Historical description.

According to Hindu belief, Badrinath became prominent when Nar-Narayan, an avatar of Vishnu, did Tapasya there. At that time that place was filled with berry trees. In Sanskrit language, berries are called "badri", so the place was named Badrika-Van, i.e. the forest of berries. The particular spot where the Nar-Narayan did Tapasya, a large berry tree formed covering Him to save Him from the rain and the sun. Local people believe that Mata Lakshmi became the berry tree to save Lord Narayan. Post-Tapasya, Narayan said, people will always take Her Name before His Name, hence Hindus always refer "Lakshmi-Narayan". It was therefore called Badri-Nath, i.e. the Lord of Berry forest. This all happened in the Sathya/Sath-Yuga. So Badrinath came to be known as the first Dham.  The second place, Rameswaram, got its importance in the Treta Yuga when Lord Rama built a Shiva-Lingam here and worshiped it to get the blessings of Lord Shiva. The name Rameswaram means "Rama is Lord".  The third, Dhaam Dwarka, got its importance in the Dwapara Yuga when Lord Krishna made Dwarka His residence instead of Mathura, His birthplace.  At the fourth, Puri Dhaam, Lord Vishnu is worshiped as Jagannath, his Avtar for Kali yuga.  The four Shankaracharya Peeth (Seats) at the Chaar Dham school of Hinduism, created at least four Hindu monastic institutions. He organised the Hindu practitioners under four (Sanskrit: ) (institutions/monasteries), with the headquarters at Dvārakā in the West, Jagannatha Puri in the East, Sringeri Sharada Peetham in the South and Badrikashrama in the North. The table below gives an overview of the four "Amnaya Mathas" founded by Adi Shankara, and their details.

The four associated places of the Char dhaams.

In the Puranas of, Hari (Vishnu) and Hara (Shiv) are referred as eternal friends. It is said wherever Lord Vishnu resides, Lord Shiva resides nearby. The Chaar Dhaams follow this rule. So Kedarnath is considered as the pair of Badrinath, Rama Setu is considered the pair of Rameshwaram, Somnath is considered as the pair of Dwarka. However, according to some traditions, the Char Dham are Badrinath, Rangnath-Swami, Dwarka and Jagannath-Puri, all of which are Vaishnav sites, and their associated places are Kedarnath, Rameswaram, Somnath and Lingaraja Temple, Bhubaneswar (or maybe Gupteshwar) respectively.  The Char Dham Highway project is still under completion and is proposed to get functional by end of 2018, but currently, many service providers offer a Char Dham Yatra by helicopter for the ease of pilgrims.

Pilgrimage details.

Puri.

Puri located at the east, is located in the state of Odisha, India. Puri is one of the oldest cities in the eastern part of the country. It is situated on the coast of the Bay of Bengal. The main deity is Shri Krishna, celebrated as Lord Jagannatha. It is the only shrine in India, where goddess, Subhadra, sister of Lord Krishna is worshipped along with her brothers, Lord Jagannatha and Lord Balabhadra. The main temple here is about 1000 years old and constructed by Raja Choda Ganga Deva and Raja Tritiya Ananga Bhima Deva. Puri is the site of the Govardhana Matha, one of the four cardinal institutions or Mathas converted by Adi Shankaracharya. Pandit Nilakantha Das suggested that Jagannath was a deity of Jain origin because of the appending of "Nath" to many Jain Tirthankars. Jagannath meant the 'World personified' in the Jain context and was derived from "Jinanath". Evidence of the Jain terminology such as of Kaivalya, which means moksha or salvation, is found in the Jagannath tradition. Similarly, the twenty two steps leading to the temple, called the "Baisi Pahacha", have been proposed as symbolic reverence for the first 22 of the 24 Tirthankaras of Jainism.  According to Annirudh Das, the original Jagannath deity was influenced by Jainism and is none other than the "Jina" of Kalinga taken to Magadh by Mahapadma Nanda. The theory of Jain origins is supported by the Jain Hathigumpha inscription. It mentions the worship of a relic memorial in Khandagiri-Udayagiri, on the Kumara hill. This location is stated to be same as the Jagannath temple site. However, states Starza, a Jain text mentions the Jagannath shrine was restored by Jains, but the authenticity and date of this text is unclear. This is the plume for Oriya people to celebrate a special day in this Dham which is known as Ratha Yatra ("Chariot Festival").

Rameswaram.

Rameswaram located in the South is in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is situated in the Gulf of Mannar at the very tip of the Indian peninsula. According to legends, this is the place where Lord Ram along with his brother Laxman and devotee Hanuman built a bridge (Rama Setu) to reach Sri Lanka to rescue his wife Sita who had been abducted earlier by Ravan, the ruler of Sri Lanka. The Ramanatha Swamy Temple dedicated to Lord Shiva occupies a major area of Rameswaram. The temple is believed to have been consecrated by Shri Rama Chandra. Rameswaram is significant for the Hindus as a pilgrimage to Benaras is incomplete without a pilgrimage to Rameswaram. The presiding deity here is in the form of a Linga with the name Sri Ramanatha Swamy, it also is one of the twelve Jyotirlingas.

Dwarka.

Dwarka located in the west is in the state of Gujarat, country India. The city derives its name from the word ""dvar"" meaning door or gate in the Sanskrit language. It is located confluence to where the Gomti River merges into the Arabian Sea. However, this river Gomti is not the same Gomti River which is a tributary of Ganga River The city lies in the westernmost part of India. The legendary city of Dwaraka was the dwelling place of Lord Krishna. It is generally believed that due to damage and destruction by the sea, Dvaraka had submerged six times and modern day Dwarka is the 7th such city to be built in the area.

Badrinath.

Badrinath is located in the state of Uttarakhand. It is in the Garhwal hills, on the banks of the Alaknanda River. The town lies between the Nar and Narayana mountain ranges and in the shadow of Nilkantha peak (6,560 m). There are other interesting sightseeing spots like Mana, Vyas Gufa, Maatamoorti, Charanpaduka, Bhimkund and the Mukh of the Saraswati River, within 3 km of Badrinathjee. Joshimath is situated on the slopes above the confluence of the rivers Alaknanda and Dhauliganga. Of the four Maths established by Adi Shankaracharya, Joshimath is the winter seat of Chardham.  While the three other Dhams remain open throughout the year, Badrinath Dham only remains open for pilgrims' darshan from April to October each year.

Chota Char Dham.

Another circuit of four ancient pilgrimage sites in the Indian state of Uttarakhand viz. Yamunotri, Gangotri, Kedarnath, and Badrinath is referred to as Chota Char Dham to differentiate it from this bigger circuit of Char Dham sites. These Chota Char Dham shrines are closed in winter due to snowfall and reopen for pilgrims with the advent of summer.  On 23 December 2016 the Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi inaugurated the Chardham Mahamarg Vikas Pariyojana ("Chardham Highway Development Project") to improve connectivity between Gangotri, Yamunotri, Kedarnath and Badrinath and make the pilgrimage an easy task for Hindus.

The Char Dham ("four abodes") is a set of four pilgrimage sites in India. Vaishnavite Hindus believe that visiting these sites helps achieve "Moksha" (salvation). It comprises Badrinath, Dwaraka, Puri and Rameswaram. It is considered by Hindus that every Hindu should visit the char dhams during one's lifetime. The Char Dham as defined by Adi Shankaracharya consists of four Hindu pilgrimage sites. Another small circuit in Uttarakhand of four pilgrimage sites-Yamunotri, Gangotri, Kedarnath, and Badrinath is referred to as Chota Char Dham.

Char Dham (Hindi: = „vier Stätten“) ist der Name einer Gruppe von vier hinduistischen Pilgerorten in Indien. Eine Reise zu allen vier Pilgerorten, die auch "dhāmans" genannt werden, ist für gläubige Hindus ein großer Verdienst. Einige Tempel sind nur für Hindus zugelassen.


The Periplus of Amaro.

Like Saint Brendan, Amaro is said to have travelled on a journey that echoes that of the Irish "immram" – the voyages to the paradisiacal islands of the West. An edition of the "Life of Saint Amaro" was published at Burgos in 1552.  His legend holds that Amaro was a noble Catholic from Asia who was obsessed with the idea of visiting the earthly paradise. With this goal in mind, he would inquire for more information from his guests. Amaro was not successful in receiving information from them and was quite desperate and anguished about this until one night, God appeared to him and revealed how to reach his objective. Amaro would have to build a boat and follow the path of the sun across the Atlantic Ocean.  Amaro took to the sea with some companions and sailed for six days and seven nights until he reached an island. This was an extremely fertile land that was blessed with five cities inhabited by uncouth men – though the women were quite beautiful.  Amaro spent six months there until he heard a voice in his dreams telling him to depart the island. Amaro sailed through the "Red Sea" until he reached the land of a beautiful fountain, where the people were beautiful and lived peaceful lives that lasted three hundred years. Amaro remained there for three weeks until an old woman advised that he leave the island before he became accustomed to the good life.  They sailed for a long time into the vast unknown until they saw several vessels that they thought could assist them. Unfortunately, they found that these vessels had been invaded by monsters, which had killed the sailors and taken their bodies down to the depths of the ocean. Amaro was rescued by an apparition of a group of women, who advised him to empty his bottles of wine and oil into the sea, and then fill the bottles with air. Amaro did this and was rescued from this "Mar Cuajado" (lit. "Still Sea"; the Doldrums).  Three days later they arrived at another desert island, which was inhabited by savage beasts hostile to man. There they found a hermit who informed them that the beasts there annihilated themselves by fighting one another on the day of Saint John; the stench of the corpses persisted throughout the year. The hermit provided them with supplies and recommended that they sail East, where there was a beautiful land that would satisfy all of their needs.  They sailed the next day and arrived in the afternoon, finding a monastery named Valdeflores. A monk from this monastery, Leonites, greeted them and told Amaro that he was waiting for him: he was already informed of their arrival by means of a vision. Leonites provided Amaro with instructions on how to reach the Earthly Paradise.  With Leonites, Amaro and his companions arrived at a natural harbor where they remained for a month, after which they traveled to an extensive and rugged valley, where Amaro will find what he was looking for: the Earthly Paradise. First, however, Amaro stumbled upon a nunnery situated high upon a mountaintop called "Flor de Dueñas" (Flower of Ladies).  He remained there, receiving further instructions on how to reach Paradise from a holy woman named Baralides. He is presented with a white habit. This is given to him by Brígida (Bridget), the niece of Baralides who lives in Paradise. Unfortunately, Leonites began to cry: he is losing a dear friend. But Baralides appears, and comforts Leonites with a gift. She presents him with a branch of one of the two magical trees of the Earthly Paradise.

Amaro in Paradise.

In Paradise, Amaro found an enormous castle built from gems and precious metals, with battlements of gold and towers of rubies, walls made with multicolored bricks.  The castle’s gatekeeper informed Amaro that the castle was the Earthly Paradise, and thus no living being can enter it. The saint begged the gatekeeper to allow him to look at Paradise through the keyhole. Amaro was allowed to do this, and saw many things, including the tree of life from which Adam ate; a primeval and eternal garden; enormous trees; birds whose song was so beautiful one could remain entranced by it for a thousand years; young musicians playing strange and unknown musical instruments; beautiful ladies adorned with a crown of flowers and dressed in white; the Virgin Mary, who accompanied these young ladies.  Saint Amaro begged to be allowed in; the gatekeeper refused and informed him that during the saint's viewing of Paradise, three hundred years have passed. Amaro returned to the coast to find his companions gone and a city named after him built there.  Amaro told the city’s inhabitants his story and they built him a house alongside the monastery of Valdeflores, where he lived for a number of years until he died. He was buried alongside Baralides and Brígida.

Veneration.

There are a number of hermitages dedicated to Amaro in Spain. There is a hermitage dedicated to Amaro in Puerto de la Cruz, Tenerife ("Ermita de San Amaro"). The town of San Amaro in Ourense province is named after him.  His cult was also diffused in Portugal, where he is called "Santo Amaro". In the districts of Coimbra and Viseu, Saint Amaro is brought pinecones, nuts, and dry figs as an ex-voto offering — but he only accepts these items if they have been stolen. Saint Matthew, Saint Simon, and Saint Bartholomew are also brought things that have been stolen. He is also venerated with an annual religious festival in the parish of Ponta Delgada.  At Beja, the whitewashed church of Santo Amaro is one of just four pre-Romanesque churches left in Portugal. Some parts date from the sixth century and the interior columns and capitals are carved with foliages and geometric designs from the seventh century.

According to Catholic tradition, Saint Amaro or Amarus the Pilgrim (, ) was an abbot and sailor who it was claimed sailed across the Atlantic Ocean to an earthly paradise. There are two historical figures who may have provided the basis for this legend. The first was a French penitent of the same name who went on a pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela in the thirteenth century. On his return journey, he established himself at Burgos, where he founded a hospital for lepers.

Amaro oder Amarus der Pilger (spanisch: "San Amaro") (* evtl. 1522; † vor 1552) war ein Abt und Seefahrer, der der christlichen Legende zufolge über den Atlantik das irdische Paradies erreicht haben soll. Amaro wird als Heiliger verehrt.


Background.

In the late 1850s, there were serious concerns that France might attempt to invade the United Kingdom. The recent period had seen great improvements in gunnery (with RML and RBL designs); the widespread introduction of steam propulsion in ships (the French La Gloire and British response HMS Warrior are examples); and the growth of the French battle fleet (between 1854-1858 it had achieved numerical equality to the British). These factors convinced him that Britain's coastal defences were inadequate to prevent invasion by Napoleon III if the Royal Navy was lured elsewhere.

The Royal Commission.

The Commissioners.

The Commission consisted of six eminent naval and military officers, plus a civilian architect:  The Secretary of the Commission was Major William Jervois of the Royal Engineers, a progressive military engineer who held the post of Assistant Inspector-General of Fortifications. Although not appointed as a Commissioner, Jervois seems to have had considerable influence on the conduct of the Commission. Amongst the Commissioners themselves, Cooper Key was an expert in the latest advances in naval gunnery, while Lefroy was an experienced and knowledgeable artillery officer who had been one of the founders of the Royal Artillery Institution. Fergusson was an expert in the history of eastern architecture, but had also published books entitled; "An Essay on a Proposed New System of Fortification: with Hints for its Application to our National Defences" (1849), "The Peril of Portsmouth; or, French Fleets and English Forts" (1852) and "Portsmouth Protected: a Sequel to the Peril of Portsmouth" (1856).

Terms of Reference.

Formulated by Lord Palmerston and the Secretary of State for War, Sidney Herbert, the Commission's brief was as follows:  An attached memorandum directed the attention of the Commissioners to the works already under construction at Portsmouth and the Isle of Wight, Plymouth, Portland, Pembroke and Chatham; they were further asked to consider how the Royal Arsenal at Woolwich might best be defended.

Investigations.

Starting on 3 November 1859, the first phase of the Commission's work was a series of interviews with technical experts and senior military and naval officers. One specialist was Captain Cowper Phipps Coles, the hero of the Siege of Taganrog and an expert in the bombardment of fortifications from the sea. He was so enraged by the numerous questions posed by the Commissioners that he was twice asked to leave the room so that he could recover his composure. Perhaps because of this, the Commission failed to enquire about Coles's pioneering design for a revolving gun turret, which he had patented in that year. Another interviewee was General John Fox Burgoyne, who had conducted the Siege of Sevastopol and was the current Inspector-General of Fortifications. Burgoyne's opinion was that the defence of the dockyard at Portsmouth was of primary importance and it could be protected from bombardment by the fortification and garrisoning of the Isle of Wight and also Portsdown Hill, the ridge which overlooks Portsmouth from the north. Burgoyne also believed that the coast between Portsmouth and the Thames was vulnerable to invasion and that every small harbour there needed to be fortified. Sir William Armstrong, the artillery designer and manufacturer, was questioned at length about the current capabilities of modern rifled artillery and likely future developments. Armstrong's opinion was that his latest guns would be able to defeat some features of current fortification, such as the Carnot wall, but that the maximum range of artillery would be unlikely to exceed 5 miles (8 kilometres) in the future.  The Commission also conducted a series of visits to the sites in question, before convening to produce a report of their findings. Perhaps because the Commissioners were all respected experts in their own fields, they were apparently able to work together amicably.

The Report.

The Report of the Commissioners was published on 7 February 1860. The Commissioners concluded that the fleet, standing army and volunteer forces, even combined, did not provide sufficient defence against invasion. Further, that the coastline which they considered to be at risk, the 700 miles (1,127 kilometres) from the Humber to Penzance, could not feasibly be completely fortified and therefore recommended that "the fortifications of this country should be confined to those points... whose possession would give him sure bases for operations". A detailed plan and costing was produced for each location which required defences, including forts which were already under construction, resulting in a massive programme. The total expenditure projected for the purchase of land and construction costs (including some funds that had already been agreed but not yet provided) was as follows:  Also included in the costings were the total of £500,000 for the armament of these works (a sum that was to prove hopelessly optimistic) and £1,000,000 for the construction of floating batteries, giving a grand total of £11,850,000. The Commissioners further suggested that a force of volunteer artillerymen be raised to man the guns in the new works.

Implementation.

The government, although broadly in agreement with the report, thought that it was too ambitious to be accepted by Parliament in its original form, and therefore set about reducing the number of planned works while attempting to retain the objectives of the scheme for each locality. Planned forts that were not proceeded with included fifteen at Plymouth, ten at Pembroke, six at Portsmouth and four at Chatham; the floating batteries were also dispensed with, resulting in a total saving of £3,930,000. Palmerston finally laid the Fortification Bill before an astonished House of Commons on 23 July 1860. Opposition came from those who believed that there was no threat from France and those who believed that greater security should be achieved by further spending on the navy. The chief opponents were the Radical Richard Cobden and his ally, William Ewart Gladstone, then Chancellor of the Exchequer, who between them had recently concluded the Cobden–Chevalier Treaty, a Free Trade agreement with France. The bill was accepted as the Fortifications (Provisions for Expenses) Act 1860, providing an initial sum of two million pounds and later payments financed by loans to a total of nine million.  By the time the fortifications were completed in the 1880s it was clear that the French had not seriously planned to invade. The Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71 removed the threat and the forts became known as Palmerston's Follies. As a key purpose of fortification is deterrent, this judgement was harsh, but with the rapid development of warship design during the period, the time taken to plan and implement the works would always have caused problems with ensuring that the defences were capable of defeating a French attack force.

The works.

The types of fortification constructed as a result of the Royal Commission fell into two main categories; coastal batteries and land forts.

Coastal batteries.

The main purpose of the coastal batteries was to provide protected positions for heavy coastal artillery which would be able to engage enemy warships and troopships. In some places, for instance high on a cliff, the guns could be mounted in a barbette or open gun pit. However where the batteries were close to the shoreline and could be engaged directly by enemy gunfire, each heavy gun was mounted in a casemate, a vaulted chamber with embrasure for the gun to fire through which was pierced through an armoured shield. Since being mounted in an enclosed space limited the traverse of the gun, casemates were arranged in a long curved row so that the guns of the battery could follow the progress of a passing enemy ship, each weapon engaging it in turn. The rear of the battery was closed either by a simple wall pierced with loopholes, or by a more elaborate defensible building which doubled as a barracks for the garrison. The intention of these rearward defences was that they would be strong enough to prevent the battery being taken by enemy infantry but weak enough to be demolished should the battery fall into enemy hands. In two forts, Fort Darnet and Fort Hoo, the casemates formed a complete circle; other circular works were built as sea forts with foundations on the sea-bed and entirely surrounded by water. A number of the Royal Commission coastal works were upgrades of existing fortifications, such as the 16th century Pendennis Castle at Falmouth.

Land forts.

The landward fortifications were intended to prevent an enemy force who may have landed at an undefended beach from marching overland and assaulting a dockyard from the rear, or simply bombarding it. These forts were built in the new polygonal style without the traditional bastions and generally sited so as to form a "ring fortress", so that each fort could support its neighbour with artillery fire. Construction of some landward forts at Portsmouth and Plymouth had already begun in the 1850s and work on the ring fortress at Chatham was not started until 1875, resulting in very different designs as military theories changed over the decades.

The Royal Commission on the Defence of the United Kingdom was a committee formed in 1859 to enquire into the ability of the United Kingdom to defend itself against an attempted invasion by a foreign power, and to advise the British Government on the remedial action required. The appointment of the Commission had been prompted by public concern about the growing military and naval power of the French Empire and was instigated by the Prime Minister, Henry Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston, who came to be closely associated with the project. In the following year, the Commission's report recommended a huge programme of fortification to defend the country's arsenals and naval bases. Many of the recommendations were acted upon; however, the great expense, the length of time taken to complete the various works and their perceived usefulness were all subjects of critical political, press and public debate.

Die Royal Commission on the Defence of the United Kingdom wurde 1859 von Lord Palmerston eingesetzt, da sich in jener Zeit in Großbritannien die Sorgen mehrten, dass Frankreich eine Invasion Englands planen könnte. Zu dieser Zeit hatte es große Fortschritte in der Geschütztechnik gegeben und gleichzeitig setzte sich die Dampfschifffahrt immer mehr durch. Die französische Flotte war in der Zeit von 1854 bis 1858 so weit ausgebaut worden, dass sie zahlenmäßig der des Vereinigten Königreichs entsprach. Diese Umstände überzeugten Lord Palmerston, dass die militärische Küstenverteidigung des Großbritanniens zu schwach war, falls die Flotte an anderer Stelle eingesetzt wurde, um einen Invasionversuch abzuwehren.


Early life and education.

Josiah Walls was born into slavery in 1842 near Winchester, Virginia. During the American Civil War, he was forced to join the Confederate army and work in support. He was captured by the Union Army in 1862 at Yorktown. He voluntarily joined the United States Colored Troops in 1863 and rose to the rank of corporal. He was discharged in Florida and settled in Alachua County, Florida.

Political career.

State government.

Walls served as a delegate to the state constitutional convention of 1868, representing Alachua County. Later that year, he was elected to the Florida House of Representatives from Alachua, along with his friend, Henry Harmon, serving in Florida's first Reconstruction Legislature. When State Senator Horatio Jenkins was appointed to a county judgeship, Walls decided to run in the special election to succeed him. He was elected to the Alachua and Levy County district on December 29, 1868, and took office in January. Walls served as state senator for the 1869 and 1870 legislative session.

Congress.

In 1870, Walls was nominated as the Republican candidate for Florida's sole at-large congressional seat after a contentious party convention. A moderate faction of mostly white carpetbaggers, led by U.S. Senator Thomas W. Osborn, supported the freedman Robert Meacham, while the majority of black delegates were split between several more radical black candidates, including Walls. Walls won the nomination on the 11th ballot, after the other black candidates withdrew to prevent Meacham from winning.  Walls went on to win the 1870 general election and serve in the 42nd Congress, but the vote was contested by Democrat Silas L. Niblack. The House Committee on Elections eventually unseated Walls after finding election irregularities.  Walls ran for the at-large congressional seat again in the 1872 election and won. In office, Walls introduced bills to establish a national education fund and aid pensioners and Seminole War Veterans.  In 1874, Walls ran for re-election to Congress in the newly redistricted 2nd district. Walls won the election but Democrat Jesse J. Finley, a former Confederate colonel, contested the results of the election. Finley was eventually declared the winner by the Democratic-controlled House of Representatives.

Return to state politics.

Walls again sought the Republican nomination for the 2nd congressional district in 1876. After the black delegates split between Walls and another black candidate, the nomination went to a white carpetbagger, Horatio Bisbee. Walls instead ran for his old state senate seat, and served a four-year term. He lost re-election in 1880.

Legal career.

Walls was admitted to the bar in Alachua County in April 1873. In June 1874, Walls formed a law partnership in Gainesville with Henry S. Harmon, who had been the first African-American admitted to the bar in Florida, and William U. Saunders. The next year Harmon and Saunders moved their legal practice to Tallahassee.

Later life.

Leaving politics, Walls operated a successful farm in Alachua County until the disastrous freeze of 1894–95, which destroyed his crops. He took a teaching position as Farm Director of the State Normal and Industrial College for Colored Students, which much later would become Florida A&M University, in Tallahassee. After nearly a decade there, he died on May 5, 1905.  59-78.

Josiah Thomas Walls (December 30, 1842 – May 15, 1905) was a United States congressman who served three terms in the U.S. Congress between 1871 and 1876. He was one of the first African Americans in the United States Congress elected during the Reconstruction Era, and the first black person to be elected to Congress from Florida. He also served four terms in the Florida Senate.

Josiah Thomas Walls (* 30. Dezember 1842 in Winchester, Virginia; † 15. Mai 1905 in Tallahassee, Florida) war ein US-amerikanischer Politiker. Zwischen 1871 und 1876 vertrat er den Bundesstaat Florida im US-Repräsentantenhaus.


Biography.

Hovsep Vartanian (), was born in 1813 to Catholic Armenian parents. At the age of 13, he set out for Vienna, where he was enrolled in the school of Mechitarists. Upon returning to the Ottoman Empire, he worked as a teacher for a couple of years, after which he took up a post in 1837 in the Dragoman's office of the Ottoman Empire. Rising through the ranks of the state bureaucracy, he was promoted to the rank of "Pasha" at the same time as his assignment as a founding member to the Ottoman Academy ("Encümen-i Daniş"), established along lines similar to those of the Académie française and which also acted as a consultative council for the Sultan. He wrote the novel "Akabi's Story" in 1851, while he was a member of the Academy, and a long story, also in Turkish, treating the deep divide and the strife between Gregorian and Catholic Armenians, a secondary theme in Akabi's novel, followed the next year. After his retirement, he started and managed the magazine "Mecmua-i Havadis", bilingual in Turkish and Armenian. He also wrote a biography of Napoleon I of France. Vartan Pasha died in 1879.

"Akabi's Story".

The novel relates an impossible love story between two young people issued from different communities which cultivate hostility between each other, either latent or evident, in the true fashion of "Romeo and Juliet" and many other stories produced by different cultures throughout the ages. Akabi is a daughter of Gregorian Armenians, and Hagop, her reciprocated lover, is a Catholic. Despite being an early novel and having been written by a male writer, Akabi character is the more prominent of the two principal heroes. Furthermore, although a Catholic himself, Vartan Pasha is totally impartial in his observations on the behavior of the characters from the two communities, advantaging neither one nor the other, and not shying away from criticizing both. The novel is rich in its number of secondary characters and in short but astute depictions of these. Nevertheless, although social issues are briefly or indirectly touched upon, the definite central theme of the novel is love. And love has a number of rules independent of the social environment from which it rose. The loved one dominates the relationship and the lover has to suffer a lot and make many efforts to reach his beloved, and this well after the brief initial period of happiness till the tragic end.

Vartan Pasha (), (Hovsep Vartanian or Osep Vartanian) (1813 - 1879) was an Ottoman Armenian statesman, author, and journalist of the 19th century, promoted to the rank of "Pasha" after three decades in the service of the state. He is also notable for his novel "Akabi's Story" ("Akabi Hikayesi"), published in 1851 in Turkish written in the Armenian script (a not unusual practice in the 19th century), and for having published the bilingual magazine "Mecmua-i Havadis", an important reference in the history of the Turkish written press.

Vartan Paşa (, eigentlich "Osep Vartanian"; * 1813; † 1879) war ein osmanischer Beamter, Autor, Übersetzer und Journalist armenischer Herkunft des 19. Jahrhunderts, der nach 30 Jahren Staatsdienst in den Rang eines Pascha erhoben wurde. Er verfasste den ersten bekannten romanähnlichen Text in türkischer Sprache, die 1851 erschienene Novelle „Akabis Geschichte“ bzw. "Geschichte Agapis" ("Akabi Hikayesi"). Der Text erschien zwar in türkischer Sprache, aber unter Verwendung armenischer Lettern, in der zweisprachigen Zeitung "Mecmua-i Havadis".


Background and description.

By 1909, the French Navy was convinced of the superiority of the all-big-gun battleship like over the mixed-calibre designs like the which had preceded the "Courbet"s. The following year, the new Minister of the Navy, Augustin Boué de Lapeyrère, selected a design that was comparable to the foreign dreadnoughts then under construction, to be built as part of the 1906 Naval Programme. The ships were long overall and had a beam of and a mean draught of. They displaced at normal load and at deep load. Their crew numbered 1,115 men as a private ship and increased to 1,187 when serving as a flagship. The ships were powered by two licence-built Parsons steam turbine sets, each driving two propeller shafts using steam provided by 24 Belleville boilers. These boilers were coal-burning with auxiliary oil sprayers and were designed to produce. The ships had a designed speed of. The "Courbet"-class ships carried enough coal and fuel oil to give them a range of at a speed of.  The main battery of the "Courbet" class consisted of twelve Canon de Mle 1906–1910 guns mounted in six twin-gun turrets, with two pairs of superfiring turrets fore and aft of the superstructure, and a pair of wing turrets amidships. Their secondary armament was twenty-two Canon de Mle 1910 guns, which were mounted in casemates in the hull. Four Canon de Mle 1902 Hotchkiss guns were fitted, two on each broadside in the superstructure. They were also armed with four submerged torpedo tubes, a pair on each broadside, and could stow 10 mines below decks. The ships' waterline belt ranged in thickness from and was thickest amidships. The gun turrets were protected by of armour and plates protected the casemates. The curved armoured deck was thick on the flat and on the outer slopes. The conning tower had thick face and sides.

Construction and career.

"Jean Bart" was ordered on 11 August 1910 and named after the privateer Jean Bart. She was laid down on 15 November 1910 at the Arsenal de Brest and launched on 22 September 1911. The ship was completed on 2 September 1913 at a cost of F60,200,000 and visited Dunkerque, the birthplace of her namesake on 18 September. She was commissioned into the fleet on 19 November together with her sister. They were assigned to the 1st Battle Division () of the 1st Battle Squadron () of the 1st Naval Army (), at Toulon in mid-November. "Jean Bart" steamed to Brest on 24 June 1914 to rendezvous with her sister "France", who had not yet finished her trials. Raymond Poincaré, President of the French Republic, boarded "France" on 16 July for a state visit to Saint Petersburg, Russia. After encountering the battlecruisers of the German I Scouting Group in the Baltic Sea "en route", the ships arrived at Kronstadt on 20 July. They made a port visit to Stockholm, Sweden, on 25–26 July, but a planned visit to Copenhagen, Denmark, was cancelled due to rising tensions between Austria-Hungary and Serbia and the ships arrived at Dunkerque on 29 July.

World War I.

When France declared war on Germany on 2 August, the sisters were in Brest and departed for Toulon that night. They were met off Valencia, Spain, on the 6th by "Courbet" and the semi-dreadnoughts and because "Jean Bart" was having problems with her 305 mm ammunition and "France" had yet to load any. The ships rendezvoused with a troop convoy the following day and escorted it to Toulon.  When France followed with a declaration of war on Austria-Hungary on 12 August, Vice-Admiral () Augustin Boué de Lapeyrère, now commander of the Allied naval forces in the Mediterranean, decided on a sortie into the Adriatic intended to force the Austro-Hungarian fleet to give battle. After rendezvousing with a small British force on the 15th, he ordered his forces to split with the battleships headed for Otranto, Italy, while the armoured cruisers patrolled off the Albanian coast. Before the two groups got very far apart, several Austro-Hungarian ships were spotted on 16 August and the Allied fleet was successful in cutting off and sinking the protected cruiser "Zenta" off Antivari, although the torpedo boat managed to escape. The following day, Boué de Lapeyrère transferred his flag to "Jean Bart". On 1 September the 1st Naval Army briefly bombarded Austro-Hungarian coastal fortifications defending the Bay of Cattaro to discharge the unfired shells remaining in the guns after sinking "Zenta". Boué de Lapeyrère transferred his flag to "Jean Bart"s newly arrived sister on 11 September. Aside from several uneventful sorties into the Adriatic, the French capital ships spent most of their time cruising between the Greek and Italian coasts to prevent the Austro-Hungarian fleet from attempting to break out of the Adriatic. "Jean Bart" was torpedoed on 21 December by the Austro-Hungarian submarine off Sazan Island. A single torpedo struck her in the wine store in the bow, blowing a hole through the compartment. The ship took on of water, but was able to reach the Greek island of Cephalonia where temporary repairs were made. She was able to steam to Malta on her own for permanent repairs that lasted from 26 December to 3 April 1915. This attack highlighted the danger of submarine attacks in the restricted waters of the Strait and forced the battleships south to patrol in the Ionian Sea. The declaration of war on Austria-Hungary by Italy on 23 May and the Italian decision to assume responsibility for naval operations in the Adriatic, allowed the French Navy to withdraw to either Malta or Bizerte, French Tunisia, to cover the Otranto Barrage. At some point during the year, "Jean Bart"s 47 mm guns were put on high-angle mountings to allow them to be used as anti-aircraft (AA) guns. They were later supplemented by a pair of Mle 1891 G guns on anti-aircraft mounts. On 27 April 1916, the French began using the port of Argostoli on the Greek island of Cephalonia as a base. Around this time many men from the battleships' crews were transferred to anti-submarine ships. At the beginning of 1917, the French began to use the Greek island of Corfu as well, but growing shortages of coal severely limited the battleships' ability to go to sea. The situation was so bad that Vice-Admiral Gabriel Darrieus wrote in 1917: The military capabilities of the, which has already been badly affected by the shortages of personnel and constant changes in the general staff, need to be maintained by frequent exercises, and although from March to June we were able to follow a normal pattern, the coal crisis is currently preventing any manoeuvres or gunnery training, even for the ships returning from repairs. The big ships have lost 50 per cent of the capability they had several months ago. In 1918, they were almost immobile, leaving Corfu only for maintenance and repairs. On 1 July, the Naval Army was reorganised with "Jean Bart", "Paris" and "Courbet" assigned to the 2nd Battle Division of the 1st Battle Squadron.

Interwar years.

After the Armistice of Mudros was signed on 30 October between the Allies and the Ottoman Empire, the ship participated in the occupation of Constantinople. In early 1919, "Jean Bart" was transferred to the Black Sea to reinforce the French forces opposing the Bolsheviks. A few days after bombarding Bolshevik troops advancing on Sevastopol on 16 April and forcing them to retreat, her war-weary crew briefly mutinied on 19 April, inspired by socialist and revolutionary sympathisers. "Jean Bart"s captain was able to restore order aboard his ship the following day and mustered a landing party to patrol the city. "France"s crew was still mutinous, so Vice-Admiral Jean-Françoise-Charles Amet, commander of the ships in the Black Sea, hoped to reduce tensions by meeting the mutineers' demands for leave by letting crewmen with a history of good behaviour ashore. The sailors mingled with a pro-Bolshevik demonstration and the mixed group was challenged by a company of Greek infantry which opened fire. The demonstrators fled and encountered "Jean Bart"s landing party, which also fired upon them. A total of about 15 people were wounded, included six sailors, one of whom later died of his wounds. Delegates from the other mutinous crews were not allowed aboard and the mutiny collapsed when Amet agreed to meet their main demand to take the ships home. Three crewmen were sentenced to prison terms upon her return, although the sentences were commuted in 1922 as part of a bargain between Prime Minister Raymond Poincaré and the parties of the left.  The ship returned to Toulon by 1 July and was placed in reserve. On 10 February 1920, the 1st Naval Army was disbanded and replaced by the Eastern Mediterranean Squadron () and its Western counterpart (); all the "Courbet"s were assigned to the 1st Battle Squadron of the latter unit, with "Courbet", "Jean Bart" and "Paris" in the 1st Battle Division and "France" in the 2nd Battle Division. Vice-Admiral Charles Charlier commanded both the 1st Division and the Western Mediterranean Squadron at this time. The two squadrons were combined into the Mediterranean Squadron () on 20 July 1921. In June 1923, the 1st Battle Division, including "Jean Bart", was cruising off the coast of North Africa when "Courbet" had a boiler-room fire.  "Jean Bart" received the first of her two refits between 12 October 1923 and 29 January 1925. This included replacing one set of four boilers with oil-fired du Temple boilers and trunking together her two forward funnels. The maximum elevation of the main armament was increased from 12° to 23° which increased their maximum range to. Her existing AA guns were replaced with four 75 mm Modèle 1918 AA guns and and stereoscopic rangefinders were installed for the AA guns. A new tripod foremast with a fire-control position at its top was fitted and her bow armour was removed to make her more seaworthy. Barr & Stroud FT coincidence rangefinders were installed for the 14 cm guns in October 1925.  In mid-1925, the ship participated in manoeuvres in the Atlantic Ocean with "Courbet" and "Paris" and then made port visits to Saint-Malo, Cherbourg and numerous ports along the Atlantic coast of France before returning to Toulon on 12 August. "Jean Bart" was briefly refitted between 12 August and 1 September 1927 and was then decommissioned on 15 August 1928 in preparation for her extensive modernisation that began on 7 August 1929. This was much more extensive than her earlier refit as all her boilers were replaced or overhauled and six of her original coal-fired boilers were replaced by oil-fired du Temple boilers. "Jean Bart"s fire-control systems were comprehensively upgraded with the installation of a Saint-Chamond-Granat system in a director-control tower (DCT) on the top of the tripod mast and all her original rangefinders were replaced with the exception of the Barr & Stroud FT rangefinders in the main-gun turrets. The DCT was fitted with a Barr & Stroud Modèle 1912 coincidence rangefinder and a Zeiss stereoscopic rangefinder was added to the DCT to measure the distance between the target and shell splashes. Additional 4.57-metre Mle 1912 rangefinders were added in a duplex mounting atop the conning tower and another at the base of the mainmast. A traversable Zeiss rangefinder was fitted to the roof of the forward superfiring turret in lieu of its FT model rangefinder and FTs were installed in the new gunnery directors for the secondary armament. The ship's Mle 1918 AA guns were exchanged for seven Canon de 75 mm Modèle 1922 guns and they were provided with a pair of high-angle OPL Modèle 1926 stereoscopic rangefinders, one on top of the duplex unit on the roof of the conning tower and one in the aft superstructure.  The modernisation was completed on 29 September 1931 and "Jean Bart" recommissioned on 1 October as the flagship of the 2nd Battle Division commanded by Rear Admiral () Hervé. Her machinery trials lasted until 13 February 1932 and she then made port visits to Bizerte, Crete, Egypt, French Lebanon, Corfu, and Greece in April and May. Rear Admiral Jean-Pierre Esteva relieved Hervé on 1 August and the ship was refitted from 10 October to 24 November in Toulon after which she spent five days in Ajaccio, Corsica. "Jean Bart" exercised with the Mediterranean Squadron in the first half of 1933 and made port visits in French North Africa, Majorca, Spain and Casablanca, French Morocco. After a collision on 6 August with the destroyer in Toulon harbour that damaged the latter's stern, the battleship was under repair from 8 to 15 August. From 20 April to 29 June 1934, the Mediterranean Squadron conducted its usual manoeuvres and port visits. The 2nd Battle Division was disbanded on 1 August and "Jean Bart" briefly served as the squadron flagship. The ship was assigned to the Training Division on 1 November and served as a school for stokers and signalmen. She made her last sea voyage on 15 June 1935. Her condition was poor enough by that time that she was not thought to be worth the expense of a third refit similar to those her sisters received. "Jean Bart" was hulked and disarmed in Toulon beginning on 15 August for service as an accommodation ship for the naval schools in Toulon. She was renamed "Océan" on 1 January 1937 to free her name for use by the new then under construction. The ship was captured intact by the Germans on 27 November 1942 when they occupied Vichy France. The Germans used her for experiments in late 1943 with shaped-charge warheads intended to be delivered by Mistel composite aircraft. The warhead was positioned in front of the main-gun turrets, the closest one of which had its armour reinforced by an additional plate. The high-velocity jet formed by the shaped charge penetrated through the additional armour, the turret-face armour, the 360-millimetre rear armour and the front and rear of the aft turret, and into the superstructure to a total depth of. She was sunk by Allied aircraft in 1944 and later raised for scrapping which began on 14 December 1945.

Jean Bart was the second of four s, the first dreadnoughts built for the French Navy. She was completed before World War I as part of the 1910 naval building programme. She spent the war in the Mediterranean and helped to sink the Austro-Hungarian protected cruiser on 16 August 1914. She was torpedoed by an Austro-Hungarian submarine in December and steamed to Malta for repairs that required three and a half months. She spent the rest of the war providing cover for the Otranto Barrage that blockaded the Austro-Hungarian Navy in the Adriatic Sea and sometimes served as a flagship.

Die Jean Bart war ein französisches Großlinienschiff der "Courbet"-Klasse. Benannt wurde sie nach dem flandrischen Freibeuter Jean Bart. Sie wurde am 5. Oktober 1910 auf Kiel gelegt und der Stapellauf erfolgte am 22. September 1911. Endgültig fertiggestellt wurde die "Jean Bart" am 15. Juli 1913.


History.

Guild.

Since medieval times, the practice of surgery was licensed by the Barber-Surgeons' Guild, also known at the time as the Guild of St Mary Magdalene. The guild chapel was in Christ Church Cathedral. Guild membership at that time was obtained by a 3-year apprenticeship followed by 2 years as a master. In fact the College of Surgeons maintained a mandatory period of apprenticeship to a qualified surgeon until 1828.  In 1446, the Guild of St Mary Magdelene (of Barbers) was incorporated by royal decree of Henry VI, becoming the first medical corporation in Britain or Ireland.

Towards a College of Surgeons.

In 1765 Sylvester O'Halloran, a surgeon from Limerick, proposed a College of Surgeons along the lines of the College de St. Cosme in Paris, which had been regulating French surgeons since it had been created by Royal Charter by Louis IX in 1255, to train and regulate surgeons. The Dublin Society of Surgeons was founded in 1780 at the Elephant public house on Essex street (now Parliament street). Trinity College did not teach surgery as a subject until 1851, so Ireland was entirely without a school focused on surgery.  To have a separate organisation focused on providing standardised surgical education became one of the goals of the society and they lobbied for a Royal Charter, in 1781 presenting the Lord Lieutenant a petition to be incorporated separately from the barbers. The awaited charter was granted by King George III on 11 February 1784. The governing body, including the first president Samuel Croker-King and William Dease, first professor of surgery, met in the boardroom of the Rotunda Hospital for the first time on 2 March. Importantly, admission or employment was not discriminated against on sectarian grounds. Two of its chief founders, Sylvester O'Halloran and William Dease, as well as eleven out of its first 57 presidents, were Catholics. The college also recognised the medical qualifications given by the Catholic university from 1856, which gave legitimacy to their diplomas. The first candidate for examination was John Birch, in August 1784.

York Street.

The current location, at the corner of York Street, was acquired in September 1805, with additional land at Glover's Alley bought in 1809. It was previously an abandoned Quaker burial ground. The Duke of Bedford laid the first stone of the new building on St. Patrick's Day, 1806 and building reached completion in March 1810.  A supplemental charter was granted by Queen Victoria in 1844, dividing medical graduates into Licentiates and Fellows. Initially, physicians were trained alongside surgeons. In 1886 these two disciplines were merged, and the medical school began operation. As a result of this historical legacy, graduates of medicine still receive Licentiate diplomas from the two Royal Colleges as well as now being awarded MB (Bachelor of Medicine) BCh (Bachelor of Surgery) and BAO (Bachelor of the Art of Obstetrics) degrees by the National University of Ireland.

20th century.

During the 1916 Rising, the main college building on St Stephen's Green was occupied by Irish Citizen Army forces, led by Commandant Michael Mallin and Countess Markievicz. After surrendering, both were tried and sentenced to death. Mallin was executed while Markievicz's sentence was commuted due to her gender.  RCSI was the first medical institution of learning to offer a 4-year graduate entry programme for medicine in Ireland. Now defunct subjects taught include: Logic (1852–1862), Military Surgery (1851–1860), Botany (1792–1889) and Hygiene or Political Medicine (1841–1921, then united with chair of Medical Jurisprudence). Since the 1980s Beaumont Hospital, Dublin has been the principal centre for medical training. Other affiliated hospitals include teaching hospitals such as Connolly Hospital, Royal Victoria Eye and Ear Hospital, and St. Joseph's Hospital, Dublin, and there is now a group within the HSE hospital management structure, the RCSI Hospitals group.

21st century.

In 2010, Prof. Eilis McGovern became President of RCSI and thereby the first female President of any surgical Royal College in the world.  In 2017, RCSI opened a new high-tech facility at the RCSI city centre campus. 26 York Street is the most advanced clinical healthcare simulation centre in Europe. It was voted Ireland’s favourite building at the RIAI Irish Architecture Awards in 2018.

Motto.

The RCSI motto, "Consilio Manuque" ("Scholarship and Dexterity"), was adopted from the College de St. Cosme in Paris, which had been afforded the motto by Louis XIV. It was originally "Consiloque Manuque", his personal motto.

Values and admissions.

RCSI is a culturally diverse, international organisation with alumni present in almost every country in the world. It describes its values as innovation, excellence, independence, academic freedom, diversity, tolerance and community. It champions a patient-centric approach to all its activities and endeavours.  RCSI now offers undergraduate degrees in Medicine, Pharmacy and Physiotherapy and is the largest Irish medical school. Its primary purpose is the education and training of healthcare professionals and health sciences research. More than 3,800 students representing 60 nations are currently enrolled in its Medicine (1,800), Pharmacy (200) and Physiotherapy (100) programmes. There are 17,000 RCSI alumni working as medical doctors or in allied disciplines around the world.

Student life.

Students at RCSI are encouraged to participate in extracurricular activities that promote service in the community and cultural awareness. A complete list of current student societies and clubs can be found on the RCSI website.  The Students' Union (SU) is an annually elected body, consisting of 8 officers. The SU is the college's bridge between faculty and the student body and is invited to most meetings, ensuring that student voices are heard on a variety of topics. The SU works closely with the Student Council, which consists of representatives from all classes at RCSI.  The Biological Society (BioSoc) is the official student society of the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland (RCSI) and claims to be the oldest student medical society in the world.

International aspects and operations.

As a leading international medical institution, RCSI is active in all medically related sectors of education around the globe. During the South African Apartheid, for example, RCSI provided medical education to those that were discriminated against. In 2005, RCSI Dubai was founded and currently offers a master's programme in Healthcare Management.  In 2007 RCSI (Royal College of Surgeons Ireland) in conjunction with Valentia Technologies, the Dublin Fire Brigade (DFB), and the Pre Hospital Emergency Care Council (PHECC) launched unique training initiative with the Emergency Medical Services Dubai Training Institute. The aim is to better patient care and improve response times within Dubai's emergency ambulance services.  In Malaysia, RCSI, together with University College Dublin (UCD), owns a branch campus within George Town, the capital city of the State of Penang. Established in 1996, the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland and University College Dublin Malaysia Campus (RUMC), formerly known as the Penang Medical College, offers twinning programmes in which students typically spend the first half of their courses in either RCSI or UCD, before completing the courses back at RUMC. Meanwhile, the Perdana University Royal College of Surgeon in Ireland (PU-RCSI) in the State of Selangor was established in 2011. The programme hosts up to 100 students per year on its 5-year undergraduate medical programme, the first cohort graduated in 2016.  RCSI-Bahrain is a fully owned constituent university of RCSI and already has nearly 450 registered students. The first cohort commenced medical studies in October 2004 and graduates are entitled to a Degree of Bachelor of Medicine, NUI, Bachelor of Surgery, Bachelor of Obstetrics MB, BCh, BAO (NUI, RCSI) degree. In 2006 the Medical University of Bahrain established a new School of Nursing which took its first cohort of students in September 2006. Since 2009 students can also obtain the degrees conferred upon RCSI graduates from the National University of Ireland.  For students at the home institution of RCSI, options may be taken abroad as a result of collaborative agreements with other medical schools around the world. In 2007, these medical schools included Columbia University, University of Pennsylvania, and Tufts University. There are also informal agreements with other institutions such as the Johns Hopkins University and Mayo Clinic.  More than 60 countries from each continent are represented in the RCSI student body.

The Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland (RCSI; ) is a professional association and educational institution that is responsible for the medical speciality of surgery throughout the island of Ireland. Uniquely among the four mutually recognised royal surgical colleges in the United Kingdom and Ireland, it also incorporates a medical school, which is now Ireland's largest with over 3,000 students from 60 countries. Since 2019 the body has had full university status, making it the first private university in Ireland.

Das Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland (RCSI, ) in Dublin ist ein irisches Institut zur Ausbildung von Chirurgen. Im Unterschied zu ihren Schwesterinstituten in Großbritannien (Royal College of Surgeons of England, Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh, Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow) bietet es aber nicht nur Qualifikationen für die Weiterbildung als Facharzt an, sondern auch für die medizinische Grundausbildung. Es bietet die üblichen universitären Abschlüsse an (Bachelor und Master Abschlüsse, M. D., ein eigenes Lizenziat). Es ist als anerkanntes College ein Teil der National University of Ireland.


History.

IFF was founded in 1979 as the ‘Interuniversity Research Institute for Distance Education’ (in German: ‘Interuniversitäres Forschungsinstitut für Fernstudien’ or ‘IFF’). Since that time, the IFF has undergone several transformations. On one hand, the institute’s character has been altered by its growth during that period, and on the other hand, changes have taken account of evolving developments in higher education policy and the need for the Faculty to adapt to these.  IFF was founded as an inter-university institute with the aim of creating connections both between and across disciplines. During the founding years, the guiding vision involved "“allowing research and education to have an impact ‘beyond’ the traditional universities”". The ‘Interuniversity Research Institute for Distance Education (IFF)’ was founded jointly by eight universities. In 1988, the IFF had premises in Klagenfurt, Bregenz, Graz, St.Pölten, Stadtschlaining and Vienna. Ten years later, the IFF was serving more than 1,000 distance learning students via study centres in Klagenfurt, Bregenz and Vienna. In addition, the IFF developed new courses for Austria-wide teacher training programmes and began to establish its own research foci, centred on themes such as the environment, peace studies, social learning, regional development or technology and scientific research.  In 1989 a conflict arose between the institute and the Austrian Federal Ministry of Science, concerning the direction taken by the IFF and its future development. The crisis was brought to an end with the re-establishment of the IFF in 1992 as the "Interuniversity Institute for Interdisciplinary Research and Continuing Education".  In the context of Austria’s university reform programme in 2002, the closure of all existing inter-university institutes in Austria was planned. This confronted the IFF with a choice between dissolution, with its existing regional facilities and their departments joining the nearest of the founding universities, or to remain a unitary institution and attach itself as a whole – with all regional centres – to one university. After internal discussions and negotiations with the rectors of the universities concerned, it was decided that the institute should remain intact. In 2004, the IFF was incorporated within the Alpen-Adria-Universität Klagenfurt as the ‘Faculty for Interdisciplinary Research and Continuing Education (Klagenfurt-Graz-Vienna)’ - in German the ‘Fakultät für Interdisziplinäre Forschung und Fortbildung’ and therefore the "‘IFF’". Interuniversity cooperation continues via contracts undertaken between the Alpen-Adria-Universität Klagenfurt and other universities.

IFF staff.

Faculty staff are not only drawn from different academic disciplines but also work at the IFF in very different contexts such as palliative care, organisational ethics, social ecology and environmental history, organisational development, science and technology studies, group dynamics, school development, higher education research, agricultural and regional development, continuing education, and intervention research.  The Faculty’s inter- and transdisciplinary working approach ensures that academic personnel represent a broad spectrum of specialist expertise in scientific research, from the arts, humanities and cultural studies to natural sciences, engineering, social sciences and economics. Experts from a very wide range of professional fields who undertake research with the Faculty further strengthen the inter- and transdisciplinary profile of the IFF.  There are currently c. 80 university positions held at the IFF in some cases these posts are shared between two persons. In addition, there are c. 60 independently funded individuals working at the IFF. A large number of external teaching staff are also involved in teaching and continuing education programmes of the Faculty.

Management und Staff Involvement.

At the IFF, the Dean or Vice-Dean is responsible for the management of the Faculty sites in Klagenfurt-Graz and in Vienna, respectively. They are supported in their managerial function by conferences involving the heads of the individual organisational units. Faculty and staff are actively involved in developing Institute policies. To that end, twice-yearly Faculty meetings, involving all scientific and administrative staff members are held. These meetings focus on strategic discussion and the evaluation of units or projects as well as on internal networking.

Departments and Institutes.

The following institutes and departments are established at the Klagenfurt, Graz and Vienna sites:

The Faculty for Interdisciplinary Research and Continuing Education (IFF) is one of four Faculties at the Alpen-Adria-Universität Klagenfurt. It has locations in Klagenfurt, Graz and Vienna.

Die Fakultät für Interdisziplinäre Forschung und Fortbildung (IFF) ist eine von vier Fakultäten an der Alpen-Adria-Universität Klagenfurt mit Standorten in Klagenfurt, Graz und Wien.


History of Vlajka.

The movement became politically active in the 1930s in the period of the Great depression, but never gained popularity as there were more established fascist parties in Czechoslovakia, such as the NOF, which even gained some seats in Parliament.  During the Second Czechoslovak Republic, the organization planned bomb attacks against Jewish organizations in revenge for the supposed dominance of Jews in the economy, and the Beran government's supposed willingness to allow Jews to transfer their property abroad. The first bombing, against the synagogue in Hradec Králové, was in January 1939. These attacks continued even after the March 1939 German occupation, because Vlajka was disappointed with their lack of prominence in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and felt that anti-Jewish policies were not severe enough. The only deaths in these attacks were Vlajka members (two were killed due to inept handling of explosives), but property damage was significant.  After the German occupation the organisation closely collaborated with the Nazi police institutions, such as the Gestapo and Sicherheitsdienst in order to eliminate communists, Jews and people closely connected with the previous Czechoslovak establishment. For that the organisation's existence was tolerated by Germans until 1942, even though there was only one officially permitted Czech political organisation, the National Partnership. The Vlajka became politically unacceptable after another traitor, Emanuel Moravec, was appointed the Minister of Education in the government of Protectorate in January 1942. He was often and openly criticized and fiercely denounced by Vlajka members for being a former legionary, an officer of the Czechoslovak Army and an alleged Freemason. At the end of 1942, Vlajka was disbanded and some of its leaders, including Jan Rys-Rozsévač, were held in the Dachau concentration camp as privileged prisoners. Though the party no longer existed, its former members continued to collaborate with the Gestapo and SD. Towards the end of the war they even formed the so called Voluntary Company of St. Wenceslaus, the only Waffen-SS unit composed of volunteers of Czech ethnicity (which nevertheless was never involved in the fight).  After the war, the leaders of Vlajka were subject to punishment of 5-20 years of imprisonment according to Beneš decree No. 16/1945 Coll.; mere membership was punishable by up to 1 year of imprisonment according to decree No. 138/1945 Coll. Four leaders of Vlajka and many other Vlajka members who caused the death of people through denunciation, were executed.

Český národně socialistický tábor — Vlajka (Czech National Socialist Camp — The Flag) was a small Czech fascist, antisemitic and nationalist movement. Vlajka's eponymous newspaper was founded in 1928, its first editor being Miloš Maixner. During the time of German occupation, the organisation collaborated with the Nazis for which it was banned and its members were punished after the liberation.

Die Vlajka (tschechisch "Český nacionalněsocialistický tábor - Vlajka", kurz "ČNST-Vlajka", deutsch "Tschechisches Nationalsozialistisches Lager - Die Flagge") war eine faschistische tschechische Kleinpartei. Ursprünglich stark nationalistisch und antideutsch eingestellt, erfuhr sie in der Zeit der Tschecho-Slowakischen Republik (1938–1939) nach einem Führungswechsel starke ideologische Veränderungen. Sie begann sich insbesondere gegen Parteikorruption und gegen die in Böhmen und Mähren noch zugelassenen beiden tschechischen Parteien, die Partei der Nationalen Einheit und die Partei der Nationalen Arbeit, zu wenden. Am 11. November 1938 wurde die Partei verboten und ihre Führungsmitglieder verhaftet.


Geology.

The magnitude 5.1 main shock occurred inland on 11 May 2011 at 18:47 local time (16:47 UTC) in the locality of Lorca, Spain, at a depth of. Much of the southern Iberian Peninsula – in particular the Murcia Region – is located on a tectonic zone of common seismic activity, where a plate boundary separating the Eurasia and African Plates is formed. However, most tremors in the region do not exceed perceptible magnitudes. The earthquake was estimated to be a direct result of strike-slip faulting near the major Alhama de Murcia fault, along an unusually shallow fault of between 40 and 50 km (25 to 31 mi) long. Local specialists also reported the presence of surface rupturing in the vicinity of the fault. Due to the shallow depth, the earthquake resulted in significant shaking throughout much of Murcia. In Lorca, near the epicentre of the quake, strong ground motions registered a maximum intensity of VI on the Mercalli scale, while many adjacent areas reported moderate shaking (MM V). Widespread light tremors were observed in locations up to several hundred kilometers from the epicentre, including Alicante (MM III) and Madrid.

Foreshock.

The earthquake was preceded by a magnitude 4.5 (M) foreshock that struck very close to its epicentre at 17:05 local time (15:05 UTC). It was reported to be centred along the same fault zone, with a similar focal mechanism as the main shock. Though the tremor was relatively mild, some cracks and crumbled walls were reported, while downed power lines sparked a small fire in Lorca.

Aftershock.

As of 11 May, at least eight light aftershocks were reported near the initial quake epicentres; the strongest registered a magnitude of 4.1 (M) and occurred at 22:37 local time (20:37 UTC).

Emergency management.

Shortly after the second earthquake struck, the Spanish government, at the request of regional government of Murcia, activated the Military Emergencies Unit, a branch of the Spanish Armed Forces responsible for providing disaster relief. 340 members from three battalions (based at Bétera, Torrejón de Ardoz and Morón de la Frontera) were dispatched to Lorca under the management of the Lieutenant Colonel of the Bétera battalion; these were later joined by army units. A field hospital was set up by the Military Emergencies Unit in the "Plaza del Ayuntamiento" where those injured were attended to by members of "Protección Civil" and the Red Cross.

Possible causes.

Several research groups investigated the cause of this earthquake. The Active Tectonics Group of the Complutense University of Madrid in collaboration with the using tectonic evidences, InSAR analysis and seismological analysis of the rupture concluded that this earthquake was produced by the reactivation of a small section (3 km x 4 km) of the Alhama de Murcia Fault (AMF) located 3 km northeast of Lorca, Spain. These conclusions were published in the journal Tectonophysics (journal) in April 2012. The great damage produced by this moderate magnitude earthquake may be explained by the southwestward directivity of a shallow rupture that induced high acceleration values in Lorca village. From the tectonic point of view this earthquake can be considered as an ordinary event coherent with the tectonic evolution and mechanical characteristics of the Alhama de Murcia Fault. In fact, similar earthquakes occurred in Lorca in the 16th and 17th centuries. Several research projects conducted during the last 25 years on this fault recognized the occurrence of much larger earthquakes ( > 6.0) during the last 10,000 years.  Other scientific research has suggested that the earthquake was caused by human activity. A team led by Dr Pablo Gonzalez of the University of Western Ontario in Canada reported in the journal Nature Geoscience in October 2012 that the pattern of earth movement was consistent with changes in stresses caused by the removal of water from underground reservoirs.

The 2011 Lorca earthquake () was a moderate 5.1 earthquake that occurred 6:47 p.m. CEST (16:47 UTC) on 11 May 2011, near the town of Lorca, causing significant localized damage in the Region of Murcia, Spain, and panic among locals, and displacing many from their homes. The quake was preceded by a magnitude 4.4 () foreshock at 17:05 (15:05 UTC), that inflicted substantial damage to many older structures in the area, including the historical Espolón Tower of Lorca Castle, the Hermitage of San Clemente and the Convent of Virgen de Las Huertas. Three people were killed by a falling cornice. A total of nine deaths have been confirmed, while dozens are reported injured. The earthquake was the worst to hit the region since a 5.0 M tremor struck west of Albolote, Granada in 1956.

Das Erdbeben von Lorca 2011 war ein schweres Erdbeben. Das Epizentrum lag in der südspanischen Stadt Lorca. Das Beben ereignete sich am Mittwoch, den 11. Mai 2011 um 18:47 Uhr MESZ (16:47 UTC). Das Erdbeben hatte eine Stärke von 5,1 M auf der Momenten-Magnituden-Skala. Die Tiefe des Hypozentrums des Bebens wurde zunächst mit 1 Kilometer angegeben; später wurden drei Kilometer genannt.


Readings.

In traditional Sabbath Torah reading, the parashah is divided into seven readings, or, "aliyot".

First reading — Leviticus 25:1–13.

In the first reading (, "aliyah"), on Mount Sinai, God told Moses to tell the Israelites the law of the Sabbatical year for the land. The people could work the fields for six years, but in the seventh year, the land was to have a Sabbath of complete rest during which the people were not to sow their fields, prune their vineyards, or reap the aftergrowth. They could, however, eat whatever the land produced on its own. The people were further to hallow the 50th year, the Jubilee year, and to proclaim release for all with a blast on the horn. Each Israelite was to return to his family and his ancestral land holding.

Second reading — Leviticus 25:14–18.

In the second reading (, "aliyah"), in selling or buying property, the people were to charge only for the remaining number of crop years until the jubilee, when the land would be returned to its ancestral holder.

Third reading — Leviticus 25:19–24.

In the third reading (, "aliyah"), God promised to bless the people in the sixth year, so that the land would yield a crop sufficient for three years. God prohibited selling the land beyond reclaim, for God owned the land, and the people were but strangers living with God.

Fourth reading — Leviticus 25:25–28.

In the fourth reading (, "aliyah"), if one fell into straits and had to sell land, his nearest relative was to redeem what was sold. If one had no one to redeem, but prospered and acquired enough wealth, he could refund the pro rata share of the sales price for the remaining years until the jubilee, and return to his holding.

Fifth reading — Leviticus 25:29–38.

In the fifth reading (, "aliyah"), if one sold a house in a walled city, one could redeem it for a year, and thereafter the house would pass to the purchaser beyond reclaim and not be released in the jubilee. But houses in villages without encircling walls were treated as open country subject to redemption and release through the jubilee. Levites were to have a permanent right of redemption for houses and property in the cities of the Levites. The unenclosed land about their cities could not be sold. If a kinsman fell into straits and came under one's authority by virtue of his debts, one was to let him live by one's side as a kinsman and not exact from him interest. Israelites were not to lend money to countrymen at interest.

Sixth reading — Leviticus 25:39–46.

In the sixth reading (, "aliyah"), if the kinsman continued in straits and had to give himself over to a creditor for debt, the creditor was not to subject him to the treatment of a slave, but to treat him as a hired or bound laborer until the jubilee year, at which time he was to be freed to go back to his family and ancestral holding. Israelites were not to rule over such debtor Israelites ruthlessly. Israelites could, however, buy and own as inheritable property slaves from other nations.

Seventh reading — Leviticus 25:47–26:2.

In the seventh reading (, "aliyah"), if an Israelite fell into straits and came under a resident alien's authority by virtue of his debts, the Israelite debtor was to have the right of redemption. A relative was to redeem him or, if he prospered, he could redeem himself by paying the pro rata share of the sales price for the remaining years until the jubilee.

Readings according to the triennial cycle.

Jews who read the Torah according to the triennial cycle of Torah reading read the parashah according to a different schedule.

In inner-biblical interpretation.

The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these Biblical sources:

Leviticus chapter 25.

Yom Kippur.

refers to the Festival of Yom Kippur. In the Hebrew Bible, Yom Kippur is called:  Much as Yom Kippur, on the 10th of the month of Tishrei, precedes the Festival of Sukkot, on the 15th of the month of Tishrei, speaks of a period starting on the 10th of the month of Nisan preparatory to the Festival of Passover, on the 15th of the month of Nisan.  In, the Haftarah for Yom Kippur morning, God describes "the fast that I have chosen [on] the day for a man to afflict his soul." makes clear that "to afflict the soul" was understood as fasting. But goes on to impress that "to afflict the soul," God also seeks acts of social justice: "to loose the fetters of wickedness, to undo the bands of the yoke," "to let the oppressed go free," "to give your bread to the hungry, and... bring the poor that are cast out to your house," and "when you see the naked, that you cover him."

The Duty To Redeem.

Professor Tamara Cohn Eskenazi of the Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion wrote that Biblical laws required Israelites to act as redeemers for relatives in four situations: (1) redemption of land in, (2) redemption of persons from slavery, especially in, (3) redemption of objects dedicated to the sanctuary in, and (4) avenging the blood of a murdered relative in.

Naboth.

In, Naboth the Jezreelite refused to sell his vineyard to King Ahab because the land is an inheritance subject to the rule in.

Leviticus chapter 26.

directs the Israelites not to rear up a pillar (, "matzeivah"). directed the Israelites to break in pieces the Canaanites' pillars (, "matzeivoteihem"). And prohibits setting up a pillar (, "matzeivah"), "which the Lord your God hates." But before these commandments were issued, in, Jacob took the stone on which he had slept, set it up as a pillar (, "matzeivah"), and poured oil on the top of it.

In early nonrabbinic interpretation.

The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these early nonrabbinic sources:

Leviticus chapter 25.

The Damascus Document of the Qumran sectarians prohibited non-cash transactions with Jews who were not members of the sect. Professor Lawrence Schiffman of New York University read this regulation as an attempt to avoid violating prohibitions on charging interest to one’s fellow Jew in ; ; and. Apparently, the Qumran sect viewed prevailing methods of conducting business through credit to violate those laws.

In classical rabbinic interpretation.

The parashah is discussed in these rabbinic sources from the era of the Mishnah and the Talmud:

Leviticus chapter 25.

Leviticus 25:1–34 — a Sabbatical year for the land.

Tractate Sheviit in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Jerusalem Talmud interpreted the laws of the Sabbatical year in,, and and.  The Mishnah asked until when a field with trees could be plowed in the sixth year. The House of Shammai said as long as such work would benefit fruit that would ripen in the sixth year. But the House of Hillel said until Shavuot. The Mishnah observed that in reality, the views of two schools approximate each other. The Mishnah taught that one could plow a grain-field in the sixth year until the moisture had dried up in the soil (that it, after Passover, when rains in the Land of Israel cease) or as long as people still plowed in order to plant cucumbers and gourds (which need a great deal of moisture). Rabbi Simeon objected that if that were the rule, then we would place the law in the hands of each person to decide. But the Mishnah concluded that the prescribed period in the case of a grain-field was until Passover, and in the case of a field with trees, until Shavuot. But Rabban Gamaliel and his court ordained that working the land was permitted until the New Year that began the seventh year. Rabbi Joḥanan said that Rabban Gamaliel and his court reached their conclusion on Biblical authority, noting the common use of the term "Sabbath" (, "Shabbat") in both the description of the weekly Sabbath in and the Sabbath-year in. Thus, just as in the case of the Sabbath Day, work is forbidden on the day itself, but allowed on the day before and the day after, so likewise in the Sabbath Year, tillage is forbidden during the year itself, but allowed in the year before and the year after.  The Mishnah taught that we encourage the work of non-Jews in the Sabbatical year, but not that of Jews. And we inquire after the non-Jews’ wellbeing for the sake of peace.  Rabbi Isaac taught that the words of Psalm, "mighty in strength that fulfill His word," speak of those who observe the Sabbatical year. Rabbi Isaac said that we often find that a person fulfills a precept for a day, a week, or a month, but it is remarkable to find one who does so for an entire year. Rabbi Isaac asked whether one could find a mightier person than one who sees one’s field untilled, see one’s vineyard untilled, and yet pays one’s taxes and does not complain. And Rabbi Isaac noted that uses the words "that fulfill His "word" (, "devar")," and says regarding observance of the Sabbatical year, "And this is the "manner" (, "devar") of the release," and argued that ""dabar"" means the observance of the Sabbatical year in both places.  The Mishnah taught that the fines for rape, seduction, the husband who falsely accused his bride of not having been a virgin (as in ), and any judicial court matter are not canceled by the Sabbatical year. The Mishnah told that when Hillel the Elder observed that the nation withheld from lending to each other and were transgressing, "Beware lest there be in your mind a base thought," he instituted the prozbul, a court exemption from the Sabbatical year cancellation of a loan. The Mishnah taught that any loan made with a prozbul is not canceled by the Sabbatical year. The Mishnah recounted that a prozbul would provide: "I turn over to you, so-and-so, judges of such and such a place, that any debt that I may have outstanding, I shall collect it whenever I desire." And the judges or witnesses would sign below.  The Mishnah employed the prohibition of to imagine how one could with one action violate up to nine separate commandments. One could (1) plow with an ox and a donkey yoked together (in violation of ) (2 and 3) that are two animals dedicated to the sanctuary, (4) plowing mixed seeds sown in a vineyard (in violation of ), (5) during a Sabbatical year (in violation of ), (6) on a Festival-day (in violation of, for example, ), (7) when the plower is a priest (in violation of ) and (8) a Nazirite (in violation of ) plowing in a contaminated place. Chananya ben Chachinai said that the plower also may have been wearing a garment of wool and linen (in violation of and ). They said to him that this would not be in the same category as the other violations. He replied that neither is the Nazirite in the same category as the other violations.  The Gemara implied that the sin of Moses in striking the rock at Meribah compared favorably to the sin of David. The Gemara reported that Moses and David were two good leaders of Israel. Moses begged God that his sin be recorded, as it is in,, and, and. David, however, begged that his sin be blotted out, as says, "Happy is he whose transgression is forgiven, whose sin is pardoned." The Gemara compared the cases of Moses and David to the cases of two women whom the court sentenced to be lashed. One had committed an indecent act, while the other had eaten unripe figs of the seventh year in violation of. The woman who had eaten unripe figs begged the court to make known for what offense she was being flogged, lest people say that she was being punished for the same sin as the other woman. The court thus made known her sin, and the Torah repeatedly records the sin of Moses. The latter parts of tractate Arakhin in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of the jubilee year in.  The Mishnah taught that the jubilee year had the same ritual as Rosh Hashanah for blowing the shofar and for blessings. But Rabbi Judah said that on Rosh Hashanah, the blast was made with a ram's horn shofar, while on jubilee the blast was made with an antelope's (or some say a goat's) horn shofar.  The Mishnah taught that exile resulted from (among other things) transgressing the commandment (in and ) to observe a Sabbatical year for the land. And pestilence resulted from (among other things) violation of the laws governing the produce of the Sabbatical year.  A Midrash interpreted the words "it shall be a jubilee "unto you"" in to teach that God gave the year of release and the jubilee to the Israelites alone, and not to other nations. And similarly, the Midrash interpreted the words "To give "you" the land of Canaan" in to teach that God gave the Land of Israel to the Israelites alone.  Chapter 4 of Tractate Bava Metzia in the Mishnah, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud, and chapter 3 of the tractate in the Tosefta interpreted the law of fraud in. The Mishnah defined as fraud overcharging by one-sixth of the purchase price. And the Mishnah taught that a person defrauded had until that person had time to show the purchase to a merchant or a kinsman to retract the sale. The Mishnah taught that the law of fraud applied to both the buyer and the seller, both the ordinary person and the merchant. Rabbi Judah said that the law of fraud did not apply to the merchant. The Mishnah taught that the one who was defrauded had the upper hand: The person defrauded could demand from the other the money paid or the amount by which that person was defrauded. The Mishnah taught that one who stole something worth even a "perutah" (the minimum amount of significant value) from a fellow and swore falsely about it had to go after the victim even as far as Media to return it. The Mishnah taught that just as the laws of fraud applied to buying and selling, so too did they apply to the spoken word. The Mishnah taught that one could not ask how much an object costs if one did not wish to buy it.  At a feast, Rabbi served his disciples tender and tough cuts of beef tongue. When his disciples chose the tender over the tough, Rabbi instructed them so to let their tongues be tender to one another. Rabbi taught that this was the meaning of when Moses admonished: "And if you sell anything... you shall not wrong one another." Similarly, a Midrash concluded that these words of taught that anyone who wrongs a neighbor with words will be punished according to Scripture.  In a Baraita, the Rabbis interpreted the words "you shall not wrong one another" in to prohibit verbal wrongs, as had already addressed monetary wrongs. The Baraita cited as examples of verbal wrongs: (1) reminding penitents of their former deeds, (2) reminding converts' children of their ancestors' deeds, (3) questioning the propriety of converts' coming to study Torah, (4) speaking to those visited by suffering as Job's companions spoke to him in, and (5) directing donkey drivers seeking grain to a person whom one knows has never sold grain. The Gemara said that Scripture uses the words "and you shall fear your God" (as in ) concerning cases where intent matters, cases that are known only to the heart. Rabbi Joḥanan said on the authority of Rabbi Simeon ben Yoḥai that verbal wrongs are more heinous than monetary wrongs, because of verbal wrongs it is written (in ), "and you shall fear your God," but not of monetary wrongs (in ). Rabbi Eleazar said that verbal wrongs affect the victim's person, while monetary wrongs affect only the victim's money. Rabbi Samuel bar Naḥmani said that while restoration is possible in cases of monetary wrongs, it is not in cases of verbal wrongs. And a Tanna taught before Rav Naḥman bar Isaac that one who publicly makes a neighbor blanch from shame is as one who sheds blood. Whereupon Rav Naḥman remarked how he had seen the blood rush from a person's face upon such shaming.  Reading the words of, "And you shall not mistreat each man his colleague (, "amito")," Rav Ḥinnana, son of Rav Idi, taught that the word, "amito", is interpreted as a contraction of, "im ito", meaning: "One who is with him. " Thus one must not mistreat one who is with one in observance of Torah and commandments.  The Gemara taught that the Torah three times prohibits verbally mistreating a convert — in, "And you shall neither mistreat a convert"; in, "And when a convert lives in your land, you shall not mistreat him"; and in, "And you shall not mistreat, each man his colleague." And the Torah similarly three times prohibits oppressing the convert — in, "And you shall neither mistreat a convert, nor oppress him"; in, "And you shall not oppress a convert"; and in, "And you shall not be to him like a creditor." Reading, "And you shall not mistreat a convert nor oppress him, because you were strangers in the land of Egypt," a Baraita reported that Rabbi Nathan taught that one should not mention in another a defect that one has oneself. Thus, since the Jewish people were themselves strangers, they should not demean a convert because he is a stranger in their midst. And this explains the adage that one who has a person hanged in the family does not say to another member of the household: Hang a fish for me, as the mention of hanging is demeaning for that family.  Expanding on, in which God says that "the land is Mine," Rabbi Elazar of Bartotha said that you and all that is yours is Gods; and thus says with regards to David: "for everything comes from You, and from Your own hand have we given you."  Rabbi Phinehas in the name of Rabbi Reuben interpreted the words "If your brother grows poor... then shall his kinsman... redeem" in to exhort Israel to acts of charity. Rabbi Phinehas taught that God will reward with life anyone who gives a coin to a poor person, for the donor could be giving not just a coin, but life. Rabbi Phinehas explained that if a loaf costs ten coins, and a poor person has but nine, then the gift of a single coin allows the poor person to buy the loaf, eat, and become refreshed. Thus, Rabbi Phinehas taught, when illness strikes the donor, and the donor's soul presses to leave the donor's body, God will return the gift of life. Similarly, Rav Naḥman taught that exhorts Israel to acts of charity, because fortune revolves like a wheel in the world, sometimes leaving one poor and sometimes well off. And similarly, Rabbi Tanḥum son of Rabbi Ḥiyya taught that exhorts Israel to acts of charity, because God made the poor as well as the rich, so that they might benefit each other; the rich one benefiting the poor one with charity, and the poor one benefiting the rich one by affording the rich one the opportunity to do good. Bearing this in mind, when Rabbi Tanhum's mother went to buy him a pound of meat, she would buy him two pounds, one for him and one for the poor.  The Gemara employed to deduce that the term, "yamim", (literally "days") sometimes means "a year," and Rab Hisda thus interpreted the word, "yamim", in to mean "a year." says, "And her brother and her mother said: ‘Let the maiden abide with us, "yamim", at the least ten." The Gemara reasoned that if, "yamim", in means "days" and thus to imply "two days" (as the plural implies more than one), then would report Rebekah's brother and mother suggesting that she stay first two days, and then when Eliezer said that that was too long, nonsensically suggesting ten days. The Gemara thus deduced that, "yamim", must mean "a year" in, as implies when it says, "if a man sells a house in a walled city, then he may redeem it within a whole year after it is sold; for a full year (, "yamim") shall he have the right of redemption." Thus might mean, "Let the maiden abide with us a year, or at the least ten months." The Gemara then suggested that, "yamim", might mean "a month," as suggests when it uses the phrase "a month of days (, "yamim")." The Gemara concluded, however, that, "yamim", means "a month" only when the term "month" is specifically mentioned, but otherwise means either "days" (at least two) or "a year."

Leviticus 25:35–55 — limits on debt servitude.

The Sifra read the words of, "You shall support him," to teach that one should not let one's brother who grows poor to fall down. The Sifra compared financial strains to a load on a donkey. While the donkey is still standing in place, a single person can take hold of it and lead it. But if the donkey falls to the ground, five people cannot pick it up again.  In the words, "Take no interest or increase, but fear your God," in, "interest" (, "neshech") literally means "bite." A Midrash played on this meaning, teaching not to take interest from the poor person, not to bite the poor person as the serpent — cunning to do evil — bit Adam. The Midrash taught that one who exacts interest from an Israelite thus has no fear of God.  Rav Naḥman bar Isaac (explaining the position of Rabbi Eleazar) interpreted the words "that your brother may live with you" in to teach that one who has exacted interest should return it to the borrower, so that the borrower could survive economically.  A Baraita considered the case where two people were traveling on a journey, and one had a container of water; if both drank, they would both die, but if only one drank, then that one might reach civilization and survive. Ben Patura taught that it is better that both should drink and die, rather than that only one should drink and see the other die. But Rabbi Akiva interpreted the words "that your brother may live "with you"" in to teach that concern for one's own life takes precedence over concern for another's.  Part of chapter 1 of Tractate Kiddushin in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of the Hebrew servant in and ; ; and.  Abaye said that because the law (in and elsewhere) required the master to treat a Hebrew slave well — and as an equal in food, drink, and sleeping accommodations — it was said that buying a Hebrew slave was like buying a master. The Rabbis taught in a Baraita that the words of regarding the Hebrew servant, "he fares well "with you"," indicate that the Hebrew servant had to be "with" — that is, equal to — the master in food and drink. Thus, the master could not eat white bread and have the servant eat black bread. The master could not drink old wine and have the servant drink new wine. The master could not sleep on a feather bed and have the servant sleep on straw. Hence, they said that buying a Hebrew servant was like buying a master. Similarly, Rabbi Simeon deduced from the words of, "Then he shall go out from you, he and his children "with him"," that the master was liable to provide for the servant's children until the servant went out. And Rabbi Simeon deduced from the words of, "If he is married, then his wife shall go out "with him"," that the master was responsible to provide for the servant's wife, as well.  The Sifra read, “For they are My servants,” to imply that God’s deed of servitude came first, and therefore, Israelites may serve others only as God permits. And the Sifra read, "whom I took out of the land of Egypt" to imply that God took the Israelites out on the condition that they not be sold as slaves are sold.  Rabbi Joḥanan read, “They shall not be sold as bondsmen,” to prohibit abduction. The Gemara asked where Scripture formally prohibited abduction (as and state only the punishment). Rabbi Josiah said that (Exodus 20:13 in the NJPS), “You shalt not steal,” did so. Rabbi Joḥanan said that, “They shall not be sold as bondsmen,” did so. The Gemara harmonized the two teachings by interpreting Rabbi Josiah to state the prohibition for stealing (including abduction) and Rabbi Joḥanan to state the prohibition for selling the kidnapped person.  Rabbi Levi interpreted to teach that God claimed Israel as God's own possession when God said, "To Me the children of Israel are servants."  Reading, regarding the Hebrew servant who chose not to go free and whose master brought him to the doorpost and bore his ear through with an awl, Rabban Joḥanan ben Zakkai explained that God singled out the ear from all the parts of the body because the servant had heard God’s Voice on Mount Sinai proclaiming in, "For to me the children of Israel are servants, they are my servants," and not servants of servants, and yet the servant acquired a master for himself when he might have been free. And Rabbi Simeon bar Rabbi explained that God singled out the doorpost from all other parts of the house because the doorpost was witness in Egypt when God passed over the lintel and the doorposts (as reported in ) and proclaimed (in the words of ), "For to me the children of Israel are servants, they are my servants," and not servants of servants, and so God brought them forth from bondage to freedom, yet this servant acquired a master for himself.

In modern interpretation.

The parashah is discussed in these modern sources:

Leviticus chapter 25.

In 1877, Professor August Klostermann of the University of Kiel observed the singularity of as a collection of laws and designated it the "Holiness Code."  Professor William Dever of Lycoming College noted that recognizes three land-use distinctions: (1) walled cities (, "ir chomot"); (2) unwalled villages (, "chazeirim", specially said to be unwalled); and (3) land surrounding such a city (, "sedeih migrash") and the countryside (, "sedeih ha-aretz", "fields of the land").

Commandments.

According to Sefer ha-Chinuch, there are 7 positive and 17 negative commandments in the parashah:

Haftarah.

The haftarah for the parashah is.  When parashah Behar is combined with parashah Behukotai, the haftarah is the haftarah for Behukotai,.

Further reading.

The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these sources:

Behar, BeHar, Be-har, or B'har ( — Hebrew for "on the mount," the fifth word, and the first distinctive word, in the parashah) is the 32nd weekly Torah portion (, "parashah") in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading and the ninth in the Book of Leviticus. The parashah tells the laws of the Sabbatical year (, "Shmita") and limits on debt servitude. The parashah constitutes. It is the shortest of the weekly Torah portions in the Book of Leviticus (although not the shortest in the Torah). It is made up of 2,817 Hebrew letters, 737 Hebrew words, 57 verses, and 99 lines in a Torah Scroll (, "Sefer Torah").

Behar ( = Sinai) bezeichnet einen Leseabschnitt (Parascha oder Sidra genannt) der Tora und umfasst den Text Leviticus/Wajikra 25–26,2 (, ).