Early life and education.

Max was born in Berlin, the son of German Jews, Sala and Jacob. They fled Berlin in 1938, settling in Shanghai, China, where they lived for the next ten years. In 1948, the family moved to Haifa, Israel, where they lived for several years. From Israel, the family continued moving westward and stopped in Paris for several months—an experience that Max said greatly influenced his appreciation for art—eventually settling in Brooklyn, New York City.  Max and his parents first settled in Bensonhurst, Brooklyn, in 1953 where he attended Lafayette High School, classmates with future actor Paul Sorvino. In 1956, Max began his formal art training at the Art Students League of New York in Manhattan, studying anatomy, figure drawing and composition under Frank J. Reilly who had studied at the League alongside Norman Rockwell.

Career.

1960s.

In 1962, Max started a small Manhattan arts studio known as "The Daly & Max Studio," with friend Tom Daly. Daly and Max were joined by friend and mentor Don Rubbo, and the three worked as a group on books and advertising for which they received industry recognition. Much of their work incorporated antique photographic images as elements of collage. Max's interest in astronomy contributed to his self-described "Cosmic '60s" period, which featured what became identified as psychedelic, counter culture imagery. Max's art was popularized nationally through TV commercials such as his 1968 "un cola" ad for the soft drink 7 Up which helped drive sales of his art posters and other merchandise.  Max appeared on "The Tonight Show" on August 15, 1968. He was featured on the cover of "Life" magazine's September 5, 1969 edition under the heading "Peter Max: Portrait of the artist as a very rich man."

1970s.

In 1970, many of Max's products and posters were featured in the exhibition "The World of Peter Max," which opened at the M.H. de Young Memorial Museum in San Francisco. The United States Postal Service commissioned Max to create the 10-cent postage stamp to commemorate the Expo '74 World's Fair in Spokane, Washington, and Max drew a colorful psychedelic scene with a "Cosmic Jumper" and a "Smiling Sage" against a backdrop of a cloud, sun rays and a ship at sea on the theme of "Preserve the Environment." According to "The New York Times", "His DayGlo-inflected posters became wallpaper for the turn on, tune in, drop out generation."  On July 4, 1976, Max began his Statue of Liberty series leading to his efforts with Chrysler CEO Lee Iacocca to help in the restoration of the statue. Also in 1976, "Peter Max Paints America" was commissioned by the ASEA of Sweden. The book project commemorated the United States Bicentennial and included the following foreword: "Peter Max Paints America is based on works of art commissioned by ASEA of Sweden on the 200th anniversary of the founding of the United States of America, in sincere recognition of the historic bonds of friendship between the people of Sweden and the people of the United States, recalling that Sweden was one of the first countries to extend its hand in friendship to the new nation."

1980s–present.

Max has been the official artist for many major events, including the 1994 World Cup, the Grammy Awards, the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, the Super Bowl and others. In 2000, Max designed the paint scheme Dale Earnhardt drove at the Winston all-star race, deviating from Earnhardt's trademark black car. He was also the Official Artist of the 2000 World Series, the "Subway Series" between the New York Yankees and the New York Mets.  Max first painted Taylor Swift's portrait as a gift to the singer for her Grammy-winning albums "Fearless" and "Speak Now", and has recently painted new portraits of Taylor Swift to commemorate her worldwide success.  Max is on the Board of Selectors of Jefferson Awards for Public Service.  In 1989, Max designed the cover photo—as well as the 45 rpm single picture-sleeve photo—of Aretha Franklin's "Through the Storm" album.  In 1990, Max purchased a collection of Chevrolet Corvettes for an intended art project, but never used them and let them rot in a series of garages.  In 1994, Max designed the artwork for progressive rock band Yes's fourteenth studio album, "Talk". In 2012, he was chosen to paint the hull art of the New York themed ship Norwegian Breakaway by Norwegian Cruise Line. In 2017, Max did the cover art for the Aug/Sept issue of AARP magazine.  In 2019, "The New York Times" published an investigative journalism piece on Max’s current state, revealing that he is suffering from advanced dementia, that he is now often unaware of his identity and his surroundings, and that his deteriorated mental state has been exploited in a massive art fraud scheme dating back to at least 2015.

Work.

Max's art work was first associated with the counter culture, neo-expressionism, and psychedelic movements in graphic design during the late 1960s and early 1970s. He is known for using bursts of color, often containing much or all of the visible spectrum. His work was influenced by others. Max's repeated claims, varying in detail, to have worked on "Yellow Submarine" have been denied by the production team.  Max works in multiple media including painting, drawing, etchings (including aquatint), collage, print making, sculpture, video and digital imagery. He also includes "mass media" as being another "canvas" for his creative expression.  Max often uses American icons and symbols in his artwork. He has created paintings of presidents Ford, Carter, Reagan and Bush in addition to his "100 Clintons"—a multiple portrait installation. Additional commissions have included the creation of the first "Preserve the Environment" postage stamp, in honor of the World's Fair in Spokane, Washington; border murals at entry points to the United States from Canada and Mexico; and exhibitions in over 40 museums and 50 galleries worldwide. He often features images of celebrities, politicians, athletes and sporting events and other pop culture subjects in his artwork.  One of Continental Airlines' Boeing 777-200ER aircraft (registered N77014) sported a livery designed by Max. His artwork was featured on CBS's "The Early Show" where his "44 Obamas," commemorating Barack Obama, the 44th President of the United States, was debuted. In 2013, HarperCollins published a book of the artist's memoirs and thoughts called "The Universe of Peter Max". In it, he relates stories of his life as well as descriptions and thoughts surrounding of some of his artwork.

Personal life.

Max married his first wife Elizabeth Ann Nance in 1963 and they divorced in 1976. Max had a nine-year-long relationship with musician and model Rosie Vela that ended in 1985. He was also romantically connected with Tina Louise. Max married Mary Balkin in 1997; she died by suicide (nitrogen asphyxiation) in June 2019.  In November 1997, Max pleaded guilty in Manhattan federal district court to charges of concealing more than $1.1 million in income from the Internal Revenue Service in connection with the sales of his works between 1988 and 1991. The plea came two days before he was to go on trial on an 11-count conspiracy and tax fraud indictment. Under the deal, he pleaded guilty to a charge of conspiracy to defraud the IRS and a charge of tax evasion, telling a federal judge that he had taken payments in cash, deposited customers' checks into his personal account and arranged other transactions to avoid tax liability. In June 1998, he was sentenced to two months in prison and a $30,000 fine. The federal judge ordered Max to pay the taxes he owed and to perform 800 hours of community service.  Max is an environmentalist, vegan and supporter of human and animal rights. In 2002, Max contributed to rescue efforts for Cincinnati Freedom, a cow that escaped from an Ohio slaughterhouse. The cow jumped over a six-foot fence while the slaughterhouse workers were on break and eluded capture for eleven days. Max donated $180,000 worth of his art to benefit the local Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, part of a chain of events that finally led to the cow being sent to Farm Sanctuary in Watkins Glen, New York, a permanent home where the cow remained for the rest of her life.  Max lives in New York City and has two adult children, Adam Cosmo Max and Libra Astro Max. Max has developed advanced dementia, largely the result of Alzheimer's disease.

Peter Max (born Peter Max Finkelstein, October 19, 1937) is a German-American artist known for using bright colours in his work. Works by Max are associated with the visual arts and culture of the 1960s, particularly psychedelic art and pop art.

Peter Max (* 19. Oktober 1937 in Berlin als "Peter Finkelstein") ist ein US-amerikanischer Pop-Art-Künstler deutsch-jüdischer Herkunft. In Deutschland geboren, flüchteten seine Eltern mit ihm vor dem Nationalsozialismus nach China, wo er in Shanghai aufwuchs. Nach einigen Reisen in Asien und Afrika wohnte seine Familie kurzzeitig in Israel, bevor sie 1953 in die USA emigrierte.


Details.

When used to retain piston wrist pins or gudgeon pins, the clips are known as wrist pin clips, wrist pin retainers, or gudgeon pin clips. The most commonly used circlip for this application is a simple spring steel circlip, or plain wire ring.  The term "Jesus clip" comes from the propensity of the clip's spring action to launch the clip at a high velocity when removing or installing, leading to remarks such as, "Oh Jesus, where did it go?"

E-clip.

Common examples include e-clips (e-ring) and the (both internal and external) snap ring or circlip. These general types of fasteners are sized to provide an interference fit onto (or into, in the case of an internal fastener) a groove or land when in use, such that they must be elastically deformed in order to install or remove them.

Installation and maintenance.

The name snap ring generally refers to circlips which have the ends formed to aid installation and removal, and which are not formed from wire (i.e. do not have a round cross-section). These rings are designed to be installed and removed with special pliers. Some of these special pliers can be configured for internal or external clips, while in other cases one pliers is used for internal and another for external clips. For expediency in the field, a pair of needle-nose pliers (for internal clips) or leverage with a flat-headed screwdriver (internal or external) is sometimes used.  Since most snap rings are stamped from sheet steel, one side is slightly rounded and the other has sharp, rough edges. This is due to the stamping die behaving like a cookie cutter and causing a slight rounding of the upper edge of the cut clip. The snap ring must always be installed such that force is transmitted to the retaining groove from the rounded side of the ring, not the rough/square-edged side. If a snap ring is positioned such that its flat side is pressed into the rounded edge of the groove then when load or force is applied, the flat edge of the snap ring will "bite" into the rounded edge of the retaining groove. The snap ring will distort and ride up the rounded edge, spreading an external snap ring and compressing an internal snap ring. This leaves the clip prone to being forced out of its groove and failing at its retaining function. The accompanying images illustrate the correct orientation of the snap ring in its groove. Wet or dry lubrication is recommended to reduce friction against the circlip and maintain function.

A circlip (a portmanteau of "circle" and "clip"), also known as a C-clip, Seeger ring, snap ring or Jesus clip, is a type of fastener or retaining ring consisting of a semi-flexible metal ring with open ends which can be snapped into place, into a machined groove on a dowel pin or other part to permit rotation but to prevent lateral movement. There are two basic types: internal and external, referring to whether they are fitted into a bore or over a shaft. Circlips are often used to secure pinned connections.

Ein Sprengring ist eine besondere Form des Sicherungsrings und dient im Maschinenbau zur formschlüssigen, axialen Festlegung von Bauteilen wie Rädern oder Lagern auf Achsen, Wellen bzw. Lagern, Achsen etc. in Bohrungen. Der Sprengring selbst besteht aus Federstahl-Draht mit gleichbleibendem Querschnitt, der zu einem Ring gebogen ist. Sprengringe werden mit Durchmessern von wenigen Millimetern bis hin zu einigen Metern hergestellt.


Early life.

Williams was born in Brunswick, Georgia on August 2, 1923. He did not turn professional until 1940 when he began boxing in Trenton, New Jersey. According to boxing lore, Williams worked as a newsboy after his family's move to Trenton, and first began boxing using his fists to defend the corner where he sold his papers.

Professional career.

During his career, Williams faced and defeated former lightweight champions Sammy Angott, Bob Montgomery, and Beau Jack.

Taking the NBA World Lightweight Championship, April 1945.

Williams was inducted into the U.S. Army after a close non-title win against the great lightweight Sammy Angott by ten-round decision at Shibe Park in Philadelphia on September 6, 1944, though he continued regular professional boxing during his service.  Williams won the NBA World Lightweight Championship before a crowd of 35,000 by a second-round knockout of Juan Zurita in Mexico City on April 18, 1945. Their first planned meeting in Philadelphia had been cancelled by the Pennsylvania Boxing Commission who recognized Bob Montgomery as the lightweight champion. Williams made a two fisted attack to the head of Zurita in the second which Zurita could not hold off, though he had made an effective defense in the first round. It was Zurita's first title defense. Shortly after Zurita was counted out, Williams' corner was crowded by fans, and several policeman were required to clear the ring before Williams could return to his dressing room.

World Lightweight Title defense against Bob Montgomery, August 1947.

In one of his most important title defenses, he achieved a knockout of black boxer Bob Montgomery, NYSAC Lightweight Champion, at Municipal Stadium in Philadelphia in six rounds on August 4, 1947, to become the undisputed World Lightweight Champion. Montgomery was down for a count of nine in the sixth before the bout was stopped. The victory also avenged a twelfth-round knockout loss to Montgomery from January 25, 1944. At least one source had Williams with an edge in three of the rounds, with one to Montgomery, and one too close to call. The blow that sent Montgomery to the mat in the sixth was a right to the chin by the hard punching Williams. Montgomery rose after nine but continued to take punches and was up against the ropes, and sinking to the mat on his knees before the referee stopped the bout.

World Lightweight Title defense against Jesse Flores, September 1948.

On September 23, 1948, Williams successfully defended his Lightweight title against Jesse Flores winning in a tenth-round technical knockout at Yankee Stadium in New York's Bronx. Flores had been on the mat five times during the fight, down twice in the fifth and twice in the eighth. The final blows were a left hook and then a right that sent Flores to the mat 2:07 into the tenth round.

World Lightweight Title defense against Enrique Bolanos, July 1949.

On July 21, 1949, Williams defended his title against Enrique Bolanos winning in a fourth-round technical knockout before a crowd of near 19,000 at Wrigley Field in Los Angeles. Bolanos had been sent to the canvas twice before referee Jack Dempsey decided to end the bout 2:40 into the fourth round. Bolanos was knocked to the mat for a count of eight early in the fourth, and then after rising received a series of left and right hooks that sent him to his knees near William's corner. Bolanos' manager George Parnassus threw in the towel and referee Dempsey abruptly ended the bout causing the fight to be recorded as a technical knock out.

World Lightweight Title defense against Freddy Dawson, December 1949.

On December 5, 1949, Williams defeated Freddy Dawson in a close fifteen-round decision before 10,389 fans at Convention Hall in Philadelphia. He had defeated Dawson twice in previous meetings and led in the early betting. In the post-fight decision, the two judges gave him the decision by only one round, ruling that 8 rounds were won by him and 7 by Dawson. The referee, who was closer to the action, gave him 9 rounds to 6 for Dawson. There were no knockdowns in the bout, and according to one source only one hard solid punch, a hard left to Dawson's head in the fifth. Boxing reporters already were concerned about Williams' ability to make the lightweight limit prior to his bout with Dawson, an issue that would arise again in his bout with Jimmy Carter. There were several newspaper reports that wrote of Williams' fine for informing the press of a potential bribe of the judges he claimed he had heard about in a phone call. He was fined by the boxing commission for informing the press of the possible bribe before he had first informed the commission.  On January 17, 1949, Williams first defeated Johhny Bratton by a comfortable margin in the Arena in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in a ten-round decision before a satisfied crowd of 8,000 fans. Williams had taken a two-month lay-off from his fight schedule to help heal a broken hand. The judges scored 6-2 and 7-3 for Bratton, while the referee scored a closer 5-4-1 decision. Bratton put up a defense, and even stunned Williams momentarily in the eighth with a blow to the jaw, but lacked the skills at 21 to defeat Williams. On January 20, 1950, before a crowd of 12,000 at Chicago Stadium, Williams won an eighth-round technical knockout against Bratton who was forced to leave the ring with a broken jaw. Bratton later claimed the injury took place in round three. Williams hammered his opponent particularly hard in the second and seventh rounds, and was comfortably ahead on points, losing only one of the eight rounds fought to Bratton. Bratton ended the bout by turning his back and signalling the referee to end the fight. After returning to boxing, Bratton would briefly take the NBA World Welterweight Championship in March 1951, holding it only two months.

Loss of World Lightweight Title against Jimmy Carter, May 1951.

He held on to the crown until May 25, 1951, when he was stopped by Jimmy Carter in a fourteenth-round technical knockout at New York's Madison Square Garden. Williams had been sent to the canvas four times before the fight was called. Williams was down for a count of five and eight in the fifth. He was down for a count of four and then six in the fourteenth before the referee ended the fight. Williams believed that his trouble making weight had weakened him for the fight.  Williams, for part of his career, was managed by Frank "Blinky" Palermo, who later was suspected of having ties to organized crime. According to Williams, he was blackballed by the boxing managers guild when he sought to manage himself. Palermo informed him he could resolve his problems with the guild, and Williams agreed to let Palermo manage him. Williams testified before the Kefauver Commission that Palermo did not arrange for him to throw any fights, but that he shorted him his share of his purses. Nevertheless, Williams did claim to have taken a dive against Chuck Davey, a much hyped contender for the welterweight crown.

Testifying before Congress, 1961.

In 1961 Williams testified before Congress on antitrust in boxing. In his testimony, Williams stated that all boxers are asked to take bribes and that he was boycotted as a result of trying to manage himself. He explained that he could not get a fight because he did not use a manager and that he could not book a fight until he found a manager from the manager's guild. He explained that he did not receive his share of his purse in two fights which included Jesse Flores in Yankee Stadium, for the lightweight title on September 23, 1948 and Beau Jack at Shibe Park in Philadelphia, on July 12, 1948 and September 23, 1948. In those fights the money owed him was $32,500 and $32,400. He testified he told the boxing association to temporarily hold on to the money for these two fights for tax purposes. Later when he asked for his money, he discovered that his shares of the profits had been taken by his manager, who claimed to have fallen on hard times and spent it. Williams still had to pay the taxes on his share of the profits, though he never received them.  He further testified that his manager was offered $30,000 for him to throw a championship fight against Freddy Dawson in Philadelphia on December 5, 1949, though he declined. He testified that ten minutes before the fight he heard the judges being told if he did not win by a knock out that the fight would go to Dawson. Williams won the fight and told the media afterwards that he had heard a rumor that the fight would be fixed to go to Dawson by decision of the judges if he did not win by a knockout. Williams believed that the Judges upon hearing that he called the media decided to not fix the fight by giving an unfair decision to Dawson. Nonetheless, Williams was fined $500 for his comments to the media.  Williams also recalled a fight against Kid Gavilan on January 28, 1949 at Madison Square Garden, in which he was offered $100,000 to throw the fight. Again, Ike Williams did not take the money, an action he regretted because he lost the fight even though a plurality of reporters in subsequent news stories that cover the fight believed he had won. This made Williams conclude that the judges may have also been influenced in this fight to vote for his opponent in the case of a points decision.  Williams also believed he lost his lightweight title in a bout with the boxer Jimmy Carter on May 25, 1951 in a bout where the judges were also influenced. He testified he was again offered to throw the fight, for a sum of $50,000. Again, Williams said he regretted not taking the money as he lost the fight in a similar fashion as before.  Williams testified he never took the money offered to him to fix fights because too many people were counting on him and that too many of his friends had bet their hard earned money on him.

Death at 71 in Los Angeles, 1994.

Williams died on September 5, 1994 at his home in the Wilshire District of Los Angeles of natural causes.

Boxing achievements and honors.

Williams was "The Ring" magazine's Fighter of the Year for 1948, was inducted into "The Ring" Boxing Hall of Fame (disbanded in 1987), and was an inaugural 1990 inductee to the International Boxing Hall of Fame.

Ike Williams (August 2, 1923 – September 5, 1994) was a lightweight world boxing champion. He took the World Lightweight Championship in April 1945 and made eight successful defenses of the title against six different fighters prior to losing the championship to Jimmy Carter in 1951. Williams was known for his great right hand, and was named to "The Ring" magazine's list of 100 greatest punchers of all time as well as The Ring magazine Fighter of the Year for 1948.

Ike Williams (* 2. Februar 1923 in Brunswick, Georgia; † 5. September 1994 in Los Angeles, Kalifornien) war ein US-amerikanischer Boxer.


Development History.

In 1971, the Soviet Armed Forces began investigating the possibility of an updated BTR-60PB redesigned to make the vehicle more compatible with the BMP-1 in terms of tactical training. This resulted in the development of a BTR-60PB prototype essentially converted into a wheeled infantry fighting vehicle, designated "Obiekt 50" or "GAZ-50". Despite retaining the original BTR-60PB chassis, the GAZ-50 incorporated several elements of the BMP's design, including similar seating arrangements in the passenger compartment. The revised internal layout reduced the number of passengers to nine. New hatches were also provided for debarking in the lower hull, between the second and third wheel stations. Other modifications included a slightly thicker hull, increased power-to-weight ratio, and additional firing ports. Another feature retained from the BTR-60 was the twin-engine arrangement, although in the "GAZ-50" torque produced by the right engine powered the first and third wheel stations, while the left engine powered the second and fourth. This alteration was to allow the vehicle to continue moving even if one engine failed. The prototype was armed with a turret resembling that of the BMP-1, incorporating the same 73mm 2A28 Grom low-pressure smoothbore cannon.  There was some debate as to the "GAZ-50"'s viability in its intended role; for example, projected manufacturing costs were high due to the incorporation of the BMP-1 turret and armament. Furthermore, while the prototype would allow motorized units to emulate the tactics of Soviet mechanized infantry, it simply did not offer the same protection, mobility, and firepower of the BMP. Most of the funding earmarked for the program was thus diverted into producing larger numbers of BMPs instead, as well as ensuring their wider introduction beyond Soviet tank divisions. A second GAZ-50 prototype was built, designated "Obiekt 60" mounting a 14.5mm machine gun in exactly the same turret as that carried by the BTR-60 series; this was accepted as a generic replacement for the BTR-60PB in motorized rifle regiments. In Soviet service, the new BTRs received the designation "BTR-70".  Compared to the earlier BTR-60PB, relatively small numbers of BTR-70s were produced. The design was still regarded as suffering from some of the same disadvantages, such as the two flammable petrol engines and the poor means of entry and exit. These flaws became especially evident when the vehicle was tested in combat during the Soviet–Afghan War. As a result, in 1984 the Soviet Army took delivery of a new wheeled armored personnel carrier, the BTR-80, which was powered by a single 260 horsepower diesel engine and a simpler drive train. Production of the BTR-70 was terminated that year.  The Soviet Union only exported BTR-70s to four other states: Afghanistan, the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), Hungary, and Romania, which also purchased a license to manufacture the design locally. However, many have since been inherited by the armies of various post-Soviet republics or re-exported.

Equipment.

The BTR-70 is powered by two petrol engines. Early production vehicles used 115 hp GAZ-69B 6-cylinder engines, but most vehicles have now been retrofitted with the more powerful ZMZ-49-05 V-8 engines. The vehicle is fully amphibious, propelled when afloat by a single water jet mounted at the rear of the hull. To prepare the vehicle for water, the driver erects a trim vane and switches on the bilge pumps from within the vehicle.  The standard equipment includes a central tire-pressure regulation system that allows the driver to adjust the tire-pressure to suit the terrain being crossed. Also fitted is an R-123M radio set and an R-124 intercom. The driver's optical equipment consists of three TNPO-115 vision blocks and a TNP-B day vision device, which can be replaced by a TVNO-2B night vision device. The commander also has three TNPO-115s and either a TPKU-2B day sight or a TKN-1S night sight accompanied by an OU-3GA-2 infra-red search light. The turret is fitted with a PP-61AM (or 1PZ-2) periscopic sight for the gunner and the infantry group in the troop compartment is provided with TNP-B devices. The BTR-70 also has an FVU NBC filter system and a DK-3B detection device.  The armaments consist of a KPVT heavy machine gun with 500 rounds and a coaxial 7.62 mm PKT machine gun with 2,000 rounds. Also on board are two "Igla" or "Strela-3" MANPADS, and optionally two AGS-17 grenade launchers at the expense of two infantry men.

Combat history.

The BTR-70 first saw service during the Soviet–Afghan War. A very small quantity of BTR-70s were donated or sold to the People's Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola in the mid-1980s by an undisclosed country; these saw action during the Angolan Civil War. BTR-70s were deployed by the United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR) in Bosnia-Herzegovina during the Yugoslav Wars.  BTR-70s of the Armed Forces of Ukraine have been deployed in the War in Donbass, with some being captured by pro-Russian militias of the Donetsk People's Republic.

The BTR-70 is an eight-wheeled armored personnel carrier (/"Bronetransporter", or literally "Armoured Transporter") originally developed by the Soviet Union during the late 1960s under the manufacturing code GAZ-4905. On August 21, 1972, it was accepted into Soviet service and would later be widely exported. Large quantities were also produced under license in Romania as the "TAB-77".

Der BTR-70 war ein Schützenpanzerwagen, der in der Sowjetunion entwickelt wurde. BTR ist eine Abkürzung für "Bronetransportjor", kyrillisch "Бронетранспортёр", zu deutsch gepanzerter Transporter. Das Fahrzeug wurde im Kalten Krieg in großer Zahl produziert und fand bei zahlreichen Staaten und Gruppierungen Verwendung. Unter der Bezeichnung "SPW-70" gehörte es auch zur Ausrüstung der NVA.


Geography.

Mertens is located in eastern Hill County at (32.058545, -96.894887), in Central Texas. The eastern border of the town in part is the Navarro County line. Via Highway 22, Hillsboro (the Hill county seat) is to the west and Corsicana is to the east.  According to the United States Census Bureau, Mertens has a total area of, of which, or 0.18%, are water.

Historical development.

The first settlers arrived at this location in the late 1880s. During this time, the St. Louis Southwestern Railway was constructed through the area on its way from Corsicana to Hillsboro. The town's name originated from the engineer's wife of the first train that traveled though. In 1888, the post office opened, and within four years a bank was established, with the population just above 75 residents. The International–Great Northern Railroad reached the community on its way from Italy to Malone during this time, creating a crossroads with the railways. The town became incorporated in 1914, with electric power reaching the city the year after.

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 146 people, 58 households, and 42 families residing in the town. The population density was 332.3 people per square mile (128.1/km2). There were 65 housing units at an average density of 148.0 per square mile (57.0/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 84.25% White, 4.11% Native American, 10.96% from other races, and 0.68% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 17.81% of the population.  There were 58 households out of which 27.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60.3% were married couples living together, 8.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 25.9% were non-families. 25.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 15.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.52 and the average family size was 2.98.  In the town, the population was spread out with 25.3% under the age of 18, 6.2% from 18 to 24, 24.7% from 25 to 44, 24.0% from 45 to 64, and 19.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 111.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.2 males.  The median income for a household in the town was $31,250, and the median income for a family was $36,667. Males had a median income of $29,500 versus $21,250 for females. The per capita income for the town was $13,422. There were 12.0% of families and 23.4% of the population living below the poverty line, including 51.4% of under eighteens and 13.2% of those over 64.

Education.

Mertens is served by the Frost Independent School District.

Mertens is a town in Hill County, Texas, United States. It is located along State Highway 22. The population was 125 at the 2010 census.

Mertens ist eine kleine US-amerikanische Stadt in Texas. Sie hat 146 Einwohner (Stand: Volkszählung 2000) auf einer Fläche von 1,1 km2.


History.

1930s.

The Tefifon format was developed by the German entrepreneur Dr. Karl Daniel and his "Tefi" company in 1936. A few years earlier, devices using phonographic grooved tape like the Tefifon were produced by Tefi for special purposes, like the military, and were designed for voice recording. Prior to the Tefifon's introduction, Tefi had introduced a device capable of recording and playback under the name "Tefiphon" (note the alternate spelling) and another device only capable of playback under the name "Teficord". Both use loose tape, unlike the cartridge-loaded tape of the Tefifon.

1940s.

The first Tefifon players and cartridges for home use came available in the German market towards the end of the 1940s, but could not compete with the popular phonographic disc format readily already available at the time. One reason was that well-known artists were committed exclusively by contract to major record companies, most of which had no interest in offering their artists' albums on Tefifon tapes. As a result, most Tefifon releases were of relatively unknown bands and artists. In addition, the Tefifon saw competition from phonographs equipped with record changers, some of which could allow for up to three hours of music without interruption.

1950s.

The Tefifon was offered in the 1950s as a standalone device, but also in combination with various types of radios, including portable and home models. The chassis of the radio sets were often purchased ready-made from third parties, with a Tefifon playback transport being added to it as a finished product. The sound quality of Tefifon tapes is superior to 78 rpm records made of shellac, but is still less than that of 33 rpm LP records made of vinyl. In addition, the mechanical stress on the stylus and supporting cantilever is quite strong, so this wears out relatively quickly.

1960s.

The last innovation of the Tefifon format was in 1961, with the introduction of stereo sound, but this was not commercially successful. Tefifon production at its main plant in Porz am Rhein was halted in 1965. Afterward, the rights to the name were acquired by the Neckermann mail-order company, which also took over the sale of existing Tefifon products. Even though the Tefifon was little-known outside of Germany, it was imported and sold in the United States for a very short time by Western Electric's Westrex division from 1963-1964 under the "Westrex" name.

Technical Details.

Cartridges.

Tefifon cartridges were made in 3 sizes:  The larger cartridge also had several differences from the smaller units. It featured a spring to assist in removing the tape for playback, and a plastic cover over the tape to protect it. The cartridges also have a cardboard protective case.

Playback.

A Tefifon cartridge would be inserted into the machine, with the reader tape around the turning knob. The machine would be then started. The tape would be read with a stylus, which moved across the grooves, in a manner similar to a record. However, the tape would be stored in a cartridge, like later magnetic tape systems. While there was no way of moving to a specific track, the stylus could be moved to a variety of positions on the tape.

The Tefifon is a German-developed and manufactured audio playback format that utilizes cartridges loaded with an endlessly looped reel of plastic tape. It is somewhat similar to the later 4-track and 8-track magnetic audio tape cartridges, but with grooves embossed on the tape, like a phonograph record. The grooves were embossed in a helical fashion across the width of the tape, in a manner similar to Dictaphone's Dictabelt format. The grooves are read with a stylus and amplified pickup in the player's transport. A Tefifon cartridge, known as a "Tefi", can hold up to four hours of music; therefore, most releases for the format are usually compilations of popular hits or dance music, operas and operettas. Tefifon players were not sold by television and radio dealers in Germany, but rather sold directly by special sales outlets affiliated with Tefi (the manufacturer of the format).

Das Tefifon wurde zwischen 1950 und 1965 als ein Wiedergabegerät für eine besondere Art elektromechanischer Tonträger hergestellt, die Schallbänder. Dabei handelte es sich um Kassetten mit einem endlosen Kunststoffband, in das die Tonsignale ähnlich wie bei der Schallplatte in spiralförmige Rillen eingraviert waren und von einer Abtastnadel gelesen wurden. Auf einer Tefifon-Kassette war Platz für bis zu vier Stunden Musik, daher waren auf den Schallbändern überwiegend Zusammenstellungen von Schlagern oder Tanzmusik sowie Opern und Operetten zu finden.


EFAF Cup.

Organised by EFAF, this competition was comparable to football's Europa League. American Football teams from the strongest leagues in Europe competed annually to achieve results good enough to qualify them for the EFAF Cup competition.  The format dated from 2002 and offers top-division European clubs who have not qualified for the highest level of competition (EFL) a chance to play internationally.  Participants were Champions and Vice-Champions of the "smaller" American Football nations, and those finishing just behind EFL qualification places in the "bigger" American Football leagues.  The competition was folded after the 2013 edition. The reason was, in 2014 the Big6 European Football League was established as the new top tier competition. So in fact, the EFL took the place of the EFAF Cup.

Competition format.

In the group phase, four groups consist each of three teams. Each team plays each other once and has a home game and an away game. The winners of these groups qualify directly for the semi-final phase.  Should more teams qualify for and enter the EFAF Cup competition, more groups are created and a quarter-final phase introduced.

Players.

Participating teams must submit a roster of at most 60 players to EFAF by March 31 of the competition year. These players, and no others, are permitted to play for the club within the competition that year. No changes can be made to the list.  On each game day, the roster must be reduced to 45 players who will actually participate in the game. This number must include no more than 3 "American" players. In EFAF rules an "American" is defined as a player with an American, Canadian, Mexican, or Japanese passport. There is no restriction on how many of these 3 can be on the field at the same time.

The EFAF Cup was an international competition for European American Football clubs. It was the second highest level of club competition in the European Federation of American Football (EFAF), behind the European Football League (EFL).

Der EFAF Cup war ein Europapokal-Wettbewerb im American Football. Organisiert wurde er von der European Federation of American Football (EFAF) als zusätzlicher europäischer Wettbewerb unterhalb der European Football League. Von 2002 bis 2013 wurde der Wettbewerb insgesamt zwölf Mal ausgetragen. Rekordsieger sind die Graz Giants, die dreimal den Titel erringen konnten.


Early life.

McGovern was born in Johnstown, Pennsylvania on March 9, 1880, to Irish parents. After the death of his father Joseph, he tried to help support his widowed mother by peddling vegetables after the family moved to South Brooklyn the year after he was born. Starting his professional career in 1897, several of his brothers would also attempt to make a living as boxers.  He began boxing at Brooklyn's Greenwood Athletic Club in preliminary bouts at age 16.

Professional career.

In his impressive career, McGovern took both the World Bantamweight and Featherweight Titles. He defended the World Featherweight Title at least five times against Joe Bernstein, Tommy White, Aurelio Herrera, and twice against Oscar Gardiner. He lost it to Young Corbett II who defeated him in World Featherweight Title fights on two separate occasions. His victory over Frank Erne, World Lightweight Champion, led some to claim he was also heir to the World Lightweight Title, though most sources today believe the bout was not a sanctioned title fight.  In his first 36 better-publicized bouts before taking the World Bantamweight Title, McGovern won an astounding 30, losing only to Johnny Snee and Tim Calahan. His winning streak did not end after taking the Bantamweight Title.

World Bantam Champ, 1899.

McGovern won the vacant World Bantamweight Championship on September 12, 1899, in a first-round knockout of British boxer Pedlar Palmer before a crowd of 10,000, using a series of heavy body blows. McGovern was only 19 years old and had been boxing professionally little more than two years. The bout took place at the Westchester Athletic Club in New York. The winner was to receive $7,500, and the loser $2,500, both sizable purses for the period, but far less than boxers would make for a World Title fight a decade later. The referee was George Siler. The fight was billed as the 116 pound championship. McGovern wore green trunks for the bout which he believed gave him luck. This was the first world championship bout under Queensberry Rules to end by a one-round knockout. McGovern never defended the title and relinquished it in 1900.  On November 18, 1899, he defeated New Yorker Patsy Haley in a first-round knockout in Chicago at Tattersall's in a non-title match. Like many of McGovern's early opponents, Haley was a skilled boxer, yet not a match for McGovern. Haley would become one of the best-known and most-respected New York-area referees in the 1920s and 1930s and referee an impressive array of World Title fights.

Win over Frank Erne, Lightweight Champion.

On July 16, 1900, in an important bout, McGovern defeated World Lightweight Champion Frank Erne in a third-round technical knockout before a crowd of 13,000 in New York's Madison Square Garden. Erne knocked down McGovern with a blow to the head in the very first round, but McGovern took most of the count before landing on his feet and resuming the fight. Grinning and furious, McGovern was fastest in the third round showing his signature aggressive style. Erne, was down at least twice in the third round and had received a telling blow to the face from McGovern before his seconds threw in the sponge. Upon examination after the fight, Erne was found to have the most substantial injuries to his nose and mouth. The betting on the fight remained even for a considerable time, before McGovern took a slight lead before the fight. As Erne was the reigning World Lightweight Champion as a result of just beating Joe Gans, some sources credited McGovern with having taken the World Lightweight Crown as a result of winning the match by a TKO, but very few give him credit for the title today.  On December 22, 1899, McGovern defeated Harry Forbes in what was billed by some sources as a World Featherweight match, but the bout was not widely recognized as one. McGovern knocked out Forbes in the second round at the New Broadway Athletic Club. Forbes went down after a terrific right-handed uppercut to the chin from McGovern, who was the aggressor throughout the short match. McGovern had beaten Forbes earlier in a 15th-round knockout in Brooklyn on October 1, 1898.

World Featherweight Champ, 1900.

McGovern moved up in weight from Bantam and captured the World Featherweight Championship from George Dixon on January 9, 1900, by scoring a technical knockout in the eighth round at the Broadway Athletic Club in New York. Dixon was not a favorite in the late betting. McGovern seemed to dominate from the sixth round on, using frequent straight, short-arm punches into Dixon's body and face. He eventually scored a knock down. The bout was ended when Dixon's manager threw in the sponge ending the match. The great lightweight Charlie White was in McGovern's corner for the bout. Some controversy existed among bettors when the officials ruled the fight a knockout when it technically was not, as no ten count was completed against Dixon. A betting controversy was inevitable, as one source wrote that the Dixon fight was "one of the heaviest betting bouts ever staged in America".

Defenses of Feather Title.

On June 12, 1900, McGovern defeated Tommy White at the Seaside Sporting Club in a decisive third-round knockout in Brooklyn, New York. After two minutes of fighting in the first round, the electric lighting in the club went out, nearly causing a panic among the crowd. Ten minutes later the lights went on again and the fighting resumed. An attendant fan, Frank Conlin, kept the crowd sedate by whistling a series of tunes. White was seriously outclassed in the battle, as he was knocked down once in the first round, twice in the second, and four times in the third. McGovern made no objection to White being 1/2 pound overweight at weigh in. Referee Johnny White did a full ten count against White in the third round to end the bout.  On November 2, 1900, McGovern defeated the great New York Jewish featherweight Joe Bernstein in Louisville, Kentucky, in a World Featherweight Title fight. The bout ended in a seventh-round knockout. Bernstein was said to have "made a poor showing from the beginning." The fight was stopped by the referee George Siler when Bernstein could not rise in the eight round, after more than one knockdown, and a full eight count.  McGovern scored a knockout over the legendary Black boxer Joe Gans in a non-title match on December 13, 1900. Gans claimed that he threw the fight. The issue of whether Gans had quit early and intentionally ended the fight was put to a Chicago District Attorney. Both fighters had warrants issued for their arrest for disturbing the peace which were thrown out the day after the fight.  On April 30, 1901, before a crowd of 8,000, McGovern defeated Oscar Gardiner at the Mechanics Pavilion in San Francisco in a fourth-round knockout. They fought for a purse of $5,000 with the winner taking 75 percent. In the fourth round, Gardiner was knocked down three times before losing to a ten count after a blow to the stomach. Gardiner took a while to recover from the blows of McGovern after the count, and it was feared he was hurt seriously.  In another defense of his World Featherweight Title, McGovern was credited with knocking out Aurelio Herrera in five rounds. Herrera afterwards claimed he had been doped during the fight.

Loss of Feather Title, 1901.

McGovern lost his World Featheweight Crown when he was stopped by Young Corbett II in two rounds on November 28, 1901. Corbett also won their rematch. Of their March 31, 1903, rematch in San Francisco, Young Corbett was said to have the best of the last three rounds of the 11th-round knockout. McGovern had only a slight lead in the first eight rounds, as well as only a slight lead in the early betting.  On March 14, 1906, McGovern lost a lightweight match to Battling Nelson at the National Athletic Club in Philadelphia in a six-round newspaper decision. The fight was described as "one of the fastest and most vicious battles ever seen in the ring." In both the fourth and fifth rounds Nelson staggered McGovern with heavy lefts to the neck and jaw. Although McGovern landed repeatedly on Nelson, his blows did not slow the assault of his opponent. He did not appear to gain an advantage until the sixth round when he became the aggressor. The bout could not have a referee ruling on points, but the "Minneapolis Journal" and four local Philadelphia newspapers gave Nelson the advantage.  McGovern finished his career with a record of 65 wins (42 KOs) 5 losses and 5 draws. As was common in that era, he also engaged in many No Decision bouts. In 2003, McGovern was named to the "Ring Magazine"s list of 100 greatest punchers of all time. Boxing historian Nat Fleischer ranked McGovern as the greatest featherweight of all time. He had an estimated lifetime earnings of $203,000, which included his income as a vaudeville entertainer.

Life after boxing.

Like many boxers, McGovern lost some of his fortune betting on horses at the track before his retirement from boxing. He purchased a race horse and attempted to have one of his brothers ride as a jockey. He showed increasingly poor judgement in his betting as he slipped into mental illness.  McGovern spent much of his later life in mental institutions, though he was able to intermittently work odd jobs. He was working as a ticket taker at the Grand Opera House in Brooklyn near the end of his life. Two months prior to his death he was visiting Camp Upton, a WW I military port of embarkation on Long Island when he took ill. He died of pneumonia and Bright's disease, a kidney ailment in the charity ward of King's County Hospital, Brooklyn, New York, on February 22, 1918, at the age of 38. He died relatively poor, considering his lifetime earnings. In his final years he lived on a pension given to him by his manager and promoter Sam Harris. Harris had been managing some of McGovern's remaining wealth as a trust fund, and was able to give a complete estate of $10,000 to McGovern's widow which included the home they had been living in when McGovern died. Harris looked after McGovern in his waning years, as did his friend Joe Humphries. McGovern was married and left one son, Joe, of 19 years, and had two surviving brothers, Philip and Hugh. His final service was at the Church of St. John the Evangelist, and he was subsequently buried at Holy Cross Cemetery in Brooklyn.

Terrible Terry McGovern (March 9, 1880 – February 22, 1918) was an American professional boxer who held the World Bantamweight and Featherweight Championships. He was born in Johnstown, Pennsylvania as John Terrence McGovern. Through most of his career he was managed by Sam H. Harris, who remained a lifelong friend. Many boxing historians considered McGovern's greatest attributes his punching ability and signature charges rather than his boxing style or defensive technique. That the majority of his wins were by knockout speaks to the power of his punch.

Terry McGovern (* 9. März 1880 in Johnstown, Pennsylvania als "John Terrence McGovern"; † 22. Februar 1918 in New York) war ein US-amerikanischer Boxer.


Description.

"Hediste diversicolor" can grow up to in length and may have from ninety to one hundred and twenty segments when mature. The head has a pair of palps, two pairs of antennae, four pairs of tentacles and four eyes. Each body segment has a pair of bristly appendages known as perapods which are used for walking and swimming. There is a prominent blood vessel running along the dorsal surface of the animal. This ragworm is pale brown but changes to green as the gonads mature and the breeding season approaches.

Distribution and habitat.

"Hediste diversicolor" is native to the north-east Atlantic. Its range extends from the Baltic Sea and North Sea southwards to the Azores and Mediterranean Sea. It has been introduced to the north-west Atlantic in the areas of Cobscook Bay, the Gulf of Maine and the Gulf of St Lawrence. It is plentiful on beaches of sand, muddy sand and mud, including areas of low salinity, where it lives in a semi-permanent "J"-shaped or "U"-shaped burrow and under adjoining stones in the intertidal zone.

Biology.

Examination of the contents of the gut shows that "Hediste diversicolor" is a predator and generalist scavenger, able to adapt its diet to whatever is currently available. It spins a mucus net at the entrance of its burrow in which it traps phytoplankton, zooplankton, diatoms, bacteria and other small particles. It creates a water current through its tube by writhing about inside to draw particles through the net. Periodically it rolls the net up and swallows it before spinning another. When the availability of suitably-sized food particles is low it emerges from its burrow and hunts for small invertebrates, seizing them with its strong jaws. It also eats detritus and even animal faeces. They also draw, otherwise not edible, cordgrass seeds into their burrows and let them sprout to produce high-quality food, one of the rare examples of “gardening” by animals.  The sexes are separate in "Hediste diversicolor", and the number of females heavily outweigh the number of males. As the breeding season approaches, the males, which were previously indistinguishable from the females, turn bright green. At the same time, the females turn a duller dark green on the dorsal surface with their earlier orange-brown pigmentation still showing through. Eggs develop within the female's body cavity. Histolysis then occurs and the body wall becomes brittle and eventually bursts, liberating the eggs into the burrow.  Synchronized spawning takes place in early spring, usually at the time of the new or full moon when the water has warmed up after the winter and attained a temperature above. The timing of this event varies throughout the worm's range and more southern populations mature at a year of age while more northerly ones may be three years old before they breed. The male seems to be attracted to a burrow occupied by a female by the release of a pheromone into the water. He crawls across the seabed and liberates sperm into the water just outside the entrance of the female's burrow. The sperm is drawn into the tube by the water current that the female creates by undulating her body. Here fertilisation takes place and the larvae are brooded for ten to fourteen days. Both males and females die after spawning.

Ecology.

"Hediste diversicolor" is widespread and common and is eaten by many species of birds and fish. It is the main food item for the pied avocet ("Recurvirostra avosetta"), the grey plover ("Pluvialis squatarola"), the curlew sandpiper ("Calidris ferruginea"), the bar-tailed godwit ("Limosa lapponica") and the curlew ("Numenius arquata"). Several flatfish which live on intertidal mudflats feed on the ragworm. These include the common dab ("Limanda limanda"), the common sole ("Solea solea"), the European flounder ("Platichthys flesus") and the European plaice ("Pleuronectes platessa").  "Hediste diversicolor" has been found to have a deleterious effect on the establishment of saltmarshes. When tests were undertaken in southern England on establishing the seagrass "Zostera noltei", it was found that efforts were more successful when the ragworm was excluded from the area of transplanted material. In another planting trial, the pioneering cordgrass "Spartina anglica", used to prevent coastal erosion, was similarly adversely affected. In the laboratory, ragworms were seen to pull leaves of the grasses into their burrows where they fed on them, and the disturbance to the substrate caused by their burrowing activities was also thought to contribute to the reduced establishment rates.

Uses.

"Hediste diversicolor" is used as a model laboratory animal for research. It has also been used to evaluate the quality of marine sediment because it bioaccumulates certain heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, chromium and arsenic. Anglers use it for bait when sea fishing, digging it out of the substrate with a large fork. It is also available commercially.

Hediste diversicolor, commonly known as a ragworm, is a polychaete worm in the family Nereidae. It lives in a burrow in the sand or mud of beaches and estuaries in intertidal zones in the north Atlantic. This species is used in research but its classification is in dispute and in the literature it is often classified as "Nereis diversicolor" (O.F. Müller, 1776). Its specific name "diversicolor" refers to the fact that its colour changes from brown to green as the breeding season approaches.

Der Schillernde Seeringelwurm ("Hediste diversicolor", Synonym: "Nereis diversicolor") ist ein mariner Ringelwurm aus der Gattung "Hediste" innerhalb der Vielborster-Familie der Nereididae.


Background and education.

Morley was born in Blackburn, Lancashire, the son of Jonathan Morley, a surgeon, and of Priscilla Mary (née Donkin). He was educated at Queen Elizabeth Grammar School, Blackburn, Hoole's Academy, University College School, Cheltenham College, and Lincoln College, Oxford. While at Oxford, he quarrelled with his father over religion, and had to leave the University early without an honours degree; his father had wanted him to become a clergyman. He wrote, in obvious allusion to this rift, "On Compromise" (1874).

Journalism.

Morley was called to the bar by Lincoln's Inn in 1873, before deciding to pursue a career in journalism. He later described his decision to abandon the law "my long enduring regret". He was the editor of the "Fortnightly Review" from 1867 to 1882 and of the Pall Mall Gazette from 1880 to 1883 before going into politics.

Political career.

Morley first stood for Parliament at the Blackburn by-election in 1869, a rare double by-election held after an election petition led to the results of the 1868 general election in Blackburn being voided. He was unsuccessful in Blackburn, and also failed to win a seat when he contested the City of Westminster at the 1880 general election.  Morley was then elected as Liberal Member of Parliament (MP) for Newcastle upon Tyne at a by-election in February 1883.

Morley and Newcastle.

Morley was a prominent Gladstonian Liberal. In Newcastle, his constituency association chairman was the effective Robert Spence Watson, a leader of the National Liberal Federation and its chairman from 1890 to 1902. Newcastle, however, was a dual member constituency and Morley's parliamentary colleague, Joseph Cowen, was a radical in perpetual conflict with the Liberal Party, who owned the "Newcastle Chronicle." Cowen attacked Morley from the left, and sponsored working men candidates on his retirement from the seat, showing favour to the local Tory candidate, Charles Frederic Hamond. Morley, with Watson's machine, withstood the Cowen challenge until the 1895 general election, when the tactics caused the ejection of Morley and the loss of Newcastle to the Tories.

Chief Secretary for Ireland, 1886, 1892–95.

In February 1886, he was sworn to the Privy Council and made Chief Secretary for Ireland, only to be turned out when Gladstone's government fell over Home Rule in July of the same year and Lord Salisbury became Prime Minister. After the severe defeat of the Gladstonian party at the 1886 general election, Morley divided his life between politics and letters until Gladstone's return to power at the 1892 general election, when he resumed as Chief Secretary for Ireland.  He had during the interval taken a leading part in parliament, but his tenure of the chief secretaryship of Ireland was hardly a success. The Irish gentry made things as difficult for him as possible, and the path of an avowed Home Ruler installed in office at Dublin Castle was beset with pitfalls. In the internecine disputes that agitated the Liberal party during Lord Rosebery's administration and afterwards, Morley sided with Sir William Harcourt and was the recipient and practically co-signatory of his letter resigning the Liberal leadership in December 1898. He lost his seat in the 1895 general election but soon found another in Scotland, when he was elected at a by-election in February 1896 for the Montrose Burghs.

Opposition to eight hours working day.

From 1889 onwards, Morley resisted the pressure from labour leaders in Newcastle to support a maximum working day of eight hours enforced by law. Morley objected to this because it would interfere in natural economic processes. It would be "thrusting an Act of Parliament like a ramrod into all the delicate and complex machinery of British industry". For example, an Eight Hours Bill for miners would impose on an industry with great diversity in local and natural conditions a universal regulation. He further argued that it would be wrong to "enable the Legislature, which is ignorant of these things, which is biased in these things—to give the Legislature the power of saying how many hours a day a man shall or shall not work".  Morley told trade unionists that the only right way to limit working hours was through voluntary action from them. His outspokenness against any eight hours bill, rare among politicians, brought him the hostility of labour leaders. In September 1891, two mass meetings saw labour leaders such as John Burns, Keir Hardie and Robert Blatchford all called for action against Morley. In the election of 1892, Morley did not face a labour candidate but the Eight Hours League and the Social Democratic Federation supported the Unionist candidate. Morley kept his seat but came second to the Unionist candidate. When Morley was appointed to the government and the necessary by-election ensued, Hardie and other socialists advised working men to vote for the Unionist candidate (who supported an Eight Hours Bill for miners), but the Irish vote in Newcastle rallied to Morley and he comfortably kept his seat. After a vote on an Eight Hours Bill in the Commons in March 1892, Morley wrote: "That has taken place which I apprehended. The Labour party—that is, the most headstrong and unscrupulous and shallow of those who speak for labour—has captured the Liberal party. Even worse—the Liberal party, on our bench at any rate, has surrendered "sans phrase", without a word of explanation or vindication".

Ideological views.

In 1880, Morley wrote to Auberon Herbert, an extreme opponent of state intervention, that "I am afraid that I do not agree with you as to paternal government. I am no partisan of a policy of incessant meddling with individual freedom, but I do strongly believe that in so populous a society as ours now is, you may well have a certain protection thrown over classes of men and women who are unable to protect themselves". In 1885, Morley spoke out against those Liberals who believed that all state intervention was wrong and proclaimed: "I am not prepared to allow that the Liberty and the Property Defence League are the only people with a real grasp of Liberal principles, that Lord Bramwell and the Earl of Wemyss are the only Abdiels of the Liberal Party". Later that year Morley defined his politics: "I am a cautious Whig by temperament, I am a Liberal by training, and I am a thorough Radical by observation and experience".  By the mid-1890s, Morley adopted a doctrinaire opposition to state intervention in social and economic matters. He repeatedly expressed his hope that social reform would not become a party issue and warned voters to "Beware of any State action which artificially disturbs the basis of work and wages". Politicians could not "insure steady work and good wages" because of "great economic tides and currents flowing which were beyond the control of any statesman, Government, or community". Morley also opposed the state providing benefits for sections or classes of the community as the government should not be used as a tool for sectional or class interests. The Unionist government had proposed to help farmers by assuming some of their rates and wanted to subsidise West Indian sugar producers. Morley viewed these as dangerous precedents of "distributing public money for the purposes of a single class" and he asked voters: "How far are you going to allow this to take you?... If you are going to give grants to help profits, how are you off from giving grants in favour of aiding wages?" The end of this process, Morley warned, would see "national workshops to which anybody has a right to go and receive money out of your pockets".  Morley viewed imperialism and an interventionist foreign policy as increasing the power of the state. The increase in state expenditure due to the Boer War (1899–1902) disturbed him because it might lead to the state's revenue-raising power being used to implement great changes in the social and economic structure of the country. Francis Hirst recorded in October 1899 about Morley: "He is depressed about national expenditure. He fears, when bad times come, that we shall have not retrenchment, but 'nefarious attacks on property and reversions to Fair Trade'." Imperialism and the increasing expenditure needed to fund it would lead to a reconstruction of the income tax and in turn would lead to taxing some people more heavily than others, something which was against the "maxims of public equity". Morley now regretted Gladstone's budget of 1853 (where the income tax was set "on its legs") because it gave the Chancellor of the Exchequer "a reservoir out of which he could draw with ease and certainty whatever was asked for". Gladstone had "furnished not only the means, but a "direct incentive" to that policy of expenditure which it was the great object of his life to check". After Joseph Chamberlain came out in favour of Tariff Reform in 1903, Morley defended Free Trade. Morley claimed that it was no coincidence that since the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846, Britain was the only great country in Western Europe not to experience "even a shadow of a civil convulsion". Protectionism was conducive to social distress, political corruption and political unrest.  Morley's great speech at Manchester, in 1899, raises him to a special level amongst masters of English rhetoric:You may make thousands of women widows and thousands of children fatherless. It will be wrong. You may add a new province to your empire. It will still be wrong. You may increase the shares of Mr Rhodes and his Chartereds beyond the dreams of avarice. Yea, and it will still be wrong!  Morley was among the original recipients of the Order of Merit in the 1902 Coronation Honours list published on 26 June 1902, and received the order from King Edward VII at Buckingham Palace on 8 August 1902. In July 1902, he was presented by Andrew Carnegie with the late Lord Acton's valuable library, which, on 20 October, he in turn gave to the University of Cambridge.

Secretary of State for India.

When Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman formed his cabinet at the end of 1905, Morley was made Secretary of State for India. He would have preferred to have been Chancellor of the Exchequer. In this position, he was conspicuous in May 1907 and afterwards for his firmness in sanctioning extreme measures for dealing with the outbreak in India of alarming symptoms of sedition. Though he was strongly opposed by some of the more extreme members of the Radical party, on the ground of belying his democratic principles in dealing with the British Raj, his action was generally recognised as combining statesmanship with patience. While firmly opposing revolutionary propaganda, he showed his popular sympathies by appointing two distinguished native Indians to the council and taking steps for a decentralisation of the administrative government. When Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman resigned in 1908 and H. H. Asquith became Prime Minister, Morley retained his post in the new cabinet; but it was thought advisable to relieve him of the burden imposed by a seat in the House of Commons, and he was transferred to the Upper House, being created a peer with the title of Viscount Morley of Blackburn, in the County Palatine of Lancaster. He was the first peer to turn down a coat of arms.  In September 1906, Morley wrote favourably for staunch resistance to the railway workers agitation for higher wages. Failure to do so would damage the Liberal Party with the middle class because "railways are the middle class investment... if anybody thinks we can govern this country against the middle class, he is wrong". In 1909 the Liberal Chancellor David Lloyd George increased taxes in his budget (the "People's Budget") to pay for increased armaments and social reform. Morley said that behind the budget "hangs the spectre of Tariff Reform" because the public ""may" say that, if this is the best that can be done under Free Trade, they'll try something else". Morley viewed "the Expenditure of the country" as "the most formidable of our standing problems".

Lord President of the Council.

As a member of the House of Lords, Lord Morley helped assure the passage of the Parliament Act 1911, which eliminated the Lords' power to veto bills. From 1910 until the outbreak of the Great War Morley was Lord President of the Council.  In the lead-up to Great Britain's entry into World War I, on 2 August 1914 the Liberal cabinet declared its intention to defend the French coast against the German Navy. With this commitment, Morley resigned along with John Burns. Unlike other Liberals he was not alarmed by Germany's invasion of Belgium. However, he was especially hostile to Russia and felt he could not be a part of a war alongside Russia against Germany.

Retirement.

In 1917, Morley published his two volumes of memoirs, "Recollections". In it, he contrasted old and new Liberalism:  The theory of new Liberalism did not seem much more piquant or fertile than the respectable old. As it happened, in the fulness of time our distinguished apostles of Efficiency came into supreme power, with a share in the finest field for efficient diplomacy and an armed struggle, that could have been imagined. Unhappily they broke down, or thought they had (1915), and could discover no better way out of their scrape than to seek deliverance (not without a trace of arbitrary proscription) from the opposing party that counted Liberalism, old or new, for dangerous and deluding moonshine.  During his retirement, Morley kept an interest in politics. He said to his friend John Morgan on 15 February 1918:  I'm sick of Wilson... He hailed the Russian Revolution six months ago as the new Golden Age, and I said to Page, 'What does he know of Russia?' to which Page replied, 'Nothing'. As for his talk about a union of hearts after the war, "the world is not made like that".  This led Morgan to ask Morley about the League of Nations: "A mirage, and an old one". Morgan asked: "How are you going to enforce it?", whereupon Morley replied: "How indeed? One may as well talk of London morality being due to the Archbishop of Canterbury. But take away Scotland Yard!" When asked in 1919 about the Covenant of the League of Nations Morley said: "I have not read it, and I don't intend to read it. It's not worth the paper it's written on. To the end of time it'll always be a case of 'Thy head or my head'. I've no faith in these schemes". When a prominent Liberal praised someone as "a good European" Morley remarked: "When I lay me down at night or rise in the morning I do not ask myself if I am a good European". Towards the close of 1919 he was worried about Britain's guarantee to France:  Surely a permanent commitment like that is contrary to all our foreign policy. What do the words 'unprovoked attack' by Germany mean? They are dangerously vague. I've been discussing them with Rosebery and he is as uneasy as I am. He wrote a letter to the Press about it, and the "Times" refused to publish it.  He often criticised Labour Party policies and said to Morgan: "Have you read Henderson's speech about a capital levy? It's rank piracy". During a discussion on 6 May 1919 Morley remarked: "I see Lloyd George has invited the Irish "republicans" to a conference. It's an act of inconceivable folly—he, the King's Prime Minister!" When the House of Lords were debating the Fourth Home Rule Bill Morley said to Morgan on 6 January 1921:  I should have liked to have been there if only to have got up and said, 'If Mr. G's Home Rule Bill had been passed 30 years ago could Ireland have been worse than now? Would it have not been better?' And then fallen dead like Lord Chatham.  On 1 May 1921, Morley said: "If I were an Irishman I should be a Sinn Feiner". When asked by Morgan: "And a Republican?" Morley said "No".  He liked Winston Churchill and said to Morgan on 22 December 1921:  I foresee the day when Birkenhead will be Prime Minister in the Lords with Winston leading the Commons. They will make a formidable pair. Winston tells me Birkenhead has the best brain in England... But I don't like Winston's habit of writing articles, as a Minister, on debatable questions of foreign policy in the newspapers. These allocutions of his are contrary to all Cabinet principles. Mr. G. would never have allowed it.  In a letter to Sir Francis Webster in 1923, Morley wrote:  Present party designations have become empty of all contents... Vastly extended State expenditure, vastly increased demands from the taxpayer who has to provide the money, social reform regardless of expense, cash exacted from the taxpayer already at his wits' end—when were the problems of "plus" and "minus" more desperate? How are we to measure the use and abuse of industrial organization? Powerful orators find "Liberty" the true keyword, but then I remember hearing from a learned student that of "liberty" he knew well over two hundred definitions. Can we be sure that the "haves" and the "have-nots" will agree in their selection of the right one? We can only trust to the growth of responsibility; we may look to circumstances and events to teach their lesson.

Literature.

Morley devoted a considerable amount of time to literature, his anti-Imperial views being practically swamped by the overwhelming predominance of Unionism and Imperialism. His position as a leading British writer had early been determined by his monographs on Voltaire (1872), Rousseau (1873), Diderot and the Encyclopaedists (1878), Burke (1879), and Walpole (1889). Burke as the champion of sound policy in America and of justice in India, Walpole as the pacific minister understanding the true interests of his country, fired his imagination. "Burke" was Morley's contribution to Macmillan's "English Men of Letters" series of literary biographies, of which Morley himself was general editor between 1878 and 1892; he edited a second series of these volumes from 1902 to 1919. The "Life of Cobden" (1881) is an able defence of that statesman's views rather than a critical biography or a real picture of the period.  The "Life of Oliver Cromwell" (1900) revised Gardiner as Gardiner had revised Carlyle. Morley's contributions to political journalism and to literary, ethical and philosophical criticism were numerous and valuable. They show great individuality of character, and recall the personality of John Stuart Mill, with whose mode of thought he had many affinities. After the death of Gladstone, Morley was principally engaged upon his biography, until it was published in 1903. Representing as it does so competent a writer's sifting of a mass of material, the "Life of Gladstone" was a masterly account of the career of the great Liberal statesman; traces of Liberal bias were inevitable but are rarely manifest; and in spite of the "a priori" unlikelihood of a full appreciation of Gladstone's powerful religious interests from such a quarter (Morley was an agnostic), the whole treatment is characterized by sympathy and judgement. The work was very successful, selling more than 25,000 copies in its first year.  Morley was a Trustee of the British Museum from 1894 to 1921, Honorary Professor of Ancient Literature at the Royal Academy of Arts, and member of the Historical Manuscripts Commission. He was Chancellor of the Victoria University of Manchester from 1908 until 1923, when he resigned. He was nominated for a Nobel prize in literature eleven times. He received an honorary degree (LL.D.) from the University of St Andrews in October 1902.

Legacy.

A philosophical Radical of a somewhat mid-19th century type, and highly suspicious of the later opportunistic reaction (in all its forms) against Cobdenite principles, he yet retained the respect of the majority whom it was his usual fate to find against him in British politics by the indomitable consistency of his principles and by sheer force of character and honesty of conviction and utterance. His legacy was a purely moral one; although in May 1870 he married Mrs. Rose Mary Ayling, the union produced no heirs. Mrs. Ayling was already married when she met John Morley and the couple waited to marry until her first husband died several years later (another similarity to John Stuart Mill). She was never received into polite society, and many of his colleagues, including Asquith, never met her. Morley had three siblings, Edward Sword Morley (1828–1901), William Wheelhouse Morley (1840 – c. 1870), and Grace Hannah Morley (1842–1925).  According to historian Stanley Wolpert in his 1967 book: "It is hardly exaggeration to speculate that, but for the socially unpardonable circumstances surrounding his marriage, Morley might well have become Britain's foreign secretary, possibly even prime minister". After more than 50 years of a quietly secluded personal life, Lord Morley died of heart failure at his home, Flowermead, Wimbledon Park, south London, on 23 September 1923, aged eighty-four, when the viscountcy became extinct. After cremation at Golders Green Crematorium, his ashes were buried at Putney Vale Cemetery. He was followed in death several months later by Rose. Morley's estate was probated at £59,765, a surprising sum for a self-made man who devoted his life to writing and politics.  Morley inspired many leading figures of the 20th century, including Mahomed Ali Jinnah, the founding father of Pakistan. The Austrian classical liberal theorist Friedrich Hayek, writing in 1944, wrote this about Morley's reputation:  It is scarcely an exaggeration to say that the more typically English a writer on political or social problems then appeared to the world, the more he is to-day forgotten in his own country. Men like Lord Morley... who were then admired in the world at large as outstanding examples of the political wisdom of liberal England, are to the present generation largely obsolete Victorians.

John Morley, 1st Viscount Morley of Blackburn, (24 December 1838 – 23 September 1923) was a British Liberal statesman, writer and newspaper editor.

John Morley, 1. Viscount Morley of Blackburn, OM, PC (* 24. Dezember 1838 in Blackburn, Lancashire; † 23. September 1923 in Flowermead, Wimbledon Park, London) war ein britischer Staatsmann, Biograph, Literaturkritiker und Publizist.


Parameters.

Onset.

The onset of natural convection is determined by the Rayleigh number (Ra). This dimensionless number is given by  where  Natural convection will be more likely and/or more rapid with a greater variation in density between the two fluids, a larger acceleration due to gravity that drives the convection, and/or a larger distance through the convecting medium. Convection will be less likely and/or less rapid with more rapid diffusion (thereby diffusing away the gradient that is causing the convection) and/or a more viscous (sticky) fluid.  For thermal convection due to heating from below, as described in the boiling pot above, the equation is modified for thermal expansion and thermal diffusivity. Density variations due to thermal expansion are given by:  where  The general diffusivity, formula_5, is redefined as a thermal diffusivity, formula_12.  Inserting these substitutions produces a Rayleigh number that can be used to predict thermal convection.

Turbulence.

The tendency of a particular naturally convective system towards turbulence relies on the Grashof number (Gr).  In very sticky, viscous fluids (large "ν"), fluid movement is restricted, and natural convection will be non-turbulent.  Following the treatment of the previous subsection, the typical fluid velocity is of the order of formula_16, up to a numerical factor depending on the geometry of the system. Therefore, Grashof number can be thought of as Reynolds number with the velocity of natural convection replacing the velocity in Reynolds number's formula. However In practice, when referring to the Reynolds number, it is understood that one is considering forced convection, and the velocity is taken as the velocity dictated by external constraints (see below).

Behavior.

The Grashof number can be formulated for natural convection occurring due to a concentration gradient, sometimes termed thermo-solutal convection. In this case, a concentration of hot fluid diffuses into a cold fluid, in much the same way that ink poured into a container of water diffuses to dye the entire space. Then:  Natural convection is highly dependent on the geometry of the hot surface, various correlations exist in order to determine the heat transfer coefficient. A general correlation that applies for a variety of geometries is  The value of f(Pr) is calculated using the following formula  Nu is the Nusselt number and the values of Nu and the characteristic length used to calculate Ra are listed below (see also Discussion): Warning: The values indicated for the Horizontal cylinder are wrong; see discussion.

Natural convection from a vertical plate.

In this system heat is transferred from a vertical plate to a fluid moving parallel to it by natural convection. This will occur in any system wherein the density of the moving fluid varies with position. These phenomena will only be of significance when the moving fluid is minimally affected by forced convection.  When considering the flow of fluid is a result of heating, the following correlations can be used, assuming the fluid is an ideal diatomic, has adjacent to a vertical plate at constant temperature and the flow of the fluid is completely laminar.  Nu = 0.478(Gr)  Mean Nusselt number = Nu = hL/k  where  Grashof number = Gr = formula_20  where  When the flow is turbulent different correlations involving the Rayleigh Number (a function of both the Grashof number and the Prandtl number) must be used.  Note that the above equation differs from the usual expression for Grashof number because the value formula_9 has been replaced by its approximation formula_22, which applies for ideal gases only (a reasonable approximation for air at ambient pressure).

Pattern formation.

Convection, especially Rayleigh–Bénard convection, where the convecting fluid is contained by two rigid horizontal plates, is a convenient example of a pattern-forming system.  When heat is fed into the system from one direction (usually below), at small values it merely diffuses ("conducts") from below upward, without causing fluid flow. As the heat flow is increased, above a critical value of the Rayleigh number, the system undergoes a bifurcation from the stable "conducting" state to the "convecting" state, where bulk motion of the fluid due to heat begins. If fluid parameters other than density do not depend significantly on temperature, the flow profile is symmetric, with the same volume of fluid rising as falling. This is known as Boussinesq convection.  As the temperature difference between the top and bottom of the fluid becomes higher, significant differences in fluid parameters other than density may develop in the fluid due to temperature. An example of such a parameter is viscosity, which may begin to significantly vary horizontally across layers of fluid. This breaks the symmetry of the system, and generally changes the pattern of up- and down-moving fluid from stripes to hexagons, as seen at right. Such hexagons are one example of a convection cell.  As the Rayleigh number is increased even further above the value where convection cells first appear, the system may undergo other bifurcations, and other more complex patterns, such as spirals, may begin to appear.

Water convection at freezing temperatures.

Water is a fluid that does not obey the Boussinesq approximation. This is because its density varies nonlinearly with temperature, which causes its thermal expansion coefficient to be inconsistent near freezing temperatures. The density of water reaches a maximum at 4 °C and decreases as the temperature deviates. This phenomenon is investigated by experiment and numerical methods. Water is initially stagnant at 10 °C within a square cavity. It is differentially heated between the two vertical walls, where the left and right walls are held at 10 °C and 0 °C, respectively. The density anomaly manifests in its flow pattern. As the water is cooled at the right wall, the density increases, which accelerates the flow downward. As the flow develops and the water cools further, the decrease in density causes a recirculation current at the bottom right corner of the cavity.  Another case of this phenomenon is the event of super-cooling, where the water is cooled to below freezing temperatures but does not immediately begin to freeze. Under the same conditions as before, the flow is developed. Afterward, the temperature of the right wall is decreased to −10 °C. This causes the water at that wall to become supercooled, create a counter-clockwise flow, and initially overpower the warm current. This plume is caused by a delay in the nucleation of the ice. Once ice begins to form, the flow returns to a similar pattern as before and the solidification propagates gradually until the flow is redeveloped.

Mantle convection.

Convection within Earth's mantle is the driving force for plate tectonics. Mantle convection is the result of a thermal gradient: the lower mantle is hotter than the upper mantle, and is therefore less dense. This sets up two primary types of instabilities. In the first type, plumes rise from the lower mantle, and corresponding unstable regions of lithosphere drip back into the mantle. In the second type, subducting oceanic plates (which largely constitute the upper thermal boundary layer of the mantle) plunge back into the mantle and move downwards towards the core-mantle boundary. Mantle convection occurs at rates of centimeters per year, and it takes on the order of hundreds of millions of years to complete a cycle of convection.  Neutrino flux measurements from the Earth's core (see kamLAND) show the source of about two-thirds of the heat in the inner core is the radioactive decay of K, uranium and thorium. This has allowed plate tectonics on Earth to continue far longer than it would have if it were simply driven by heat left over from Earth's formation; or with heat produced from gravitational potential energy, as a result of physical rearrangement of denser portions of the Earth's interior toward the center of the planet (i.e., a type of prolonged falling and settling).

Natural convection is a type of flow, of motion of a liquid such as water or a gas such as air, in which the fluid motion is not generated by any external source (like a pump, fan, suction device, etc.) but by some parts of the fluid being heavier than other parts. The driving force for natural convection is gravity. For example if there is a layer of cold dense air on top of hotter less dense air, gravity pulls more strongly on the denser layer on top, so it falls while the hotter less dense air rises to take its place. This creates circulating flow: convection. As it relies of gravity, there is no convection in free-fall (inertial) environments, such as that of the orbiting International Space Station. Natural convection can occur when there are hot and cold regions of either air or water, because both water and air become less dense as they are heated. But, for example, in the world's oceans it also occurs due to salt water being heavier than fresh water, so a layer of salt water on top of a layer of fresher water will also cause convection.

Bei natürlicher oder auch freier Konvektion strömt ein Fluid aufgrund von im System vorhandenen Druckunterschieden, die durch ein Schwerkraftfeld hervorgerufen werden, wenn es im Fluid Bereiche unterschiedlicher Dichte gibt. Wenn es dabei zu einem geschlossenen Kreislauf kommt, spricht man von "Schwerkraftzirkulation" (siehe Kamineffekt).


Description.

Background.

The Royal Yugoslav Navy operated a series of seaplane bases on the Dalmatian Coast before World War II and decided that it needed a ship to transport seaplanes between them and to rescue downed aircraft after operations as had been common during World War I. It decided on the smallest possible ship that could carry supplies and spare parts for ten seaplanes.

General characteristics.

"Zmaj" was long overall. She had a beam of and, at deep load, a draft of. She displaced at standard load. Her two propellers were powered by a pair of eight-cylinder, four-stroke MAN Diesel engines that had a maximum output of. This was enough to propel her to a speed of. She carried a total of of fuel which gave her a range of. She lacked a traditional funnel as her engine uptakes were taken up through the lattice mainmast.  The ship was fitted with two single 55-caliber Škoda anti-aircraft (AA) guns, one each mounted on the forecastle and the stern. They had a maximum elevation of +85° and fired a shell at a muzzle velocity of. The guns had a rate of fire of 12 rounds per minute and had a maximum ceiling of. Four 67-caliber Škoda AA guns were mounted between the bridge and the mainmast in a twin-gun mount on each side of the ship amidships. They fired a shell at a muzzle velocity of. After her 1937 conversion to a minelayer, "Zmaj" carried 100 mines.  A single disassembled de Havilland DH.60 Moth floatplane was stored in the aircraft hold between the forward superstructure and the mainmast. Its components would be moved from the hold by the aircraft crane to the after deck where it could be assembled. Then the aircraft would be swayed over the side where it could be launched.

Construction.

"Zmaj" was built by Deutsche Werft in Hamburg, Germany. Due to the restrictions of the Versailles Treaty, she had to be built as an unarmed auxiliary. Her keel was laid down in 1928 and she was launched on 22 June 1929. While en route to Yugoslavia she had a severe engine fire on 9 September 1929 off Flushing, Netherlands and was forced to return to Hamburg for repairs. These took almost a year and she was accepted by the Royal Yugoslav Navy on 20 August 1930. She was finally commissioned in 1931 after she was armed and finished fitting-out in Kotor.

Service.

"Zmaj" appears to have been little used in her intended role; only her salvage of an upside-down Dornier Wal in the Bay of Kotor in 1936 has been confirmed. This may be why she was converted to a minelayer the following year. Following her conversion she made port visits to Piraeus and Istanbul, accompanied by the destroyer and the submarines and. "Zmaj" served as the fleet flagship in 1939 and witnessed the new destroyer run aground and sink in January 1940 at the narrow entrance to Sebenico harbor. Shortly before the German invasion of Yugoslavia on 6 April 1941 "Zmaj" laid defensive minefields along the Dalmatian Coast and off the main ports. These minefields may have caused the loss of the Yugoslav passenger ships SS "Karađorđe" and SS "Prestolonaslednik Petar" off Zlarin. "Zmaj" was captured in Split by the Germans on 17 April.  Renamed as "Drache" ("Dragon") by the Germans she was initially used in support of Luftwaffe seaplane units, but was redesignated as an aircraft rescue ship () on 7 August 1941. Her armament was increased by two and one anti-aircraft guns as well as racks for a dozen depth charges. She was transferred on 27 December to the Aegean and reclassified as a troop transport. "Drache" was modified at Trieste between April and August 1942 for service as a minelayer. Her existing armament was replaced by two, five and six 2 cm AA guns. She was equipped with four mine rails on her after deck that could accommodate up to 120 mines and another 120 mines could be carried internally. Her crane was replaced by two derricks and the lattice mainmast was plated over and resembled a funnel. A platform was built behind the funnel above the main deck. "Drache" was recommissioned on 20 August 1942 and she was renamed "Schiff 50" on 6 November. She conducted a number of minelaying operations in the Aegean as well as some of the west coast of Greece. After the surrender of Italy in September 1943 she was used to carry troops to reconquer the island of Kos on 2–3 October (Operation Eisbär). On 8 October she was unsuccessfully attacked by the British submarine although her companion, the, was sunk. "Drache"s most successful operation was a mine barrage laid just east of the islands of Pserimos and Kalymnos to protect German troops during the Battle of Leros. The British destroyer and the, carrying supplies and reinforcements for the British forces on Leros, ran into this minefield on the evening of 22 October. "Adrias" had her bow blown off and "Hurworth" was sunk attempting to come to the aid of "Adrias". "Adrias", however, was eventually able to make it back to Alexandria. Two nights later the destroyer encountered the same minefield while carrying reinforcements to Leros. She hit a mine, broke in two, and sank in five minutes.  "Drache" was also used for shipboard trials with the Flettner Fl 282 "Kolibri" (Hummingbird) helicopter. She embarked the V6 and V10 prototypes for a period in 1942 and in January–February 1943. They used the small platform abaft the funnel to take-off and land. The "Kriegsmarine" (German navy) wished to evaluate their potential for anti-submarine warfare and mine reconnaissance, but visual detection proved to be possible only in clear weather. The ship was attacked by Allied aircraft several times in 1943 and early 1944, but she was only lightly damaged on two occasions. Nonetheless her anti-aircraft armament was augmented during 1944. One quadruple 2 cm Flakvierling 38 mount was installed on each side of the bridge and she carried a total of thirteen 2 cm guns. Her 10.5 cm guns were exchanged for lighter guns to compensate for the increased top weight. However this proved to be insufficient to save "Drache" when she was attacked by several British Bristol Beaufighters of No. 252 Squadron RAF on the afternoon of 22 September 1944 while anchored in Vathy harbor on the Greek island of Samos. She was set on fire, exploded and sank two hours later; eleven of her crew, including the commander Joachim Wünning, died during the attack. She was scrapped in place after the end of the war.

The Yugoslav minelayer "Zmaj" (Dragon) was built in Germany as a seaplane tender for the Royal Yugoslav Navy in 1928–1930. She does not appear to have been much used in that role and was converted to a minelayer in 1937. Captured by the Germans when they invaded Yugoslavia in 1941, the ship was renamed and redesignated as an aircraft tender and later as a troop transport, before she was rebuilt as a minelayer in 1942. laid one minefield in 1943 that sank two Allied destroyers and badly damaged a third in the Aegean Sea. was also used by the Germans to evaluate the shipboard use of helicopters for reconnaissance purposes. She was sunk by Allied aircraft in 1944 at Samos and scrapped in place after the end of World War II.

Die Zmaj (, ) war ein U-Boot-Begleit- und Wasserflugzeugmutterschiff der Marine Jugoslawiens. Das Schiff wurde im April 1941 bei der deutschen Invasion Jugoslawiens erbeutet und dann in der Kriegsmarine unter dem Namen Drache eingesetzt.


History.

The cathedral has been destroyed and rebuilt several times because of earthquakes and eruptions of the nearby Mount Etna. It was originally constructed in 1078-1093, on the ruins of the ancient Roman Achillean Baths, by order of Roger I of Sicily, who had conquered the city from the Islamic emirate of Sicily. At the time it had the appearance of a fortified church ("ecclesia munita").  In 1169 it was almost entirely destroyed by an earthquake, leaving only the apse area intact. Further damage was caused by a fire in 1169, but the most catastrophic event was the 1693 earthquake, which again left it mostly in ruins. It was subsequently rebuilt in Baroque style.  Today, traces of the original Norman edifice include part of the transept, the two towers and the three semicircular apses, composed of large lava stones, most of them recovered from imperial Roman buildings.

Exterior.

The current appearance of the cathedral dates from the work in 1711 of Gian Battista Vaccarini, who designed a new Baroque façade after the 1693 earthquake. It has three levels with Corinthian columns in granite, perhaps taken from the Roman Theatre of the city. All the orders are decorated with marble statues of Saint Agatha over the gate, Saint Euplius on the right and Saint Birillus on the left. The main door, in wood, has 32 sculpted plaques with episodes of the life and martyrdom of Saint Agatha, papal coats of arms and symbols of Christianity.  The dome dates from 1802. The bell tower was originally erected in 1387, with a height of some 70 meters. In 1662 a clock was added, the structure reaching 90 meters. After the destruction of 1693 it was rebuilt, with the addition of a 7.5 t bell, the third largest in Italy after those in St. Peter's Basilica and in Milan Cathedral.  The parvise is accessed through a marble façade culminating in a wrought iron... decorated with 10 bronze statues of saints. The parvise is separated from the cathedral square by a balustrade in white stone, featuring five large statues of saints in Carrara marble.

Interior.

The cathedral has a Latin cross groundplan, with a nave and two aisles. In the southern aisle are the baptistery and, at the first altar, a canvas of Saint Febronia of Nisibis by Borremans facing, on a pilaster, the tomb of the composer Vincenzo Bellini. Also on a pilaster between this aisle and the nave is the Baroque monument of Bishop Pietro Galletti. Also notable is the Chapel of St. Agatha.  The apse dates back to the original 12th-century construction: it features a medieval mullioned window and a late-16th-century choir by the Neapolitan artist Scipione di Guido. At the end of the north transept is the Chapel of the Holy Crucifix, by Domenico Mazzola (1577). It houses the tombs of members of the Aragonese branch of Sicily, including Kings Frederick III and Louis, John of Randazzo, and Constance.  The northern aisle has several 17th-century paintings of saints, including one by Borremans.

Catania Cathedral (), dedicated to Saint Agatha, is a Roman Catholic cathedral in Catania, Sicily, southern Italy. It was the seat of the Bishops of Catania until 1859, when the diocese was elevated to an archdiocese, and since then has been the seat of the Archbishops of Catania.

Die Kathedrale Sant’Agata in Catania ist die Kathedrale des Erzbistums Catania, einer zur Kirchenregion Sizilien gehörenden Diözese der römisch-katholischen Kirche. Die Kathedrale liegt an der Ostseite der Piazza Duomo und ist der heiligen Agatha geweiht, der Schutzpatronin Catanias.