History.

The early development of the Linux kernel was made as a cross-development under the MINIX operating system. The MINIX file system was used as Linux's first file system. The Minix file system was mostly free of bugs, but used 16-bit offsets internally and thus had a maximum size limit of only 64 megabytes, and there was also a filename length limit of 14 characters. Because of these limitations, work began on a replacement native file system for Linux.  To ease the addition of new file systems and provide a generic file API, VFS, a virtual file system layer, was added to the Linux kernel. The extended file system (ext), was released in April 1992 as the first file system using the VFS API and was included in Linux version 0.96c. The ext file system solved the two major problems in the Minix file system (maximum partition size and filename length limitation to 14 characters), and allowed 2 gigabytes of data and filenames of up to 255 characters. But it still had problems: there was no support of separate timestamps for file access, inode modification, and data modification.  As a solution for these problems, two new filesystems were developed in January 1993 for Linux kernel 0.99: xiafs and the second extended file system (ext2), which was an overhaul of the extended file system incorporating many ideas from the Berkeley Fast File System. ext2 was also designed with extensibility in mind, with space left in many of its on-disk data structures for use by future versions.  Since then, ext2 has been a testbed for many of the new extensions to the VFS API. Features such as the withdrawn POSIX draft ACL proposal and the withdrawn extended attribute proposal were generally implemented first on ext2 because it was relatively simple to extend and its internals were well understood.  On Linux kernels prior to 2.6.17, restrictions in the block driver mean that ext2 filesystems have a maximum file size of 2 TiB.  ext2 is still recommended over journaling file systems on bootable USB flash drives and other solid-state drives. ext2 performs fewer writes than ext3 because there is no journaling. As the major aging factor of a flash chip is the number of erase cycles, and as erase cycles happen frequently on writes, decreasing writes increases the life span of the solid-state device. Another good practice for filesystems on flash devices is the use of the "noatime" mount option, for the same reason.

ext2 data structures.

The space in ext2 is split up into blocks. These blocks are grouped into block groups, analogous to cylinder groups in the Unix File System. There are typically thousands of blocks on a large file system. Data for any given file is typically contained within a single block group where possible. This is done to minimize the number of disk seeks when reading large amounts of contiguous data.  Each block group contains a copy of the superblock and block group descriptor table, and all block groups contain a block bitmap, an inode bitmap, an inode table, and finally the actual data blocks.  The superblock contains important information that is crucial to the booting of the operating system. Thus backup copies are made in multiple block groups in the file system. However, typically only the first copy of it, which is found at the first block of the file system, is used in the booting.  The group descriptor stores the location of the block bitmap, inode bitmap, and the start of the inode table for every block group. These, in turn, are stored in a group descriptor table.

Inodes.

Every file or directory is represented by an inode. The term "inode" comes from "index node" (over time, it became i-node and then inode). The inode includes data about the size, permission, ownership, and location on disk of the file or directory.  Example of ext2 inode structure:  Quote from the Linux kernel documentation for ext2:  "There are pointers to the first 12 blocks which contain the file's data in the inode. There is a pointer to an indirect block (which contains pointers to the next set of blocks), a pointer to a doubly indirect block and a pointer to a trebly indirect block." Thus, there is a structure in ext2 that has 15 pointers. Pointers 1 to 12 point to direct blocks, pointer 13 points to an indirect block, pointer 14 points to a doubly indirect block, and pointer 15 points to a triply indirect block.

Directories.

Each directory is a list of directory entries. Each directory entry associates one file name with one inode number, and consists of the inode number, the length of the file name, and the actual text of the file name. To find a file, the directory is searched front-to-back for the associated filename. For reasonable directory sizes, this is fine. But for very large directories this is inefficient, and ext3 offers a second way of storing directories (HTree) that is more efficient than just a list of filenames.  The root directory is always stored in inode number two, so that the file system code can find it at mount time. Subdirectories are implemented by storing the name of the subdirectory in the name field, and the inode number of the subdirectory in the inode field. Hard links are implemented by storing the same inode number with more than one file name. Accessing the file by either name results in the same inode number, and therefore the same data.  The special directories "." (current directory) and ".." (parent directory) are implemented by storing the names "." and ".." in the directory, and the inode number of the current and parent directories in the inode field. The only special treatment these two entries receive is that they are automatically created when any new directory is made, and they cannot be deleted.

Allocating data.

When a new file or directory is created, ext2 must decide where to store the data. If the disk is mostly empty, then data can be stored almost anywhere. However, clustering the data with related data will minimize seek times and maximize performance.  ext2 attempts to allocate each new directory in the group containing its parent directory, on the theory that accesses to parent and children directories are likely to be closely related. ext2 also attempts to place files in the same group as their directory entries, because directory accesses often lead to file accesses. However, if the group is full, then the new file or new directory is placed in some other non-full group.  The data blocks needed to store directories and files can be found by looking in the data allocation bitmap. Any needed space in the inode table can be found by looking in the inode allocation bitmap.

File-system limits.

The reason for some limits of ext2 are the file format of the data and the operating system's kernel. Mostly these factors will be determined once when the file system is built. They depend on the block size and the ratio of the number of blocks and inodes.  In Linux the block size is limited by the architecture page size.  There are also some userspace programs that cannot handle files larger than 2 GiB.  If "b" is the block size, the maximal file size is limited to min( (("b"/4) + ("b"/4) + "b"/4 + 12) × "b", (2 − 1) × 512 ) due to the i_block structure (an array of direct/indirect EXT2_N_BLOCKS) and i_blocks (32-bit integer value) representing the number of 512-byte "blocks" in the file.  The maximal number of sublevel-directories is 31998, due to the link-count limit. Directory indexing is not available in ext2, so there are performance issues for directories with a large number of files (>10,000). The theoretical limit on the number of files in a directory is 1.3 × 10, although this is not relevant for practical situations.  Note: In Linux 2.4 and earlier, block devices were limited to 2 TiB, limiting the maximal size of a partition, regardless of block size.

Compression extension.

e2compr is a modification to the ext2 driver in the Linux kernel to support compression and decompression of files by the file system, without any support by user applications. e2compr is a small patch against ext2.  e2compr compresses only regular files; the administrative data (superblock, inodes, directory files, etc.) are not compressed (mainly for safety reasons). Access to compressed blocks is provided for read and write operations. The compression algorithm and cluster size is specified on a per-file basis. Directories can also be marked for compression, in which case every newly created file in the directory will be automatically compressed with the same cluster size and the same algorithm that was specified for the directory.  e2compr is not a new file system. It is only a patch to ext2 made to support the EXT2_COMPR_FL flag. It does not require user to make a new partition, and will continue to read or write existing ext2 file systems. One can consider it as simply a way for the read and write routines to access files that could have been created by a simple utility similar to gzip or compress. Compressed and uncompressed files coexist nicely on ext2 partitions.  The latest e2compr-branch is available for current releases of Linux 2.4, 2.6, and 3.0. The latest patch for Linux 3.0 was released in August 2011 and provides multicore and High memory support. There are also branches for Linux 2.0 and 2.2.

Under other operating systems.

Access to ext2 partitions under Microsoft Windows is possible through an Installable File System, such as ext2ifs or ext2Fsd. Filesystem in Userspace can be used on macOS.

The ext2 or second extended file system is a file system for the Linux kernel. It was initially designed by Rémy Card as a replacement for the extended file system (ext). Having been designed according to the same principles as the Berkeley Fast File System from BSD, it was the first commercial-grade filesystem for Linux.

Das, oder kurz ext2, ist ein Dateisystem für Linux-Betriebssysteme, das ursprünglich 1993 von Rémy Card auf Basis des ursprünglichen s entwickelt wurde, das wiederum aus dem Minix-Dateisystem entstand. Die heutige Implementierung im Linux-Kernel stammt sowohl von ihm als auch von Theodore Ts’o und Stephen Tweedie. "ext2" war viele Jahre das Standard-Dateisystem vieler Linux-Distributionen und wurde schließlich durch modernere Journaling-Dateisysteme ersetzt. Die Nachfolger von "ext2" sind ext3 bzw. ext4, von denen es großteils abgelöst wurde.


Definitions.

There are a number of definitions of this term. "Wired Style: Principles of English Usage in the Digital Age" defines the term as "the whole digital enchilada - interactive, cable, broadband, 500-channel [...] then-Senator Al Gore Jr. introduced it at a 1978 meeting of computer industry folk, in homage to his father, Senator Albert Gore Sr."  The "McGraw-Hill Computer Desktop Encyclopedia", published in 2001, defines the term as "a proposed high-speed communications system that was touted by the Clinton/Gore administration to enhance education in America in the 21st Century. Its purpose was to help all citizens regardless of their income level. The Internet was originally cited as a model for this superhighway; however, with the explosion of the World Wide Web, the Internet became the information superhighway".  The "Oxford English Dictionary" (OED) defines the term as "a route or network for the high-speed transfer of information; esp. (a) a proposed national fiber-optic network in the United States; (b) the Internet." The OED also cites usage of this term in three periodicals:  The working paper No.179, 1994, of the Center for Coordination Science at "Massachusetts Institute of Technology" describes the concept as follows: "The information superhighway directly connects millions of people, each both a consumer of information and a potential provider. (...) Most predictions about commercial opportunities on the information superhighway focus on the provision of information products, such as video on demand, and on new sales outlets for physical products, as with home shopping. (...) The information superhighway brings together millions of individuals who could exchange information with one another. Any conception of a traditional market for making beneficial exchanges, such as an agricultural market or trading pit, or any system where individuals respond to posted prices on a computer screen is woefully inadequate for the extremely large number of often complex trades that will be required."

Earlier similar phrases.

Some other people used the term "superhighway" in application to telecommunications even earlier.  In 1964, M. Brotherton in his book "Masers and Lasers; How They Work, What They Do" on p. 5, wrote about laser beams and used the term "superhighways" for communication.  In 1974, Nam June Paik used the term "super highway" in application to telecommunications, which gave rise to the opinion that he may have been the author of the term "information superhighway". In fact, in his 1974 proposal "Media Planning for the Postindustrial Society – The 21st Century is now only 26 years away" to the Rockefeller Foundation he used a slightly different phrase, "electronic super highway":  In 1972, Andrew Targowski presented the Polish National Development Program at the State Council for Informatics, which included the plan of developing the public computer network INFOSTRADA (INFO-STRADA), where autostrada means motorway in Polish. Later this plan and its topology were published in his book INFORMATYKA modele rozwoju i systemów (INFORMATICS, models of development and systems) "The building of new electronic super highways will become an even huger enterprise. Assuming we connect New York with Los Angeles by means of an electronic telecommunication network that operates in strong transmission ranges, as well as with continental satellites, wave guides, bundled coaxial cable, and later also via laser beam fiber optics: the expenditure would be about the same as for a Moon landing, except that the benefits in term of by-products would be greater."

Further reading.

Articles  Magazine covers

The information superhighway or infobahn was a popular term used through the 1990s to refer to digital communication systems and the Internet telecommunications network. It is associated with United States Senator and later Vice-President Al Gore.

Der Begriff Datenautobahn (auch: Datenhighway, gelegentlich auch: Infobahn) ist eine besonders in der zweiten Hälfte der 1990er Jahre vielfach verwendete Metapher für das Internet. Es ist eine etwas freie Übersetzung des englischen Ausdrucks Information Highway (auch: Information Superhighway), der als solcher auch im deutschsprachigen Raum als Variante für "Datenautobahn" benutzt wird.


Geography and political subdivisions.

Kildare is the 24th-largest of Ireland's 32 counties in area and seventh largest in terms of population. It is the eighth largest of Leinster's twelve counties in size, and second largest in terms of population. It is bordered by the counties of Carlow, Laois, Meath, Offaly, Dublin and Wicklow. As an inland county, Kildare is a generally lowland region. The county's highest points are the foothills of the Wicklow Mountains bordering to the east. The highest point in Kildare is Cupidstown Hill on the border with Dublin, with the better known Hill of Allen in central Kildare.

Physical geography.

The county has three major rivers running through it: the Barrow, the Liffey and the Boyne. The Grand Canal crosses the county from Lyons on the east to Rathangan and Monasterevin on the west. A southern branch joins the Barrow navigation at Athy. The Royal Canal stretches across the north of the county along the border with Meath. Pollardstown Fen is the largest remaining calcareous fen in Ireland, covering an area of 220 hectares and is recognised as an internationally important fen ecosystem with unique and endangered plant communities, and declared a National Nature Reserve in 1986.  The Bog of Allen is a large bog that extends across and into County Kildare, County Meath, County Offaly, County Laois, and County Westmeath. Kildare has of bog (almost 14% of Kildare's land area) mostly located in the south-west and north-west, a majority of this being Raised Bog. It is habitat to over 185 plant and animal species.  There are of forested land in Kildare, accounting for roughly 5% of the county's total land area. of this is coniferous, while there is of broadleaf and the remaining area are unclassified species. Coillte and Dúchas currently own 47% of the forestry. Coillte run Donadea Forest Park which is in North-Central Kildare. The forest covers of mixed woodland (60% broadleaf, 40% conifer) and is the largest forest park in Kildare.

History.

Kildare was shired in 1297 and assumed its present borders in 1832, following amendments to remove a number of enclaves and exclaves.  The county was the home of the powerful Fitzgerald family. Parts of the county were also part of the Pale area around Dublin.

Local government and politics.

Kildare County Council is the local authority for the county. The Local Electoral Areas of Kildare are Athy (6 Seats), Celbridge – Leixlip (7 Seats), Maynooth (9 Seats), Kildare – Newbridge (9 Seats) and Naas (9 Seats). The Council has 40 members. The current council was elected in May 2019. Under the Local Government Reform Act 2014 the towns of Leixlip, Naas, Newbridge and Athy ceased to have separate town councils and were absorbed into their corresponding local electoral area.  For elections to Dáil Éireann, there are two constituencies in the area of the county; Kildare North, which returns four TDs and Kildare South which returns three TDs. In the 2016 Irish general election, Kildare North returned Catherine Murphy (SD), James Lawless (FF), Frank O'Rourke (FF) and Bernard Durkan (FG), while Martin Heydon (FG), Fiona O'Loughlin (FF) and Sean O Fearghail (FF) (elected Ceann Comhairle) were returned for Kildare South.  As part of the Mid-East Region, it is within the purview of the Mid-East Regional Authority.  For elections to the European Parliament, it is part of the Midlands North-West constituency which returns four MEPs.

Demographics.

The county's population has nearly doubled to some 186,000 in 1990–2005. The north eastern region of Kildare had the highest average per-capita income in Ireland outside County Dublin in 2003. East Kildare's population has increased rapidly, for example the amount of housing in the Naas suburb of Sallins has increased sixfold since the mid-1990s.

Health care.

Naas General Hospital is run by the "Health Service Executive", and is the only hospital in the county.

Transport.

Road.

County Kildare houses the hub of Ireland's network of major roads.  The N4 (M4) from Dublin to Sligo travels along the north of the county by-passing the towns of Leixlip, Maynooth and Kilcock.  The M7 from Dublin to Limerick runs through the county and by-passes the towns of Naas, Newbridge, Kildare and Monasterevin. This road is colloquially referred to as the "Naas Dual carriageway" because when it was originally up-graded in 1964 the road from Dublin to Naas was a double-lane carriageway, one of the first of its kind in Ireland.  The M9 is another motorway that commences at Kilcullen and ends at Waterford. It is motorway standard for its entire length.

Rail.

The County is also served by the trains connecting with Dublin, South Leinster, Munster and South Connacht, with daily connections to Cork, Waterford, Limerick, and Galway. The principal Irish Rail InterCity train station in the county is Kildare, however, Newbridge, Sallins and Hazelhatch are also served by South Western Commuter services, while Maynooth, in northern County Kildare, is served by Western Commuter and Sligo InterCity services.

Waterway.

Kildare is the centre of Ireland's Grand Canal network built in the late 18th century. This connects Kildare with Waterford, Dublin, Limerick and Athlone. The Royal Canal runs west from Dublin and parts of it form the boundary with County Meath.

Irish language.

There are 4,491 Irish speakers in County Kildare; 2,451 attending the seven Gaelscoils (Irish language primary schools) and one Gaelcholáiste (Irish language secondary school). According to the Irish Census 2006, 2,040 people in the county identify themselves as being daily Irish speakers outside the education system.

Sport.

GAA.

The nickname for the Kildare GAA team is the "Lilywhites", This is as a result of early jerseys being made from the bags of the Lilywhite Bakery. The all-white jerseys they wear are in reference to this.  In 1928, Kildare became the first team to win the Sam Maguire trophy for the All-Ireland Senior Football Championship, defeating Cavan 2–6 to 2–5. However, since then Kildare have reached the All-Ireland Football Championship Final on four occasions, the last being in 1998, but have failed on all four attempts.  County Kildare is also known as the "Shortgrass County" which is a reference to how short the grass is on the commons of the Curragh.

Golf.

The Michael Smurfit owned K Club, situated on the River Liffey near Straffan played host to the 2006 Ryder Cup.  Carton House Golf Club is located in Maynooth. The Golfing Union of Ireland, the longest established golf union in the world, have their national headquarters on the estate. This facility also comprises the GUI National Academy, a teaching facility for up and coming golfers, as well as being a facility available to all golfers in Ireland.  Other prominent courses are located at Knockanally and Clane.

Horse racing.

Kildare is famous worldwide for its horse racing. The Curragh horse-racing course is the home to all five Irish Classic Flat races. Also located in County Kildare are two other courses, Punchestown Racecourse, home of the National Hunt Festival of Ireland, and Naas Racecourse, which runs both National Hunt and Flat meetings and is used by top race horse trainers as a test for horses preparing for the Cheltenham festival.  The county is famous for the quality of horses bred in the many stud farms to which it is home, including the Irish National Stud and many other top studs such as Gilltown, Moyglare and Kildangan Stud, and race horse training establishments, such as the Osborne Stables.

Motorsports.

Kildare is the home to Mondello Park, Ireland's only international motorsport venue. Established by Martin Birrane in 1968 on, and redeveloped in 1999/2000, the facility incorporates of race track, 24 race garages and 12 Hospitality Suites. The Circuit also has of extreme off-road driving trails and a off-road activities centre and the Museum of Motorsport. Mondello Park was awarded the FIA International race track status in 2001. It is host to National and International Race events, Motor Shows, Car & Bike Track days, Training Schools and Corporate Events.

Twinning.

County Kildare is twinned with the following places:  Both are major centres of the Thoroughbred breeding industry in their respective countries.

External links.

County Kildare () is a county in Ireland. It is located in the province of Leinster and is part of the Mid-East Region. It is named after the town of Kildare. Kildare County Council is the local authority for the county which has a population of 222,504.

Kildare (irisch "Cill Dara", dt. „Eichenkirche“) ist eine Grafschaft ("county") im Osten der Republik Irland. In West-Kildare liegt die gleichnamige Stadt Kildare.


Career.

He was born on 25 August 1850 in Paris the son of Alfred Richet. He was educated at the Lycee Bonaparte in Paris then studied Medicine at university in Paris.  Richet spent a period of time as an intern at the Salpêtrière hospital in Paris, where he observed Jean-Martin Charcot's work with then so called "hysterical" patients.  In 1887, Richet became professor of physiology at the Collège de France investigating a variety of subjects such as neurochemistry, digestion, thermoregulation in homeothermic animals, and breathing. In 1898, he became a member of the Académie de Médecine. In 1913, his work with Paul Portier on anaphylaxis the term he coined for a sensitized individual's sometimes lethal reaction to a second, small-dose injection of an antigen won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. The research helped elucidate hay fever, asthma and other allergic reactions to foreign substances and explained some previously not understood cases of intoxication and sudden death. In 1914, he became a member of the Académie des Sciences.  Richet discovered the analgesic drug chloralose with  Richet had many interests, and he wrote books about history, sociology, philosophy, psychology, as well as theatre and poetry. He was a pioneer in aviation.  He was involved in the French pacifist movement. Starting in 1902, pacifist societies began to meet at a National Peace Congress, often with several hundred attendees. Unable to unify the pacifist forces they set up a small permanent delegation of French Pacifist Societies in 1902, which Richet led, together with Lucien Le Foyer as Secretary-General.

Parapsychology.

Richet held a deep interest in extrasensory perception and hypnosis. In 1884, Alexandr Aksakov interested him in the medium of Eusapia Palladino. In 1891, Richet founded the "Annales des sciences psychiques". He kept in touch with renowned occultists and spiritualists of his time such as Albert von Schrenck-Notzing, Frederic William Henry Myers and Gabriel Delanne. In 1919, Richet became honorary chairman of the Institut Métapsychique International in Paris, and, in 1930, full-time president.  As a scientist, Richet was positive about a physical explanation for paranormal phenomena. He wrote: "It has been shown that as regards subjective metapsychics the simplest and most rational explanation is to suppose the existence of a faculty of supernormal cognition... setting in motion the human intelligence by certain vibrations that do not move the normal senses." In 1905, Richet was named president of the Society for Psychical Research in the United Kingdom.  In 1894, Richet coined the term ectoplasm. Richet believed that some mediumship could be explained physically due to the external projection of a material substance (ectoplasm) from the body of the medium, but denied this substance had anything to do with spirits. He rejected the spirit hypothesis of mediumship as unscientific, instead supporting the sixth sense hypothesis. According to Richet:  It seems to me prudent not to give credence to the spiritistic hypothesis... it appears to me still (at the present time, at all events) improbable, for it contradicts (at least apparently) the most precise and definite data of physiology, whereas the hypothesis of the sixth sense is a new physiological notion which contradicts nothing that we learn from physiology. Consequently, although in certain rare cases spiritism supplies an apparently simpler explanation, I cannot bring myself to accept it. When we have fathomed the history of these unknown vibrations emanating from reality – past reality, present reality, and even future reality – we shall doubtless have given them an unwonted degree of importance. The history of the Hertzian waves shows us the ubiquity of these vibrations in the external world, imperceptible to our senses.  He hypothesized a "sixth sense", an ability to perceive hypothetical vibrations, which he discussed in his 1928 book "Our Sixth Sense". Although he believed in extrasensory perception, Richet did not believe in life after death or spirits.  He investigated and studied various mediums such as Eva Carrière, William Eglinton, Pascal Forthuny, Stefan Ossowiecki, Leonora Piper and Raphael Schermann. From 1905–1910, Richet attended many séances with the medium Linda Gazzera claiming she was a genuine medium who had performed psychokinesis, i.e. that various objects had been moved in the séance room. Gazzera was exposed as a fraud in 1911. Richet was also fooled into believing Joaquin María Argamasilla, known as the "Spaniard with X-ray Eyes", had genuine psychic powers, whom Harry Houdini exposed as a fraud in 1924. According to Joseph McCabe, Richet was also duped by the fraudulent mediums Eva Carrière and Eusapia Palladino.  Historian Ruth Brandon also criticized Richet as credulous when it came to psychical research, noting "his will to believe, and his disinclination to accept any unpalatably contrary indications".

Eva Carrière.

In 1905, Eva Carrière held a series of séances at Villa Carmen and sitters were invited. In these séances she claimed to materialize a spirit called Bien Boa a 300-year-old Brahmin Hindu, however, photographs taken of Boa looked like the figure was made from a large cardboard cutout. In other sittings Richet reported that Boa was breathing, had moved around the room and had touched him, a photograph taken revealed Boa to be a man dressed up in a cloak, helmet and beard.  A newspaper article in 1906 had revealed that an Arab coachman known as Areski who had previously worked at the villa had been hired to play the part of Bien Boa and that the entire thing was a hoax. Areski wrote that he made his appearance into the room by a trapdoor. Carrière had also admitted to being involved with the hoax.

Eusapia Palladino.

Richet with Oliver Lodge, Frederic W. H. Myers and Julian Ochorowicz investigated the medium Eusapia Palladino in the summer of 1894 at his house in the Ile Roubaud in the Mediterranean. Richet claimed furniture moved during the séance and that some of the phenomena was the result of a supernatural agency. However, Richard Hodgson claimed there was inadequate control during the séances and the precautions described did not rule out trickery. Hodgson wrote all the phenomena "described could be account for on the assumption that Eusapia could get a hand or foot free." Lodge, Myers and Richet disagreed, but Hodgson was later proven correct in the Cambridge sittings as Palladino was observed to have used tricks exactly the way he had described them.  In July 1895, Eusapia Palladino was invited to England to Myers' house in Cambridge for a series of investigations into her mediumship. According to reports by the investigators Myers and Oliver Lodge, all the phenomena observed in the Cambridge sittings were the result of trickery. Her fraud was so clever, according to Myers, that it "must have needed long practice to bring it to its present level of skill."  In the Cambridge sittings the results proved disastrous for her mediumship. During the séances Palladino was caught cheating in order to free herself from the physical controls of the experiments. Palladino was found liberating her hands by placing the hand of the controller on her left on top of the hand of the controller on her right. Instead of maintaining any contact with her, the observers on either side were found to be holding each other's hands and this made it possible for her to perform tricks. Richard Hodgson had observed Palladino free a hand to move objects and use her feet to kick pieces of furniture in the room. Because of the discovery of fraud, the British SPR investigators such as Henry Sidgwick and Frank Podmore considered Palladino's mediumship to be permanently discredited and because of her fraud she was banned from any further experiments with the SPR in Britain.  In the "British Medical Journal" on 9 November 1895 an article was published titled "Exit Eusapia!". The article questioned the scientific legitimacy of the SPR for investigating Palladino a medium who had a reputation of being a fraud and imposture. Part of the article read "It would be comic if it were not deplorable to picture this sorry Egeria surrounded by men like Professor Sidgwick, Professor Lodge, Mr. F. H. Myers, Dr. Schiaparelli, and Professor Richet, solemnly receiving her pinches and kicks, her finger skiddings, her sleight of hand with various articles of furniture as phenomena calling for serious study." This caused Henry Sidgwick to respond in a published letter to the "British Medical Journal", 16 November 1895. According to Sidgwick SPR members had exposed the fraud of Palladino at the Cambridge sittings, Sidgwick wrote "Throughout this period we have continually combated and exposed the frauds of professional mediums, and have never yet published in our Proceedings, any report in favour of the performances of any of them." The response from the Journal questioned why the SPR wastes time investigating phenomena that are the "result of jugglery and imposture" and not urgently concerning the welfare of mankind.  In 1898, Myers was invited to a series of séances in Paris with Richet. In contrast to the previous séances in which he had observed fraud he claimed to have observed convincing phenomena. Sidgwick reminded Myers of Palladino's trickery in the previous investigations as "overwhelming" but Myers did not change his position. This enraged Richard Hodgson, then editor of SPR publications to ban Myers from publishing anything on his recent sittings with Palladino in the SPR journal. Hodgson was convinced Palladino was a fraud and supported Sidgwick in the "attempt to put that vulgar cheat Eusapia beyond the pale." It wasn't until the 1908 sittings in Naples that the SPR reopened the Palladino file.

Eugenics and racial beliefs.

Richet was a proponent of eugenics, advocating sterilization and marriage prohibition for those with mental disabilities. He expressed his eugenist ideas in his 1919 book "La Sélection Humaine". From 1920 to 1926 he presided over the French Eugenics Society.  Psychologist Gustav Jahoda has noted that Richet "was a firm believer in the inferiority of blacks", comparing black people to apes, and intellectually to imbeciles.

Works.

Richet's works on parapsychological subjects, which dominated his later years, include "Traité de Métapsychique" (Treatise on Metapsychics, 1922), "Notre Sixième Sens" (Our Sixth Sense, 1928), "L'Avenir et la Prémonition" (The Future and Premonition, 1931) and "La Grande Espérance" (The Great Hope, 1933).

Prof Charles Robert Richet (25 August 1850 – 4 December 1935) was a French physiologist at the Collège de France known for his pioneering work in immunology. In 1913, he won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "in recognition of his work on anaphylaxis". Richet devoted many years to the study of paranormal and spiritualist phenomena, coining the term "ectoplasm". He also believed in the inferiority of blacks, was a proponent of eugenics and presided over the French Eugenics Society towards the end of his life. The Richet line of professorships of medical science would continue through his son Charles and his grandson Gabriel. Gabriel Richet was one of the great pioneers of European nephrology.

Charles Robert Richet (* 25. oder 26. August 1850 in Paris; † 4. Dezember 1935 ebenda) war ein französischer Mediziner und Physiologe, der 1913 für seine Forschungsarbeit zur Anaphylaxie den Nobelpreis für Medizin erhielt.


Story.

After a battle at the foot of Turaida Castle in 1601, the castle clerk, while searching for survivors, found a baby in the arms of its dead mother. He called the child Maija and brought her up as his own. She grew up to be very beautiful and so was known as the "Rose of Turaida". She fell in love with Viktor, the gardener at the castle of Sigulda (opposite Turaida over the Gauja River) and in the autumn of 1620 they prepared to be married. Shortly before the wedding Maija received a letter from Viktor asking her to meet him at the Gutmanis Cave, their usual meeting place. She went to the cave with Lenta, the young daughter of her adoptive father. When she reached it, however, it was not Viktor she encountered but a Polish nobleman or soldier called Adam Jakubowski who was lying in wait for her with the intention of forcing her to be his wife. Maija promised to give him her magic scarf, that had the power to make the wearer immune from injury (in some versions the scarf is impossible to cut through), if he would let her go, and persuaded him to test its power on her. He struck her with an axe and she died, having thus saved her honour.  In the evening Viktor came to the cave and found the body of his betrothed and was accused of the murder. But in court there appeared a witness called Peteris Skudritis, who testified that he had been commissioned by Jakubowski to deliver the fatal letter. Lenta confirmed the course of events. Viktor buried his betrothed near the castle, planted a linden tree on the grave and left the country forever. According to documents in Sigulda's archives the soldier was later caught, tried and hanged for his crime. From then on it has been customary for newlyweds to leave flowers on the grave of the Rose of Turaida in hopes of knowing the same eternal love and devotion.

Maija (1601–1620), known as Rose of Turaida (sometimes Rose of Sigulda) was a murdered girl whose grave, in the grounds of Turaida Castle in Latvia, is still much visited.

Die Rose von Turaida bzw. "Jungfrau von Treiden" (* 1601 in Turaida; † 1620) war eine "Mai Rosa" genannte Waise, deren Grab im Park der Burg von Turaida in Turaida (Lettland) ein vielbesuchtes Ziel ist.


Overview.

Historical and contemporary human activity has profoundly influenced the composition of forests in the densely populated region of Central Europe. Remaining forest in Central Europe today is not generally considered natural forest, but rather a cultural landscape created over thousands of years which consists almost exclusively of replacement communities. The oldest evidence of human and forest interaction in Central Europe is the use of hand axes about 500 thousand years ago. The degree of hemeroby (human influence) and the extent of the original natural state from so long ago is difficult to estimate. It is believed that during glacial times during the ongoing ice age Central Europe was largely deforested and, in the period of "natural" re-emergence of the forest, since the end of the last glacial period, the Würm glaciation (about 11 700 years BP), people began to play a part transforming the potential natural vegetation. Sedentary, Neolithic farmers of the Linear Pottery Culture, about 7 500 years ago, began to change the forested landscape massively.  Due to feudal structures, the power over and ownership of forests was not at all clear for many centuries, which resulted in widespread overexploitation. As a result, during the period 1750-1850 forests in Central Europe had been decimated, causing a serious lack of timber. Some contemporary reports even spoke partly of desert-like landscapes at that time.  During the late 19th and 20th centuries a huge amount of artificial reforestation was implemented.  Today's forest communities in central Europe are influenced by the usefulness of the individual tree species. Apart from a few remnants of "near-natural forest" the vast majority of today's Central European forests are either artificial forests or whose present composition has arisen as a result of active or passive human intervention. Far and away the most common are commercial timber forests, which may be more or less near-natural, with beech and oak, spruce and pine. "Ancient forests" in Central Europe refer to the few remaining stands that are neither currently used for forestry nor were exploited in historical times.  Even with these, certain types of human influence, for example, forest browsing, cannot be completely ruled out. The composition and dynamics of the old Central European forests must therefore be reconstructed from these relics, from forest research areas and natural forest cells after they have ceased to be used, and by comparison with forest types in similar climatic conditions that are still true virgin forests, especially the Hyrcanian Forest on the Caspian Sea.  There is almost no data on the density and the influence of megaherbivores in prehistoric times, only conjecture. According to many forest scientists and a number of hunters, perpetual forest structures, which are advantageous for the forestry industry and the ecology, cannot be established without strong hunting measures to cull the present-day herbivores, the red and roe deer ensuring a correspondingly low density of these herbivores. Excessive stocks of deer do not only harm the forest as a commodity, but also prevent the natural regeneration of the forest through selective browsing by the animals and therefore hinder its natural development.  The megaherbivore theory argues that larger densities of game should therefore be permitted, because it would create a half-open and diverse landscape. Apart from red and roe deer there are no large herds of herbivores today and they have few natural predators. In today's cultural landscape, the establishment of permanent forest is seen as an economic and ecological goal; herbivores roving over wide areas inflict economic damage and are therefore hunted. The grazing of wild megaherbivores is therefore limited, as a landscape conservation measure, to large nature reserves in which a species-rich and semi-open landscape is to be preserved and economic objectives are rated as less important.

Effects of ice ages.

Unusual climatic extremes began to occur during the Pliocene epoch, four million years ago. In the Pleistocene epoch that followed, these fluctuations culminated in a number of extensive ice ages, which ended, in central Europe, around 12,000 years ago. (For details, see the last glacial period and climate history.)  During these cold periods, the average temperature in Central Europe fell by up to 12 °C. The snowline in the Alps dropped by 1,200 metres to 1,400 metres. Between the Alpine glaciers and the Scandinavian ice sheet, with a thickness of up to 3,000 m, was a relatively narrow, ice-free belt.  Central Europe was unforested at this time, except for local wooded areas of steppe and tundra which were covered by frost-resistant birch and pine. The vegetation of this period is referred to as Dryas flora, after its flagship species, the mountain avens ("Dryas octopetala").

Extinctions.

Unlike the North American continent, whose mountain ranges are oriented in a north-south direction, the east-west running ranges in Europe blocked the retreat of forest species in the face of advancing ice sheets. This barrier led to the extinction of several species in Europe. In the early ice ages, horse chestnut ("Aesculum hippocastanum") and sweet gum ("Liquidambar") became extinct. The following cold period led to the extinction of sequoia ("Sequoia"), umbrella pine ("Sciadopitys", " Cryptomeria "), arborvitaes ("Thuja"), tulip trees ("Liriodendron") and Douglas fir ("Pseudotsuga"). Hemlock ("Tsuga") and hickory ("Carya") became extinct during the Quaternary glaciations in Central Europe.  In addition, of the numerous oak species only three were able to return to Germany and Central Europe from their refuge areas, namely the English oak ("Quercus robur"), sessile oak ("Q. petraea") and downy oak ("Q. pubescens"). By comparison, in North America there are over 80 species of oak. Other types lost considerably in their intraspecific genetic diversity during the return migration such as the white fir ("Abies alba").

Refuges.

Forest flora was pushed back slowly by climatic change. The refuges of the last ice age were probably but not exclusively in southern Europe. A few species on today's Atlantic coast between England and France could also have survived the cold spell of the forest steppes. Another area of retreat was east and southeast Europe. Unlike much of Scandinavia and Russia, the Carpathians remained ice-free. So some species were also able to survive here. But the classic refuge remained the Mediterranean region, where the sea made for a balanced climate and highly rugged mountain ranges partitioned different residual populations.

Return migration.

In the interglacials those species that had survived extinction gradually repopulated the region. These return migrations took place at different rates for different tree species. The determining factors for the speed with which tree species repopulated the clear areas, were e. g. the method of seed distribution, the duration of flowering, degree of frost resistance and their ability to absorb nutrients. The picture of these migrations can be reconstructed using pollen analysis.  First to advance were woody pioneer species that were quick to spread, such as birch and pine. They were followed by heat-loving species such as oak and elm. Finally they were followed by slower migrating woody species that evolved into a climax community (see cyclic succession). With the end of the interglacial period and the onset of cooler climates, these species then retreated to their refuges again or simply died out.

Most recent post-glacial period.

In the most recent section of the Quaternary period, the Holocene or postglacial epoch, the forests began to return, about 11 700 years ago, to the treeless, post-glacial steppes. Pollen analysis has largely clarified how this return migration happened. For Central Europe, there were ten phases as a rule (according to Franz Firbas), which are called pollen zones and given Roman numerals as part of the Blytt-Sernander sequence.  More recent works are increasingly often using their own pollen zone systems in order to better reflect local circumstances. The process of reforestation is fairly broadly consistent, but there are some regional differences due to local circumstances which are not discussed here in detail. Due to the migration rate (which for beech was about 260 metres/year) there is a temporal delay in the various phases from south to north.

Late Arctic period, Allerød and Younger Dryas.

This covers pollen zones I-III (approx 12,400 to the 9,500 BC) and roughly corresponds to the period of the late Paleolithic. Pioneer species in the early postglacial (Holocene) included various species of willow ("Salix"), but birch ("Betula") and pine ("Pinus") also gained a foothold again in Central Europe. Short-term fluctuations in temperature at the end of this phase stopped any further advancement of the forest.

Pre-interglacial (Preboreal) and early interglacial (Boreal).

In the Preboreal stage, corresponding to the beginning of the Mesolithic, birch and pine were the dominant species. From this time there were no more cold periods. Hazel ("Corylus") spread rapidly and found favourable growing conditions beneath the open stands of pine.

Middle interglacial (Atlantic).

At the end of the Middle Stone Age, average temperatures rose markedly. Phytosociologically this was the start of the Atlantic period. Previous tree species were displaced, especially by oak ("Quercus") and elm ("Ulmus"). Most of these species were demanding, particularly in terms of their need for nutrients and warmth. The less shade-tolerant pine, in particular, was forced onto poorer sandy sites and moors. The oak, accompanied by the elm and lime, now formed the most predominant stands in Central Europe, the mixed oak forest.  In this time, people went through the transition from a nomadic wandering people to the sedentary lifestyle of the Neolithic. The great houses of the Linear Pottery Culture already placed a high demand for wood on local forests which were still small and a few in number. No later than the Neolithic, the forest was being deliberately managed to produce logs.  During the Neolithic period more heat-loving deciduous shrubs spread out from their refuges in southern Europe back to Central Europe. Maple ("Acer") and ash ("Fraxinus") enriched existing stocks. The average temperatures were now 2-3 °C higher than today. The downy oak ("Quercus pubescens") returned to Germany again. Alder ("Alnus glutinosa") carrs arose in the marshy lowlands and spruce ("Picea abies") reached the Harz Mountains.

Late interglacial (Subboreal).

In the late interglacial the climated became cooler and wetter. For the first time since the last ice age beech ("Fagus sylvatica"), hornbeam ("Carpinus betulus") and silver fir ("Abies alba") are evident again.  During the Bronze Age the average temperature fell further. Beech trees advanced into the hitherto oak-dominated woods. During the Iron Age, from 1000 B. C. beech trees were threatening the oak population in almost all areas. Aided by the humid, maritime climate of Central Europe and an ability, even in old age, to add to its habitat, the beech (with its high crown plasticity) became the dominant tree species. On the drier sites (precipitation < 500 mm/yr) in the east the hornbeam assumed this role.  In the Central Uplands a mixed mountain forest developed as beech invaded it. The extremely shade-tolerant fir also succeeded in gaining a foothold in these forests and in several areas ousted the spruce and beech. It is possible that at this time the establishment of potential natural vegetation came to an end however as human settlement spread across Central Europe and large herds of herbivores were roaming around.

Post interglacial period (Sub-Atlantic).

As a result of falling average temperatures the distribution areas, e.g. of the downy oak, became divided. From now on the influence of settled human forms of settlement becomes increasingly noticeable. This gives us our modern which is controlled by altitudinal zonation.

Iron Age to Roman-Germanic period.

The first intensive use of forests began in the Celtic period with the expansion of agriculture and the smelting of metals. This increased during the Roman-Germanic period especially in the densely populated southwestern areas.

Forests in Germania.

Free Germania.

Publius Cornelius Tacitus described "Free Germania" (Germania magna) in the 1st century as ""terra aut silvis horrida aut paludibus foeda"" – a land, covered by horrid forests or loathsome bogs. Tacitus' Mediterranean homeland at that time had already been a cultural landscape for centuries, its forests cleared for fields, orchards and towns, to say nothing of the use of wood for home fires and maritime construction.  A land whose surface was probably 70% covered by forest and climatically different clearly impressed Roman observers. This impression can be seen in the names they gave it. Mountain ranges like the Black Forest were called "Silva Abnoba", not "Mons Abnoba". It may thus be deduced that at that time trackless low mountain ranges were still largely spared from human influence. But even on the plains there were still great, contiguous areas of forest. These were located especially between the settlement areas of the various Germanic tribes and were respected on both sides as a boundary.  Settlement areas included riparian forests and woods on rich soils. Initial incursions were made in order to build the settlements themselves. Next woods were cleared for farming and grazing. Timber felling for heating led to the further thinning of natural stands of trees around the settlements. Various forms of use, such as wood pasture, favoured mast-bearing trees like oaks ("Quercus") and beech ("Fagus"). In the vicinity of ore mining beech trees were probably felled over a wide area because fire from beech charcoal was needed to work metals.  Permanent towns and villages were, however, a rarity in Free Germania. Settlements would be abandoned after a period of time and biological succession set in. This enabled a return of vegetation to something resembling its natural state.

Roman-occupied Germania.

The forest in Roman-occupied Germania (the Roman provinces of Germania Superior and Inferior) was more intensively used than in the unoccupied area. The construction of towns, such as Mainz, Trier, Cologne and Xanten, needed appropriate quantities of timber. A continual supply of large stocks of timber was needed for household heating and the operation of Roman baths with their extensive under-floor heating and hot water basins.  After the conquest of all Germania had failed (due to the defeat of Varus in 9 AD) the Romans switched to a defensive strategy. This, too, demanded large quantities of timber. The construction of the "limes", over 500 kilometres long, which was predominantly a wooden rather than a stone redoubt, required a wide swathe to be cut through the forest from the Rhine to the Danube and wood was needed for construction of palisades and watchtowers.  The Roman engineers were careful, as far as possible, to follow the shape of the terrain with the "limes" and to inclose fertile soils. For example, the fertile Wetterau, opposite the Mainz was within the "limes"; the poor, pine-covered keuper soils south of the Odenwald were left beyond it however. Much of the beech and oak stock on nutrient-rich soil had to give way to agricultural fields and pasture land. At several places grassy and dwarf shrub heathlands emerged that have survived to the present day. The Romans also kept away from the plains with their unpredictable rivers. The alder ("Alnus glutinosa") carrs away from the rivers, however, were turned into grazing land.  In selecting sites for their settlements, the Romans also avoided dense coniferous forests, although mixed forest areas may still have been attractive. They prized softwood, however, especially that of silver fir ("Abies alba"), for construction and shipbuilding. Pine was felled in all accessible locations and transported over long distances (by rafting). Thus, the natural mountain forest in parts of the Alps, the Black Forest and the Vosges was divided.  The Romans brought familiar species of tree with them to Germania from the Mediterranean region; these included sweet chestnut ("Castanea sativa"), horse chestnut ("Aesculus hippocastanum") and walnut ("Juglans regia"). These species had died out in North Europe during the ice age. The trees were valued for their fruit. In addition, the robust timber of sweet chestnuts was used in wine growing.

"Völkerwanderung" - the Migration Period.

The Romans gradually gave way to growing pressure from the Germanic tribes. First, settlements on the right bank of the Rhine were abandoned after the defeat of Varus. And from the 2nd century several tribes broke through the border (the Marcomanni and Lombards). In the 4th and 5th centuries, the Germanic peoples finally overwhelmed the last remnants of the "Limes". Pollen analyses from this period show that agriculture came to a standstill in many areas. Abandoned Roman castells and manors became forest land.  Settlement patterns in the formerly occupied Germania changed. Permanent settlements were abandoned in favor of semi-sedentary settlement forms. If the forest and soil became exhausted around a settlement, its population moved on. As the population density decreased a succession of forest communities began again in many areas, which had been strongly influenced by the economies of the Roman settlers. The pollen analyses from this period show that the beech ("Fagus sylvatica") spread out widely again, both in the areas deserted by the Romans, and along the Pomeranian Baltic coast and to southern Sweden.  Roman colonization saw the first, drastic impact on the forest communities of Central Europe. It left forest-free areas that did not recover from grazing; the species structure in many forest communities was disrupted by selective use, and introduced species became part of the vegetation.

Middle Ages.

"Völkerwanderung" and the Middle Ages.

The expansion of the forests as villages were abandoned during the "Völkerwanderung" was followed by a period of forest clearance in the Early and High Middle Ages, accompanied by a largely uncontrolled use of timber through deforestation in the context of land acquisition as well as the use of forests as a reservoir for construction timber and firewood. These periods have affected the landscapes of Central Europe right up to the present and created our familiar cultural landscapes.  The so-called Little Ice Age, with its particularly cold periods from 1570 to 1630 and 1675 to 1715, which was associated with catastrophic crop failures and disease, led to the desettlement of large areas of land into which secondary forest spread. The destruction during and in the aftermath of 30 years of war - in many parts of Germany, the population only recovered to its 1600 level by 1800 or later - also led to the strong afforestation of formerly agricultural lands.

Forest development in the Middle Ages.

Proportion of forested land.

With the turmoil of the Migration Period, the forest spread into Central Europe again. In areas cultivated during Roman colonization, the forest often regained a foothold. Only at the end of the Migration Period did the area of settlement increase again, and permanent settlements soon developed especially on agronomically suitable soils.  Two intensive periods of forest clearing can be distinguished. The first lasted from about 500 to about 800 and the second from about 1100 to about 1300, the beginning of the crisis of the 14th century. Especially during the first clearance period, the Carolingian era, those areas that had already been developed by the Romans were resettled. Next, areas that were easily accessible and had fertile soils were colonized.  The high Central Upland ranges remained empty at this early stage. The first permanent settlements in the Black Forest for example only appear from about 1000, and the Harz was only crossed at this time by difficult footpaths. Riparian forests near rivers (such as B. am Rhein) remained unsettled due to the unpredictability of the river. Water meadow woods further from the river were used. After 800, the pace of settlement and deforestation faltered in Central Europe. The population did not increase significantly due to epidemics and the invasion of foreign peoples (Normans in the north and Magyars in the south).

Forest use in the Middle Ages.

Wood pasture.

As well as swine, large livestock (cattle and horses) were also driven into the forest creating areas of wood pasture, which had clearly negative consequences for forest tree communities. Unlike pigs, which preserved the character of the forest, large domestic animals destroyed the trees. "Overgrazed" forests quickly turned into scrub.  Particularly disastrous was the woodland grazing of sheep and goats. The latter in particular are able to destroy older trees thanks to their climbing skills. The grazing of goats in the forest was therefore forbidden in early forest regulations. But the prohibition was often ignored because sheep and goats, as domestic animals of the poorer sections of the population, contributed significantly to their survival.

Honey pasture.

Beekeeping in the Middle Ages was a major forest activity because honey was still the only sweetener for food until the 19th century. As a result, the rights for beekeeping were managed at a high level. This form of activity is mentioned, for example, in connexion with the Nuremberg Imperial Forest. The existence of honey hunting operations helped to protect the forest. Tree species such as lime, pussy willow, fir and also pine were particularly favoured by this type of work.

Forest tillage.

Forest tillage ("Waldfeldbau") was practised from the 11th century and varied according to the region. This form of agriculture was established after the better soils had already been exploited for farming. This type of agricultural "intermediate use" ("Zwischennutzung") had numerous variants, something that is reflected in the names they were given: "Hackwald, Hauberge, Reutberge, Birkenberge" and "Schiffelland" are the most common designations.  The importance of these forms of economy increased during the pre-industrial period. They were constantly improved and formed an elaborate system of secondary forest uses ("Lohrinde"), firewood and farming. For this, the trees were first cleared by fire or felling. After the soil had been worked with mattocks or ploughs, it was sown with rye, buckwheat or wheat.  Usually the soil yielded crops for no longer than a year. It was then turned into grazing land until trees grew up again from the stumps or from seed. This form of agriculture had a considerable impact on the composition of forest trees.

Resin collecting.

Resin collecting is one of the oldest forms of forest exploitation. The resin was collected from conifers, of which spruce and pine were preferred. Even this form of forest use caused considerable destruction. It hindered growth and weakened the vitality of entire stands of trees. As a result, early on resin collecting was restricted to stands that were not easily felled and transported i.e. those that were a long way from rivers. Because resin was a popular base material, such bans were ignored everywhere.

Firewood.

Even today, wood is still an important source of energy for mankind. In Central Europe it was replaced by coal during the course of the 19th century. In the Middle Ages there were two quite different uses for firewood from the forests - local and non-local. Locally there was only one requirement that had an unrestricted priority: the use of firewood for home fires. In addition, a range of industry processes required firewood as an energy source or as a raw material, for example: charcoal burning, glassmaking, salt production and mining with its associated hammer mills.

Charcoal burning.

Charcoal burning was carried out in all woods and forests. In woods that were closer to settlements greater care was taken to avoid forest fires and to use only lower value wood. In woods that were more distant from human habitation there were no such restrictions. Charcoal burning generally took place near small rivers and streams that were used to transport the charcoal. In the Middle Ages earthen kilns ("Erdmeiler") were exclusively used to produce charcoal.

Glassworks.

Glass was highly prized during the Middle Ages and was correspondingly valuable. Forest glassworks often had small settlements tied to them, where the families of the glassblowers lived. Glassworks needed a particularly large supply of wood and were often described in contemporary reports as "wood-eating businesses". Glassworks also needed charcoal burners and ash burners, who supplied important fuel for the manufacture of glass. 90% of the wood was used to make potash, the most important raw material for glassmaking; the remaining 10% for the actual glass smelting.

Saltworks.

In the Late Middle Ages the majority of salt deposits were transferred into the ownership of the territorial princes. That started an unrestrained extraction of this important economic commodity. Large quantities of wood were needed for the process of salt mining, both for the construction of galleries as well as for the boiling pans ("Sudpfannen") of the saltworks or salines. These took the largest proportion of wood.  How disastrous the extraction of salt was for some landscapes is illustrated by the example of the town of Lüneburg in North Germany. Before salt was discovered it was surrounded by dense forests, but during the course of salt mining all the woods were cleared. Only a heath landscape remained, a countryside that was further devastated by plaggen agriculture. During the 20th century much of the area to the southwest of Lüneburg became a British military training area, causing further destruction.

Mines.

Mining required three natural conditions: first, the presence of ores; second, large forests, needed for pit props and the wood for producing charcoal; and third, water power in the shape of rivers and streams. Smelting was carried out in the vicinity of the shaft. In the Harz, mining is mentioned as early as the 10th century. Because mining needed such large quantities of wood, its regulation was an early consideration and, by the end of the Middle Ages the first taxes were imposed on forests for their use in the mining industry. Forests in mining regions enjoyed a special status and, early on, their primary use for mining purposes was firmly established.

Timber and rafting.

Building and construction timber was exported to various parts of Europe from an early date. Popular types of wood, such as oak and conifers are recorded as being rafted down rivers to the Baltic Sea from the 13th century. Yew was especially prized because of its outstanding properties, especially its flexural strength, which was popular in the manufacture of weapons. In order to make bows, such as the English longbow, entire stands of yew were cleared in Austria. This species of tree was hated by carters because their draught animals died by eating its poisonous fruit.

Summary.

The consequences of medieval forest use may be summed up as follows: many cohesive forest areas were largely destroyed, due mainly to the felling of trees for firewood. Even the most remote forest areas were affected. What remained was a landscape whose devastation is still recognizable, for example, the treeless hill ridges, the moorland and the present distribution of tree species in the central European forests.  The dwindling forests that did not regenerate themselves led to erosion of the soils, including those suitable for agricultural, in the wake of which, fields and settlements had to be abandoned. The result was a shortage of supply, especially in time of war. Given the devastating effects of overexploitation arising for the reasons set out above, territorial lords imposed official regulations for the use of woodland, a case in point being the 1579 Hohenlohe Forest regulations.

Holznot.

"Holznot", an imminent or existing acute lack of wood as a raw material, has been a social problem since the 16th century. Due to the realization that coniferous forests naturally regenerate only with difficulty, the planting of conifer seeds was successfully attempted in the Middle Ages.  Large quantities of wood were needed as a source of energy in private households and in early industrial production, for example, in glassmaking, tanning, the production of soot and in mining (in pit construction to support tunnels against collapse).  In the Black Forest huge quantities of timber were tied together to form rafts and exported to the Netherlands, where the wood was needed for shipbuilding. Farmers have overexploited forests for centuries through grazing and to make straw. At the end of the 18th century, there were hardly any forests left in Germany (see Deforestation). Wood eventually became so scarce that, in winter, fence posts, steps and all kinds of wooden objects, that were expendable in the short term, were burned as firewood.

Today.

In places like Germany today, hunters pay fees to the landowner in whose forest they hunt. These fees are covered "inter alia" by the use or sale of meat or fur from the animals killed. The hunting of deer is particularly necessary in Central Europe, due to the absence of large carnivores. Without human intervention, certain plant species would be destroyed by selective feeding, which is already seriously endangering some species. For the same reason the goal of ecological forest management, which is moving away from monocultures towards stable mixed forests, has been threatened by high levels of deer. Often spruce which, compared to other tree species is less robust, experiences problems trying to rejuvenate itself on most sites where it grows today after having been artificially planted.

Typical types of European commercial forest.

Commercial forests today can be divided into various types, although due to the modern forestry industry, most people today only have mature forests in mind:

The history of the forest in Central Europe is characterised by thousands of years of exploitation by people. Thus a distinction needs to be made between the botanical natural history of the forest in pre- and proto-historical times—which falls mainly into the fields of natural history and Paleobotany—and the onset of the period of sedentary settlement which began at the latest in the Neolithic era in Central Europe - and thus the use of the forest by people, which is covered by the disciplines of history, archaeology cultural studies and ecology.

Die Geschichte des Waldes in Mitteleuropa ist durch eine Jahrtausende währende Nutzung des Waldes gekennzeichnet, die sich tiefgreifend auf den Waldbestand und die ökologische Zusammensetzung der Wälder auswirkte. Der Begriff Mitteleuropa bezieht sich hier auf den Bereich etwa zwischen Nordsee und Alpen sowie zwischen Ostsee und Schwarzem Meer.


Family and early life.

Stevie's grandfather, Thomas Lee Vaughan, married Laura Belle LaRue and moved to Rockwall County, Texas, where they lived by sharecropping.  Stevie's father, Jimmie Lee Vaughan, was born on September 6, 1921. Jimmie, also known as Jim and Big Jim, dropped out of school at age sixteen, and enlisted in the United States Navy during World War II. After his discharge, he married Martha Jean ("née" Cook; 1928–2009) on January 13, 1950. They had a son, Jimmie, in 1951. Stephen was born at Methodist Hospital on October 3, 1954, in Dallas, Texas. Big Jim secured a job as an asbestos worker, an occupation that involved rigorous manual effort. The family moved frequently, living in other states such as Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Oklahoma before ultimately moving to the Oak Cliff section of Dallas. A shy and insecure boy, Vaughan was deeply affected by his childhood experiences. His father struggled with alcohol abuse, and often terrorised his family and friends with his bad temper. In later years, Vaughan recalled that he had been a victim of his father's violence. His father died on August 27, 1986, exactly four years before Vaughan.

First instruments.

In the early 1960s, Vaughan's admiration for his brother Jimmie resulted in him trying different instruments such as the drums and saxophone. In 1961, for his seventh birthday, Vaughan received his first guitar, a toy from Sears with Western motif. Learning by ear, he diligently committed himself, following along to songs by the Nightcaps, particularly "Wine, Wine, Wine" and "Thunderbird". He listened to blues artists such as Albert King, Otis Rush, and Muddy Waters, and rock guitarists such as Jimi Hendrix and Lonnie Mack, as well as jazz guitarists including Kenny Burrell. In 1963, he acquired his first electric guitar,

Music career.

Early years.

In May 1969, after leaving the Brooklyn Underground, Vaughan joined a band called the Southern Distributor. He had learned The Yardbirds' "Jeff's Boogie" and played the song at the audition. Mike Steinbach, the group's drummer, commented: "The kid was fourteen. We auditioned him on 'Jeff's Boogie,' really fast instrumental guitar, and he played it note for note." Although they played pop rock covers, Vaughan conveyed his interest in the addition of blues songs to the group's repertoire; he was told that he wouldn't earn a living playing blues music and the band parted ways. Later that year, bassist Tommy Shannon walked into a Dallas club and heard Vaughan playing guitar. Fascinated by the skillful playing, which he described as "incredible even then", Shannon borrowed a bass guitar and the two jammed. Within a few years, they began performing together in a band called Krackerjack.  In

First recordings.

In September 1970, Vaughan made his first studio recordings with the band Cast of Thousands, which included future actor Stephen Tobolowsky. They recorded two songs, "Red, White and Blue" and "I Heard a Voice Last Night", for a compilation album, "A New Hi", that featured various teenage bands from Dallas. In late January 1971, feeling confined by playing pop hits with Liberation, Vaughan formed his own band, Blackbird. After growing tired of the Dallas music scene, he dropped out of school

Double Trouble.

In mid-May 1978, Clark left to form his own group and Vaughan renamed the band Double Trouble, taken from the title of an Otis Rush song. Following the recruitment of bassist Jackie Newhouse, Pharaoh quit in July, and was briefly replaced by Jack Moore, who had moved to Texas from Boston; he performed with the band for about two months. Vaughan then began looking for a drummer and soon after, he met Chris Layton through Sublett, who was his roommate. Layton, who had recently parted ways with Greezy Wheels, was taught by Vaughan to play a shuffle rhythm. When Vaughan offered Layton the position, he agreed. In early July, Vaughan befriended Lenora Bailey, known as "Lenny", who became his girlfriend, and ultimately his wife. The marriage was to last for six and a half years.  In early October 1978, Vaughan and Double Trouble earned a frequent residency performing at one of Austin's most popular nightspots, the Rome Inn. During a performance, Edi Johnson,

Death.

On Monday, August 27, 1990, at 12:50 a.m. (CDT), Vaughan and members of Eric Clapton's touring entourage played an all-star encore jam session at Alpine Valley Music Theatre in Alpine Valley Resort in East Troy, Wisconsin. They then left for Midway International Airport in Chicago in a Bell 206B helicopter, the most common way for acts to enter and exit the venue, as there is only one road in and out, heavily used by fans. The helicopter crashed into a nearby ski hill shortly after takeoff.  Vaughan and the four others on board—pilot Jeff Brown, agent Bobby Brooks, bodyguard Nigel Browne, and tour manager Colin Smythe—were all killed. The helicopter was identified as being owned by Chicago-based company Omniflight Helicopters. Initial reports of the crash inaccurately claimed that Clapton had also been killed.

Musical style.

Vaughan's music was rooted in blues, rock, and jazz. He was influenced by Jimi Hendrix, Albert King, Lonnie Mack, B.B. King, Freddie King, Albert Collins, Johnny "Guitar" Watson, Buddy Guy, Howlin' Wolf, Otis Rush, Guitar Slim, Chuck Berry, and Muddy Waters. According to nightclub owner Clifford Antone, who opened Antone's in 1975, Vaughan jammed with Albert King at Antone's in July 1977 and almost "scared him to death", saying that "it was the best I've ever saw Albert or the best I ever saw Stevie". While Albert King had a substantial influence on Vaughan, Jimi Hendrix was Vaughan's greatest inspiration. Vaughan declared: "I love Hendrix for so many reasons. He was so much more than just a blues guitarist—he played damn well any kind of guitar he wanted. In fact I'm not sure if he even played the guitar—he played music."  He was also influenced by such jazz guitarists as Django Reinhardt, Wes Montgomery, Kenny Burrell,

Equipment.

Guitars.

Vaughan owned and used a variety of guitars during his career. His guitar of choice, and the instrument that he became most associated with, was the Fender Stratocaster, his favorite being a 1963 body, with a 1962 neck, and pickups dated from 1959. This is why Vaughan usually referred to his Stratocaster as a, "1959 Strat." He explained why he favored this guitar in a 1983 interview: "I like the strength of its sound. Any guitar I play has got to be pretty versatile. It's got a big, strong tone and it'll take anything I do to it." Vaughan also referred to this instrument as his "first wife," or, "Number One." Another favourite guitar, was a

Amplifiers and effects.

Vaughan was a catalyst in the revival of vintage amplifiers and effects during the 1980s. His loud volume and use of heavy strings required powerful and robust amplifiers. Vaughan used two black-face Fender Super Reverbs, which were crucial in shaping his clear overdriven sound. He would often blend other amps with the Super Reverbs, including black-face Fender Vibroverbs, and brands such as Dumble, and Marshall, which he

Legacy.

Vaughan throughout his career revived blues rock and paved the way for many other artists. Vaughan's work continues to influence numerous blues, rock and alternative artists, including John Mayer, Kenny Wayne Shepherd, Mike McCready, Albert Cummings, Los Lonely Boys and Chris Duarte, among others. Allmusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine described Vaughan as "the leading light in American blues" and developed "a uniquely eclectic and fiery style that sounded like no other guitarist, regardless of genre". In 1983, "Variety" magazine called Vaughan the "guitar hero of the present era".  In the months that followed his death, Vaughan sold over 5.5 million albums in the United States. On September 25, 1990, Epic released "Family Style", an LP the Vaughan brothers cut at Ardent Studios in Memphis, Tennessee. The label released several promotional singles and videos for the collaborative effort. In November 1990, CMV Enterprises released "Pride and Joy", a collection of eight Double Trouble music videos. Sony signed a deal with the Vaughan estate to obtain control of his back catalog, as well as permission to release albums with previously unreleased material and new collections of released work. On October 29, 1991, "The Sky Is Crying" was released as Vaughan's first posthumous album with Double Trouble, and featured studio recordings from 1984–1985. Other compilations, live albums, and films have also been released since his death.  On October 3, 1991, Texas governor Ann Richards proclaimed "Stevie Ray Vaughan Commemoration Day", during which a memorial concert was held at the Texas Theatre. In 1993, a memorial statue of Vaughan was unveiled on Auditorium Shores and is the first public monument of a musician in Austin. In September 1994, a Stevie Ray Vaughan Memorial Run for Recovery was held in Dallas; the event was a benefit for the Ethel Daniels Foundation, established to help those in recovery from alcoholism and drug addiction who cannot afford treatment.  In 1999, the Musicians' Assistance Program (later renamed MusiCares MAP Fund) created the "Stevie Ray Vaughan Award" to honor the memory of Vaughan and to recognize musicians for their devotion to helping other addicts struggling with the recovery process. The recipients include Eric Clapton, David Crosby, Steven Tyler, Alice Cooper, Ozzy Osbourne, Pete Townshend, Chris Cornell, Jerry Cantrell, Mike McCready, among others.  In 1993, Martha Vaughan established the Stevie Ray Vaughan Memorial Scholarship Fund, awarded to students at W.E. Greiner Middle School in Oakcliff who intend to attend college and pursue the arts as a profession.

Awards and honors.

Vaughan won five W. C. Handy Awards and was posthumously inducted into the Blues Hall of Fame in 2000. In 1985, he was named an honorary admiral in the Texas Navy. Vaughan had a single number-one hit on the Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks chart for the song "Crossfire". His album sales in the US stand at over 15 million units. "Family Style", released shortly after his death, won the 1991 Grammy Award

Stephen "Stevie" Ray Vaughan (October 3, 1954 – August 27, 1990) was an American musician, singer, songwriter, and record producer, best known as the guitarist and frontman of the blues rock band Double Trouble. Although his mainstream career only spanned seven years, he is considered to be one of the most iconic and influential musicians in the history of blues music.

Stephen „Stevie“ Ray Vaughan (* 3. Oktober 1954 in Dallas, Texas; † 27. August 1990 in East Troy, Wisconsin), auch bekannt unter dem Kürzel SRV, war ein US-amerikanischer Blues- und Bluesrock-Gitarrist bzw. -Musiker, der in einer Reihe mit einflussreichen Gitarristen wie Jimi Hendrix oder Eric Clapton genannt wird. So setzte ihn etwa das angesehene Musikmagazin Rolling Stone auf Rang 12 der besten Gitarristen der Musikgeschichte. Er war maßgeblich daran beteiligt, dass in den 1980er Jahren (und weit darüber hinaus) das Interesse für den Blues wieder geweckt worden ist.


History.

1998: Formation.

Paul Marazzi, who had missed the cut for Steps, met Tim Byrne in 1998 to talk about forming a second group. Auditions were held where Christian Ingebrigtsen, Mark Read, and Ben Adams were recruited and the band was formed by the management team of Byrne and Vicky Blood.

1999: "Here We Come".

A1 signed with Columbia Records in February 1999 and released "Be the First to Believe" in Summer 1999. In November they released "Here We Come", which reached number 4 in Norway and had four top ten singles in the UK.

2000–2001: "The A List".

In 2000, they achieved two number ones with "Take On Me" and "Same Old Brand New You". The video for their seventh single, "No More", was filmed in Singapore while they were on tour there. In 2001, the band began a massive arena tour of Asia, where they were very well received. During a mall signing in Indonesia, four teenage girls were killed in a stampede. In 2001, Sony Music launched a paid subscription service for a1 called 'Access All Areas', the first for an artist signed to the company. This was an early version of a social network allowing fans to meet and chat online.

2002: "Make It Good", Marazzi's departure and split.

Their third album, "Make It Good" saw a change in direction but was to be their last studio project. On 8 October 2002, Marazzi left the group, citing personal reasons, and a1 subsequently decided to split.

2002–09: Post A1 and solo careers.

In January 2004 a "Best of A1" album was released in Asia; a compilation featuring all of their singles, two previously unreleased concert recordings, and three exclusive B-Sides. In 2009, following Adams' appearance on "Celebrity Big Brother", the band released its "Greatest Hits" in the UK.  In 2005, Adams went on to release his first solo single, "Sorry", which peaked at number 18 on the UK Singles Chart. Adams was also due to record an album but parted with his record label. In 2009, he appeared as a contestant on "Celebrity Big Brother", becoming one of the remaining five housemates. He attracted much attention later that same year when he posed naked for the cover of "Attitude".  In 2003, Ingebrigtsen also began a solo career, with his first solo single, "In Love With an Angel", being released in 2004. The single stayed in the Top 10 of the Norway Singles Chart for nearly three months. The song was swiftly followed by "Things Are Gonna Change", which became Ingebrigsten's final solo single before he moved into other areas of showbusiness.  In 2002, Read focused on becoming a songwriter for other artists, after signing a deal with Metrophonic. Read has written for artists such as Charlotte Church, Boyzone, Michael Bolton, Robin Gibb, and The Hollies. Read released his debut solo single, "Greatest Lady in My Life", on 2 March 2009. His debut solo album, "Peace at Last" was released in June 2009.  Months after he left the band, Marazzi hosted the Andy Cole Children's Foundation (now All Star Kids) on 26 April 2003 together with Jo Good. He turned down the offer to appear in I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! in 2004. In late 2005 he formed a soul/rock band in Sunderland, Northeast England called Snagsby. He left the band in early 2009. Marazzi then went to work in The George Hotel in Whitby as a club DJ.

2009–2010: Reunion as a trio and "Waiting for Daylight".

In November 2008, the remaining members of the band formed a MySpace account to keep fans updated of their current situation. In summer 2009, the band made an official announcement, stating that not only were they to reform, but they were to play a series of concerts in Oslo in December of that year. Marazzi posted on his Facebook that he wished them good luck when he found out about his former bandmates' reunion on a TV show in Norway. The announcement also stated that the band's first new single in seven years, "Take You Home", would be released via iTunes in Norway on 2 November. The single entered the Norway Singles Chart at No. 9, based on download sales. It was announced in late 2009 that the band would compete to represent Norway in the 2010 Eurovision Song Contest, with the band's second single since their reformation, "Don't Wanna Lose You Again". The song peaked at No. 4 on the Norwegian Singles Chart. The band reached the national final of the contest and finished in second place. The band made their official UK comeback on New Year's Eve by performing at the Heaven New Year's Eve Party in London. In March 2010, the band embarked on a worldwide tour that began in Norway, with performances in Oslo, Stavanger, Kristiansand, Bergen, Trondheim and Haugesund. The tour extended to Europe and ROTW in autumn 2010. The band's first new studio album since 2002 was released on 11 October 2010, and includes the singles "Take You Home", "Don't Wanna Lose You Again", "In Love and I Hate It" and "Waiting for Daylight".

2011–12: "Rediscovered".

In October 2011, the group appeared on Channel 5's OK TV to promote their British comeback gig at the O2 Academy Islington on 31 October 2011. The gig received positive reviews from sites such as "This Must Be Pop" and Time Out. On 18 November 2011, the band released a new single, "Another Year Gone". On 28 February 2012, the group performed at the Singapore Indoor Stadium with Blue and Jeff Timmons from 98 Degrees. The concert was entitled "The Greatest Hits Tour: Blue, Jeff Timmons of 98 Degrees and a1 – Live in Singapore." They also visited Jakarta, Indonesia and Manila, Philippines as part of the concert tour. On 8 May 2012, the band announced the release of a new single, "Just Three Words", a duet with Annie Khalid.

2013–14: "The Big Reunion".

In December 2013 it was announced that A1 will be appearing, again without Marazzi, on the itv2 documentary "The Big Reunion". In October 2014, A1 with other bands from the TV show Blue, Five, Damage, 3T, 911 and a new band called 5th Story toured together in October 2014, the tour was called The Big Reunion Boy band Tour 2014.  On 3 October 2014 A1 performed on the Norwegian show called "The Hit", they chose to perform the song Critical Love written by Mathilde Johnson and became their newest single after winning.  Their latest albums "Waiting for Daylight" and "Rediscovered" were released in UK on 12 June 2015.

2016–17: Comeback Concert.

A1 gave a concert on 22 October 2016 in Singapore and in Manila and Cebu on 23 and 25 October, respectively.

2017–present : Marazzi's return and 20th-anniversary tour.

On 22 July 2017 Paul Marazzi met with his past band-mates in Newcastle. On Instagram post of the band, the group posted a picture with original members Ben Adams, Christian Ingebrigtsen, Mark Read and Paul Marazzi. A follow up post on the band's Facebook page suggested that they may reform for "One last song.. or 2 or 3". The photo was posted on 17 September 2017, a day after Ben Adams posted a photo of him and Paul at the backstage for Flashdance The Musical Tour in Sunderland. There is no confirmation yet that Paul had indeed reunited with a1.  On 7 May 2018 Ben Adams called BBC Radio 2 host Matt Lucas, announcing a1 will go on a 20-year anniversary tour the next year. He said they probably had to do something slightly special for their 20-year reunion, and they had invited original member Paul Marazzi back. The tour will start in Asia after Ben finishes his Flashdance show in November, and they will also do some tours in UK and release new music as well.  On 23 May 2018, it was announced that they will be doing a set of concerts in Southeast Asia with Marazzi on board. It was announced via their Twitter and Facebook page.  On 12 October 2018, they released their first single with all members since the departure of Marazzi, and the disbandment of the group, 16 years previously. The song is called "Armour".

2019: "The Reunion Show".

On 27 February 2019 the group announced their first UK comeback, first live show with original line up in 15 years. The show will be held at O2 Academy Islington, London on 1 November 2019.

Jakarta mall incident.

On 18 March 2001, during a mall signing in Jakarta, Indonesia, four teenage girls were killed in a stampede and two others were reported critical. A spokesman for the group said: "They are devastated and are immediately planning to return to Great Britain. They have cancelled the rest of the tour and their thoughts are with the families and friends of those killed and injured."

A1 (stylised as a1) are a British-Norwegian boy band that formed in 1998. The original line-up consists of Paul Marazzi, Christian Ingebrigtsen, Mark Read and Ben Adams. Ingebrigtsen is originally from Oslo, Norway, but the other members originate from London.

A1 ist eine britische Boygroup, die ursprünglich aus den Mitgliedern Mark Read, Paul Marazzi, Christian Ingebrigsten und Ben Adams bestand.


Demographics.

In 2011, it had a population of 360,178 and the population density was 62.2/km2.

Geography.

This county has a total area of 5,790 km2.  Two distinctive elements can be found:  Beside the Danube, the main river crossing the county is the Olt River which flows into the Danube close to the village of Islaz. Other important rivers are: the Vedea River, the Teleorman River and the Călmățui River.

Economy.

The predominant industries in the county are:  Agriculture is the main occupation in the county. Both extensive agriculture, and small scale - vegetables and fruits for Bucharest markets, is practiced. The area is well suited for irrigations.

Tourism.

The county doesn't have many spectacular attractions, but its cultural folk heritage is very rich. Many Romanian personalities have been born here, some of them later describing the life in a village in a very picturesque way. Also, the area was one of the places where the Wallachian Revolution of 1848 unfolded.  The main tourist destinations are:

Politics.

The Teleorman County Council, elected at the 2016 local government elections, is made up of 33 counselors, with the following party composition:

Administrative divisions.

Teleorman County has 3 municipalities, 2 towns and 93 communes

People.

Teleorman County is home to many Romanian personalities including:

Historical county.

Historically, the county was located in the southern part of Greater Romania, in the southwestern part of the historical region of Muntenia. Its capital was Turnu Măgurele. The county was bordered on the west by the counties Romanați County and Olt County, to the north by Argeș County, to the east by Vlașca County, and in the south across the Danube River by the Kingdom of Bulgaria. Its territory coincides in large part with that of the present county.

Administration.

The county was originally divided into five administrative districts ("plăṣi"):  Subsequently, the county established three more districts:  The county contained four urban communes: Turnu Măgurele, Alexandria, Roșiorii de Vede, and Zimnicea.

Population.

According to the 1930 census data, the county population was 347,294 inhabitants, ethnically divided as follows: 98.1% Romanians, 1.4% Romanies, as well as other minorities. From the religious point of view, the population was 99.0% Eastern Orthodox, 0.6% Adventist, 0.1% Muslim, as well as other minorities.

Urban population.

In 1930, the county's urban population was 58,632 inhabitants, comprising 94.4% Romanians, 3.3% Romanies, 0.4% Hungarians, 0.4% Jews, as well as other minorities. From the religious point of view, the urban population was composed of 98.1% Eastern Orthodox, 0.6% Muslim, 0.4% Jewish, 0.4% Roman Catholic, as well as other minorities.

Teleorman County () is a county (județ) of Romania on the border with Bulgaria, in the historical region Muntenia, with its capital city at Alexandria.

Teleorman ist ein rumänischer Kreis "(Județ)" in der Region Walachei mit der Kreishauptstadt Alexandria. Das Kfz-Kennzeichen und die gängige Abkürzung für den Kreis sind TR.


Background and family.

Rommel was born in Stuttgart and entered service as a Luftwaffenhelfer (air force assistant) in 1943 at age 14, serving in an anti-aircraft battery. He considered joining the Waffen SS, but his father opposed it. On 14 October 1944, he was present at his parents' house when his father was led off to be forced to commit suicide for his alleged complicity in the 20 July plot to assassinate Adolf Hitler, which was publicly portrayed by the Nazi leadership as a death resulting from a war injury. In February 1945, Rommel was dismissed from air force service and in March was conscripted into the paramilitary Reichsarbeitsdienst service. Stationed in Riedlingen at the end of April, he deserted just before the French First Army entered the town. He was taken prisoner of war, was interrogated by (among others) General Jean de Lattre de Tassigny, and disclosed the truth about his father's death.

Post-war life and career.

In 1947, he took his Abitur while studying in Biberach an der Riß and went on to study law at the University of Tübingen. He married Liselotte in 1954 and had a daughter named Catherine. After a stint working as a lawyer, in 1956, Rommel entered the civil service and later became state secretary in the state government of Baden-Württemberg.  In 1974, Rommel succeeded Arnulf Klett as Oberbürgermeister (equivalent to Mayor) of Stuttgart by winning 58.5% of the votes in the second round of elections, defeating Peter Conradi of the Social Democratic Party. He was re-elected after the first round of elections in 1982 with 69.8% and in 1990 with 71.7% of the votes. As the mayor of Stuttgart, he was also known for his effort to give the Red Army Faction terrorists who had committed suicide at the Stuttgart-Stammheim prison a proper burial, despite the concern that the graves would become a pilgrimage point for radical leftists.  While Oberbürgermeister of Stuttgart, Rommel began a much-publicised friendship with U.S. Army Major General George Patton IV, the son of his father's World War II adversary, General George S. Patton, who was assigned to the VII Corps headquarters near the city. Additionally, he was also friends with David Montgomery, 2nd Viscount Montgomery of Alamein, the son of his father's other great adversary, Field Marshal Bernard Law Montgomery, a friendship viewed by some as a symbol of British-German reconciliation following the War and West Germany's admission into NATO.  In a 1996 celebration at the Württemberg State Theatre, Manfred Rommel received the highest German civil distinction, the Bundesverdienstkreuz. In his speech, Helmut Kohl put particular emphasis on the good relations that were kept and built upon between France and Germany during Rommel's tenure as Oberbürgermeister of Stuttgart. A few days after this distinction was given to Rommel, the city of Stuttgart offered him the Honorary Citizen Award. He risked his popularity when he stood out for the fair treatment of foreign immigrants, who were being drawn to Stuttgart by its booming economy. As mayor, Rommel also exerted "tight control over the city's finances, reducing its debt and enabling a radical makeover of the local infrastructure, especially roads and public transport [while working]...to foster Franco- German relations."  Rommel's political position is described as tolerant and liberal.

Outside politics.

Having retired from politics in 1996, Rommel was still in demand as an author and stirring speaker, despite suffering from Parkinson's disease. He wrote various political and humorous books. He was known for his down-to-earth and often funny sayings and quotations. Occasionally, he wrote articles for the "Stuttgarter Zeitung".  Rommel collaborated with Basil Liddell-Hart in the publication of "The Rommel Papers", a collection of diaries, letters and notes that his father wrote during and after his military campaigns. He was awarded several foreign awards including the Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE), the French légion d'honneur, the US Medal of Freedom and the highest grade of the German federal order of merit. He died on 7 November 2013, survived by his daughter Catherine.

Movies.

In the following movies about his father during the Second World War, Manfred Rommel was played by the following actors:

Honours.

Manfred Rommel once wrote about his many honours: "Die Zahl der Titel will nicht enden. Am Grabstein stehet: bitte wenden!" which translates as: "The number of honours seems to be endless. The inscription on my gravestone will read: Please turn over!"

Manfred Rommel (24 December 1928 – 7 November 2013) was a German politician belonging to the Christian Democratic Union, who served as Mayor of Stuttgart from 1974 until 1996. Rommel's policies were described as tolerant and liberal, and he was one of the most popular municipal politicians in Germany. He was the recipient of numerous foreign honours. He was the only son of Wehrmacht field marshal Erwin Rommel and his wife Lucia Maria Mollin (1894–1971), and contributed to the establishment of museums in his father's honour. He was also known for his friendship with George Patton IV and David Montgomery, the sons of his father's two principal military adversaries.

Manfred Rommel, CBE (* 24. Dezember 1928 in Stuttgart; † 7. November 2013 ebenda) war ein deutscher Politiker (CDU). Er war von 1974 bis 1996 Oberbürgermeister von Stuttgart. Sein Vater Erwin Rommel war Generalfeldmarschall im Zweiten Weltkrieg.


Career.

Born in Port Elizabeth, Eastern Cape, South Africa, Williams won a talent contest at the age of 14 and joined a touring show called Golden City Dixies that played throughout South Africa. In 1959, the show came to London where Williams impressed EMI's Norman Newell, who signed the young singer to a recording contract. He was to spend most of his life in the United Kingdom, where at first he made a few moderately successful singles, mainly popular ballads, before scoring a number one hit with his cover version of "Moon River" in 1961. To this day, it remains his most famous record which he re-recorded for his third self-titled album "Danny Williams", issued in the UK by Contour Records in 1972, and he also scored a No. 8 chart hit with "The Wonderful World of the Young" in April 1962. It led to his appearance in the film "Play It Cool" (1962), directed by Michael Winner, and starring Billy Fury as pop singer Billy Universe. In 1963, Williams joined a 20-city tour which starred Helen Shapiro and featured the Beatles as a support act on the bill; like many other ballad singers of the day, he was swept away by the new beat group era.  Williams had no more major British hits, even though "White on White" became popular abroad and was his only US top ten hit, charting in 1964 (#9 Pop, #3 MOR.) He continued to record for HMV until 1967 while working the nightclub circuit. In 1968, he had a nervous breakdown and was declared bankrupt two years later. However, he resumed his singing career in the early 1970s, achieving a top 30 success with "Dancin' Easy" in 1977. In the early 1990s, he recorded for Prestige Records and subsequently starred in a Nat "King" Cole tribute show which made several British tours. Compilations of his early recordings, including "Moon River", have been issued on CD.  He died in December 2005 of lung cancer, at the age of 63. Williams was married three times, and is survived by his two daughters (Natali and Melody Williams) and two sons, the actor Anthony Barclay and Michael Stewart.

Danny Williams (7 January 1942 – 6 December 2005) was a South African-born British pop singer who earned the nickname "Britain's Johnny Mathis", for his smooth and stylish way with a ballad. He is best known for his 1961 UK number one version of "Moon River" and his 1964 U.S. top ten hit, "White on White".

Danny Williams (* 7. Januar 1942 in Port Elizabeth; † 6. Dezember 2005) war ein südafrikanischer Popsänger, der in den 1960er Jahren in Großbritannien Karriere machte.