History.

Early years.

Albion Rovers were formed in 1882 from a merger of the two Coatbridge sides Albion FC and Rovers FC, and played at Meadow Park from that year. The club joined the Scottish Football League Second Division in 1903 along with Ayr Parkhouse following a small expansion in numbers. Rovers settled into the League reasonably well, albeit without ever clinching promotion. By 1915 the Scottish Football League had been merged into a single division structure, with the second division scrapped. The Rovers moved to join the Western Football League and, whilst members of this set-up, moved to their current Cliftonhill home in 1919. They were close to returning to the Scottish League in 1917 but lost out in a vote amongst Clydebank, Vale of Leven and Stevenston United.

Return to the League.

With their new stadium completed, Rovers returned to the single division Scottish League for the 1919–20 season. Although they finished rock bottom that season the club also enjoyed possibly their finest hour when they defeated Rangers in the semi-final of the Scottish Cup, before losing 3–2 to Kilmarnock in the Final. Local folklore has it that Rovers' goalkeeper Joe Shortt had to be bailed out of police custody on the morning of the Final and that his subsequent performance at Hampden had been affected by the lingering effects of his alcohol consumption the night before.  Rovers remained a top-flight side even after the return of the Second Division until their relegation in 1923. It was during this period that John "Jock" White became Rovers' only international, appearing for Scotland in a match against Wales. The club remained in the Second Division until the 1933–34 season when they took the title by a point from Dunfermline Athletic. Of the five seasons immediately before the Second World War Rovers spent all but one of them as a top-flight side. They took part in the emergency Western League during the 1939–40 season before transferring over to the Southern Football League. Despite struggling from time to time to get a full side out, the Rovers managed to survive the war in good shape.

Post-war.

It would be 1946–47 before the League returned full-time and Rovers, whose 16th-place finish in 1939 would not normally have led to relegation, were assigned to the 'B' Division due to a restructuring of the League set-up. To add to their problems the celebrated wing partnership of Willie Findlay and Johnny McIlhatton was broken up when the former departed for Rangers and the latter to Everton. One feature of the McIlhatton transfer was a friendly match between the two clubs at Goodison Park in September 1946, which the Toffees won 6–3.  With Jock Stein in the line-up (Stein played 94 matches for Rovers), Rovers managed to clinch promotion in 1947–48 if only for one season, amassing just eight points in the First Division in 1948–49 and an immediate return to the 'B' Division. This was effectively the end of the Rovers as a major force in Scottish football as they became stuck in the Second Division for many years, only occasionally challenging at the top end of the league.

1960s and 1970s.

Nevertheless, there were enough moments to brighten up the lives of the Cliftonhill faithful – such as an 8–2 League Cup defeat of local rivals Airdrieonians in 1965–66 and a run to the League Cup quarter-finals in 1973–74 (again defeating Airdrie along the way). Rovers took a 2–0 lead in the first leg against Kilmarnock, but lost the 2nd leg 5–2 to go out 5–4 on aggregate.  Notable players from this era included midfielder Tony Green, who subsequently became a club legend at both Blackpool and Newcastle United, and goalkeeper Jim Brown, who moved on to Chesterfield, and then Sheffield United – both players were capped for Scotland. And no team has ever been able to put together a more spicy trio than [Bill] Currie, [Sid] Sage and [Bert] Rice, who appeared in Rovers' sides of the early 1970s.  Changes brought in for the 1975–76 season saw Rovers placed in the new Second Division, which was now the third tier of the Scottish League.

1980s and 1990s.

Rovers made some headlines for reasons other than their on-field performances when, in 1983, confectioners Tunnock's became the club's shirt sponsor and the appearance of the shirt was altered to mimic the gold wrapper with red diagonal stripes of a caramel wafer bar the company produced, making Rovers one of the very few clubs to wear a kit inspired by a biscuit wrapper. In 1986 a book covering the club's history, "The Boys From the 'Brig'" by Robin Marwick, was published.  Players such as Vic Kasule and Bernie Slaven brought some flamboyancy to Rovers in the mid-1980s, and in the 1988–89 season the club were Second Division champions. The First Division stay was again to last just one season and Rovers subsequently finished bottom of the bottom division several times during the 1990s.

Third Division.

Rovers found themselves in the newly created Scottish Football League Third Division, finishing last in its inaugural season of 1994–95 season. In an attempt to cut costs, the number of full-timers was substantially reduced and the club's board took a decision to sell Cliftonhill and groundshare with Airdrieonians. Supporters mobilised shareholders to defeat the proposal and oust the then board, a prescient move as it turned out given Airdrie's struggle to maintain the costs of running their new ground and subsequent liquidation.  Following another last place finish in 1999–00 there was an attempt to change the club's fortunes. The team went full-time, although many of the full-time players were youths to whom the club gave employment under a government scheme. Rovers went into the last day of the season in 2001–02 and 2002–03 with a chance of promotion, only to miss out both times. The full-time experiment proved too expensive and had to be dismantled to keep the club's costs under control.  Another attempt by directors in 2004 to sell Cliftonhill and move to Airdrie was defeated by shareholders, despite scare stories put about by the board that the football authorities would not allow the club to play at the ground for much longer. Rovers stayed put and it was against this background that a group of fans set up Albion Rovers Supporters' Trust with a view to benefit the club and local community.  Various commercial offers have subsequently been made to purchase Cliftonhill, but the new board has insisted that it will first seek a new home in Coatbridge before closing any deal.

125th anniversary.

The 2006–07 season saw the club celebrate its 125th anniversary and various events took place and souvenirs were produced. A new kit that combined the original blue colours with the yellow adopted during the 1960s was also introduced as part of the celebrations. On the field 2006–07 saw the club progress to the semi-finals of the Challenge Cup, their first semi-final since 1921, a match they lost 4–1 to Ross County in Dingwall.

Promotion to the Second Division.

Having missed out on a promotion play-off position by a single point in 2009–10 season, 2010–11 season saw the club consistently in the top places. Impressive late season form saw Rovers finish 2nd and go on to gain promotion, beating Queens Park in the play-off semi final and Annan Athletic in the final. In memorable scenes, hundreds of Rovers fans invaded the Annan pitch at the final whistle and joined in prolonged celebrations with the players.  The 2011–12 season was Rovers' first in a higher division in 22 seasons – and had its ups and downs. A 7–2 victory over Airdrie United was the highlight for most Rovers fans but the team finished 9th in the table and found themselves in the play-offs for a second successive season – this time to stay up rather than go up. Yet Rovers triumphed again in even more dramatic circumstances than the previous season. A Scott Chaplain last minute winner against Elgin City in the semi-final and penalties win over Stranraer in the final meant that Rovers had gone up, and stayed up, for the first time since the 1930s.

Run to Scottish Cup Quarter Final.

In 2013–14, Rovers best cup run in decades saw them reach the quarter final against Rangers, having beaten local rivals top flight Motherwell 1–0 in the fourth round. After a controversial late equaliser at Ibrox, Rovers were held to a 1–1 draw but lost 2-0 in the replay.

Relegation.

On 28 April 2018, Albion lost 2–0 to Ayr United at Somerset Park, whilst Queen's Park beat Arbroath 3–0 at Hampden. This meant that Albion finished bottom of Scottish League One and were relegated to League Two. Manager Kevin Harper left the club after two years in May 2020, having managed to avoid slipping into the League Two playoffs during his time in charge.

Club records.

Biggest win: 12–0 v Airdriehill (Scottish Cup, 3 September 1887)  Biggest defeat: 1–11 v Partick Thistle (Scottish League Cup, 11 August 1993)  Biggest home attendance: 27,381 v Rangers (Scottish Cup, 8 February 1936)  Source:

Derivative teams.

Albion Rovers from Newport, Wales, playing in the Gwent County League, were named after the Coatbridge side by expats. There are also clubs of the same name in Australia (currently using the name Cairnlea but has changed to and from Albion Rovers several times over their 40-year history) and the Republic of Ireland.

Albion Rovers Football Club is a semi-professional football team from Coatbridge, North Lanarkshire, Scotland. They are members of the Scottish Professional Football League (SPFL) and, as of the 2019–20 season, play in League Two, the fourth tier of the Scottish football league system. Founded in 1882 as the result of an amalgamation of two teams, Albion and Rovers, the club joined the Scottish Football League initially in 1903 before returning in 1919 and, although they have spent most of their time in the lower divisions, have maintained their league membership since. Their sole major honours during that time have been wins in the lower two divisions of the senior league system.

Die Albion Rovers (offiziell: "Albion Rovers Football Club") – auch bekannt als "The Wee Rovers" oder "The Vers" – sind ein schottischer Fußballverein aus Coatbridge, in North Lanarkshire gelegen.


History.

Mākatea is almost the only Paumotuan island with potable water. Its native name derived from the drinking water being brought out of its dark caves by the local people. "Mā," pure, clear; used here to mean water, "Atea," light of day and "K" for euphony. The other name of the Island was Mangaia-te-vai-tamāe, meaning "Mangaia of the purified (or clear) water."  The island was called "Sagitario" in 1606 by Pedro Fernandes de Queirós who led a Spanish expedition to Terra Australis from Peru. Over a century later it was named "Aurora" by Dutch mariner Jakob Roggeveen in 1722. Later, the Polynesians called it "Papa Tea" (which means "white rock").  There is a ghost town, Vaitepaua, and an adjacent abandoned port, Temao, on the northwest coast of Makatea. These are from the times of phosphate mining (1917 to 1964). Makatea is one of three important Pacific raised coral islands that had large phosphate deposits, the other two being Nauru and Banaba. The Pacific Phosphate Company Ltd, (PPC), which was founded by John T. Arundel and involved in mining at Nauru and Banaba, formed the Compagnie des Phosphates de l'Océanie with a Tahitian syndicate to mine phosphate on Makatea. In September 1909,, a ship owned by the PPC, was wrecked on the reef at Makatea; a bent connecting rod caused the engines to stop and the current carried the ship onto the reef.  Phosphate mining drew hundreds of people to Makatea in the years before the French Centre d'Experimentation du Pacifique (CEP) started nuclear experiments. For over two decades or even longer, Makatea was a very active little island because of the ships arriving to load phosphate and to bring supplies and food to the many workers and their families that lived there. After the end of the phosphate exploitation, Makatea was almost totally left on its own with only a few families left to guard the island.  The mining produced hundreds if not thousands of hand-dug holes across the upper plateau of Makatea. Each cylindrical hole is about in diameter and to in depth. An unsuspecting visitor could easily fall into a hole and die while walking in the thick undergrowth that hides these holes. The once active village where the miners lived had a school, bakery, first-aid medical centre, and all the things needed to make life comfortable. All that remains today has been destroyed by time and nature. The school and other places have been levelled to the ground and grown over by vines and jungle.  In February 1956 the United States submarine Caiman (SS-323) en route from Tahiti to Nuka Hiva in the Marquesas encountered the "MV Nasarada", under Capt Oto Orbeck, in distress several miles from Makatea at about 05:00hrs. The vessel had nine persons and six pigs on board. Unable to repair the engine, USS "Caiman" towed the "Nasarada" to Pearl Harbor, and subsequently requested permission to enter the harbor at Makata. Permission was denied by the French. The submarine towed the "Nasarada" to the harbor entrance and proceeded on to the Marquesas.

Administration and demography.

Makatea Island forms a commune associée of Rangiroa commune with 93 inhabitants (2002 census). The main village is called Moumu. The islanders live off agriculture, culture of copra, some fishing and the trade of coconut crabs.

Wildlife.

Makatea is the only home to endemic birds, the Polynesian imperial pigeon, "Ducula aurorae aurorae", (status Endangered), and the Makatea fruit dove (status Vulnerable), and formerly a range of endodontid land snails

Flag.

The symbolism of the 2:1:2 horizontal triband is as follows: The top stripe is light blue and represents the sky, the white middle stripe represents the name White Rock ("papa tea" in Tahitian) and the bottom stripe is deep blue symbolizing the sea that surrounds the island. The red star singles out Makatea within the Tuamotu Archipelago, with its 16 blue-starred flag, and is a 'rocky' allusion to the symbolism of the middle stripe, uniting sky and sea and completing a red-white-blue reference to the French flag. Mayor Julien Maï of Makatea and vexillographer Colin Randall of Australia designed the flag.

Makatea, or Mangaia-te-vai-tamae, is a raised coral atoll in the northwestern part of the Tuamotus, which is a part of the French overseas collectivity of French Polynesia. It is located southwest from Rangiroa to the west of the Palliser group, which also is in French Polynesia. Makatea is surrounded by spectacular cliffs, rising to a plateau above sea level. This island is long, with a maximum width of in the south. It is in area. Makatea is one of the only four islands of the Tuamotu Archipelago (along with Nukutavake, Tikei, and Tepoto Nord) that do not take the form of a typical atoll.

Makatea, alter Name "Aurora", ist eine zu Französisch-Polynesien gehörende Koralleninsel im Nordwesten des Tuamotu-Archipels. Die Insel ist ein sogenanntes gehobenes Atoll, also ein Atoll, das nach der Riffbildung über die Meeresoberfläche hinaus angehoben wurde. Makatea heißt auf polynesisch „weißer Stein“, nach dem bei dem Hebungsprozess zu Tage tretenden Kalkstein. Die Insel ist eine Teilgemeinde ("Commune associée") der Gemeinde Rangiroa, zu der noch drei weitere Atolle gehören.


History.

MAN Nutzfahrzeuge presented the NG272(2) in 1992 as a development in single-decker tri-axle articulated buses from the previous model, the MAN NG272, based also from the NL202(2). Both were constructed to the VöV-Standard-Bus standards. Production continued until 1999, when the model had been superseded by the MAN NGxx3 (A23). The new (2) variant changed the original pillar seat supports which allowed the windows in the front section to be lowered, but otherwise remained visually very similar to the NG272.  Most NG272(2)s were fitted with MAN D 5865 LUH engines in the rear, coupled to drive the rear axle via either a Voith DIWA 864.4 or a ZF 5HP fully automatic transmission. However, after 1995, new models were fitted with Euro-2 spec engines and became NG262 and NG312 models. Its use of a fully low floor articulated configuration, being available with 3 or 4 doors and having a capacity of 51 seated and 60 standing that totals up to 111 passengers in standard configuration made them a good choice for inner-city bus operators.

Berliner Verkehrsbetriebe.

In 1992, Berliner Verkehrsbetriebe (BVG) ordered a batch of BVG specification NG272(2) buses, which were the GN92 series. This were fitted with AEG Krüger full matrix displays, kneeling along the whole vehicle and a wheel chair lift. These also accompanied their EN92 series buses, which were of the MAN NL202(2) type.

Current Operation.

The majority of NG272(2), NG262 and NG312 models, like their earlier NG272 cousins, have been retired from service in most transport companies, remaining operational mainly in private ownership or abroad.

The MAN NG272(2) was a single-decker tri-axle articulated bus built by MAN Nutzfahrzeuge from 1992 until 2000. It was an articulated successor to the MAN NG272 and development of the rigid bodied MAN NL262. Especially sold in Europe, in particular in Germany, it was replaced by the MAN A23 in 1998.

Der Niederflur-Gelenkbus NG 272 (2) der MAN trat 1992 die Nachfolge des MAN NG 272 an. Ab dieser Serie trug er die neue MAN-interne Bezeichnung A11. Dieser Schubgelenkbus entsprach optisch weitgehend dem MAN NG 272. Größter Unterschied war die podestarme Anordnung der Sitze im vorderen Teil und ein Knick in der Grundlinie der Fenster vor der mittleren Achse. Er wurde trotzdem als eigene Baureihe geführt. Dieser Bus war wie sein Vorgänger mit drei und auch mit vier Türen lieferbar.


History.

According to Khudaiberdy Orazov, the former Head of the Central Bank of Turkmenistan, the original idea for what became the Ruhnama came during the last days of the Turkmen SSR, when during a convention of Government officials, the Dean of the Department of History of the Turkmen State University mentioned that his department had been quietly collecting historical, cultural, and folkloric information about Turkmenistan for almost 20 years and thought it would be beneficial to write a Comprehensive History book about the Turkmen People, which until then was almost non-existent or written entirely in the context of Soviet Historiography.  The Book was initially written as a collaboration between the Turkmen State University and several other institutes in Ashgabat sponsored by the Turkmen Presidency but entirely without Niyazov's involvement (Although it was credited to his Press Secretary Kurbanov), and was titled for the first time under the name "Ruhnama". In 1994, the Dean and Niyazov were both evidently unhappy with the end result, and Niyazov ordered the book to be withdrawn and established a committee to rewrite the book "as [The Dean] should have wanted it". However, the resultant committee that Niyazov established was comprised not of academics or professional historians but of a poet, two fiction writers and a historian (who Orazov claimed were respectable professionals during Soviet times but had since fallen into alcoholism). The resultant book again failed to meet Niyazov's expectations so he again ordered it withdrawn but this time took on the responsibility of writing the book himself.  Niyazov issued the work's first volume in 2001, saying it would "eliminate all shortcomings, to raise the spirit of the Turkmens". In 2004, Niyazov issued a second volume, covering morals, philosophy and life conduct. The book was a substantial part of Niyazov's personality cult and his administration's policy of Turkmenization. The government required bookstores and government offices to display it prominently—and mosques to keep it as prominent as the "Qur'an". After some imams refused to comply with this demand, alleging that compliance would be blasphemous, the state reportedly demolished such mosques.  In May 2004, the government-controlled website "Turkmenistan: The Golden Age" released a statement announcing the phasing out of "several educational and scientific directions and subjects of minor importance". The teaching of algebra, physics and physical education effectively ended in Turkmenistan. In place, students were encouraged to memorize the "Ruhnama" and chant slogans praising President Niyazov. A 30-year-old engineer reported that "all [his son] learns is passages from the "Ruhnama", and he has started telling me off because he has memorised more of the book than me".  In August 2005, the first part of the "Ruhnama" was launched into orbit so that it could "conquer space" as well. It is supposed to orbit Earth for the next 150 years.  In 2013, the Ruhnama was removed from public schools. The following year, president Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow declared that all Turkmen universities would no longer test applicants on their knowledge of the book.  It has been noted that books written by Berdymukhamedov, Niyazov's successor, have begun to be included in coursework. Luca Anceschi, an expert on the region and University of Glasgow professor, sees this as a transfer of Niyazov's cult of personality to Berdymukhamedov.

The "Ruhnama"s role in society.

Knowledge of the "Ruhnama" is compulsory, imposed on religious communities and society generally. The work is the main component of education from primary school to university. Knowledge of the text (up to the ability to recite passages from it exactly) is required for passing education exams, holding any state employment and to qualify for a driving license. Official ceremonies have featured hundreds of singing Turkmens holding and performing choreography with the book.  In 2002 it was reported that "[w]hatever people might think of the book in private, public criticism of the work would be unthinkable." Public criticism of or even insufficient reverence to the text was seen as the equivalent to showing disrespect to the President himself, and harshly punished by dispossession, imprisonment or torture of the offender or the offender's whole family if the violation were grave enough. Since Niyazov's death, punishment for disrespect of the book is in a questionable status.  There is an enormous mechanical statue of the book in Ashgabat, the country's capital. Each evening at 8:00 pm, the cover opens and a recording of a passage from the book is played with accompanying video.  Months after President Niyazov's death in December 2006, the "Ruhnama"'s grip on the Turkmen public appeared undiminished, the AP's Benjamin Harvey reported in May 2007. Television stations featured solemn readings from the book. ""The "Ruhnama" is a holy book"" was carved into one side of the entrance arches at Central Asia's largest mosque in Niyazov's hometown—and ""The "Qur'an" is Allah's book"" was carved into the other, wrote Harvey, adding: 'Posters of the "Ruhnama" flank the roads of the capital city, Ashgabat, alongside likenesses of Niyazov. Quotations from it are inscribed on the desert city's fantastic array of fountains, monuments and official buildings.'  Michael Denison, of the United Kingdom's University of Leeds, told the UN Office for the Co-ordination of Humanitarian Affairs' IRIN News: "I don't think [the "Ruhnama"] will be disavowed [...] It might just [become] rather perfunctory." Others hope for restoration of full secondary and tertiary education and changes to the curriculum, which were cut back and reformed under Niyazov to be based primarily on the "Ruhnama".  Questions remain about whether Niyazov actually wrote the "Ruhnama" himself; an anonymous scholar quoted in "The New Yorker" claimed that Niyazov was "somewhat illiterate". The book has been translated into 41 languages.

The Ruhnama (The Book of the Soul) is a book written by Saparmurat Niyazov, the President of Turkmenistan from 1990 to 2006, combining spiritual/moral guidance, autobiography and revisionist history; much of it is of dubious or disputed factuality and accuracy. The text includes many stories and poems, including those by Sufi poet Magtymguly Pyragy. It was intended to serve as the "spiritual guidance of the nation" and the basis of the nation's arts and literature, by creating a positive image of the Turkmen people, a heroic interpretation of its history, the review of Turkmen customs and the definition of "moral, family, social and religious norms for modern Turkmens". This would be accomplished by the book being the "centre" of the Turkmen universe.

Die Ruhnama oder Ruchnama (pers.: „Buch der Seele“) ist ein Buch, welches angeblich der ehemalige turkmenische Staats- und Regierungschef Saparmyrat Nyýazow selbst geschrieben hatte. Es war offiziell Pflichtlektüre für das Volk. Es erschien im September 2001 und ist eine Vermengung von Geschichte, Verhaltensregeln und Lobpreisungen auf die „Heilige Schrift“. Die Inhalte werden in den Schulen Turkmenistans unterrichtet und dienen dem Personenkult um Nyýazow. Ein zweiter Band der Ruhnama erschien im Herbst 2004.


Formation.

The Patriotic Front was formed as a political party in 2001. In 2000, after Chiluba lost a bid to change the constitution to allow him to stand for third term, Michael Sata thought he would be endorsed as the MMD presidential candidate. The answer was given in 2001 when Chiluba noted that none of those (including Sata) who were in his government at the time were capable of winning the elections. At a secret ballot, Chiluba personally nominated Mwanawasa and voted for him to be the presidential candidate. Angered by this turn of events, Sata quit the MMD and founded the PF. At the same time, notable figures like Christon Tembo, Godfrey Miyanda and Edith Nawakwi formed the Forum for Democracy and Development (FDD). Party. Sata became leader of the PF and was its presidential candidate for the 2001 general elections; he received 3.4% of the vote, finishing seventh out of the eleven candidates. In the National Assembly elections the party received 2.8% of the vote, winning a single seat.  Sata was again the party's presidential candidate in the 2006 general elections, this time finishing second to Levy Patrick Mwanawasa with 29% of the vote. With its National Assembly vote share increasing to 23%, the party won 43 seats, becoming the largest opposition party. Following Mwanawasa's death, a presidential by-election was held in 2008. Sata finished second to MMD candidate Rupiah Banda with 38% of the vote to Banda's 40%.  The 2011 general elections saw a reversal of the 2008 result, with Sata beating Banda by a margin of 42% to 35%. The PF also became the largest party in the National Assembly, winning 60 of the 150 seats. However, Sata died in office in October 2014. Vice-President Guy Scott took over as interim president until a by-election was held in January 2015. Edgar Lungu was selected as the party's candidate, and won the election with 48% of the vote.

The Patriotic Front (PF) is the ruling political party in Zambia. The party was formed by Michael Sata as a breakaway party of the Movement for Multiparty Democracy in 2001 after the President Frederick Chiluba nominated Levy Mwanawasa as its presidential candidate for 2001 elections. After several years, the PF gained power in the 2011 general elections.

Patriotic Front (deutsch: Patriotische Front) ist eine demokratisch-sozialistische politische Partei in Sambia. Die Gründung erfolgte im Jahr 2001 von Michael Sata, der das Movement for Democratic Change verließ, nachdem der noch amtierende Präsident Frederick Chiluba als seinen Nachfolger Levy Mwanawasa nominiert hatte.


Early life and origins.

Petar II Petrović-Njegoš was born Radivoje "Rade" Petrović on in the mountain village of Njeguši, near Cetinje. His father, Tomislav "Tomo" Petrović (b. 1762–63), was a member of the Petrović clan of the Njeguši tribe of Katuni "nahiya". Njegoš's mother, Ivana Proroković, hailed from the hamlet of Mali Zalaz and was the daughter of Njeguši captain Lazo Proroković. There is no reliable information about her exact year of birth, but it is believed that she was about ten years younger than her husband. Tomo and Ivana had five children; their eldest son was Petar ("Pero"), Rade was their middle son and Jovan ("Joko") was their youngest. The couple's daughters were named Marija and Stana; Marija was married to a Montenegrin chieftain named Andrija Perović, the "serdar" (count) of Cuce, while Stana was married to Filip Đurašković, the "serdar" of Rijeka Crnojevića.  Njeguši is a remote village, situated near the Adriatic coast in western Montenegro (or Old Montenegro). The eponymous tribe is one of the oldest in Montenegro, and its history can be traced back to the 14th century. It likely came about

Reign.

Historical background.

Nineteenth-century Montenegrin society was quite primitive even by contemporary standards. Foreigners were viewed with suspicion and merchants were widely seen as "money-grubbing" and "effete". Wars between the Montenegrins and neighboring Muslim tribes were all too common, as was cattle rustling, banditry and headhunting. Men devoted much of their energy to incessant blood feuds, limiting the effectiveness of Montenegrin resistance to the Turks. Most physical labors was done by women; entertainment consisted of contests exhibiting feats of strength and evenings spent listening to songs recounting heroic exploits to the accompaniment of the "gusle".  Before the 19th century, western Montenegro was nothing more than a cluster of feuding tribes presided over by the Metropolitans of

Accession.

Petar I's final years were defined by his deteriorating health and continuing inability to find a successor—ideally both a Petrović and a literate monk—capable of carrying on his role. Petar's first candidate was Mitar M. Petrović, the son of his eldest brother Stjepan. Within several years, the younger Petrović died and Petar was forced to find a different successor. He turned his attention to Đorđije S. Petrović, his middle brother's son. As Đorđije was illiterate, Petar sent him to Saint Petersburg to attend school. Once there, Đorđije realized that he preferred living in Russia over Montenegro. In 1828, he sent his uncle a letter from Saint

Crushing dissent (1830–32).

Whispers of conspiracy.

The Radonjićes traditionally opposed Montenegro's close ties with Russia, advocating a closer relationship with Austria instead. This pro-Austrian orientation dated to the fall of the Venetian Republic in 1797, when Austria annexed all of Venice's possessions and established a land border with Montenegro. The Radonjićes then became the leading pro-Austrian clan and frequently made contact with Austrian agents in the Bay of Kotor, on the Montenegrin frontier. Vuko Radonjić's conflict with Njegoš took on both a personal and a political dimension, not only because their clans were traditional rivals but because the Petrovićes were ardently pro-Russian, largely due to ecclesiastical ties between the "vladika" and the Russian Most Holy Synod. As "guvernadur", Radonjić occupied a position that was meant exclusively for the Radonjićes, just as the post of "vladika" could only be held by a Petrović. The office of "guvernadur" dated back to 1715, when the Venetian Senate created the title of supreme "vojvoda" (duke) to share power with the "vladika" of Montenegro. The Venetians titled it "governattore", which became "guvernadur" in Montenegrin dialect. Although the jurisdiction of a "guvernadur" had never been clearly defined, the

Elimination of the Radonjićes.

As soon as they heard the news of Radonjić's dealings in Kotor, the chieftains called for an urgent council to decide what was to be done with him. Radonjić faced the chieftains on. He was divested of power, stripped of all his titles, and his gubernatorial seal (a symbol of his office) was taken away from him. At noon, the council decided that he was guilty of treason and condemned him to death by firing squad alongside his brother Marko, a co-conspirator. Radonjić had failed to win over the chieftains; historian Barbara Jelavich asserts that the vast majority of chiefs backed the Petrovićes solely because they saw an ecclesiastical leader like Njegoš as posing less of a threat to their own power. The chieftains later wrote a report to Gagić explaining that Radonjić and his brother would be shot because "[they] dared to make secret arrangements with the imperialists to surrender the independence of Montenegro to Austria." The other Radonjićes were to be forced into exile. Several weeks later, Njegoš commuted Radonjić's sentence in a well-timed display of clemency,

Establishment of the Governing Senate.

The beginning of Njegoš' reign was marked by a revival of Montenegro's traditional alliance with Russia. The relationship between the two countries was motivated by the Montenegrins' need to have a powerful ally who could provide political and financial support to their fledgling nation and Russia's desire to exploit Montenegro's strategic location in its ongoing geopolitical battle with Austria. Traditionally, the Serbian Orthodox monastery in Cetinje and the institution of "vladika" had survived through the centuries because of Russian support, but Petar I's final years witnessed a cooling of Russo–Montenegrin relations. With the Radonjićes expelled, Njegoš abolished the

Battle of Podgorica and early attempts at taxation.

In 1832, the nineteen-year-old Njegoš launched an attack against the Muslim tribes of Podgorica, who were helping the Ottomans subdue rebellions in Bosnia and neighbouring Albania. As in earlier times, when the "vladika" and "guvernadur" jointly led Montenegrin warriors into battle, Njegoš was joined by Vukotić and his men. The Montenegrins were also assisted by the rebellious Hoti clan of northern Albania. Njegoš and his forces were still at a disadvantage, as they lacked a concrete strategy for how to deal with the Ottomans and were not expecting them to bring cavalry onto the field. The Montenegrins' guerilla-like approach to warfare was ill-suited to taking a city such as Podgorica, whose high stone walls made it impenetrable from the surrounding flatlands. By launching the attack, Njegoš also risked falling out with the Russians, who at that time were allied with the Turks. Badly outmaneuvered, the Montenegrins were defeated and forced to retreat, taking with them many wounded. For Njegoš, the defeat would remain

Journey to Saint Petersburg and consecration.

Njegoš left Cetinje in early 1833 and set out on the long journey to Saint Petersburg. He hoped to be granted a meeting with Russian Emperor (czar) Nicholas I and consecrated as Metropolitan of Cetinje by the Holy Synod. Such a move was considered highly unusual at the time, as a "vladika" was traditionally consecrated by the Patriarch of Peć either in Patriarchal Monastery of Peć or in Sremski Karlovci, not Saint Petersburg. According to church canon, a "vladika" could not be any younger than thirty, a prerequisite

Canonization of Petar I, taxpayer revolt and the Battle of Grahovo.

While Njegoš was in Vienna and Russia in 1833, Vukotić took advantage of the "vladika"'s prolonged absence to increase his own power. Njegoš quickly moved to push Vukotić aside, installing his own brother Pero as senate leader and their cousin Đorđije—who had recently returned from Saint Petersburg—as Pero's deputy. Vukotić and Vučićević were exiled to Russia. There, they spread countless rumours about Njegoš in an attempt to tarnish his reputation. While their actions threatened to ruin his image abroad, Njegoš was far more concerned about domestic discontent with his tax

Second visit to Russia.

News of the defeat at Grahovo soon reached Saint Petersburg and, paired with the allegations of financial misappropriation, cemented his reputation among the Russians as that of an aggressive provocateur. Njegoš immediately sought permission from the chieftains to travel to Saint Petersburg and explain himself before the czar, given that Montenegro was increasingly desperate for Russian financial and political aid. The chieftains gave Njegoš their blessing, and he headed to Vienna before receiving any response from the Russians regarding his initial request. Njegoš was obliged to stay in Vienna for several weeks as the czar contemplated whether to grant him an audience. In Vienna, Njegoš spent more time with Karadžić, who had just returned from researching Slavic linguistic traits in Montenegro and was in the process of writing a German-language ethnographic study on the country titled "Montenegro und die Montenegriner" ("Montenegro and the Montenegrin"). Njegoš's meetings with Karadžić caught the attention of Austrian Chancellor Klemens von Metternich. Metternich's distrust of Njegoš was

Modernization efforts.

Njegoš stayed in Saint Petersburg for less than a month. He was escorted out of the city by Russian Lieutenant Colonel Jakov Nikolaevich Ozeretskovsky, who returned to Cetinje with the Montenegrin delegation to personally observe developments in Montenegro on behalf of the czar. Njegoš's visit to Russia encouraged him to undertake further modernization efforts. The size of both the "Perjanici" and the "Gvardija" was increased substantially and Montenegrins caught feuding or conducting raids against Ottoman border towns were more severely punished. Njegoš also opened two gunpowder factories in Rijeka Crnojevića, and built a number of roads and artesian wells. He promoted a pan-Serb identity among his people, persuading Montenegrins to

Stand-off at Humac and peace negotiations.

Clashes between the Christian "raia" (subject peasantry) and their Ottoman overlords continued following the Battle of Grahovo. In 1838, Njegoš erected a fortress at Humac overlooking Grahovo. The fortress strategically dominated the area, and threatened Ali Pasha's hold on the wider region. Following his second visit to Saint Petersburg, Njegoš was under considerable pressure from the Russians to secure a peace settlement, and the Porte pressure Ali Pasha to do the same. Seeking to avert a wider conflict, Njegoš wrote a letter to Mehmed Pasha Veçihi, the "vizier" of Bosnia, arguing that Grahovo had been settled by the Montenegrins several generations earlier, that it had paid taxes to the Ottomans for decades while abiding by Montenegrin customary law, and that Muslims and Christians had lived in the area peacefully until Ali Pasha's atrocities two years earlier. Njegoš also sent a letter to Ali Pasha, suggesting that the Turks and Montenegrins restore Grahovo to its former

Conspiracy to assassinate Smaïl-aga.

Smaïl-aga's contribution to the Ottoman victory at Grahovo was so great that the Porte had granted him a personal fiefdom that stretched from Gacko to Kolašin and was larger than all the Montenegrin-held territories combined. These land acquisitions were met with much trepidation by Smaïl-aga's fellow "beys", who feared that his rise would threaten their hold on power. In 1839, Serbia's Prince Miloš sent a letter to Ali Pasha informing him that Smaïl-aga would conspire with the Porte to have him removed as "vizier" of Herzegovina. Ali Pasha promptly wrote to Njegoš, asking that he arrange for Smaïl-aga's murder. He felt that Njegoš—who held Smaïl-aga primarily responsible for the slaughter at Grahovo—would be enthusiastic about the prospect of avenging his kinsmen. Ali Pasha also reasoned that by allowing

Osman Pasha's invasion of southern Montenegro.

Osman Pasha, the "vizier" of Scutari, was an exceptional politician and military leader. Despite his Serb origin, he held a deep hatred for Montenegro, and Njegoš in particular. As Smaïl-aga's son-in-law, he blamed the Montenegrins for his grisly death, and also wished to follow in the footsteps of his father, Suleiman Pasha, who had played a key role in crushing the First Serbian Uprising in 1813. Osman Pasha invaded southern Montenegro in 1843, and his forces soon seized the strategically important islands of Vranjina and Lesendro on Lake Skadar. The capture of these islands rendered Montenegrin trading excursions to towns

Osman Pasha.

A severe drought struck Montenegro in late 1846, followed by a catastrophic famine in 1847. Osman Pasha took advantage of Montenegro's misfortune and promised some of the Montenegrin chieftains large amounts of wheat if they rose up against the Petrovićes. Njegoš was caught off-guard, having spent much of late 1846 in Vienna overseeing the publication of his epic poem, "Gorski vijenac" (The Mountain Wreath). The leaders of the rebellion were Markiša Plamenac, a captain with the "Perjanici" in Crmnica, and Todor Božović, a senator from the Piperi tribe. Plamenac had been one of Njegoš's close confidants. According to legend, he planned to become a member of the Petrović clan by marrying the daughter of Njegoš's brother Pero, thus increasing his own power and standing. When Pero married his daughter off to Plamenac's cousin, the son of reverend Jovan Plamenac, the once-loyal captain switched sides and became an agent of Osman Pasha. On, Plamenac led a band of rebels in an assault against lower Crmnica alongside the Turks. Fortunately for Njegoš, some members of the Plamenac tribe had remained loyal

Role in the rise of South Slav nationalism.

By the mid-1840s, the idea of unifying all South Slavs into a common state had gained much support from Serbs, Croats and Bosnian Muslims living in the Austrian Empire. Njegoš's travels to Austria and Italy exposed him to many of the concepts that eventually formed the backbone of the Illyrianist movement, notably that all South Slavs share common cultural and linguistic traits and are, as such, one people. His correspondence with South Slavic nationalist leaders in neighbouring lands disturbed the Austrians, who wished to avoid a South Slav uprising in the Habsburg territories. Consequently, Vienna increased its surveillance of the "vladika" and intercepted all his correspondence, amid widespread turmoil during the revolutions of 1848. That year, Njegoš supported the efforts of the pan-Slavist "Ban" Josip Jelačić to resist the implementation of

Last years and death.

By 1849, Njegoš began experiencing an incessant cough and soon a doctor from Kotor discovered that he had tuberculosis. By early 1850, it was clear that the condition was life-threatening. Painfully aware that Montenegro did not have a single trained physician, he travelled to Kotor in the spring and composed his last will and testament, intending for it to prevent the power struggle that had preceded his own accession to the position of "vladika". He mailed the will to vice-consul Gagić in Dubrovnik with a message asking him to return the document unopened in

Burial.

Prior to his death, Njegoš had asked to be buried atop Mount Lovćen, in a chapel dedicated to his predecessor. He had designed the chapel himself, and oversaw its construction in 1845. Following his death in October 1851, Njegoš was interred at the Cetinje Monastery. His remains were transferred to Mount Lovćen in 1855. They remained there until 1916, when during the First World War, Montenegro was occupied by Austria-Hungary and the Habsburg occupiers decided to erect a monument to Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph on Mount Lovćen. Not wishing for a monument to the Austrian Emperor to be located on the same perch as a symbol of South Slavic national feeling, Austro-Hungarian authorities demanded that Njegoš's remains be moved back to Cetinje. The Montenegrins had little choice in the matter and the remains were removed under the supervision of Serbian Orthodox clergy so that the Austro-Hungarians would not be accused of desecration. By the

Literary works.

Influences and style.

Despite being Montenegro's ruler for more than twenty years, Njegoš is best known for his literary output. His writings drew on Serb folklore, lyric poetry and biblical stories. He began writing poetry at the age of seventeen, and his literary opus includes "Glas kamenštaka" (The Voice of a Stone-Cutter; 1833), "Lijek jarosti turske" (The Cure for Turkish Fury; 1834), "Ogledalo srpsko" (The Serbian Mirror; 1835), "Luča mikrokozma" (The Ray of the Microcosm; 1845), "Gorski vijenac" (The Mountain Wreath; 1847), "Lažni car Šćepan mali" (The False Tsar Stephen the Little; 1851) and, posthumously, "Slobodijada" (The Freedom Song; 1854). His most famous works are "Luča mikrokozma", "Gorski vijenac" and "Lažni car Šćepan mali", all epic poems. The historian Zdenko Zlatar argues that Njegoš's mentor (and later secretary) Sima Milutinović influenced him more than any other person, noting that while Milutinović "was not a great poet or playwright [...] no one in Cetinje or for that matter the whole of Montenegro had a better knowledge of the wider world." Indeed, Milutinović introduced Njegoš to his own poetry, which Professor Svetlana Slapšak describes as being "written in unusual syntax, with unparalleled neologisms and fantastic etymologies". The position of

Critical reception.

Most of what was written about Njegoš during his lifetime was the work of foreigners (officials, scholars or travelers). One of the earliest detailed academic analyses of Njegoš's works was published by Milan Rešetar in 1890. Following the establishment of a common South Slav state in 1918, scholars reinterpreted Njegoš in a Yugoslav light, despite some of his writings being decidedly anti-Muslim and having the potential to alienate Yugoslavia's Muslim citizens, who formed about ten percent of the new country's population. During the interwar period, future Nobel Prize winner Ivo Andrić wrote extensively about Njegoš and his works, and published several papers on the "vladika"'s poetry after the war, as well. Other authors who wrote about

Legacy.

Njegoš is regarded as an ambitious, able ruler who was esteemed during and after his lifetime. He is remembered for laying the foundation for the modern Montenegrin state as well as for being one of the most acclaimed South Slavic poets of his time. Since his death, Njegoš has remained a Serbian political and cultural father. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a variety of political factions (including Serbian nationalists, Yugoslavs and communists) drew inspiration from his works. In the decades after Njegoš' death, "Gorski vijenac" became the Montenegrin national epic, reaffirming its connections to the Serbian and Christian worlds and celebrating the military skill of its warriors. For Serbs, the poem was significant because it evoked themes similar to the Kosovo epics and reminded them of their solidarity with Montenegro against the Ottoman Turks. Like many of his contemporaries, Gavrilo Princip, the assassin of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, knew "Gorski vijenac" off by heart.  Njegoš's influence parallels that of Shakespeare in the English-speaking world and his languagethough archaichas supplied modern Serbian with a number of well known quotations. The epic has become the basic educational text for Montenegrins and Serbs. In Montenegro it was (and still is) learnt by heart, and has been integrated into oral tradition. Njegoš's picture can often seen in taverns, offices, hospitals, on Yugoslav and Serbian currency and in people's homes in Montenegro and Serbia. After the founding of Yugoslavia in the early 20th century, Njegoš was twice declared Yugoslavia's national poet, by the royal government in the 1920s and by the communist authorities following the Second World War. In 1947, the 100th anniversary of the publication of "Gorski vijenac", the government promoted Njegoš as a Montenegrin poet rather than a Serb. The change in Njegoš's ethnicity may have been related to the communist policy of Brotherhood and Unity and its promotion of a Montenegrin ethnic identity (which the communists had proclaimed distinct from that of Serbs in 1943). Njegoš' works, particularly "Gorski vijenac", have been sources of collective identity for Serbs, Montenegrins and Yugoslavs. Njegoš's works have been removed from school curricula in Bosnia and Herzegovina so as not to incite ethnic tensions, given the divisive nature of some of his works.

Petar II Petrović-Njegoš (, ; – ), commonly referred to simply as Njegoš (), was a Prince-Bishop ("vladika") of Montenegro, poet and philosopher whose works are widely considered some of the most important in Serbian and Montenegrin literature.

Petar II. Petrović-Njegoš ("Петар II Петровић-Његош, Peter II."; * in Njeguši, Montenegro; † in Cetinje, Montenegro) war Fürstbischof von Montenegro und einer der bedeutendsten Dichter des serbischen Sprachraums. Er schrieb u. a. den "Bergkranz", "Der falsche Zar", "Šćepan der Kleine" und "Der Strahl des Mikrokosmos". Njegoš legte administrativ die Grundlagen für einen modernen Staat in Montenegro.


History.

Harlequins before the Stoop.

In 1906, Harlequins were invited by the Rugby Football Union to use the new national stadium in Twickenham. In those early days, only one or two internationals were played there during the season, and it wasn't long before the RFU ground became the headquarters of the Harlequin Football Club.

Early days.

In 1963, the Quins acquired an athletics ground with 14 acres (57,000 m2) just across the road from the RFU ground, which became the Harlequin training pitch. The ground was named the Stoop Memorial Ground after Adrian Stoop, a former England international and longtime Harlequins player and president but is generally known as "The Stoop" with even the Harlequins' official website frequently using the informal name.

The stadium today.

IG Stand.

The main stand is the IG Stand (West Stand). This stand has the changing rooms, a row of executive boxes across the top of the stand, a Members' Bar, the club's offices, toilets and a club shop. At the top of the stand under the roof there is also a scoreboard and a gantry where the television cameras populate. The stand was built for the start of the 2005–06 season and has a capacity of approximately 4,000.

North Stand.

The North Stand is a temporary structure with an estimated life of 10 years. It houses approximately 2,000 and is the only stand with supporting pillars. There is a time clock to the top left of the stand. If further expansion is going to happen then the speculation is that the North Stand would be the one to be redeveloped. There is a concern about Langhorn Drive which runs directly behind it and if it needs to be moved before expansion could take place.  The corner of the North and IG Stand has a memorial for Nick Duncombe who was a promising scrum half for Harlequins and won two caps for England. He also played for the England Sevens team in the 2002 Commonwealth Games. He died of meningitis in 2003.

DHL Stand.

The DHL Stand (East Stand) has a capacity of approximately 4,000 and has a row of corporate boxes across the top. A score board also hangs under the roof. The stand has toilets, the main public bar, Debenture Lounge and Players' Lounge which also house the Mighty Quins Village which is an area for children which consists of bouncy castle and face painting. The main public bar also has a stage where a live band performs after the match.

South Stand.

The South Stand has most recently been developed and was opened in the 2010–11 season. It has new toilets, a real ale bar, the Quins Head, which sells Green King IPA and guest ales and a club shop. The back of the stand also has a clock for the match.

Redevelopment.

The ground's official name changed in July 2005 from the Stoop Memorial Ground to Twickenham Stoop Stadium.  The club owns the ground freehold through its subsidiary Harlequin Estates (Twickenham) Ltd. According to the 2012 annual report submitted by the club's operating company to Companies House, in 2010 external valuers placed the combined value of the land and buildings at £27.19 million on a depreciated replacement cost basis.  In an interview with the fans website on 23 April 2012, the Chief Executive, David Ellis confirmed that an architect has visited the club and given ideas on possible improvement and further expansion of The Stoop which will be further considered if Harlequins can sell out nine or ten games a season in comparison with the six games sold out in the 2011–12 season. David Ellis also said there are some immediate concerns for development such as increasing the size of the debenture lounge and the members bar. He also mentioned the queues for drinks at the bars are too long so that will be looked into as well.  On 5 September 2012 Harlequins announced that they had begun a programme of significant investment in upgrading Twickenham Stoop Stadium. All four of the stands have been deep cleaned, this has included the installation of anti-roosting netting that features an unobtrusive fine mesh, secured high in the stands that will prevent damage to the seats and decking caused by the local pigeon population. Replacement of the broken or sun-bleached seating has also commenced and eventually all seating will be replaced block by block in a rolling programme over the coming seasons. The public areas of the stands, including the toilets, are also in the process of being decorated and upgraded. Four new turnstiles have been constructed at Gate 3 by the corner of the South and Etihad Stand to improve access and a new PA system to improve sound quality throughout the stadium. The hospitality facilities in the Etihad and LV= Stands have also undergone renovations and redecorations. Among the major improvements about to begin is the resurfacing of the North car park. Work on this project which includes improvements to access to the river, will start on 5 September and be completed within a month.

Rugby League.

In 1995–96 and again from 1997 to 1999, the rugby league club, London Broncos, joined Harlequins at The Stoop, and they returned again in 2006–2013, becoming. In 2006 the stadium held a Harlequins rugby union match and a Harlequins rugby league game on the same day. The rugby union match was played first, and in just a few hours the stadium was switched over for the Super League match. This involved changing field markings, advertising boardings and such.  Since 2006, The Stoop has also been home to the annual Rugby League Varsity Match between Oxford University and Cambridge University.  On 24 October 2009 the ground hosted the second match of the 2009 Rugby League Four Nations between world champions New Zealand and defending tournament champions (in Tri-Nations mode), Australia which resulted in a 20-all draw, 12,360 people attended the game making it the largest rugby league crowd at the venue beating the 1997 World Club Championship match between the and Canberra Raiders where 7,819 people attended.

Women's International Rugby Union.

The ground played host to the final of the 2010 Women's Rugby World Cup.  In 2015, it began hosting what was intended to be an annual event in the World Rugby Women's Sevens Series. All matches were held at The Stoop except for the third-place match and Cup final, which were played at Twickenham Stadium. However, the Women's Sevens Series did not return to London for 2015–16.  The Stoop has become a regular venue for England Women's games, hosting Six Nations games and Autumn International Series games.  On 17 January 2016 The Stoop hosted the Women's Premiership final, for the first time.

Twickenham Stoop Stadium (informally referred to as The Stoop) is a sports stadium located in south-west London, England. The stadium is home to Harlequins rugby union team, who play in the Gallagher Premiership. The stadium has a capacity of 14,800 and is situated just across the road from Twickenham Stadium.

The Stoop ist ein Stadion im südwestlichen Londoner Stadtteil Twickenham. Es bietet Platz für 14.816 Zuschauer und ist das Heimstadion des 1866 gegründeten Rugbyvereins Harlequin F.C., der in der English Premiership, der höchsten englischen Liga, spielt. Das "Stoop" war zudem von 1997 bis 1999 und von 2006 bis 2013 die Heimat des Rugby-League-Teams London Broncos.


History.

Beginnings (1963–1964).

The nucleus of the Monks formed in late 1963, when American G.I.s Gary Burger (lead guitar, lead vocalist), Larry Clark (keyboards), Eddie Shaw (bass guitar), and Dave Day (rhythm guitar), along with a West German civilian identified simply as Hans (drums) came together as a quintet known as the Torquays, a name inspired by Burger's admiration for the Fireballs' hit instrumental piece "Torquay". Burger and Day had previously spent time together informally performing as an on-duty musical duo called the Rhythm Rockers, which soon recruited Clark and Hans to bolster their sound. Soon after, Shaw auditioned for the band and was reluctantly accepted by Burger. Shaw, a jazz musician by trade, was recruited largely due to the band's urgent need for a bass guitarist, rather than for his experience with the instrument, which was limited to some private practices prior to meeting with the Torquays. The band first began performing at military hangouts near their outpost in Gelhausen, playing a combination of American rock and roll standards from the 1950s, and some original songs penned by Burger and Day to rowdy crowds and servicemen.  Spotting the band at the Maxim Club, talent manager Hans Reich convinced the Torquays to stay in Germany when their military careers came to a close with the promise of work. For a brief period, the band included vocalist Zack Zachariah and drummer Bob Rose; however, the two were forced to excuse themselves from the Torquays because their discharges were long after the other band members'. Burger solved the issue relatively quickly by introducing the band to drummer Roger Johnston, and, henceforth, solidifying the line-up which would exist for the duration of the group's recording career. As the Torquays began to rehearse, Burger arranged a one-off single deal for the group at an independent studio in Heidelberg. The single, which coupled the band originals "There She Walks" and "Boys Are Boys", had 500 copies produced in late 1964, which were sold by Clark at live performances. Recordings from the single were later collected on the compilation album "Five Upstart Americans".  In early 1965, the Torquays began a residency at the Rio Bar in Stuttgart, where they utilized the space to experiment with electronics and sound manipulation, while also expanding their repertoire. It was during the rehearsals at the Rio Bar that the group's avant-garde style—a combination of abrasive waves of feedback and high-volume distortion—began to emerge in its primitive form. Sensing a potential to expand upon their sound, a German management team, composed of Carl Remy, Walter Niemann, Gunther and Kiki Neumann, signed the Torquays to promote an entirely new image and hone their ensemble playing. During one of the first sessions with the team, the band decided to rename themselves the Monks, a moniker that was initially met with some misgivings by Clark whose father was a priest.

Experimentation and album (1965–1966).

Under the supervision of the management team, the Monks conducted extensive rehearsals with a focus on gritty, rhythmically oriented music. The band equipped themselves with new instruments and hardware to achieve that goal: a Maestro fuzz box (and eventually a wah-wah pedal) for Burger, a floor tom for Johnston, and a six-string banjo for Day, the latter of which offered a disorienting counter-rhythm to the bass section. Shaw explained that the group's motivation was to possess "high rhythm and high energy". He elaborated further, saying "The idea of it was to get as much 'beat' out of it as we could. As much 'bam-bam-bam-bam' on the beat or whatever. The only time cymbals would be used would be for accent. If anyone wasn't contributing towards rhythm, then it wasn't part of the Monks sound". However, the band's transformation into the Monks was painstakingly slow, taking the group nearly a year of trial-and-error before they were confident enough to return to the studio.  In September 1965, the Monks recorded new, self-penned compositions to present to Polydor Records. However, Polydor was reluctant to sign the band to a recording contract until they performed at the Top Ten Club in Hamburg, where the Beatles garnered attention three years earlier. Much was made at the time of the Monks' unconventional attire, with their tailored-made black robes strikingly at odds with the prevailing trend for uniformity among contemporary beat groups. With all five members abandoning their Beatlesque hairdos for tonsures and plain rope serving as ties, the band exuded a mysterious aura, while also looking menacingly non-conformist. The Monks' image was met with mixed attitudes from their audiences. Younger fans were playfully curious about the band's eccentric appearance, but conservative patrons were shocked and, at times, furious at what they considered blasphemy on part of the group. Another aspect of the band was their relative detachment from the crowd, compounded by a loud and dissonant "steamroller of sound" that was intended to challenge but not necessarily please audiences.  Polydor Records was willing to gamble on the Monks' radical approach, and the band entered a studio in Cologne in November 1965. The recording sessions for the album, titled "Black Monk Time" brought the band to the edge of exhaustion, as they had to juggle nightly performances alongside Bill Haley and His Comets with early morning work in the studio. Another challenge was record producer Jimmy Bowien's limited resources to properly record the Monks' loud acoustics on a crude four-track tape. To avoid jumbling the instrumentals, the band members had to play behind sound walls in separate corners of the studio room.  In March 1966, Polydor Records released "Black Monk Time" and the "Complication" single. The striking approach that the Monks had taken on rock music effectively created the template for the musical subgenre of punk rock. Burger's bursts of disorienting feedback—which was played through a heavily modified Vox Super Beatle amplifier—was immediately influential on groups like the Velvet Underground and has remained so to the present day. A number of music historians and authors, including Kelley Stoltz, Mike Stax, and Len Comaratta, go as far as crediting Burger with the invention of feedback. The songs strayed far from the typical verse-chorus-bridge, but their emphasis on rhythm was nonetheless reminiscent of R&B music acts of the 1950s. Lyrically, "Black Monk Time" showcased hard-edge and paranoiac political commentary about the Vietnam War, love-hate relationships, and demonized society for its imperfections. Its message struck such a nerve with the American record buying public that the album's original print was never sold in the United States.

Changing musical direction (1966–1967).

The release of "Black Monk Time" was followed by press events, photo shoots with Charles Paul Wilp, and a six-month tour of one-nighters in music halls and bar taverns across West Germany, orchestrated by the newest member of their promotional team, Wolfgang Gluszczewski. Unfortunately, the tour was debilitating for the Monks, and their music often alienated new audiences attempting to catch on with the latest Monk craze. With the album underachieving in sales, Bowien urged the group to capitalize on the popularity of "soft wave" music, particularly the Beatles' song "Yellow Submarine". Although the majority of the band resisted the idea in favor of protecting their image, Day utilized the opportunity to introduce his love song, "Cuckoo", to the rest of the Monks. When the band returned to Hamburg for their second residency at the Top Ten Club, they recorded "Cuckoo" along with "I Can't Get Over You".  Soon after the release of "Cuckoo", the band promoted the single on the television program "Beat-Club", and several radio stations, resulting in the record charting in some German markets. In particular, the Monks' music was appreciated by citizens in East Germany that heard the group on Radio Luxembourg, evident by the flow of fan mail arriving over the Iron Curtain. Shaw speculated the band's themes and idea of individualism were more accessible to Eastern Germans who were unable to express the same kind of individuality. Writer Mike Stax has noted that after the initial burst of publicity for "Cuckoo" subsided, the group had exhausted all outlets on the German music market, and by late 1966 the Monks were looking to expand to other countries. The band took their act on a two-week tour to Sweden, receiving positive reviews, which concluded with an appearance on Swedish National Television.  Upon their return to Germany in February 1967, the Monks learned the news that Polydor Records refused to distribute "Black Monk Time" in the United States because of the cynical nature of the tracks referring to the Vietnam War. At Carl Remy's recommendation, the Monks were scheduled to tour in Vietnam, and persuaded to incorporate subtle psychedelic rock influences into their third single, under the expectation that it could theoretically expand the Monks' dwindling audience. Additionally, the management team reiterated its ultimate goal of releasing two more albums called "Silver Monk Time" and "Gold Monk Time" to boost the group's deflated egos.  Following Remy's request, the band made tentative moves to change their sound on the single "Love Can Tame the Wild" backed by "He Went Down to the Sea". Gone was Day's signature electric banjo, Burger's frantic vocals, and Sprangler's keyboards, replaced by a rhythm guitar, subdued singing, and calculated orchestration which featured Clark on piano and Shaw on trumpet. Monk historian Mike Bedard described the single "as uninspired as the LP was revolutionary". While performing with the Jimi Hendrix Experience in May 1967, there was increasing tension among the members of the group. Day became increasingly irritated by the added covers to the band's live set, and Burger and Johnston abandoned the Monk image in favor of colorful clothing, to the annoyance of their bandmates. Despite the Monks' inner turmoil, the band was still arranged to depart for Vietnam from Frankfurt airport; however, just a day before the flight, Burger informed the band Clark had returned to his hometown in Texas. Johnston, who had read about Buddhist monks that immolated themselves by fire, irrationally believed the Monks would meet a similar fate at the hands of the Viet Cong. Without a suitable replacement drummer, the group disbanded in September 1967.

Reunions.

In November 1999, to coincide with the release of "Five Upstart Americans", the Monks, along with vocalist Mike Fornatale, reformed to headline "Cavestomp" in New York City, an annual event that resurrects garage bands of the 1960s. The three-day function also featured the Chocolate Watchband and the Standells, and marked the Monks' first performance in the United States—32 years after the group disbanded. Critic Jon Pareles of the "New York Times" wrote Burger could no longer reach the high-falsetto parts, but "otherwise they were untouched by time or fashion". On October 31, 2000, tapes of the concert were released on the live album "Let's Start a Beat – Live from Cavestomp".  The original Monks line-up performed together for the last time at the "Rockaround" event in Las Vegas, in 2004. Later in the year, Johnston died in November after a lengthy battle with lung cancer. A further set of reunions took place in England and Germany in 2006 and 2007 before the Monks officially disbanded. On January 10, 2008, Day died from a massive heart attack at the age of 66. Burger began a solo career thereafter, performing mostly with the Monks' repertoire until 2009. In 2014, Burger, who was mayor of the tiny town of Turtle River, Minnesota since 2006, died of pancreatic cancer at the age of 71.

2009 release of "Pretty Suzanne".

"Pretty Suzanne" was released as a single over 40 years after it was recorded. The B-side was "Monk Time". The song originated as a "time consumer" instrumental called "Paradox" composed by Eddie Shaw and Dave Day. The Monks' managers took notice and pushed them to take to a harder direction. "Pretty Suzanne" was first recorded in 1965 as a demo. This early 1967 recording was recorded at Tonstudio Pfanz near Hamburg. Martin Christoph of Red Lounge Records discovered a single sided acetate of the 1967 recording in 2007, and it later was released as a bonus track on the 2009 Light in the Attic reissue of "Black Monk Time" and as a single released by Red Lounge Records.

Legacy.

Since the band's 1960s heyday, the influence of the Monks has grown steadily, beginning with krautrock then followed by successive generations of musicians in disparate genres such as punk rock, experimental, alternative and hip-hop, with acts such as the Dead Kennedys, the Beastie Boys, the White Stripes, the Fall and The Early Years exhibiting signs of their influence. Music historian Kelley Stoltz described the Monks in 1996 as a group that "overwhelms the listener with a sound they termed 'over-beat' - at their worst it is totally oddball freakrock that sounds like a pleasurable argument". Stoltz concluded the band was an innovative musical act which "outsexed the [Sex] Pistols" ten years before any other punk band emerged. In his book, "The Rough Guide to Rock", writer Peter Buckley had said "Black Monk Time" has not "aged one iota. If anything, it has gotten stranger".  In 1994, Eddie Shaw published the autobiography "Black Monk Time" with help from his ex-wife Anita Klemke. "Black Monk Time" has been reissued on CD since the 1990s, and bonus tracks were included on the Light in the Attic Records release in 2009. Lenny Kaye featured "Complication" on the expanded reissue of the compilation album "" in 1998. A tribute album, titled "Silver Monk Time", containing tracks by numerous avant-garde bands, was released in October 2006 as the soundtrack to the award-winning documentary "".

References.

Notes Bibliography

The Monks, referred to by the name monks on record sleeves, were an American garage rock band formed in Gelnhausen, West Germany in 1964. Assembled by five American GIs stationed in the country, the group grew tired of the traditional format of rock, which motivated them to forge a highly experimental style characterized by an emphasis on hypnotic rhythms that minimized the role of melody, augmented by the use of sound manipulation techniques. The band's unconventional blend of shrill vocals, feedback, and guitarist David Day's six-string banjo baffled audiences, but music historians have since identified the Monks as a pioneering force in avant-garde music. The band's lyrics often voiced objection to the Vietnam War and the dehumanized state of society, while prefiguring the harsh and blunt commentary of the punk rock movement of the 1970s and 1980s. The band's appearance was considered as shocking as its music, as they attempted to mimic the look of Catholic monks by wearing black habits with cinctures symbolically tied around their necks, and hair worn in partially shaved tonsures.

The Monks (deutsch: „Die Mönche“) waren eine einflussreiche Rockband, die zwischen 1964 und 1967 in der damaligen Bundesrepublik aktiv war. Die Garagenband bestand aus in Deutschland stationierten US-Soldaten. Zwischen 1999 und 2007 gab die Gruppe wieder gemeinsam Konzerte. Mit ihrer innovativen und experimentellen Rockmusik unterschieden sich die Monks deutlich von anderen Bands ihrer Zeit. Sie gelten heute unter Musikern und Fans als Wegbereiter des Punk und beeinflussten nachfolgende Künstler wie Henry Rollins, die Beastie Boys, Jello Biafra, die White Stripes oder The Fall.


Life.

Fernando Arêas Rifan was born in São Fidélis in the diocese of Campos, Brazil and was ordained as a priest of that diocese on 8 December 1974.  He joined the Priestly Union of Saint Jean-Marie Vianney, founded by Bishop Antônio de Castro Mayer, who was Bishop of Campos from 3 January 1949 until his retirement on 29 August 1981, and who had refused to accept in his diocese the revision of the liturgy of the Roman Rite by Pope Paul VI. On 30 June 1988, Rifan acted as assistant presbyter at the Ecône Consecrations by Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre and Bishop Castro Mayer.  On Bishop Castro Mayer's death on 25 April 1991, the Priestly Union, also known as the Sacerdotal Society of St. John Marie Vianney, chose as its leader Licínio Rangel, who was then given episcopal consecration by three of the four bishops of the closely associated Society of St. Pius X.  As a result of contacts initiated by Darío Castrillón Hoyos, Cardinal President of the Ecclesia Dei Commission in 2000, the members of the priestly union formally requested on 15 August 2001 reconciliation with the Holy See, as a result of which the Personal Apostolic Administration of Saint John Mary Vianney was established with effect from 18 January 2002, with Bishop Rangel as Apostolic Administrator.  For health reasons, Bishop Rangel asked Pope John Paul II for an auxiliary bishop, but the Pope recommended a coadjutor bishop. The Pope had promised to ensure episcopal succession for the Apostolic Administration, and a coadjutor would have automatic right of succession. Accordingly, Rifan, whom Bishop Rangel had chosen as his vicar general, was appointed Titular Bishop of Cedamusa and Coadjutor to the Apostolic Administrator on 28 June 2002. His episcopal ordination was held on 18 August 2002, with Cardinal Castrillón as principal consecrator, assisted by Bishop Rangel and Archbishop Alano Maria Pena of Niterói.  On Bishop Rangel's death on 16 December 2002, Bishop Rifan thus immediately became head of the Apostolic Administration.

Views.

In his first pastoral letter to the clergy, religious, associations and other faithful of the Apostolic Administration, Bishop Rifan stressed the importance of the papal mandate or canonical mission given to him, quoting the Council of Trent's anathema against any who would say that one who lacks it is a lawful preacher of the word of God and minister of the sacraments.  He also warned those to whom he addressed his pastoral letter against two errors. One is heresy, attacks against the traditional Faith. He saw as a defence against that the traditional Latin liturgy and liturgical discipline that the Apostolic Administration keeps. The other error is schism, attacks against the unity of governance of the Church. Members of the Apostolic Administration must be on their guard against this too, he said, especially since their rightful efforts to preserve the Catholic faith had some unfortunate effects, in particular the onset of "a certain schismatic spirit that showed itself in a general taste for systematic criticism of Church authorities, a spirit of resistance, disobedience, disrespect, suspicion, backbiting, independence from the Church's Hierarchy and Magisterium, contentment with the abnormality of the situation, uncharitableness, a feeling of owning the whole of truth, a sectarian attitude that made us out to be the only good people... with the underlying notion that 'the gates of Hell' had prevailed against the Church – something that, through the infallible help of our Saviour, is impossible."  In another pastoral letter, written on the occasion of the election of Pope Benedict XVI as Pope, Bishop Rifan declared very pertinent to the present moment the words of Pope Pius XII in his encyclical "Mystici Corporis, 41:" "They, therefore, walk in the path of dangerous error who believe that they can accept Christ as the Head of the Church, while not adhering loyally to His Vicar on earth. They have taken away the visible head, broken the visible bonds of unity and left the Mystical Body of the Redeemer so obscured and so maimed, that those who are seeking the haven of eternal salvation can neither see it nor find it."  He has also stated that a "situation of separation of traditional Catholics from the hierarchy, provoked by the crises in the Church, besides being abnormal, must be temporary and momentary; it should inspire in us an anxiety for regularization and union rather than a complacency with our situation."  Bishop Rifan cooperated in 2013 with the Compendium of the Traditional Catechism of the Catholic Church, a guided version of John Paul II's Catechism by reviewing and approving the material of the Compendium.  In a May 2003 interview with "La Nef", Bishop Rifan spoke of the Apostolic Administration's relations with the Society of St Pius X as follows:  The Society of St Pius X and other traditionalist groups have reproached Bishop Rifan for concelebrating Mass according to the revised rite on 28 May 2011.

Fernando Arêas Rifan (born 25 October 1950) is a bishop of the Roman Catholic Church from Campos, Brazil. He is currently the Apostolic Administrator of the Personal Apostolic Administration of Saint John Mary Vianney, which is also called the Priestly Union of Saint Jean-Marie Vianney.

Fernando Arêas Rifan (* 25. Oktober 1950 in São Fidélis, Brasilien) ist ein römisch-katholischer Geistlicher und Apostolischer Administrator der Apostolischen Personaladminstration St. Johannes Maria Vianney.


Design.

The GT4 was a groundbreaking model for Ferrari in several ways: it was the first production Ferrari to feature the mid-engined V8 layout that would become the bulk of the company's business in the succeeding decades, and was the first production Ferrari with Bertone (rather than Pininfarina) designed bodywork. Pininfarina was upset by the decision to give cross-town rival Bertone the design, considering all they had done for Ferrari. The styling featured angular lines entirely different from its curvaceous 2-seater brother, the Dino 246, and was controversial at the time. Some journalists compared it to the Bertone-designed Lancia Stratos and Lamborghini Urraco, also penned by Marcello Gandini. From the cockpit the driver sees only the road. Enzo Ferrari himself took a major role in its design, even having a mock-up made where he could sit in the car to test different steering, pedals and cockpit seating positioning.

Specifications.

The chassis was a tubular spaceframe based on the Dino 246, but was stretched for a wheelbase to make room for the second row of seats. The suspension was fully independent, with double wishbones, anti-roll bars, coaxial telescopic shock absorbers and coil springs on both axles. Niki Lauda helped set up the chassis.  The 3.0 L (2926.90 cc) V8 was mounted transversally integrally joined with the 5-speed transaxle gearbox. It fitted 205/70VR14 Michelin XWX The engine had an aluminium alloy block and heads, 16-valves and dual overhead camshafts driven by toothed belts; it produced in the European version and in the American. The induction system used four Weber 40 DCNF carburetors.

308 GT4.

The Dino 308 GT4 was introduced at the Paris Motor Show in November 1973. The 308 GT4 finally gained the "Prancing Horse" badge in May 1976, which replaced the Dino badges on the hood, wheels, rear panel and the steering wheel. This has caused major confusion over the years by owners, enthusiasts and judges. During the energy crisis at that time many prospective owners were hesitant to buy such an expensive automobile not badged "Ferrari" being confused at the significance of the Dino name. Dino was Enzo Ferrari's son who died in 1956, and his name was to honor his memory on the models it was placed.  In an effort to improve sales until the 1976 official re-badging, Ferrari sent out factory update #265/1 on July 1, 1975 with technical and cosmetic revisions in many areas. Some of these revisions were implemented piecemeal by dealers. Some made all the revisions while some just made a few. This leaves many 1975 GT4's with a variety of modifications which are hard to document as "correct" to aficionados who may not understand the complicated series of events surrounding this model year. Some of the revisions included adding Prancing Horse badges, repainting in the Boxer two-tone scheme (lower half painted matte black), air conditioning fixes, etc. It also included bumper modification and exhaust changes for North American versions. The Dino 308 GT4 was the only Ferrari legally imported to the US in 1975, and it was also the year Niki Lauda won the Formula One drivers championship and Ferrari won the constructors title. The GT4 was the only 2+2 Ferrari ever raced with factory support.  There were two series of GT4; the earlier cars featured a twin distributor engine and foglamps mounted in the front valance. Later cars had a single distributor engine, with foglamps mounted behind the front grille.

208 GT4.

Introduced at the Geneva Motor Show in 1975, the 208 GT4 was a low-displacement version of the V8 produced for the Italian market, where cars with engines larger than two litres were subjected to more than double VAT (38%). The engine was de-bored to (66.8 by 71 mm) 2.0 L (1990.64 cc) V8, resulting in the smallest production V8 in history for a road car.  Power output is at 7700 rpm for a top speed of 137 mph (220 km/h). Smaller Weber 34 DCNF carburetors, a lower final drive ratio and skinnier tires completed the technical changes for the 208. Chrome (rather than black) accents outside and the lack of fog lights were external visual indicators of the smaller-engined GT4. Inside the 208 GT4 featured a black rather than silver dash facing.  The 208 GTB replaced the 208 GT4 in 1980, after only 840 cars had been built.

The Dino 308 GT4 and 208 GT4 (later Ferrari 308 GT4 and 208 GT4) were mid-engined V8 2+2 cars built by Ferrari. The Dino 308 GT4 was introduced in 1973 and supplemented by the 208 GT4 in 1975. The cars were sold with Dino badging (continuing the Dino brand to differentiate non-V12 Ferrari) until May 1976, when they received Ferrari badging. The GT4 was replaced by the Mondial 8 in 1980 after a production run of 2,826 308s and 840 208s.

Der Dino 308 GT 4 ist ein 2+2-sitziger Sportwagen, der von 1974 bis 1980 von Ferrari gebaut wurde. Sein Dreiliter-Achtzylindermotor mit 188 kW (255 PS) war ursprünglich eine Entwicklung aus der Ferrari-Rennsportabteilung.


Format.

Qualification.

20 teams will qualify for the European Rugby Challenge Cup.  18 of these teams will automatically qualify from the English Premiership, the French Top 14 and the Pro14.

Continental Shield.

The 19th and 20th teams will qualify via a Qualifying Competition, organised by European Professional Club Rugby and Rugby Europe.  For the 2014–15 season, this took the form of 2 two-legged play-off matches, with the aggregate winner of each taking one of the two Rugby Europe spots in the draw, and it involved the 2 best teams from Italy's National Championship of Excellence, plus a Romanian and Georgian selections.  An expanded format, which was expected to feature more matches and more nations, for qualification into the 2015–16 European Rugby Challenge Cup, and subsequent seasons, was expected to be announced 15 September 2014. However, on 5 September 2014, it was announced that no such competition would take place during the 2014–15 season, and negotiations continue to create the new competition as soon as possible.  Subsequently, on 22 December 2014, EPCR announced negotiations for a new format for the competition had now been completed, and the Qualifying Competition for entry into the 2015–16 Challenge Cup would begin in January.  The expanded format includes clubs from Rugby Europe member unions Russia, Spain and Portugal alongside representatives from the Italian Eccellenza, and is being jointly organised by EPCR, Rugby Europe, and the Federazione Italiana Rugby (FIR).  The teams in the competition are split into two pools. Each team participates in a pool stage, before the two pool winners compete in a two-legged play-off against the teams currently competing in the Challenge Cup from the previous season.  The winners, on aggregate, of these two play-offs will take up the two final places in the Challenge Cup.  In 2017, the competition was rebranded as the European Rugby Continental Shield, and introduced a final to be held as part of the main finals weekend and contested by the two play-off winners.

Competition.

Group stage.

For the pool stage there are five pools of four teams. The teams are ranked based on domestic league performance the previous season, and arranged into four tiers of five teams. Teams are then drawn from the tiers into pools at random, with the restriction that no pool shall contain two teams from the same country or league, until the allocation of Tier 4, which will contain up to 1 English team and/or up to 3 French teams, as well as the 2 Continental Shield qualifiers.  Teams will play the other three teams in the pool twice, at home and away, and match points will be awarded depending on the result of each game, with teams receiving four points for a win, and two for a draw. Teams can also earn 1 try bonus point for scoring four or more tries, and 1 losing bonus point for losing a match by seven points or fewer.  Following the completion of the pool stage, the five pool winners, and the three best pool runners-up qualify for the knock-out stage.

Knock-out stage.

The eight quarter-finalists are ranked – pool winners from 1–5, and runners-up from 6–8 – based on performance in their respective pool. The four pool winners with the best pool record receive home advantage for the quarter-finals against one of the four lower-ranked teams, in a 1v8, 2v7, 3v6, 4v5 format. Unlike the later formats of the old European Challenge Cup, no teams will drop down into the competition from the Champions Cup.  The winners of the quarter-finals will contest the two semi-finals, the semi-final matches will be determined by a draw, and the winners of the semi-finals will contest the final, which is usually held early in May.

History.

European Challenge Cup.

1996–1999.

European rugby competition began with the launch of the Heineken Cup in the summer of 1995.  The Challenge Cup began as the 'European Conference' (later renamed the European Shield) in 1996 with 24 teams from England, France, Italy, Romania, Scotland and Wales divided into four groups of six. All seven of the French teams made it to the quarter-finals with English club Northampton Saints filling the other berth. Predictably, the final was an all-French affair with Bourgoin beating Castres Olympique 18–9 to win the shield.  The following year's competition had an increased entry with eight groups of four teams. Colomiers continued the French dominance of the European Shield, defeating Agen 43–5 in the final.  The absence of English and Scottish clubs in 1998–99 saw the competition reduced to 21 teams divided into three groups of seven teams with representative sides of Spain and Portugal taking part. Once again, a French team was triumphant, with Montferrand beating Bourgoin 35–16 in the final held in Lyon.  With English and Scottish clubs back in the competition in 1999, there were 28 teams split in seven groups of four and London Irish and Bristol reached the semi-finals of the competition, but couldn't prevent another all-French final with Section Paloise crowned champions after a 34–21 defeat of Castres.

2000–2006.

The competition structure remained unchanged for the 2000–01 season, although no team from Romania participated. The semi-final draw was an all-English and all-French affair to leave Harlequins and Narbonne contesting the first final on English soil. Harlequins ended French dominance of the European Shield, defeating RC Narbonne 27–26 after extra time in the final.  There was a new sponsor and a name change in 2001. The new "Parker Pen Shield" saw 32 teams divided into eight groups of four competing for the title. For the first time there were two Spanish club teams and Romania was represented. Only one French club reached the quarter-finals along with five English and two from Wales and for the first time no French club reached the semi-finals after Pau lost to London Irish. For the first time a Welsh team, Pontypridd made it to the final but Sale Sharks emerged victorious, coming from behind to win 25–22 at the Kassam Stadium in Oxford.  The league format was abandoned in 2002 and the tournament became a knock-out competition. This involved 32 clubs from eight nations, half of them seeded and drawn against an un-seeded team on a home and away basis. The name "Parker Pen Shield" was now applied to a reprechage knock-out tournament for those teams that did not qualify for the second round of the Challenge Cup. The Parker Pen Challenge Cup winner now automatically qualified for the Heineken Cup. London Wasps beat Bath 48–30 to win the renamed "Parker Pen Challenge Cup" at the Madejski Stadium, Reading.  In 2003–04 the Welsh Rugby Union voted to create regions to play in the Celtic League and represent Wales in European competition. Henceforce Wales entered regional sides rather than the club sides which had previously competed. With a reduction from nine professional clubs to just five, there was no Welsh entry in that year's competition. Romania also did not take part in the Challenge Cup. Harlequins won the cup with a 27–26 last-second victory over Montferrand at the Madejski Stadium to become the first side to win the tournament twice.  Sale eased to victory in the 2005 final 27–3 over a disappointing Pau side. In 2006 Gloucester edged out London Irish 36–34 after extra time.  The Parker Pen Shield was abandoned in 2005 due to restructuring of the European Challenge Cup. The competition reverted to being a league format followed by knock-out phase with five pools of four teams and home and away matches. Romanian interest returned to the competition in the form of Bucureşti Rugby who had been formed to represent Romania in European competition, however there was no representation from Spain or Portugal.

2006–2009.

Clermont were the first French winners of the title for seven years after they beat Bath in the 2006–07 competition; Clermont also reached the Top 14 final this year after finishing poorly the previous couple of years.  Beaten 2007 finalists Bath won the 2007–08 tournament after beating fellow English club Worcester Warriors in the final in Kingsholm Stadium, Gloucester. Spanish representation resumed in the 2007–08 Challenge Cup when Spanish Champions CR El Salvador took part.  Northampton Saints won the 2009 final after beating Bourgoin 15–3 at the Twickenham Stoop; that season Northampton avoided relegation, they finished 2nd in the regular season of the Guinness Premiership, reached the Heineken Cup quarter-finals and won the Anglo-Welsh Cup the next season. Northampton became the eighth English club to win the competition in 9 seasons.

2010–2014.

The competition organiser, European Rugby Cup, announced several changes to the Challenge Cup effective in 2009–10:  Cardiff Blues benefited from the new format in its first year, winning the first ever Challenge Cup for the club and were also the first Welsh Club to win any European club tournament. Cardiff beat Toulon 28-21 in the final at the Stade Vélodrome in Marseille, which was also the first final to have no English involvement for 10 years.  England made a triumphant return to the final in 2011, with Harlequins defeating Stade Français 19–18. with a try in the last five-minutes by Argentinian wing, Gonzalo Camacho. This meant Harlequins became the first team to win the Challenge Cup three times and with this entered the Heineken Cup. The final was also notable in that it involved two teams that began the season in the Challenge Cup.  The 2011–12 competition was dominated by French sides, with all four semi-finalists coming from that country. Biarritz, which had parachuted in from the Heineken Cup, defeated Toulon to claim their first Challenge Cup.  The 2012–13 season again saw the Challenge Cup claimed by a team that parachuted in from the Heineken Cup. This time, the victor was Leinster, which became the first team from Ireland to win the Challenge Cup.  Northampton Saints won the last edition of the European Challenge Cup in 2014, beating Bath 30–16 in the final.

European Rugby Challenge Cup.

2014–present.

On 10 April 2014, following almost two years of negotiations, a statement was released under the aegis of European Professional Club Rugby announcing that the nine stakeholders to the new competition, the six unions and three umbrella club organisations (Premiership Rugby, Ligue Nationale de Rugby and Regional Rugby Wales), had signed Heads of Agreement for the formation of the European Rugby Champions Cup, the European Rugby Challenge Cup and a new, third tournament, called the Qualifying Competition. On the same day, BT and Sky signed an agreement that divided coverage of the new European competitions. Both will split the pool matches, quarter-finals, and semi-finals equally, and both will broadcast the final. BT will get first choice of English Premiership club matches in the Champions Cup, with Sky receiving the same privilege for the Challenge Cup.

Sponsorship & suppliers.

Sponsors.

Following the introduction of the European Rugby Challenge Cup, organisers decided to introduce a Champions League-style sponsorship system, including 3–5 principal partners, in lieu of one title sponsor.

Media coverage.

European markets: Other markets:  For Australia, Europe (unsold markets), and Southeast Asia, all matches of the EPCR package (both Champions and Challenge Cups) available on Rugby Pass.  Some games are also livestreamed for free on EPCR TV.

The European Rugby Challenge Cup is an annual European rugby union competition organised by European Professional Club Rugby (EPCR). It is the second-tier competition for European clubs behind the European Rugby Champions Cup. From its inception in 1996 to 2014, it was known as the European Challenge Cup and governed by European Rugby Cup (ERC). Following disagreements in the structure of the tournament's format and division of revenue, the English and French leagues withdrew to form the EPCR, which has organized the Challenge Cup and the Champions Cup since the 2014–15 season.

Der European Challenge Cup ist nach dem Heineken Cup der zweite Europapokalwettbewerb für Mannschaften in der Sportart Rugby Union. Er trägt seit der Saison 2009/10 aus Sponsoringgründen den Namen "Amlin Challenge Cup", benannt nach dem britischen Versicherungskonzern Amlin. Ein früherer Sponsor war die Parker Pen Company, weshalb der Wettbewerb den Namen "Parker Pen Shield" (2001 bis 2002) bzw. "Parker Pen Challenge Cup" (2003 bis 2005) trug. Am Wettbewerb, der von der Organisation "European Rugby Cup" durchgeführt wird, nehmen Mannschaften aus England, Frankreich, Wales, Irland, Italien, Rumänien und gelegentlich Spanien oder Portugal teil.


History.

Luhring Augustine Gallery was founded in 1985 by co-owners Lawrence R. Luhring and Roland J. Augustine. From 1989 until 1992, the gallery also partnered with Galerie Max Hetzler on establishing Luhring Augustine Hetzler in Los Angeles. The space was located in a refurbished building at 1330 4th Street in Santa Monica.  In 2012, Luhring Augustine opened a space in Bushwick, Brooklyn. In 2020, it announced plans for a new space in Tribeca.  The gallery is a member of the Art Dealers Association of America (ADAA). Roland Augustine served as president of the ADAA from 2006 to 2009.

Artists.

Each artist of the gallery has exhibited widely in museum and gallery contexts and has been regularly included in international exhibitions such as the Venice Bienniale, The Carnegie International and Documenta. The exhibition program is best characterized by its adherence to a rigorous curatorial model that has incorporated critical monographic exhibitions such as Marcel Duchamp (1987), Gerhard Richter (1995) and Donald Judd (1999), which have served as historical antecedents for the contemporary program of the gallery.  Among others, Luhring Augustine Gallery has been representing the following living artists:  In addition to living artists, Luhring Augustine Gallery also handles the estates of the following:  Luhring Augustine Gallery has in the past represented the following:  Since its founding, Luhring Augustine Gallery has also specialized in the resale of select works of art from the 20th century by artists such as Pablo Picasso, Jackson Pollock, Andy Warhol, Gerhard Richter and Sigmar Polke.

Notable exhibitions.

Janine Antoni's work "Gnaw: Lard" or "Gnaw: Chocolate", the artist gnawing on lard and chocolate and turning them into lipsticks and chocolate boxes, was first exhibited at the gallery in 1992. Paul McCarthy's 1996 installation at the gallery, "Yaa-Hoo", featured mechanized mannequins performing sexual acts.

The Luhring Augustine Gallery is an art gallery in Chelsea in New York City. Its principal focus is the representation of an international group of contemporary artists whose diverse practices include painting, drawing, sculpture, video and photography.

Die Luhring Augustine Gallery ist eine Kunstgalerie in Chelsea in New York City. Sie wurde 1985 in SoHo von den Besitzern Lawrence Luhring und Roland Augustine gegründet. 1997 bezog sie ihren heutigen Sitz in Chelsea.