at 6,000 rpm with a torque of at 4,000 rpm while the 2.4-liter uses the "2AZ-FE" engine. Both the RAV4 and the Vanguard was available through general importers, but not officially sold by UMW Toyota Motor.  In the Middle East, the RAV4 is available with a 2.4-liter engine. Most markets, including the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), get the all-wheel-drive model with an automatic gearbox, but KSA additionally gets a two-wheel-drive model as well, the base one with a manual gearbox.  North American models include choices of 2.4-liter "2AZ-FE" inline-four or 3.5-liter "2GR-FE" V6 engine. The V6 model has. In model year 2009, a slightly larger 2.5-liter "2AR-FE" inline-four replaced the previous 2.4-liter engine. Either four-cylinder engine came equipped with a four-speed automatic transmission. The North American RAV4 with 3.5-liter "2GR-FE" V6 engine is fitted with a five-speed automatic transmission. All US models feature Toyota's Star Safety System which includes Vehicle Stability Control. The new RAV4 topped Toyota SUV sales in the United States for the first time.  No manual transmission or diesel engines are available on North American models.  Facelifted for the 2009 model year, North American models include the choice of a new "2AR-FE" inline-four or "2GR-FE" V6 engine.  The RAV4 was first introduced in 2004; and was only available in two trim levels: Base and L. This was already an outgoing generation but still sold pretty well and both came in 2WD only and both models had, as standard equipment 16-inch alloy wheels and a roof rack. The new generation RAV4, which is the current model, had more features as standard equipment. Base and Limited trims continue to be available, but on the Limited trim 4WD became an option and the Base model now added 17-inch steel wheels but the roof rack was still standard in both trims. For the refresh of 2009 the roof rack in the Base model was eliminated as standard equipment and the Sport trim was added to the line-up. Up to 2008MY all RAV4s in Mexico had four-cylinder engines but for 2009 the Sport model became available with the V6 engine, although the four-cylinder engine was still available. The Limited trim was only available with the V6 engine and 4WD traction. For 2010, the RAV4 in Mexico has been simplified again to two trims but now the Limited trim was dropped and consequently killed the 4WD option, while the Base and Sport trims remained unchanged from 2009. The RAV4 in Mexico has experienced good acceptance since its introduction.  The XA30 RAV4 commenced production in China in April 2009. Trim levels were the 2.0 Classic, 2.0 Luxury, 2.0 Luxury Navi, 2.4 Luxury and 2.4 Luxury Navi. The 2 litre "1AZ-FE" and 2.4 litre "2AZ-FE" were standard paired to a 5 speed manual and 4 speed automatic gearbox. Pricing ranged from to ( to at the August 2019 exchange rate).  The RAV4 had different styling compared to the RAV4 in other counties where there was a black strip that was placed in between the radiator and licence plate like a moustache. It also had chrome bars below the front and rear bumpers. The licence plate was also moved to the bottom bumper area to make way for the RAV4 logo and a rear foglamp. Front and rear parking sensors are also standard.

RAV4 EV.

Toyota worked together with Tesla Motors to develop the second generation RAV4 EV, and the electric SUV is scheduled for market launch late in the third quarter of 2012. Production will be limited to 2,600 units during the first three years, and sales will be limited to California only, beginning with the San Francisco Bay Area, Los Angeles/Orange County and San Diego.  The second generation RAV4 EV has a motor powered by a 41.8kWh lithium ion battery pack, that Toyota expects to deliver a US Environmental Protection Agency rated range of in standard charge mode and in extended charge mode, for a combined range of ; and a combined fuel economy rating of. The RAV4 EV battery pack and electronic components are similar to those in used in the Tesla Model S sedan launched in June 2012, because Tesla Motors is the manufacturer of the powertrain.

Fourth generation (XA40; 2012).

The fourth generation RAV4 was a complete redesign; it was revealed at the November 2012 Los Angeles Auto Show. Unlike the previous generations, it featured a rear liftgate rather than a side-opening rear door and no longer had the spare tire mounted on the rear door.  The RAV4 no longer used the V6 from the previous generation—all engine choices were inline four-cylinder engines. Also, unlike the dual wheelbase strategy employed by the previous XA30 model, the XA40 was only sold in a single wheelbase (corresponding to the long wheelbase XA30).  The full hybrid system combined a 2.5-liter Atkinson cycle gasoline engine with a powerful electric motor, a high voltage generator, a 204 cell nickel–metal hydride battery located under the rear seats, a power control unit, and a power split device. RAV4 Hybrids were available in both front and all-wheel drive variants. The all-wheel edition came equipped with a second, 50 kW high-voltage, rear mounted electric motor that offers increased traction and a towing capacity. The rear's electric motor operates independently from the hybrid system front's electric motor, driving the rear wheels alone. US sales began in early January 2013.  For the Japanese market, the previous generation in short-wheelbase length remained on sale in Japan until 2016 instead of the newer, export only, XA40. The Harrier replaced the long-wheelbase model in Japan, previously badged as the Vanguard.  In the UK and Australia, the fourth generation RAV4 went on sale in February 2013. Engine choices included a 2.0- and 2.5-liter four-cylinder gasoline, and 2.0- and 2.2-liter turbodiesels. Transmissions included a six-speed manual, Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT), and six-speed automatic.  The UK model went on sale in 2013. Early European models included a choice of a 2.0-liter gasoline or one of three 2.0-liter diesel engines.  The RAV4 manufactured in Woodstock, Ontario, Canada had about 50 percent of its parts coming from Japan.  Taiwanese models included a 2.0-liter Dual VVT-i inline four-cylinder engine with 7-speed Continuously Variable Transmission (Sequential Manual) or 2.5-liter Dual VVT-i inline-four engine with six-speed automatic.  Production in China commenced in August 2013 and was sold alongside the XA30 model for a short time. The XA40 RAV4 in China came standard with the 2 litre "6ZR-FE" and 2.5 litre "5AR-FE" gasoline engine. 6 speed manual, automatic and CVT gearboxes are standard. Seven trim levels were available with prices ranging from 183,800 to 272,800 yuan (25,680 to 38,120 USD).  The RAV4 was also displayed at the 22nd Indonesia International Motor Show (IIMS) in Jakarta in September 2014. It included a 2.0-liter Dual VVT-i engine with CVT transmission (with seven-speed manual mode). The facelift version was available at local import car dealers in Indonesia in 2017.  Production in Russia started in August 2016.

2015 facelift.

In 2015, for the 2016 model year, Toyota released a facelift for the XA40 series. The facelift debuted with the RAV4 Hybrid shown at the April 2015 New York International Auto Show. The facelift included redesigned LED front and rear lamps and updated speedometer dials with full color TFT multi information display.

RAV4 Adventure and RAV4 Premium (2013).

The RAV4 Adventure is a concept vehicle that accentuated the car's look to reinforce its off-road capabilities. It included dark red body color, extended wheel arches, 20-inch alloy wheels and matte painted front and rear bumpers.  The RAV4 Premium is a concept vehicle with Deep Bronze body color, bumpers in Deep Bronze, chrome-finished spoiler, chrome inserts in the rear bumper, brushed aluminium skid plates, integrated tailpipe at the rear bumper, 20-inch wheels, leather interior upholstery designed by Toyota's Kansei design department, seats with black piping and V-shaped outline, two-tone double stitching and grey and black leather on the instrument panel and door panels.  Both vehicles were unveiled in March 2013 at the Geneva Motor Show.  A production version of the RAV4 Adventure was added to the US lineup in September 2017.

Safety.

In the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) evaluations, the 2013 and 2014 model year RAV4 achieved a "good" crashworthiness rating for head restraints and seats, roof strength, side, and moderate overlap front, while achieving a "poor" rating in the IIHS Small Overlap Frontal Test. Modifications were made starting in the 2015 model year which increased the small overlap front rating to "good".  The small overlap test, introduced in 2012 by the IIHS, simulates a frontal collision on 25 percent of the driver's side. Since its adoption, the IIHS has noticed several automakers making non-symmetrical modifications to their vehicles, including the RAV4. Another small overlap test was conducted on a number of vehicles, including a 2015 RAV4, but was conducted on the passenger side instead. The RAV4 fared the worst and would have received a "poor" rating if the IIHS were to provide ratings for passenger-side protection. The crash test's intrusion was further into the vehicle on the passenger's side than on the driver's side and caused the passenger door to open during the crash.

Gallery.

Pre-facelift styling  Post-facelift styling

Fifth generation (XA50; 2018).

The fifth generation RAV4 was unveiled at the 2018 New York International Auto Show. The design was previewed by the FT-AC concept shown at the December 2017 Los Angeles Auto Show. It is based on the front-wheel-drive Toyota New Global Architecture (TNGA-K) platform, which is also shared with eighth generation Camry, fifth generation Avalon and seventh generation Lexus ES. Both 4-cylinder gasoline-powered and gasoline-electric hybrid (Hybrid Synergy Drive) variants would remain available.  It is available in five gasoline variants which include the LE, XLE, XLE Premium, Adventure and Limited models and four hybrid variants which include the LE, XLE, XSE and Limited models. Both Adventure and Limited grades have Torque Vectoring All Wheel Drive with Rear Drive Disconnect. The engine is a 2.5L inline-4 paired with an 8-speed Direct Shift Automatic which increases horsepower by up to 15% on gasoline variants. It has Multi Terrain Select providing operators an ability to maximize traction when driving on sand, mud, rock, or dirt. A 7-inch multi-touch screen is available standard with Entune 3.0, Apple Carplay, Amazon Alexa. A larger screen with JBL Audio and a Wi-Fi hotspot is optional on some trim levels. It has QI Wireless Charging with up to 5 USB Ports. Like most concurrent Toyota models, it has Toyota Safety Sense 2.0.  The RAV4 went on sale in the United States in December 2018, while the RAV4 Hybrid went on sale in March 2019.  Ireland was the first market to release the Hybrid version of the fifth generation RAV4 with delivery in late December 2018. 2WD Aura, Luna, Sol and Sport were initially available for pre-order with Platinum and AWD variants available later in 2019.  The fifth generation RAV4 was also launched in Singapore on 10 January 2019 at the Singapore Motorshow and in the Philippines on 8 February 2019.  The fifth generation RAV4 has been available in South Africa since March 2019 in five variants: 2.0 GX 2WD, 2.0 GX CVT 2WD, 2.0 GX-R CVT AWD, 2.5 VX CVT 2WD and 2.5 VX AT AWD. The 2.0 GX 2WD trim is also available with 6-speed manual transmission.  The RAV4 was revived for the Japanese domestic market in 2019, after almost three years of hiatus. The fifth generation RAV4 for the Japanese market was revealed on 20 February 2019 and went on sale on 10 April 2019 at "Corolla Store" and "Netz" dealers.  The fifth generation RAV4 went on sale in Australia on 8 May 2019 and is available in four variants: GX, GXL, Cruiser and Edge. The GX, GXL and Cruiser trims have two engine options: the 2.0 L gasoline and the 2.5 L hybrid, while the Edge trim has only one engine option: the 2.5 L gasoline. The GX trim is available with either 6-speed manual transmission or CVT, while the GXL and Cruiser trims as well as the GX, GXL and Cruiser hybrid variants are only available with CVT. The Edge trim is available with 8-speed automatic transmission.  In the United Kingdom, the fifth generation RAV4 is available exclusively in its hybrid version, either front-wheel drive or with all-wheel drive. It is available in four grades--Icon, Design, Excel and Dynamic.  The fifth generation RAV4 was also launched in China on 22 November 2019 at the Guangzhou International Motor Show. It is produced and sold by FAW Toyota. The Chinese market variant with different front and rear fascias is called the Toyota Wildlander, which is produced and sold by GAC Toyota.  In Malaysia, the RAV4 was teased by UMW Toyota Motor on its official website on 2 June 2020.. The fifth generation RAV4 was launched in the country on 18 June 2020 and available in 2 engine options, the 2.0 M20A-FKS and 2.5 A25A-FKS, both in single trim only.

RAV4 PHEV.

The RAV4 PHEV (RAV4 Prime in North America) was unveiled at the December 2019 LA Auto Show. It is powered by a differently-tuned 2.5 L "A25A-FXS" engine with the same power output as the standard hybrid version but with uprated torque to at 2,800 rpm. It has a total power output of, which is higher than the regular hybrid version. The RAV4 PHEV has a claimed acceleration from in 5.8 seconds and in 6.2 seconds. The sales have begun in Japan since 8 June 2020.

Safety.

In September 2019, "Teknikens Värld" ran both the gasoline and hybrid versions of the RAV4 on the moose test, where both vehicles failed. The testers noted "dangerous behavior" on the cone course, and that the electronic stability control "engaged very late", causing both vehicles to hop up on their outer tires multiple times during the test. In response of "Teknikens Värld" allegations Toyota issued a software update. In January 2020 "Teknikens Värld" retested the model giving it a passing mark.

The is a compact crossover SUV (sport utility vehicle) produced by the Japanese automobile manufacturer Toyota. This was the first compact crossover SUV; it made its debut in Japan and Europe in 1994, and in North America in 1995, being launched in January 1996. The vehicle was designed for consumers wanting a vehicle that had most of the benefits of SUVs, such as increased cargo room, higher visibility, and the option of full-time four-wheel drive, along with the maneuverability and fuel economy of a compact car. Although not all RAV4 models are four-wheel drive, RAV4 originally stood for "Recreational Activity Vehicle: 4-wheel drive", this has been changed to "Robust Accurate Vehicle: 4-wheel drive", because the aforementioned equipment is an option in select countries. In most markets, the RAV4 is the only compact SUV or crossover available from Toyota.

Der RAV4 ("Recreational Active Vehicle 4-Wheel Drive") ist ein Kompakt-SUV des japanischen Automobilherstellers Toyota. Das Fahrzeug wurde im Sommer 1994 in Deutschland und Japan vorgestellt, wobei es in den USA erst Ende 1996 präsentiert wurde. Der RAV4 verwendet wie die meisten modernen SUVs nicht den bei Geländewagen bis dahin üblichen Leiterrahmen, sondern eine selbsttragende Karosserie.


History.

Most of Christiansfeld was constructed in the years 1773–1800, following a strict city plan. To encourage construction, king Christian VII promised a ten-year tax holiday for the city and paid 10% of the construction costs of new houses. It was one of many towns in Schleswig officially designated a small market town ("flække").  In 1864, Christiansfeld and the rest of Schleswig was ceded to Prussia as a result of Denmark's defeat in the Second Schleswig War. It remained a part of Germany until 1920 when, as a part of a plebiscite called for by the Treaty of Versailles, Northern Schleswig voted to rejoin Denmark. After reunification, the Moravian church lost some of the rights it had obtained as a part of the town's founding in the 18th century. For example, it no longer had the ability to choose the towns leadership, paving the way for the town's first Danish mayor who was not a member of the church in 1920. The church also sold its schools at this time due to the declining membership of its congregation.  From 1970 to 2007, the town was the administrative seat of Christiansfeld Municipality, but it lost this status and was placed in the Kolding Municipality as a part of the Municipal Reform of 2007 (Kommunalreformen 2007).

Today.

Today, the city is a tourist attraction: the old city core, the Moravian Church with its light, simple and impressive hall and the special cemetery draw thousands of tourists each year. Its well preserved architecture is one of the reasons it was nominated as a tentative UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1993. It was finally inscribed on the main list on 4 July 2015.  The town is famed for its honey cakes. These are baked to a secret recipe from 1783. Until 2008, the cakes were baked in the original 18th-century bakery, which was then renovated because of new national sanitary standards, but still uses the original recipes.

Christiansfeld, with a population of 2,996 (1 January 2019), is a town in Kolding Municipality in Southern Jutland in Region of Southern Denmark. The town was founded in 1773 by the Moravian Church and named after the Danish king Christian VII. Since July 2015 it has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Christiansfeld ist ein Ort in Sønderjylland, Dänemark. Er liegt zwischen den Städten Kolding und Haderslev (Hadersleben) und gehört seit 2007 zur Kommune Kolding. 1970 bis 2007 war er Hauptort der Kommune Christiansfeld.


In filmmaking.

An example of forced perspective is a scene in an action/adventure movie in which dinosaurs are threatening the heroes. By placing a miniature model of a dinosaur close to the camera, the director may make the dinosaur look monstrously tall to the viewer, even though it is just closer to the camera.  Forced perspective had been a feature of German silent films and "Citizen Kane" revived the practice. Movies, especially B-movies in the 1950s and 1960s, were produced on limited budgets and often featured forced perspective shots.  Forced perspective can be made more believable when environmental conditions obscure the difference in perspective. For example, the final scene of the famous movie "Casablanca" takes place at an airport in the middle of a storm, although the entire scene was shot in a studio. This was accomplished by using a painted backdrop of an aircraft, which was "serviced" by dwarfs standing next to the backdrop. A downpour (created in the studio) draws much of the viewer's attention away from the backdrop and extras, making the simulated perspective less noticeable.

Role of light.

Early instances of forced perspective used in low-budget motion pictures showed objects that were clearly different from their surroundings: often blurred or at a different light level. The principal cause of this was geometric. Light from a point source travels in a spherical wave, decreasing in intensity (or "illuminance") as the inverse square of the distance travelled. This means that a light source must be four times as bright to produce the same illuminance at an object twice as far away. Thus to create the illusion of a distant object being at the same distance as a near object and scaled accordingly, much more light is required. When shooting with forced perspective, it's important to have the aperture stopped down sufficiently to achieve proper DOF (depth of field), so that the foreground object and background are both sharp. Since miniature models would need to be subjected to far greater lighting than the main focus of the camera, the area of action, it is important to ensure that these can withstand the significant amount of heat generated by the incandescent light sources typically used in film and TV production.

In motion.

Peter Jackson's film adaptations of "The Lord of the Rings" make extended use of forced perspective. Characters apparently standing next to each other would be displaced by several feet in depth from the camera. This, in a still shot, makes some characters (dwarves and Hobbits) appear much smaller than others. If the camera's point of view were moved, then parallax would reveal the true relative positions of the characters in space. Even if the camera is just rotated, its point of view may move accidentally if the camera is not rotated about the correct point. This point of view is called the 'zero-parallax-point' (or front nodal point), and is approximated in practice as the centre of the entrance pupil.  An extensively used technique in "" was an enhancement of this principle, which could be used in moving shots. Portions of sets were mounted on movable platforms which would move precisely according to the movement of the camera, so that the optical illusion would be preserved at all times for the duration of the shot. The same techniques were used in the Harry Potter movies to make the character Hagrid look like a giant. Props around Harry and his friends are of normal size, while seemingly identical props placed around Hagrid are in fact smaller.

Comic effects.

As with many film genres and effects, forced perspective can be used to visual-comedy effect. Typically, when an object or character is portrayed in a scene, its size is defined by its surroundings. A character then interacts with the object or character, in the process showing that the viewer has been fooled and there is forced perspective in use. The 1930 Laurel and Hardy movie "Brats" used forced perspective to depict Stan and Ollie simultaneously as adults and as their own sons. An example used for comic effect can be found in the slapstick comedy "Top Secret!" in a scene which appears to begin as a close-up of a ringing phone with the characters in the distance. However, when the character walks up to the phone (towards the camera) and picks it up, it becomes apparent that the phone is extremely oversized instead of being close to the camera. Another scene in the same movie begins with a close-up of a wristwatch. The next cut shows that the character actually has a gargantuan wristwatch.  The same technique is also used in the Dennis Waterman sketch in the British BBC sketch show "Little Britain". In the television version, super props are used to make the caricatured Waterman look just three feet tall or less. In "The History of the World, Part I", while escaping the French peasants, Mel Brooks' character, Jacques, who is doubling for King Louis, runs down a hall of the palace, which turns into a ramp, showing the smaller forced perspective door at the end. As he backs down into the normal part of the room, he mutters, "Who designed this place?"  One of the recurring "The Kids in the Hall" sketches featured Mr. Tyzik, "The Headcrusher", who used forced perspective (from his own point of view) to "crush" other people's heads between his fingers. This is also done by the character Sheldon Cooper in the TV show "The Big Bang Theory" to his friends when they displease him. In the making of Season 5 of "Red vs. Blue", the creators used forced perspective to make the character of Tucker's baby, Junior, look small. In the game, the alien character used as Junior is the same height as other characters. The short-lived 2013 Internet meme "baby mugging" used forced perspective to make babies look like they were inside items like mugs and teacups.

In architecture.

In architecture, a structure can be made to seem larger, taller, farther away or otherwise by adjusting the scale of objects in relation to the spectator, increasing or decreasing perceived depth. When forced perspective is supposed to make an object appear farther away, the following method can be used: by constantly decreasing the scale of objects from expectancy and convention toward the farthest point from the spectator, an illusion is created that the scale of said objects is decreasing due to their distant location. In contrast, the opposite technique was sometimes used in classical garden designs and other follies to shorten the perceived distances of points of interest along a path.  The Statue of Liberty is built with a slight forced perspective so that it appears more correctly proportioned when viewed from its base. When the statue was designed in the late 19th century (before easy air flight), there were few other angles from which to view the statue. This caused a difficulty for special effects technicians working on the movie "Ghostbusters II", who had to back off on the amount of forced perspective used when replicating the statue for the movie so that their model (which was photographed head-on) would not look top-heavy. This effect can also be seen in Michelangelo's statue of "David".

Through depth perception.

The technique takes advantage of the visual cues humans use to perceive depth such as angular size, aerial perspective, shading, and relative size. In film, photography and art, perceived object distance is manipulated by altering fundamental monocular cues used to discern the depth of an object in the scene such as aerial perspective, blurring, relative size and lighting. Using these monocular cues in concert with angular size, the eyes can perceive the distance of an object. Artists are able to freely move the visual plane of objects by obscuring these cues to their advantage.  Increasing the object's distance from the audience makes an object appear smaller, its apparent size decreases as distance from the audience increases. This phenomenon is that of the manipulation of angular and apparent size.  A person perceives the size of an object based on the size of the object's image on the retina. This depends solely on the angle created by the rays coming from the topmost and bottommost part of the object that pass through the center of the lens of the eye. The larger the angle an object subtends, the larger the apparent size of the object. The subtended angle increases as the object moves closer to the lens. Two objects with different actual size have the same apparent size when they subtend the same angle. Similarly, two objects of the same actual size can have drastically varying apparent size when they are moved to different distances from the lens.

Calculating angular size.

The formula for calculating angular size is as follows:  in which "θ" is the subtended angle, "h" is the actual size of the object and "D" is the distance from the lens to the object.

Examples.

In film.

Forced perspective has been employed to realize characters in film, such as Hagrid, the half-giant in the "Harry Potter" series, and hobbits in the "Lord of the Rings" series.  In reality, there is only a 5-inch height difference between Elijah Wood, 5′6′′, and Ian McKellen, 5′11′′, the actors playing Frodo and Gandalf in "The Lord of the Rings" films; however, the use of camera angles and trick scenery and props creates the illusion of a much greater difference in size and height.  Numerous camera angle tricks are also played in the movie "Elf" to make elf characters in the movie appear smaller than human characters.

In art.

In his painting entitled "Still life with a curtain", Paul Cézanne creates the illusion of depth by using brighter colors on objects closer to the viewer and dimmer colors and shading to distance the "light source" from objects that he wanted to appear farther away. His shading technique allows the audience to discern the distance between objects due to their relative distances from a stationary light source that illuminates the scene. Furthermore, he uses a blue tint on objects that should be farther away and redder tint to objects in the foreground.

Full size dioramas.

Modern museum dioramas may be seen in most major natural history museums. Typically, these displays use a tilted plane to represent what would otherwise be a level surface, incorporate a painted background of distant objects, and often employ false perspective, carefully modifying the scale of objects placed on the plane to reinforce the illusion through depth perception in which objects of identical real-world size placed farther from the observer appear smaller than those closer. Often the distant painted background or sky will be painted upon a continuous curved surface so that the viewer is not distracted by corners, seams, or edges. All of these techniques are means of presenting a realistic view of a large scene in a compact space. A photograph or single-eye view of such a diorama can be especially convincing since in this case there is no distraction by the binocular perception of depth.  Carl Akeley, a naturalist, sculptor, and taxidermist, is credited with creating the first ever habitat diorama in the year 1889. Akeley's diorama featured taxidermied beavers in a three-dimensional habitat with a realistic, painted background. With the support of curator Frank M. Chapman, Akeley designed the popular habitat dioramas featured at the American Museum of Natural History. Combining art with science, these exhibitions were intended to educate the public about the growing need for habitat conservation. The modern AMNH Exhibitions Lab is charged with the creation of all dioramas and otherwise immersive environments in the museum.

Theme parks.

Forced perspective is extensively employed at theme parks and other such architecture as found in Disneyland and Las Vegas, often to make structures seem larger than they are in reality where physically larger structures would not be feasible or desirable, or to otherwise provide an optical illusion for entertainment value. Most notably, it is used by Walt Disney Imagineering in the Disney Theme Parks. Some notable examples of forced perspective in the parks, used to make the objects bigger, are the castles (Sleeping Beauty, Cinderella, and Belle). One of the most notable examples of forced perspective being used to make the object appear smaller is The American Adventure pavilion in Epcot.

Forced perspective is a technique which employs optical illusion to make an object appear farther away, closer, larger or smaller than it actually is. It manipulates human visual perception through the use of scaled objects and the correlation between them and the vantage point of the spectator or camera. It has uses in photography, filmmaking and architecture.

Die erzwungene Perspektive ist eine Technik in Film, Kunst und Architektur, die dazu dient, Objekte für den Zuschauer größer, kleiner, näher oder weiter erscheinen zu lassen, als sie wirklich sind. In welcher Weise die Dimensionen so verzerrt werden, hängt von der Stellung zwischen Kamera und gefilmtem Objekt, bzw. Standpunkt des Betrachters und dem fraglichen Objekt ab. Die erzwungene Perspektive erzeugt eine optische Täuschung, die zumeist genutzt wird, um Dinge als weiter entfernt von der Kamera erscheinen zu lassen, wenn nur begrenzter Platz zur Verfügung steht. Filmproduktionen aus den 1950er und 60er Jahren sind bekannt für ihre vielfach verwendete und nicht selten auffällige Affinität zur erzwungenen Perspektive.


Club career.

Early career.

Born in Neunkirchen, Lower Austria, and his father was an amateur goalkeeper. He began as a forward at local team SVg Pitten before moving to 1. Wiener Neustädter SC at the age of 11. At the age of 15, while still an amateur and at mainstream school, Fuchs played for their senior team. When he was 17, he signed his first professional deal at SV Mattersburg, a team who despite coming from a town of 6,000 drew league record average crowds of 17,000, came third in the Austrian Football Bundesliga and played in European competition.  Prior to UEFA Euro 2008, he joined the German side VfL Bochum. He later described it as a useful move to play regularly while attracting attention from bigger teams. In 2010, he was signed on loan by 1. FSV Mainz 05, a newly promoted team who ended the season in the top five.

Schalke.

On 6 June 2011, Fuchs signed a contract until 30 June 2015 with Schalke 04. The transfer fee is reportedly undisclosed by Schalke's sport and communications manager Horst Heldt. Fuchs was assigned the number 23 shirt, previously worn by Danilo Fernando Avelar.  In his time at the team from Gelsenkirchen, he competed in the UEFA Champions League, but suffered a long-term knee injury.

Leicester City.

On 3 June 2015, Leicester City announced the signing of Fuchs on a free transfer, signing a three-year deal with the Foxes effective from 1 July. Signed under previous manager Nigel Pearson, Fuchs didn't have a regular spot in new manager Claudio Ranieri's squad until October. Fuchs made an appearance in Leicester's third round League Cup tie against West Ham United, providing an assist for Andy King's extra time winner. Following a 2–5 loss to Arsenal on 26 September, Ranieri elected to shake up his defensive back four, inserting Fuchs and teammate Danny Simpson in place of Jeffrey Schlupp and Ritchie De Laet, respectively. Fuchs made his first Premier League start the next week against Norwich.  In his first season, Leicester finished as champions on odds of 5,000–1, making Fuchs the first Austrian to receive a Premier League winners' medal since Arsenal's Alex Manninger in 1998. Following the insertion of Fuchs into the lineup on Matchday 8, Leicester City led the Premier League in clean sheets along with Arsenal, with 15. Fuchs himself led the league during this period in successful tackles with 77, while finishing second in interceptions with 98.  Prior to signing for Leicester, Fuchs had an offer to play in the United States, where his family live, but he turned it down for financial reasons. He said in March 2016 "My intention is to play in the US. I have come [to Leicester] for three years. I decided that I would sign one last contract in Europe, when I left Schalke, then go to the US."  On 21 October 2016, Fuchs signed a new contract with Leicester, keeping him with the club until June 2019. The next day, Fuchs scored his first goal for Leicester against Crystal Palace, volleying home a corner-kick clearance by Christian Benteke for the team's final goal in a 3–1 victory.  In May 2019 he signed a new one-year contract with Leicester.

International career.

Fuchs made his debut for Austria on 23 May 2006 in a friendly match against Croatia, replacing Stefan Lexa for the final six minutes of the 1–4 loss at the Ernst-Happel-Stadion in Vienna.  He was part of the Austrian international squad as they co-hosted UEFA Euro 2008 alongside Switzerland. He made only one appearance in the group stage elimination, playing the entirety of the 1–0 loss to Germany in their last match of the tournament.  On 11 August 2010, in the absence of regular skipper Marc Janko, Fuchs captained his nation for the first time in a 0–1 friendly loss to the Swiss in Klagenfurt. That 17 November, he scored his first international goal, equalising in a 1–2 home friendly loss to Greece.  Fuchs received the armband on a permanent basis at the behest of manager Marcel Koller on 13 August 2012. He played all 10 games as they qualified for UEFA Euro 2016, the first time they did so, and featured in every minute of the group stage elimination in France. Afterwards, he retired from international play with a total of 78 caps, declaring "I am very proud of the 10 years that I have spent with the national team. I did everything with passion and, as I said, I am very, very proud."

Personal life.

Fuchs' wife Raluca Gold-Fuchs, with whom he has a stepson, son, and daughter, is a businesswoman formerly of Goldman Sachs. She lives with their children in Manhattan and Fuchs sees them once a month. He runs a public relations company and a football academy in the same city, and plans to move there permanently after his football career.  The "Leicester Mercury" described Fuchs as "not your stereotypical footballer...[he] has more strings to his bow than an orchestra". He is noted for his online video series "No Fuchs Given", a play on his surname and the English-language obscenity ""fuck""; the series consists of himself and teammates doing unusual football-related challenges, such as him and Robert Huth shooting the ball as hard as possible at each other's backsides. He also has a stated dream to become an NFL placekicker and has demonstrated his skills on the BBC's NFL coverage. <https://edition.cnn.com/2016/10/24/football/fuchs-leicester-nfl-goal-contract/index.html Christian Fuchs: Austrian is'serious' about trying out as NFL kicker>. His surname "Fuchs" is the German word for "Fox".

Honours.

Schalke 04  Leicester City Austria U17  Individual

Christian Fuchs (; born 7 April 1986) is an Austrian professional footballer who plays as a left back for English club Leicester City. He signed for Leicester in 2015, winning the Premier League in his first season at the club.

Christian Fuchs (* 7. April 1986 in Neunkirchen) ist ein österreichischer Fußballspieler. Er spielt als linker Außenverteidiger und Mittelfeldspieler für Leicester City, 2016 wurde er mit dem Klub englischer Meister. Zuvor hatte Fuchs von 2008 bis 2015 183 Spiele in der deutschen Bundesliga absolviert. Fuchs war von 2006 bis 2016 in der österreichischen Fußballnationalmannschaft aktiv und nahm mit ihr an der Europameisterschaft 2016 in Frankreich teil. Er war fünf Jahre lang ihr Mannschaftskapitän.


Office of Special Investigations (United States Department of Justice)

History.

The case of Braunsteiner-Ryan and the creation of the OSI.

In 1964 it was discovered that Hermine Braunsteiner, a former SS guard in the concentration camps Ravensbrück and Majdanek, was living in the United States. She had met Russel Ryan while he holidayed in Austria & she entered the United States in 1959 shortly after their marriage. The case caused quite a stir and, in consequence, a special working group was set up at the immigration authority, which should identify other war criminals from the Nazi-era, who lived in the United States. This working group was under great public pressure, and was not sufficiently prepared for the task of handling a large number of complex investigations. During 1977–1979, the department initiated five cases, all except one were lost. In the one case won it turned out later that an alleged Gestapo officer was in fact a former forced laborer.  As a consequence, the New York Congresswoman Elizabeth Holtzman called for the creation of a special unit to prosecute war criminals residing in the United States. In 1979 the Office of Special Investigations was established within the US Department of Justice. Its task consisted of processing the accumulated cases and the resumption of the search for war criminals in the United States. The OSI was equipped with greater powers than any other department. Its employees were able to do all necessary steps themselves, from a first investigation to litigation, negotiating with foreign governments and calling for support of other U.S. authorities.

The work of the OSI.

OSI's work is primarily focused on acts by Nazis abroad before and during World War II, and who subsequently entered, or sought to enter, the United States illegally or fraudulently. It then took the appropriate legal action seeking their exclusion, denaturalization (revocation of U.S. citizenship), and/or deportation.  Even in periods when American-Soviet relations hit their lowest points such as in 1980 the OSI investigators succeeded to conclude agreements with countries of the Warsaw Pact, in order to conduct interviews with witnesses and obtain archival copies. Especially Poland supported the work of the OSI before 1989 by opening its extensive archives. The OSI officials dealt also with cases in which American authorities had collaborated with Nazi war criminals, such as Operation Paperclip. Due to OSI's efforts, the CIA recruitment of Klaus Barbie, the Butcher of Lyon, could be established in 1983 and brought to the public.  However, OSI was not always successful. A low point was the acquittal of Ivan Demjanjuk, wrongfully accused of being "Ivan the Terrible", responsible for crimes in various concentration and extermination camps. The identity of Demjanjuk "Ivan the Terrible" could not be established by the Israeli Supreme Court, who had overtaken the prosecution. Furthermore, the acquisition of documents from the Eastern Bloc countries was only slowly progressing and not very successful. The OSI knew for example already in the early eighties that the former Saugumas chief Aleksandras Lileikis resided in the United States. The archive materials that were made available by the Soviet authorities turned out to be insufficient to press charges.  As of August 2005, OSI had successfully prosecuted 100 persons involved in Nazi war crimes. These persons have been denaturalized and/or been deported from the United States. Many had lived in the U.S. for decades and led unremarkable lives. For example, Adam Friedrich had lived in the U.S. since 1955 and been a citizen since 1962 before OSI found that he had been a member of the SS-Totenkopfverbände assigned as a prison guard at the Gross-Rosen concentration camp. He was denaturalized in 2004 but died in 2006 before he could be deported.  The number of Nazis in the U.S. and world has dwindled rapidly through natural mortality. As such, the mission of the OSI shifted in its last years from focusing strictly on World War II criminals to seeking out and prosecuting war criminals from the conflicts in Bosnia, Serbia, Rwanda, and Darfur who have sought refuge by coming to the United States.

Criticism and controversy.

The OSI received significant criticism throughout its existence from the courts, émigré groups, and others. Criticism has centered on its mandate, perceived influence by Jewish special interest groups, use of evidence from the Soviet Union, and the professional ethics of its leadership.  During the 1980s Cold War years the office was criticized for working with Soviet authorities and submitting evidence provided by them. The majority of OSI prosecutions were against immigrants from the Baltic states and the office was viewed suspiciously by émigré groups from those countries whose members often refused to cooperate in investigations. In 1984, the Veterans of Foreign Wars passed a resolution critical of OSI due to its use of evidence provided by the Soviet Union.  In the 1990s and 2000s the OSI was criticized for having "outlived its usefulness." No significant Nazi persecutor had been prosecuted in decades and the ongoing investigations were against elderly men and women who had served as guards or members of auxiliary police units. In 1997 a Holocaust survivor and potential witness wrote to the OSI to say, "[it was now] too long a period for effective implementation of sanctions against these individuals...Men's action in the service of Justice after 50 years must necessarily be feeble at this stage. Accordingly, I respectfully suggest that your formidable resources and energies be used for more current causes, where they can do some good."

Criticisms by Federal judiciary of the United States.

OSI's first case was "Fedorenko v. United States" in which the Supreme Court ruled 7–2 that a person who had assisted the enemy in persecuting civilians could have his citizenship revoked. In his dissent, Justice John Paul Stevens "accused his colleagues of reacting to the horrors of Treblinka rather than following the logic of the law". The trial judge referred to the defendant as "a hard-working and responsible American citizen" and criticized the government for filing the denaturalization action in the first place and "squandering taxpayer funds". Fedorenko was deported to the Soviet Union and later executed. The OSI was aware he faced execution and was advised by the State Department to relay that information to him but refused to do so.  OSI's most notorious prosecution was that of John Demjanjuk who was accused of being "Ivan the Terrible", the gas chamber operator at Treblinka. He was brought to the government's attention in 1975 by a Soviet reporter based in New York and extradited to Israel in 1986 where he was convicted but later freed based on new evidence. It emerged during his trial that OSI attorneys had withheld evidence from his defense team. A three-judge panel from the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit ruled that the OSI attorneys had not met to their "obligation to work for justice" and "concluded that OSI had perpetrated a fraud on the court".

Conduit for Jewish special interest groups.

Stemming from OSI's conduct in the Demjanjuk case, the Sixth Circuit unanimously criticized the office for "having a mindset that required it to try to please and maintain very close relationships with various interest groups because their continued existence depended upon it". In 1994, the Chief Judge of the Sixth Circuit, Gilbert S. Merritt, Jr., wrote to Attorney General Janet Reno that "it appeared that outside pressure on the Department from 'Jewish special interest groups' had 'obviously influenced...the OSI'."

Criticism of OSI directors.

Walter Rockler was the first director of OSI. Allan Ryan was the second, serving from 1980 to 1983. He was named in part because United States Department of Justice (DOJ) leadership sought a non-Jewish director, as they did not want the office to be seen as a "Jewish organization". A Special Master was appointed by the sixth circuit to investigate the OSI's handling of the Demjanjuk case under Ryan and defense allegations of withholding evidence; the report remains unpublished. Neal Sher served as the third OSI director, serving from 1983 to 1994. His departure from OSI to head the American Israel Public Affairs Committee (AIPAC) was seen as indicative of the influence of Jewish special interest groups on the office. Sher left AIPAC for the International Commission on Holocaust Era Insurance Claims but resigned after allegations he had misappropriated $136,000. He was disbarred in 2003.

Organization.

The last Director of OSI was Eli Rosenbaum, who had worked for the office on and off since 1980. He was appointed Director of the office in 1995 after having served as its Principal Deputy Director since 1988. Rosenbaum is now the Director of Strategy and Policy for the new Human Rights and Special Prosecution Section.  People investigated by the OSI  Similar organizations  http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB331/index.htm

The Office of Special Investigations is a unit within the Criminal Division of the United States Department of Justice. Its purpose is to detect and investigate individuals who took part in state sponsored acts committed in violation of public international law, such as crimes against humanity.

Das Office of Special Investigations (OSI) war eine 1979 gegründete und dem Justizministerium der Vereinigten Staaten unterstellte Behörde, welche die Fahndung und Strafverfolgung nationalsozialistischer Kriegsverbrecher durchführte, die in die Vereinigten Staaten eingewandert sind. Im März 2010 wurde das OSI mit einer anderen Abteilung des Justizministeriums zur Human Rights and Special Prosecutions Section (HRSP) verschmolzen.


Host selection.

Bids:  The organization of the 2008 Africa Cup of Nations was awarded to Ghana on 8 July 2004 by the CAF Executive Committee members which are 12 in Cairo, Egypt. Voters had a choice between Ghana and Libya which was disadvantaged by the fact that two countries in the North Africa region had already hosted the last two editions (Tunisia in 2004, and Egypt in 2006).  South Africa, also was a candidate at the start, eventually withdrew in May 2004 after being nominated for the organization of the 2010 FIFA World Cup.  This is the fourth time that Ghana has hosted the African Cup after 1963, 1978 and 2000 (jointly with Nigeria).

Qualification.

The entrants were divided into 12 groups. All group winners and the best three runners-up from groups with four teams (groups 2-11) qualified for the finals. Host Ghana qualified automatically. Qualifying took place between 2 September 2006 and 13 October 2007.

Match officials.

16 referees and 16 assistant referees were selected for the tournament, including two from Japan and one from South Korea.

Seeding and grouping procedure.

The draw for the tournament took place on 19 October 2007. The sixteen teams were divided into four pots according to their performances in past Cup of Nations tournaments. Ghana, as host, were automatically seeded as the top team in Group A. Egypt, the defending champions, were seeded as the top team in Group C. Each group consists of four teams, one drawn from each of the pots.

Tournament ball.

During the previous editions of the Africa Cup of Nations, the ball used was not a ball especially made for the tournament. As the tournament was held on even years, the same years big tournaments such as the UEFA European Cup of Nations or the FIFA World Cup were held, the official ball for the tournament held this year was used for the African Cup of Nations: the Adidas Roteiro in 2004, or the Adidas Teamgeist in 2006. However, for the 2008 tournament, Adidas made a special ball, clearly different from the Adidas Europass going to be used five months later for the Euro. The ball was named Wawa Aba and was designed to include host nation Ghana’s red, yellow and green. The ball was later used for the other African competitions.  For the Akan culture originating from Western Africa, one of the Adinkra symbols named "Wawa Aba" is a symbol of hardiness, toughness, and perseverance. People there particularly believe in the strength and team spirit of a community. The "Wawa Aba" literally means “seed(s) of Wawa tree ("Triplochiton scleroxylon")”, one of the strongest and most processible woods of Africa and whose seeds are very hard. For the population, the "Wawa Aba" mainly has mystical significance. These are people who don’t let failure discourage them, who seize all opportunities successfully and who are thus just as strong and adaptable as the "Wawa Aba".

Group stage.

Tie-breaking criteria.

Where two or more teams end the group stage with the same number of points, their ranking is determined by the following criteria:  "All times given as local time (UTC+0)"

Group A.

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Group B.

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Group C.

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Group D.

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Awards.

Best XI.

The following players were selected as the best in their respective positions, based on their performances throughout the tournament. Their performances were analysed by the tournament's Technical Study Group (TSG), who picked the team.

The 2008 Africa Cup of Nations, also known as the MTN Africa Cup of Nations due to the competition's sponsorship by MTN, was the 26th edition of the Africa Cup of Nations, the biennial football tournament for nations affiliated to the Confederation of African Football (CAF). The tournament was staged at four venues around Ghana between 20 January and 10 February 2008. This was the last Africa Cup of Nations to use the old CAF logo.

Der Afrika-Cup 2008 (engl.: African Cup of Nations, franz.: Coupe d'Afrique des Nations) war die 26. Ausspielung der afrikanischen Kontinentalmeisterschaft im Fußball und fand vom 20. Januar bis zum 10. Februar zum vierten Mal nach 1963, 1978 und 2000 (gemeinsam mit Nigeria) in Ghana statt. Am 8. Juni 2004 gab das 13-köpfige Exekutivkomitee der CAF auf einer Pressekonferenz in der ägyptischen Hauptstadt Kairo bekannt, dass der Afrika-Cup 2008 nach Ghana vergeben wird. In der Abstimmung setzte sich das westafrikanische Land mit 9:3 Stimmen gegen den Konkurrenten aus Libyen durch.


Early life.

Jinarajadasa was born on 16 December 1875 in Sri Lanka to a family of Sinhalese parents. He was one of the first students of Ananda College, Colombo. In 1889, when Charles Webster Leadbeater, the first principal of Ananda College was asked by A.P. Sinnett to come back to England to tutor his son, Leadbeater agreed and also brought one of his pupils, Jinarajadasa, to England with him. Thanks to Leadbeater, Jinarajadasa went to St John's College, Cambridge where he studied oriental languages and four years later took his Degree in the Oriental Languages Tripos.

Career.

He then came back to Ceylon and became the vice principal of Ananda College in Colombo. Jinarajadasa returned to Europe, to study at the University of Pavia, Italy. He soon became proficient in Italian, French, Spanish and Portuguese. Around 1904 he visited Chicago, where he met and influenced Weller van Hook, the well-known surgeon and author, who then became a theosophist. During his lifetime, Jinarajadasa traveled to many countries despite all the war difficulties of that era for his devoted service to Theosophy.  He was one among four Convention Lecturers, including G.S. Arundale, B.P. Wadia, and T. Sadasivier, who spoke in Calcutta at the Forty-Second Anniversary of the Theosophical Society in December, 1917. In his lecture, "The Problem of Religion And Philosophy", he stressed the need to serve others, saying “We have a perennial need of God, of understanding the mystery of the I... When the heart and brain are ready, the hand will be guided by a Divine Architect to build according to His Plan. Each of you must help in this day to come. Not the smallest child but can help in some tiny action, not the poorest now who cannot heap up wealth of hope for that future. For within us is the Light of the World and the Power of the World –– if only we knew how to find. But the doors of all the treasure-houses will open if we know the right mantra to repeat, the "open sesame" of this newer day. It is the new word of power: ‘Brother, thou art I.  ”He also traveled to South America, where he lectured in Spanish and Portuguese and founded branches of the Theosophical Society (TS). He was the Vice-President of the Theosophical Society from 1921 to 1928. After the death of Dr. Arundale in 1945, Jinarajadasa became president of the Theosophical Society Adyar. In 1949 he founded the School of Wisdom in Adyar, which attracted students from many countries. He was also a Freemason, joining Le Droit Humain also known as Co-Masonry. Curuppumullage Jinarajadasa was the president of Theosophical Society until his death on 18 June 1953 in the United States.

Personal life.

In 1916, Jinarajadasa married the English feminist Miss Dorothy M. Graham, who founded the Women's Indian Association (WIA) in Adyar with Annie Besant in 1917. She accompanied him in his travels around the world for some years. At one stage of his life, he resided in Brazil. By 1953 he declined renomination as president of the Theosophical Society due to poor health and installed Nilakanta Sri Ram as his successor. He visited America where he died on 18 June 1953 at the national headquarters of the Theosophical Society, called “Olcott”. His body was cremated; half of his ashes were sent to Adyar for deposit in the Garden of Remembrance there. The rest were kept at Olcott until the late 1990s, when they were deposited in an American Garden of Remembrance created to receive them.

Works (selection).

Jinarajadasa wrote many works on Theosophy, Theology, philosophy, literature, art and science. He also participated in Annie Besant's and Charles Leadbeater's researches on Occult Chemistry. In 1913 Jinarajadasa was awarded the Subba Row Medal for his contribution to Theosophical literature. Jinarajadasa published more than 1,600 articles in periodicals such as "The Adyar Bulletin", "The American Theosophist, "The Australian ES Bulletin", "The Herald of the Star", "The Messenger", "Sishya (The Student)", "The Theosophic Messenger", "The Theosophist", and "World Theosophy". Jinarajadasa was also editor of "The Theosophist" for three periods.

"The K.H. Letters to C.W. Leadbeater".

It is a book compiled by Jinarajadasa; it was first published in 1941. Jinarajadasa wrote that C.W. Leadbeater joined the Theosophical Society in November 1883, and after his contact with Helena Blavatsky in London he decided to become a chela (disciple) of one of the Mahatmas.  At the beginning of the book Jinarajadasa proclaimed that an incident with receiving certain letters from the Master K.H. was very great Leadbeater's success. Leadbeater reminisced that he wrote a letter to the Master K.H. In that letter it was said that "his one great wish has been to become chela but it would be almost impossible without going out to India." Then Leadbeater entrusted the letter to a medium William Eglinton and his "control" Ernest. He talked later: "I waited for some months, but no reply came, and whenever I went to Eglinton's séances and happened to encounter Ernest I always asked him when I might expect my answer. He invariably said that my letter had been duly delivered, but that nothing had yet been said about an answer, and that he could do no more." Leadbeater received a reply on the morning of October 31, 1884. The letter of the Master K.H. was to be posted in England, on envelope it was typed "Kensington" (it is a postal district in the west of London) and "OC-30-84" (it is the date).  Master Kuthumi replied in this letter:  "Last spring — March 3rd — you wrote a letter to me and entrusted it to 'Ernest'. Tho' the paper itself never reached me — nor was it ever likely to considering the nature of the messenger — its contents have. I did not answer it at that time, but sent you a message through Upasika.  In that message of yours it was said that, since reading "Esot. Bud:" and "Isis" your 'one great wish has been to place yourself "under me as a chela", that you "may learn more of the truth".' 'I understand from Mr. S.' you went on 'that it would be almost impossible to become a chela without going out to India'. You hoped to be able to do that in a few years, tho' for the present ties of gratitude bind you to remain in this country. Etc.  I now answer the above and your other questions.  (1) It is "not" necessary that one should be in India during the seven years of probation. A "chela" can pass them anywhere.  (2) To accept any man as a chela does not depend on my personal will. It can only be the result of one's personal merit and exertions in that direction. "Force" any one of the 'Masters' you may happen to choose; do good works in his name and for the love of mankind; be pure and resolute in the path of righteousness (as laid out in "our" rules); be honest and unselfish; forget your "Self" but to remember the good of other people — and you will have "forced" that 'Master' to accept you.  So much for candidates during the periods of the undisturbed progress of your Society. There is something more to be done, however, when theosophy, the Cause of Truth, is, as at the present moment on its stand for life or death before the tribunal of public opinion — that most flippantly cruel, prejudiced and unjust of all tribunals. "There" is also the collective karma of "the caste you belong to" — to be considered. It is undeniable that the cause you have at heart is now suffering owing to the dark intrigues, the base conspiracy of the Christian clergy and missionaries against the Society. They will stop before nothing to ruin the reputation of the Founders. Are you willing to atone for "their" sins? Then go to Adyar for a few months. 'The ties or gratitude' will not be severed, nor even become weakened for an absence of a few months if the step be explained plausibly to your relative. He who would shorten the years of probation has to make sacrifices for theosophy.  Pushed by malevolent hands to the very edge of a precipice, the Society needs every man and woman strong in the cause of truth. It is by "doing" noble actions and not by only determining that they shall be done that the fruits of the meritorious actions are reaped. Like the 'true man' of Carlyle who is not to be seduced by ease — 'difficulty, abnegation, martyrdom, death are the "allurements" that act' during the hours of trial on the heart of a "true" chela.  You ask me — 'what rules I must observe during this time of probation, and how soon I might venture to hope that it could begin'. I answer: you "have" the making of your own future, in your own hands as shown above, and every day you may be weaving its woof. If I were to "demand" that you should do one thing or the other, instead of simply advising, I would be responsible for every effect that might flow from the step and you acquire but a secondary merit. Think, and you will see that this is true. So cast the lot yourself into the lap of Justice, never fearing but that its response will be absolutely true.  Chelaship is an educational as well as probationary stage and the chela alone can determine whether it shall end in adeptship or failure. Chelas from a mistaken idea of our system too often watch and wait for orders, wasting precious time which should be taken up with personal effort. Our cause needs missionaries, devotees, agents, even martyrs perhaps. But it cannot demand of any man to make himself either. So now choose and grasp your own destiny, and may our Lord's the Tathâgata's memory aid you to decide for the best.  −K.H."  In the book Jinarajadasa gave about thirty detailed commentaries to the statements of the first Master's letter.  Jinarajadasa stated that Leadbeater wrote "his second letter to the Master K.H., in reply to the Master's communication, and took it with him to London. Here we have the story of the next events in this striking drama from Mr. Leadbeater himself." Leadbeater was reminiscing that he wished to say in answer to this that "his circumstances were such that it would be impossible for him to come to Adyar for three months, and then return to the work in which he was then engaged; but that he was perfectly ready to throw up that work altogether and to devote his life absolutely to Master's service". Ernest having so conspicuously failed him, he knew of no way to get this message to the Master but to take it to Blavatsky, and as she was to leave England on the following day for India, Leadbeater rushed up to London to see her.  Leadbeater talked that "it was with difficulty that he induced her to read the letter, as she said very decidedly that such communications were intended only for the recipient". He was obliged to insist, however, and at last she read it and asked him what he wished to say in reply. He answered to the above effect, and asked her how this information could be conveyed to the Master. She replied that he knew it already, referring of course to the exceedingly close relation in which she stood with him, so that whatever was within her consciousness was also within his when he wished it.  Leadbeater talked: "She then told me to wait by her, and not to leave her on any account. I waited patiently all through the afternoon and evening, and even went with her quite late at night to Mrs. Oakley's house, where a number of friends were gathered to say farewell Madame Blavatsky sat in an easy chair by the fireside, talking brilliantly to those who were present, and rolling one of her eternal cigarettes, when suddenly her right hand was jerked out towards the fire in a very peculiar fashion, and lay palm upwards. She looked down at it in surprise, as I did myself, for I was standing close to her, leaning with an elbow on the mantelpiece; and several of us saw quite clearly a sort of whitish mist form in the palm of her hand and then condense into a piece of folded paper, which she at once handed to me, saying, 'There is your answer'." Every one in the room crowded round, of course, but H.P.B. sent Leadbeater away outside to read it, saying that he must not let anyone see its contents. The letter read: "Since your intuition led you in the right direction and made you understand that it was "my desire" you should go to Adyar "immediately", I may say more. The sooner you go the better. Do not lose one day more than you can help. Sail on the 5th if possible. Join Upasika at Alexandria. Let no one know that you are going, and may the blessing of our Lord and my poor blessing shield you from every evil in your new life. Greeting to you, "my new chela."  −K.H." The author wrote that during the trip from Ismailia to Cairo, Blavatsky received a precipitated message from the Master K.H., in which there was some words for Leadbeater:  "Tell Leadbeater that I am satisfied with his zeal and devotion."  In 1886 at Ceylon Leadbeater became first principal of the Buddhist High School (today Ananda College). In this time at Colombo he received from Blavatsky a letter containing Master's addendum which was precipitated during passing through the post. The Master K.H. said in the addendum that he is "pleased with" Leadbeater.

Criticism.

His books on Theosophy were negatively reviewed by scientists. Science writer Hugh S. R. Elliot mocked Jinarajadasa's belief that every genus and species has a "group soul". Elliot noted that "for wherever a difficulty occurs, the author invents a spook to account for any process he cannot understand."

Curuppumullage Jinarajadasa (16 December 1875, Sri Lanka–18 June 1953, United States) was a Sri Lankan author, occultist, freemason and theosophist. The fourth president of the Theosophical Society, Jinarajadasa was one of the world's foremost Theosophical authors, having published more than 50 books and more than 1600 articles in periodicals during his life. His interests and writings included religion, philosophy, literature, art, science and occult chemistry. He was also a rare linguist, who had the ability to work in many European languages.

Curuppumullage Jinarajadasa (* 1875 oder 1877 auf Sri Lanka; † 18. Juni 1953 in Wheaton, Illinois, USA) war ein singhalesischer Autor, Freimaurer, Theosoph und 1946 bis 1953 Präsident der Theosophischen Gesellschaft Adyar (Adyar-TG).


Biography.

Montenegro was born in New York City in 1925. He served in the U.S. Navy for two years, mostly as an arranger for the Newport Naval Base band in Newport, Rhode Island. After the war he attended Manhattan College while studying composition and leading his own band for school dances.  In the middle 1950s, he was directing, conducting, and arranging the orchestra for Eliot Glen and Irving Spice on their Dragon and Caprice labels. It was he who was directing the Glen-Spice Orchestra on Dion DiMucci's first release when Dion was backed by Dragon recording artists, the Timberlanes. Released on Mohawk #105 in 1957, the songs were "Out In Colorado" and "The Chosen Few", which were soon issued on the Jubilee label for better distribution.  He was later hired by Time Records as a musical director producing a series of albums for the label, and moved to Los Angeles in the early 1960s where he began working for RCA Victor, producing a series of albums and soundtracks for motion pictures and television themes, such as two volumes of "Music From The Man From U.N.C.L.E.", an album of cover versions of spy music themes "Come Spy With Me" and an album of cover versions of Ennio Morricone's music for the Clint Eastwood "The Man With No Name" series of spaghetti Westerns that led to major chart hits.  Montenegro began scoring motion pictures with the instrumental music from "Advance to the Rear" in 1964. Following the success of his albums, he was contracted by Columbia Pictures where he scored such films as "Hurry Sundown" (1967), "Lady in Cement" (1968), "The Undefeated" (1969), "Viva Max!" (1969) and the Matt Helm films "The Ambushers" (1967) and "The Wrecking Crew" (1968). He composed the musical score and conducted the recording sessions for the 1969 Elvis Presley Western film "Charro!" (1969), and he provided some incidental music for the cult 1970 British film "Toomorrow". His last film scores were for the exploitation film "Too Hot to Handle" and the cult action thriller "The Farmer", in 1977.  "The Farmer" (1977) with Montenegro's chilling electronic music score earned an X rating until producer/director David Berlatsky had the review board review the film again without the music score and the rating was changed from X to R, which allowed Columbia pictures to distribute the film for 17 years. The music rights in order to release a DVD sale could not be obtained as the estate could not be found, the score is considered "lost".  Montenegro was also contracted to Columbia's television production company Screen Gems where he is most famous for his theme from the second season of the television series "I Dream of Jeannie", his theme song "Seattle" and music from "Here Come the Brides" and "The Outcasts". He also composed the music for the long running "The Partridge Family," (1970). During the mid‐1960s he started producing some of the most renowned works from the space age pop era, featuring electronics and rock in albums such as "Moog Power" and "Mammy Blue".  Montenegro's electronic works were decisive and influential for the future generations of electronic musicians, giving a retro/futuristic edge by the use of the Moog synthesizer, and helped to push its popularity. He will be also remembered by his versions of classics such as the main theme to Sergio Leone's film "The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly", originally composed by Ennio Morricone. This was Montenegro's biggest pop hit, reaching #2 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart, #3 in the Canadian RPM Magazine charts, and spending four weeks atop the UK Singles Chart in 1968. It sold over one and a quarter million copies and was awarded a gold disc.  His version of the main theme from "Hang 'em High" reached #59 in Canada. In 1968, his hit "Aces High" placed at #11 on the Billboard Year End Chart of the Top Hits of 1968.  In the late 1970s severe emphysema forced an end to his musical career, and he died of the disease in 1981. He is buried at Welwood Murray Cemetery in Palm Springs, California.

Hugo Mario Montenegro (September 2, 1925 – February 6, 1981)) was an American orchestra leader and composer of film soundtracks. His best known work is derived from interpretations of the music from Spaghetti Westerns, especially his cover version of Ennio Morricone's main theme from the 1966 film "The Good, the Bad and the Ugly". He composed the musical score for the 1969 Western "Charro!" which starred Elvis Presley.

Hugo Montenegro (* 2. September 1925 in New York; † 6. Februar 1981 in Palm Springs, Kalifornien) war ein US-amerikanischer Arrangeur, Komponist und Orchesterleiter.


Synthesis.

The earliest reported synthesis of a rotaxane in 1967 relied on the statistical probability that if two halves of a dumbbell-shaped molecule were reacted in the presence of a macrocycle that some small percentage would connect through the ring. To obtain a reasonable quantity of rotaxane, the macrocycle was attached to a solid-phase support and treated with both halves of the dumbbell 70 times and then severed from the support to give a 6% yield. However, the synthesis of rotaxanes has advanced significantly and efficient yields can be obtained by preorganizing the components utilizing hydrogen bonding, metal coordination, hydrophobic forces, covalent bonds, or coulombic interactions. The three most common strategies to synthesize rotaxane are "capping", "clipping", and "slipping", though others do exist. Recently, Leigh and co-workers described a new pathway to mechanically interlocked architectures involving a transition-metal center that can catalyse a reaction through the cavity of a macrocycle.

Capping.

Synthesis via the capping method relies strongly upon a thermodynamically driven template effect; that is, the "thread" is held within the "macrocycle" by non-covalent interactions, for example rotaxinations with cyclodextrin macrocycles involve exploitation of the hydrophobic effect. This dynamic complex or pseudorotaxane is then converted to the rotaxane by reacting the ends of the threaded guest with large groups, preventing disassociation.

Clipping.

The clipping method is similar to the capping reaction except that in this case the dumbbell shaped molecule is complete and is bound to a partial macrocycle. The partial macrocycle then undergoes a ring closing reaction around the dumbbell-shaped molecule, forming the rotaxane.

Slipping.

The method of slipping is one which exploits the thermodynamic stability of the rotaxane. If the end groups of the dumbbell are an appropriate size it will be able to reversibly thread through the macrocycle at higher temperatures. By cooling the dynamic complex, it becomes kinetically trapped as a rotaxane at the lower temperature.

"Active template" methodology.

Leigh and co-workers recently began to explore a strategy in which template ions could also play an active role in promoting the crucial final covalent bond forming reaction that captures the interlocked structure (i.e., the metal has a dual function, acting as a template for entwining the precursors and catalyzing covalent bond formation between the reactants).

Potential applications.

Molecular machines.

Rotaxane-based molecular machines have been of initial interest for their potential use in molecular electronics as logic molecular switching elements and as molecular shuttles. These molecular machines are usually based on the movement of the macrocycle on the dumbbell. The macrocycle can rotate around the axis of the dumbbell like a wheel and axle or it can slide along its axis from one site to another. Controlling the position of the macrocycle allows the rotaxane to function as a molecular switch, with each possible location of the macrocycle corresponding to a different state. These rotaxane machines can be manipulated both by chemical and photochemical inputs. Rotaxane based systems have also been shown to function as molecular muscles. In 2009, there was a report of a "domino effect" from one extremity to the other in a Glycorotaxane Molecular Machine. In this case, the "C" or "C" chair-like conformation of the mannopyranoside stopper can be controlled, depending on the localization of the macrocycle. In 2012, unique pseudo-macrocycles consisting of double-lasso molecular machines (also called rotamacrocycles) were reported in Chem. Sci. These structures can be tightened or loosened depending on pH. A controllable jump rope movement was also observed in these new molecular machines.

Ultrastable dyes.

Potential application as long-lasting dyes is based on the enhanced stability of the inner portion of the dumbbell-shaped molecule. Studies with cyclodextrin-protected rotaxane azo dyes established this characteristic. More reactive squaraine dyes have also been shown to have enhanced stability by preventing nucleophilic attack of the inner squaraine moiety. The enhanced stability of rotaxane dyes is attributed to the insulating effect of the macrocycle, which is able to block interactions with other molecules.

Nanorecording.

In a nanorecording application, a certain rotaxane is deposited as a Langmuir–Blodgett film on ITO-coated glass. When a positive voltage is applied with the tip of a scanning tunneling microscope probe, the rotaxane rings in the tip area switch to a different part of the dumbbell and the resulting new conformation makes the molecules stick out 0.3 nanometer from the surface. This height difference is sufficient for a memory dot. It is not yet known how to erase such a nanorecording film.

Nomenclature.

Accepted nomenclature is to designate the number of components of the rotaxane in brackets as a prefix. Therefore, the a rotaxane consisting of a single dumbbell-shaped axial molecule with a single macrocycle around its shaft is called a [2]rotaxane, and two cyanostar molecules around the central phosphate group of dialkylphosphate is a [3]rotaxane.

A rotaxane is a mechanically interlocked molecular architecture consisting of a "dumbbell shaped molecule" which is threaded through a "macrocycle" (see graphical representation). The name is derived from the Latin for wheel (rota) and axle (axis). The two components of a rotaxane are kinetically trapped since the ends of the dumbbell (often called stoppers) are larger than the internal diameter of the ring and prevent dissociation (unthreading) of the components since this would require significant distortion of the covalent bonds.

Rotaxane (lat. "rota", Rad; "axis", Achse) sind Stoffe, die aus mindestens einem Molekül mit einer linearen Einheit, welche von mindestens einem Makrocyclus (ein cyclisches Molekül mit einem Ring ausreichenden Durchmessers) umschlossen wird, bestehen. Der Makrocyclus wird nicht kovalent auf seiner Position im Molekül gehalten, beispielsweise durch sperrige endständige Gruppen auf der linearen Einheit, und/oder durch van der Waals-, London-, Coulomb- und dipolare Wechselwirkungen zwischen Schaft und Ring. Es treten komplexe Isomerieformen auf.


Club career.

Kirch started playing football at age five and was enrolled at the academy of SuS Legden in 1992; spending nine years as an academy player. Kirch would go on to join the academy of SuS Stadtlohn and then the academy of SpVgg Vreden. Kirch made his senior professional debut playing for SC Verl in the 2002–03 season before joining Borussia Mönchengladbach in the 2003–04 season, where Kirch made eight appearances in his first professional season. In the 2007–08 Bundesliga season, Kirch left Borussia Mönchengladbach and moved to Arminia Bielefeld and in his first match, he scored his first Bundesliga goal.  Kirch joined 1. FC Kaiserslautern in the 2010–11 Bundesliga season, where he signed a three-year contract. On 21 April 2012, during the 32nd matchday of the 2010–11 Bundesliga season, Kirch scored his first goal of the season in Kaiserslautern's 2–1 away victory over Hertha BSC.  Kirch joined Borussia Dortmund in the 2012–13 Bundesliga season. He signed a two-year contract with the German champions Borussia Dortmund until 30 June 2014. He scored his first Bundesliga goal for Borussia Dortmund on match day 32 in a 2–2 draw against Bayer 04 Leverkusen. Afterwards, Kirch joined SC Paderborn 07 in the 2015–16 season, he signed a two-year contract. In July 2016, Kirch decided to end his career.

Personal life.

Kirch and fiancée Jana Flötotto were married in 2011; the civil marriage took place in December 2011 in Central Park in New York City, with the ecclesiastical taking place at the end of May 2012 at the Gütersloh Apostles Church in Gütersloh, North Rhine-Westphalia.

Oliver Kirch (; born 21 August 1982) is a retired German footballer. Kirch played as a midfielder for BVB and was either deployed as defensive midfielder or right wing-back. In defense, he played as a right-back.

Oliver Kirch (* 21. August 1982 in Soest) ist ein ehemaliger deutscher Fußballspieler und heutiger -trainer. Er spielte vorzugsweise im Mittelfeld, entweder als defensiver Mittelfeldspieler oder auf der rechten Außenbahn, konnte aber auch in der Abwehr als rechter Außenverteidiger agieren. Er stand unter anderem bei Borussia Mönchengladbach und Borussia Dortmund unter Vertrag. Heute ist er Co-Trainer bei der zweiten Mannschaft von Arminia Bielefeld.


Life.

Early years.

Inge Lange was born into a politically conscious family in Leipzig, as Ingeburg Rosch. Her father was (1899-1945), a Communist Party activist. While she was still a young child, the reality of post-democratic Germany came to her home when her father was arrested for transporting illegal (political) books and, for a period, imprisoned in 1935/36. Ingeburg secured a training as a dressmaker between 1943 and 1946. In 1945 she became a member of Antifascist youth in the quarter of Leipzig.

Politics.

In 1945 she joined the Communist Party (KPD). Following the forced merger, in what was becoming the German Democratic Republic, of the KPD and the SPD (party), this left her, in 1946, as a member of the newly formed Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED / "Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands"). Specifically, between 1946 and 1961 Lange had a succession of positions within the ruling SED party's youth wing, the Free German Youth ( FDJ / " Freie Deutsche Jugend").

Teaching and youth work.

She undertook a teacher training course in 1946/47 after which she became an assistant at the Antifascist School at Königs Wusterhausen. In 1947 she became a teacher at the North-west Youth School in Mutzschen. Between 1947 and 1949 she was Secretary, and then in 1950 First Secretary with the regional Free German Youth organisation at Wismut SAG, the tightly controlled (on behalf of the Soviets) and strategically critical uranium mining operation near the Czechoslovak border.

National politics.

Between 1948 and 1950 Lange belonged to the Wusmut region leadership of the country's ruling SED party and was a member of its secretariat. In 1950/51 she served as Second Secretary of the FDJ executive for the greater Berlin region. From May 1952 till December 1961 she worked as the Secretary to the Central Council of the FDJ.  Between September 1951 and July 1952 she studied at the Komsomol Lenin Academy in Moscow, which can be seen as a mark of appreciation from Moscow for a difficult job well done during her time at Wismut. Between 1955 and 1961 she undertook a correspondence course at the prestigious Karl Marx Academy, which led her to a degree in Social sciences.

Abortion law.

In August 1961 Ingeburg Lange succeeded Edith Baumann and as head of the Party Central Committee working group and department concerned with women. In the Women Commission set up by Walter Ulbricht controversy was generated by the theme of women's ability to take decisions for themselves regarding their bodies. This in effect was the so-called abortion debate that was also a political theme in western politics at the time, but underpinned in East Germany by a desperate labour shortage caused by the scale of male deaths in the war and compounded by the massive emigration of working age citizens from East to West Germany in the decade before the inner German border was fortified. The East German abortion law was eventually passed on 9 Match 1972. Unusually for East Germany, the parliamentary vote was not unanimous 14 members voted against the new law which for the first time gave women the right, during the first twelve weeks of a pregnancy, to choose to have an abortion. Another aspect of the legislation was free distribution of the contraceptive pill. There were those who opposed 1972 Abortion legislation both in the medical profession and in the churches. Although the legislation is generally seen as Inge Lange's achievement, it would not have come about without powerful support from other influential members of the East German political elite, notably Margot Honecker whose husband took over as the East German national leader a year or so before the law was passed.

Further political promotions and appointments.

She sat as a member of the National legislature "(Volkskammer)" from 1952 till 1954 and then from 1963 till 1989. Between 1963 and 1967 she was a member of the assembly's committee for Industry, Construction and Traffic, and from 1971 deputy chair of the Committee for Work and Social policy.  In 1963 Lange was nominated as a candidate for membership of The Party central Committee. Progression from Central Committee candidature to membership often took many years, but Inge Lange progressed to Central Committee membership rapidly, being appointed in early December 1964.  With the German Democratic Republic collapsing, on 8 November she resigned from the Central Committee of the party's politburo, but she was then selected as a candidate for the replacement politburo. The entire central committee then resigned on 3 December 1989. On 21 January 1990 she was one of those expelled from The Party, which was now in the process of mutating into the PDS (Party of Democratic Socialism). After this she withdrew from public life.

Death.

Inge Lange died in a Berlin hospital on 13 July 2013.

Daughter.

Inge Lange's daughter is the prize-winning novelist Katja Lange-Müller.

Ingeburg "Inge" Lange (24 July 1927 – 13 July 2013) was an East German politician. Along with Margarete Müller and Margot Honecker she was one of a small number of women to reach the higher ranks in the country's power structure. She was the leader of the Women Department of the Central Committee of the country's ruling Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED / "Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands"). She played a central role in liberalising East German Abortion laws.

Ingeburg („Inge“) Lange (geborene "Rosch"; * 24. Juli 1927 in Leipzig; † 13. Juli 2013 in Berlin) war Kandidatin des Politbüros des ZK der SED und Leiterin der Abteilung Frauen des Zentralkomitees der SED in der DDR. Neben Margarete Müller und Margot Honecker war sie eine der wenigen Frauen in den obersten Machtgremien der DDR.


Plot introduction.

Maria, a young girl from a remote village of Brazil, whose first encounters with love had left her heartbroken, goes to seek her fortune in Switzerland. She works for a time in a nightclub but soon becomes dissatisfied and after a heated discussion with her manager one night, she quits her job. She tries to become a model but is unsuccessful. Because she is running out of money, she accepts 1000 francs from an Arab man to spend the night with him. She then decides to become a prostitute and ends up in a brothel on Rue de Berne, the heart of Geneva's red-light district.  There she befriends Nyah who gives her advice on her "new profession" and after learning the tricks of the trade from Milan, the brothel owner, she enters the job with her body and mind shutting all doors for love and keeps her heart open only for her diary. Quickly she becomes quite successful and famous and her colleagues begin to envy her. Months pass and Maria grows into a professionally groomed prostitute who not only relaxes her clients' minds, but also calms their souls by talking to them about their problems.  Her world turns upside down when she meets Ralf, a young Swiss painter, who sees her "inner light". Maria falls in love with him immediately and begins to experience what "true love" is (according to the author, it is a sense of being for someone without actually possessing him/her). Maria is now split between her sexual fantasies and true love for Ralf. Eventually she decides that it is time for her to leave Geneva with her memory of Ralf, because she realizes that they are worlds apart. But before leaving, she decides to rekindle the dead sexual fire in Ralf and learns from him about the nature of Sacred Sex, sex which is mingled with true love and which involves the giving up of one's soul for the loved one.

Eleven Minutes () is a 2003 novel by Brazilian novelist Paulo Coelho that recounts the experiences of a young Brazilian prostitute and her journey to self-realisation through sexual experience.

Elf Minuten (portugiesischer Originaltitel "Onze Minutos") ist ein Roman des brasilianischen Schriftstellers Paulo Coelho aus dem Jahr 2003. Übersetzungen erschienen im selben Jahr in Deutsch im Diogenes Verlag, Zürich, und in Englisch als "Eleven Minutes" im Verlag Knv Import. Der Roman thematisiert die Entwicklung von Maria, einer jungen Brasilianerin, die über diverse Umwege, unter anderen über die Prostitution, sich selbst und ihre Liebesfähigkeit entdeckt.