Geography.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 42.5 square miles (109.9 km2), of which, 41.7 square miles (108.0 km2) of it is land and 0.7 square miles (1.9 km2) of it (1.74%) is water.

Demographics.

At the 2000 census there were 618 people in 238 households, including 178 families, in the town. The population density was 14.8 people per square mile (5.7/km2). There were 299 housing units at an average density of 7.2 per square mile (2.8/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 98.54% White, 0.32% African American, 0.16% Native American, 0.65% from other races, and 0.32% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.97%.  Of the 238 households 34.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60.9% were married couples living together, 8.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 24.8% were non-families. 21.4% of households were one person and 9.2% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.60 and the average family size was 3.02.  The age distribution was 26.4% under the age of 18, 6.1% from 18 to 24, 26.7% from 25 to 44, 26.1% from 45 to 64, and 14.7% 65 or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 113.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 109.7 males.  The median household income was $35,156 and the median family income was $38,750. Males had a median income of $28,583 versus $22,125 for females. The per capita income for the town was $17,304. About 6.4% of families and 8.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10.6% of those under age 18 and 11.5% of those age 65 or over.

Richwood is a town in Richland County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 618 at the 2000 census. The unincorporated communities of Byrds Creek, Excelsior, Port Andrew, Sand Prairie, Tavera, Westport, and Wild Rose are located in the town.

Die Town of Richwood ist eine von 16 Towns im Richland County im US-amerikanischen Bundesstaat Wisconsin. Im Jahr 2010 hatte die Town of Richwood 533 Einwohner.


History.

Cullen has a very long history, and a remarkably well-documented one thanks to the survival of a number of sources. These are summarised in two key books: the "Annals of Cullen" by W Crammond (1904) and the "Church Annals of Cullen" by W Robertson (1938). The first deals primarily with the civil governance and the latter with church governance up to the disruption. Cullen received royal burgh status between 1153 and 1214 AD during the reigns of Malcolm IV and William I. It is also known to have received a charter in 1455 AD from James II. The burgh was abolished in 1975 by the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973. Writing in around 139–161, Ptolemy in his "Geography" mentions the River Celnius in the North East of Scotland. Both William Forbes Skene and George Chalmers identified the Celnius with Cullen Burn. The first mention of Cullen in Scottish history was in 962 when King Indulf was killed by the Norwegians (and/or Danes) at the mouth of the river Cullen and referred to as the Battle of the Bauds. "Atween Coedlich and the sea, There lies Kings' sons three." Legend has it that within the vicinity, a Scots, a Danish and a Norwegian King are buried, marked by the three isolated rocks within Cullen Bay and named the "Three Kings". However, it is possible that these rocks derive their name from the similarity of the name Cullen with Culane (Cologne) as in the medieval mystery play "The Three Kings of Culane".  The church was founded as a chapel by King Robert Bruce.  The organs of the wife of Robert the Bruce are said to have been buried in its old kirk (church) after her death in the area. Robert the Bruce made an annual payment to the village in gratitude for the treatment of his wife's body and its return south for burial. A recent non-payment of this sum by the government was challenged and settled to the village's favour.  Robert Burns stayed overnight at, what was then, the old town of Cullen in 1787 during his tour of the Highlands. Travelling from the west to the east he remarked that up to this point, the country is sadly poor and unimproved. The old town of Cullen was demolished in 1822 and its remains are next to Cullen House. It was under James Ogilvy, 7th Earl of Findlater that plans were first mooted for moving the town, but it was not until his successor Lewis Grant-Ogilvy, 5th Earl of Seafield that the plans were enacted. The town was moved away both to modernise (the houses of the old town flooded from water running down off the raised road when it rained heavily) and to provide the Earl with greater privacy. The new town was planned by George MacWilliam, and built between 1820 and 1822. The central market cross in the town square originally stood in the old town. During the building of the new town it was temporarily erected at the top of the ancient fort structure that guards the entrance to the Cullen Burn (stream), known as the Castle Hill. This resulted in the present layout of the village, a generous cross shape of two major streets, Seafield Street and Grant Street, with a central town square and "the Seatown" sandwiched on the false beach between the mouth of the Cullen Burn and the harbour. In the previous layout the town was spread along a road above and parallel to the Cullen Burn, running between the Castle Hill and Cullen House, the Seatown being at the mouth of the Burn where boats used to be pulled up onto the beach. The fishing industry developed quickly in the 1880s and the harbour was crammed with large sailing fishing boats, these giving way to steam drifters at the start of the 20th century. The industry became centralised on larger harbours, the boats became larger diesel-engined designs that required non-tidal access. The railway closed in the 1960s and the site of the station redeveloped eventually by the council as housing.  The main part of Cullen House dates from 1543. An east wing was added in 1711, and there were alterations by David Bryce in 1858. The House and estate buildings were converted into 14 dwellings in 1983 by Kit Martin. Prior to the use of Cullen House by the Earls of Seafield, the castle of Findlater, now a ruin, on a rocky coastal outcrop approximately to the east, was the Earl's seat.

Features.

The village now has a population of 1,327. Cullen is noticeably busier in summer than winter due to the number of holiday homes owned. The village has an impressive beach and golf course, and the Crannoch wood which offers good views of the area. The Bin Hill or Bin of Cullen is a nearby hill with an associated footpath.  Cullen was the setting for Doris Davidson's romantic novel "The Three Kings", named after the three rocks at the east end of Cullen beach. The local writer Simon Farquhar set his first two plays, "Candy Floss Kisses" and "Elevenses with Twiggy", in the village and they were produced by BBC Radio 4. Samuel Johnson had less passion for Cullen. According to James Boswell, writing in "The Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides", the pair considered that Cullen had "a comfortable appearance, though but a very small town, and the houses mostly poor buildings". Dr Johnson was also "disgusted by the sight of" the "dried haddocks broiled" that they were served for breakfast there and refused to eat them. Of course, given the general views aired so freely by Dr Johnson, this is mild indeed.

Cullen () is a village and former royal burgh in Moray, Scotland, on the North Sea coast east of Elgin. The village had a population of 1,327 in 2001. Cullen is noticeably busier in summer than winter due to the number of holiday homes owned. The organs of the wife of Robert the Bruce are said to have been buried in its old kirk (church) after her death in Cullen Castle. Robert the Bruce made an annual payment to the village in gratitude for the treatment of his wife's body and its return south for burial. A recent non-payment of this sum by the government was challenged and settled to the village's favour.

Cullen (gälisch: "Inbhir Cuilinn") ist eine Stadt am Ostrand der schottischen Council Area Moray. Sie liegt am Südufer des Moray Firth rund 18 km westlich von Banff und 20 km nördlich von Keith an der Cullen Bay.


History.

Threema was founded in December 2012 by Manuel Kasper. The company was initially called Kasper Systems GmbH. Martin Blatter and Silvan Engeler were later recruited to develop an Android application that was released in early 2013.  In Summer 2013, the Snowden leaks helped create an interest in Threema, boosting the user numbers to the hundreds of thousands. When Facebook took over Whatsapp in February 2014, Threema got 200,000 new users, doubling its userbase in 24 hours. Around 80% percent of those new users came from Germany. By March 2014 Threema had 1.2 million users.  In Spring 2014, operations have been transferred to the newly created Threema GmbH.  In December 2014, Apple listed Threema as the most-sold app of 2014 at the German App Store.

Features.

Threema uses a user ID, created after the initial app launch by a random generator, instead of requiring a linked email address or phone number to send messages. It is possible to find other users by phone number or e-mail address if the user allows the app to synchronize their address book. Linking a phone number or e-mail address to a Threema ID is optional. Hence, the service can be used anonymously. Users can verify the identity of their Threema contacts by scanning their QR code, when they meet physically. The QR code contains the public key of the user, which is cryptographically tied to the ID and will not change during the lifetime of the identity. Using this feature, the users can make sure they have the correct public key from their chat partners, which provides additional security against a Man-in-the-middle attack. Threema knows three levels of verification (trust levels of the contact's identity). The verification level of each contact is displayed in the Threema application as dots next to the corresponding contact.  Users can make voice calls and send text messages, multimedia, locations, voice messages and files of any type (up to 50 MB per file). It is also possible to create polls in personal or group chats. With Threema Web, a client for web browsers, Threema can be used from other devices like desktop computers. Threema optionally supports Android Wear smartwatch and Android Auto.

Related products.

Threema Work: On May 25, 2016, Threema Work, a corporate version of Threema, was released. Threema Work offers extended administration and deployment capabilities. Threema Work is based on a yearly subscription model.  Threema Gateway: On March 20, 2015, Threema released a gateway for companies. Similar to an SMS gateway, businesses can use it to send messages to their users who have Threema installed. The code for the Threema Gateway SDK is open for developers and available on GitHub.  Threema Broadcast: On August 9, 2018, Threema released Threema Broadcast, a tool for top-down communication. Similar to emails in electronic newsletters, Threema messages can be sent to any number of feed subscribers, and the Threema Broadcast allows to create chatbots.

Privacy.

Since Threema's servers are located in Switzerland, they are subject to the Swiss federal law on data protection. The data center is ISO/IEC 27001-certified. Linking a phone number and/or e-mail address to a Threema ID is optional; when doing so, only checksum values (SHA-256 HMAC with a static key) of the e-mail address and/or phone number are sent to the server. Due to the small number of possible digit combinations of a telephone number, the phone number associated with a checksum could be determined by brute force. The transmitted data is TLS-secured. The address book data is kept only in the volatile memory of the server and is deleted immediately after synchronizing contacts. If a user chooses to link a phone number or e-mail address with their Threema ID, they can remove the phone number or e-mail address at any time. Should a user ever lose their device (and their private key), they can revoke their Threema ID if a revocation password for that ID has been set.  Groups are solely managed on users’ devices and group messages are sent to each recipient as an individual message, encrypted with the respective public key. Thus, group compositions are not exposed to the server.  Data (including media files) stored on the users’ devices is encrypted with AES 256. On Android, it can be additionally protected by a passphrase.  Since 2016, Threema GmbH publishes a transparency report where public authority inquiries are disclosed.  On 9 March 2017 Threema was listed in the "Register of organizers of information dissemination in the Internet" operated by the Federal Service for Supervision of Communications, Information Technology and Mass Media of the Russian Federation.  In a response, a Threema spokesperson publicly stated: "We operate under Swiss law and are neither allowed nor willing to provide any information about our users to foreign authorities."

Architecture.

The entire communication via Threema is end-to-end encrypted. During the initial setup, the application generates a key pair and sends the public key to the server while keeping the private key on the user's device. The application then encrypts all messages and files that are sent to other Threema users with their respective public keys. Once a message is delivered successfully, it is immediately deleted from the servers.  The encryption process used by Threema is based on the open-source library NaCl library. Threema uses asymmetric ECC-based encryption, with 256-bit strength. Threema offers a "Validation Logging" feature that makes it possible to confirm that messages are end-to-end encrypted using the NaCl Networking and Cryptography library. In August 2015, Threema was subjected to an external security audit. Researchers from cnlab confirmed that Threema allows secure end-to-end encryption, and claimed that they were unable to identify any weaknesses in the implementation. Cnlab researchers also confirmed that Threema provides anonymity to its users and handles contacts and other user data as advertised.

Reception.

In February 2014, German consumer organisation Stiftung Warentest evaluated several data-protection aspects of Threema, WhatsApp, Telegram, BlackBerry Messenger and Line. It considered the security of the data transmission between clients, the services' terms of use, the transparency of the service providers, the availability of the source code and the apps' overall availability. Threema was the only app rated as 'non-critical' ("") in relation to data and privacy protection, but lost marks due to its closed-source nature.  Along with Cryptocat and Surespot, Threema was ranked first in a study evaluating the security and usability of instant messaging encryption software, conducted by the German PSW Group in June 2014.  In October 2014, Threema won the "connect App Awards 2014" for being the best app of the year. , Threema has a score of 6 out of 7 points on the - now withdrawn - Electronic Frontier Foundation's "Secure Messaging Scorecard". It has received points for having communications encrypted in transit, having communications encrypted with keys the provider doesn't have access to (i.e. having end-to-end encryption), making it possible for users to independently verify their correspondent's identities, having past communications secure if the keys are stolen (i.e. implementing forward secrecy), having its security design well-documented and having completed an independent security audit. It is missing a point because its source code is not open to independent review (i.e. it is not open-source).

Threema is an end-to-end encrypted instant messaging application for iOS, Android and Windows Phone. The software is based on the privacy by design principles and the service doesn't require users to provide a phone number or any other personally identifiable information: The Threema app can be used anonymously.

Threema (englische Aussprache: //) ist ein Ende-zu-Ende-verschlüsselter Schweizer Instant-Messaging-Dienst zur Nutzung auf Smartphones und Tablets. Die Software ist auf Datenschutz und Datenvermeidung ausgelegt und erfordert im Gegensatz zu den meisten Konkurrenzprodukten für die Nutzung weder eine Telefonnummer noch sonstige personenbezogenen Angaben. Derzeit (Stand: 2020) nutzen über 8 Millionen Privatnutzer Threema, davon 2 Millionen Nutzer „Threema Work“ in ca. 5000 Firmen bzw. Institutionen. Die zugehörige Software ist kostenpflichtig und ab dem 1. März 2020 für Mobilgeräte nur noch mit den Betriebssystemen Android (ab Version 4.4) und iOS (ab Version 10) verfügbar. Unter Windows Phone / Windows 10 Mobile ist Threema seit Juni 2020 nicht mehr benutzbar. Über die Webanwendung „Threema Web“ kann Threema auch am Desktop-Computer verwendet werden, allerdings nur, wenn zusätzlich die Smartphone-App installiert wird.


Life.

Berry was the first of four children to be born to John Marshall Berry, a lawyer and tobacco farmer in Henry County, Kentucky, and Virginia Erdman Berry. The families of both parents had farmed in Henry County for at least five generations. Berry attended secondary school at Millersburg Military Institute and then earned a B.A. (1956) and M.A. (1957) in English at the University of Kentucky. In 1956, at the University of Kentucky he met another Kentucky writer-to-be, Gurney Norman. He completed his M.A. and married Tanya Amyx in 1957. In 1958, he attended Stanford University's creative writing program as a Wallace Stegner Fellow, studying under Stegner in a seminar that included Larry McMurtry, Robert Stone, Ernest Gaines, Tillie Olsen, and Ken Kesey. Berry's first novel, "Nathan Coulter", was published in April 1960.  A John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation Fellowship took Berry and his family to Italy and France in 1961, where he came to know Wallace Fowlie, critic and translator of French literature. From 1962 to 1964, he taught English at New York University's University Heights campus in the Bronx. In 1964, he began teaching creative writing at the University of Kentucky, from which he resigned in 1977. During this time in Lexington, he came to know author Guy Davenport, as well as author and monk Thomas Merton and photographer Ralph Eugene Meatyard.  On July 4, 1965, Berry, his wife, and his two children moved to a farm that he had purchased, Lane's Landing, and began growing corn and small grains on what eventually became a homestead of about 117 acres (0.47 km). They bought their first flock of seven Border Cheviot sheep in 1978. Lane's Landing is in Henry County, Kentucky in north central Kentucky near Port Royal, and his parents' birthplaces, and is on the western bank of the Kentucky River, not far from where it flows into the Ohio River. Berry has farmed, resided, and written at Lane's Landing ever since. He has written about his early experiences on the land and about his decision to return to it in essays such as "The Long-Legged House" and "A Native Hill".  From 1977 until 1980, he edited and wrote for the Rodale Press, including its publications "Organic Gardening and Farming" and "The New Farm". From 1987 to 1993, he returned to the English Department of the University of Kentucky. Berry has written at least twenty-five books (or chapbooks) of poems, sixteen volumes of essays, and eleven novels and short story collections. His writing is grounded in the notion that one's work ought to be rooted in and responsive to one's place.  Berry, who describes himself as "a person who takes the Gospel seriously," has criticized Christian organizations for failing to challenge cultural complacency about environmental degradation, and has shown a willingness to criticize what he perceives as the arrogance of some Christians. He is an advocate of Christian pacifism, as shown in his book "Blessed Are the Peacemakers: Christ's Teachings About Love, Compassion and Forgiveness" (2005).  Berry is a fellow of Britain's Temenos Academy, a learned society devoted to the study of all faiths and spiritual pursuits; Berry publishes frequently in the annual "Temenos Academy Review", funded by the Prince of Wales.

Activism.

On February 10, 1968, Berry delivered "A Statement Against the War in Vietnam" during the Kentucky Conference on the War and the Draft at the University of Kentucky in Lexington:  On June 3, 1979, Berry engaged in nonviolent civil disobedience against the construction of a nuclear power plant at Marble Hill, Indiana. He describes "this nearly eventless event" and expands upon his reasons for it in the essay "The Reactor and the Garden."  On February 9, 2003, Berry's essay titled "A Citizen's Response to the National Security Strategy of the United States" was published as a full-page advertisement in "The New York Times". Berry opened the essay—a critique of the G. W. Bush administration's post-9/11 international strategy—by asserting that "The new National Security Strategy published by the White House in September 2002, if carried out, would amount to a radical revision of the political character of our nation."  On January 4, 2009, Berry and Wes Jackson, president of The Land Institute, published an op-ed article in "The New York Times" titled "A 50-Year Farm Bill." In July 2009 Berry, Jackson and Fred Kirschenmann, of The Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture, gathered in Washington DC to promote this idea. Berry and Jackson wrote, "We need a 50-year farm bill that addresses forthrightly the problems of soil loss and degradation, toxic pollution, fossil-fuel dependency and the destruction of rural communities."  Also in January 2009, Berry released a statement against the death penalty, which began, "As I am made deeply uncomfortable by the taking of a human life before birth, I am also made deeply uncomfortable by the taking of a human life after birth." And in November 2009, Berry and 38 other writers from Kentucky wrote to Gov. Steve Beshear and Attorney General Jack Conway asking them to impose a moratorium on the death penalty in that state.  On March 2, 2009, Berry joined over 2,000 others in non-violently blocking the gates to a coal-fired power plant in Washington, D.C. No one was arrested.  On May 22, 2009, Berry, at a listening session in Louisville, spoke against the National Animal Identification System (NAIS). He said, "If you impose this program on the small farmers, who are already overburdened, you're going to have to send the police for me. I'm 75 years old. I've about completed my responsibilities to my family. I'll lose very little in going to jail in opposition to your program – and I'll have to do it. Because I will be, in every way that I can conceive of, a non-cooperator."  In October 2009, Berry combined with "the Berea-based Kentucky Environmental Foundation (KEF), along with several other non-profit organizations and rural electric co-op members" to petition against and protest the construction of a coal-burning power plant in Clark County, Kentucky. On February 28, 2011, the Kentucky Public Service Commission approved the cancellation of this power plant.  On December 20, 2009, due to the University of Kentucky's close association with coal interests in the state, Berry removed his papers from the university. He explained to the "Lexington Herald-Leader", "I don't think the University of Kentucky can be so ostentatiously friendly to the coal industry... and still be a friend to me and the interests for which I have stood for the last 45 years.... If they love the coal industry that much, I have to cancel my friendship." In August 2012, the papers were donated to The Kentucky Historical Society in Frankfort, KY.  On September 28, 2010, Berry participated in a rally in Louisville during an EPA hearing on how to manage coal ash. Berry said, "The EPA knows that coal ash is poison. We ask it only to believe in its own findings on this issue, and do its duty."  Berry, with 14 other protesters, spent the weekend of February 12, 2011 locked in the Kentucky governor's office to demand an end to mountaintop removal coal mining. He was part of the environmental group Kentuckians for the Commonwealth that began their sit-in on Friday and left at midday Monday to join about 1,000 others in a mass outdoor rally.  In 2011, The Berry Center was established at New Castle, Kentucky, "for the purpose of bringing focus, knowledge and cohesiveness to the work of changing our ruinous industrial agriculture system into a system and culture that uses nature as the standard, accepts no permanent damage to the ecosphere, and takes into consideration human health in local communities."

Ideas.

Berry's nonfiction serves as an extended conversation about the life he values. According to him, the good life includes sustainable agriculture, appropriate technologies, healthy rural communities, connection to place, the pleasures of good food, husbandry, good work, local economics, the miracle of life, fidelity, frugality, reverence, and the interconnectedness of life. The threats Berry finds to this good simple life include: industrial farming and the industrialization of life, ignorance, hubris, greed, violence against others and against the natural world, the eroding topsoil in the United States, global economics, and environmental destruction. As a prominent defender of agrarian values, Berry's appreciation for traditional farming techniques, such as those of the Amish, grew in the 1970s, due in part to exchanges with "Draft Horse Journal" publisher Maurice Telleen. Berry has long been friendly to and supportive of Wes Jackson, believing that Jackson's agricultural research at The Land Institute lives out the promise of "solving for pattern" and using "nature as model."  Jedediah Britton-Purdy has considered many of Berry's major themes and concerns:Over the years, he has called himself an agrarian, a pacifist, and a Christian—albeit of an eccentric kind. He has written against all forms of violence and destruction—of land, communities, and human beings—and argued that the modern American way of life is a skein of violence. He is an anti-capitalist moralist and a writer of praise for what he admires: the quiet, mostly uncelebrated labor and affection that keep the world whole and might still redeem it. He is also an acerbic critic of what he dislikes, particularly modern individualism, and his emphasis on family and marriage and his ambivalence toward abortion mark him as an outsider to the left.The concept of ""Solving for pattern"", coined by Berry in his essay of the same title, is the process of finding solutions that solve multiple problems, while minimizing the creation of new problems. The essay was originally published in the Rodale Press periodical "The New Farm". Though Mr. Berry's use of the phrase was in direct reference to agriculture, it has since come to enjoy broader use throughout the design community.  Berry's core ideas, and in particular his poem "Sabbaths III, 1989 (Santa Clara Valley)," guided the 2007 documentary feature film "The Unforeseen", produced by Terrence Malick and Robert Redford. In the film Berry narrates his own poem. Director Laura Dunn went on to make the 2016 documentary feature "Look & See: A Portrait of Wendell Berry", again produced by Malick and Redford.

Poetry.

Berry's lyric poetry often appears as a contemporary eclogue, pastoral, or elegy; but he also composes dramatic and historical narratives (such as "Bringer of Water" and "July, 1773", respectively) and occasional and discursive poems ("Against the War in Vietnam" and "Some Further Words", respectively).  Berry's first published poetry book consisted of a single poem, the elegiac "November Twenty Six Nineteen Hundred Sixty Three" (1964), initiated and illustrated by Ben Shahn, commemorating the death of John F. Kennedy. It begins,  <poem>We know The winter earth Upon the body Of the young President, And the early dark Falling;</poem>  and continues through ten more stanzas (each propelled by the anaphora of "We know"). The elegiac here and elsewhere, according to Triggs, enables Berry to characterize the connections "that link past and future generations through their common working of the land."  The first full-length collection, "The Broken Ground" (1964), develops many of Berry's fundamental concerns: "the cycle of life and death, responsiveness to place, pastoral subject matter, and recurring images of the Kentucky River and the hill farms of north-central Kentucky"  According to Angyal, "There is little modernist formalism or postmodernist experimentation in [Berry's] verse." A commitment to the reality and primacy of the actual world stands behind these two rejections. In "Notes: Unspecializing Poetry," Berry writes, "Devotion to order that is not poetical prevents the specialization of poetry." He goes on to note, "Nothing exists for its own sake, but for a harmony greater than itself which includes it. A work of art, which accepts this condition, and exists upon its terms, honors the Creation, and so becomes a part of it"  Lionel Basney placed Berry's poetry within a tradition of didactic poetry that stretches back to Horace: "To say that Berry's poetry can be didactic, then, means that it envisions a specific wisdom, and also the traditional sense of art and culture that gives art the task of teaching this wisdom"  For Berry, poetry exists "at the center of a complex reminding" Both the poet and the reader are reminded of the poem's crafted language, of the poem's formal literary antecedents, of "what is remembered or ought to be remembered," and of "the formal integrity of other works, creatures and structures of the world.".

The Sabbath Poems.

From 1979 to the present Berry has been writing what he calls "Sabbath poems." They were first collected in "A Timbered Choir: The Sabbath Poems 1979-1997". This was followed by Sabbaths from 1998 to 2004 in "Given: New Poems"; and those from 2005 to 2008 are in "Leavings". All Sabbath poems through 2012 are published in "This Day: New and Collected Sabbath Poems 1979 - 2012". "Sabbaths 2013" has been published by Larkspur Press. "A Small Porch" contains nine Sabbath poems from 2014 and sixteen from 2015. One Sabbath poem, "What Passes, What Remains" (VIII from 2016), is published as the epilogue in "The Art of Loading Brush". That poem, along with fourteen others, can also be found in "Sabbaths 2016", published by Larkspur Press.  The poems are motivated by Berry's longtime habit of walking out onto the land on Sunday mornings. As he puts it, "I go free from the tasks and intentions of my workdays, and so my mind becomes hospitable to unintended thoughts: to what I am very willing to call inspiration." He writes in a poem from 1979, <poem>The bell calls in the town Where forebears cleared the shaded land And brought high daylight down To shine on field and trodden road. I hear, but understand Contrarily, and walk into the woods. I leave labor and load, Take up a different story. I keep an inventory Of wonders and of uncommercial goods.</poem>The Sabbath poems have been described as "written from a particular place and on particular Sabbaths, and so should be read as part of a spiritual practice and as poems, in some sense, devoted to dwelling, to living thoughtfully in one place." Oehlschlaeger links Berry's project to a key observation by Henry David Thoreau,  As Thoreau continues in 'Life Without Principle,' he notes the constant busyness of Americans, so engaged in 'infinite bustle' that 'there is no sabbath.' And he notes later that 'there is nothing, not even crime, more opposed to poetry, to philosophy, ay, to life itself, than this incessant business.' The logic is clear: destruction of the Sabbath is contrary to 'life itself.' That, I suggest, is the context in which we should read the Sabbath poems that Berry has been writing for nearly the last thirty years.

Fiction.

Berry's fiction to date consists of eight novels and fifty-one short stories (forty-three of which are collected in "That Distant Land", 2004 and "A Place in Time", 2012) which, when read as a whole, form a chronicle of the fictional small Kentucky town of Port William. Because of his long-term, ongoing exploration of the life of an imagined place, Berry has been compared to William Faulkner. Yet, although Port William is no stranger to murder, suicide, alcoholism, marital discord, and the full range of losses that touch human lives, it lacks the extremes of characterization and plot development that are found in much of Faulkner. Hence Berry is sometimes described as working in an idealized, pastoral, or nostalgic mode, a characterization of his work which he resists: "If your work includes a criticism of history, which mine certainly does, you can't be accused of wanting to go back to something, because you're saying that what we were wasn't good enough."  The effect of profound shifts in the agricultural practices of the United States, and the disappearance of traditional agrarian life, are some of the major concerns of the Port William fiction, though the theme is often only a background or subtext to the stories themselves. The Port William fiction attempts to portray, on a local scale, what "a human economy... conducted with reverence" looked like in the past—and what civic, domestic, and personal virtues might be evoked by such an economy were it pursued today. Social as well as seasonal changes mark the passage of time. The Port William stories allow Berry to explore the human dimensions of the decline of the family farm and farm community, under the influence of expanding post-World War II agribusiness. But these works rarely fall into simple didacticism, and are never merely tales of decline. Each is grounded in a realistic depiction of character and community. In "A Place on Earth" (1967), for example, farmer Mat Feltner comes to terms with the loss of his only son, Virgil. In the course of the novel, we see how not only Mat but the entire community wrestles with the acute costs of World War II.  Berry's fiction also allows him to explore the literal and metaphorical implications of marriage as that which binds individuals, families, and communities to each other and to Nature itself—yet not all of Port William is happily or conventionally married. "Old Jack" Beechum struggles with significant incompatibilities with his wife, and with a brief yet fulfilling extramarital affair. The barber Jayber Crow lives with a forlorn, secret, and unrequited love for a woman, believing himself "mentally" married to her even though she knows nothing about it. Burley Coulter never formalizes his bond with Kate Helen Branch, the mother of his son. Yet, each of these men find themselves firmly bound up in the community, the "membership," of Port William.  Of his fictional project, Berry has written: "I have made the imagined town of Port William, its neighborhood and membership, in an attempt to honor the actual place where I have lived. By means of the imagined place, over the last fifty years, I have learned to see my native landscape and neighborhood as a place unique in the world, a work of God, possessed of an inherent sanctity that mocks any human valuation that can be put upon it." Elsewhere, Berry has said, "The only thing I try to accomplish in fiction is to show how people act when they love each other." The novels and stories can be read in any order.  In January, 2018, the Library of America published a volume of Berry's fiction—the first of a projected four volumes of his writing. "Wendell Berry: Port William Novels & Stories (The Civil War to World War II)" contains four novels and twenty-three short stories in chronological order according to the stories' events. Berry and Joan Didion are the only living writers currently featured in the Library of America catalog.

"Nathan Coulter" (1960).

In Berry's first novel, young Nathan "comes of age" through dealing with the death of his mother, the depression of his father, Jarrat, the rugged companionship of his brother Tom, and the mischief of his uncle Burley. "Kirkus Review" concludes, "A sensitive adolescent theme is handled rather poetically, but so uniform in tone that no drama is generated and no sense of time passing is felt." John Ditsky finds William Faulkner's influence in "Nathan Coulter", but notes, "Not only does the work avoid the pitfalls encountered by Faulkner's initial attempts to escape his postage stamp of native soil, but Nathan Coulter also seems a wise attempt to get that autobiographical first novel out of one's system, and to do so [with] honesty."

"A Place on Earth" (1967/1983).

Set in the critical year of 1945, this novel focuses on farmer Mat Feltner's struggle over the news that his son Virgil has been listed as missing in action while also telling multiple tales of the lives of other Port William residents, such as Burley Coulter, Jack Beechum, Ernest Finley, Ida and Gideon Crop. Reprinting by North Point Press in 1983 allowed Berry to radically revise the novel, removing almost a third of its original length. Jeffrey Bilbro believes that these substantial changes marked growth in Berry's approach. "In Berry's revised edition, his technique caught up with his subject. He allows us, as readers, to participate in the ignorance of his characters, and in doing so, we may be able to understand more fully the painful difficulty of choosing fidelity to the natural order while living in the midst of mystery."

"The Memory of Old Jack" (1974).

This third novel of Port William begins with Jack Beechum as a very old man in 1952 and continues back into his youth and maturity to uncover his life and work as a dedicated farmer, conflicted husband, and living link to past generations. The story ranges from the Civil War to just past World War II. Josh Hurst comments on Berry's ability to avoid certain narrative pitfalls, "Jack's story could be presented us either as heroic ballad or as cautionary [tale]—and there is much in his life to support both admiration and gentle tisk-tisking—but the gift of this book is how it allows a man's memories to wash over us as though unshaped by narrative or conscious editorializing."

"Remembering" (1988).

In Berry's fourth novel, an adult Andy Catlett wanders through San Francisco remembering, but feeling alienated from, his native Port William. He struggles to come to terms with himself, his marriage, his farm, and the distorted values of American society. Of Berry's vision here, Charles Solomon writes, "Wendell Berry contrasts modern American agribusiness--which he depicts as an artificial conglomeration of sterile flow charts, debts and mechanization--with the older ideal of farming as a nurturing way of life." But along these lines, Bruce Bawer finds a problem with the novel, "Here, for the first time in a Port William novel, Berry seems more interested in communicating opinions than in portraying sympathetic characters in plausible situations; the opening episode, set at a conference on agricultural policy, paints the ideological conflict between Andy and his adversaries in broad, unsubtle strokes."

"A World Lost" (1996).

Young Andy Catlett's uncle Andrew had been murdered back in 1944, and now an adult Andy is reconstructing the event and its aftermath. "Looking back with a mixture of a young boy's incomprehension and an older man's nostalgia, Andy evokes the past not as a narrative but as a series of disembodied fragments in the flow of time." In this fifth novel of Port William, Berry considers the violence of men and its impact on the family and community that must come to terms with it. "Berry shows us the psychic costs of misplaced family pride and social rigidity, and yet he also celebrates the benevolent blessing of familial love. This is simple, soul-satisfying storytelling, augmented by understated humor and quiet insight."

"Jayber Crow" (2000).

Port William's barber recounts his life's journey in Berry's sixth novel. Jayber's early life as an orphan near Port William is followed by studies towards a possible vocation to Church ministry. A questioning mind, however, sends him in other directions until he finds himself back in Port William with an ever-growing commitment to that place and its people. As "Publisher's Weekly" notes, "Crow's life, which begins as WWI is about to erupt, is emblematic of a century of upheaval, and Berry's anecdotal and episodic tale sounds a challenge to contemporary notions of progress. It is to Berry's credit that a novel so freighted with ideas and ideology manages to project such warmth and luminosity."

"Hannah Coulter" (2004).

Berry's seventh novel presents a concise vision of Port William's "membership." The story encompasses Hannah's life, including the Great Depression, World War II, the postwar industrialization of agriculture, the flight of youth to urban employment, and the consequent remoteness of grandchildren. The tale is told in the voice of an old woman twice widowed, who has experienced much loss yet has never been defeated. Somehow, lying at the center of her strength is the "membership"—the fact that people care for each other and, even in absence, hold each other in a kind of presence. All in all, "Hannah Coulter" embodies many of the themes of Berry's Port William saga.

"Andy Catlett: Early Travels" (2006).

Andy Catlett, age nine, makes his first solo journey to visit with both sets of grandparents in Port William. "The New York Times" reviewer notes, "What the grown-up Andy recalls of that experience is transformed into 'a sort of homage' to a now-vanished world. Title characters from Berry's earlier Port William volumes — Jayber Crow, Old Jack, Hannah Coulter — appear here in affectionate cameos as the adult Andy, echoing Wordsworth, observes that 'in my memory, all who were there... seem now to be gathered into a love that is at once a boy's and an aging man's.'"

Wendell Erdman Berry (born August 5, 1934) is an American novelist, poet, essayist, environmental activist, cultural critic, and farmer. He is an elected member of the Fellowship of Southern Writers, a recipient of The National Humanities Medal, and the Jefferson Lecturer for 2012. He is also a 2013 Fellow of The American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Berry was named the recipient of the 2013 Richard C. Holbrooke Distinguished Achievement Award. On January 28, 2015, he became the first living writer to be inducted into the Kentucky Writers Hall of Fame.

Wendell Berry (* 5. August 1934 in Henry County, Kentucky) ist ein US-amerikanischer Essayist, Dichter, Romancier, Umweltaktivist, Kulturkritiker und Landwirt.


Early life and education.

Thomas Maxwell was born on February 16, 1792 at Tioga Point (now Athens), Bradford County, Pennsylvania. His father, Guy Maxwell, was an Indian trader and was adopted by the Seneca (Iroquois) in the same year. The senior Maxwell moved his family to Elmira (then Newtown Point), New York, in 1796. In 1804, he was adopted by the Seneca people, given the name "He-je-no," meaning "the brave boy".  During the War of 1812, Guy Maxwell was appointed quartermaster of a regiment of Cavalry attached to the brigade of General Vincent Mathews. After the war he served as clerk of Tioga County, New York from 1819 to 1829.  Maxwell was elected as a Jacksonian to the Twenty-first Congress (March 4, 1829 – March 3, 1831). He served as chairman of the Committee on Accounts (Twenty-first Congress). He engaged in the prosecution of pension claims.  He studied law and was admitted to practice in the court of common pleas of old Tioga County, New York, in 1832. He was editor of the "Elmira Gazette" from 1834-1836, and was appointed as US postmaster of Elmira, serving 1834–1839. Deputy clerk of Chemung County in 1836. Treasurer of Chemung County in 1836–1843. He was chosen as a vice president of the New York and Erie Railroad Co. in 1841. He served as commissioner of loans of United States deposit and of State funds in 1843.  About 1845 Maxwell moved his family to Geneva, New York, upon his appointment as deputy clerk of the State supreme court.  Later in life, Maxwell became an Iroquois agent, and made many notes on them, which were in his daughter's hands. Red Jacket had his portrait painted for Maxwell; they were warm friends. Eighty years after the formal adoption of Maxwell, his daughter Harriet (later known as Harriet Maxwell Converse) was formally adopted by the family of Red Jacket. She was given many mementos, such as a necklace made of 79 little silver brooches, which had been worn by Red Jacket; and also his Masonic pin.  Maxwell died in Elmira on November 4, 1864. He was interred in Woodlawn Cemetery.

Thomas Maxwell (February 16, 1792 – November 4, 1864) was an attorney and politician, serving for one term from 1829-1831 as a U.S. Representative from New York, as well as in county and state offices.

Thomas Maxwell (* 16. Februar 1792 in Tioga Point (heute Athens), Pennsylvania; † 4. November 1864 in Elmira, New York) war ein US-amerikanischer Jurist und Politiker. Zwischen 1829 und 1831 vertrat er den Bundesstaat New York im US-Repräsentantenhaus.


Background.

The portmanteau word "pheromone" was coined by Peter Karlson and Martin Lüscher in 1959, based on the Greek φερω "pheroo" ('I carry') and ὁρμων "hormon" ('stimulating'). Pheromones are also sometimes classified as ecto-hormones. They were researched earlier by various scientists, including Jean-Henri Fabre, Joseph A. Lintner, Adolf Butenandt, and ethologist Karl von Frisch who called them various names, like for instance "alarm substances". These chemical messengers are transported outside of the body and affect neurocircuits, including the autonomous nervous system with hormone or cytokine mediated physiological changes, inflammatory signaling, immune system changes and/or behavioral change in the recipient. They proposed the term to describe chemical signals from conspecifics that elicit innate behaviors soon after the German biochemist Adolf Butenandt had characterized the first such chemical, bombykol, a chemically well-characterized pheromone released by the female silkworm to attract mates.

Types.

Aggregation.

Aggregation pheromones function in mate selection, overcoming host resistance by mass attack, and defense against predators. A group of individuals at one location is referred to as an aggregation, whether consisting of one sex or both sexes. Male-produced sex attractants have been called aggregation pheromones, because they usually result in the arrival of both sexes at a calling site and increase the density of conspecifics surrounding the pheromone source. Most sex pheromones are produced by the females; only a small percentage of sex attractants are produced by males. Aggregation pheromones have been found in members of the Coleoptera, Diptera, Hemiptera, Dictyoptera, and Orthoptera. In recent decades, the importance of applying aggregation pheromones in the management of the boll weevil ("Anthonomus grandis"), stored product weevils ("Sitophilus zeamais"), "Sitophilus granarius", "Sitophilus oryzae", and pea and bean weevil ("Sitona lineatus") has been demonstrated. Aggregation pheromones are among the most ecologically selective pest suppression methods. They are nontoxic and effective at very low concentrations.

Alarm.

Some species release a volatile substance when attacked by a predator that can trigger flight (in aphids) or aggression (in ants, bees, termites) in members of the same species. For example, "Vespula squamosa" use alarm pheromones to alert others to a threat. In "Polistes exclamans", alarm pheromones are also used as an alert to incoming predators. Pheromones also exist in plants: Certain plants emit alarm pheromones when grazed upon, resulting in tannin production in neighboring plants. These tannins make the plants less appetizing for the herbivore.

Epideictic.

Epideictic pheromones are different from territory pheromones, when it comes to insects. Fabre observed and noted how "females who lay their eggs in these fruits deposit these mysterious substances in the vicinity of their clutch to signal to other females of the same species they should clutch elsewhere." It may be helpful to note that the word epideictic, having to do with display or show (from the Greek 'deixis'), has a different but related meaning in rhetoric, the human art of persuasion by means of words.

Releaser.

Releaser pheromones are pheromones that cause an alteration in the behavior of the recipient. For example, some organisms use powerful attractant molecules to attract mates from a distance of two miles or more. In general, this type of pheromone elicits a rapid response, but is quickly degraded. In contrast, a primer pheromone has a slower onset and a longer duration. For example, rabbit (mothers) release mammary pheromones that trigger immediate nursing behavior by their babies.

Signal.

Signal pheromones cause short-term changes, such as the neurotransmitter release that activates a response. For instance, GnRH molecule functions as a neurotransmitter in rats to elicit lordosis behavior.

Primer.

Primer pheromones trigger a change of developmental events (in which they differ from all the other pheromones, which trigger a change in behavior).

Territorial.

Laid down in the environment, territorial pheromones mark the boundaries and identity of an organism's territory. In cats and dogs, these hormones are present in the urine, which they deposit on landmarks serving to mark the perimeter of the claimed territory. In social seabirds, the preen gland is used to mark nests, nuptial gifts, and territory boundaries with behavior formerly described as 'displacement activity'.

Trail.

Social insects commonly use trail pheromones. For example, ants mark their paths with pheromones consisting of volatile hydrocarbons. Certain ants lay down an initial trail of pheromones as they return to the nest with food. This trail attracts other ants and serves as a guide. As long as the food source remains available, visiting ants will continuously renew the pheromone trail. The pheromone requires continuous renewal because it evaporates quickly. When the food supply begins to dwindle, the trail-making ceases. Pharaoh ants (Monomorium pharaonis) mark trails that no longer lead to food with a repellent pheromone, which causes avoidance behaviour in ants. The pheromone trail of ants can be seen as communicating cloud providing each single ant with informations. The "Eciton burchellii" species provides an example of using pheromones to mark and maintain foraging paths. When species of wasps such as "Polybia sericea" found new nests, they use pheromones to lead the rest of the colony to the new nesting site.  Gregarious caterpillars, such as the forest tent caterpillar, lay down pheromone trails that are used to achieve group movement.

Sex.

In animals, sex pheromones indicate the availability of the female for breeding. Male animals may also emit pheromones that convey information about their species and genotype.  At the microscopic level, a number of bacterial species (e.g. "Bacillus subtilis", "Streptococcus pneumoniae", "Bacillus cereus") release specific chemicals into the surrounding media to induce the "competent" state in neighboring bacteria. Competence is a physiological state that allows bacterial cells to take up DNA from other cells and incorporate this DNA into their own genome, a sexual process called transformation.  Among eukaryotic microorganisms, pheromones promote sexual interaction in numerous species. These species include the yeast "Saccharomyces cerevisiae", the filamentous fungi "Neurospora crassa" and Mucor mucedo, the water mold "Achlya ambisexualis", the aquatic fungus "Allomyces macrogynus", the slime mold "Dictyostelium discoideum", the ciliate protozoan "Blepharisma japonicum" and the multicellular green algae "Volvox carteri". In addition, male copepods can follow a three-dimensional pheromone trail left by a swimming female, and male gametes of many animals use a pheromone to help find a female gamete for fertilization.  Many well-studied insect species, such as the ant "Leptothorax acervorum", the moths "Helicoverpa zea" and "Agrotis ipsilon", the bee "Xylocopa sonorina" and the butterfly Edith's checkerspot release sex pheromones to attract a mate, and some lepidopterans (moths and butterflies) can detect a potential mate from as far away as. Some insects, such as ghost moths, use pheromones during lek mating. Traps containing pheromones are used by farmers to detect and monitor insect populations in orchards. In addition, "Colias eurytheme "butterflies release pheromones, an olfactory cue important for mate selection.  The effect of Hz-2V virus infection on the reproductive physiology and behavior of female "Helicoverpa zea" moths is that in the absence of males they exhibited calling behavior and called as often but for shorter periods on average than control females. Even after these contacts virus-infected females made many frequent contacts with males and continued to call; they were found to produce five to seven times more pheromone and attracted twice as many males as did control females in flight tunnel experiments.  Pheromones are also utilized by bee and wasp species. Some pheromones can be used to suppress the sexual behavior of other individuals allowing for a reproductive monopoly – the wasp "R. marginata "uses this. With regard to the "Bombus hyperboreus" species, males, otherwise known as drones, patrol circuits of scent marks (pheromones) to find queens. In particular, pheromones for the "Bombus hyperboreus," include octadecenol, 2,3-dihydro-6-transfarnesol, citronellol, and geranylcitronellol.  Pheromones are also used in the detection of oestrus in sows. Boar pheromones are sprayed into the sty, and those sows that exhibit sexual arousal are known to be currently available for breeding. Sea urchins release pheromones into the surrounding water, sending a chemical message that triggers other urchins in the colony to eject their sex cells simultaneously.

Other.

This classification, based on the effects on behavior, remains artificial. Pheromones fill many additional functions.

Evolution.

Olfactory processing of chemical signals like pheromones has evolved in all animal phyla and thus is the oldest phylogenetic receptive system shared by all organisms including bacteria. It has been suggested that it serves survival by generating appropriate behavioral responses to the signals of threat, sex and dominance status among members of the same species.  Furthermore, it has been suggested that in the evolution of unicellular prokaryotes to multicellular eukaryotes, primordial pheromone signaling between individuals may have evolved to paracrine and endocrine signaling within individual organisms.  Some authors assume that approach-avoidance reactions in animals, elicited by chemical cues, form the phylogenetic basis for the experience of emotions in humans.

Pheromone receptors.

In the olfactory epithelium.

The human trace amine-associated receptors are a group of six G protein-coupled receptors (i.e., TAAR1, TAAR2, TAAR5, TAAR6, TAAR8, and TAAR9) that – with exception for TAAR1 – are expressed in the human olfactory epithelium. In humans and other animals, TAARs in the olfactory epithelium function as olfactory receptors that detect volatile amine odorants, including certain pheromones; these TAARs putatively function as a class of pheromone receptors involved in the olfactive detection of social cues.  A review of studies involving non-human animals indicated that TAARs in the olfactory epithelium can mediate attractive or aversive behavioral responses to a receptor agonist. This review also noted that the behavioral response evoked by a TAAR can vary across species (e.g., TAAR5 mediates attraction to trimethylamine in mice and aversion to trimethylamine in rats). In humans, hTAAR5 presumably mediates aversion to trimethylamine, which is known to act as an hTAAR5 agonist and to possess a foul, fishy odor that is aversive to humans; however, hTAAR5 is not the only olfactory receptor that is responsible for trimethylamine olfaction in humans. hTAAR5-mediated trimethylamine aversion has not been examined in published research.

In the vomeronasal organ.

In reptiles, amphibia and non-primate mammals pheromones are detected by regular olfactory membranes, and also by the vomeronasal organ (VNO), or Jacobson's organ, which lies at the base of the nasal septum between the nose and mouth and is the first stage of the accessory olfactory system. While the VNO is present in most amphibia, reptiles, and non-primate mammals, it is absent in birds, adult catarrhine monkeys (downward facing nostrils, as opposed to sideways), and apes. An active role for the human VNO in the detection of pheromones is disputed; while it is clearly present in the fetus it appears to be atrophied, shrunk or completely absent in adults. Three distinct families of vomeronasal receptors, putatively pheromone sensing, have been identified in the vomeronasal organ named V1Rs, V2Rs, and V3Rs. All are G protein-coupled receptors but are only distantly related to the receptors of the main olfactory system, highlighting their different role.

Uses.

Non-human animals.

Pheromone trapping.

Pheromones of certain pest insect species, such as the Japanese beetle, acrobat ant, and the gypsy moth, can be used to trap the respective insect for monitoring purposes, to control the population by creating confusion, to disrupt mating, and to prevent further egg laying.

Avoidance of inbreeding.

Mice can distinguish close relatives from more distantly related individuals on the basis of scent signals, which enables them to avoid mating with close relatives and minimizes deleterious inbreeding. Jiménez et al. showed that inbred mice had significantly reduced survival when they were reintroduced into a natural habitat. In addition to mice, two species of bumblebee, in particular Bombus bifarius and Bombus frigidus, have been observed to use pheromones as a means of kin recognition to avoid inbreeding. For example, B. bifarius males display "patrolling" behavior in which they mark specific paths outside their nests with pheromones and subsequently "patrol" these paths. Unrelated reproductive females are attracted to the pheromones deposited by males on these paths, and males that encounter these females while patrolling can mate with them. Other bees of the Bombus species are found to emit pheromones as precopulatory signals, such as "Bombus lapidarius".

Humans.

While humans are highly dependent upon visual cues, when in close proximity smells also play a role in sociosexual behaviors. An inherent difficulty in studying human pheromones is the need for cleanliness and odorlessness in human participants. Experiments have focused on three classes of putative human pheromones: axillary steroids, vaginal aliphatic acids, and stimulators of the vomeronasal organ.

Axillary steroids.

Axillary steroids are produced by the testes, ovaries, apocrine glands, and adrenal glands. These chemicals are not biologically active until puberty when sex steroids influence their activity. The change in activity during puberty suggest that humans may communicate through odors. Several axillary steroids have been described as potential human pheromones: androstadienol, androstadienone, androstenol, androstenone, and androsterone.  While it may be expected on evolutionary grounds that humans have pheromones, these four molecules have yet to be rigorously proven to act as such. Research in this field has suffered from small sample sizes, publication bias, false positives, and poor methodology.

Vaginal aliphatic acids.

A class of aliphatic acids (volatile fatty acids as a kind of carboxylic acid) was found in female rhesus monkeys that produced six types in the vaginal fluids. The combination of these acids is referred to as "copulins". One of the acids, acetic acid, was found in all of the sampled female's vaginal fluid. Even in humans, one-third of women have all six types of copulins, which increase in quantity before ovulation. Copulins are used to signal ovulation; however, as human ovulation is concealed it is thought that they may be used for reasons other than sexual communication.

Stimulators of the vomeronasal organ.

The human vomeronasal organ has epithelia that may be able to serve as a chemical sensory organ; however, the genes that encode the VNO receptors are nonfunctional pseudogenes in humans. Also, while there are sensory neurons in the human VNO there seem to be no connections between the VNO and the central nervous system. The associated olfactory bulb is present in the fetus, but regresses and vanishes in the adult brain. There have been some reports that the human VNO does function, but only responds to hormones in a "sex-specific manner". There also have been pheromone receptor genes found in olfactory mucosa. Unfortunately, there have been no experiments that compare people lacking the VNO, and people that have it. It is disputed on whether the chemicals are reaching the brain through the VNO or other tissues.  In 2006, it was shown that a second mouse receptor sub-class is found in the olfactory epithelium. Called the trace amine-associated receptors (TAAR), some are activated by volatile amines found in mouse urine, including one putative mouse pheromone. Orthologous receptors exist in humans providing, the authors propose, evidence for a mechanism of human pheromone detection.  Although there are disputes about the mechanisms by which pheromones function, there is evidence that pheromones do affect humans. Despite this evidence, it has not been conclusively shown that humans have functional pheromones. Those experiments suggesting that certain pheromones have a positive effect on humans are countered by others indicating they have no effect whatsoever.  A possible theory being studied now is that these axillary odors are being used to provide information about the immune system. Milinski and colleagues found that the artificial odors that people chose are determined in part by their major histocompatibility complexes (MHC) combination. Information about an individual's immune system could be used as a way of "sexual selection" so that the female could obtain good genes for her offspring. Claus Wedekind and colleagues found that both men and women prefer the axillary odors of people whose MHC is different from their own.  Some body spray advertisers claim that their products contain human sexual pheromones that act as an aphrodisiac. Despite these claims, no pheromonal substance has ever been demonstrated to directly influence human behavior in a peer reviewed study. Thus, the role of pheromones in human behavior remains speculative and controversial.

A pheromone (from Ancient Greek "" "to bear" and hormone) is a secreted or excreted chemical factor that triggers a social response in members of the same species. Pheromones are chemicals capable of acting like hormones outside the body of the secreting individual, to impact the behavior of the receiving individuals. There are "alarm pheromones", "food trail pheromones", "sex pheromones", and many others that affect behavior or physiology. Pheromones are used from basic unicellular prokaryotes to complex multicellular eukaryotes. Their use among insects has been particularly well documented. In addition, some vertebrates, plants and ciliates communicate by using pheromones.

Ein Pheromon (Kofferwort aus "phérein" ‚tragen‘ und "Hormon") ist ein Botenstoff zur Informationsübertragung zwischen Individuen innerhalb einer Art. Der Begriff dient auch der Abgrenzung von anderen Semiochemikalien wie etwa den Allomonen, die der Kommunikation zwischen Individuen verschiedener Arten dienen. Der Chemiker Peter Karlson und der Zoologe Martin Lüscher prägten den Begriff "Pheromon" im Jahr 1959 und definierten ihn folgendermaßen:


Career.

Ernst Nicolaas Herman Jansen, later known as Ernst Jansen Steur is a Dutch former neurologist who worked in several positions, including the Medisch Spectrum Twente (MST). During his career he was noted within his profession for his research into Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and multiple sclerosis.  He completed his doctoral research in 1994 at the Maastricht University, researching Parkinson's disease.  Jansen Steur was interviewed as an expert on the disease by the Dutch television program "EénVandaag" on 24 July 2002 regarding the condition of Prince Claus of the Netherlands (Jansen Steur indicated on the show that he found the prince's condition "worrisome").  Jansen Steur sufferent a serious car accident in Germany in 1990, resulting in a complex hip fracture. In 2000 he became addicted to Midazolam, a sedative. In order to obtain this drug he started forging prescriptions using his colleagues' names as prescribing physicians.  As it turned out later, in the four years following his becoming addicted, he regularly misdiagnosed patients. In order to support his misdiagnoses, he forged diagnostic questionnaires from patients, swapped patient x-rays and forged laboratory results. He prescribed strong medications unnecessarily for a number of his patients and in a number of cases had patients undergo brain surgery without necessity.  Jansen Steur was forced to resign from the MST by the board in 2004. He received a €250,000 severance package and was forced to sign a non-disclosure agreement (together with his former colleagues). As part of this deal, he agreed to strike himself from the Dutch registry of medical professionals, thereby giving up the right to practice in the Netherlands. Patients received financial compensation, but were sworn to secrecy.

Investigation and prosecution.

Despite the deal with Jansen Steur (resulting in his resignation from MST and voluntary removal from the registry), the board of MST decided to begin an investigation in 2009 due to a turnover of board members which included the installation of as the new chairman. The investigation was headed by, the former mayor of Hengelo. The Lemstra committee reported on 1 September 2009, concluding failures on the part of the MST but also of the Dutch Health Care Inspectorate (: "Inspectie voor de Gezondheidszorg" or "IGZ"), which was headed by Kingma at the time that Jansen was being sent away from the MST. The committee also concluded Jansen had been failing as a doctor since 1992 and that the MST had failed to address the situation for years.  Upon the release of this report, the Dutch minister of Health Ab Klink instituted another investigative committee headed by Rein Jan Hoekstra, to investigate the functioning of the Health Care Inspectorate.  This committee supported the conclusions of the Lemstra committee regarding the failing of the Inspectorate, concluding that the Inspectorate waited far too long to take measures against Jansen and should have filed criminal charges against him rather than settling for a voluntary relinquishing of his status as a physician. They also criticized the MST and the doctors treating Jansen Steur for his injuries in that they did not cooperate fully with the investigation by the Inspectorate. Both of Jansen's doctors invoked physician–patient privilege. However, the Inspectorate concluded in an internal investigation concluded on 17 February 2009 that they had functioned correctly in the matter of Jansen Steur.  It was announced in October 2009 that Jansen Steur would have to face charges in court after all, charges having been leveled by a special investigative team of the police for this case (the Lippstadt-team). The team had, by that point, gathered 135 different complaints from patients regarding Jansen Steur. The justice department called the case "the biggest medical trial in the Netherlands ever".  The trial was started on 28 November 2012; it was announced on this first trial day that Jansen Steur was facing 21 criminal charges, including causing grievous bodily and mental harm through misdiagnoses of eight patients, causing one patient to commit suicide, theft, embezzlement and fraud. A total of 40 people filed charges against the doctor.  There were charges filed by personal injury expert, who filed charges in name of a few dozen injured patients and in name of the families of three patients who died after having been treated by Jansen Steur. In addition to these charges, charges were filed of scientific fraud, after investigation by the Lemstra committee showed that Jansen Steur had falsified results in order to publish an article in "The Lancet". The court in Arnhem sentenced him for deliberately setting misdiagnosis, wrongly prescribing strong medicines and the denial of care. In addition he was considered responsible for a suicide of a female patient due to his diagnosis. The court sentenced in February 2014 3 years of prison. Jansen Steur appealed.  Metta de Noo, a physician and acquaintance of Jansen Steur claimed in her book of 2015 that he suffered a frontal lobe disorder due to the 1990 accident and should not be held criminally accountable.

Work in Germany after 2004.

After being forced out of the MST in 2004, Jansen Steur moved to Germany, where he worked for several private clinics. After Dutch correspondent Rob Vorkink tracked him down to the Schlossberg Klinik in Bad Laasphe and tried to interview him for RTV Oost, Jansen Steur was immediately fired from that institute.  The Netherlands was shocked on 4 January 2013 when the NOS evening news led with the story that Jansen Steur had found another job as a neurologist in the "Klinik am Gesundbrunnen" hospital in Heilbronn. He was discovered there by the same Rob Vorkink, who recognized Jansen Steur's voice in a phone call (despite his denying that he was the same person). NOS reporter Marc Hamer verified his identity by passing around photographs among hospital personnel. He was subsequently fired from the hospital on 5 January 2013.  Although the hospital noted at first that Jansen Steur had been allowed to work at the hospital because he left his profession voluntarily in the Netherlands in 2010 (preventing the hospital from checking his credentials with the Dutch registry) and as there were no criminal convictions against him when he applied to the hospital, it soon transpired that the hospital had in fact been aware of Jansens past.  On 6 January 2013, a German patient filed charges over treatment she received from Jansen Steur in Heilbronn, which she claimed left her wheelchair-bound.

Other.

Steur is the doctor's mother's maiden name. He added this name to his surname of "Jansen", which is one of the most common surnames in the Netherlands, and is known to the general public as "Ernst Jansen Steur".

Ernst Nicolaas Herman Jansen, (born 24 October 1945 in Kamperland, Netherlands), later known as Ernst Jansen Steur, is a former Dutch neurologist, who garnered notoriety for misconduct and lost his license to practice medicine.

Ernst Nicolaas Herman Jansen, (* 24. Oktober 1945 in Kamperland, Niederlande), auch bekannt unter seinem angenommenen Namen Ernst Jansen Steur, ist ein ehemaliger niederländischer Neurologe. Er war als Experte auf dem Gebiet der Neurologie und der Alzheimer-Forschung bekannt. Seit 2004 wurden mehrere schwerwiegende Fehldiagnosen bekannt, die zu seiner Entlassung aus mehreren Stellungen und schließlich zu einer Anklage führten.


Teams.

All eighteen UCI ProTeams were automatically invited and were obliged to attend the race. As the winners of the 2013 Coppa Italia rankings for Italian teams, were invited to the race in October 2013. In January 2014, the three remaining wildcard places were decided by a vote on social media, from a shortlist of eight UCI Professional Continental teams. The places were later awarded to the, and squads.  The 22 teams that competed in the race were: <nowiki>*:</nowiki> Marked UCI Professional Continental teams given wild card entry to this event.

Pre-race favourites.

Before the start of a race, Nairo Quintana, Joaquim Rodríguez, Cadel Evans, Rigoberto Urán were among the main favourites for overall victory. Other possible contenders were Domenico Pozzovivo, Michele Scarponi, Dan Martin, Ivan Basso, Rafał Majka and Przemysław Niemiec.

Stages.

The 2014 Giro has its stages categorized into five different categories, named A to E. The category of a stage determines the points given for the points classification, and for the maximum time allowed for cyclists to finish the stage. Category A is reserved for the flattest stages, while category D is for the stages with the highest mountains. Category E is for time-trial stages.  It started in Belfast on 9 May 2014 and traveled across both Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. There were three rest days instead of the usual two and the race started on a Friday.

Classification leadership.

In the 2014 Giro d'Italia, four different jerseys were awarded. For the general classification, calculated by adding each cyclist's finishing times on each stage, and allowing time bonuses (10, 6 and 4 seconds respectively) for the first three finishers on mass-start stages, the leader received a pink jersey. This classification is considered the most important of the Giro d'Italia, and the winner is considered the winner of the Giro.  Additionally, there was a points classification, awarding a red jersey. In the points classification, cyclists received points for finishing in the top 15 in a stage. Unlike in the better known points classification in the Tour de France, the type of stage has no effect on what points were on offer – each stage had the same points available on the same scale. The winner earned 25 points, second place earned 20 points, third 16, fourth 14, fifth 12, sixth 10, and one point fewer per place down to a single point for 15th. In addition, points could be won in intermediate sprints.  There was a mountains classification, the leadership of which was marked by a blue jersey. In the mountains classifications, points were won by reaching the top of a climb before other cyclists. Each climb was categorized as either first, second, third, or fourth-category, with more points available for the higher-categorized climbs. The "Cima Coppi", the race's highest point of elevation, was worth still more points than the other first-category climbs. The fourth jersey represents the young rider classification, marked by a white jersey. This was decided the same way as the general classification, but only riders born after 1 January 1989 were eligible.  There were two classifications for teams. In the Trofeo Fast Team classification, the times of the best three cyclists per team on each stage were added; the leading team was the team with the lowest total time; the Trofeo Super Team was a team points classification, with the top 20 placed riders on each stage earning points (20 for first place, 19 for second place and so on, down to a single point for 20th) for their team.  The rows in the following table correspond to the jerseys awarded after that stage was run.

Final standings.

Minor classifications.

Other less well-known classifications, whose leaders do not receive a special jersey, were awarded during the Giro. These awards are based on points earned throughout the three weeks of the tour. Each mass-start stage has one intermediate sprint, the "Traguardi Volante", or T.V. The T.V. sprints give bonus seconds towards the general classification, points towards the regular points classification, and also points towards the T.V. classification. This award was known by various names in previous years, and was previously time-based. It was won by Italian Marco Bandiera. The "Premio della Fuga", rewards riders who take part in breakaways at the head of the field. Each rider in an escape of ten or fewer riders receives one point for each kilometre that the group stayed clear. Andrea Fedi won this classification.  Other awards include the Fighting Spirit (Combativity classification), which is a compilation of points gained for position on crossing intermediate sprints, mountain passes and stage finishes. This classification was won by Julián Arredondo. The Azzurri d'Italia classification is based on finishing order, but points were awarded only to the top three finishers in each stage. It was won by Frenchman Nacer Bouhanni. Teams take part in the Fair Play classification where teams are given penalty points for minor technical infringements. This was won by. A new classification, the Energy Prize classification was introduced this year and awarded points to the rider with the fastest time in those last 3 km gets 4 points, the second 2 points and the third one point. The first winner of this was Enrico Battaglin.

The 2014 Giro d'Italia was the 97th running of the Giro d'Italia, one of cycling's Grand Tour races. The Giro started off in Belfast, on 9 May, with a team time trial and concluded in Trieste, on 1 June, with a flat stage. A total of 198 riders from 22 teams entered the 21-stage race, which was won by Colombian Nairo Quintana of the team. The second and third places were taken by Colombian Rigoberto Urán and Italian Fabio Aru, respectively.

Der 97. Giro d’Italia fand vom 9. Mai bis 1. Juni 2014 statt. Die Rundfahrt startete in Belfast (Nordirland) und endete nach 21 Etappen in Triest. Der Giro wurde mit einem Mannschaftszeitfahren an einem Freitag eröffnet. Drei Tage darauf fand der erste von drei Ruhetagen statt. Während des ersten Ruhetages verlief der Transfer von Irland nach Italien. Die Gesamtlänge betrug 3.445,4 Kilometer. Sieger wurde der Kolumbianer Nairo Quintana.


Early life.

Beatie grew up in Honolulu, Hawaii, the first of two children. Beatie's mother was from San Francisco, and of English, Irish, Scottish, and Welsh descent. His father, of Korean and Filipino descent, was born and raised in Hawaii.  Beatie writes that he started to self-identify with the male gender at age ten. As a teenager, Beatie was a model and Miss Hawaii Teen USA pageant finalist.  In 1996, Beatie graduated from the University of Hawaii with a bachelor's degree in health science (pre-med) and later pursued an Executive MBA. He competed in full-contact fighting and was a black belt and tournament champion in Taekwondo.

Transition.

In March 2002, Beatie underwent sex reassignment surgery involving a double mastectomy, also known as "top surgery", and officially changed his sex marker from "female" to "male" on his state and federal identity documents. Prior to marriage he legally changed his name.  Beatie married Nancy Gillespie in a legally valid heterosexual marriage in Hawaii on February 5, 2003. Beatie was also listed as "male" on his health and life insurance policies. The couple moved to Bend, Oregon in 2005. When the two decided to start a family, Beatie chose to carry the child, since Nancy was unable due to a prior hysterectomy. He was able to become pregnant, having retained his female reproductive organs. Beatie suspended testosterone hormone treatment in order to conceive twice with donor sperm, delivering both children without complications.  In February 2012, Beatie elected to have "lower" surgery, including the creation of a functional penis. The procedure, performed by transgender surgeon Marci Bowers, was documented on his second appearance of "The Doctors", in 2012. The procedure, called a ring metoidioplasty, included transfer of tissue, elongation of the hormonally enlarged phallus, as well as urethral construction and lengthening.

Public profile.

Beatie received intense media attention after he wrote a first-person article in the national LGBT magazine "The Advocate" in 2008. He wrote, "our situation sparks legal, political, and social unknowns [...] Doctors have discriminated against us, turning us away due to their religious beliefs". The article was accompanied by a shirtless photograph of the pregnant Beatie, which became an object of voyeurism among the public according to the queer theorist Jack Halberstam. Within weeks of the online publication, news of his story quickly spread through national and international media, who dubbed Beatie "the pregnant man".  The media attention challenged many people's ideas about sex and gender, and attracted criticism of Beatie's identity and motives. Sociologist Lisa Wade wrote, "I'm not sure what to make, sociologically, of the attention that Thomas' pregnancy is receiving in the mass media, but it is ripe for analysis". Many media outlets treated Beatie's pregnancy as a "freak show", according to media scholar Andre Cavalcante. The story helped promote transgender issues in the media; other trans men had given birth before Beatie, but were neither reported on nor legally recognized as male.  In April 2008, Beatie made his first television appearance, an hour-long exclusive interview, on the "Oprah Winfrey Show". During the show, he talked about his sense of reproductive right to bear a child independent of his male gender identity. He commented, "It's not a male or female desire to want to have a child [...] it's a human desire [...] I'm a person, and I have the right to have my own biological child." The "Oprah" episode received a spike in Nielsen ratings. In the April 14, 2008, edition of "People (magazine)", Beatie was photographed by Mary Ellen Mark for a six-page story.Beatie delivered his first child, Susan, on June 29, 2008. Multiple tabloids, magazines, and other news outlets reported the story after paparazzi captured images of the family leaving the at the St. Charles Medical Center in Bend, Oregon days later. "People"'s senior editor, Patrick Rogers, gave an interview to the CBS "Early Morning Show" about the birth. "People"s August 4, 2008, edition featured Beatie with his daughter, Susan, sharing the cover with a larger image of Barack Obama, who at the time was a presidential candidate in the 2008 U.S. presidential election, posing with his family.  On November 13, 2008, journalist Barbara Walters announced on "The View" that Thomas was expecting his second child, Austin Alexander Beatie. The next day, ABC aired a 20/20 Barbara Walters primetime interview ("Journey of a Pregnant Man") with the Beaties. During the interview, Walters showed a series of photographs of Beatie, commenting on the "disturbing" nature of the images, many of which highlighted his pregnant belly.In June 2009, Beatie gave birth to his second child, a son. The couple's third child, a second son was born in July 2010.  "Guinness World Records" 2010, named Beatie the "World's First Married Man to Give Birth". In a TV broadcast from Rome, Italy, "Guinness World Records" presented him with the title of "Unico Uomo Incinto al Mondo," translated as "World's First Pregnant Man."  Other TV appearances for Beatie include "Larry King Live" with Larry King, "The View", "Good Morning America", "Anderson Live" with Anderson Cooper, "", and repeat features on "The Doctors" and "Dr. Drew". Beatie has made personal appearances on over a dozen hit international TV talk shows in other countries such as Spain, Greece, Germany, Italy, Romania, Russia, Japan, Sweden, Poland, and the UK.  Between August and November 2016, he was a contestant in the tenth season of Secret Story, the French adaptation of Big Brother; his secret was "I'm the first pregnant man ever". He placed 2nd of all the contestants with 28% of the televote in the final.  Beatie owns a website and T-shirt company featuring the slogan "Define Normal", and has given keynote speeches at colleges and universities.

Legal precedent and divorce.

On March 8, 2012, Beatie filed a Petition for Legal Separation in Maricopa County, Arizona. Shortly after, Nancy converted the motion to a divorce. News of the break-up with his wife was leaked to tabloids during an April taping of the talk show "The Doctors". Nancy was restricted to two-hour supervised visits with the children three times per week. On May 16, 2012, Thomas was awarded temporary sole custody of his three children and ordered to pay alimony to Nancy.  During the divorce proceedings, the presiding judge stated that because Beatie had given birth to the couple's children, he was legally female and therefore the marriage was not recognized in the state. Arizona Superior Court Judge Douglas Gerlach issued a nunc pro tunc Order questioning whether the Court had jurisdiction over the matter. The Beatie case was the first of its kind on record, where a documented legal male gave birth within a traditional marriage to a woman, and the first time a court challenged a marriage based upon a husband giving birth. At the time, Arizona did not legally recognize same-sex marriage, so if Beatie were found to be female according to Arizona statute, the ten-year Beatie marriage would not be recognized in that state.  Beatie's attorneys at the Cantor Law Group filed a memorandum showing that under Arizona State Statute, a transgender man's legal definition is set by certain medical operations, treatments, and finally a certified doctor's approval. "Since Arizona and Hawaii have virtually the same Sex Change Statute, in this case we will prove that under the law Thomas was a man at the time of his wedding. Sterilization is not a requirement of either State's Statute. Under both Arizona's and Hawaii's law Thomas was a man at the time of his marriage, and therefore his three children born during the marriage are legitimate," stated attorney, David Michael Cantor. On August 15, 2012, Judge Gerlach ordered an Evidentiary Hearing and Oral Argument on 7 December 2012. The Transgender Law Center filed a friend-of-the-court brief for the December trial in support of the Beaties' marriage and believes that the case could be significant regarding marriage, divorce, and reproductive rights for transgender people in the state of Arizona and around the country. Expert testimony was provided by Beatie's sex-reassignment surgeon, Dr. Michael Brownstein M.D., in which the doctor implied that gender is more psychological than chromosomal. He also attested that the chest reconstruction procedure Beatie had undergone qualified as a sex-change surgery.  On 31 January 2013, a trial was heard to determine custody, child support, and division of property and debts, even though Arizona is not a common-law state. Despite the marriage's being put into question, the courts proceeded with custody arrangements for the children because both Beatie and Nancy legally adopted each of their three children in Oregon, in the Oregon court orders, Thomas was also listed as "father" and Nancy was listed as "mother" on each birth certificate, and each spouse had equal parental rights to custody.  On March 28, 2013, the court ruled that it had a lack of subject-matter jurisdiction to grant the Beaties a divorce and that Arizona did not have to comply with accepting out-of-state birth or marriage certificates. Despite medical testimony stating otherwise, Judge Gerlach did not consider gender identity, hormone treatment, and chest reconstruction as a valid sex-change surgery, as grounds for successful gender transition. "If adopted, (it) would lead to circumstances in which a person's sex can become a matter of whim and not a matter of any reasonable, objective standard or policy, which is precisely the kind of absurd result the law abhors." Beatie's attorney said the judgement contained several errors. The court also ruled to give Nancy joint legal decision-making, physical custody and equal parenting time, ordering Beatie to pay her nearly $240 per month in child support. Since the marriage was not considered valid in Arizona alimony was not further enforced, though the division of property was.  However, in August 2014, an Arizona Appeals Court declared that the marriage of the Beaties was valid and therefore they can get divorced, stating that Beatie should not have had to be sterilized in order to be legally recognized as a man in Arizona or Hawaii.  Beatie remarried to Amber Beatie and now lives in Phoenix, Arizona. Together they have one child, which she carried.

LGBT activism.

In 2000–2001, Beatie was the co-chair and media chair for the Civil Unions-Civil Rights Movement in Honolulu, Hawaii, a non-profit LGBT organization for marriage equality. He helped organize and implement an island-wide, seven-day, 110-mile March for Equality. He also lobbied to pass the state's first Hate Crimes Law(which passed in June, 2001), and worked as an advisor for the city and county's Chapter 19, an anti-bullying policy for the Board of Education.  In August 2011, he was the main opening speaker for Stockholm Pride, speaking to an audience of tens of thousands. He also spearheaded one-on-one discussions with doctors, politicians, and policy-makers in support of abolishing the sterilization law for Swedish transgender people. Sweden's forced sterilization law for transgender people was overturned on December 19, 2012.

Cultural impact.

Beatie has challenged social and legal definitions of what constitutes being a man or a woman. "People Magazine" defines him as a pop culture icon in the magazine's special edition "Pop Culture: 1000 Greatest Moments 1974 - 2011." His legal case is also a precedent-setter for the ability of transgender people to exercise their constitutional right to reproduce and be recognized as his or her legal gender post sex-change transition.

Sculpture.

In May 2010, London sculptor Marc Quinn unveiled a 10-foot marble statue of Beatie when he was pregnant with daughter Susan. Marc Quinn commented, "I think one of the main things to remember is that media attention and images are of their moment whereas Art is forever... that in 500 years time people will look at the beautiful marble sculpture of [Thomas] and have an emotional response and it will, I believe, somehow define something about our time."

Film.

The documentary "Pregnant Man" (2008) documented the final weeks of Beatie's pregnancy and the birth of Susan. The documentary was the highest rated show for Discovery Networks for 2008. The documentary continues to screen worldwide.

Short film.

In 2015, French director Jan Caplin wrote and directed the short movie "Hippocampe", inspired by Thomas Beatie and his wife's attempts to have a child.

Publications.

Shortly after Susan was born, Beatie authored his first book, "Labor of Love: The Story of One Man's Extraordinary Pregnancy" (2008). In "Labor of Love", Beatie describes the fight for his right to have a child. "Publisher's Weekly" said the book was "A compelling, unique narrative". "Book List" praised it as "Unforced and unpretentious," and the "New York Times" called it "Defiant and transformative."  Other Works Include

Thomas Trace Beatie (born 1974) is an American public speaker, author, and advocate of transgender and sexuality issues, with a focus on transgender fertility and reproductive rights.

Thomas Trace Beatie (* 1974 als "Tracy Lehuanani LaGondino" in Honolulu, Hawaii) ist ein US-amerikanischer Transgender-Aktivist. Der Transmann Beatie ließ 2002 eine geschlechtsangleichende Operation vornehmen. Größere Bekanntheit erreichte er 2008 als weltweit erster „schwangerer Mann“. Bislang hat Beatie drei Kinder geboren.


Biography.

Whitcomb was born in Evanston, Illinois. His father, who had been a balloon pilot in World War I, was a mechanical engineer who specialized in rotational dynamics. In 1932 the family moved to Worcester, Massachusetts when his father became employed at the Norton company.  As a child Whitcomb was fascinated by airplanes; he built models and flew them in competitions, always striving to improve their performance. He graduated from Worcester Polytechnic Institute in 1943 with a BS in aeronautical engineering. He was employed at the Langley Research Center operated by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) and its successor, NASA.

Career.

Area rule.

After World War II, NACA research began to focus on near-sonic and low-supersonic airflow. After considering the sudden drag increase which a wing-fuselage combination experiences at somewhere around, Whitcomb concluded that "the disturbances and shock waves are simply a function of the longitudinal variation of the cross-sectional area" – that is, the effect of the wings could be visualized as equivalent to a fuselage with a sort of midriff bulge whose frontal area was the same as that of the wings. Since the wings could not be dispensed with in the actual case, the alternate to removing the "bulge" would be to decrease the fuselage's cross-section near the wings. This became known as the area rule, which allowed a significant reduction in the drag felt by airplanes near the speed of sound. Its impact on aircraft design was immediate: the prototype Convair YF-102, for example, was found not to be capable of exceeding the speed of sound in level flight. This was rectified by re-sculpting the fuselage. For his insight, Whitcomb won the Collier Trophy in 1954.  In 1958 Whitcomb was named head of Langley's transonic aerodynamics branch, and he began working on a possible SST design. He built proposed models, but by 1962 he abandoned the project because of the intractable drag problem. Casting about for other research, he returned to the question of transonic drag, especially on wings.

Supercritical airfoil.

To achieve reduced drag in the transonic phase, Whitcomb realized that the wing's pressure distribution must be modified to delay and weaken the shock wave created on the upper surface where the high-velocity flow decelerated to subsonic. Using intuition rather than mathematics, he built a chord wing section and tested it repeatedly in the Langley high-speed wind tunnel, adding (with auto body putty) or removing (with a file and sandpaper) material until the desired flows were achieved.  Although a low-drag airfoil (in the transonic range) was thus produced, Whitcomb's superiors observed that not every aircraft manufacturer could be expected to use file and sandpaper to design the needed shapes. Therefore, NASA signed a contract with the Courant Institute at New York University, whose mathematician Paul Garabedian and aerodynamicist Anthony Jameson worked with Whitcomb to develop a practical computational method for designing supercritical airfoils - those that were most efficient in the transonic range. Using this method, supercritical wings were fabricated and proven on full-scale aircraft; in 1971 a Vought F-8 Crusader, and in 1973 a General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark, were flown at the NASA Flight Research Center in California. For his contribution, NASA awarded Whitcomb a $25,000 prize, and he received the 1974 Wright Brothers Memorial Trophy from the National Aeronautic Association.  The unusual airfoil unexpectedly aided general aviation as well; its rather blunt leading edge allowed it to generate high lift coefficients before stalling, and Whitcomb published a low-speed airfoil which he called GA(W)-1; it is now routinely used in light aircraft and gliders.  Following his research on wings, Whitcomb again turned to a possible complete supercritical aircraft, and in 1971 he published preliminary details of a "near-sonic transport" (NST), which he predicted could attain a relatively efficient cruise at 0.98 Mach. As with his supercritical wing efforts, he had largely developed the design in the wind tunnel, shaping his proposed model with putty and knife until the various secondary shocks created by wing-body intersections were muted as much as possible. Whitcomb's NST proposal was not advanced beyond his concept stage.

Winglets.

Aerodynamicists had known for decades that some sort of wingtip barrier could reduce wingtip vortices, and thus the drag. However, Whitcomb was apparently the first to conclude that such a barrier would be most efficient if it took the form of a supplementary vertical (or near-vertical) wing. He proposed his results, showing improvements on the order of 5 percent, but industry was slow to adopt. It took nearly three decades for his proposals to become commonplace; they now are routinely used on aircraft from airliners to gliders.

Later life.

Following his groundbreaking research on transonic airflow, Whitcomb spent several years moving in an entirely different field - the possible extraction of usable energy from the environment by employing possible avenues of quantum physics. However, these investigations bore no result, and in 1980 he suddenly announced his decision to retire from Langley. Whitcomb continued to serve as a consultant to the aviation industry when asked. He continued to live in an apartment building in Hampton, Virginia, his residence since 1943. He had never married, but for 25 years was close to a NASA mathematician, Barbara Durling. She died in 2001. Whitcomb died in Newport News, Virginia in 2009.

Richard Travis Whitcomb (February 21, 1921 – October 13, 2009) was an American aeronautical engineer who was noted for his contributions to the science of aerodynamics.

Richard Travis Whitcomb (* 21. Februar 1921 in Evanston, Illinois; † 13. Oktober 2009 in Newport News, Virginia) war ein US-amerikanischer Flugzeugingenieur.