History of the term.

The term was first used in World War I, and it was used to say "a time at which some great military action has to take place". The term 'zero hour' appears in various sources throughout post-world war one history. It is mostly used in terms of a militaristic concept (as it was when it was first coined), Richard Freund (a journalist) used the term as a call to war, he talks of Hitler's occupation of the Rhineland, and the Spanish civil war pushing the world to the edge, and, then he says "The next flash may be the signal. It is Zero Hour". Not only was it used in militaristic terms, it also suggests a call to action, Erika Mann says "And one man should be forbidden to entreat you: 'Act! This is your hour, it's the final hour – the Zero Hour!" she calls the American people to action (also during WWII). The term was used to illustrate the need for America to act in World War II, it was used to show the urgency for an American military intervention. Both were used in militaristic settings, displaying urgency to their respective audiences, to the need to intervene and help stop the German advances. It was not until the post-war period that the term was used to refer to the "new beginning" of Germany.

Allied occupation of Germany.

During the post-war period Germany was split up into four zones controlled by the Soviet Union, the United States of America, France, and the United Kingdom. A main cultural impact of this occupation was the denazification process that each of the occupying powers put in place. The main plan to accomplish this was through're-education', without the German people noticing the shift. This was done, because for the most part (at least on the Allies' side) the new political culture was not supposed to be imposed on Germany, for fears of the Germans rejecting these ideas if they felt they were being reeducated, but the Allies also wanted to make sure that there would not be another Nazi-like regime.  The Americans used techniques developed in psychiatry during the 1930s to de-Nazify West Germany. The concept of re-education then was developed originally to change people who had severe delusionary disorders, but it was redone to try and change the German culture at the time. To do this, sociologists, anthropologists, and psychologists studied the differences between democratic and totalitarian societies, to try and find a way to make passing democratic values and traditions to the German people more effective. They encouraged a focus on human values, in favor of'super human values', that is to say a change from focusing on the state, to instead focusing on individuals. Kurt Lewin suggested that the German people should be given training on how to organize themselves in democratic society, and that this should be done as subtly as possibly, to avoid the German people rejecting democratic ideas. In practice, this meant roughly ten policies that the U.S would enact. First 'white lists', or lists of anti-Nazis who would be entrusted with political, educational, and other positions. Second a screening process was put in to regulate who could become newspaper editors and run publishing houses. Next new political parties were allowed to form in small towns for elections. German prisoners of war were're-educated'. Information centers were made to let Germans learn about how democracy was going to work. Exchange programs were put in place to let German people see the United States for themselves. Trade unions were formed. Denazification was started, which tried former Nazis for crimes they committed during the Nazi regime. Finally, "gewerbefreiheit" was put in place, which allowed Germans the freedom to practice a trade, gave freedom of economic activity.  However, the Allied occupation did not go entirely as planned, one of the integration processes was to show the German people how race functioned in modern society, so there would not be a repeat of the hyper racialized society created by Nazi Germany. But this message of tolerance was possibly lost in this, because of how America at the time was dealing with race. The American military was segregated up to 1948, and from those that were trying to teach the German people tolerance this demonstrated that the intolerance was still in democratic society.

The situation in Berlin.

When the Soviets (who were the first occupying power) arrived in Berlin, they saw a city devastated by the air raids and street fighting. It was described as a "Geisterstadt" ("ghost town").

"Das Aufräumen" ("The clean-up").

The job of cleaning up the city fell to the Soviets, as they were first (the Western Allies arrived on July 4, 1945) to enter the city. According to them, the clean-up operation would last 12 years.  On May 29, all women aged between 15 and 65 were conscripted as "Trümmerfrauen" (rubble women). In all, 60,000 women worked to rebuild Berlin.

Rations and starvation.

The biggest problem that the Berliners had to face was the threat of starvation. German war-time ration cards were no longer valid. Any remaining rations were either used to feed Russian troops or stolen by hungry Germans.  On May 15, the Russians introduced a new five-tier ration-card system: The highest tier was reserved for intellectuals and artists; rubble women and "Schwerarbeiter" (manual workers) received the second-tier card, which was more valuable to them than the 12 Reichsmark they received for cleaning up a thousand bricks; the lowest card, nicknamed the "Friedhofskarte" (cemetery ticket) was issued to housewives and the elderly.  During this period, the average Berliner was around underweight.

Alternative sources of food.

Due to the meagre rations, the black market thrived, and thousands traded on it daily. Payment was either in cigarettes or by bartering. There were even rumours of cannibalism and the trading of human flesh.  The word "fringsen" entered the German vocabulary during 1945, meaning to steal to survive. This word is etymologically based on the surname of Cardinal Josef Frings, a senior figure in the Catholic Church of Cologne, who (in accordance with long-standing Catholic tradition) famously gave his blessing to those who had to steal in order to feed their family.

"Der Elendswinter" ("The miserable winter", 1945–46).

The winter of 1945–46 was one of the coldest winters in Berlin. Temperatures plummeted to and there was no protection from the biting cold in the bombed-out houses. About 40,000 people suffered from hypothermia and 1,000 died as a result. The Berlin "Magistrat" (municipal authority) created official "Wärmeräume" (warm rooms) for people to warm themselves in.

Crime.

In 1946, Berlin was a haven of crime. There were an average of 240 robberies and five murders a day, and most criminals were the destitute and homeless in Berlin. In the areas east of the future Oder-Neisse line, Red Army soldiers committed cruelties against the German population, including countless rapes. Western Allied soldiers sometimes harassed German civilians too. Problems with law and order occurred in the areas that had still been controlled by the Wehrmacht on May 8, 1945 (e.g. western Austria, Bavaria, South Tyrol (Italy), East Frisia and Schleswig-Holstein), the date of the final German surrender.

Reconstruction and "Stunde Null".

Also at the time of "Stunde Null", Germany lay in ruins after the destruction wrought by World War Two. Following the war was a period of massive scale reconstruction. With roughly eighty percent of the country's infrastructure now in need of repair the German people saw an opportunity to reconstruct an old infrastructure into something more modern. They traded the condensed busy interiors of cities for newer, more expansive boulevards, opting to expand outward, creating more space to live in, rather than continuing the trend of condensing as they had done before. However, this project of reconstruction was and is still so great that the process of implementing the changes is not yet complete.  This seemed to be in line with the culture at the time: the fact that the devastation in Germany was so great made it easy to consider Germany new. Not only was the country now separated into east and west, but it was also almost entirely being rebuilt. So for people at the time it seemed like a new Germany.

Culture at the time of "Stunde Null".

Germany at the time of "Stunde Null" was certainly very different from its former pre-war self. After the Allies had finished the war, and the concentration camps and the inhuman practices of the Nazis were revealed to the world, and Germany was put into a difficult public relations position (people like Thomas Mann saying things such as "Humanity shudders in horror at Germany!" (published in a Munich newspaper named "Bayerische Landeszeitung")). The severity of Germany's crimes was almost universally recognized by the world, including Germany itself, so a culture of trying to escape that past was created. This spurred the idea that 1945 was not only an end, but a beginning too. This thought process began to appear more and more in German culture and speech, with people like Ernst Wiechert talking about making new beginnings in his 1945 address to Germany, talking of "a renewal of German spiritual life", or Werner Richter saying "The only possible source for a spiritual rebirth lies in an absolute and radical new beginning". But there were those that did not think that there would be a possibility for Germany to escape its Nazi past. As Karl Becker said "the German people will have lost all right to say that the German people is [are] not Hitler." This is what really created the culture that sought to wash away the wrongs of the predecessors, they wanted the respect and admiration on the world stage once again, and to do that they needed to distance themselves from this idea of Hitler and the Nazi party.  The idea of "Stunde Null" was even in the politics at the end of the war. British diplomat Robert Gilbert Vansittart wanted to offer German "barren nothingness", an "empty space in which they [Germans] must fill in with their own ideas if they have any." Even some of the diplomats negotiating with Germany seemed to want to honor the idea of "Stunde Null", further propagating the culture of new beginnings instead of endings.  As a result of this new way of thinking, Germany entered into a new period of political rhetoric. A "race-less" Germany was created, Germany began to disconnect themselves from their hyper-racialized past in favor of one that seemed to ignore the question in general. To a large extent, even scholars started to ignore questions about race, treating the end of World War II as if it solved all of these issues. But race was still very much an issue in the post-war period in Germany. Germany offered their quick acceptance of democratic ideals and customs as proof of their supposed 'race less' culture, but these same ideals were reintroducing racialization to Germany.  To most in Germany racialization was still a large problem in Germany post-war. For instance, many East European Jewish Holocaust survivors who resided in post-war displaced persons camps were considered "parasitic foreigners" who were stealing resources from the German people in need of them. Germany during reconstruction also looked toward the occupying powers for guidance in regards to these matters, but what they saw was segregationist U.S. military policies. But there was also those who sought to remember Germany's past.  For all the talk of new beginnings there was a movement to remember the past, and cope. This was called "Vergangenheitsbewältigung" (coping with the past), though not much of the politics of the time was shaped by this there were many people did not want Germany to simply forget the crimes it had committed during World War II.

Controversy.

In 1985, Richard von Weizsäcker, the President of West Germany at that time, stated "There was no 'Stunde Null' but we had the chance for a new beginning" ("Es gab keine "Stunde Null", aber wir hatten die Chance zu einem Neubeginn."), implying that a true and total restart never occurred in postwar Germany. The term "Stunde null" implies that the past is over and nothing from former times continues to exist past the "Stunde Null". Experts in German culture find that this term is divisive and is a barrier to the collective German psyche and their ability to deal with the recent past. The concept of "Vergangenheitsbewältigung" (coping with the past) is what experts allude to and "Stunde null" conflicts directly with this idea, necessitating its judicious use.

Stunde Null (, "Hour Zero") is a term referring to midnight on 8 May 1945 in Germany. It marked the end of World War II in Europe and the start of a new, non-Nazi Germany. It was partly an attempt by Germany to dissociate itself from the Nazis. Denazification was encouraged by the Allied forces occupying Germany.

Der Begriff Stunde Null wurde auf den 8. Mai 1945 und den frühesten Abschnitt der unmittelbaren Nachkriegszeit in Deutschland und Österreich angewandt. Er bezieht sich auf die bedingungslose Kapitulation der deutschen Wehrmacht und den vollständigen Zusammenbruch des NS-Staates, die die Chance zu einem voraussetzungslosen Neuanfang geboten hätten.


History.

The name Taxco is most likely derived from the Nahuatl place name "Tlachco", which means "place of the ballgame". However, one interpretation has the name coming from the word "tatzco" which means "where the father of the water is," due to the high waterfall near the town center on Atatzin Mountain. "De Alarcón" is in honor of writer Juan Ruiz de Alarcón who was a native of the town. Like many municipalities in central Mexico, the municipality's coat-of-arms is an Aztec glyph. This glyph is in the shape of a Mesoamerican ballcourt with rings, players and skulls, derived from the most likely source of Taxco's name. Before the arrival of the Spanish in Mexico, the indigenous community known as "Taxco" was not located where the modern city is now. The name referred to a village about ten kilometers to the south, which is now referred to as Taxco El Viejo (Old Taxco). In pre-Hispanic times, this village was the most important in the area as it was the seat of the Aztec governor who presided over tribute collection in the surrounding seven districts. The modern Spanish town of Taxco was founded by Hernán Cortés in an area previously known as Tetelcingo, because of the abundance of silver here. Mining here began in the pre-Hispanic period with natives extracting a number of stones for decorative and ritual purposes. The Spanish discovered silver lodes here in around 1532, which started commercial silver mining in the area. Mining operations in the area during the early colonial period was carried out mostly by mining haciendas such as the Hacienda del Chorrillo and the Hacienda San Juan Bautista, established by Cortés or his knights. In the mid 18th century, José de la Borda arrived to Taxco and started more modern operations in mines called Pedregal, El Coyote, San Ignacio and Cerro Perdido.  For most of the colonial period, the area was sparsely populated, including the town of Taxco itself. For this reason, it was governed as a dependency of Mexico City. When the modern state of Guerrero was created in 1850, Taxco was chosen to be the seat of the municipality of the same name. Since it was the only town of any size in the area, the town was taken a number of times during a number of different conflicts. During the Mexican War of Independence, it was taken by Hermenegildo Galeana in 1815. During the Reform Wars, it was taken by Porfirio Diaz in 1865. During the Mexican Revolution, it was taken by Jesus Moran and Margarito Giles in 1911, and occupied by Carranza's forces in 1916.  Silversmithing was reinvigorated in Taxco by American William Spratling, who moved to the town in the 1920s, creating silver design workshops and exported items, mostly to the United States. With its fame for silversmithing, tourism became a major economic force in Taxco.

Colonization.

In 1521, a Spanish expedition commissioned by Hernán Cortés sent a group of soldiers to search for tin in order to combine with copper to produce military canons. The expedition returned with some mineral samples that appeared and were believed to be tin. After testing the light-colored metal, they discovered that it was the precious metal silver. Soon after, Cortés sent another party to explore the region. The Spanish colonists quickly began construction on a new community named Taxco, named after the Indian village several kilometers away. They discovered silver ore in 1534, and during the next 200 years, Taxco became an important community for the Spanish mining industry. Later, 2 brothers, Francisco and José De La Borda, arrived in Taxco from Spain in order to build their fortune with silver

Climate.

The climate in Taxco is mild, with average highs around and average lows around year-round. The dry season lasts from November to April, with rains typically occurring from June to September. Unusual for such a climate, the all time record high occurred during the midst of the rainy season in August.

Demographics and development.

Taxco's population was 52,217 (in 13,933 households), of whom 48% were men and 52% were women. Taxco's population grew rapidly from 1950 (10,023) to 2000 (50,488).  Taxco's development indicators are fairly good relative to other towns and cities in Mexico., approximately 38% of residents aged 15 and over lacked a basic education (including 17% who did not finish primary education), and approximately 6% of residents aged 15 and over were illiterate. Approximately 87% of homes had refrigerators, and 51% had washing machines. Approximately 8% of homes lacked piped water, and 5% had a dirt floor.

Economy and transportation.

Silverwork and tourism related to Taxco's status as a silver town is the mainstay of the economy. Mining is no longer a major employer in the city; the last major mining operation on the outskirts of town, Industrial Minera México S.A., phased out operations beginning in 2007 due to the depletion of reserves and labor problems. Most commercial activity related to silver is the production and sale of silver jewelry, silverware and other goods. Commerce in silver here is both regional and international. Streets in the town are filled with silvershops selling jewelry, silverware and other goods. The city has been named one of Mexico's "Pueblos Mágicos" (Magical Towns) due to the quality of the silverwork, the colonial constructions and the surrounding scenery.  Taxco lies along Mexican Federal Highway 95 and the toll road Mexican Federal Highway 95D. Taxco has two long-distance bus stations: the Terminal Estrella de Oro in the south and the Autobuses Estrella Blanca station in the northeast. There is no airport in Taxco. Transport within Taxco is generally by taxi, or "Kombis"—converted Volkswagen vans that serve as minibuses.

Cityscape and historic buildings.

The city of Taxco lies on very rugged terrain and has steep, irregular streets. The streets are also narrow and generally lack sidewalks, making them picturesque but dangerous. Adding to the charm is that most streets are paved with dark stones, adorned with lines, pictures and even murals of white stone. Some of the pictures in the street are from the Zodiac and meant to indicate certain commercial activities in times past. One example of this is the sign of Taurus near the Church of Santa Prisca, which used to indicate the area of butcher shops. Buildings in the city typically have Spanish-style, red-tile roofs.  The town's main plaza, officially called Plaza Borda after José de la Borda, is commonly referred to as the Zócalo. On the north side of this plaza is the Casa Borda (Borda House), the most important non-religious construction in the city. The front facing the Zócalo has two stories, but the back, facing the Plaza de Bernal, has five. This is due to the uneven ground on which the house was built. Much of the house is now dedicated to the Casa de Cultura (Cultural Center) where classes in languages, fine arts and sports such as judo are taught. The rest of the main plaza is surrounded by silver shops, restaurants and bars.  The Parish of Santa Prisca y San Sebastían, commonly referred to as the Santa Prisca Church, is located on the east side of the main plaza of Taxco, and is one of the few Baroque buildings in the state of Guerrero. It was built between 1751 and 1758 by José de la Borda (ca. 1700–1778), who had made a great fortune in the silver mines surrounding the town. Despite his wealth, however, the opulence of the church nearly bankrupted him. It is built with pink stone, flanked by two towers which are plain in the lower half but highly decorated in the upper bell portions. The cupola is covered in colored tile. Inside, there are a number of floor-to-ceiling altarpieces, all covered in gold.  Near the main plaza are two museums: the William Spratling Museum, which contains silver and archeological pieces from Spratling's personal collection, and the Museum of Viceregal Art. The Museum of Viceregal Art is located in the "Humboldt House", named so because German writer Alexander Von Humboldt spent a night here in 1803. This house was restored in 1991 to become the Museum of Viceregal Art and contains colonial period art and artifacts, some of which belonged to José de la Borda.  Two other churches of note are the Church of the Ex-monastery of San Bernardino de Siena and the Church of Veracruz. The Church of the Ex-monastery of San Bernardino de Siena is the oldest in the area, constructed at the end of the 16th century and restored in the 19th after a fire. This convent's orchard is now the garden of the Posada San Javier Hotel. The Church of Veracruz is located on the Plazuela de la Veracruz on Juan Ruiz de Alarcón. Its principal attraction is an image of Christ which is nicknamed "The General". This plaza is one of three that house monuments to the playwright Juan Ruiz de Alarcón, who was born in a house near here.  On the north side of town is one of the major colonial period silver haciendas, the Ex Hacienda del Chorrillo. The hacienda was constructed by knights of Hernán Cortés and is one of the oldest in the region. Its aqueduct, built in 1534, is partially preserved.

Culture.

Holy Week in Taxco involves elaborate processions and ceremonies that have gained international fame. Between Palm Sunday and Easter Sunday, there are ten major processions, six during the evening and four during the day. Most processions are about two and a half kilometers long and take about two hours to complete. These commemorations date back to at least 1622 when they were begun in the atrium of the Church of the Ex monastery of San Bernardino de Siena. Now these processions and ceremonies center of the Santa Prisca Church.  Other notable events include the San Antonio Abad Festival in January, the Jornadas Alarconianas (Alarconian Days) in May, the Jumil Festival in October, and the National Silver Fair in late November and early December.  Maize is a staple of food in Taxco. Common dishes include pozole and tacos. Dishes distinctive of Taxco include jumiles (a type of stink bug) prepared in tacos or Mole sauce, cecina (a cured meat), plum and bean tamales, and a drink called berta (honey margarita).  Basketball is the most popular sport in Taxco Municipality. In the city of Taxco, there are basketball, volleyball, and tennis courts, as well as soccer fields.

Pueblo mágico.

Taxco was named a pueblo mágico (magic town) given its rich culture and architecture and great legacy of the old Spanish Empire, the preservation of secular and ancestral traditions, and important Mexican historical sites. In 2002, the Secretary of Tourism granted the city the title of pueblo mágico, the third community to receive the title because of the quality of the silver industry, colonial buildings, and its surrounding landscape. Many of the buildings of Taxco are viceregal style and date back to its golden age and, because of this, it has become a popular tourist site of the state of Guerrero and México. As of 2016, the population of Taxco was 853 people.

Taxco de Alarcón (; usually referred to as simply Taxco) is a small city and administrative center of Taxco de Alarcón Municipality located in the Mexican state of Guerrero. Taxco is located in the north-central part of the state, from the city of Iguala, from the state capital of Chilpancingo and southwest of Mexico City.

Taxco de Alarcón ist eine Stadt mit ca. 55.000 Einwohnern und eine Gemeinde "(municipio)" mit ca. 105.000 Einwohnern im Norden des Bundesstaats Guerrero in Mexiko. Der Name Taxco stammt von dem indianischen Wort "Tlachco" ab, welches „Ort des Ballspiels“ bedeutet. Der heutige Name Taxco de Alarcón erinnert außerdem an den berühmten mexikanisch-spanischen Schriftsteller Ruiz de Alarcón y Mendoza (1581–1639), der wahrscheinlich in Mexiko-Stadt geboren wurde, aber in Taxco gelebt und gearbeitet hat, bevor er in Spanien lebte und dort starb. Der Ort ist als "Pueblo Mágico" eingestuft.


History.

The first Spanish settlement in the area took place in 1626, when friar Lorenzo Cantú, established a mission in which is now the municipal seat of Aramberri, in order to evangelize and pacificate the nomadic tribes of native Americans called Negritos or Bozalos and Janambres, which inhabited until its extinction in what is now Southern Nuevo León and Southeastern Tamaulipas. However, the mission, did not have success until the definitive foundation of Santa María de los Angeles Mission by Juan Ruíz Colmenero and several families of Spanish settlers in the year of 1648 in the region of Río Blanco valley, It was the southernmost administrative division of the New Kingdom of León, which comprised also, the present-day municipalities of Doctor Arroyo, Galeana, General Zaragoza, and Mier y Noriega in Nuevo León and the Mission of San Antonio de los Llanos, now Hidalgo, Tamaulipas. Santa María de los Angeles remained almost unpopulated during much of its history. It was created as municipality, separated from Río Blanco valley and renamed as Aramberri in 1877.

Economy.

The economy of Aramberri is mostly based in agriculture, the production and export of vegetables and fruits. Although, the southernmost part of Nuevo León has a lower per capita income compared to other regions of the state of Nuevo León, Aramberri has a per capita income higher than its adjacent municipalities in the southern part of the state. In 2008, with an investment of 150 million of pesos, was opened a techno-horticultural park in the community of Sandia, Aramberri, it is one of the biggest agro-industrial parks of the state of Nuevo León, the project was supported by the government of Nuevo León, several entrepreneurs from Monterrey and southern Nuevo León, and important educative institutions such as the Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León and Monterrey Institute of Technology, the park, comprises as for 2009, more than 80 greenhouses within a range of 2,570 m2, it was recently announced the creation of 25 greenhouses for late 2009 and early months of 2010. In its first semester of operation in just 40 greenhouses of its total of 80 which were built in late 2008 and early 2009, it had 3, 500 gross tons of production of vegetals primarily different varieties of tomato, approximately an average of 70 tons per greenhouse, the production is estimated to increase by 20% for each greenhouse in 2009 and there are plans of expansion and creation of more agro-industrial parks in the zone.

Paleontology.

In 2002, Aramberri, attracted national and international media attention when it was announced the discovery of a large Pliosaur fossil, often referred by the press as "the Aramberri Monster", as they believed it looks like the Lochness Monster. The specimen is actually a very large pliosaur, possibly reaching 15 m (50 ft) in length. The media published exaggerated reports claiming it was 25 m (80 ft) long, and weighed up to 150,000 kg, which would have made it the largest predator of all time. This error was dramatically perpetuated in BBC's documentary series "Walking with Dinosaurs", which also prematurely classified it as a Liopleurodon ferox. On January 7, 2003, the fossil was transferred and reconstructed at the Natural History Museum of Karlsruhe in Germany, and was kept in exhibition until 2003, when it was transferred to the Museo del Desierto in Saltillo, Coahuila. The fossil is on exhibition at the Museo de historia Mexicana in Monterrey.

Aramberri is a municipality in the northeastern Mexican state of Nuevo León, it is located at southeastern corner of the state. It was founded as Santa María de los Angeles de Río Blanco Mission in 1626 in the jurisdiction of Río Blanco, in the former New Kingdom of León. Its current name (which means "new valley" in Basque) honors Jose Silvestri Aramberri, a general involved in the Mexican war of reform. It borders the municipalities of Galeana and Iturbide to north, Doctor Arroyo to west and southwest, General Zaragoza to south and with state of Tamaulipas to east.

Aramberri (Aussprache: []) ist eine Stadt mit 2.538 Einwohnern (Stand 2010) im Südosten des Bundesstaates Nuevo León, Mexiko. Aramberri liegt ca. 90 km südsüdwestlich von Linares.


Background.

Revolution in France.

"For the full article, see French Revolution"  As early as 1791, other monarchies in Europe were watching the developments in France with alarm, and considered intervening, either in support of Louis XVI or to take advantage of the chaos in France. The key figure, the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II, brother of the French Queen Marie Antoinette, had initially looked on the Revolution calmly. He became increasingly concerned as the Revolution grew more radical, although he still hoped to avoid war.  On 27 August 1791, Leopold and King Frederick William II of Prussia, in consultation with "émigré" French nobles, issued the Declaration of Pillnitz, which declared the concern of the monarchs of Europe for the well-being of Louis and his family, and threatened vague but severe consequences if anything should befall them. Although Leopold saw the Pillnitz Declaration as a way of taking action that would enable him to avoid actually doing anything about France, at least for the moment, Paris saw the Declaration as a serious threat and the revolutionary leaders denounced it.  In addition to the ideological differences between France and the monarchical powers of Europe, disputes continued over the status of Imperial estates in Alsace, and the French authorities became concerned about the agitation of "émigré" nobles abroad, especially in the Austrian Netherlands and in the minor states of Germany. In the end, France declared war on Austria first, with the Assembly voting for war on 20 April 1792, after the presentation of a long list of grievances by the newly appointed foreign minister Charles François Dumouriez, who sought a war which might restore some popularity and authority to the King.

1792.

Dumouriez prepared an invasion of the Austrian Netherlands, where he expected the local population to rise against Austrian rule. However, the revolution had thoroughly disorganized the French army, which had insufficient forces for the invasion. Its soldiers fled at the first sign of battle, deserting "en masse", in one case murdering General Théobald Dillon.  While the revolutionary government frantically raised fresh troops and reorganized its armies, an allied army under Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick assembled at Koblenz on the Rhine. The invasion commenced in July 1792. Brunswick's army, composed mostly of Prussian veterans, took the fortresses of Longwy and Verdun. The Duke then issued a declaration on 25 July 1792, which had been written by the brothers of Louis XVI, that declared his [Brunswick's] intent to restore the French King to his full powers, and to treat any person or town who opposed him as rebels to be condemned to death by martial law. This motivated the revolutionary army and government to oppose the Prussian invaders by any means necessary, and led almost immediately to the overthrow of the King by a crowd which stormed the Tuileries Palace.  The invaders continued on, but at the Battle of Valmy on 20 September 1792 they came to a stalemate against Dumouriez and Kellermann in which the highly professional French artillery distinguished itself. Although the battle was a tactical draw, it bought time for the revolutionaries and gave a great boost to French morale. Furthermore, the Prussians, facing a campaign longer and more costly than predicted, decided against the cost and risk of continued fighting, and determined to retreat from France to preserve their army.  Meanwhile, the French had been successful on several other fronts, occupying the duchy of Savoy and the county of Nice, while General Custine invaded Germany, capturing Speyer, Worms and Mainz along the Rhine, and reaching as far as Frankfurt. Dumouriez went on the offensive in Belgium once again, winning a great victory over the Austrians at Jemappes on 6 November 1792, and occupying the entire country by the beginning of winter.

1793.

On 21 January the revolutionary government executed Louis XVI after a trial. This united all European governments, including Spain, Naples, and the Netherlands against the Revolution. France declared war against Britain and the Netherlands on 1 February 1793 and soon afterwards against Spain. In the course of the year 1793 the Holy Roman Empire (on 23 March), the kings of Portugal and Naples, and the Grand-Duke of Tuscany declared war against France. Thus the First Coalition was formed.  France introduced a new levy of hundreds of thousands of men, beginning a French policy of using mass conscription to deploy more of its manpower than the other states could, and remaining on the offensive so that these mass armies could commandeer war material from the territory of their enemies. The French government sent Citizen Genet to the United States to encourage them into entering the war on France's side. The newly formed nation refused and remained neutral throughout the conflict.  After a victory in the Battle of Neerwinden in March, the Austrians suffered twin defeats at the battles of Wattignies and Wissembourg. British land forces were defeated at the Battle of Hondschoote in September.

1794.

1794 brought increased success to the revolutionary armies. A major victory against combined coalition forces at the Battle of Fleurus gained all of Belgium and the Rhineland for France. Although the British navy maintained its supremacy at sea, it was unable to support effectively any land operations after the fall of the Belgian provinces. The Prussians were slowly driven out of the eastern departments and by the end of the year they had retired from any active part in the war. Against Spain, the French made successful incursions in both Catalonia and Navarre.  Action extended into the French colonies in the West Indies. A British fleet successfully captured Martinique, St. Lucia, and Guadeloupe, although a French fleet arrived later in the year and recovered the latter.

1795.

After seizing the Low Countries in a surprise winter attack, France established the Batavian Republic as a puppet state. Even before the close of 1794 the king of Prussia retired from any active part in the war, and on 5 April 1795 he concluded with France the Peace of Basel, which recognized France's occupation of the left bank of the Rhine. The new French-dominated Dutch government bought peace by surrendering Dutch territory to the south of that river. A treaty of peace between France and Spain followed in July. The grand duke of Tuscany had been admitted to terms in February. The coalition thus fell into ruin and France proper would be free from invasion for many years.  Britain attempted to reinforce the rebels in the Vendée by landing French Royalist troops at Quiberon, but failed, and attempts to overthrow the government at Paris by force were foiled by the military garrison led by Napoleon Bonaparte, leading to the establishment of the Directory.  On the Rhine frontier, General Pichegru, negotiating with the exiled Royalists, betrayed his army and forced the evacuation of Mannheim and the failure of the siege of Mainz by Jourdan.

1796.

The French prepared a great advance on three fronts, with Jourdan and Jean Victor Marie Moreau on the Rhine and the newly promoted Napoleon Bonaparte in Italy. The three armies were to link up in Tyrol and march on Vienna.  In the Rhine Campaign of 1796, Jourdan and Moreau crossed the Rhine River and advanced into Germany. Jourdan advanced as far as Amberg in late August while Moreau reached Bavaria and the edge of Tyrol by September. However Jourdan was defeated by Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen and both armies were forced to retreat back across the Rhine.  Napoleon, on the other hand, was successful in a daring invasion of Italy. In the Montenotte Campaign, he separated the armies of Sardinia and Austria, defeating each one in turn, and then forced a peace on Sardinia. Following this, his army captured Milan and started the Siege of Mantua. Bonaparte defeated successive Austrian armies sent against him under Johann Peter Beaulieu, Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser and József Alvinczi while continuing the siege.  The rebellion in the Vendée was also crushed in 1796 by Louis Lazare Hoche. Hoche's subsequent attempt to land a large invasion force in Munster to aid the United Irishmen was unsuccessful.

1797.

On 2 February Napoleon finally captured Mantua, with the Austrians surrendering 18,000 men. Archduke Charles of Austria was unable to stop Napoleon from invading the Tyrol, and the Austrian government sued for peace in April. At the same time there was a new French invasion of Germany under Moreau and Hoche.  On 22 February, a French invasion force consisting of 1,400 troops from the "La Legion Noire" (The Black Legion) under the command of Irish American Colonel William Tate landed near Fishguard in Wales. They were met by a quickly assembled group of around 500 British reservists, militia and sailors under the command of John Campbell, 1st Baron Cawdor. After brief clashes with the local civilian population and Lord Cawdor's forces on 23 February, Tate was forced into an unconditional surrender by 24 February. This would be the only battle fought on British soil during the Revolutionary Wars.  Austria signed the Treaty of Campo Formio in October, ceding Belgium to France and recognizing French control of the Rhineland and much of Italy. The ancient Republic of Venice was partitioned between Austria and France. This ended the War of the First Coalition, although Great Britain and France remained at war.

The War of the First Coalition () is the traditional name of the wars that several European powers fought between 1792 and 1797 against initially the Kingdom of France and then the French Republic that succeeded it. They were only loosely allied and fought without much apparent coordination or agreement; each power had its eye on a different part of France it wanted to appropriate after a French defeat, which never occurred.

Der Erste Koalitionskrieg war der erste Krieg einer großen Koalition zunächst aus Preußen, Österreich und kleineren deutschen Staaten gegen das revolutionäre Frankreich zwischen 1792 und 1797 zur Verteidigung der Monarchie. Der Krieg begann mit Erfolgen der Alliierten, bis die Kanonade von Valmy ihren Vormarsch auf Paris beendete. Die Revolutionsarmee ging zur Gegenoffensive über und besetzte verschiedene Gebiete, darunter die Österreichischen Niederlande und Teile des Rheinlandes. Als Folge der Hinrichtung von Ludwig XVI. traten 1793 unter anderem Großbritannien, die Vereinigten Niederlande, Spanien und ab 22. März 1793 im Rahmen eines Reichskriegs die Reichsstände des Heiligen Römischen Reiches der Koalition gegen die Revolutionäre bei. Die Bedrohung Frankreichs durch fast alle europäischen Monarchien war einer der Gründe für die Einführung der allgemeinen Wehrpflicht in Form der Levée en masse. In der Folge stabilisierte sich die französische Situation, ohne dass eine der beiden Seiten den Krieg für sich entscheiden konnte. Im Jahr 1795 schieden Preußen und Spanien im Frieden von Basel aus dem Krieg aus. Auch weitere deutsche Staaten schlossen Separatfrieden. Österreich setzte den Krieg nicht ohne Erfolg fort.


Early life and career.

Beginnings.

Gilbert was born at 17 Southampton Street, Strand, London. His father, also named William, was briefly a naval surgeon, who later became a writer of novels and short stories, some of which his son illustrated. Gilbert's mother was the former Anne Mary Bye Morris (1812–1888), the daughter of Thomas Morris, an apothecary. Gilbert's parents were distant and stern, and he did not have a particularly close relationship with either of them. They quarrelled increasingly, and following the break-up of their marriage in 1876, his relationships with them, especially his mother, became even more strained. Gilbert had three younger sisters, two of whom were born outside England because of the family's travels during

First plays.

Gilbert wrote and directed a number of plays at school, but his first professionally produced play was "Uncle Baby", which ran for seven weeks in the autumn of 1863. In 1865–66, Gilbert collaborated with Charles Millward on several pantomimes, including one called "Hush-a-Bye, Baby, On the Tree Top, or, Harlequin Fortunia, King Frog of Frog Island, and the Magic Toys of Lowther Arcade" (1866). Gilbert's first solo success came a few days after "Hush-a-Bye Baby" premiered. His friend and mentor, Tom Robertson, was asked to write a pantomime but did not think he could do it in the two weeks available, and so he recommended Gilbert instead. Written and rushed to the stage in 10 days, "Dulcamara, or the Little Duck and the Great Quack", a burlesque of Gaetano Donizetti's "L'elisir d'amore", proved extremely

German Reed entertainments and other plays of the early 1870s.

Theatre, at the time Gilbert began writing, had fallen into disrepute. Badly translated and adapted French operettas and poorly written, prurient Victorian burlesques dominated the London stage. As Jessie Bond vividly described it, "stilted tragedy and vulgar farce were all the would-be playgoer had to choose from, and the theatre had become a place of evil repute to the righteous British householder." Bond created the mezzo-soprano roles in most of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas, and is here leading into a description of Gilbert's role reforming the Victorian theatre.  From 1869 to 1875, Gilbert joined with one of the leading figures in theatrical reform, Thomas German Reed (and his wife Priscilla), whose Gallery of Illustration sought to regain some of theatre's lost respectability by offering family entertainments in London. So successful were they that by 1885 Gilbert stated

As director.

Once he became established, Gilbert was the stage director for his plays and operas and had strong opinions on how they should best be performed. He was strongly influenced by the innovations in "stagecraft", now called stage direction, by the playwrights James Planché and especially Tom Robertson. Gilbert attended rehearsals directed by Robertson to learn this art first-hand from the older director, and he began to apply it in some of his earliest plays. He sought realism in acting, settings, costumes, and movement, if not in content of his plays (although he did write a romantic comedy in the "naturalist" style, as a tribute to Robertson, "Sweethearts"). He shunned self-conscious interaction with the audience, and insisted on a style of portrayal in which characters were never aware of their own absurdity, but were coherent internal wholes. In Gilbert's 1874 burlesque, "Rosencrantz and Guildenstern", the character Hamlet, in his speech to the players, sums up Gilbert's theory of comic acting: "I hold that there is no such antick fellow as your bombastical hero who doth so earnestly spout forth his folly as to make his hearers believe that he is unconscious of all incongruity". Robertson "introduced Gilbert both to the revolutionary

Collaboration with Sullivan.

[[File:Sir Arthur Seymour Sullivan.jpg|upright|thumb|Sir Arthur Sullivan]]

First collaborations amidst other works.

In 1871, John Hollingshead commissioned Gilbert to work with Sullivan on a holiday piece for Christmas, "[[Thespis (opera)|Thespis, or The Gods Grown Old]]", at the [[Gaiety Theatre, London|Gaiety Theatre]]. "Thespis" outran five of its nine competitors for the 1871 holiday season, and its run was extended beyond the length of a normal run at the Gaiety, However, nothing more came of it at that point, and Gilbert and Sullivan went their separate ways. Gilbert worked again with Clay on "[[Happy Arcadia]]" (1872), and with [[Alfred Cellier]] on "[[Topsyturveydom]]" (1874), as well as writing several farces, operetta libretti, [[extravaganza]]s, fairy comedies, adaptations from novels, translations from the French, and the dramas described above. Also in 1874, he published his last contribution for "Fun" magazine (""Rosencrantz and Guildenstern""),

Peak collaborative years.

[[File:Sorc-Pin-Trial.jpg|thumb|left|An early poster showing scenes from the first three [[Gilbert and Sullivan]] operas after "[[Thespis (opera)|Thespis]]"]]  Carte finally assembled a syndicate in 1877 and formed the Comedy Opera Company to launch a series of original English comic operas, beginning with a third collaboration between Gilbert and Sullivan, "[[The Sorcerer]]", in November 1877. This work was a modest success, and "[[H.M.S. Pinafore]]" followed in May 1878. Despite a slow start, mainly due to a scorching summer, "Pinafore" became a red-hot favourite by autumn. After a dispute with Carte over the division of profits, the other Comedy Opera Company partners hired thugs to storm the theatre one night to steal the sets and costumes, intending to mount a rival

Carpet quarrel and end of the collaboration.

Gilbert's working relationship with Sullivan sometimes became strained, especially during their later operas, partly because each man saw himself as subjugating his work to the other's, and partly due to their opposing personalities. Gilbert was often confrontational and notoriously thin-skinned, though prone to acts of extraordinary kindness, while Sullivan eschewed conflict. Gilbert imbued his libretti with "topsy-turvy" situations in which the social order was turned upside down. After a time, these subjects were often at odds with Sullivan's desire for realism and emotional content. In addition, Gilbert's political satire often poked fun at those in the circles of privilege, while Sullivan was eager to socialise among the wealthy and titled

Later years.

[[File:The Story of the Mikado - Frontispiece.png|thumb|Frontispiece by [[Alice B. Woodward]] to "[[The Story of the Mikado]]", Gilbert's last literary work, published posthumously in 1921]] Gilbert built the [[Garrick Theatre]] in 1889. The Gilberts moved to [[Grim's Dyke]] in [[Harrow, London|Harrow]] in 1890, which he purchased from Robert Heriot, to whom the artist [[Frederick Goodall]] had sold the property in 1880. In 1891, Gilbert was appointed [[Justice of the Peace]] for [[Middlesex]]. After casting Nancy McIntosh in "Utopia, Limited", he and his wife developed an affection for her, and she eventually gained the status of an unofficially adopted daughter, moving to Grim's Dyke to live with them. She continued living there, even after Gilbert died, until Lady Gilbert's death in 1936. A statue of [[Charles II of England|Charles II]], carved by Danish sculptor [[Caius Gabriel Cibber]] in 1681, was moved in 1875 from [[Soho Square]] to an island in the lake at Grim's Dyke, where it remained when Gilbert purchased the property. On Lady Gilbert's direction, it was restored to Soho Square in 1938.  [[File:Wicked World - Illustrated London News, Feb 8 1873.PNG|[[D. H. Friston]]'s illustration of a scene from Gilbert's "[[The Wicked World]]" (1873), which he reworked into "[[Fallen Fairies]]" (1909)|thumb|left]] Although Gilbert announced a retirement from the theatre after the short run of his last work with Sullivan, "[[The Grand Duke]]" (1896) and the poor reception of his 1897 play "[[The Fortune Hunter]]", he produced at least three more plays over the last dozen years of his life, including an unsuccessful opera, "[[Fallen Fairies]]"

Personality.

Gilbert was known for being sometimes prickly. Aware of this general impression, he claimed that "If you give me your attention", the [[misanthrope]]'s song from "[[Princess Ida]]", was a satiric self-reference, saying: "I thought it my duty to live up to my reputation." However, many people have defended him, often citing his generosity. Actress [[May Fortescue]] recalled, His kindness was extraordinary. On wet nights and when rehearsals were late and the last buses were gone, he would pay the cab-fares of the girls whether they were pretty or not, instead of letting them trudge home on foot... He was just as large-hearted when he was poor as when he was rich and successful. For money as money he cared less than nothing. Gilbert was no plaster saint, but he was an ideal friend. The journalist Frank M. Boyd wrote:  [[File:Ws gilbert cartoon.png|thumb|upright|Caricature from "[[Punch (magazine)|Punch]]", 1881]] [[File:WSGilbert by Spy.jpg|thumb|upright|Gilbert by the cartoonist [[Leslie Ward|'Spy']], 1880s]] [[Jessie Bond]] wrote that Gilbert "was quick-tempered, often unreasonable, and he could not bear to be thwarted, but how anyone could call him unamiable I cannot understand." [[George Grossmith]] wrote to "[[The Daily Telegraph]]" that, although Gilbert had been described as an autocrat at rehearsals, "That was

Legacy.

In 1957, a review in "The Times" explained "the continued vitality of the Savoy operas" as follows: [[File:Gilbert-library.jpg|thumb|left|Gilbert in his library]] Gilbert's legacy, aside from building the [[Garrick Theatre]] and writing the Savoy Operas and other works that are still being performed or in print nearly 150 years after their creation, is felt perhaps most strongly today through his influence on the American and British musical theatre. The innovations in content and form of the works that he and Sullivan developed, and in Gilbert's theories of acting and stage direction, directly influenced the development of

Notes, references and sources.

Sources.

[[File:W-s-gilbert-grave.jpg|thumb|160px|right|Grave of W. S. Gilbert at

External links.

[[Category:W. S. Gilbert| ]] [[Category:1836 births]] [[Category:1911 deaths]] [[Category:19th-century English dramatists and playwrights]] [[Category:20th-century British dramatists and playwrights]] [[Category:Alumni of King's College London]] [[Category:British theatre directors]] [[Category:Deputy Lieutenants of Middlesex]] [[Category:English illustrators]] [[Category:English male dramatists and playwrights]] [[Category:English male poets]] [[Category:English opera librettists]] [[Category:Freemasons of the United Grand Lodge of England]] [[Category:Gilbert and Sullivan| ]] [[Category:Knights Bachelor]] [[Category:People from Pinner]] [[Category:Victorian poets]] [[Category:Writers who illustrated their own writing]]

Sir William Schwenck Gilbert (18 November 1836 – 29 May 1911) was an English dramatist, librettist, poet and illustrator best known for his collaboration with composer Arthur Sullivan, which produced fourteen comic operas. The most famous of these include "H.M.S. Pinafore", "The Pirates of Penzance" and one of the most frequently performed works in the history of musical theatre, "The Mikado". The popularity of these works was supported for over a century by year-round performances of them, in Britain and abroad, by the repertory company that Gilbert, Sullivan and their producer Richard D'Oyly Carte founded, the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company. These Savoy operas are still frequently performed in the English-speaking world and beyond.

Sir William Schwenck Gilbert (* 18. November 1836 in London; † 29. Mai 1911 ebenda) war ein britischer Schriftsteller, Dramatiker und Librettist. Zusammen mit dem Komponisten Arthur Sullivan verfasste er 14 komische Opern, die an Wortwitz und Esprit den Operetten von Jacques Offenbach ebenbürtig gegenüberstehen.


Early life and education.

Ole Nydahl was born in Copenhagen and grew up in Denmark. In the early 1960s, he served briefly in the Danish Army, then studied philosophy, English, and German at the University of Copenhagen, where he completed the examen philosophicum with the best possible grade. He began but did not finish a doctoral thesis on Aldous Huxley's "The Doors of Perception". As a young man, Nydahl was involved in boxing, motorcycles, race car driving and also travelled overland from Denmark to Nepal several times. As described in his autobiography "Entering the Diamond Way", his travels were financed through smuggling, for which he was once arrested and detained in Denmark. He used this time in pre-trial detention for meditation and read "Tibetan Yoga and Secret Doctrine" by Walter Evans-Wentz.

Involvement with Buddhism.

Buddhist education.

In 1968, Nydahl and his wife Hannah travelled to Nepal on their honeymoon. Ole and Hannah Nydahl's first Buddhist teacher was the Drukpa Kagyu master Lopon Tsechu Rinpoche. In December 1969, the Nydahls met Rangjung Rigpe Dorje, the 16th Karmapa, head of the Karma Kagyu lineage. Nine years after the British woman Freda Bedi became the first Western student of the 16th Karmapa, the Nydahls took refuge and became students of the Karmapa. They studied and meditated in the Himalayas, where they completed the Ngöndro or preliminary practices in six months, and had explanations and empowerments for 8th Karmapa guru yoga meditation practice and other methods. During this time the Nydahls also became students of Mipham Chokyi Lodro, the fourteenth Shamarpa, the 3rd Jamgon Kongtrul, and Kalu Rinpoche in Sonada. From the Karmapa, the Nydahls learned about Vajrayana Buddhism and mahamudra. From the Shamarpa, they took the Bodhisattva vows and learned about Gampopa's "Jewel Ornament of Liberation". They have received teachings and empowerments from various Tibetan lamas, including the Dalai Lama.

Lama and lay siddhi-yogi.

In 1972, in a letter to Queen Margarethe of Denmark, the 16th Karmapa called Ole and Hannah Nydahl "trusted pupils," entrusting them to establish "a Centre and meditation centre" in Denmark. According to Scherer, a professor of comparative religion at Canterbury Christ Church University, "Nydahl was not sent back in 1972 already as a "lama" in the sense of a traditionally trained and fully qualified Buddhist teacher." According to Scherer, Nydahl "gained recognition as a Lama (bla ma, traditionally acknowledged teacher)" in the period after the death of the Sixteenth Karmapa in 1981. In August 1983, he was "finally acknowledged as a "Buddhist Master" by the lineage holder Shamar Rinpoche," the 14th Shamarpa, who certified that Nydahl is "appointed Buddhist Master." Scherer notes that since 1995 "the usage of "Lama" by higher Lamas in reference to Nydahl has been documented."  Nydahl's "self-identification and legitimization as a Western Karma bKa' brgyud lay teacher" is an important part of a "continual hagiographical tradition he and his inner circle are writing and rewriting." These hagiographies contribute to the cohesion of the Diamond Way, and "this claim of normative transmission is emphasized in almost every public lecture given by Nydahl himself." According to Scherer, Nydahl presents himself as a lay-siddhi yogi, with a "polarizing style." The yogi-lay element is presented by Nydahl as a legitimization of his position as a teacher within the Karma Kagyu, and "addresses Nydahl's unconventional spiritual formation and education outside the prescribed curriculum of three-year retreats."  Scherer further notes that Nydahls' unconventional role as a siddhi-yogi, and his presentation of Mahamudra-teachings outside "the gradual Tantric trajectory," has historical precedents in the crazy yogis who established Tibetan Buddhism. These precedents are relevant in understanding Nydahl's role as a yogic/lay teacher.

Teaching.

Upon returning to Europe, Hannah and Ole Nydahl began to teach Buddhism and organize meditation centers, first in their native Denmark, then in Germany and other countries. The centers belong to the Karma Kagyu lineage and operate under Ole Nydahl's practical guidance. In the early 90s, Diamond Way Buddhism was founded as a way to protect established centers during the Karmapa controversy. , there were 635 Diamond Way centers throughout the world. Most are in Europe, Russia, or the United States.  Ole Nydahl regularly travels between them during the year giving lectures and meditation courses. Until 2013, Nydahl taught conscious dying or phowa, as well as other Buddhist meditation practices, but in recent years he has been focused on giving Mahamudra; teachings on the nature of mind. He traveled almost constantly for over 40 years, teaching in a new city nearly every day, until 2017 when his health necessitated reducing his travel schedule.  Together with his students, Nydahl has created Buddhist centers that provide access to Vajrayana meditation methods without requiring an understanding of Tibetan language or culture. In the Diamond Way centers, the meditations and names of the various Buddha forms have been translated into Western languages. Ole Nydahl believes it essential for people to understand and read the meditations in their own language in order for Buddhism to become truly rooted in the West, as noted in the preface to the meditation booklet titled Refuge and the Enlightened Attitude, used in Diamond Way Buddhist Centers, in which Nydahl states, "This practice used to have an exotic edge because the repetition was in Tibetan. It has now been brought into a Western context, enabling us to understand it on a much deeper level.".  Diamond Way centers are run entirely by volunteers; the organization does not maintain any paid staff. The organizational structure is intended to be democratic and to function on the basis of idealism and friendship. According to Buddhism Today, the Diamond Way Buddhist magazine, "hierarchical systems will not sell with independent people in the West. Nobody wants a distant teacher on a pedestal or a big organization standing on their shoulders and telling them what to think."  Students in Diamond Way Centers practice the Ngöndro given by Wangchuk Dorje, 9th Karmapa Lama, which are a set of four foundational practices that are intended to prepare the mind for enlightenment, a meditation on the Buddha Loving Eyes (Avalokiteśvara in Sanskrit, Chenrezig in Tibetan) and several forms of guru yoga or meditation on the lama (as given by the 16th Karmapa). In a newsletter dated July 9, 2010, Nydahl responded to questions about the types of practices taught in Diamond Way Centers by stating "I never taught anything I was not asked to pass on by the great Sixteenth Karmapa and that its basis was always the Guru Yogas of the Karmapas. Nothing else is practiced in our now 650 Diamond Way centers world-wide where my students meditate side by side." According to Scherer, "This trajectory is a deliberate yet restrictive selection from the vast richness of Kagyu practices," providing an introductory course into Karma Kagyu practices.

Influence and controversy.

Influence.

Jørn Borup, a professor of religion at Aarhus University, says that Ole Nydahl is "the most lasting influence on the Buddhist practice scene in Denmark" and "has in many ways been the icon of living Buddhism in Denmark". The total number of Nydahl's adherents is unknown, but can be estimated conservatively to include 15,000 to 70,000 students and casual sympathizers worldwide. In Germany alone, the German Buddhist Union, (Deutsche Buddhistische Union) estimates that about 20,000 persons regularly visit the Diamond Way centers and groups.  The 14th Shamar Rinpoche, Shamarpa, stated in his biography of the 16th Karmapa that "it was Lama Ole who made the Karmapa’s name be renowned and through this, he established some 600 dharma centers," noting that Nydahls work "is also the result of Gyalwa Karmapa’s activity."  As well as co-founder of Diamond Way with his wife Hannah Nydahl, Ole Nydahl is co-founder and chairman of the board of the "The Diamond Way Buddhism Foundation". A non-profit international foundation under German law, it supports projects worldwide, such as a library in Karma Guen (Malaga, Spain), which translates and preserves Buddhist texts; organizes cultural events such as Tibetan art exhibitions; and is responsible for building retreat centers and stupas in Europe and Russia.

Westernization and neo-orthopraxy.

According to Borup, "[Nydahl] and his Diamond Way Buddhism is in no way representative of Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism or the teachings of the Karma Kagyu lineage." Martin Baumann, a professor of religion at the University of Lucerne, remarked in a newspaper interview "when I listen to his [Nydahl's] alarmingly superficial formulations in his talks I can understand his critics who say that he is presenting a watered-down 'instant Buddhism', a sort of 'Buddhism light' for the West,"  In a 2009 article, Scherer, a professor of comparative religion at Canterbury Christ Church University and a student of Thaye Dorje, as well as a former student of Ole Nydahl, examined if these criticisms apply to the core rituals and practices performed in the "Diamond Way". Scherer describes a number of practices, some of which have been partly adapted to the west, while others are fully in line with traditional Karma Kagyu practices, concluding that Baumann's critic applies only partly.  According to Scherer, Nydahl's "Diamond Way" practices can best be described as a "neo-orthopraxy," a new, westernized form of tradional practices. He regrets that Nydahl continues to be ignored by Tibet scholars, and argues that prevailing negative criticism from a position of suspicion by sociologists and students of New Religious Movements should be counterbalanced by positive criticism from a position of trust by Tibet scholars:

Role in the Karmapa controversy.

When a great Tibetan lama dies, it is tradition in Tibetan Buddhism to find the next reincarnation to continue the work. When Rangjung Rigpe Dorje, the Sixteenth Karmapa (head of the Karma Kagyu) died in 1981, two potential successors were found, Ogyen Trinley Dorje and Trinley Thaye Dorje, causing a major split in the Karma Kagyu.  Tai Situ Rinpoche and Gyaltsap Rinpoche requested that Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama confirm Ogyen Trinley Dorje as the Karmapa, which he did.  The supporters of Trinley Thaye Dorje say that the Dalai Lama is not entitled to confirm the reincarnation of the Karmapa, and has never done so before. There were four lineage-holders appointed to recognize the incarnation of the Karmapa at that time. Mipham Chokyi Lodro, the Fourteenth Shamarpa, supported the other candidate, Trinley Thaye Dorje. It was largely because of the work of Hannah and Ole Nydahl that most European Karma Kagyu centers chose to support Trinley Thaye Dorje. As a result, Trinley Thaye Dorje is the "patron" of the centers of the Diamond Way Buddhism.  The argument that Ogyen Trinley Dorje is the Karmapa is based in part on a letter presented by Pema Tönyö Nyinje, 12th Tai Situpa. The supporters of Ogyen Trinley claim it was written by the Sixteenth Karmapa in order to predict the identity of his future rebirth. Nydahl, the Shamarpa, and Topgala requested that the letter's authenticity be tested.  Geoffrey Samuel, an academic expert in the field testified in court, while the recognition of Ogyen Trinley "appears to have been accepted by a majority of Karma Kagyu monasteries and lamas, there remains a substantial minority of monasteries and lamas who have not accepted Ogyen Trinley as Karmapa. In particular, these include the Shamar Rinpoche, who historically has been the person most directly involved in the process of recognition."  Due to his role in the Karmapa controversy, Nydahl has been heavily criticized by the supporters of Ogyen Trinley Dorje, such as the authors Mick Brown and Lea Terhune, a student of Tai Situpa. In connection to this, some blame Nydahl for causing the 1992 split of the Karma Kagyu, and accuse him of breaking the samayas to his teachers, which is deprecated in Vajrayana.

Political views.

Some members of the press have criticized Nydahl's version of Diamond Way Buddhism, describing it as featuring "prevalent militaristic appearances, right-wing political views and fierce anti-Islam rhetoric." Others have more positive views of Nydahl's work, describing his dedication to his work and patriotism. Scherer describes Nydahl's representation of himself as, "a Buddhist teacher and protector of Western freedom. This addresses his legitimization narrative of himself as emanation of a Buddhist protector and his Kālacakra-linked fierce interpretation of Islam in particular as a key threat to Western freedom and human, especially women's rights." Nydahl has referred to the Islamic religion as "criminal," has called Allah a "terrible god", and has characterized Muslim beliefs as antithetical to freedom of speech and women's rights:  Nydahl says that he does not make political comments in his capacity as a lama, but as a "responsible, thinking human being", and that no one can make such statements from a Buddhist perspective because Buddha Shakyamuni did not comment on religious ideas founded centuries after his death.  An online interview with Nydahl also featured the following statement: "Judaism and Christianity are fine. Islam, I warn against. I know the Koran, I know the life story of Mohammad and I think we cannot use that in our society today."

Dispute with German Buddhist Union.

Between late 1999 and April 2000 there was a public dispute between the and the German branch of, which was a member organisation of the Union. Due to Nydahl's disparaging attitude towards Islam, his political statements, his manner of expressing and presenting himself, and his relationships with women, there were calls for the expulsion of Nydahl's organisation from the Union. The dispute was resolved at a meeting between the two organizations on 4 October 2000; although differences were clear, they agreed to learn from the past and cooperate in the future. The conversation was described as "a first step" that "should eliminate misunderstandings, and lead to clarity and cooperation." The German branch of Diamond Way "(Buddhistischer Dachverband Diamantweg)" remained a member of the German Buddhist Union. In 2019 there were discussions and an application to exclude the Diamond Way from the German Buddhist Union (DBU), based on Nydahl's statements about Islam. DBU members were worried about possible damage to reputation and the German section of Diamond Way decided to leave the DBU.

Personal life.

Nydahl's wife Hannah died of lung cancer in 2007.  In 2014 Nydahl married Alexandra Munoz Barbosa at the Copenhagen Diamond Way Buddhist center. In 2017 they were divorced.  On August 31, 2019, Ole Nydahl and Anne Behrend were married at the Diamond Way Buddhist center in Těnovice, Czech Republic.

Bibliography.

Ole Nydahl has written several books in English, German and Danish, which have been translated into several other European languages.  Most popular English titles:

Ole Nydahl (born March 19, 1941), also known as Lama Ole, is a "lama" providing Mahamudra teachings in the Karma Kagyu school of Tibetan Buddhism. Since the early 1970s, Nydahl has toured the world giving lectures and meditation courses. With his wife, Hannah Nydahl (1946-2007), he founded Diamond Way Buddhism, a worldwide Karma Kagyu Buddhist organization with over 600 centers for lay practitioners.

Ole Nydahl (* 19. März 1941 nahe Kopenhagen, Dänemark), auch bekannt als Lama Ole, ist ein Lama des Diamantweg-Buddhismus. Er repräsentiert Lehren der tibetischen Karma-Kagyü-Schule. Sie gehört zur Kagyü-Schule, die eine der vier Hauptrichtungen des tibetischen Buddhismus ist. Seit Anfang der 1970er Jahre bereist er die Welt, hält Vorträge und Meditationskurse und gründet buddhistische Meditationszentren.


History.

In late antiquity, there were in Rome seven regional notaries who, on the further development of the papal administration and the accompanying increase of the notaries, remained the supreme palace notaries of the papal chancery ("notarii apostolici" or "protonotarii"). In the Middle Ages, the protonotaries were very high papal officials and were often raised directly from this office to the cardinalate. Originally numbering seven, Pope Sixtus V (1585–90) increased their number to twelve. Their importance gradually diminished, and at the time of the French Revolution, the office had almost entirely disappeared. On 8 February 1838, Pope Gregory XVI re-established the college of real protonotaries with seven members called "protonotarii de numero participantium", also known as "numerary protonotaries", because they shared in the revenues, as officials of the Roman Chancery.  Since the sixteenth century, the popes had also appointed honorary protonotaries, who enjoyed the same privileges as the seven real members of the college; and titular protonotaries, who held a corresponding position in the administration of the episcopal ordinariate or in the collegiate chapter. By the motu proprio "Inter multiplices" of 21 February 1905, Pope Pius X defined the position of the protonotaries,... privileges, dress, and insignia of the members of the four classes:

Present practice.

Since 1969 (following Pope Paul VI's issuing of two motus proprios, "Pontificalis Domus" of March 28, 1968 and "Pontificalia Insignia" of June 21, 1968), the four classes are reduced to two:  The name of the prothonotary warbler derives from the supposed similarity between its plumage and the golden robes worn by protonotaries.

In the Roman Catholic Church, protonotary apostolic (PA; Latin: "protonotarius apostolicus") is the title for a member of the highest non-episcopal college of prelates in the Roman Curia or, outside Rome, an honorary prelate on whom the Pope has conferred this title and its special privileges. An example is Prince Georg of Bavaria (1880–1943), who became in 1926 Protonotary by papal decree.

Als Apostolischen Protonotar (lat. "protonotarius apostolicus") bezeichnet man sowohl bestimmte Prälaten der römischen Kurie als auch Träger eines hochrangigen päpstlichen Ehrentitels. Die Bezeichnung folgt aus dem historischen Amt des "primicerius notariorum in Urbe" (lat.: Oberster der Notare in der Stadt Rom), das schon im 5. Jahrhundert bezeugt ist.


Purnululu National Park World Heritage site.

The World Heritage status of the region was created and negotiated in 2003, and the adopted boundary of the existing national park. Since its listing, the Government of Western Australia has reserved additional areas located adjacent to the World Heritage Area, including the Purnululu Conservation Park and the Ord River Regeneration Reserve. The site was gazetted on the Australian National Heritage List on 21 May 2007 under the.

Etymology.

"Purnululu" is a mispronounced Djaru word for the area around Bungle Bungle out camp, which is referred to as Bullmanlulu. The correct Karjaganujaru name for the Bungle Bungle massif is Billingjal which means sand falling away.  The traditional owners of the area are the Karjaganujaru peoples.

Features.

The Bungle Bungle Range, lying fully within the park, has elevations as high as above sea level. It is famous for the sandstone domes, unusual and visually striking with their striping in alternating orange and grey bands. The banding of the domes is due to differences in clay content and porosity of the sandstone layers: the orange bands consist of oxidised iron compounds in layers that dry out too quickly for cyanobacteria to multiply; the grey bands are composed of cyanobacteria growing on the surface of layers of sandstone where moisture accumulates.

Geology.

The Bungle Bungle Range is one of the most extensive and impressive occurrences of sandstone tower (or cone) karst terrain in the world. The Bungle Bungles were a plateau of Devonian sandstone, carved into a mass of beehive-shaped towers with regularly alternating, dark gray bands of cyanobacterial crust (single cell photosynthetic organisms). The plateau is dissected by deep, sheer-sided gorges and slot canyons. The cone-towers are steep-sided, with an abrupt break of slope at the base and have domed summits. How they were formed is not yet completely understood. Their surface is fragile but stabilized by crusts of iron oxide and bacteria. They provide an outstanding example of land formation by dissolutional weathering of sandstone, with removal of sand grains by wind, rain and sheet wash on slopes.

Access.

Access to the park by road is via Spring Creek Track, from the Great Northern Highway approximately south of Kununurra, to the track's end at the visitor centre. The track is long and is usable only in the dry season (about 1 April to 31 December) by four-wheel-drive (4WD) vehicles. Safely navigating it takes approximately three hours. Access by air is less demanding; helicopter flights are available from Bellburn Airstrip in the national park, and from Warmun roadhouse. Scenic light aircraft flights are also available out of Kununurra and Lake Argyle.

The Purnululu National Park is a World Heritage Site in the East Kimberley region of Western Australia. The national park is located approximately south of Kununurra, with Halls Creek located to the south. Declared a World Heritage Site in 2003, the park was inscribed as follows:

Der Purnululu-Nationalpark (engl.: "Purnululu National Park", früher: Bungle-Bungle-Nationalpark) befindet sich im östlichen Kimberley im australischen Bundesstaat Western Australia, Luftlinie etwa 160 Kilometer südlich von Kununurra und 100 km nordöstlich von Halls Creek. Seit 2003 ist der Park UNESCO-Weltnaturerbe.


Design and development.

The NKAP ("Narodnyy komissariat aviatsionnoy promyshlennosti"—People's Ministry of the Aircraft Industry) requested on 7 October 1940 that the OKO ("opytno-konstrooktorskiy otdel"—Experimental Design Department) of Factory ("Zavod") No. 1, which would later become the Mikoyan-Gurevich design bureau ("OKB") begin work on a twin-engined long-range, single-seat escort fighter intended to use the AM-37 engine, then under development by Mikulin. It also requested that specifications, along with a model, be ready to be discussed on 12 November of that year. Three days later Mikoyan and Gurevich were ordered to produce three prototypes to undergo State acceptance trials on 1 August, 1 September and 1 November 1941. After the meeting, the NKAP broadened its roles to include bombing, torpedo attack, reconnaissance and interdiction.  A low-wing, twin-engined, twin-tailed monoplane, the DIS was of mixed construction. The front section was built from duralumin, the middle section was a wooden monocoque and the rear section was steel tubes covered with a duralumin skin. The twin tails were wooden and had an electrically operated variable-incidence horizontal stabilizer. The elevators had duralumin frames, but were covered by fabric. The two-spar wing was made in three pieces. The center section was metal, but the outer panels were wooden with fabric-covered ailerons and veneer-covered Schrenk flaps. The wing had leading edge slats along two-thirds of its length. The main undercarriage retracted rearwards into the rear of the engine nacelles and the tailwheel retracted into the rear fuselage. The Mikulin AM-37 inline engines were slung underneath the wings with the engine oil coolers mounted in the outer wing panels. The air intakes for the engine superchargers were located in the wing leading edge. The pilot was provided with a glass panel on the underside of the nose to improve his downward visibility, and he was protected by armor up to thick at the front, rear, sides and underside of his seat. The fuel capacity was in two protected tanks behind the pilot, and another four in the wings.  The DIS was intended to be armed with a VYa cannon with 200 rounds in a pod beneath the nose, but the VVS preferred the Taubin MP-6 cannon. The DIS was to carry two of them with 120 rounds per gun, but they proved to be a failure and the aircraft reverted to the original VYa cannon. Each wing root was to have a synchronized Berezin UBS machine gun with 300 rounds mounted below a pair of ShKAS machine guns with 1000 rounds per gun. The gun pod could be removed and bombs up to or a torpedo could be carried instead.

Flight testing.

The first prototype, with the internal designation of T, made its first flight on 11 June 1941. Its initial flight tests, conducted by the manufacturer between 1 July and 5 October, were a disappointment as it could reach only a speed of at, slower than estimated. The three-bladed AV-5L-114 propellers were exchanged for four-bladed AV-9B-L-149 propellers and the engine installation was redesigned, after wind tunnel tests by TsAGI (Central Aero and Hydrodynamics Institute), which revealed that the poorly designed engine accessories were the major cause of the excess drag. After modifications, the aircraft reached at an altitude of. Its time to was 5.5 minutes. Even with the improvements the LII ("Lyotno-Issledovatel'skiy Institoot"—Flight Research Institute) did not recommend production, but recommended that development and testing should continue. The German advance on Moscow in October 1941 forced the Institute and the DIS to evacuate to Kazan while the OKO and its factory went to Kuibyshev. The failure of the AM-37 to enter production doomed the project, albeit temporarily.  The OKO, along with all other aircraft designers, had been directed to use the Shvetsov ASh-82 radial engine as a backup engine for their products in May 1941, but the evacuation disrupted the production of this version, known internally as the IT and it was not built until the autumn of 1942. Aside from the engines, it differed from the T in small respects. Its tailcone was split vertically to use as an air brake and the armament was revised to consist of two VYa cannon in the undernose pod with 150 rounds each and four Berezin UBK machine guns mounted in the wing roots. It made its first flight on 28 January 1943 and demonstrated a top speed of and a time to 5,000 meters of 6.3 minutes. Flight testing was stopped on 10 February when the floatless carburetors had to be sent to TsIAM ("Tsentrahl'nyy Institoot Aviatsionnovo Motorostroyeniya"—Central Institute of Aviation Motors) for adjustment. There were continuous problems with these and they delayed the entire project until it was cancelled in October 1943.  The service designation MiG-5 was reserved for the production version of this aircraft, as demonstrated in the NKAP order of 2 October 1941, which instructed Zavod No. 1 to begin manufacture of the MiG-5 after the completion of its State acceptance tests. Other known designations for the aircraft include the DIS-200 and "Idzeliye" 71, its factory designation. The bomber version, if it had entered production, might have been known as the MiG-2.  Two prototypes are known to have been built, but some records suggest that others were also built. The original order called for three aircraft and was amended later for two additional aircraft with M-82 engines. Some sources quote dates for the latter version's first flight of January 1942 and 15 October 1941, which could be an indication that two of the latter version were completed, or they could simply be clerical errors.

The Mikoyan-Gurevich DIS (/ "Dalnij Istrebitel' Soprovozhdenya" – "long-range escort fighter") was a prototype Soviet escort fighter of World War II. The service designation MiG-5 was reserved for the production version of the aircraft. Competing designs in the USSR included the Grushin Gr-1, Polikarpov TIS and Tairov Ta-3.

Mikojan-Gurewitsch DIS () ist die Bezeichnung für ein sowjetisches zweimotoriges Jagdflugzeug-Projekt vom Beginn der 1940er-Jahre. Nach zwei gebauten Prototypen wurden die Arbeiten an diesem Modell zugunsten der Pe-3bis eingestellt.


History.

The danzón developed from the habanera, a creolized Cuban dance form. By 1879, the year "Las alturas de Simpson" composed by Miguel Failde (leader of the Orquesta Faílde) was first performed in Matanzas, danzón had emerged as a distinct genre. Creation of the new danzón form is generally attributed to Faílde. The classical composer Manuel Saumell has also been cited as a key figure in its delineation.

Precursors: figure dances.

The English contradanza was the predecessor of the "habanera", also known as danza criolla. Out of this Creole genre, the Habanera, was born in 1879 another Cuban genre, called danzon, a sequence dance, in which all danced together a set of "figures". The first use of the term "danzón", which dates from the 1850s, is for just such a dance. Havana's daily paper, "El Triunfo", gave a description of this earlier danzón. It was a co-ordinated dance of figures performed by groups of Matanzas blacks. The dancers held the ends of colored ribbons, and carried flower-covered arches. The group twisted and entwined the ribbons to make pleasing patterns. This account can be corroborated by other references, for example, a traveler in Cuba noted in 1854 that black Cubans "do a kind of wreath dance, in which the whole company took part, amid innumerable artistic entanglements and disentanglements". This style of danzón was performed at carnival comparsas by black groups: it is described that way before the late 1870s.  Faílde's first danzóns were created for just such sequence dances. Faílde himself said "In Matanzas at this time there was a kind of square dance for twenty couples who carried arches and flowers. It was really a dance of figures (sequence dance), and its moves were adapted to the tempo of the habanera, which we took over for the danzón."

Structure and instruments.

The form of danzón created by Miguel Faílde in 1879 ("Las alturas de Simpson"), begins with an "introduction" (four bars) and "paseo" (four bars), which are repeated and followed by a 16-bar melody. The introduction and paseo again repeat before a second melody is played. The dancers do not dance during these sections: they choose partners, stroll onto the dance floor, and begin to dance at precisely the same moment: the fourth beat of bar four of the paseo, which has a distinctive percussion pattern that's hard to miss. When the introduction is repeated the dancers stop, chat, flirt, greet their friends, and start again, right on time as the paseo finishes.  Early danzón was played by groups called "orquestas típicas", which were based on wind instruments. They had several brass instruments (cornet, valve trombone, ophicleide), a clarinet or two, a violin or two and tympani (kettle drums). At the beginning of the 20th century, the lighter and somewhat more elegant sound of the "charanga" emerged (see Early Cuban bands). Initially, they were small orchestra of two violins, a cello, flute, timbales, güiro, and doublebass. Charanga and típicas competed with each other for years, but after 1930 it was clear that the days of the típica were over.  In 1898, a piano was included in a charanga for the first time. In Antonio María Romeu's hands a piano became standard. Its musical flexibility, its ability to influence both melody and rhythm, made it invaluable. In 1926, in his arrangement of "Tres lindas cubanas", Romeu incorporated a piano "solo" for the first time. His was Cuba's top charanga for many years.

Initial perception.

Similar to other dances in the Caribbean and Latin America, the danzón was initially regarded as scandalous, especially when it began to be danced by all classes of society. The slower rhythm of the danzón led to couples dancing closer, with sinuous movements of the hips and a lower centre of gravity. The author of a survey of prostitution in Havana devoted a whole chapter to the iniquities of dancing, and the danzón in particular. Articles in newspapers and periodicals took up the theme:  Apparently, the danzón, which later became an insipid dance for older couples, was at first danced with "obscene movements" of the hips by young couples in close embrace, with bodies touching, and by couples who might come from different races...  So, behind the concern about music and dance were concerns about sexual licence, and about miscegenation, the mixing of races. As with other similar cases, the criticism was to no avail. The danzón became hugely popular, and was the dominant popular music in Cuba until the advent of the son in the 1920s. At length the Cuban government made Faílde the official inventor of the danzón – "but not until 1960", by which time the danzón had become a relic, and its 'child', the chachachá, had taken over.

Influence of son.

In 1910, some 30 years after Faílde's early days, José Urfé added a montuno as a final part of his "El Bombín de Barretto". This was a swinging section, consisting of a repeated musical phrase, which introduced something of the son into the danzón (a tactic which was to recur again). Because of the popularity of son in the 1920s and 1930s, Aniceto Díaz in "Rompiendo la rutina" in 1929 added a vocal part, thereby creating a new genre called the danzonete.  Later development led to more syncopation, which eventually led to the danzón-chá, nuevo ritmo, cha-cha-chá, pachanga and mambo. From the 1940s to the 1960s danzón and its derivatives were highly popular in Cuba, with several truly fine charangas playing most days of the week. Orquesta Aragón kept up an exceptionally high standard for many years, but the danzón itself gradually dropped out, and is now a relic dance.  Danzón has never ceased to influence Cuban musicians, and it is reflected in many popular Cuban music genres, in Cuban Latin jazz, salsa, songo and timba, the latter building upon the charanga orchestration. Groups like Los Van Van and Orquesta Revé developed from charangas. Their make-up and orchestration (by Juan Formell) has been so greatly altered that it is difficult to identify traces of danzón; indeed, their present styles owe more to son than to danzón. The addition of brass instruments such as trombones and trumpets, and conga drums signalled a wider range of music.

Mexican Danzón.

Danzón was also very popular in the Gulf Coast state of Veracruz, Mexico, because of the strong Cuban influence in the region. Later on, danzón developed in Mexico City, specially in the famous "Salón México"; it has survived as a dance longer there than in Cuba. Danzón also flourished in the city of Oaxaca, and many famous danzones were composed by Oaxacan musicians such as the famous Nereidas and Teléfono de larga distancia, both works of Amador Pérez Dimas, from the town of Zaachila, near Oaxaca city.  Today, people still dance danzón in Mexico, particularly in the main plazas of Veracruz, Oaxaca and Mexico City, and in yearly festivals across Mexico. The dance had a second revival in the 1990s, especially among Mexico's senior citizens.  A film called "Danzón" was released in 1991 directed by María Novaro. Plot: Julia (María Rojo) is a phone operator in Mexico City who lives for her job, her daughter and danzón. Every Wednesday, Julia does the danzón with Carmelo (Daniel Rergis) in the "Salón Colonia". They have danced for years without becoming close. One night, Carmelo disappears without a trace. Lonely and sad, Julia takes a train to Veracruz, where she knows Carmelo has a brother. That trip changes her life.

Concert music.

"Danzón no. 2" by Mexican composer Arturo Márquez (b. 1950) is a popular piece in orchestral concerts.

Rhythmic structure.

The basic timbales part for danzón is called the baqueteo. In the example above, the slashed noteheads indicate muted drum strokes, and the regular noteheads indicate open strokes. The güíro also plays this pattern. The danzón was the first written music to be based on the organizing principle of sub-Saharan African rhythm, known in Cuba as clave.

Style and form structure.

Danzón is elegant and virtuoso music, with dance. A danzón, in its original form, was not sung, and did not feature any improvisations, unlike some other Cuban genres. A danzón has the following typical structure: The classic form is thus ABAC or ABACA. A danzón-chá or danzón-mambo typically add another part (D), a syncopated open vamp in which soloists may sometimes improvise, creating an ABACD or, more common, ABACAD.

Mambo section.

In danzón, the mambo section is the final section of an arrangement. It was first devised by Orestes López, who added syncopated motifs taken from the son, together with improvised flute variations. He called this type of danzón "ritmo nuevo" (new rhythm). Orestes' danzón "Mambo" was the start of a trend continued by "Arcaño y sus Maravillas".

Danzón is the official musical genre and dance of Cuba. It is also an active musical form in Mexico, and is much loved in Puerto Rico as well. Written in time, the danzón is a slow, formal partner dance, requiring set footwork around syncopated beats, and incorporating elegant pauses while the couples stand listening to virtuoso instrumental passages, as characteristically played by a charanga or tipica ensemble.

Der Danzón ist ein Tanz, der sich aus dem französischen Contredanse entwickelte, der seinerseits im 17. Jahrhundert aus dem englischen Country Dance hervorgegangen ist. Beim Aufstand gegen die französische Kolonialmacht 1791 auf Haiti flüchteten viele schwarze Landarbeiter auf die Nachbarinsel Kuba und brachten die Musik und ihre dazugehörigen Tänze mit (z. B. das Menuett, den Rigodón und die Lanzeros).


Biography.

Michael Cerularius was born in Constantinople around 1000 AD, being ordained into the Church from a young age. He is noted for disputing with Pope Leo IX over church practices in respect of which the Roman Church differed from Constantinople, especially the use of unleavened bread in the Eucharist. Notable disagreements were also exchanged over other theological and cultural issues, ranging from the issue of papal supremacy in the Church to the "filioque" clause and other disagreements between the Patriarchates.  In 1054, Pope Leo IX sent a letter to the Patriarch, citing a large portion of the Donation of Constantine believing it genuine.  Some scholars say that this letter of September 1053, the text of which is available in Migne, "Patrologia Latina", vol. 143, coll. 744-769, was never actually despatched, but was set aside, and that the papal reply actually sent was the softer but still harsh letter "Scripta tuae" of January 1054.  Leo IX assured the Patriarch that the donation was completely genuine, not a fable or old wives' tale, arguing that only the apostolic successor to Peter possessed primacy in the Church.  This letter of Pope Leo IX was addressed both to Michael Cerularius, Patriarch of Constantinople, and Leo of Ohrid, Archbishop of Bulgaria, and was in response to a letter sent by Leo, Metropolitan of Achrida to John, Bishop of Trani (in Apulia), that categorically attacked the customs of the Latin Church that differed from those of the Greeks. Especially criticized were the Roman traditions of fasting on the Saturday Sabbath and consecration of unleavened bread. Leo IX in his letter accused Constantinople of historically being a center of heresies and claimed in emphatic terms the primacy of the Bishop of Rome over even the Patriarch of Constantinople. Cerularius would have none of it. It can be argued that in 1054, the Patriarch's letter to Pope Leo IX initiated the events which followed, because it claimed the title "ecumenical patriarch" and addressed Pope Leo as "brother" rather than "father."  Pope Leo IX sent an official delegation on a legatine mission to meet with the Patriarch. Members of the papal delegation were: cardinal Humbert of Silva Candida, papal secretary Frederick of Lorraine, who was Cardinal-Deacon of Santa Maria in Domnica, and Peter, Archbishop of Amalfi. Soon after their arrival in Constantinople, news was received that Pope Leo had died on 19 April. Since the official position and authority of papal legates was dependent upon the pope who authorized them to represent him, the news of Leo's death placed his envoys in an awkward position. In spite of this, they decided to proceed with their mission, but even before any religious discussions were held, problems arose regarding some basic formalities and ceremonies. During the initial audience, Cerularius refused to meet with papal envoys in their official capacity and left them waiting with no further audience for months.  During that time, from April to July 1054, cardinal Humbert and his colleagues continued with their activities in Constantinople, taking part in informal religious discussions on various issues. This was seen as inappropriate by the Patriarch. Despite the fact that their legatine authority officially ceased after popes death, Cardinal Humbert and his colleagues decided to engage in open dispute with the Patriarch. On Saturday, 16 July 1054, they produced a Charter of Excommunication (lat. "charta excommunicationis"), directed against Patriarch Michael of Constantinople, Archbishop Leo of Ohrid, and all of their followers. On the same day, Cardinal Humbert and his colleagues entered the church of the Hagia Sophia during the divine liturgy and placed the Charter on the altar.  Soon after that, the Patriarch decided to react. On 20 July 1054, a synod of 21 metropolitans and bishops was held in Constantinople, presided over by Cerularius. The council decided to excommunicate Cardinal Humbert and his colleagues. Only the three men were anathematized, and a general reference was made to all who support them, but there was no explicit excommunication of the entire Western Christianity, or the Church of Rome. On Sunday 24 July the conciliar anathema was officially proclaimed in the Hagia Sophia Church.  The events of 1054 caused the Great Schism and led to the end of the alliance between the Emperor and the Papacy, and caused later Popes to ally with the Normans against the Empire. Patriarch Michael closed the Latin churches in his area, which exacerbated the schism. In 1965, those excommunications were rescinded by Pope Paul VI and Patriarch Athenagoras, when they met in Jerusalem. Although the excommunication delivered by Cardinal Humbert was invalid, this gesture represented a significant step towards restoring communion between Rome and Constantinople.  The short reign of the Empress Theodora then saw Michael intriguing against the throne. Michael Psellus notes that while their initial relations had been cordial, once Theodora took the Imperial throne, they entered into open conflict, as Michael "was vexed because the Roman Empire was being governed by a woman", and on this topic "he spoke his mind freely.". The historian suggests that Theodora would have deposed Michael for his open effrontery and sedition, had she lived longer.  Cerularius had a hand in negotiating the abdication of Michael VI Stratiotikos, convincing him to step down on 31 August 1057, in favour of the rebellious general Isaac, for whom the army declared on 8 June. The emperor duly followed the patriarch's advice and became a monk. Having had a role in bringing him to the throne, Cerularius soon quarrelled with Isaac I Komnenos over confiscation of church property. Michael went so far as to take the highly symbolic step of donning the purple shoes ceremonially reserved for the Emperor. Michael apparently planned a rebellion, to overthrow the Emperor and claim the Imperial Throne for himself or for his relative Constantine Doukas. Isaac exiled Michael to Proconnesus in 1058 and, as Michael refused to step down, had Psellus drew up accusations of heresy and treason against him. Cerularius died before coming to trial.

Michael I Cerularius or Keroularios (; 1000 – 21 January 1059 AD) was the Patriarch of Constantinople from 1043 to 1059 AD. He is most notable for his role in the events that led to the Great Schism in 1054.

Michael I. Kerularios (, auch Kerullarios; * um 1000 in Konstantinopel; † 21. Januar 1059) war Patriarch von Konstantinopel vom 25. März 1043 bis 2. November 1058.