Plot.

Brandon Teena is a young trans man whose birth name was Teena Renae Brandon. When Brandon is discovered to be transgender by a former girlfriend's brother, he receives death threats. Soon after, he is involved in a bar fight and is evicted from his cousin's trailer. Brandon moves to Falls City, Nebraska, where he befriends ex-convicts John Lotter and Tom Nissen, and their friends Candace and Lana Tisdel. Brandon becomes romantically involved with Lana, who is initially unaware both of his actual anatomy and his troubled past. The two make plans to move to Memphis, where Brandon will manage Lana's karaoke singing career. Eventually, during a date night which ends with them having sex, Lana discovers that Brandon is trans, but continues to be intimate with him.  The police detain Brandon on charges that arose prior to his relocation; they place him in the women's section of the Falls City prison. Lana bails Brandon out and asks why he was placed in a women's prison. Brandon attempts to lie to her, saying he was born intersex (in the movie said "hermaphrodite") and will soon receive genital reconstruction surgery, but

Production.

Background.

Brandon Teena was a trans man who was gang raped and murdered by a group of male acquaintances in December 1993, when he was 21. Kimberly Peirce, at the time a Columbia University film student, became interested in the case after reading a 1994 "Village Voice" article by Donna Minkowitz. Peirce became engrossed in Brandon's life and death; she said, "the minute I read about Brandon, I fell in love. With the intensity of his desire to turn himself into a boy, the fact that he did it with no role models. The leap of imagination that this person took was completely overwhelming to me." The sensationalist news coverage of the case

Casting.

The filmmakers retained the names of most of the case's real-life protagonists, but the names of several supporting characters were altered. For example, the character of Candace was named Lisa Lambert in real life. The casting process for "Boys Don't Cry" lasted almost four years. Drew Barrymore was an early candidate to star in the film. Peirce scouted the LGBT community, looking mainly for masculine, lesbian women for the role of Brandon Teena. Peirce said the LGBT community was very interested in the project because of the publicity surrounding the murder. High-profile actors avoided Peirce's auditions at the request of their agents because of the stigma associated with the role.  At

Principal photography.

Initially, "Boys Don't Cry" was scheduled to film for thirty days. However, principal photography for the film lasted from October 19 to November 24, 1998. The small budget dictated some of the filming decisions, including the omission of some incidents to speed up the overall pacing. Timing constraints and Peirce's visions relating to the plot limited what could be achieved with the narrative. For example, the film portrays a double murder when in actuality a third person, Phillip DeVine—a black disabled man—was also killed at the scene. At the time, he had been dating Lana Tisdel's sister, Leslie, who was omitted from the story. "Boys Don't Cry" was primarily filmed in Greenville, Texas, a small town about northeast of Dallas. Most of the incidents in the case took place in Falls City, Nebraska, but budget constraints led the filmmakers to choose locations in Texas.  Peirce initially wanted to shoot in Falls City, but Vachon told her that filming there would not be possible. Afterwards, the film was going to be shot in Omaha, Nebraska, but Peirce felt that "none of [the places] looked right." In addition, Peirce also scouted filming locations in Kansas and Florida before deciding

Cinematography.

Peirce, who had originally sought a career in photography before moving into filmmaking, applied techniques she had learned into the film. She described the film's mood as "artificial night". Director of Photography Jim Denault showed her the work of photographer Jan Staller, whose long-exposure night photography under artificial lighting inspired Denault to avoid using "moonlight" effects for most of the film. As a way to further incorporate the sense of artificial night, John Pirozzi, who had been experimenting with time-lapse

Music.

Because the film is set in the rural Midwestern United States, the "Boys Don't Cry" soundtrack album features a compilation of country, blues and rock music. Nathan Larson and Nina Persson of The Cardigans composed an instrumental version of Restless Heart's 1988 country-pop song "The Bluest Eyes in Texas", a variation of which was used as the film's love theme and score. The song itself is heard during a karaoke scene, sung by Sevigny's character, and at the end of the film. The title of the

Themes and analysis.

"Boys Don't Cry" has been widely discussed and analyzed by scholars and others. Roger Ebert described the film as a "romantic tragedy" embedded in a working class American setting, calling it ""Romeo and Juliet" set in a Nebraska trailer park". Philosopher Rebecca Hanrahan argued that the question of identity—particularly Brandon's—is alluded to frequently in "Boys Don't Cry" and that Peirce poses the nature of identification and self as the film's main question. Journalist Janet Maslin said the film is about accepting identity, which in turn means accepting the fate predisposed for that identity. Paula Nechak called the film a "bold cautionary tale"; she regarded the film as a negative, dismal depiction of Midwestern America, writing that "[Peirce's film has] captured the mystique and eerie loneliness" and "isolation of the Midwest, with its dusty desolation and nowhere-to-go frustration that propels people to violence and despair".  Christine Vachon, the film's executive producer, said, "It's not just about two stupid thugs who killed somebody. It's about these guys whose world is so tenuous and so fragile that they can't stand to have any of their beliefs shattered", referring to John and Tom's views of their lives, Brandon's aspirations and his biological sex. Along with other turn-of-the-millennium films such as "In the Company of Men" (1997), "American Beauty" (1999), "Fight Club" (1999), and "American Psycho" (2000), Vincent Hausmann said "Boys Don't Cry" "raises the broader, widely explored issue of masculinity in crisis". Jason Wood said the film, together with Patty Jenkins's "Monster" (2003), is an exploration of "social problems".

Romantic and platonic relationships.

Several scholars commented on the relationship between Brandon and Lana as well as Brandon's relationship to John and Tom. Carol Siegel regarded the film as a thematically rich love story between two ill-fated lovers, similar to "Romeo and Juliet". Jack Halberstam attributed "Boys Don't Cry"'s success to its ostensible argument for tolerance of sexual diversity by depicting a relationship between two unlikely people.  This tragic aspect of the love story led Halberstam to compare Brandon and Lana's relationship and subsequent drama to classic and modern romances including "Romeo and Juliet", often using the term star-crossed lovers. In the "Journal for Creativity in Mental Health", Jinnelle Veronique Aguilar discussed Brandon's ability to create interpersonal relationships in the film. She opined that Brandon wanted to create close relationships, but he could not due to his transgender status until he became close with

Causes of violence against LGBT people.

Other commentators discussed the more complex psychological causes of Brandon's murder. Halberstam commented on the complicated causes of the murder, and whether it was due to transphobia or homophobia: "Ultimately in "Boys" ["Don't Cry"], the double vision of the transgender subject gives way to the universal vision of humanism, the transgender man and his lover become lesbians and the murder seems instead to be the outcome of vicious

Self and transgender identity.

Many scholars addressed the various performances of gender by the characters in the film; Moss and Lynne Zeavin offered a psychoanalytic analysis, calling the film a "case report" that "presents [Brandon's] transsexual inclinations as a series of euphoric conquests" and "focuses on a range of anxious reactions to her transsexuality. [...] or a case not for what they might reveal about female hysteria, but for what they might reveal about misogyny". Elaborating on the themes of the film, they wrote:  In her film, Pierce ["sic"] inserts the unconventional problems of transsexuality into a conventional narrative structure. Throughout the film Brandon is presented as a doomed, though beguiling and beautiful rascal, recognizably located in the lineage of well-known cinematic bad-boys

Social class and race.

Lisa Henderson commented on the intersection between social class and gender in the film, particularly Brandon's working-class status: "My reading of "Boys" ["Don't Cry"] through the lens of class representation is not born of a univocal search for so-called positive images, but I do recoil at what appears to me to be a new instalment in a long history of popular images of working-class pathology. [...] But that is not the whole story. Within this universe of feeling and reaction structured by lack and tinted blue by country lyrics and a protective and threatening night-time light, characters imbricate gender and class through their longings for love, acceptance and a better life."  Jennifer Devere Brody commented on

Culture of the Midwestern United States.

Several authors commented on the possible impact that the film's setting of Falls City, Nebraska, located in the Midwestern United States, could have had on the film's plot. Maslin called "Boys Don't Cry" a tale of a trapped, small town character's search for life beyond the rural existence and the high price he pays for his view of the "American dream". Regarding the film's portrayal of Nebraska, Halberstam wrote, "The landscape of Nebraska then serves as a contested site upon which multiple narratives unfold, narratives indeed which refuse to collapse into simply one story. Some of these narratives are narratives of hate, some of desire; others tell of ignorance and brutality; still others of isolation and fear; some allow violence and ignorant prejudices to become the essence of white poor rural identity; still others provoke questions about the deployment of whiteness and the regulation of violence."  Christina Dando

Release.

Premiere and commercial performance.

"Boys Don't Cry" aired in Canada at the Toronto International Film Festival (TIFF) in September 1999. It premiered in the U.S. at the New York Film Festival on October 8, 1999, to critical acclaim. It was shown at the Reel Affirmations International Gay and Lesbian Film Festival in early October, where it won further praise and appeared at the Venice International Film Festival. "Boys Don't Cry" was given a special screening in snippets at the Sundance Film Festival. At that time, the film was still called "Take It

Critical reception.

Critics lauded "Boys Don't Cry" upon its release, with many calling it one of the best films of the year. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports 88% of 77 professional critics gave the film a positive review, with an average rating of 7.91/10; the site's consensus states, "Hilary Swank's acclaimed performance pays fitting tribute to the tragic life of Brandon Teena". Another review aggregator, Metacritic, gave the film an 86 of 100 based on 33 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". One reviewer said the film was a "critical knockout".  Critics often praised the performances by Swank and Sevigny; Peter Travers said the pair "give performances that burn in the memory", and The Film Stage termed Swank's performance "one of the greatest" Best Actress Oscar-winning performances. Peter Stack of the "San Francisco Chronicle" lauded the lead acting performances of Swank, Sevigny, Saarsgard, and Sexton III, writing, "It may be the best-acted film of the year". Online film reviewer James Berardinelli gave the film three and a half stars out of four; he highlighted the performances of Swank and Sevigny as the film's greatest success and likened the film's intensity to that of a train wreck. Berardinelli wrote that Swank "gives the performance of her career" and that "Sevigny's performance is more conventional than Swank's, but no less effective. She provides the counterbalance to the tide of hatred that drowns the last act of the film." Emanuel Levy of "Variety" called the acting "flawless" and concluded that the "stunningly accomplished" and "candid" film could be "seen as a "Rebel Without a Cause" for these culturally diverse and complex times, with the two misfits enacting a version of the James Dean—Natalie Wood romance with utmost conviction, searching, like their '50s counterparts, for love, self-worth and a place to call home". Stephen Hunter of "The Washington Post" said the performances are of such "luminous humanity that they break your heart". "Premiere" listed Swank's performance as one of the "100 Greatest Performances of All Time". Owen Gleiberman of "Entertainment Weekly" called Swank a "revelation" and wrote, "by the end, her Brandon/Teena is beyond male or female. It's as if we were simply glimpsing the character's soul, in all its yearning and conflicted beauty."  Other reviewers were positive towards the way "Boys Don't Cry" portrayed its subject matter. and Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" listed "Boys Don't Cry" as one of the five best films of 1999, saying, "this could have been a clinical movie of the week, but instead it's a sad song about a free spirit who tried to fly a little too close to the flame". Janet Maslin of "The New York Times" said the film was "stunning" and gave it four stars out of four stars. Maslin said, "unlike most films about mind-numbing tragedy, this one manages to be full of hope". Kenneth Turan of "The Los Angeles Times" praised the lack of romanticization and dramatization of the characters, and wrote, "Peirce and Bienen and the expert cast engage us in the actuality of these rootless, hopeless, stoned-out lives without sentimentalizing or romanticizing them" and that ""Boys Don't Cry" is an exceptional—and exceptionally disturbing film". Mike Clarke of "USA Today" commended Peirce's depth of knowledge of the case and the subject matter, writing, "Peirce seems to have researched her subject with grad-school-thesis intensity".  Jay Carr of "The Boston Globe" wrote, ""Boys Don't Cry" not only revisits the crime, but convinces us we're being taken inside it". Stephanie Zacharek of "Salon" gave a positive review, singling out the directing and acting. She wrote, "Peirce... covers an extraordinary amount of territory, not just in terms of dealing with Brandon’s sexual-identity and self-fulfillment issues, but also in trying to understand the lives of those around him". Zacharek described Swank's performance as "a continual revelation" and Sevigny's performance as "transformative". She said, "When Brandon dies, "Boys Don’t Cry" reaches an emotional intensity that’s almost operatic. The saddest thing, though, is seeing Sevigny’s Lana crumpled over his corpse—the way she plays it, you know that when Brandon went, he took a part of her with him, too". David Edelstein of "Slate" was also very positive towards the film, calling it "a meditation on the irrelevance of gender." He went on to praise Swank, Sevigny, and Sarsgaard in their roles, especially Sevigny, writing that she "keeps the movie tantalizing".  The film was not without detractors, who focused on the film's portrayal of Brandon and his actions. Richard Corliss of "Time" magazine was one of the film's negative reviewers; he wrote, "the film lets down the material. It's too cool: all attitude, no sizzle". Peter Rainer of "New York Magazine" compared the film unfavorably with "Rebel Without a Cause" (1954), calling it a "transgendered " version, elaborating that the film "could have used a tougher and more exploratory spirit; for Peirce, there was no cruelty, no derangement in Brandon's impostures toward the unsuspecting." In 2007, "Premiere" ranked the film on its list of "The 25 Most Dangerous Movies".  The film was generally well-received by the LGBT community. "Boys Don't Cry"s release came a year after the murder of a homosexual teenager, Matthew Shepard, which occurred October 12, 1998. The murder sparked additional public interest in hate crime legislation in America and in Brandon Teena, and increased public interest in "Boys Don't Cry". Cooper wrote that "Boys Don't Cry" "is perhaps the only film addressing the issue of female masculinity by a self-described queer filmmaker to reach mainstream audiences and to receive critical acclaim and prestigious awards." However, Noelle Howey, writing for "Mother Jones", wrote that despite the critical acclaim, relatively few critics understood what she perceived as the main point of the film—Brandon being a victim of trans bashing. Howey said, "Even a cursory glance at reviews of "Boys Don't Cry" reveals that while most critics admired the film, few absorbed its main point: that Brandon Teena was a biological girl who felt innately that she was a man. Most of the media instead cast Teena as a Yentl for the new millennium, rather than a victim of anti-transgender bigotry."

Awards and nominations.

The film won a variety of awards, most of which went to Swank for her performance. Swank won a Best Actress Oscar while Sevigny received a nomination in the category of Best Supporting Actress. From the Hollywood Foreign Press, the film received two Golden Globe nominations in the same two categories (Best Actress, Best Supporting Actress) for Swank and Sevigny, winning Best Actress. Swank and Sevigny both received Best Actress Awards from the New York Film Critics Circle, the Chicago Film Critics Association Awards and an Independent Spirit Award. The film won three awards at the Boston Society of Film Critics Awards: Best Actress (Swank),

Rating and home media.

"Boys Don't Cry" garnered significant attention for its graphic rape scene. The film was initially assigned an NC-17 rating from the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA); the content was toned down for the U.S. release, where it was rated R. Peirce was interviewed for a 2005 documentary titled "This Film Is Not Yet Rated", which discussed the film's problems with the MPAA, particularly the censoring of the sex scenes. The portrayal of a double rape caused significant problems with the MPAA and had to be trimmed to avoid the NC-17 rating. Both the Australian and European version are more explicit, particularly the first rape. Peirce

Boys Don't Cry is a 1999 American biographical film directed by Kimberly Peirce and co-written by Peirce and Andy Bienen. The film is a dramatization of the real-life story of Brandon Teena, an American trans man played in the film by Hilary Swank, who attempts to find himself and love in Nebraska but falls victim to a brutal hate crime perpetrated by two male acquaintances. The film co-stars Chloë Sevigny as Teena's girlfriend, Lana Tisdel.

Boys Don’t Cry ist ein US-amerikanisches Filmdrama, das von der Geschichte und Ermordung Brandon Teenas, einem jungen Transmann, handelt. Es wurde von Kimberly Peirce inszeniert und mit Andy Bees gemeinsam geschrieben.


Approaches.

Artists take a variety of approaches to drawing the human figure. They may draw from live models or from photographs, from skeletal models, or from memory and imagination. Most instruction focuses on the use of models in "life drawing" courses. The use of photographic reference—although common since the development of photography—is often criticized or discouraged for its tendency to produce "flat" images that fail to capture the dynamic aspects of the subject. Drawing from imagination is often lauded for the expressiveness it encourages, and criticized for the inaccuracies introduced by the artist's lack of knowledge or limited memory in visualizing the human figure; the experience of the artist with other methods has a large influence on the effectiveness of this approach.  In developing the image, some artists focus on the shapes created by the interplay of light and dark values on the surfaces of the body. Others take an anatomical approach, beginning by approximating the internal skeleton of the figure, overlaying the internal organs and musculature, and covering those shapes with the skin, and finally (if applicable) clothing; study of human internal anatomy is usually involved in this technique. Another approach is to loosely construct the body out of geometric shapes, e.g., a sphere for the cranium, a cylinder for the torso, etc. then refine those shapes to more closely resemble the human form.  For those working without visual reference (or as a means of checking one's work), proportions commonly recommended in figure drawing are: Note that these proportions are most useful for a standing model. Poses which introduce foreshortening of various body parts will cause them to differ.

Media.

The French Salon in the 19th century recommended the use of Conté crayons, which are sticks of wax, oil and pigment, combined with specially formulated paper. Erasure was not permitted; instead, the artist was expected to describe the figure in light strokes before making darker, more visible marks.  A popular modern technique is the use of a charcoal stick, prepared from special vines, and a rougher form of paper. The charcoal adheres loosely to the paper, allowing very easy erasure, but the final drawing can be preserved using a spray-on "fixative" to keep the charcoal from rubbing off. Harder compressed charcoal can produce a more deliberate and precise effect, and graduated tones can be produced by smudging with the fingers or with a cylindrical paper tool called a stump.  Graphite pencil is also commonly used for figure drawing. For this purpose artists' pencils are sold in various formulations, ranging from 9B (very soft) to 1B (medium soft), and from 1H (medium hard) to 9H (very hard). Like charcoal, it can be erased and manipulated using a stump.  Ink is another popular medium. The artist will often start with graphite pencil to sketch or outline the drawing, then the final line work is done with a pen or brush, with permanent ink. The ink may be diluted with water to produce gradations, a technique called ink wash. The pencil marks may be erased after the ink is applied, or left in place with the dark inks overpowering them.  Some artists draw directly in ink without the preparation of a pencil sketch, preferring the spontaneity of this approach despite the fact that it limits the ability to correct mistakes. Matisse is an artist known to have worked in this way.  A favored method of Watteau and other 17th and 18th-century artists of the Baroque and Rococo era was to start with a colored ground of tone halfway between white and black, and to add shade in black and highlights in white, using pen and ink or "crayon".

History.

The human figure has been the subject of drawings since prehistoric times. While the studio practices of the artists of antiquity are largely a matter of conjecture, that they often drew and modeled from nude models is suggested by the anatomical sophistication of their works. An anecdote related by Pliny describes how Zeuxis reviewed the young women of Agrigentum naked before selecting five whose features he would combine in order to paint an ideal image. The use of nude models in the medieval artist's workshop is implied in the writings of Cennino Cennini, and a manuscript of Villard de Honnecourt confirms that sketching from life was an established practice in the 13th century. The Carracci, who opened their "Accademia degli Incamminati" in Bologna in the 1580s, set the pattern for later art schools by making life drawing the central discipline. The course of training began with the copying of engravings, then proceeded to drawing from plaster casts, after which the students were trained in drawing from the live model.  In the late 18th century, students in Jacques-Louis David's studio followed a rigorous program of instruction. Mastery in drawing was considered a prerequisite to painting. For about six hours each day, students drew from a model who remained in the same pose for one week. "Eighteenth-century drawings, like that attributed to Jacques-Louis David, were usually executed on tinted paper in red or black chalk with white highlights and a darkened ground. The models' poses tended to be active: standing figures seem about to stir and even seated figures gesticulate dramatically. Close observation of the model's body was secondary to the rendering of his gesture, and many drawings - consistent with academic theory - seem to present a representative figure rather than a specific body or face. In comparison, academies produced in the nineteenth century [...] were typically executed in black chalk or charcoal on white paper and are meticulous depictions of the particularities and idiosyncrasies of the body of the live model. Evidence of the artist's hand is minimized and, although reclining or seated poses are rare, even standing poses are comparatively static..." Before the late 19th century, women were generally not admitted to figure drawing classes.

Academy figure.

An academy figure is a drawing, painting or sculpture in a literal manner, of the nude human body using a live model, typically at half life size.  It is a common exercise required of students at art schools and academies, both in the past and present, hence the name.

Women.

Historical accounts reveal that nude models for aspiring female artists were largely unavailable. Women were barred from certain institutions because it was considered improper and possibly even dangerous for them to study from nude models. Though men were given access to both male and female nudes, women were confined to learning anatomy from casts and models. It was not until 1893 that female students were allowed access to life drawing at the Royal Academy in London, and even then the model was required to be partially draped.  The limited access to nude figures impeded the careers and development of female artists. The most prestigious forms of painting required in-depth knowledge of anatomy that was systematically denied to women, who were thereby relegated to less-regarded forms of painting such as genre, still life, landscape and portraiture. In Linda Nochlin’s essay "Why have There Been No Great Women Artists" she identifies the restricted access that women had to nude figure drawing as a historically significant barrier to women's artistic development.

Contemporary studio instruction.

Figure drawing instruction is an element of most fine art and illustration programs. Academies of fine art in Italy have a scuola libera del nudo ("free school of the nude") which forms part of the degree program but is also open to outside students. In a typical figure drawing studio classroom, the students sit around a model either in a semicircle or a full circle. No two students have exactly the same view, thus their drawing will reflect the perspective of the artist's unique location relative to the model. The model often poses on a stand, to enable students to more easily find an unobstructed view. Depending on the type of pose, furniture and/or props may be used. These are typically included in the drawing, to the extent that they are visible to the artist. However, backgrounds are commonly ignored unless the objective is to learn about placement of figures in an environment. Individual models are most common, but multiple models may be used in more advanced classes. Many studios are equipped to allow a variety of lighting arrangements.  When taught at the college level, figure drawing models are often (but not always) nude (aside from small jewelry, props or other inconspicuous items). While posing, the model is usually requested to remain perfectly still. Because of the difficulty of doing this for an extended period of time, periodic breaks for the model to rest and/or stretch are usually included in longer sessions and for more difficult poses.  At the beginning of a figure drawing session, the model is often requested to make a series of brief poses in rapid succession. These are called gesture poses, and are typically one to three minutes each. Gesture drawing is a warm-up exercise for many artists, although some artists sketch out the gesture as the first step in every figure drawing. These broad strokes are not just done by the flick of a wrist, but by using the whole arm to capture the motion of the model. It also helps to keep the artist focused on the model instead of the paper. When it comes to the human body, artists are painfully critical; the proportions of a still life do not have to be drawn perfectly to look authentic, but even the slightest error in human proportions will be easily detected.  Modern and contemporary artists may choose to exaggerate or distort proportions to emphasise the gesture or perceived mood of the models' pose. The outcomes can be regarded as a finished artwork, expressing both the subject, the observational, emotional and mark making response to the artists figure drawing experience.  Anatomy is only the first level of concern in life classes. Figure-ground relationships and other aspects of composition are also considered. Balance of a composition becomes more crucial and therefore more understood through life drawing. The artist's kinesthetic response to the pose and how this is conveyed through a choice of art media is a more advanced concern. Since the purpose of figure drawing classes is to learn how to draw humans of all kinds, male and female models of all ages, shapes, and ethnicities are usually sought, rather than selecting only beautiful models or those with "ideal" figures. Some instructors specifically seek to avoid the sort of models preferred by fashion photographers, seeking more "realistic" examples and to avoid any implication of sexual objectification. Instructors may also favor models of particular body types based on the unique contours or surface textures they provide. The variety of models hired may be limited by the need for them to hold a pose for extended periods (eliminating restless children and frail older persons), and concerns of modesty and legality when models pose nude (restricting the use of minors).

A figure drawing is a drawing of the human form in any of its various shapes and postures using any of the drawing media. The term can also refer to the act of producing such a drawing. The degree of representation may range from highly detailed, anatomically correct renderings to loose and expressive sketches. A "life drawing" is a drawing of the human figure from observation of a live model. A figure drawing may be a composed work of art or a figure study done in preparation for a more finished work such as a painting. Figure drawing is arguably the most difficult subject an artist commonly encounters, and entire courses are dedicated to the subject. The human figure is one of the most enduring themes in the visual arts, and the human figure can be the basis of portraiture, illustration, sculpture, medical illustration, and other fields.

Unter Aktzeichnen versteht man die bildnerische Darstellung des nackten menschlichen Körpers. Als Vorlage wird in der Regel ein Aktmodell – Frauen und Männer – gewählt, in Kursen für Laien oftmals eine Statue. Die Abbildung des unbekleideten Körpers ist eine schwierige künstlerische Aufgabe und dient oft als Übung für Proportionsstudien. Das Ergebnis des Aktzeichnens bezeichnet man als Akt.


Early life.

Bono was born in Detroit to Santo Bono (born in Montelepre, Palermo, Italy) and Zena "Jean" Bono (née La Valle). His mother called him "Sono" as a term of endearment, which evolved over time into "Sonny". Sonny was the youngest of three siblings; he had two sisters, Fran and Betty. The family moved to Inglewood, California when he was seven, and his parents divorced soon afterwards. Bono decided early in life to become part of the music business, and began writing songs as a teenager. "Koko Joe", a song he wrote at age 16, was recorded by Don and Dewey in 1958, and later covered by several other artists including The Righteous Brothers. Bono attended Inglewood High School, but did not graduate, opting to drop out so he could begin to pursue a career as a songwriter and performer. He worked at a variety of jobs while trying to break into the music business, including waiter, truck driver, construction laborer, and butcher's helper.

Career.

Entertainment career.

Bono began his music career as a songwriter at Specialty Records, where his song "Things You Do to Me" was recorded by Sam Cooke, and went on to work for record producer Phil Spector in the early 1960s as a promotion man, percussionist and "gofer". One of his earliest songwriting efforts, "Needles and Pins" was co-written with Jack Nitzsche, another member of Spector's production team. Later in the same decade, he achieved commercial success with his wife Cher in the singing duo Sonny and Cher. Bono wrote, arranged and produced a number of hit records including the singles "I Got You Babe" and "The Beat Goes On", although Cher received more attention as a performer. He played a major part in Cher's solo recording career, writing and producing singles including "Bang Bang" and "You Better Sit Down Kids".  Bono co-wrote "She Said Yeah", covered by The Rolling Stones on their 1965 LP "December's Children". His lone hit single as a solo artist, "Laugh at Me", was released in 1965 and peaked at No. 10 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. In live concerts, Bono introduced the song by saying "I'd like to sing a medley of my hit". His only other single as a solo artist, "The Revolution Kind", reached No. 70 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 later that year. His solo album, "Inner Views", was released in 1967. Sonny continued to work with Cher through the early and mid-1970s, starring in a popular television variety show, "The Sonny and Cher Comedy Hour," which ran on CBS from 1971 to 1974. From 1976 to 1977, the duo, since divorced, returned to perform together on "The Sonny and Cher Show". Their last appearance together was on "Late Night with David Letterman" on November 13, 1987, on which they sang "I Got You Babe".  In 2011, Sonny Bono was inducted into the Michigan Rock and Roll Legends Hall of Fame.

Film and television.

Bono's acting career included bit parts as a guest performer in such television series as "Fantasy Island", "Charlie's Angels", "The Love Boat", "The Six Million Dollar Man" and "CHiPs". In the 1975 TV movie "Murder on Flight 502", he played the role of rock star Jack Marshall. He appeared in the 1980 miniseries "Top of the Hill". He played the role of mad bomber Joe Selucci in "" (1982) and appeared in the horror film "Troll" (1986). He also portrayed racist entrepreneur Franklin von Tussle in the John Waters film "Hairspray" (1988). In "Men in Black" (1997), Bono is one of several oddball celebrities seen on a wall of video screens that monitor extraterrestrials living among us. He also appeared as the Mayor of Palm Springs (which he actually was at the time) in several episodes of "P.S. I Luv U" during the 1991–92 TV season, and on "" (in Season 1, Episode 9, which aired November 21, 1993), in which he played Mayor Frank Berkowitz. He also made a minor appearance as himself in the comedy film "First Kid" (1996).  Bono guest-starred as himself on "The Golden Girls" episode "Mrs. George Devereaux" (originally broadcast November 17, 1990), in which he vied with Lyle Waggoner for Dorothy's (Bea Arthur) affection in a dream sequence. In Blanche's (Rue McClanahan) dream, her husband is still alive, and Bono uses his power as Mayor of Palm Springs to have Waggoner falsely arrested so he can have Dorothy to himself.

Political career.

Bono entered politics after experiencing great frustration with local government bureaucracy in trying to open a restaurant in Palm Springs, California. Bono placed a successful bid to become the new mayor of Palm Springs. He served four years, from 1988 to 1992. He was instrumental in spearheading the creation of the Palm Springs International Film Festival, which is held each year in Bono's memory.  Bono ran for the Republican nomination for United States Senate in 1992, but the nomination went to the more conservative Bruce Herschensohn, and the election to the Democrat Barbara Boxer. Bono and Herschensohn became close friends after the campaign. Bono was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1994 to represent California's 44th congressional district. He was one of twelve co-sponsors of a House bill extending copyright. Although that bill was never voted on in the Senate, a similar Senate bill was passed after his death and named the Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act in his memory. It is also known (derisively) as the Mickey Mouse Protection Act.  He championed the restoration of the Salton Sea, bringing the giant lake's plight to national attention. In 1998, then Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich made a public appearance and speech at the shore of the lake on Bono's behalf.  In their book "Tell Newt to Shut Up", David Maraniss and Michael Weisskopf credit Bono with being the first person to recognize Gingrich's public relations problems in 1995. Drawing on his long experience as a celebrity and entertainment producer, Bono (according to Maraniss and Weisskopf) recognized that Gingrich's status had changed from politician to celebrity and that he was not making allowances for that change:  Bono remains the only member of Congress to have scored a number-one pop single on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 chart.

Personal life.

Marriages.

Bono married his first wife, Donna Rankin, on November 3, 1954. Their daughter Christine ("Christy") was born on June 24, 1958. They divorced in 1962.  In 1964, Bono married singer and actress Cher, who was 11 years his junior. They had one child, Chaz Bono, born March 4, 1969, and divorced in 1974.  Bono married actress-model Susie Coelho on New Year's Eve 1981; they divorced in 1984.  He wed Mary Whitaker in 1986 and they had two children, son Chesare Elan in 1988 and daughter Chianna Maria in 1991.

Godparent.

Bono was named a godparent of Anthony Kiedis, who became a musical artist with his band, Red Hot Chili Peppers. Sonny was a close friend of Kiedis's father, Blackie Dammett, and often took the boy on weekend trips.

Salton Sea.

Bono was a champion of the Salton Sea in southeastern California, where a park was named in his honor. The 2005 documentary film "Plagues & Pleasures on the Salton Sea" (narrated by John Waters) features Bono and documented the lives of the inhabitants of Bombay Beach, Niland and Salton City, as well as the ecological issues associated with the Sea.

Religion.

He became interested in Scientology and took Scientology courses partly because of the influence of Mimi Rogers, but stated that he was a Roman Catholic on all official documents, campaign materials and websites. His wife Mary also took Scientology courses. However, after his death, Mary Bono stated that "Sonny did try to break away [from the Church of Scientology] at one point, and they made it very difficult for him." The Church of Scientology said there was no estrangement from Bono.

Death.

Bono died on January 5, 1998, of injuries incurred when he hit a tree while skiing at Heavenly Mountain Resort in South Lake Tahoe, California. After Bono's death, Mary Bono said that Sonny had been addicted to prescription drugs (mainly Vicodin and Valium) and that she believed her husband's drug use caused the accident. However no drugs or alcohol were found in his body on autopsy. A wild conspiracy theory has been floated.  At Mary's request, Cher gave a eulogy at Sonny's funeral. He was buried at Desert Memorial Park in Cathedral City, California. The epitaph on Bono's headstone reads "AND THE BEAT GOES ON".  Mary Bono was elected to fill the remainder of her husband's congressional term. She was elected in her own right seven subsequent times before being defeated in the election of 2012.

Honors and tributes.

Sonny Bono has been honored and memorialized with:

Salvatore Phillip "Sonny" Bono (; February 16, 1935 – January 5, 1998) was an American singer-songwriter, producer, actor, and politician who came to fame in partnership with his second wife Cher as the popular singing duo Sonny & Cher. He was mayor of Palm Springs, California from 1988 to 1992, and the Republican congressman for California's 44th district from 1995 until his death in 1998.

Salvatore Phillip „Sonny“ Bono (* 16. Februar 1935 in Detroit; † 5. Januar 1998 in South Lake Tahoe) war ein US-amerikanischer Sänger, Schauspieler und Politiker.


Definition.

The aspect ratio formula_1 is the ratio of the square of the wingspan formula_2 to the projected wing area formula_3, which is equal to the ratio of the wingspan formula_2 to the standard mean chord formula_5:  formula_6

Mechanism.

Roughly speaking, an airplane in flight can be imagined to affect a circular cylinder of air with a diameter equal to the wingspan. A large wingspan affects a large cylinder of air, and a small wingspan affects a small cylinder of air. A small air cylinder must be pushed down with a greater power (energy change per unit time) than a large cylinder in order to produce an equal upward force (momentum change per unit time). This is because giving the same momentum change to a smaller mass of air requires giving it a greater velocity change, and a much greater energy change because energy is proportional to the square of the velocity while momentum is only linearly proportional to the velocity. The aft-leaning component of this change in velocity is proportional to the induced drag, which is the force needed to take up that power at that airspeed.  The interaction between undisturbed air outside the cylinder of air, and the downward-moving cylinder of air occurs at the wingtips and can be seen as wingtip vortices.  It is important to keep in mind that this is a drastic oversimplification, and an airplane wing affects a very large area around itself.

In aircraft.

Although a long, narrow wing with a high aspect ratio has aerodynamic advantages like better lift-to-drag-ratio (see also details below), there are several reasons why not "all" aircraft have high aspect wings:

Variable aspect ratio.

Aircraft which approach or exceed the speed of sound sometimes incorporate variable-sweep wings. These wings give a high aspect ratio when unswept and a low aspect ratio at maximum sweep.  In subsonic flow, steeply swept and narrow wings are inefficient compared to a high-aspect-ratio wing. However, as the flow becomes transonic and then supersonic, the shock wave first generated along the wing's upper surface causes wave drag on the aircraft, and this drag is proportional to the span of the wing. Thus a long span, valuable at low speeds, causes excessive drag at transonic and supersonic speeds.  By varying the sweep the wing can be optimised for the current flight speed. However the extra weight and complexity of a moveable wing mean that it is not often used.

Birds and bats.

The aspect ratios of birds' and bats' wings vary considerably. Birds that fly long distances or spend long periods soaring such as albatrosses and eagles often have wings of high aspect ratio. By contrast, birds which require good maneuverability, such as the Eurasian sparrowhawk, have wings of low aspect ratio.

Details.

For a constant-chord wing of chord "c" and span "b", the aspect ratio is given by:  If the wing is swept, "c" is measured parallel to the direction of forward flight.  For most wings the length of the chord is not a constant but varies along the wing, so the aspect ratio "AR" is defined as the square of the wingspan "b" divided by the wing area "S". In symbols,  For such a wing with varying chord, the standard mean chord "SMC" is defined as  The performance of aspect ratio AR related to the lift-to-drag-ratio and wingtip vortices is illustrated in the formula used to calculate the drag coefficient of an aircraft formula_12  where

Wetted aspect ratio.

The wetted aspect ratio considers the whole wetted surface area of the airframe, formula_14, rather than just the wing. It is a better measure of the aerodynamic efficiency of an aircraft than the wing aspect ratio. It is defined as:  where formula_2 is span and formula_14 is the wetted surface.  Illustrative examples are provided by the Boeing B-47 and Avro Vulcan. Both aircraft have very similar performance although they are radically different. The B-47 has a high aspect ratio wing, while the Avro Vulcan has a low aspect ratio wing. They have, however, a very similar wetted aspect ratio.

In aeronautics, the aspect ratio of a wing is the ratio of its span to its mean chord. It is equal to the square of the wingspan divided by the wing area. Thus, a long, narrow wing has a high aspect ratio, whereas a short, wide wing has a low aspect ratio.

Die Streckung formula_1 ist eine dimensionslose Kennzahl für die Schlankheit einer Tragfläche. Sie ist definiert als das Verhältnis des Quadrats der Flügelspannweite zur Flügelfläche oder alternativ auch als Verhältnis der Spannweite zur mittleren Tragflügeltiefe (Seitenverhältnis):


Early life.

Odeman was born Martin Hoyer in the town Blankenese, later quarter of Hamburg. He took the stage name Robert T. Odeman when he began his career as an actor and musician.  After training to become a carpenter, Odeman studied classical piano, successfully performing throughout Europe for several years as a pianist. He played accompaniments for silent films in many cinemas in Hamburg. After suffering a hand injury, Odeman was forced to give up piano playing, and turned to theatre.  In 1922, at the age of 17, Odeman met his first love, architecture student Martin Ulrich Eppendorf (died 1932), who went by the name Muli. The two shared a close relationship for 10 years until Muli's death. A year after Muli’s death, in 1933, Odeman became musical director of the New Theater in Hamburg. In 1935, Odeman opened a cabaret in Hamburg, which was shut down a year later by the Nazis, who claimed it was politically subversive.

Life in Nazi Germany.

Odeman's boyfriend, a bookseller, was pressured by the Gestapo to denounce him in 1937 and he was arrested under Paragraph 175, which outlawed homosexual acts between men. Odeman was sentenced to 27 months in prison, which he spent first in Plötzensee and then in various Berlin prisons. After his release in 1940, Odeman was subject to a 'Berufsverbot' forbidding him from carrying on certain professions, and he was not permitted to appear in public. He also remained under police surveillance.  Odeman continued to carry on a relationship with the singer Olga Rinnebach, but in 1942 he was again arrested under Paragraph 175 and sent to Sachsenhausen concentration camp where he was assigned an office job. During a forced march from the camp towards the Baltic Sea in April 1945, he escaped with other homosexual concentration camp prisoners.

Life after the war.

After the war, Odeman focused on cultural activities, completing training as an actor and appearing in various theatres and productions. He also wrote many satirical poems, which were released in book form, and were later put to music by musicians such as Charles Kálmán and Norbert Schultze and released on musical and spoken records, with Odeman himself performing on the latter at the suggestion of actresses Pamela Wedekind and Ursula Herking.  In 1959, Odeman met the 25-year-old Günter Nöring (1933-2006), with whom he lived until his death. Since the two were unable to marry, Odeman adopted his younger partner. After the adoption, Nöring used the name Günter Odeman-Nöring.

Death.

Robert T Odeman died in the Berlin-Grunewald district of Berlin in 1985, at the age of 80.

References.

another website United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

Robert T. Odeman (November 30, 1904 – January 14, 1985) was a gay German classical pianist, actor, writer, and composer who was persecuted by the Nazi regime.

Robert T. Odeman (* 30. November 1904 in Blankenese; † 14. Januar 1985 in Berlin; mitunter auch "Odemann" geschrieben, bürgerlicher Name "Martin Hoyer") war ein deutscher Kabarettist, Dichter und Pianist.


Childhood and education.

Amdahl was born to immigrant parents of Norwegian and Swedish descent in Flandreau, South Dakota. After serving in the Navy during World War II he completed a degree in engineering physics at South Dakota State University in 1948.  He went on to study theoretical physics at the University of Wisconsin–Madison under Robert G. Sachs. However, in 1950, Amdahl and Charles H. "Charlie" Davidson, a fellow Ph.D. student in the Department of Physics, approached Harold A. Peterson with the idea of a digital computer. Amdahl and Davidson gained the support of Peterson and fellow electrical engineering professor Vincent C. Rideout, who encouraged them to build a computer of their unique design. Amdahl completed his doctorate at UW–Madison in 1952 with a thesis titled "A Logical Design of an Intermediate Speed Digital Computer" and creating his first computer, the Wisconsin Integrally Synchronized Computer, WISC. He then went straight from Wisconsin to a position at IBM in June 1952. Gene Amdahl is also related to former Minnesota Supreme Court Chief Justice Douglas K. Amdahl.

The IBM and Amdahl years.

At IBM, Amdahl worked on the IBM 704, the IBM 709, and then the "Stretch" project, the basis for the IBM 7030. He left IBM in December 1955, but returned in September 1960 (after working at Ramo-Wooldridge and at Aeronutronic). He quit out of frustration with the bureaucratic structure of the organization. In an interview conducted in 1989 for the Charles Babbage Institute, he addressed this: On his return he became chief architect of IBM System/360 and was named an IBM Fellow in 1965, and head of the ACS Laboratory in Menlo Park, California. He left IBM again in September 1970, after his ideas for computer development were rejected, and set up Amdahl Corporation in Sunnyvale, California with aid from Fujitsu.  Competing with IBM in the mainframe market, the company manufactured "plug-compatible" mainframes, shipping its first machine in 1975 — the Amdahl 470V/6, a less expensive, more reliable and faster replacement for the System 370/168. By purchasing an Amdahl 470 and plug-compatible peripheral devices from third-party manufacturers, customers could now run S/360 and S/370 applications without buying actual IBM hardware. Amdahl's software team developed VM/PE (Virtual Machine/Performance Enhancement), software designed to optimize the performance of IBM's MVS operating system when running under IBM's VM operating system. By 1979, Amdahl Corporation had sold over a US$1 billion of V6 and V7 mainframes and had over 6,000 employees worldwide. The corporation went on to distribute an IBM-plug-compatible front-end processor (the 4705) as well as high-performance disk drives, both jointly developed with Fujitsu engineers.  At the 1967 Spring Joint Computer Conference, Amdahl, along with three other computer architects, most notably ILLIAC IV architect Daniel Slotnick, engaged in a discussion on future architectural trends. Amdahl argued, verbally and in three written pages, for performance limitations in any special feature or mode introduced to new machines. This resulted in two, major and lesser, "laws" of computer performance regarding sequential vs. parallel processing. These arguments continue to this day.

1979–2015: entrepreneur.

Amdahl left his eponymous company in August 1979 to set up Trilogy Systems, together with his son Carl Amdahl and Clifford Madden. With over US$200 million in funds Trilogy was aimed at designing an integrated chip for even cheaper mainframes, but the chip development failed within months of the company's $60 million public offering; thereafter, the company focused on developing its VLSI technology and, when that project failed, in 1985 Trilogy merged into Elxsi. Elxsi also did poorly and Amdahl left in 1989, having already founded his next venture, Andor International, in 1987. Andor hoped to compete in the mid-sized mainframe market, using improved manufacturing techniques developed by one of the company's employees, Robert F. Brown, to make smaller, more efficient machines. Production problems and strong competition led the company into bankruptcy by 1995.  Amdahl co-founded Commercial Data Servers in 1996, again in Sunnyvale, and again developing mainframe-like machines but this time with new super-cooled processor designs and aimed at physically smaller systems. One such machine, from 1997, was the ESP/490 (Enterprise Server Platform/490), an enhancement of IBM's P/390 of the System/390 family. Since then, CDS has changed its name and narrowed its focus. As Xbridge Systems, the company now builds software to scan mainframe datasets and database tables for sensitive information such as Credit Card Numbers, Social Security and other government identification numbers, sensitive medical diagnosis information that can be linked to an individual, and other information such as that needed for electronic discovery. As of early 2005, however, Xbridge's Web site did not list Amdahl as a member of their current management team.  In November 2004, Amdahl was appointed to the board of advisors of Massively Parallel Technologies. He died on November 10, 2015, in Palo Alto, California, from pneumonia, six days shy of his 93rd birthday. He also had Alzheimer's disease in the last years of his life.

Awards.

Amdahl was named an IBM Fellow in 1965, became a member of the National Academy of Engineering in 1967 and was recognized as the Centennial Alumnus of South Dakota State University in 1986. He has numerous awards and patents to his credit and has received Honorary Doctorates from his two alma maters and two other institutions as well.  Amdahl was elected Distinguished Fellow of the British Computer Society (DFBCS) in 1979 and in 1983, Amdahl was awarded the Harry H. Goode Memorial Award by the IEEE Computer Society "in recognition of his outstanding contributions to the design, applications and manufacture of large-scale high-performance computers."  In 1998, he was made a Fellow of the Computer History Museum "for his fundamental work in computer architecture and design, project management, and leadership."  In November 2007, Amdahl was recognized with the SIGDA Pioneering Achievement Award. A banquet dinner in his honor featured a short talk by Amdahl on his career, and a panel debate on the future of parallel processing. Panelists included John Gustafson (known for Gustafson's law). The talk and debate were both videotaped, and are available through the SIGDA Web page, and the ACM Digital Library.

Gene Myron Amdahl (November 16, 1922 – November 10, 2015) was an American computer architect and high-tech entrepreneur, chiefly known for his work on mainframe computers at IBM and later his own companies, especially Amdahl Corporation. He formulated Amdahl's law, which states a fundamental limitation of parallel computing.

Gene Myron Amdahl (* 16. November 1922 in Flandreau, South Dakota; † 10. November 2015 in Palo Alto, Kalifornien) war ein US-amerikanischer Computerarchitekt und Hi-Tech-Unternehmer norwegischer Abstammung. Zu internationaler Bekanntheit kam er durch seine Arbeit im Bereich der Großrechner bei IBM und durch seine später gegründeten Unternehmen, vor allem die Amdahl Corporation. Zudem formulierte er das Amdahlsche Gesetz, ein Modell über die Beschleunigung von Programmen durch parallele Ausführung.


Etymology.

The name derives from the Arabic word "souk" which means "market", and the Chaoui Berber word "ahra" (plural "ahras") which means "lion", in reference to the Barbary lions which existed in the neighboring forests until their extinction in 1930; hence "Souk Ahras" means "market of lions" (see also Oran ("Wahran") and Tahert for names with a related etymology).  The old name of the Numidian city of Thagaste, derives from the Berber Thagoust, which means "the bag", given that the site of the town is located at the foot of a mountain surrounded by three peaks in the form of a bag containing the city. Subsequently, when the Arabic language entered in the region it was called "Soukara". In other sources it is cited as the Palace of the African, according to Al-Masudi.

History.

Prehistory.

The town of Souk Ahras, as its region, experienced Aterian culture from the end of the Middle Palaeolithic to the early upper Palaeolithic Ages. After the Aterian, Souk Ahras was inhabited by people of the Capsian culture. Many stone tools dating to this period have been discovered. Stemmed arrows were found on the site of present-day Souk Ahras, but also in Tiffech and Taoura, not far from it.

Antiquity.

It was the birthplace of Augustine of Hippo (born 13 November 354 CE) to Monica of Hippo (Saint Monica), he later the Bishop of Hippo and Saint Augustine. Souk Ahras (Thagaste) has played an important role in the political and cultural history of the region because of its strategic position at the crossroads of Numide, Ancient Roman, and Berber civilizations. It was the location of military fortifications (Madaure, Tiffech, Khemissa...) and urban centers.

Thagaste.

Tagaste was a town of Numidia in Roman North Africa, on the banks of the Oued Hamise river. Augustine of Hippo was born here. The Roman city is identified with ruins of Tajilt near Souk Ahras, Algeria.  The Numidian city of Thagaste or Tagaste, on whose ruins Souk Ahras was built, was situated in the north-eastern highlands of Numidia. It was about from Hippo Regius, (present day Annaba), southwest of Thubursicum (present day Khamissa), and about from Carthage (on the coast of present-day Tunisia).  Thagaste became a Roman "municipium". The city was mentioned by Pliny the Elder. As a "municipium", Thagaste was not settled by Roman Italian immigrants, but was inhabited by Romanized native Berbers.

Modern era.

In 1830 Souk Ahras became a colonial settlement of French Algeria (1830–1962). Late 19th century connection via the Algerian Railway, and 20th century iron ore and phosphate mining, brought some modern significance and prosperity to the town.  During the Algerian War of Independence (1954–1962), Souk Ahras housed the Ouled Bechiah Mounts as an autonomous military base of the Army of National Liberation (ALN), called "Basis of the East".

Geography.

Relief and hydrography.

The town of Souk Ahras is located in a basin surrounded by wooded mountains as the Djebel Beni Salah or Djebel Ouled Moumen.  Souk Ahras is crossed by a major North African river, the Medjerda.  Three dams exist in the region of Souk Ahras, that of "Ain-Edalia" supplies the town of Souk Ahras and its region with. Dams of "Oued Charef" and "Djedra", provide a capacity of, respectively. Dam Djedra is intended to supply the town of Souk Ahras with a quantity of of potable water, while will be pumped for irrigation.

Climate.

Algiers has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification "Csa") with warm summers and mild winters. Its proximity to the Mediterranean Sea aids in moderating the city's temperatures. As a result, Souk Ahras usually does not see the extreme temperatures that are experienced in the adjacent interior deserts. The climate of Algiers, like that of other Atlas cities, features wet winters and dry summers. Souk Ahras on average receives roughly of precipitation per year, the bulk of which is seen between October and April.

Demographics.

The inhabitants of the town of Souk Ahras are of Berber origin. They are mainly from the different regions of the wilaya of Souk Ahras and neighboring wilayas. The first tribes having established in Souk Ahras were known as the Papiria, or Babiria from the name of Berber. They were composed of Causses and Syliactae.  The tribes of Mousoulami and Kirina lived there. Including the other tribes: the Hnanchas that grew the most and the Hrakta all of them have Berber origins. These tribes lived in tents and practiced nomadism. They have established later and founded cities for each of them, including the town of Souk Ahras, the old Thagaste.

Tourism.

Tourism in Souk Ahras focuses largely on a variety of historical and natural sites. In recent years it has become a destination for culture and health tourism. Souk Ahras, also known as Thagaste, is one of the most beautiful cities in Algeria, especially in the spring and winter, attracting many tourists. In Ain Zana and the annotated, or beautiful architectural features such as Al-Aman mosque, the Thagaste bridge in the center of the city, the olive tree of St. Augustine, the corner of Sidi Massoud, the cultural center.  Souk Ahras is located in the east of Algeria, near the border with Tunisia. It is away from Algiers. It is one of the largest and oldest cities in Algeria and is from Annaba and its airport.  Types of tourism in the state

Souk Ahras (Berber: "Tagast"; ancient name: "Thagast"; ) is a municipality in Algeria. It is the capital of Souk Ahras Province. The Numidian city of Thagaste (or Tagaste), on whose ruins Souk Ahras was built, was the birthplace of Augustine of Hippo and a center of Berber culture. It was a city of great culture, described as the very hub of civilization.

Souq Ahras (auch "Souk Ahras" oder "Souk-Ahras";, tamazight ⵙⵓⵇⴻⵀⵔⴰⵙ "Suqehras") ist eine Stadt im Nordosten Algeriens mit heute knapp 150.000 Einwohnern. Sie ist Hauptstadt der gleichnamigen Provinz und liegt in der nordafrikanischen Landschaft Numidien.


Biography.

Arnolfo was born in Colle Val d'Elsa, Tuscany.  He was Nicola Pisano’s chief assistant on the marble Siena Cathedral Pulpit for the Duomo in Siena Cathedral (1265–1268), but he soon began to work independently on an important tomb sculpture. In 1266–1267 he worked in Rome for King Charles I of Anjou, portraying him in the famous statue housed in the Campidoglio. Around 1282 he finished the monument to Cardinal Guillaume de Braye in the church of San Domenico in Orvieto, including an enthroned Madonna (a "Maestà") for which he took as a model an ancient Roman statue of the goddess Abundantia; the Madonna's tiara and jewels reproduce antique models. In Rome Arnolfo had seen the Cosmatesque art, and its influence can be seen in the intarsia and polychrome glass decorations in the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls and the church Santa Cecilia in Trastevere, where he worked in 1285 and 1293 respectively. In this period he also worked on the presepio of Santa Maria Maggiore, on Santa Maria in Aracoeli, on the monument of Pope Boniface VIII (1300) and on the bronze statue of St. Peter in St. Peter's Basilica.  In 1294–1295 he worked in Florence, mainly as an architect. According to his biographer Giorgio Vasari, he was in charge of construction of the cathedral of the city, for which he provided the statues once decorating the lower part of the façade destroyed in 1589. The surviving statues are now in the Museum of the Cathedral. While the design of the Church of Santa Croce has been attributed to Arnolfo, this is highly disputed. Vasari also attributed to him the urban plan of the new city of San Giovanni Valdarno.  The monumental character of Arnolfo's work has left its mark on the appearance of Florence. His funerary monuments became the model for Gothic funerary art.  Giorgio Vasari included a biography of Arnolfo in his "Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects".

Arnolfo di Cambio (c. 1240 – 1300/1310) was an Italian architect and sculptor. As an architect he is most known for the original design of Florence Cathedral, while his most important surviving work as a sculptor is the tomb of Cardinal de Braye in S. Domenico, Orvieto.

Arnolfo di Cambio (* um 1240/45 in Colle di Val d’Elsa; † 1302/1310 in Florenz) war ein italienischer Architekt und Bildhauer. Von Giorgio Vasari wurde er fälschlicherweise als „Arnolfo di Lapo“ bezeichnet, da er annahm, dass der Vater von Arnolfo ein deutscher Baumeister namens Lapo sei.


Poll.

The poll resulted in nominees including Guy Fawkes, who was executed because of his role in the plot to blow up the Parliament of England; Oliver Cromwell, who created a republican England; Richard III, suspected of murdering his nephews; James Connolly, an Irish nationalist and socialist who was executed by the Crown, for his part in the 1916 Rising, an open rebellion to British rule in Ireland; and a surprisingly high ranking of 17th for actor and singer Michael Crawford (the second highest-ranked entertainer, after John Lennon). Diana, Princess of Wales was judged to be a greater historical figure than Isaac Newton, William Shakespeare, and Charles Darwin by BBC respondents to the survey. Michael Crawford was judged to be the greatest living British person.  One of the more controversial figures to be included on the list was the occultist Aleister Crowley. His works had a direct influence on the rise in popular occultism and some forms of neopaganism in the 20th century. In addition to the Britons, some notable non-British entrants were listed, including two Irish nationals, the philanthropic musicians Bono and Bob Geldof. The top 19 entries were people of English origin (though Sir Ernest Shackleton and Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, were both born into Anglo-Irish families when what is now the Republic of Ireland was part of the United Kingdom). The highest-placed Scottish entry was Alexander Fleming in 20th place, and the highest Welsh entry was Owain Glyndŵr in 23rd place. Sixty had lived in the 20th century. The highest-ranked living person was Margaret Thatcher, placed 16th. Ringo Starr was the only member of The Beatles not on the list. Isambard Kingdom Brunel occupied the top spot in the polls for some time thanks largely to "students from Brunel University who have been campaigning vigorously for the engineer for weeks." However, a late surge in the final week of voting put Churchill over the top. Of the top 100, 13 were women.

Opposition to the poll.

There were no black Britons on the list, prompting a separate three-month survey to find 100 Great Black Britons. In 2004, two years after the 100 Greatest Britons list was voted on, Patrick Vernon created a similar poll exclusively for Black Britons with Mary Seacole named the greatest Black Briton.

2012 Summer Olympics.

The opening and closing ceremonies of the 2012 Summer Olympics featured the two greatest Britons, Isambard Kingdom Brunel and Winston Churchill as main characters, played by Kenneth Branagh and Timothy Spall, each of them reading a monologue from William Shakespeare's "The Tempest". The ceremony also included a personal appearance by Tim Berners-Lee, who was placed 99th on the list.  Although the BBC's original ranked list has been removed from their web server and what remains is only an alphabetical list of the Top 100, several other sources have preserved the original ranked list.

Full list.

There was some question as to whether the Richard Burton listed at No. 96 was the actor or the explorer. A BBC press release makes clear that the actor was intended.

100 Greatest Britons is a television series that was broadcast by the BBC in 2002. It was based on a television poll conducted to determine who the British people at that time considered the greatest Britons in history. The series included individual programmes featuring the top ten, with viewers having further opportunity to vote after each programme. It concluded with a debate and final determination of the ranking of the top ten. Although many living people were included among the top 100, all of the top ten were deceased.

100 Greatest Britons war eine britische Fernsehsendung, die der Sender BBC im Jahre 2002 ausstrahlte. Hierbei sollten die Zuschauer aus Großbritannien und Nordirland ihre 100 bedeutendsten Landsleute auswählen.


History.

Lohnstorf is first mentioned in 1148 as "Lonestrof". In 1279 it was mentioned as "Lonstorf".  The oldest trace of a settlement is in Brühl, where the ruins of a Roman era settlement were found. By the 13th-14th century a number of Bernese patrician families owned land and rights in the village and surrounding farms. One of the landowners was Anna Seiler, who established a hospital in Bern and in 1354 willed her landholdings to support the hospital. Today she is remembered with the Anna Seiler Fountain in Bern. In 1343, the von Blankenburg family donated Kirchenthurnen and the surrounding land, which probably included Lohnstorf, to Interlaken Abbey. In 1528 Bern accepted the new faith of the Protestant Reformation and forcibly secularized the Abbey and its lands, including Lohnstorf.  Throughout its history, Lohnstorf has been part of the large parish of Thurnen which is centered in Kirchenthurnen.  The Gürbe river correction projects of 1855-1911 helped drain the marshy valley floor and opened up farmland. Today, agriculture is the major industry in the municipality, though about two-thirds of the work force commute to jobs in surrounding towns and cities. Students from Lohnstorf travel to the school in Mühlethurnen.

Geography.

Lohnstorf has an area of. As of 2012, a total of or 92.2% is used for agricultural purposes, while or 1.7% is forested. The rest of the municipality is or 6.7% is settled (buildings or roads), or 1.1% is either rivers or lakes.  During the same year, housing and buildings made up 3.3% and transportation infrastructure made up 3.3%. All of the forested land area is covered with heavy forests. Of the agricultural land, 57.8% is used for growing crops and 29.4% is pasturage, while 2.8% is used for orchards or vine crops and 2.2% is used for alpine pastures. All the water in the municipality is flowing water.  The municipality and village or Lohnstorf are located in the Gürbetal (Gürbe valley) near Längenberg mountain.  On 31 December 2009 Amtsbezirk Seftigen, the municipality's former district, was dissolved. On the following day, 1 January 2010, it joined the newly created Verwaltungskreis Bern-Mittelland.

Coat of arms.

The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is "Per bend Argent and Gules two Roundels in bend sinister counterchanged."

Demographics.

Lohnstorf has a population () of., 2.8% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 2 years (2010-2012) the population has changed at a rate of -4.4%. Migration accounted for -4.8%, while births and deaths accounted for 0.4%.  Most of the population () speaks German (197 or 99.0%) as their first language with the rest speaking French. , the population was 48.2% male and 51.8% female. The population was made up of 105 Swiss men (46.1% of the population) and 5 (2.2%) non-Swiss men. There were 116 Swiss women (50.9%) and 2 (0.9%) non-Swiss women. Of the population in the municipality, 77 or about 38.7% were born in Lohnstorf and lived there in 2000. There were 87 or 43.7% who were born in the same canton, while 24 or 12.1% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 6 or 3.0% were born outside of Switzerland. , children and teenagers (0–19 years old) make up 24.8% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) make up 59.2% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 16.1%. , there were 82 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 104 married individuals, 10 widows or widowers and 3 individuals who are divorced. , there were 23 households that consist of only one person and 7 households with five or more people., a total of 69 apartments (88.5% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 5 apartments (6.4%) were seasonally occupied and 4 apartments (5.1%) were empty. In 2011, single family homes made up 36.9% of the total housing in the municipality.  The historical population is given in the following chart:

Politics.

In the 2011 federal election the most popular party was the Swiss People's Party (SVP) which received 44.4% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the Social Democratic Party (SP) (20.2%), the Conservative Democratic Party (BDP) (16%) and the Green Liberal Party (GLP) (4.6%). In the federal election, a total of 102 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 61.8%.

Economy.

, Lohnstorf had an unemployment rate of 0.09%., there were a total of 82 people employed in the municipality. Of these, there were 35 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 11 businesses involved in this sector. 14 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 2 businesses in this sector. 33 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 6 businesses in this sector. There were 94 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 42.6% of the workforce. , there were 19 workers who commuted into the municipality and 55 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net exporter of workers, with about 2.9 workers leaving the municipality for every one entering. A total of 39 workers (67.2% of the 58 total workers in the municipality) both lived and worked in Lohnstorf. Of the working population, 20.2% used public transportation to get to work, and 38.3% used a private car.  In 2011 the average local and cantonal tax rate on a married resident, with two children, of Lohnstorf making 150,000 CHF was 12.4%, while an unmarried resident's rate was 18.2%. For comparison, the average rate for the entire canton in the same year, was 14.2% and 22.0%, while the nationwide average was 12.3% and 21.1% respectively.  In 2009 there were a total of 87 tax payers in the municipality. Of that total, 34 made over 75,000 CHF per year. There was one person who made between 15,000 and 20,000 per year. The average income of the over 75,000 CHF group in Lohnstorf was 124,588 CHF, while the average across all of Switzerland was 130,478 CHF.  In 2011 a total of 0.4% of the population received direct financial assistance from the government.

Religion.

From the, 162 or 81.4% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church, while 7 or 3.5% were Roman Catholic. Of the rest of the population, there were 3 individuals (or about 1.51% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church. There was 1 individual who was Muslim. 23 (or about 11.56% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 3 individuals (or about 1.51% of the population) did not answer the question.

Education.

In Lohnstorf about 49.5% of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 28.6% have completed additional higher education (either university or a "Fachhochschule"). Of the 34 who had completed some form of tertiary schooling listed in the census, 58.8% were Swiss men, 38.2% were Swiss women. , there was one student living in the municipality and attending some type of school, while 30 students from Lohnstorf attended schools outside the municipality.

Lohnstorf is a former municipality in the Bern-Mittelland administrative district in the canton of Bern in Switzerland. On 1 January 2020 the former municipalities of Kirchenthurnen, Lohnstorf and Mühlethurnen merged to form the municipality of Thurnen.

Lohnstorf war bis zum 31. Dezember 2019 eine politische Gemeinde im Verwaltungskreis Bern-Mittelland des Kantons Bern in der Schweiz. Am 1. Januar 2020 fusionierte Lohnstorf mit den ehemaligen Gemeinden Kirchenthurnen und Mühlethurnen zur neuen Gemeinde Thurnen.


Biography.

Early years.

Aiken was the son of wealthy, socially prominent New Englanders, William Ford and Anna (Potter) Aiken, who had moved to Savannah, Georgia, where his father became a respected physician and eye surgeon. Then something happened for which, as Aiken later said, no one could ever find a reason. Without warning or apparent cause, his father became increasingly irascible, unpredictable, and violent. Finally, early in the morning of February 27, 1901, he murdered his wife and shot himself. According to his own writings, Aiken (who was eleven years old) heard the gunshots and discovered the bodies. He was then raised by his great aunt in Massachusetts and was educated at private schools and at Middlesex School in Concord, Massachusetts, then at Harvard University where he edited the "Advocate" with T. S. Eliot, who became a lifelong friend and associate.  Aiken's earliest poetry was written partly under the influence of a beloved teacher, the philosopher George Santayana. This relationship shaped Aiken as a poet, deeply musical in his approach and, at the same time, philosophical in seeking answers to his own problems and the problems of the modern world.

Adult years.

Aiken was strongly influenced by symbolism, especially in his earlier works. In 1930 he received the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry for his "Selected Poems". Many of his writings had psychological themes. He wrote the widely anthologized short story "Silent Snow, Secret Snow" (1934). His collections of verse include "Earth Triumphant" (1914), "The Charnel Rose" (1918) and "And In the Hanging Gardens" (1933). His poem "Music I Heard" has been set to music by a number of composers, including Leonard Bernstein and Henry Cowell.  Other influences were Aiken's grandfather, Potter, who had been a church preacher, as well as Whitman's poetry which was 'free' style. This helped Aiken shape his poetry more freely while his recognition of a God grounded his more visually rich explorations into the universe. Some of his best known poetry, such as "Morning Song of Senlin", uses these influences to great effect.  Aiken wrote or edited more than 51 books, the first of which was published in 1914, two years after his graduation from Harvard. His work includes novels, short stories ("The Collected Short Stories" appeared in 1961), criticism, autobiography, and poetry. He was awarded the National Medal for Literature, the Gold Medal for Poetry from the National Institute of Arts and Letters, the Pulitzer Prize, the Bollingen Prize, and the National Book Award. He was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship, taught briefly at Harvard, and served as consultant in poetry for the Library of Congress from 1950 to 1952. He lived at 323 Second Street SE, in the Capitol Hill neighborhood. He was also largely responsible for establishing Emily Dickinson's reputation as a major American poet.  After 1960, when his work was rediscovered by readers and critics, a new view of Aiken emerged—one that emphasized his psychological problems, along with his continuing study of Sigmund Freud, Carl G. Jung, Otto Rank, and other depth psychologists. Two of his five novels deal with depth psychology.  Aiken's writing was largely influenced by Freud (he was also an admirer of Rank, Ferenczi, Adler, and somewhat less Jung); however, Freud never replied to a letter Aiken sent him. Although Aiken was encouraged by H.D. to go to Vienna to meet Freud, the dream was never realized. As he later wrote, "Freud had read "Great Circle", and I’m told kept a copy on his office table. But I didn’t go, though I started to. Misgivings set in, and so did poverty."

Personal life.

Conrad married Canadian Jessie McDonald in 1912, and the couple moved to England in 1921 with their first two children; John (born 1913) and Jane (born 1917), and settled in Rye, East Sussex (where the American novelist Henry James had once lived). Joan was born in 1924 and the marriage was dissolved in 1929. After returning to America, up until the outbreak of World War II, he served "in loco parentis" as well as mentor to the budding English author Malcolm Lowry. In 1923 he acted as a witness at the marriage of his friend the poet W. H. Davies. In 1950, he became Poet Laureate Consultant in Poetry to the Library of Congress, more commonly known as Poet Laureate of the United States. In 1960 he visited Grasmere in the English Lake District (once the home of William Wordsworth) with his friend from Rye, the painter Edward Burra. Aiken returned to Savannah for the last 11 years of his life. Aiken's tomb, located in Bonaventure Cemetery on the banks of the Wilmington River, was made famous by its mention in "Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil", the bestselling book by John Berendt. According to local legend, Aiken wished to have his tombstone fashioned in the shape of a bench as an invitation to visitors to stop and enjoy a martini at his grave. Its inscriptions read "Give my love to the world," and "Cosmos Mariner—Destination Unknown."  He was married three times: first to Jessie McDonald (1912–1929); second to Clarissa Lorenz (1930) (author of a biography, "Lorelei Two"); and third to Mary Hoover (1937). He was the father, by Jessie McDonald, of the writers John Aiken, Jane Aiken Hodge and Joan Aiken.  Aiken had three younger siblings, Kempton, Robert and Elizabeth. After their parents' deaths, they were adopted by Frederick Winslow Taylor and his wife Louise, a distant relative, and took Taylor's last name. Kempton was known as K. P. A. Taylor (Kempton Potter Aiken Taylor) and Robert was known as Robert P. A. Taylor (Robert Potter Aiken Taylor). Kempton helped establish the Aiken Taylor Award for Modern American Poetry.  The most regarded source for information on Aiken's life is his autobiographical novel "Ushant" (1952), one of his major works. In this book he speaks candidly about his various affairs and marriages, his attempted suicide and fear of insanity, and his friendships with T.S. Eliot (who appears in the book as the Tsetse), Ezra Pound (Rabbi Ben Ezra), Malcolm Lowry (Hambo), and others.

Awards and recognition.

Named poetry consultant of the Library of Congress from 1950–1952, Conrad Aiken earned numerous prestigious national writing awards, including a National Book Award, the Bollingen Prize in Poetry, the National Institute of Arts and Letters Gold Medal and the National Medal for Literature. He was awarded a Guggenheim fellowship in 1934, Academy of American Poets fellowship in 1957, Huntington Hartford Foundation Award in 1960, and Brandeis University Creative Arts Award in 1967. Honored by his native state in 1973 with the title of Poet Laureate, Aiken is remembered there as the first Georgia-born author to win a Pulitzer Prize (in 1930, for his "Selected Poems").  Aiken was the first winner of the Poetry Society of America (PSA) Shelley Memorial Award, in 1929.  In 2009, the Library of America selected Aiken's 1931 story "Mr. Arcularis" for inclusion in its two-century retrospective of American fantastic tales.

Conrad Potter Aiken (August 5, 1889 – August 17, 1973) was an American writer, whose work includes poetry, short stories, novels, a play, and an autobiography.

Conrad Potter Aiken (* 5. August 1889 in Savannah, Georgia; † 17. August 1973 ebenda) war ein US-amerikanischer Schriftsteller, ein Verfasser von Gedichten, Romanen, Erzählungen, eines Dramas und einer Autobiographie.


Early years.

Amanullah Khan was born on 1 June 1892, in Paghman near Kabul, Afghanistan. He was the third son of the Emir Habibullah Khan. Amanullah was installed as the governor of Kabul and was in control of the army and the treasury, and gained the allegiance of most of the tribal leaders.  Russia had recently undergone its Communist revolution, leading to strained relations between the country and the United Kingdom. Amanullah Khan recognized the opportunity to use the situation to gain Afghanistan's independence over its foreign affairs. He led a surprise attack against the British in India on 3 May 1919, beginning the Third Anglo-Afghan war. After initial successes, the war quickly became a stalemate as the United Kingdom was still dealing with the costs of World War I. An armistice was reached towards end of 1919, and Afghanistan was completely free of British diplomatic influence.

Reforms.

Amanullah enjoyed early popularity within Afghanistan and he used his influence to modernise the country. Amanullah created new cosmopolitan schools for both boys and girls in the region and overturned centuries-old traditions such as strict dress codes for women. He increased trade with Europe and Asia. He also advanced a modernist constitution that incorporated equal rights and individual freedoms with the guidance of his father-in-law and Foreign Minister Mahmud Tarzi. His wife, Queen Soraya Tarzi played a huge role in regard to his policy towards women. This rapid modernisation created a backlash and a reactionary uprising known as the Khost rebellion which was suppressed in 1925. He also met with many Bahá'ís in India and Europe where he brought back books that are still to be found in the Kabul Library. This association later served as one of the accusations when he was overthrown.  At the time, Afghanistan's foreign policy was primarily concerned with the rivalry between the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom, the so-called Great Game. Each attempted to gain the favor of Afghanistan and foil attempts by the other power to gain influence in the region. This effect was inconsistent, but generally favourable for Afghanistan; Amanullah established a limited Afghan Air Force consisting of donated Soviet planes.

Visit to Europe.

Amanullah travelled to Europe in late 1927. The Afghan King and Queen set out from Karachi and en route they met with King Fawad of Egypt in Cairo. They undertook a whirlwind European visit: Italy, arrival on 8 January 1928, where they met with King Victor-Emanuel III of Italy along with his Prime Minister, Benito Mussolini and Pope Pius XI in the Vatican City; France, arrival in Nice on 22 January 1928, in Paris on 25 January, meeting with President Doumergue; Belgium, arrival on Brussels on 8 February, meeting with King Albert I and Queen Elisabeth of Belgium. The next stop was Germany. The germanophile king arrived via Germany in Berlin on 22 February to meet President Paul von Hindenburg the same day. Next he travelled to Great Britain as guests of King George V and Queen Mary. The SS steam ship "Maid of Orleans" arrived in Dover on 13 March. The royal couple left England on 5 April to Poland. On their way, they had a longer stopover in Berlin where the Amir underwent an emergency tonsillectomy. The royal train with the Amir back on board arrived in the Polish border town of Zbąszyń on April, 28. The next day it pulled into Warsaw to be met by Polish ministers, the speaker of the Sejm and the country's president Ignacy Mościcki. At his request Amanullah was granted a possible audience with the First Marshal of Poland Józef Piłsudski. The Afghan party departed from Warsaw travelling east across the country to the border with the Soviet Union on 2 May 1928.

Civil War.

During Amanullah's visit to Europe, opposition to his rule increased to the point that an uprising in Jalalabad culminated in a march to the capital, and much of the army deserted rather than resist. In January 1929, Amanullah abdicated and went into temporary exile in then British India. His brother Inayatullah Khan became the next king of Afghanistan for a few days until Habibullah Kalakani, a leader of the "Saqqawists" opposition movement, took over. While in India, Kalakani battled anti-Saqqawist tribes. Around 22 March, Amanullah returned to Afghanistan assembling forces in Kandahar to reach Kabul and dispose of Kalakani. However his forces failed to advance and on 23 May 1929 he fled to India again, this time never to return back to his country.

Exile.

Kalakani's nine months rule was soon replaced by Nadir Khan on 13 October 1929. Amanullah Khan attempted to return to Afghanistan, but he had little support from the people. From British India, the ex-king traveled to Europe and settled in Italy, buying a villa in Rome's Prati neighborhood. Meanwhile, Nadir Khan made sure his return to Afghanistan was impossible by engaging in propaganda. Most of his reforms had been reversed, but the later King, Mohammad Zahir Shah, made a more gradual program of reform.  Nevertheless, he still had a group of staunch supporters in Afghanistan. These Amanullah loyalists unsuccessfully attempted several times in the 1930s and 1940s to bring him back to power.  In 1941, some press in the west reported that Amanullah was now working as an agent for Nazi Germany in Berlin. It is believed he was involved in plans to regain his throne with Axis help, despite Afghanistan's neutrality. However following the Axis loss in Stalingrad in 1943, the plans cooled off and were never executed.

Death.

Amanullah Khan died in Zürich, Switzerland, in 1960. His body was brought to Afghanistan and buried in the eastern city of Jalalabad. He left behind his widowed wife and four sons and five daughters, including Princess India of Afghanistan.

Amānullāh Khān () was the sovereign of the Kingdom of Afghanistan from 1919 to 1929, first as Emir and after 1926 as King. After the Third Anglo-Afghan War, Afghanistan was able to relinquish from a protected state status to proclaim independence and pursue an independent foreign policy free from the influence of the British Raj.

Amanullah Khan, auch "Aman Ullah" (paschtunisch und ; * 1. Juni 1892 in Paghman, Afghanistan; † 25. April 1960 in Zürich, Schweiz) war von 1919 bis 1926 Emir, dann von 1926 bis 1929 König von Afghanistan.


Career.

Matthews was one of the best African American long sprinters to appear in the mid-1960s, and developed a fierce rivalry with future Olympic champion Lee Evans. The pair first met in their teens, and then duelled several times in 1967, with Evans coming out on top in the AAU Championships and Pan American Games.  At the warm-up meet two weeks before the Olympic Trials in 1968, Matthews set the new world record 44.4 s in 400 m, but his time was rejected as a world record due to his use of PUMA's illegal "brush spikes". At the Trials themselves, he was then beaten out of the top three by Evans, Larry James and Ron Freeman.  At the Olympic Games in Mexico City, Matthews ran the first leg on the United States gold medal-winning 4 × 400 m relay team that set the world record of 2:56.16, which lasted for 24 years.

1972 Olympics.

After Mexico, Matthews gave up track and field for a year as he struggled with the demands of work and marriage, but worked his way back to full fitness and into contention for the 1972 Olympic Games in Munich. At the Olympic Trials, Matthews finished third behind John Smith and Wayne Collett, beating old rival Lee Evans into fourth. In the Olympic final, Smith took the early lead but dropped out due to a hamstring injury after 80 meters. The race turned into a battle between Matthews and Collett, with Matthews winning in 44.66 s and Collett coming second in 44.80 s.  The triumph was tarnished by the events during the medal ceremony, where they were talking to each other and fidgeting while the US national anthem played, leading many to believe it was a Black Power protest like that of Tommie Smith and John Carlos in 1968.  The Associated Press noted that the casual behavior of Matthews and Collett during the playing of the anthem as "disrespectful," and described the conduct as follows:  Collett, bare-footed, leaped from the No. 2 tier to the No. 1 stand beside his teammate. They stood sideways to the flag, twirling their medals, with Matthews stroking his chin. Their shoulders slumped, neither stood erect nor looked at the flag.... As whistles and catcalls continued, Collett raised a clenched fist to the crowd before entering the portal of the dressing room.  Robert Markus reported in the Chicago Tribune on September 9, 1972  [Matthews] was angry at Coach Bill Bowerman-as most of the U.S. trackmen seem to be-because Bowerman had hinted he would like to remove him from the place he had earned in the 400-meter field. He was angry that he had been forced to train on his own in unsuitable facilities, had to travel 4 or 5 times from N.Y. to the west coast in order to get any kind of competition, and had been put down by some of the press as a drag on America's hopes for a 400-meter sweep.  The Chicago Tribune reported  Matthews said his and Collett's actions were directed at the U.S. coaching staff, not the flag or the National Anthem. "We were just mad about a lot of things. We didn't think it would blow up like this. We were asked to apologize. I'm not really sorry for what I did. I'm sorry for the way people took it [hoots and whistles from the stands when the anthem finished]. What I tried to get across to the Olympic Committee was if it was pre-meditated I could have done something better than that. It was just something that happened. We didn't realize the implications to the people in the stands.  However, in an interview after the medal ceremony with the American Broadcasting Company, Collett said the national anthem meant nothing to him. He explained that he had felt unable to honor the anthem because of the struggle faced by African Americans at the time: "I couldn't stand there and sing the words because I don't believe they're true. I wish they were. I believe we have the potential to have a beautiful country, but I don't think we do."  The pair were banned from future Olympic competition by the IOC. Since John Smith had pulled a hamstring 80 meters into the final while leading and had been ruled unfit to run, the USA were unable to field a team in the 4 × 400 m relay and were forced to scratch from the event.  On the March 1973 cover of "Track and Field News" he and Collett are pictured from the award stand promoting an article "All Gold Does Not Glitter."

Personal life.

Matthews is also an artist - burning images onto wood panels - with works on display with the Art of the Olympians.

Vincent "Vince" Edward Matthews (born December 16, 1947) is an American former sprinter, winner of two Olympic gold medals, at the 1968 Summer Olympics and 1972 Summer Olympics.

Vince Matthews (eigentlich "Vincent Edward Matthews"; * 16. Dezember 1947 in New York City) ist ein ehemaliger US-amerikanischer Leichtathlet und Olympiasieger.