Early life and education.

Scott Kelly was born, along with his identical twin brother Mark, on February 21, 1964, in Orange, New Jersey, to Patricia (McAvoy) and Richard Kelly. Kelly's family lived in West Orange, where his parents worked as a police officers. Kelly and his brother graduated from Mountain High School in 1982. While in high school, Kelly worked as an emergency medical technician in Orange and Jersey City, New Jersey.  After graduating from high school, Kelly enrolled at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County. During his freshman year, Kelly read "The Right Stuff" by Tom Wolfe, and was inspired to pursue a career in naval aviation. After his freshman year, Kelly transferred to State University of New York Maritime College (SUNY Maritime), where he received a Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps (Navy ROTC) scholarship. During the summer after his freshman year, Kelly sailed aboard SUNY Maritime's training ship, "Empire State V", and stopped in Mallorca, Hamburg, and London. After his sophomore year, Kelly sailed again on "Empire State V". He served as the student battalion commander for his school's Navy ROTC detachment, and graduated with a bachelor of engineering degree in electrical engineering in 1987.

Naval career.

After graduation, Kelly was commissioned as an ensign in the US Navy. He completed his initial flight school at NAS Pensacola, where he flew the T-34 Mentor propeller driven trainer plane, after which he was selected to fly jets. In 1988, he moved to Beeville, Texas, for jet training Naval Air Station Chase Field, where he trained on the T-2 Buckeye and the A-4 Skyhawk. He graduated as a naval aviator in 1989, and was assigned to fly the F-14 Tomcat. He reported to VF-101 at Naval Air Station Oceana, Virginia, for initial F-14 training. Upon completion of this training in September 1990, he was assigned to VFA-143, and deployed to the North Atlantic and Persian Gulf aboard the aircraft carrier.  In January 1993, Kelly was selected to attend the U.S. Naval Test Pilot School at Naval Air Station Patuxent River, Maryland. His classmates included his brother, Mark, and other future astronauts Alvin Drew, Lisa Nowak, and Stephen Frick. He graduated in June 1994 and was assigned to the Strike Aircraft Test Directorate at Patuxent River. One of his initial assignments was to investigate the F-14 crash that killed Kara Hultgreen. His assessment was to create a digital flight control system that would have saved Hultgreen's life resulted in the acceleration of one's development, and he was the first pilot to fly the F-14 with the digital flight control system installed.  After attaining the rank of captain in the U.S. Navy, Kelly retired from active duty on June 1, 2012 after 25 years of naval service. He flew over 8,000 hours in more than 40 aircraft and accomplished over 250 carrier landings throughout his naval career.

NASA career.

In 1995, Kelly and his brother applied to NASA to become astronauts. He and Mark were selected to become astronaut candidates in April 1996; the first relatives to be selected in NASA history. In July 1996, Kelly moved to Houston, and began training in Astronaut Group 16 at the Johnson Space Center. On completion of training, he was assigned to work on the caution and warning system on board the International Space Station.  After Kelly's first flight on STS-103, he served as NASA's director of operations in Star City, Russia. He served as back-up crew member to Peggy Whitson for ISS Expedition 5, and to Tracy Caldwell Dyson on Expedition 23/24. After the Space Shuttle "Columbia" disaster, Kelly coordinated airplane and helicopter searches for debris. He also served as the Astronaut Office Space Station Branch Chief.  In September 2002, Kelly served as the commander of the mission aboard the "Aquarius" underwater laboratory, 4 mi offshore from Key Largo. The NEEMO 4 crew spent five days saturation diving from "Aquarius" as a space analogue for working and training under extreme environmental conditions. The mission was delayed due to Hurricane Isidore, reducing the underwater duration to five days. In April 2005, Kelly was a crew member on the three-day mission. During the NEEMO 8 mission, the crew practiced construction while conducting an extravehicular activity (EVA) using a remotely operated underwater vehicle, and training with the Exploration Planning Operations Center at the Johnson Space Center.

STS-103.

In March 1999, Kelly was assigned to STS-103 as a pilot aboard "Discovery", under command of Curt Brown, on a mission to install new instruments and upgraded systems on the Hubble Space Telescope (HST). "Discovery" launched on December 19, 1999, and rendezvoused with the HST after 40 orbits. The STS-103 mission specialists conducted three EVAs to replace gyroscopes and a transmitter, and to install a new computer guidance sensor and recorder. On December 25, 1999, the crew celebrated the only Christmas holiday of the Space Shuttle in orbit with a reading by Curt Brown. After 119 orbits, "Discovery" landed at the Kennedy Space Center on December 27, 1999.

STS-118.

After completing his assignment as a back-up member for ISS Expedition 5 in 2002, Kelly was assigned as commander of STS-118 aboard "Endeavour". After the Space Shuttle "Columbia" disaster, STS-118 was delayed until August 2007. STS-118 launched on August 8, 2007. During the launch, the orbiter was struck by nine pieces of foam from the external tank just as "Columbia" had been on its final, fatal mission. The underside of "Endeavour" was examined by cameras on the robotic arm and the ISS, and was assessed to not be dangerously damaged. The Shuttle successfully docked with the ISS on August 10. "Endeavour"'s crew successfully added a truss segment, an external spare-parts platform, and a control moment gyroscope and to the ISS. The mission was extended to 14 days while testing a new system that enabled docked shuttles to draw electrical power from the station. During the mission, four EVAs to install the new equipment were completed. The mission was ended a day early because of the approach of Hurricane Dean towards Houston. STS-118 completed 201 orbits, and landed on August 21, 2007 at the Kennedy Space Center, after 12 days, 17 hours, 55 minutes, and 34 seconds.

Expedition 25/26.

In late 2007, Kelly was assigned to Expeditions 25 and 26. Kelly lifted off aboard "Soyuz TMA-01M" from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan at 7:10 pm EDT on October 7, 2010 along with cosmonauts Aleksandr Kaleri and Oleg Skripochka. TMA-01M was the first launch of an updated model of the "Soyuz" spacecraft, and featured improved guidance, environmental control, and flight-control systems. Kelly, Kaleri, and Skripochka arrived at the ISS on October 9, 2010, and joined Commander Douglas H. Wheelock and flight engineers Shannon Walker and Fyodor Yurchikhin on Expedition 25.  During Kelly's time aboard the ISS, the crew supported about 115 scientific experiments, including an improved water-recycling machine, the Boiler Experiment Facility to test heat transfer in microgravity, and a Japanese experiment to research vegetable growth in microgravity. During Expedition 25, cosmonauts Yurchikhin and Skripochka conducted an EVA to install a workstation on the Zvezda module, install handrails, and removed three Russian experiments. The crew of Expedition 24/25 returned to Earth on November 25, 2010 aboard "Soyuz TMA-19"; Wheelock transferred command of the station to Kelly.  On December 17, 2010, "Soyuz TMA-20" arrived at the station with the crew of Expedition 26/27 cosmonaut Dmitri Kondratyev, NASA astronaut Catherine Coleman, and ESA astronaut Paolo Nespoli. The crew of STS-133 aboard "Discovery" arrived at the station February 26, 2011. The crew of STS-133 performed two EVAs to replace a pump and install the Permanent Multipurpose Module. "Discovery" undocked from the ISS on March 7, 2011, and landed for the final time two days later.  On January 8, 2011, while Kelly was on the ISS, Kelly's sister-in-law Congresswoman Gabrielle Giffords was shot in Tucson. "Soyuz TMA-01M" landed in Kazakhstan on March 16, 2011, and Kelly travelled to TIRR Memorial Hermann in Houston to see Giffords and Mark. Mark was the commander of STS-134, the final flight of "Endeavour", and launched on May 16, 2011, with Giffords in attendance. STS-134 had originally been scheduled to launch in February 2011, which would have made the Kelly brothers the first twins to fly together in space.

Expedition 43/44/45/46.

NASA began planning for a year-long mission aboard the ISS following a Russian announcement for a similar mission. The primary goal of the year-long expedition aboard the orbiting laboratory was to better understand the effects of spaceflight on the human body. In November 2012, Kelly was selected for a one-year mission to the ISS, but was medically disqualified the following day due to his vision worsening in microgravity. Kelly appealed to NASA, and was reselected for the mission along with cosmonaut Mikhail Kornienko.  Kelly, Kornienko, and Gennady Padalka launched aboard "Soyuz TMA-16M" spacecraft from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan at 3:42 pm EDT on March 27, 2015. "TMA-16M" docked with the ISS at 9:36 pm EDT, and the crew joined the Expedition 43 crew of commander Terry Virts and flight engineers Anton Shkaplerov and Samantha Cristoforetti. Once aboard, the crew performed scientific experiments, including evaluations of the fluid shifts in their bodies to determine their effects on eyesight, and repeated collections of blood and urine for chemical analysis. During Expedition 43, the ISS received supplies from the SpaceX Dragon CRS-6 mission, but lost their resupply due to the failure of the Russian" Progress 59" spacecraft. Expedition 44 began on June 11, 2015, when Virts transferred command of the ISS to Padalka, and "Soyuz TMA-15M "landed in Kazakhstan at 9:44 am EDT.  "Soyuz TMA-17M" docked with the ISS on July 22, 2015, bringing NASA astronaut Kjell Lindgren, Russian cosmonaut Oleg Kononenko, and JAXA astronaut Kimiya Yui to join Expedition 44. During Expedition 44, the ISS was resupplied by the JAXA "HTV-5" and the Russian" Progress 60" vehicles; the crew experienced another loss of a resupply mission with the SpaceX" CRS-7 "failure. On August 28, 2016, the crew of "Soyuz TMA-16M" undocked and subsequently docked the spacecraft to a different port to prepare for the arrival of "Soyuz TMA-18M". "Soyuz TMA-18M" docked with the ISS on September 4, 2015, bringing Russian cosmonaut Sergey Volkov, ESA astronaut Andreas Mogensen, and Kazakh cosmonaut Aidyn Aimbetov to the station. One of Soyuz "TMA-18M's" missions was to deliver a new "Soyuz" to the station for the return of Kelly, Korniyenko, and Volkov in March 2016; they could not return on "Soyuz TMA-16M" due to the 200-day orbital lifespan of a "Soyuz". Padalka, Morgensen, and Aimbetov departed from the ISS on September 11, 2015, and landed in Kazakhstan in "Soyuz TMA-16M".  Expedition 45 began on September 11, 2015, when Padalka transferred command of the station to Kelly. During the expedition, the ISS crew was resupplied by the "Progress 61 "and the "Cygnus CRS OA-4" missions. On October 28, 2015, Kelly and Lindgren performed an EVA to service the Canada Arm 2, the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer, and to install cables for the International Docking Adapter for the Boeing CST-100 Starliner and SpaceX Crew Dragon spacecraft. Kelly and Lindgren performed a second EVA on November 6, 2015, to service the ammonia cooling system on the P6 truss. Expedition 46 began on December 11, 2015, with the departure of "Soyuz TMA-17M", carrying Lindgren, Kononenko, and Yui.  On December 15, 2015, NASA astronaut Timothy Kopra, ESA astronaut Timothy Peake, and Russian cosmonaut Yuri Malenchenko joined Expedition 46 as flight engineers after "Soyuz TMA-19M" docked with the ISS. On December 21, 2015, Kelly and Kopra performed an unscheduled EVA to release the brake handles on the Mobile Transporter rail car for the Canada Arm 2, which had unexpectedly stopped when it was remotely commanded by the flight controllers. After the successful repair of the Mobile Transporter, the ISS crew was resupplied on December 23, 2015, by the "Progress 62" spacecraft. On January 15, 2016, Kopra and Peake performed another EVA and successfully replaced a voltage regulator, but were forced to return early after water began forming inside of Kopra's helmet. On January 8, 2016, Kelly appeared in the thank-you note segment of "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon", with the first ever thank-you note from space. Russian cosmonauts Malenchenko and Volkov conducted an EVA on February 3, 2016, to retrieve experiments and photograph the exterior portions of the Russian segment of the station. On March 1, 2016, Kelly transferred command of the ISS to Kopra, and returned to Earth alongside Korniyenko and Volkov aboard "Soyuz TMA-18M". The spacecraft landed in Kazakhstan, and Kelly returned to Houston the following day.  In addition to the biological tests conducted on all astronauts on the station, Kelly also participated in comparative study on the effects of spaceflight with his identical twin Mark as the ground control subject. Kelly's physical, cognitive, and genetic traits were measured before and after the flight. Within several months after returning to Earth, Kelly had adapted to living in gravity. Genetic tests revealed changes in Kelly's gene expression, and an increase in the length of his telomeres relative to before his flight.  On March 12, 2016, Kelly announced his retirement from NASA, effective April 1, 2016.

Post-NASA career.

Scott Kelly was appointed United Nations Champion for Space by the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), in November 2016, to assist in raising awareness of UNOOSA outreach and activities. On June 19, 2018, Kelly spoke at UNISPACE50+ conference in Vienna.  In October 2017, Kelly released his memoir, "".

Personal life.

On April 25, 1992, Kelly married his first wife, Leslie (), whom he had met while stationed in Virginia Beach. Together, they had two children. Kelly and Leslie divorced in 2010. In July 2018, Kelly married Amiko Kauderer, a public affairs officer for NASA that Kelly had been living with since shortly after his divorce. His sister-in-law is Gabrielle Giffords, a former congresswoman from Arizona. In February 2019, his brother Mark announced his candidacy for the 2020 United States Senate special election in Arizona.  In 2007, Kelly was successfully treated for prostate cancer. After Kelly received his diagnosis, his brother Mark was also diagnosed and successfully treated.

Awards and honors.

Kelly has received these awards and decorations:  Kelly received an honorary Korolev Diploma from the Federation Aeronautique Internationale (1999) and an Honorary Doctorate of Science degree from the State University of New York (2008). Kelly was featured on the cover of "Time" on December 29, 2014. In 2015, Kelly was listed as one of the "Time" 100 Most Influential People.  Kelly is an associate fellow of the Society of Experimental Test Pilots and a member of the Association of Space Explorers.

Scott Joseph Kelly (born February 21, 1964) is an American engineer, retired astronaut, and military pilot. A veteran of four space flights, Kelly commanded the International Space Station (ISS) on Expeditions 26, 45, and 46.

Scott Joseph Kelly (* 21. Februar 1964 in Orange, New Jersey, USA) ist ein ehemaliger amerikanischer Astronaut. Sein sechs Minuten älterer Zwillingsbruder Mark war ebenfalls Raumfahrer. Mit 520 Tagen im All ist Scott Kelly der erfahrenste NASA-Astronaut.


The constants.

There are four primary line constants, but in some circumstances some of them are small enough to be ignored and the analysis can be simplified. These four, and their symbols and units are as follows:  "R" and "L" are elements in series with the line (because they are properties of the conductor) and "C" and "G" are elements shunting the line (because they are properties of the dielectric material between the conductors). "G" represents leakage current through the dielectric and in most cables is very small. The word loop is used to emphasise that the resistance and inductance of both conductors must be taken into account. For instance, if a line consists of two identical wires that have a resistance of 25 mΩ/m each, the "loop" resistance is double that, 50 mΩ/m. Because the values of the constants are quite small, it is common for manufacturers to quote them per kilometre rather than per metre; in the English-speaking world "per mile" can also be used.  The word "constant" can be misleading. It means that they are material constants; but they may vary with frequency. In particular, "R" is heavily influenced by the skin effect. Furthermore, while "G" has virtually no effect at audio frequency, it can cause noticeable losses at high frequency with many of the dielectric materials used in cables due to a high loss tangent. Avoiding the losses caused by "G" is the reason many cables designed for use at UHF are air-insulated or foam-insulated (which makes them virtually air-insulated). The actual meaning of constant in this context is that the parameter is constant with "distance". That is the line is assumed to be homogenous lengthwise. This condition is true for the vast majority of transmission lines in use today.

Circuit representation.

The line constants cannot be simply represented as lumped elements in a circuit; they must be described as distributed elements. For instance "pieces" of the capacitance are in between "pieces" of the resistance. However many pieces the "R" and "C" are broken into, it can always be argued they should be broken apart further to properly represent the circuit, and after each division the number of meshes in the circuit is increased. This is shown diagramtically in figure 1. To give a true representation of the circuit, the elements must be made infinitesimally small so that each element is distributed along the line. The infinitesimal elements in an infinitesimal distance formula_2 are given by;  It is convenient for the purposes of analysis to roll up these elements into general series impedance, "Z", and shunt admittance, "Y" elements such that; Analysis of this network (figure 2) will yield the secondary line constants: the propagation constant, formula_9, (whose real and imaginary parts are the attenuation constant, formula_10, and phase change constant, formula_11, respectively) and the characteristic impedance, formula_12, which also, in general, will have real, formula_13, and imaginary, formula_14, parts, making a total of four secondary constants to be derived from the four primary constants. The term constant is even more misleading for the secondary constants as they usually vary quite strongly with frequency, even in an ideal situation where the primary constants do not. This is because the reactances in the circuit (formula_15 and formula_16) introduce a dependence on formula_17. It is possible to choose specific values of the primary constants that result in formula_10 and formula_12 being independent of formula_20 (the Heaviside condition) but even in this case, there is still formula_11 which is directly proportional to formula_17. As with the primary constants, the meaning of "constant" is that the secondary constants do not vary with distance along the line, not that they are independent of frequency.

Characteristic impedance.

The characteristic impedance of a transmission line, formula_12, is defined as the impedance looking into an infinitely long line. Such a line will never return a reflection since the incident wave will never reach the end to be reflected. When considering a finite length of the line, the remainder of the line can be replaced by formula_12 as its equivalent circuit. This is so because the remainder of the line is still infinitely long and therefore equivalent to the original line. If the finite segment is very short, then in the equivalent circuit it will be modelled by an L-network consisting of one element of formula_25 and one of formula_26; the remainder is given by formula_12. This results in the network shown in figure 3, which can be analysed for formula_12 using the usual network analysis theorems,  which re-arranges to,  Taking limits of both sides  and since the line was assumed to be homogenous lengthwise,

Propagation constant.

The ratio of the line input voltage to the voltage a distance formula_33 further down the line (that is, after one section of the equivalent circuit) is given by a standard voltage divider calculation. The remainder of the line to the right, as in the characteristic impedance calculation, is replaced with formula_12,  Each infinitesimal section will multiply the voltage drop by the same factor. After formula_36 sections the voltage ratio will be,  At a distance formula_38 along the line, the number of sections is formula_39 so that,  In the limit as formula_41,  The second order term formula_43 will disappear in the limit, so we can write without loss of accuracy,  and comparing with the mathematical identity,  yields,  From the definition of propagation constant,  Hence,

Special cases.

Ideal transmission line.

An ideal transmission line will have no loss, which implies that the resistive elements are zero. It also results in a purely real (resistive) characteristic impedance. The ideal line cannot be realised in practice, but it is a useful approximation in many circumstances. This is especially true, for instance, when short pieces of line are being used as circuit components such as stubs. A short line has very little loss and this can then be ignored and treated as an ideal line. The secondary constants in these circumstances are;

Twisted pair.

Typically, twisted pair cable used for audio frequencies or low data rates has line constants dominated by "R" and "C". The dielectric loss is usually negligible at these frequencies and "G" is close to zero. It is also the case that, at a low enough frequency, formula_53 which means that "L" can also be ignored. In those circumstances the secondary constants become,  The attenuation of this cable type increases with frequency, causing distortion of waveforms. Not so obviously, the variation of formula_11 with frequency also causes a distortion of a type called dispersion. To avoid dispersion the requirement is that formula_11 is directly proportional to formula_17. However, it is actually proportional to formula_61 and dispersion results. formula_12 also varies with frequency and is also partly reactive; both these features will be the cause of reflections from a resistive line termination. This is another undesirable effect. The nominal impedance quoted for this type of cable is, in this case, very nominal, being valid at only one spot frequency, usually quoted at 800 Hz or 1 kHz.

Co-axial cable.

Cable operated at a high enough frequency (VHF radio frequency or high data rates) will meet the conditions formula_63 and formula_64. This must eventually be the case as the frequency is increased for any cable. Under those conditions "R" and "G" can both be ignored (except for the purpose of calculating the cable loss) and the secondary constants become;

Loaded line.

Loaded lines are lines designed with deliberately increased inductance. This is done by adding iron or some other magnetic metal to the cable or adding coils. The purpose is to ensure that the line meets the Heaviside condition, which eliminates distortion caused by frequency-dependent attenuation and dispersion, and ensures that formula_12 is constant and resistive. The secondary constants are here related to the primary constants by;

Velocity.

The velocity of propagation is given by,  Since,  then,  In cases where can be taken as,  the velocity of propagation is given by,  The lower the capacitance the higher the velocity. With an air dielectric cable, which is approximated to with low-loss cable, the velocity of propagation is very close to "c", the speed of light "in vacuo".

The primary line constants are parameters that describe the characteristics of conductive transmission lines, such as pairs of copper wires, in terms of the physical electrical properties of the line. The primary line constants are only relevant to transmission lines and are to be contrasted with the secondary line constants, which can be derived from them, and are more generally applicable. The secondary line constants can be used, for instance, to compare the characteristics of a waveguide to a copper line, whereas the primary constants have no meaning for a waveguide.

Zu den elektrischen Kenngrößen einer elektrischen Leitung gehören außer dem Leitungswellenwiderstand die sogenannten Leitungsbeläge. Leitungsbeläge beschreiben die Kapazität, die Induktivität, den Längswiderstand in Leitungsrichtung und den Querleitwert quer zur Leitungsrichtung einer Leitung bezogen auf die Leitungslänge. Die Leitungsbeläge sind längenbezogene, zusammengefasste elektrische Eigenschaften abhängig von Material und Geometrie. Sie sind in erster Näherung Konstanten eines Kabeltyps – falls sich dieser im freien Raum befindet. Aus diesem Grund werden sie auch als „primäre Leitungskonstanten“ (im Gegensatz zu den „sekundären Leitungskonstanten“ Wellenwiderstand und Fortpflanzungskonstante) bezeichnet.


History.

The formation of the Navy League in 1894 gave added impetus to the movement to recognise Nelson's legacy, and grand celebrations were held in Trafalgar Square in London on Trafalgar Day, 1896. It was commemorated by parades, dinners and other events throughout much of the British Empire in the 19th century and early 20th century. It continues to be celebrated by navies of the Commonwealth of Nations. Its public celebration declined after the end of World War I in 1918. The massive casualties and upheaval had changed the general public perception of war as a source of glorious victories to a more sombre view of it as a tragedy, for which the newly instituted Armistice Day on 11 November was created. However, Trafalgar Day was still marked as a public day each year. Around 1993, it was rumoured that John Major's government might make it a public holiday in place of May Day, and this plan was revived in the 2011 Tourism Strategy created by the then coalition government.  The year 2005 was the bicentennial of the Battle of Trafalgar, and the Royal Navy led "Trafalgar 200" celebrations. The 2005 International Fleet Review held off Spithead in the Solent on 28 June was the first since 1999 and the largest since Her Majesty The Queen's 1977 Silver Jubilee.

Trafalgar Night.

On 21 October each year the commissioned officers of the Royal Navy celebrate the victory at the Battle of Trafalgar by holding a Trafalgar Night dinner in the Officer's Mess.  At a Trafalgar Night banquet or dinner, a speech is usually made by a guest of honour who ends it with a toast to "The Immortal Memory..." (The rest of the wording of the toast vary depending on what is said in the speech). On 21 October 2005 (the 200th anniversary), at such a dinner the traditional toast was given by Queen Elizabeth II: Such dinners also occur each year on or around 21 October in locations other than Royal Navy ships.  The Royal Naval Museum in Portsmouth hold a "Trafalgar Night Dinner" each year on a date close to 21 October.  The British ambassador in Washington hosts such a dinner at which the guest of honour may be a senior officer in the United States Navy.

British celebrations.

Sea Cadet Corps in the United Kingdom hold a youth cadet parade known as the National Trafalgar Day Parade on Trafalgar Square each year. The parade is formed with a platoon from each area, a guard and a massed band. This is held on the closest Sunday to 21 October. Units and Districts from around the country celebrate this day – usually with a town parade.  Birmingham celebrates the anniversary with a ceremony at the statue of Lord Nelson – the oldest such statue in the United Kingdom – in the Bull Ring. The ceremony is led by the Lord Mayor of Birmingham and involves men and women of HMS "Forward", Sea Cadet units from across the West Midlands and various civic organisations, including The Nelson Society and The Birmingham Civic Society. Afterwards representatives of naval and civic organisations lay wreaths and a parade marches off to Victoria Square, the public square in front of the seat of local government, where the Lord Mayor takes the salute.  Another aspect of the Birmingham celebration is that the statue is regaled with swags of laurel and flowers, possibly due to its location by the wholesale flower markets of the city. This tradition, marked through most of the nineteenth century, was revived in 2004.  In Edinburgh, citizens commissioned the Nelson Monument on Calton Hill in memory of Admiral Lord Nelson. Weather permitting, the Trafalgar flag signal "England expects that every man will do his duty" is flown on Trafalgar Day. Looking like a tall stone telescope, the Nelson Monument contains a time ball which drops at 1 o'clock daily.  The village of Dervock in County Antrim (Northern Ireland) has the only known memorial which takes the form of a stained-glass window depicting Admiral Lord Nelson minutes before he was killed on board HMS "Victory" in 1805. It is believed that this is the only memorial on the island, Nelson's pillar in Dublin (the earliest memorial to Admiral Nelson) having been destroyed in 1966, and in 2015 residents organised their first ever "Trafalgar Day".  In Gibraltar, the Trafalgar Day service takes place at the Trafalgar Cemetery, where the senior Naval Commander reads an extract from the "Gibraltar Chronicle" newspaper, the first periodical to report on the battle. Some sailors died in Gibraltar of wounds received at Trafalgar; they are buried in Gibraltar. HMS "Victory", with Nelson's body on board, underwent repairs in Gibraltar prior to sailing for Britain.  In the Isle of Man, the steersman of HMS Victory is buried in the graveyard of Kirk Arbory, Ballabeg. An annual parade and church service takes place on Trafalgar Day.

International celebrations.

The victory is celebrated in Nelson, New Zealand (named after Horatio Nelson) usually in Trafalgar Square and sometimes involves pupils from the local "Victory Primary School". Many streets in Nelson are named after Trafalgar and crew members of Victory.  The victory is celebrated each year in the Australian town of Trafalgar, Victoria, in which the small town of 2,200 hold an annual Battle of Trafalgar Festival with the Trafalgar Day Ball held on the Friday or Saturday closest to 21 October each year.

Trafalgar Day is the celebration of the victory won by the Royal Navy, commanded by Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson, over the combined French and Spanish fleets at the Battle of Trafalgar on 21 October 1805.

Der Trafalgar Day ist der Gedenktag für den Sieg der britischen Flotte unter Admiral Horatio Nelson über die vereinigte französische und spanische Flotte unter Pierre Charles de Villeneuve in der Schlacht von Trafalgar am 21. Oktober 1805. Er wurde im 19. Jahrhundert und am Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts mit Paraden, Feiern und Galaessen im gesamten Britischen Empire begangen.


Orbit and classification.

"Viola" is a non-family asteroid of the main belt's background population when applying the Hierarchical Clustering Method to its proper orbital elements. The asteroid has also been classified as a member of the Nysa family (), the largest asteroid family of the main belt, consisting of stony and carbonaceous subfamilies. The family, named after 44 Nysa, is located near the Kirkwood gap (3:1 orbital resonance with Jupiter), a depleted zone that separates the central main belt.  "Viola" orbits the Sun in the inner asteroid belt at a distance of 2.1–2.8 AU once every 3 years and 11 months (1,422 days; semi-major axis of 2.47 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.14 and an inclination of 3° with respect to the ecliptic. The body's observation arc begins at Heidelberg in January 1951, or more than 24 years after its official discovery observation.

Physical characteristics.

In the Tholen classification, "Viola" is a rare F-type asteroid, while in the SMASS taxonomy, it is classified as a common, carbonaceous C-type.

Rotation period.

In the 1980s, a rotational lightcurve of "Viola" was obtained from photometric observations by American astronomer Richard Binzel. Lightcurve analysis gave a well-defined rotation period of 7.336 hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.12 magnitude (). A tentative period of 14.4 hours was measured by French amateur astronomer René Roy in January 2009, but later retracted from the LCDB ().

Diameter and albedo.

According to the surveys carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite and the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, "Viola" measures between 21.412 and 26.39 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.032 and 0.0428.  The "Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link" adopts the results obtained by IRAS, that is, an albedo of 0.0415 and a diameter of 22.63 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 12.30.

Naming.

This minor planet was named after "Viola", a genus of flowering plants within the violet family. The official naming citation was mentioned in "The Names of the Minor Planets" by Paul Herget in 1955 ().

Reinmuth's flowers.

Due to his many discoveries, Karl Reinmuth submitted a large list of 66 newly named asteroids in the early 1930s. The list covered his discoveries with numbers between and. This list also contained a sequence of 28 asteroids, starting with 1054 Forsytia, that were all named after plants, in particular flowering plants "(also see list of minor planets named after animals and plants)".

1076 Viola, provisional designation, is a Nysian asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 22 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 5 October 1926, by German astronomer Karl Reinmuth at the Heidelberg Observatory in southwest Germany. The asteroid was named after the flowering plant "Viola".

(1076) Viola ist ein Asteroid des Hauptgürtels, der am 5. Oktober 1926 vom deutschen Astronomen Karl Wilhelm Reinmuth entdeckt wurde, der am Observatorium auf dem Königstuhl bei Heidelberg tätig war.


Development.

Origins.

Following the end of the Second World War, de Havilland Canada's management team, recognising that there were would be a corresponding downturn in military orders in the immediate post-war climate, decided to focus the company's energies upon finding work within the civilian sector. The company had recently hired Punch Dickins as Director of Sales; Dickins carried out an extensive market research program in the form of requesting and collecting feedback from other pilots, to understand what they needed in a new aircraft. It was on the basis of this information from the prospective operators themselves, as opposed to aerodynamic research or fiscal data, that the future aircraft has its origins.  In response, almost without exception, these pilots specified their desire for tremendous extra power and STOL performance, in a design that could be easily fitted with wheels, skis or floats. When de Havilland engineers noted this would result in poor cruise performance, one pilot replied, "You only have to be faster than a dog sled to be a winner". Other suggestions that were seemingly mundane, but important in the bush plane world, included the installation of full-sized doors on both sides of the aircraft, which meant that it could be readily loaded no matter which side of a dock it tied up on; the doors were also made wide enough to allow for a 44 Imperial gallon drum to be rolled up into the aircraft.  On 17 September 1946, de Havilland officially put together a design team consisting of Fred Buller, Dick Hiscocks, Jim Houston and W. Jakimiuk, led by Phil Garratt. The new aircraft was designed to be all-metal (unlike older designs, like the famous Noorduyn Norseman), using "steel from the engine to the firewall, heavy aluminum truss frames with panels and doors throughout the front seat area, lighter trusses toward the rear and all monocoque construction aft". At the time, de Havilland Canada was still a British-owned company and there were plans to fit the evolving design with the British de Havilland Gipsy engine. As a result of its comparatively limited power, the wing area was greatly increased in order to maintain STOL performance. When Pratt & Whitney Canada offered to supply war-surplus Wasp Junior radial engines at a low price, the aircraft ended up with extra power as well as the original long wing. The result was unbeatable STOL performance for an aircraft of its size.  In line with the convention for aircraft produced by de Havilland Canada being named after animals, it was decided that the new bush plane would be named after the beaver, which was known for its hard-working nature. On 16 August 1947, the maiden flight of the DHC-2 Beaver was in Downsview, Ontario; it was flown by Second World War flying ace Russell Bannock. After completing its flight test programme, the prototype received several adjustments and improvements in order for it to serve as a flying demonstration model ready for the sales circuit. The prototype was ultimately sold to Central British Columbia Airways, as a routine day-to-day working air-taxi airplane and continued to fly as such with various until 1980, after which it was retired and preserved. In April 1948, the first production aircraft was delivered to the Ontario Department of Lands and Forests, who had been a design partner.

Production.

Initial sales were slow, perhaps two or three a month but as the plane was demonstrated sales started to improve. A key event in the Beaver's history occurred the next year, when the US Army commenced its search for a new utility aircraft to replace their fleet of Cessnas. The competition quickly boiled down to the Beaver and the Cessna 195; however, the Beaver proved itself to outperform the 195 and, as a consequence of the outbreak of the Korean War, this led to orders for hundreds of aircraft being placed. The US Army would ultimately order 970 Beavers, more than half of the overall production run for the type.  Soon, the Beaver grew to become an export success as orders for the type increased from customers around the world. Individual military services of more than 30 different nations would ultimately be included amongst its operators. In later life, as the type was gradually phased out of military service, many examples underwent conversion work so that they could continue to be operated as civilian aircraft instead. During the 1960s, de Havilland developed an improved model of the Beaver, the Mk.III Turbo Beaver, which was equipped with a Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6 turboprop engine. A total of sixty aircraft were built during the late 1960s. In 1967, when production of the type finally ceased, a total of 1,657 DHC-2 Beavers had been constructed.  The Beaver was designed for flight in rugged and remote areas of the world. Its STOL capability made it ideal for areas normally only accessible by canoe or foot. Because the aircraft often flies to remote locations and in cold climates, its oil reservoir filler is located in the cockpit and oil can be filled in flight. A series of upgrades to the basic design were incorporated. One major customer introduced the use of flat steps replacing the earlier tubes, a feature now almost universal. In 1987, the Canadian "Engineering Centennial Board" named the DHC-2 as one of the top ten Canadian engineering achievements of the 20th century.

Recent developments.

At one point in its production, plans to license-build the Beaver in New Zealand were proposed. The remaining tooling was purchased by Viking Air of Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, which manufactures replacement parts for most of the early de Havilland line. The company markets and sells the remanufactured DHC-2T Turbo Beaver, an improved variant of the aircraft which has been upgraded with a PT6A-34, which enables an increased maximum gross takeoff weight of and the carriage of up to of freight, a roughly 25 per cent increase in usable payload. By August 1995, Viking completed its 30th Turbo Beaver conversion. The firm has also developed and marketed other improvements for the type, such as an advanced wing and modified floats. Other manufacturers have also offered aftermarket upgrades and modifications for the type, such as re-engining programmes by Orenda Aerospace and Wipaire.  On 24 February 2006, Viking purchased the type certificates from Bombardier Aerospace for all the original de Havilland designs, including the Beaver. The ownership of the certificates gives the company the exclusive right to manufacture new aircraft. Viking has stated its interest in the potential restart of production of the Beaver, and commented that, dependent upon market demand, the firm may offer two separate models of the Beaver, one intended to be close to the design of the original batch, and another incorporating various improvements such as new avionics, engines, and doors, as well as likely being stretched to provide increased internal space. However, Viking's Turbo Beavers are currently only produced as rebuilds from existing air frames, and have not been manufactured as new-builds, unlike Viking's own DHC-6 Series 400 Twin Otter, which is manufactured using a completely new airframe.  Stolairus Aviation of Kelowna, British Columbia has developed several modifications for the DHC-2 including a STOL Kit which modifies the wing with a contoured leading edge, flap-gap seals, wing fences and drooped wingtips for increased performance. Stolairus has also developed a Wing Angle Kit which changes the incidence of the wing.  Advanced Wing Technologies of Vancouver, British Columbia has developed and certified a new wing for the DHC-2. The FAA Supplemental Type Certificate also raises the aircraft's gross weight to. So far, at least two Beavers have been modified in such a manner.  In September 2017 the Transportation Safety Board of Canada recommended stall warning devices be mandated for commercial Beaver operators.  In March 2019, Harbour Air announced plans to convert a DHC-2 Beaver to an electric aircraft and eventually to convert its entire fleet of aircraft. The first test flight of the aircraft took place in Vancouver in December 2019.

Design.

The de Havilland Canada DHC-2 Beaver is a single-engined high-wing propeller-driven STOL aircraft, principally operated as a bush plane and other utility roles, such as cargo and passenger hauling, aerial application (crop dusting and aerial topdressing), and general civil aviation purposes; aviation publication Plane & Pilot described the type as being "arguably the best bush plane ever built". The Beaver was designed to operate in all seasons and the majority of weather conditions; a large proportion were also equipped with floats for buoyancy in water; it reportedly possesses favourable performance characteristics for a floatplane. As a result of its favourable characteristics as a hard working and productive aircraft, the Beaver has had a lengthy service life and many examples have been remanufactured or have otherwise received life extension modifications.  The Beaver is typically powered by a single Pratt & Whitney R-985 Wasp Junior radial engine. In order to provide the necessary weight balance for optimal loading flexibility, the engine was mounted as far rearwards as possible, resulting in elements intruding into the cockpit space, such as the oil tank being positioned within the center console between the pilot and copilot's feet and the main fuel tank within the forward belly of the aircraft, which also improves accessibility for replenishment. Many Beavers have had wingtip tanks also installed; careful fuel management between the various fuel tanks is required throughout flights in order to maintain the aircraft's center of gravity. The remanufactured DHC-2T Turbo Beaver is equipped with a PT6A-34 turboprop engine.  The Beaver is functionally shaped in order to accommodate a useful and sizable payload, typically close to, even when equipped with floats. While the front doors are narrow, the aft doors are wider, having been designed to facilitate the loading of 55-gallon barrels, either upright or on their sides. The Beaver is considered a 'working' aircraft, which was designed for vigorous use. In addition to cargo, passengers can also be carried; when appropriately fitted out, the Beaver Mk.I can accommodate up to seven passengers while the more spacious Beaver Mk.III can hold a maximum of 11. Various alterations have been approved, including alternative seating arrangements, enlarged cargo doors, larger windows and smaller batteries have been approved for use.  During takeoff, both the ailerons and flaps are lowered, which is a relatively uncommon design approach but results in substantially elevated STOL performance. The flaps can be deployed to an extreme range, extending out at full to a 58-degree position; the flight manual notes that the full setting is recommended only for performing emergency landings. In the skies, the Beaver is relatively easy to handle, having been described as possessing light and comfortable controls; however, effective application of the rudder is necessitated in order to counteract adverse yaw. It should be flown with a relatively nose-low pitch attitude to maintain airspeed. Reportedly, the aircraft is very easy to land, even upon less than calm water conditions.

Operational history.

Despite the fact that production ceased in 1967, hundreds of Beavers are still flying—many of them heavily modified to adapt to changes in technology and needs. Kenmore Air of Kenmore, Washington provides Beaver and Otter airframes with "zero-hour" fatigue-life ratings, and owns dozens of supplemental type certificates (STCs) for aircraft modifications. These modifications are so well known and desirable in the aviation community, rebuilt Beavers are often called "Kenmore Beavers" or listed as having "Kenmore mods" installed.  The original Wasp Jr radial engine of the Beaver is long out of production, so repair parts are getting harder to find. Some aircraft conversion stations have addressed this problem by replacing the piston engine with a turboprop engine such as the PT6. The added power and lighter installed weight, together with greater availability of kerosene fuel instead of high-octane aviation gasoline, make this a desirable modification, but at a high financial cost.  The Beaver was deployed by the British Army Air Corps during the Troubles, at least until 1979, for photo-reconnaissance missions. One of them was hit seven times by machine gun fire in South County Armagh, near the border with the Republic of Ireland in November 1979, while taking valuable photos of an IRA checkpoint. The border crossing where the action took place has been known to the British Army as "Beaver Junction" since then.  Operators of significant numbers of piston-Beavers in early 2008 include Air Saguenay and Harbour Air in Canada and Kenmore Air in the USA.  American actor Harrison Ford owns a DHC-2 Beaver; he is known for referring to it as being his favourite among his entire fleet of private aircraft.  The Civil Air Patrol operated the larger numbers of the DHC-2 Beaver, where it was commonly used for conducting search and rescue missions. For some decades, the United States military has operate a pair of DHC-2s at the United States Naval Test Pilot School, where they are used to instruct students in the evaluation of lateral-directional flying qualities and for the towing of gliders.  In recent years, growing numbers of the type have been used within the leisure industry, being used for pleasure flight and as lifting platforms for skydiving and aerial film activities. The DHC-2 Beaver has been sometimes used by skydiving operators due to its good climb rate. When fitted with a roller door that can be opened in flight, it can quickly ferry eight skydivers to.

Operators.

Civil.

The DHC-2 is popular with air charter companies, police forces and small air taxi operators as well as private individuals and companies. Both the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and Finnish Border Guard operate the aircraft.

Accidents and incidents.

As of May 2019, there have been 313 incidents involving the DHC-2 and 663 deaths. Listed below are a select few of the most notable ones.

The de Havilland Canada DHC-2 Beaver is a single-engined high-wing propeller-driven short takeoff and landing (STOL) aircraft developed and manufactured by de Havilland Canada. It has been primarily operated as a bush plane and has been used for a wide variety of utility roles, such as cargo and passenger hauling, aerial application (crop dusting and aerial topdressing), and civil aviation duties.

Die DHC-2 "Beaver" ist ein STOL-fähiges leichtes Transport-, Verbindungs- und Beobachtungsflugzeug des ehemaligen kanadischen Flugzeugherstellers de Havilland of Canada Ltd. Von 1947 bis 1967 wurden über 1600 Exemplare gebaut. Seit 2008 wird bei Viking Air, ebenfalls in Kanada, eine Turboprop-Version aus Umbauten gebrauchter Exemplare hergestellt.


Background.

Valsalva was born at Imola. The contemporary of Isaac Newton and Johann Sebastian Bach, he was educated in the humanities, mathematics, and natural sciences. After studies of the liberal arts, he studied medicine and philosophy in Bologna. He was taught by Marcello Malpighi, who is known as the founder of microscopic anatomy. Valsalva graduated from the medical school in 1687. In 1705, he was appointed professor of anatomy at Bologna. He was later chosen as president of the Academy of the Sciences. Valsalva taught Giovanni Battista Morgagni who edited Valsalva’s complete writings and published a biography on Valsalva, both in 1740.  In 1709, Valsalva married Elena Lisi. As he lost his health, he lost his sense of smell, but he recognized the prodromal symptoms, in the form of dyslalia, of the disease that would eventually cause his death from stroke at Bologna in 1723.  Valsalva was buried in the church of San Giovanni in Monte, Bologna. The Valsalva family donated a collection of dried anatomical specimens to be used for educational purposes to the Institute of Sciences founded in 1711. The wear of this material that followed possibly inspired the work of the Bolognese school of wax modeling and the artists Ercole Lelli and Giovanni and Anna Morandi Manzolini. This new anatomic collection includes models of the heart and lungs and is today presented at the Museum of Anatomy.  Valsalva was described as a skillful surgeon and excellent physician, a meticulous anatomist with high scientific integrity, and a man of great kindness. Morgagni wrote ""... there is nobody of those times who goes ahead of him, very few who are his equals.""

Research.

Valsalva both studied and taught in the fields of science, surgery, anatomy, physiology, and psychiatry. At a young age, Valsalva had successfully removed a dog’s kidney. He opposed cauterization in the treatment of wounds, and recommended humanitarian treatment of mentally ill patients. His main interest was the middle and internal ear, including the muscles of the external ear and the pharyngeal muscles.  Valsalva named the Eustachian tube and described its function and that of its muscle. He showed the connection between the mastoid cells and the tympanic cavity, and made observations on physiologic and pathologic processes of the ear. "De aure humana tractatus" published in 1704 contains a description of the Valsalva maneuver and patency test of the auditory tubes.  A skilled anatomist, Valsalva conducted many autopsies on deceased patients. During the 17th century, lacking chemical tests and knowledge of disease transmission mechanisms, he sometimes tasted the fluids he encountered in cadavers in an effort to better characterize them. "Gangrenous pus does not taste good", he wrote, "leaving the tongue tingling unpleasantly for the better part of the day."

Valsalva device in spacesuits.

The Valsalva device is a device used in spacesuits to allow astronauts to equalize the pressure in their ears by performing the Valsalva maneuver inside the suit without using their hands to block their nose. It has also been used for other purposes, such as to remove moisture from the face.

Andrew Kevin Walker (born August 14, 1964) is an American screenwriter, producer and script doctor. He is known for having written "Seven" (1995), for which he earned a nomination for the BAFTA Award for Best Original Screenplay, as well as several other films, including "8mm" (1999), "Sleepy Hollow" (1999) and many uncredited script rewrites.

Andrew Kevin Walker (* 14. August 1964 in Altoona, Pennsylvania), ist ein US-amerikanischer Drehbuchautor. Er absolvierte die Mechanicsburg Senior Highschool sowie die Pennsylvania State University.


Early life.

Panajot Pano was born in Durrës, to Greek parents Thoma and Vasilika Pano who came from Lefterhor, Delvinë. He developed a passion for the sport when he was around 4–5 years old. His parents were against him playing football and instead wanted him to focus more on school.

Club career.

Early career.

Pano begun his football career in 1954 by playing as a goalkeeper for 17 Nëntori Tirana. He their youth team which was coached by the former national team manager Adem Karapici initially and then Xhavit Shyqyri Demneri until the age of 16. He was handed his under-19s debut with Tirana by Demneri on 18 July 1956 in a youth national championship game against Korabi Peshkopi and he scored his first goal for the side on 5 August of the same year against Kukësi.

Tirana.

Pano was handed his professional debut by manager Myslym Alla in senior side in 1958 as an 18-year-old, entering as a substitute in a Republic Cup game against Besa Kavajë which ended in a goalless draw. He scored his first senior goal in the returning leg but the team lost 2–1 and was eliminated from the competition. Pano remained a member of the under-19 team at the time and had to wait until the following season before he would establish himself as a first team member.  His league debut occurred on 4 May 1958 in the Tirana derby match against Dinamo Tirana, where he contributed in the 4–0 win by scoring a goal. Pano changed his role from goalkeeper to striker during a league match against Partizani Tirana where 17 Nëntori was losing 4–0. It was coach's Demneri decision to play him as a striker.  He played his final game for Tirana on 9 December 1959 against Besa Kavajë in a game which ended in a 4–2 win for Pano's side.

Partizani Tirana.

On 12 December 1958, Pano was called for the military service and eventually signed for Partizani Tirana. He played his first match for his new side under Rexhep Spahiu on 14 February 1960 against Dinamo Tirana in which he also would score his first goal for his new club in the 3–0 win. He scored 7 goals in his first season which helped the team to finish runner-up in the championship which was won by Dinamo Tirana.  Pano finished 1961 season as top scorer (with 14 goals) as Partizani Tirana won the championship. For his performances Pano earned the Albanian Sportsperson of the Year award. Two years later, he was part of the team that played in the Spartakiad tournament, an official championship of communist countries army clubs. Pano scored four goals during the tournament, including a memorable hat-trick in the 3–1 win over Vorwärts B. Partizani eventually reached the final and was subsequently defeated by XI CSKA/SKA.  On 17 September 1969, Pano returned at Tirana to participate in the first leg of 1969–70 European Cup's first round against Standard Liège; he played as a starter but was replaced by Niko Xhaçka after 65 minutes, as Tirana lost the game 3–0. He didn't play in the second leg which saw Tirana crashing out of the competition 4–1 on aggregate.  In 1970, Pano played in the Balkans Cup, scoring 2 goals as Partizani became the first and only Albanian club to win an international competition, as they defeated Beroe Stara Zagora in the final, following a 1–1 draw in Tiranë and a 3–0 awarded win for the second leg, as Beroe withdrew.  Pano announced his retirement from football in May 1975.

International career.

Pano has been an Albanian international, earning 28 caps and scoring 4 goals between 1963 and 1973. He also captained the national team in 10 occasions. He scored his first international goal on 30 October 1963 against Denmark in the 1964 European Nations' Cup qualifying stage which marked Albania's first ever win in a qualifying match.

Personal life.

His son Ledio Pano, became also a well known football player and played for the football clubs of Partizani, Luftëtari, Xanthi FC and Pas Ioannina. He was also capped several times with Albania.  He died at 70 in Jacksonville, (Florida, United States) on 19 January 2010 after suffering a heart attack.

Legacy.

In November 2003, to celebrate UEFA's Jubilee, he was selected as the Golden Player of Albania by the Football Association of Albania as their most outstanding player of the past 50 years.  On 6 March 2009, Pano received the order Honor of Nation from the President of Albania, Bamir Topi. This was the first time in the history of Albania that a footballer was honored with the "Honor of the Nation" order.

Career statistics.

International.

Source:

International goals.

"Albania score listed first, score column indicates score after each Pano goal."

Panajot Thoma Pano (7 March 1939 – 19 January 2010) was an Albanian football player. He started his career as a goalkeeper in the 17 Nëntori Tirana youth academy, but later became the most prolific centre-forward of their arch-rivals, Partizani Tirana. During his eighteen-year career he played 24 matches as part of the Albanian national football team and was awarded the Albanian UEFA Jubilee Award.

Panajot Pano (; * 7. März 1939 in Durrës; † 19. Januar 2010 in Jacksonville, Florida) war ein albanischer Fußballspieler und gilt als die Legende im albanischen Fußball.


Dahlgren boat howitzers.

During the Mexican–American War the U.S. found itself lacking in light guns that could be fired from ships’ boats and landed to be used as light artillery in support of landing parties. Light artillery borrowed from the army proved unsatisfactory. In 1849, then lieutenant, Dahlgren began to design a family of smoothbore muzzle-loading boat howitzers that could be mounted in ships’ launches and cutters as well as being mounted onto field carriages. The first boat howitzers to be designed were a light 12-pounder, a heavy 12-pounder (originally designated a "medium"), and a 24-pounder. Later a lighter 12-pounder (the "small") and a rifled 12-pounder heavy howitzer were introduced. All of the boat howitzers were very similar in design, cast in bronze, with a mounting lug or loop on the bottom of the barrel instead of trunnions, and an elevating screw running through the cascabel. Having the single mounting lug expedited moving the howitzer from the launch to field carriage and back. In naval service the boat howitzers had gun crews of 10 in the boat and 11 ashore.  The field carriage was made of wrought iron. No limber was used in naval service, but two ammunition boxes (each containing nine rounds) could be lashed to the axle of the field carriage. Members of the gun crew also carried a single round in an ammunition pouch. The smoothbore boat howitzers fired shell, shrapnel, and canister. The rifled 12-pounder fired shot and shell. Percussion primers were used in naval service, but the howitzers could also use friction primers obtained from the army.  The small and the light 12-pounder boat howitzers were not popular. The heavy 12-pounder howitzers were most popular at their intended jobs, while the 24-pounder boat howitzer were found to serve excellently as primary and secondary armaments on river gunboats and similar small vessels. Some 24-pounder boat howitzers were apparently rifled, but some contemporary accounts confuse rifled 24-pounder boat howitzers and the 20-pounder rifles (discussed below)

Army use of boat howitzers.

Aside from use in naval service, boat howitzers saw service with the land forces as well. The boat howitzers were occasionally used in artillery batteries, but were more often used in infantry units, in a role that would later be called "infantry support guns".  At First Bull Run, Company I of the 71st Regiment, NY National Guard, brought two boat howitzers with them. The unit had trained on boat howitzers while deployed at Washington D.C., and when called to Bull Run, brought two of them along. When the regiment retreated they left the howitzers behind for the Confederate forces to capture.  During the Antietam Campaign, Whiting's Battery (Company K, 9th NY Infantry (Hawkins' Zouaves)), employed five Dahlgren boat howitzers (two rifled, two smoothbore, and one of indeterminate type). The howitzers fired on Confederate skirmishers at Snavely's Ford and suppressed them. The Confederate Grimes' (Portsmouth) Battery had two smoothbore Dahlgren boat howitzers, with which they fought near Piper's Stone Barn. The boat howitzers appeared to be popular—when Grimes' battery was forced to turn in one of its guns, it chose to turn in a three-inch ordnance rifle rather than one of its boat howitzers.  The 1st Regiment, New York Marine Artillery, also armed themselves with boat howitzers, using them for their designed use of amphibious expeditions. The unit participated in 16 raids along the North Carolina coast employing their boat howitzers. The New York Marine Artillery was issued twelve 12-pounder rifled boat howitzers made by Norman Wiard out of semi-steel, a low-carbon iron alloy. Other than the material used, the Wiard boat howitzers were identical to the Dahlgren 12-pounder rifled boat howitzers. The Wiard howitzers were not made in large numbers.  Boat howitzers were used in the western theaters also. The Indiana Brigade used a Dahlgren boat howitzer in fighting near Grand Prairie, Arkansas, on July 5, 1862..  While boat howitzers were never commonly used by either army, by the end of the war their use by land forces was very rare.

Dahlgren shell guns.

Throughout the 18th and early 19th centuries, the primary ship to ship weapons were muzzle-loading smoothbore broadside guns firing solid iron shot short distances. This all changed when the French Navy adopted a design of Col. Henri-Joseph Paixhans for a shell gun (canon-obusier) of 22 cm (8.7-inch) capable of throwing a 59 lb. shell in a reasonably flat trajectory in 1842. The U.S. Navy shortly followed suit, adopting an eight-inch, 63 cwt. Paixhans-style shell gun. Dahlgren was determined to design a new generation of shell gun that would be capable of firing explosive shells at higher velocity and greater range. They would also have the capacity to effectively fire solid shot. The ability to fire solid shot would become increasingly important as armored warships appeared on the scene:  All of the Dahlgren shell guns were cast iron columbiads, had a distinctive soda bottle shape and all but two had an elevating screw running through the cascabel. Although some Dahlgren shell guns were tested to failure, no Dahlgren shell gun burst during service, a notable distinction for the time. Dahlgren shell guns were capable of firing shot, shell, shrapnel, canister, and (with the exception of the XV-inch shell gun) grapeshot.

Specific shell and related guns.

Thirty-two-pounder.

Thirty-two-pounder gun of 27 cwt. M.1855: little is known about this gun as few were believed to have been produced. The U.S. Navy had several different models of 32-pounders, which are hard to differentiate in records. Thirty-two-pounders were the primary armaments of older ships like (commissioned 1842) (which was sunk by ) and (commissioned 1842) (which struck its colors to CSS "Virginia"). Later ships were armed with mixtures of shell guns most of which were designed by Dahlgren. The 32-pounders were still useful in providing primary or secondary armament to smaller ships and river gunboats. While earlier 32-pounders primarily fired solid shot, and these guns were called "shot guns" these newer guns could also fire shell. The 32-pounder gun of 27 cwt. had a crew of six and a powder-boy.  Thirty-two-pounder gun of 4,500 pounds and VIII-inch Dahlgren shell gun: 383 of the 32-pounders and 355 of the VIII-inch Dahlgren were cast by Alger Builders, Fort Pitt Foundry, and Seyfert, McManus & Co. between 1864 and 1867. The 32-pounder had a crew of 10 and a powder-boy while the VIII-inch had a crew of 12 and a powder-boy. Some have argued that these guns are not Dahlgren designs, pointing out that while the guns generally resemble his designs, these guns used old-style breeching jaws instead of the breech loop found on other Dahlgrens and that there is no elevating screw running through the cascabel. It is also asserted that the guns would have to be elevated by quoins. This is not accurate, particularly for the VIII-inch Dahlgren, as a new iron carriage with an elevating screw beneath the breech of the gun was developed for VIII-inch and other carriages with breech elevating screws were also used. It is also argued that the bores were too small for their late introduction and very few saw service during or after the American Civil War. These guns would most likely have been intended for small riverine and estuarine gunboats, which the navy scrapped as quickly as possible after the war. The documentary evidence also supports a conclusion that these two guns should be considered to be Dahlgen designs. In Mrs. Dahlgren's petition to the national government for compensation for the use of Admiral Dahlgren's inventions, both the 32-pounder gun of 4,500 pounds and VIII-inch shell gun are specifically described as designs of Admiral Dahlgren. Also, in February 1867, Cyrus Alger paid a royalty on the Dahlgren patent for production of "ten eight-inch guns weighing 64,270, $642.70." There can be little doubt that both of these guns should be credited as Dahlgren designs.

IX-inch.

IX-inch Dahlgren shell gun: 1,185 guns were cast at Alger, Bellona, Fort Pitt, Seyfert, McManus & Co., Tredegar, and West Point foundries between 1855 and 1864. Fort Pitt Foundry also made 16 for the army in 1861. The IX-inch Dahlgren was the most popular and versatile of Dahlgren shell guns made. The IX-inch guns served as broadside armament on larger ships such as, which carried 12 IX-inch Dahlgren guns in broadside mounts in addition to her two pivot guns and which carried 10 IX-inch guns in broadside mounts in addition to her two XI-inch Dahlgren pivot guns. These broadside guns would normally be mounted on a Marsilly carriage (see illustration). Smaller coastal blockade ships such as and mounted IX-inch Dahlgrens on pivot mounts. IX-inch Dahlgrens were used on several river gunboats such as and. If mounted as either a pivot gun or a broadside gun the IX-inch Dahlgren had a crew of 16 and a powderman.

X-inch.

X-inch Dahlgren shell gun (light): 10 were cast at Seyfert, McManus & Co. and West Point foundries between 1855 and 1864. Pivot mounted on board ships such as, and (pre-) with a crew of 20 and a powderman.  X-inch Dahlgren shell gun (heavy): 34 cast between 1862 and 1865. Designed from the beginning to fire shot against armored ships with heavier powder charges. Mounted on a pivot mount with a crew of 20 and a powderman.

XI-inch.

XI-inch Dahlgren shell gun: 465 were cast at Alger; Builders; Fort Pitt; Hinkley, Williams & Co.; Portland Locomotive Works; Seyfert, McManus & Co.; Trenton Iron Works; and West Point foundries between 1856 and 1864. This is the only Dahlgren gun to have been designed both with and without a muzzle swell. The gun was typically mounted on a pivot or in a turret on a monitor. When mounted in a turret, the crew for an XI-inch Dahlgren was seven including powdermen. The crew for the gun when mounted on a pivot was 24 men and a powderman. XI-inch Dahlgrens were carried on,,,, and (1 XI-inch and 1 XV-inch short) class monitors as well as the original.,, and many other conventional ships carried XI-inch Dahlgrens on pivot mounts. A few larger river gunboats, such as and also carried XI-inch Dahlgrens.

XIII-inch.

XIII-inch Dahlgren shell gun: The XIII-inch Dahlgren was originally intended for s but proved unsuccessful and the XV-inch Dahlgren was used instead.

XV-inch.

XV-inch Dahlgren shell gun (short or "Passaic"): 34 were cast by the Fort Pitt Foundry between 1862 and 1864. The first XV-inch guns' barrels were so short that the muzzle was inside the monitor's turret when the gun was discharged. The resulting blast and fumes in the turret would have made the gun impossible to work. The navy constructed "smoke-boxes" inside the turrets of the monitors equipped with the short XV-inch gun (see illustration), but the presence of the smoke-boxes slowed the rate of fire for the guns. When mounted in a turret, the crew for a XV-inch Dahlgren was 10 including powdermen. These were carried on (1 XI-inch and 1 XV-inch short) and early s. 15-inch Dahlgren guns for the Russian version of the "Passaic", the, were produced at the new Aleksandrovsk gun factory in Petrozavodsk in Russian Karelia.  XV-inch Dahlgren shell gun (long or ""Tecumseh""): 86 were cast by the Alger, Fort Pitt, and Seyfert, McManus & Co. foundries between 1864 and 1872. The new XV-inch gun was lengthened 16 inches so that the muzzle was flush with the outside of the turret when fired, eliminating the need for the smoke-box, Carried on later "Canonicus"-class monitors.

XX-inch.

XX-inch Dahlgren shell gun: four were cast by the Fort Pitt Foundry between 1864 and 1867 as part of the original planned armament for. Three of these, named 'Satan', 'Lucifer' and 'Moloch' were accepted by the U.S. Navy, but saw no service. The fourth gun, named 'Beelzebub' was sold to Peru, where it became part of the defenses of Callao.

Dahlgren shell guns and Rodman casting.

The navy's demand for 15-inch guns to defeat the new Confederate ironclads placed Dahlgren in a dilemma. All of his earlier shell guns had been cast solid, then had the bore drilled out—the traditional way to make artillery. Dahlgren’s efforts with the XIII-inch shell gun were unsatisfactory and it was not clear that he could solid cast a 15-inch gun. However 15-inch guns had been successfully cast using the hollow casting technique developed by Thomas Jackson Rodman. In his method the gun was cast around a pipe. As the casting cooled, a smaller pipe was inserted into the first and water was pumped through the small pipe. At the same time hot coals were placed against the outside of the casting. This caused the casting to cool slowly from the inside out. As the outer parts of the casting cooled, they compressed the already cooled inner parts, making a stronger gun. The Bureau of Ordnance ordered that the Dahlgren XV-inch and XX-inch shell guns be cast using the Rodman hollow casting method. This use of Rodman hollow casting with a Dahlgren designed gun led to friction between Dahlgren and the Bureau of Ordnance, as well as some confusion in nomenclature.

Table of Dahlgren shell and related guns.

Estimated values are indicated by an asterisk. Estimates by, except for the estimate of the overall length of the X-inch (heavy) which is based on a bore length of 117.75 inches and the estimate of the weight of the XX-inch shell which is based on the weight of the shell for the Columbiad, Seacoast, 20-inch, Model 1864.

Dahlgren rifled guns.

Dahlgren designed several rifled muzzle-loading cannon, as well. Twenty-pounder rifle: an entirely bronze gun that was popular and was the only Dahlgren rifle (other than the 12-pounder boat howitzer) that continued in service after the American Civil War. Crew of six and a powder-boy, firing a 20 lb. shell in front of 2 lb. of powder it had a range of 1,960 yards at a 6.5° elevation.  Thirty-pounder rifle: these guns were iron with bronze trunnions and trunnion bands. They were cast at the Fort Pitt Foundry and the Washington Navy Yard. In February 1862, Dahlgren recommended that the first 13 cast at Fort Pitt be withdrawn because the iron was inferior. One 30-pounder rifle was mounted on USS "Harriet Lane".  Fifty-pounder rifle: these guns were typical Dahlgren rifles—iron with bronze trunnions and trunnion bands. They were apparently a popular design, although by the end of the war it had been supplanted by the 60-pounder Parrott rifle, which continued in service after the American Civil War. A photograph of Admiral Dahlgren leaning against a 50-pounder rifle may be found at the beginning of this article. Eighty-pounder rifle: the first 80-pounder was cast at the West Point foundry with trunnions. Subsequent rifles were cast without trunnions and bronze trunnion band and trunnions were added. The gun was initially well received but soon showed a tendency to burst., a converted Coastal Survey ship armed with one IX-inch Dahlgren and one 80-pounder Dahlgren rifle was engaged in the bombardment of Roanoke Island in support amphibious landings, when the following entry was made in her log for February 7, 1862: "At 5:15, rifled 80-pounder aft, loaded with six pounds powder and solid Dahlgren shot, 80 pounds, burst in the act of firing into four principal pieces. The gun forward of the trunnions fell on deck. One third of the breech passed over the mastheads and fell clear of the ship on the starboard bow. One struck on port quarter. And the fourth piece, weighing about 1,000 pounds, driving through the deck and magazine, bringing up on the keelson, set fire to the ship. Fire promptly extinguished."  One hundred-fifty-pounder rifle: the 150-pounder was a typical Dahlgren rifle with a cast iron barrel and a bronze trunnion band and trunnions. Although the test firing was successful the guns were not placed in service, because Dahlgren doubted the quality of the iron.  Twelve-inch rifle: in 1864 the Fort Pitt foundry bored three XV-inch Dahlgren shell gun blanks, one was finished using the Atwater design, one with the Parrott design, and one with the Rodman approach. The Rodman solid shot weighed 618 to 619 pounds and the Atwater solid shot 416 to 535 pounds. The weights of the Parrott projectiles are not recorded. In 1867, at Fort Monroe, the guns were tested with charges varying between 35 and 55 pounds until the guns failed.

Table of Dahlgren rifled guns.

Estimated values are indicated by an asterisk. Estimates by.

Dahlgren guns were muzzle-loading naval artillery designed by Rear Admiral John A. Dahlgren USN (November 13, 1809 – July 12, 1870), mostly used in the period of the American Civil War. Dahlgren's design philosophy evolved from an accidental explosion in 1849 of a 32-pounder being tested for accuracy, killing a gunner. He believed a safer, more powerful naval cannon could be designed using more scientific design criteria. Dahlgren guns were designed with a smooth curved shape, equalizing strain and concentrating more weight of metal in the gun breech where the greatest pressure of expanding propellant gases needed to be met to keep the gun from bursting. Because of their rounded contours, Dahlgren guns were nicknamed "soda bottles", a shape which became their most identifiable characteristic.

Die Dahlgrenkanonen waren Schiffsgeschütze, die als Vollzylinder aus Gusseisen gegossen wurden und anschließend durch Ausbohren und Abdrehen ihre Form erhielten. Sie wurden kurz vor und während des amerikanischen Bürgerkriegs eingesetzt.