Overview.

Thick description was first introduced by British philosopher Gilbert Ryle in 1949 in "The Thinking of Thoughts: What is 'Le Penseur' Doing?" and "Thinking and Reflecting". Originally, Ryle introduced two types of descriptions: thin and thick. Thin description included surface-level observations of behavior while thick description added context. To explain this context required grasping individuals' motivations for their behaviors and how these behaviors were understood by other observers of the community as well. This method emerged at a time when the ethnographic school was pushing for an ethnographic approach that paid particular attention to everyday events. The school of ethnography thought seemingly arbitrary events could convey important notions of understanding that could be lost at a first glance. Similarly Bronisław Malinowski put forth the concept of a "native point of view" in his 1922 work, "Argonauts of the Western Pacific". Malinowski felt an anthropologist should try to understand the perspectives of ethnographic subjects in relation to their own world.  Following Ryle's work, American anthropologist Clifford Geertz re-popularized the concept. Known for his symbolic and interpretative anthropological methods, Geertz's methods were in response to his critique of existing anthropological methods that searched for universal truths and theories. He was against comprehensive theories of human behavior; rather, he advocated methodologies highlighting culture from the perspective of how people looked at and experienced life. His 1973 article, "Thick Description: Toward an Interpretive Theory of Culture", synthesizes his approach.  Thick description emphasized a more analytical approach, whereas previously observation alone was the primary approach. To Geertz, analysis separated observation from interpretative methodologies. An analysis is meant to pick out the critical structures and established codes. This analysis begins with distinguishing all individuals present and coming to an integrative synthesis that accounts for the actions produced.  The ability of thick descriptions to showcase the totality of a situation to aid in the overall understanding of findings was called "Mélange of descriptors". As indicate, findings are not the result of thick description; rather they result from analyzing the materials, concepts, or persons that are "thickly described".

The Geertz article, "Thick Description".

takes issue with the state of anthropological practices in understanding culture. By highlighting the reductive nature of ethnography, to reduce culture to "menial observations," Geertz hoped to reintroduce ideas of culture as semiotic. By this he intended to add signs and deeper meaning to the collection of observations. These ideas would challenge Edward Burnett Tylor's concepts of culture as a "most complex whole" that is able to be understood; instead culture, to Geertz, could never be fully understood or observed. Because of this, ethnographic observations must rely on the context of the population being studied by understanding how the participants come to recognize actions in relation to one another and to the overall structure of the society in a specific place and time. Today, various disciplines have implemented thick description in their work.  Geertz pushes for a search for a "web of meaning". These ideas were incompatible with textbook definitions of ethnography of the times that described ethnography as systematic observations of different populations under the guise of Race categorization and categorizing the "other". To Geertz, culture should be treated as symbolic, allowing for observations to be connected with greater meanings.  This approach brings about its own difficulties. Studying communities via large-scale anthropological interpret will bring about discrepancies in understanding. As cultures are dynamic and changing, Geertz also emphasizes the importance of speaking "to" rather than speaking "for" the subjects of ethnographic research and recognizing that cultural analysis is never complete. This method is essential to approach the actual context of a culture. As such, Geertz points out that interpretive works provide ethnographers the ability to have conversations with the people they study.

Adoption.

Interpretive methodologies were needed to understand culture as a system of meaning. Because of this, Geertz's influence is connected with "a massive cultural shift" in the social sciences referred to as the interpretive turn. The interpretive turn in the social sciences had strong foundations in cultural anthropological methodology. In doing so, there was a shift from structural approaches as an interpretive lens, towards meaning. With the interpretive turn, contextual and textual information took the lead in understanding reality, language, and culture. This was all under the assumption that a better anthropology included understanding the particular behaviors of the communities being studied.  Geertz's thick description approach, along with the theories of Claude Lévi-Strauss, has become increasingly recognized as a method of symbolic anthropology, enlisted as a working antidote to overly technocratic, mechanistic means of understanding cultures, organizations, and historical settings. Influenced by Gilbert Ryle, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Max Weber, Paul Ricoeur, and Alfred Schütz, the method of descriptive ethnography that came to be associated with Geertz is credited with resuscitating field research from an endeavor of ongoing objectification—the focus of research being "out there"—to a more immediate undertaking, where participant observation embeds the researcher in the enactment of the settings being reported. However, despite its dissemination among the disciplines, some theorists pushed back on thick description, skeptical about thick description's ability to somehow interpret meaning by compiling large amounts of data. They also questioned how this data was supposed to provide the totality of a society naturally.  Geertz is revered for his pioneering field methods and clear, accessible prose writing style (compare Robinson's [1983] critique). He was considered "for three decades...the single most influential cultural anthropologist in the United States."

In the social sciences and related fields, a thick description is a description of human social action that describes not just physical behaviors, but their context as interpreted by the actors as well, so that it can be better understood by an outsider. A thick description typically adds a record of subjective explanations and meanings provided by the people engaged in the behaviors, making the collected data of greater value for studies by other social scientists.

Dichte Beschreibung (engl. "thick description") ist ein vom US-amerikanischen Anthropologen Clifford Geertz entwickeltes theoretisches Konzept zum Verständnis einer Kultur. Der Begriff geht auf den britischen Philosophen Gilbert Ryle zurück, von dem Geertz sich inspirieren ließ.


Formal definition.

An odd composite number "n" = "d" · 2 + 1 where "d" is odd is called a strong (Fermat) pseudoprime to base "a" if:  or  The definition is trivially met if so these trivial bases are often excluded.  Guy mistakenly gives a definition with only the first condition, which is not satisfied by all primes.

Properties of strong pseudoprimes.

A strong pseudoprime to base "a" is always an Euler–Jacobi pseudoprime, an Euler pseudoprime and a Fermat pseudoprime to that base, but not all Euler and Fermat pseudoprimes are strong pseudoprimes. Carmichael numbers may be strong pseudoprimes to some bases—for example, 561 is a strong pseudoprime to base 50—but not to all bases.  A composite number "n" is a strong pseudoprime to at most one quarter of all bases below "n"; thus, there are no "strong Carmichael numbers", numbers that are strong pseudoprimes to all bases. Thus given a random base, the probability that a number is a strong pseudoprime to that base is less than 1/4, forming the basis of the widely used Miller–Rabin primality test. However, Arnault  gives a 397-digit Carmichael number that is a strong pseudoprime to every base less than 307. One way to reduce the chance that such a number is wrongfully declared probably prime is to combine a strong probable prime test with a Lucas probable prime test, as in the Baillie–PSW primality test.  There are infinitely many strong pseudoprimes to any base.

Examples.

The first strong pseudoprimes to base 2 are The first to base 3 are The first to base 5 are  For base 4, see, and for base 6 to 100, see to. By testing the above conditions to several bases, one gets somewhat more powerful primality tests than by using one base alone. For example, there are only 13 numbers less than 25·10 that are strong pseudoprimes to bases 2, 3, and 5 simultaneously. They are listed in Table 7 of. The smallest such number is 25326001. This means that, if "n" is less than 25326001 and "n" is a strong probable prime to bases 2, 3, and 5, then "n" is prime.  Carrying this further, 3825123056546413051 is the smallest number that is a strong pseudoprime to the 9 bases 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, and 23.  So, if "n" is less than 3825123056546413051 and "n" is a strong probable prime to these 9 bases, then "n" is prime.  By judicious choice of bases that are not necessarily prime, even better tests can be constructed. For example, there is no composite formula_3 that is a strong pseudoprime to all of the seven bases 2, 325, 9375, 28178, 450775, 9780504, and 1795265022.

In number theory, a probable prime is a number that passes a primality test. A strong probable prime is a number that passes a "strong" version of a primality test. A strong pseudoprime is a composite number that passes a strong version of a primality test. All primes pass these tests, but a small fraction of composites also pass, making them "false primes".

Eine ungerade natürliche Zahl formula_1 wird starke Pseudoprimzahl genannt, wenn sie eine zusammengesetzte Zahl ist, die sich in Bezug auf eine zu ihr teilerfremden Basis formula_2 wie eine Primzahl verhält:es sei formula_3 (mit formula_4 ungerade). Wenn eine der Kongruenzen erfüllt ist, dann heißt die Zahl formula_1 "starke Pseudoprimzahl" zur Basis formula_2.


Overview.

The CBS television network produced "Hawaii Five-O", which aired from September 20, 1968, to April 5, 1980. The program continues to be broadcast in syndication worldwide. Created by Leonard Freeman, "Hawaii Five-O" was shot on location in Honolulu, Hawaii, and throughout the island of Oahu and other Hawaiian islands with occasional filming in locales such as Los Angeles, Singapore, and Hong Kong.  The show centers on a fictional state police force led by former US naval officer Steve McGarrett (played by Jack Lord), a detective captain, who is appointed by the Governor, Paul Jameson. In the show, McGarrett oversees state police officers – the young Danny "Danno" Williams, veteran Chin Ho Kelly, and streetwise Kono Kalakaua for seasons one through four. Honolulu Police Department Officer Duke Lukela joined the team as a regular, as did Ben Kokua, who replaced Kono beginning with season five. Occasionally, McGarrett's Five-O team is assisted by other officers as needed: Douglas Mossman as Det. Frank Kamana, P.O. Sandi Wells (Amanda McBroom), medical examiner Doc Bergman (Al Eben), forensic specialist Che Fong (Harry Endo), and a secretary. The first secretary was May, then Jenny, and later Malia, Lani and Luana.  The title of the show refers to Hawaii's status as the 50th US state; Hawaii had been admitted to the Union only 9 years before the show first aired. The "Five-O" team consists of three to five members (small for a real state police unit), and is portrayed as occupying a suite of offices in the Iolani Palace. Five-O lacks its own radio network, necessitating frequent requests by McGarrett to the Honolulu Police Department dispatchers.  For 12 seasons, McGarrett and his team hounded international secret agents, criminals, and organized crime syndicates plaguing the Hawaiian Islands. With the aid of District Attorney and later Hawaii's Attorney General John Manicote, McGarrett is successful in sending most of his enemies to prison. One such crime syndicate was led by crime family patriarch Honore Vashon, a character introduced in the fifth season. Other criminals and organized crime bosses on the islands were played by actors such as Ricardo Montalbán, Gavin MacLeod, and Ross Martin as Tony Alika.  By the 12th and final season, series regular James MacArthur had left the show (in 1996, he admitted that he had become tired of the role and wanted to do other things), as had Kam Fong. Unlike other characters before him, Fong's character, Chin Ho Kelly, at Fong's request, was killed off, murdered while working undercover to expose a protection ring in Chinatown in the last episode of season 10. New characters Jim 'Kimo' Carew (William Smith), Lori Wilson (Sharon Farrell), and Truck (Moe Keale) were introduced in season 12 alongside returning regular character Duke Lukela.  Most episodes of "Hawaii Five-O" ended with the arrest of criminals and McGarrett snapping, "Book 'em." The offense occasionally was added after this phrase, for example, "Book 'em, murder one." In many episodes, this was directed to Danny "Danno" Williams and became McGarrett's catchphrase: "Book 'em, Danno."  McGarrett's tousled yet immaculate hairstyle, as well as his proclivity for wearing a dark suit and tie on all possible occasions (uncommon in the islands), rapidly entered popular culture. While the other members of "Five-O" "dressed mainland" much of the time, they also often wore local styles, such as the ubiquitous Aloha shirt.  In many episodes (including the pilot), McGarrett is drawn into the world of international espionage and national intelligence. McGarrett's nemesis is a rogue intelligence officer of the People's Republic of China named Wo Fat. The communist rogue agent was played by veteran actor Khigh Dhiegh. In the show's final episode in 1980, titled "Woe to Wo Fat", McGarrett finally sees his foe go to jail.  Unlike the reboot the show's action and straightforward storytelling left little time for personal stories involving wives or girlfriends, though a two-part story in the first season dealt with the loss of McGarrett's sister's baby. Occasionally, a show would flash back to McGarrett's younger years or to a romantic figure.  In the episode "Number One with a Bullet, Part 2", McGarrett tells a criminal, "It was a bastard like you who killed my father." His 42-year-old father had been run down and killed by someone who had just held up a supermarket. Because Steve McGarrett is also a commander in the Naval Reserve, he sometimes uses their resources to help investigate and solve crimes. Hence the closing credits of some episodes mentioned the Naval Reserve. A 1975 episode involving Danno's aunt, played by MacArthur's mother Helen Hayes, provided a bit of Williams' back story.

Creation of the show.

Sources differ on how the show came to be. Producer Leonard Freeman moved to Hawaii to recuperate after suffering a heart attack. One source states the idea for the show may have come from a conversation Freeman had with Hawaii's then-Governor John A. Burns. (Hawaii had only been a state since 1959, and Americans who had never served in the Pacific Theater still considered it a very exotic locale when the show premiered in 1968, as the state makes up the eastern half of Polynesia.)  Another source instead claims that Freeman wanted to set a show in San Pedro, Los Angeles, California until his friend Richard Boone convinced him to shoot it entirely in Hawaii. A third source claims Freeman discussed the show with Governor Burns only after pitching the idea to CBS. Before settling on the name "Hawaii Five-O", Freeman considered titling the show "The Man".

Casting.

Freeman offered Richard Boone the part of McGarrett, but Boone turned it down; Gregory Peck and Robert Brown were also considered. Ultimately, Jack Lord – then living in Beverly Hills – was asked at the last moment. Lord read for the part on a Wednesday, was cast, and flew to Hawaii two days later. On the following Monday, Lord was in front of the cameras. Freeman and Lord had worked together previously on an unsold TV pilot called "Grand Hotel".  Tim O'Kelly originated the role of Danny "Danno" Williams in the pilot episode, "Cocoon". Test audiences apparently were not positive on O'Kelly, however, and the producers replaced him with James MacArthur.  Kam Fong Chun, an 18-year veteran of the Honolulu Police Department, auditioned for the part of the lead villain Wo Fat, but Freeman cast him in the part of Chin Ho Kelly instead. Freeman took the name Wo Fat from a restaurant in downtown Honolulu. The name Chin Ho came from Chinn Ho, the owner of the Ilikai Hotel where the penthouse shot of Steve McGarrett in the opening title sequence was taken. Richard Denning, who played the governor, had retired to Hawaii and came out of retirement for the show. Zulu was a Waikiki beach boy and local DJ when he was cast for the part of Kono, which he played for the next four years.

Production.

The first season was shot in a rusty military Quonset hut in Pearl City, which the various cast members quickly nicknamed "Mongoose Manor". The roof tended to leak, and rats would often gnaw at the cables. The show then moved to a Fort Ruger location for seasons two to eight. A third studio was built at Diamond Head, and was used during the last four seasons.  A problem from the beginning was the lack of a movie industry in Hawaii. Much of the crew and cast, including many locals who ended up participating in the show, had to learn their respective jobs as they went along. Jack Lord was known as a perfectionist who insisted on the best from everyone. His temper flared when he felt that others did not give their best, but in later reunions they admitted that Lord's hard-driving force had made them better actors and made "Hawaii Five-O" a better show. Lord's high standards helped the show last another six years after Leonard Freeman's death from heart trouble during the sixth season.  To critics and viewers, there was no question that Jack Lord was the center of the show, and that the other actors frequently served as little more than props, standing and watching while McGarrett emoted and paced around his office, analyzing the crime. But occasionally episodes would focus on the other actors, and let them showcase their own talents, such as Danno defusing bombs in "The Clock Struck Twelve". Since Jack Lord had a financial interest in the show, he referred to other regular cast actors in the program as a "with", as in "With James MacArthur"; they were never called "co-stars".  Very few episodes were shot outside of Hawaii. At least two episodes were shot in Los Angeles, one in Hong Kong, and one in Singapore.

Credits.

The opening title sequence was created by television director Reza S. Badiyi. Early shows began with a cold open suggesting the sinister plot for that episode, then cut to a shot of a big ocean wave and the start of the theme song. A fast zoom-in to the top balcony of the Ilikai Hotel followed, showing McGarrett turning to face the camera, followed by many quick-cuts and freeze-frames of Hawaiian scenery, and Hawaiian-Chinese-white English model Elizabeth Malamalamaokalani Logue turning to face the camera. A grass-skirted hula dancer from the pilot episode was also included, played by Helen Kuoha-Torco, who later became a professor of business technology at Windward Community College. The opening scene ended with shots of the supporting players, and the flashing blue light of a police motorcycle racing through a Honolulu street.  At the conclusion of each episode, Jack Lord narrated a promo for the next episode, often emphasizing the "guest villain", especially if the villain is a recurring character, such as that played by actor Hume Cronyn (2 episodes). The line he spoke was, "This is Jack Lord inviting you to be with us next week for <name of episode>" and then, "Be here. Aloha." The promos were removed from the syndicated episodes but most have been restored in DVD releases from the second season through the ninth. Most of the promos are slightly edited to remove references to "next week".  This tradition has been continued in the 2010 version of "Hawaii Five-0", but is not limited to Alex O'Loughlin. All of the primary cast members take turns with the iconic "Be here. Aloha" line at the end of the preview segment.  There were two versions of the closing credits portion of the show. During the first season, the theme music was played over a short film of a flashing blue light attached to the rear of a police motorcycle in Waikiki heading west (the film is shown at twice the normal speed, as can be seen from people crossing a street behind the police motorcycle). In later seasons, the same music was played over film of outrigger canoeists battling the surf.  In a 2010 issue of "TV Guide", the show's opening title sequence ranked No. 4 on a list of TV's top 10 credits sequences, as selected by readers.

Legacy.

The show was the longest-running crime show on American television until "Law & Order" surpassed it in 2002, and was the first to enjoy an uninterrupted run that exceeded a decade (it has since been joined in that distinction by several other series including "", "" and "NCIS").  When the show premiered in 1968 Hawaii had been a state for only 9 years and was relatively obscure to Americans who had never served in the Pacific Theater, but as a geographic part of Polynesia it had an exotic image.  Known for the location, theme song, and ensemble cast, "Hawaii Five-O" contains a heavy use of exterior location shooting throughout the entire 12 seasons. A typical episode, on average, would have at least two-thirds of all footage shot on location, as opposed to a "typical" show of the time which would be shot largely on sound stages and backlots. It is also remembered for its unusual setting during an era when most crime dramas of the era were set in or around the Los Angeles or New York City areas.  The Hawaii-based television show "Magnum, P.I." was created after "Hawaii Five-O" ended its run, in order to make further use of the expensive production facilities created there for "Five-O". The first few "Magnum P.I." episodes made direct references to "Five-O", suggesting that it takes place in the same fictional setting. "Magnum"s producers made a few attempts to coax Jack Lord out of retirement for a cameo appearance, but he refused.  Many local people were cast in the show, which was ethnically diverse by the standards of the late 1960s. The first run and syndication were seen by an estimated 400 million people around the world.  "Bored, She Hung Herself", the 16th episode of the second season, depicted a Five-O investigation into the apparent suicide of a woman by hanging, which she was supposedly practicing as part of a health regimen. A viewer reportedly died trying the same technique, and as a result, the episode was not rebroadcast, was never included in any syndication packages, and has not been included on any DVD release of the show to date. The family of the person who died in the real-life hanging sued CBS over the episode.

Remake projects.

A one-hour pilot for a new series was made in 1996 but never aired. Produced and written by Stephen J. Cannell, it starred Gary Busey and Russell Wong as the new Five-O team. James MacArthur returned as Dan Williams, having become governor of Hawaii. Several cameos were made by other "Five-O" regulars, including Kam Fong as Chin Ho Kelly (even though the character had been killed off at the end of Season 10).  A remake pilot, called "Hawaii Five-0" (the last character is a zero instead of the letter "O", which is the true title of the original series as well), aired September 20, 2010, on CBS. It lasted for 10 seasons until the 240th and final episode was aired on April 3, 2020. The remake version "Hawaii Five-0" used the same principal character names as the original, and the new Steve McGarrett's late father's vintage 1974 Mercury Marquis was the actual car driven by Lord in the original series's final seasons. The new series opening credit sequence was an homage to the original; the theme song was cut in half, from 60 to 30 seconds, but was an otherwise identical instrumentation. Most of the iconic shots were replicated, beginning with the helicopter approach and close-up turn of McGarrett at the Ilikai Hotel penthouse, the jet engine nacelle, a hula dancer's hips, the quickly stepped zoom-in to the face of the Lady Columbia statue at Punchbowl, the close-up of the Kamehameha Statue's face, and the ending with a police motorcycle's flashing blue light. The surname of recurring character Governor Sam Denning (played by Richard T. Jones) was a nod to actor Richard Denning, who played the Governor in the original series. Starting with the Season 7 many of the clips that were part of the original opening were removed and more action shots of the cast were included. On the March 19, 2012 episode, Ed Asner reprised his role as "August March", a character he first played in a 1975 episode. Clips from the 1975 episode were included in the new one, even though the 2010 series was intended to be in a different narrative universe than the Jack Lord series.

Theme music.

Another legacy of the show is the popularity of the "Hawaii Five-O" theme music. The tune was composed by Morton Stevens, who also composed numerous episode scores performed by the CBS Orchestra. The theme was later recorded by the Ventures, whose version reached No. 4 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 pop chart, and is particularly popular with college and high school marching bands, especially at the University of Hawaii where it has become the unofficial fight song. The tune has also been heard at Robertson Stadium after Houston Dynamo goals scored by Brian Ching, a native of Hawaii. Because of the tempo of the music, the theme gained popularity in the UK with followers of Northern soul and was popular on dance floors in the 1970s.  Although the theme is most widely known as an instrumental, it has been released with at least two similar but different sets of lyrics. The first, "You Can Come with Me" by Don Ho, opens with an instrumental in the familiar tempo, then settles into a ballad style for the sung portion. The second, by Sammy Davis, Jr., titled "You Can "Count on" Me (Theme from Hawaii Five-O)", maintains the driving style of the original instrumental throughout.  Australian proto-punk band Radio Birdman borrowed heavily from the program and its theme for their 1977 single "Aloha, Steve & Danno", later included on selected versions of the album "Radios Appear". Band leader Deniz Tek, who grew up in Ann Arbor, Michigan during the heyday of MC5 and The Stooges, commented that he found Sydney of the early 1970s to be a rather quiet and staid place in comparison, and that airings of the program were a weekly highlight. The song was written after the band members realized they were spending a lot of evenings watching the program. The lyrics of the song's verses consist entirely of references to story lines of the early episodes. The chorus alludes to the boredom which band members experienced when the program wasn't on. The song's guitar solos and other elements of the music were directly derivative of the program's theme; Stevens received a writing credit on the song as a result.  In the Australian movie "The Dish", the theme was mistaken for the national anthem of the US by a local band upon the visit of the US Ambassador to Parkes, NSW, to commemorate the 1969 Moon landing.  Bill Murray sang his own made-up lyrics to the song on one of his "Nick the Lounge Singer" skits on "Saturday Night Live".  On the 1997 "Bill Nye the Science Guy" episode "Volcanoes", the MIDI version of "Hawaii Five-O" was used during the "Pahoehoe Five-O" segments.  The song was also featured in the film "50 First Dates" (2004), and the Sammy Davis Jr. version of the theme song was re-recorded by Los Straitjackets with Deke Dickerson and released in 2014.  Darts player Wayne Mardle used the song as his walk-on song in 2013.  The Ventures version appears in a 2019 TV commercial for Papa John's Pizza.

Slang term for police.

The phrase "Five-O" (or any variation, such as "5–0", "5-o", and "five O", all usually pronounced "five oh") has come to refer to the police in the United States.

Broadcast history.

Syndication.

"Hawaii Five-O" survived long enough to overlap with reruns of early episodes, which were broadcast by CBS in their late night schedule while new episodes were still being produced. Once the program entered syndication after the original run of the series, CBS broadcast reruns of season 12 in late night under the title "McGarrett" to avoid confusion with the episodes in syndication broadcast under the title "Hawaii Five-O." Currently, as of 2019 MeTV no longer airs the series. In the United Kingdom, the series first aired on ITV on July 19, 1970 in a Saturday evening timeslot.

Streaming media.

CBS Interactive had presented the entire first season of the show online via Adobe Flash streaming media. As of July 2017, almost every episode is available at CBS.com. The first 10 episodes of season 1 are available free of charge. All other episodes require a CBS All Access subscription to view.

Home media.

CBS DVD (distributed by Paramount) has released all twelve seasons on DVD in Region 1. The first eight seasons have been released in region 2 and the first seven seasons in region 4.  In September 2019 (Region 4, Australia), Via Vision Entertainment released a Season 1-7 Boxset followed by Season 8-12 Boxset in February 2020. The Via Vision Entertainment releases are only available in these box sets and not individual seasons.  The episode "Bored, She Hung Herself" is not included in The Second Season set. The omission is mentioned on the back of the box. Only some Australian bootlegs have had the episode. Seasons 2–8 contain episode promos by Jack Lord.  On December 3, 2013, Paramount released "Hawaii Five-O – The Complete Series" on DVD in Region 1.  On April 18, 2017, the complete series set was reissued.

Other media.

A soundtrack album featuring Morton Stevens' theme and incidental music from the pilot and the first two seasons was issued by Capitol Records in 1970. Unlike many albums of television music of the time, the music was taken directly from the scoring sessions rather than being specially re-recorded for album release. One of the instrumental pieces on the album, "Call to Danger", was originally recorded for the unsold 1967 pilot of the same name and also excerpted as background music accompanying a "Special Presentation" logo that CBS used to introduce its prime time television specials throughout the 1970s and 1980s. The album was re-issued on compact disc by Film Score Monthly in 2010.  "Hawaii Five-O" was the subject of six novelizations. Each one had a plot line written for the book and was not based on a television episode. The first two books were published by Signet Paperbacks in 1968 and 1969. After that were two juvenile hard covers published by Whitman publishing in 1969 and 1971 and finally two more books were published in England.

Hawaii Five-O is an American police procedural drama series produced by CBS Productions and created by Leonard Freeman. Set in Hawaii, the show originally aired for 12 seasons from 1968 to 1980, and continues in reruns. At the airing of its last episode, it was the longest-running police drama in American television history.

Hawaii Fünf-Null (Originaltitel: "Hawaii Five-O") ist eine US-amerikanische Krimiserie, von der in den Jahren 1968 bis 1980 insgesamt 279 Folgen zu je 45 Minuten entstanden. Die Namensgebung "Fünf-Null" spielt auf Hawaii als 1959 neu hinzugekommenen 50. Bundesstaat der USA an.


Overview.

The city is well connected to the rest of Spain. The Autovia de Andalucia, NIV Madrid-Cádiz, is located to the west at Bailén. There is a railroad station at Linares-Baeza, with lines connecting Madrid and Cádiz, and Madrid-Granada-Almería.  Near to Linares is the ancient town of Castulo, which dates to antiquity and earned much of its revenue from the lead mines located there. It was at Castulo that Carthaginian general Hannibal married the local Iberian princess Himilce on the eve of the Second Punic War.  The Linares Advanced Technical College is located in Alfonso X "the Wise" Street and offers a wide range of engineering studies, belonging to the University of Jaén since 1 July 1993. The Scientific-Technological Campus is still under construction.  Linares is also the place where the annual Linares chess tournament was held.

History.

Around the middle of the nineteenth century Linares became an important mining center with lead mines nearby. The smelting of lead, the manufacture of lead sheets and pipes, and the production of by-product silver from the lead ores led to a significant population increase. The 6,000 inhabitants in 1849 became 36,000 in 1877. This commercial and industrial growth brought the concession of the title of city in 1875.

Economy.

The lead mines of Linares were in almost interrupted activity from pre-Roman times until the 1990s. There were also lead smelters and gunpowder, dynamite and rope factories as auxiliary to the mining industry. Currently, the mines of Linares are protected as cultural heritage.  Santana Motor, the former producer of all-terrain vehicles for the Spanish Army which was recently shut down due to the economic recession. There is also a factory producing trains (CAF), another one producing components for wind turbines (Grupo Daniel Alonso y Gamesa), and a beet sugar plant (Azucareras Reunidas de Jaen S.A.), which now produces biodiesel from colza oil, palm oil, soybeans, and sunflower oil.

Personalities.

The bull ring in Linares is famous for the death in 1947 of bullfighter Manolete (Manuel Rodríguez Sánchez). On 28 August every year, people place flowers on his statue in Linares. Manolete's death is remembered in the ring by putting a bunch of roses in the place where he fell.  Linares is the birthplace of classical guitarist Andrés Segovia, singer Raphael and the hometown of jazz vocalist Virginia Maestro and Blessed Manuel Lozano Garrido, who was beatified on Saturday 12 June 2010 in Linares.

International relations.

Twin towns – Sister cities.

Linares is twinned with:

Linares () is a city located in the Andalusian province of Jaén, Spain. It is considered the second most important city in that province and had a population of 62,347 in the most recent census. The altitude is and the total area of the municipality is. It is located on kilometer 120 on the Valencia-Córdoba highway (N-322) and is from the capital, Jaén.

Linares ist eine spanische Industrie- und Handelsstadt im Nordwesten der Provinz Jaén in der Autonomen Region Andalusien. Die Zahl der Einwohner beträgt (Stand ), die Stadtfläche umfasst 197,92 km2.


Ancient payment (1031–1555).

The term Peter's pence, in its Latin form, first appeared in writing in 1031. However, the payment may not have had a single origin under the Saxons. It was applied by the Normans to Ireland as a 'penny per hearth' annual tax in the later part of the twelfth century under the Papal Bull "Laudabiliter". The traditional scholarly view is summarized in Jacob's "Law Dictionary" Otherwise called by Saxons the "Romefeoh" (the fee due to Rome), it was a tribute, or rather an alms, given by Ina, King of the West Saxons, on his pilgrimage to Rome in 725. A similar "contribution" was also collected by Offa, King of the Mercians, throughout his dominions, in 794. However, it was said to be not a tribute to the pope, but for the maintenance of the English School or College at Rome. It was called Peter's pence because a penny from every house (subject to a means test) was collected on 1 August, the feast day of St. Peter ad Vincula. The penny of Offa was a small silver coin. King Edgar’s laws contained a sharp Constitution touching this money (Leg. Edg 78 c 4)  Some sources give the Anglo-Saxon term "Romescot" instead of "Romefeoh".  The Offa story is elaborated in later accounts of unknown reliability:  Ethelbert, king of the East Angles, having reigned single some time, thought fit to take a wife; for this purpose he came to the court of Offa, king of Mercia, to desire his daughter in marriage. Cynethryth, consort of Offa, a cruel, ambitious, and blood-thirsty woman, who envied the retinue and splendor of the unsuspicious king, resolved in some manner to have him murdered, before he left their court, hoping by that to gain his immense riches; for this purpose she, with her malicious and fascinating arts, overcame the king–her husband, which she most cunningly effected, and, under deep disguises, laid open to him her portentous design; a villain was therefore hired, named Gimberd, who was to murder the innocent prince.  The manner in which the heinous crime was effected was as cowardly as it was fatal: under the chair of state in which Ethelbert sat, a deep pit was dug; at the bottom of it was placed the murderer; the unfortunate king was then let through a trap-door into the pit; his fear overcame him so much, that he did not attempt resistance. Three months after this, Queenrid died, when circumstances convinced Offa of the innocence of Ethelbert; he, therefore, to appease his guilt, built St. Alban's monastery, gave one-tenth part of his goods to the poor, and went in penance to Rome, where he gave to the Pope a penny for every house in his dominions. The earliest documentary evidence concerning these payments is found in a letter written from Rome by King Canute to the English clergy in 1031. At that time, Canute was collecting a levy of one penny on each hearth or household, using a means test requiring that the household have an annual rental cost of thirty pence or more; households paying less than that in rent were exempt.  Over time, the payment came to be regarded as a tax rather than an offering, and payment was apt to be avoided, if possible, the more so as time went on. Indeed, in the 13th century, the revenue arising from it had been stabilized, on the basis of the assessment of a much earlier day, at the annual sum of £20 1s. 9d for the whole of England. Pope Clement V pressed to return to the more rewarding ancient basis of a penny from each sufficient household. By the 14th century, a standard sum, typically 5s. per manor or parish, was being given to local church authorities for forwarding. It appears that new tenants entering on a property which had historically been subject to a Peter's Pence levy did not always accept the obligation to pay.  Older sources are often unclear in their references to Peter's Pence, and there was (and remains) a degree of local confusion between it, various hearth taxes (sometimes called smoke-money or smoke-farthings), and other ancient payments.  By the end of the 12th century, the English population had increased, so the ecclesiastical authorities were collecting more than the stabilized sum, and keeping the surplus.  It ceased to be remitted to the pope after 1320, but seemingly this was not permanent. The exact reason for the 'prohibition' by Edward III is unknown, but the threat of withholding payment of Peter's Pence proved more than once a useful weapon against uncooperative popes in the hands of English kings. In 1366 and for some years after, it was refused on the grounds of the pope's obstinacy Evidently, however, the payment survived or was revived in some localities, because it was one of many payments abolished by Act of Parliament in the 25th year of Henry VIII's reign. The 1534 Act, "An Act for the exoneration of exactions paid to the See of Rome", specifically mentions Peter's Pence. Along with other payments, it was "never more to be levied... to any person", indicating that the payment was to be extinguished completely and not diverted to crown use. This occurred just prior to Henry's permanent break from the Church, which occurred in 1536, making England part of the Protestant Reformation.  However, under the Catholic Queen Mary, Henry VIII's reformation legislation was overturned. On 16 Jan 1555, royal assent was given to "An Act, repealing all Statutes, Articles, and Provisions, made against the See of Rome, sithence the 20th Year of King Henry the Eighth; and for the Establishment of Ecclesiastical Possessions conveyed to the Laity" (1 & 2 Philip & Mary c.8) However, this act did not mention Peter's Pence specifically. There is isolated evidence that in some parishes, payment of Peter's Pence did indeed resume during Mary's reign, for instance in Rowington, Warwickshire, where the church accounts for 1556 record the collection of 54s. 4d., a considerable sum. Mary's Act was in turn repealed by the 1559 Act of Supremacy, under the Protestant Queen Elizabeth I.

Post-Reformation practice in England.

Despite the unequivocal abolition called for by the 1559 Act, payments termed Peter's Pence undoubtedly continued in England in the succeeding centuries. In one Devon parish, there is a record regarding 1609–1610 that states "besides 2s. for Peter's farthings there is a payment of 2s. for Peter's pence". In Gloucestershire, a survey of the then royal manor of Cheltenham in 1617 asked tenants, "whether there is not duly continued and paid certain moneys called peter pence; if not when did they discontinue and what was the sum of them and to whom was it paid?" This question indicates that at the least, Gloucester recognized that practices varied. The reply given was that, "the moneys called Peter Pence are commonly every year paid unto the Bailiff and are not discontinued to their knowledge, and the sum of them by the year is 5s. or thereabouts, as they think". This suggests that originally some 60 households contributed annually. The survey makes no mention of when in the year the payment was made, and whether the bailiff passed the money on or retained it on the lord's behalf. (Pre-Reformation practice in Cheltenham had called for payment—invariably of 5s.—on the accustomed date of 1 August, as above.) In Cheltenham manorial records, occasional references to properties being liable for Peter's pence are seen until as late as 1802, but there is no direct evidence of any actual payment.  An Act of Parliament obtained in 1625 to clarify manorial customs in Cheltenham acknowledges the continued existence of Peter Pence: "And be it enacted... that the said copyholders... shall... hold the said customary messuages and lands of the said manors severally and respectively, by copies of court-roll to them and their heirs, by suit of court, and by the yearly rents, worksilver, Peter-pence, and Bead Reap-money, to be paid severally and respectively as heretofore..."  It is uncertain how exceptional the situation in Cheltenham may have been. It is possible that the label Peter's Pence had been transferred to some other type of household or hearth tax. Some evidence for this comes from references in Minchinhampton (Gloucestershire) churchwardens' accounts of 1575 to "Peter-pence or smoke-farthings" expended at the time of the bishop's visitation in the summer. Smoke-farthings are glossed as a composition for offerings made in Whitsun week by every man who occupied a house with a chimney, to the cathedral of the diocese in which he lived; and that though Peter's pence was abolished in 1534, "on the grant of those monasteries to whom they had by custom become payable, they continued payable as appendant to the manors etc of the persons to whom granted". Before the Reformation, the lordship of the manor of Cheltenham had been held by the Abbess of Syon. It is plausible therefore that as both the pious payment of Peter's Pence and the secular manorial fees had once gone to the same institution, the former came over time to be regarded as part of the latter.

Revived custom.

In 1871, Pope Pius IX formalized the practice of lay members of Church and "other persons of good will" – providing financial support directly to the Papal Treasury. In general, contributions go to the local parish or diocese, who then provide contributions to support higher level offices. Collections for Peter's Pence go directly to Rome. Pius IX approved this practice in the encyclical "Saepe venerabilis", issued on 5 August 1871. The money collected is today used by the pope for philanthropic purposes.  At present, this collection is taken each year on the Sunday closest to 29 June, the Solemnity of the Feast of Saints Peter and Paul in the liturgical calendar., the United States has donated the largest amounts, giving some 28% of the total, followed by Italy, Germany, Spain, France, Ireland, Brazil and South Korea. US donations totaled $75.8 million in 2008, $82,529,417 in 2009, $67,704,416.41 in 2010 and $69,711,722.76 in 2011.

Finances.

In 2019, it was revealed that the charity had secretly been used by people within the Vatican to buy luxury property in London and to fund movies such as the 2019 Elton John biopic "Rocketman". It has also been used to finance the budget deficit of the Holy See. "Two commentators in the University of Notre Dame’s "Church Life Journal" note the "strange situation of the Holy See with regard to its wealth." It has "global scope spiritually yet with minuscule territory." A sovereign state with virtually no tax base and no territory, it is necessary to invest in order to meet is financial needs and goals, said Gladden Pappin and Edoardo Bueri."

Peter's Pence (or Denarii Sancti Petri and "Alms of St Peter") are donations or payments made directly to the Holy See of the Catholic Church. The practice began under the Saxons in England and spread through Europe. Both before and after the Norman conquest the practice varied by time and place; initially, it was done as a pious contribution, whereas later it was required by various rulers, and collected, more like a tax. Though formally discontinued in England at the time of the Reformation, a post-Reformation payment of uncertain characteristics is seen in some English manors into the 19th century. In 1871, Pope Pius IX formalized the practice of lay members of the church and "other persons of good will" providing financial support to the Roman See. Modern "Peter's Pence" proceeds are used by the Pope for philanthropic works throughout the world.

Der Peterspfennig (lateinisch: "Denarius Sancti Petri") ist eine Geldsammlung, die als Ausdruck der Verbundenheit der Gläubigen mit dem Papst gilt. Mit der finanziellen Zuwendung soll die apostolische und karitative Arbeit des Papstes unterstützt werden. Ende des 8. Jahrhunderts hatten die damals neu zum Christentum bekehrten Angelsachsen beschlossen, durch einen jährlichen Obolus einen Beitrag zur Bewältigung der Aufgaben des Heiligen Stuhls zu leisten. Dieser Brauch des "Denarius Sancti Petri" breitete sich in der Folge auch in anderen europäischen Ländern aus. Zeitweilig wurde der Peterspfennig auch für den Neubau des Petersdoms gespendet. Papst Pius IX. legte 1871 in der Enzyklika "Saepe Venerabilis" eine einheitliche Regelung für die Zahlung des Peterspfennigs fest. So wird weltweit die Kollekte am 29. Juni, dem Hochfest der Apostel Petrus und Paulus, oder am Sonntag davor oder danach als Peterspfennig dem Heiligen Stuhl zur Verfügung gestellt. Zudem kann der Peterspfennig auch über die Internetseite des Vatikans entrichtet werden.


Career.

Early years.

Kocsis was born in Budapest. He began his career as a junior with Kőbányai TC, before joining Ferencváros TC in 1946. There, he won his first Hungarian League title in 1949. He was then conscripted into the army and joined the army club, Honvéd. His team mates at Honvéd included Ferenc Puskás, Zoltán Czibor and József Bozsik. During his time at the club he won three more Hungarian League titles in 1952, 1954 and 1955. He finished as top goalscorer in the league on three occasions in 1951, 1952 and 1954 scoring 30, 36 and 33 goals respectively. On the latter two occasions he was also the top goalscorer in any European league.  During the 1952 season at Honvéd, Kocsis was the world's top goalscorer in world 1st division football with 36 goals. He repeated that feat in 1954 with 33 goals.  Kocsis made his debut for the senior Hungary team in 1948. Together with Ferenc Puskás, Zoltán Czibor, József Bozsik and Nándor Hidegkuti, he formed the offensive nucleus of the Golden Team that went unbeaten for 32 consecutive games. The Hungarian national team suffered no defeats in Class-A international matches between 4 June 1950 and 4 July 1954, in the 1954 FIFA World Cup Final.  Kocsis scored his first international hat trick in a game against Sweden on 20 November 1949, and he scored a further one on 22 June 1952 against Finland. Kocsis also scored six goals at the Olympics in Helsinki as Hungary became Olympic Champions in 1952. On 19 October 1952, he scored his third international hat trick in a game against Czechoslovakia.  In 1953, Hungary defeated England 6–3 at Wembley Stadium and then in 1954 by 7–1 in Budapest. During the latter game, Kocsis added a further two goals. In 1953 Hungary also won the Central European International Cup.

1954 World Cup.

He finished the 1954 World Cup as top goalscorer, scoring 11 goals including two hat tricks. In the opening game he scored his first hat trick of the tournament against South Korea as Hungary cruised to a 9–0 win. In the next game against Germany, he went one further and scored four of the goals in an 8–3 win against the understrength team of coach Sepp Herberger. In the quarter-finals Hungary played Brazil in a game referred to as the "Battle of Berne": Kocsis scored twice in an encounter which saw Hungary win 4–2. Hungary then reached the final after they defeated reigning World champions Uruguay in the semi-finals. The game was 2–2 in extra time until Kocsis scored twice to seal another 4–2 win. In the final they met Germany once again. However, for the first time in the competition Kocsis failed to score and the Germans won 3–2.  On 24 October 1954, he scored his sixth international hat trick and second against Czechoslovakia. He completed his seventh and last hat trick for Hungary on 5 November 1955 in a game against the same opponents, Sweden, that he had scored his first.

Honvéd World Tour.

In 1956 Honvéd entered the European Cup and in the first round they were drawn against Athletic Bilbao. Honvéd lost the away leg 2–3, but before the home leg could be played, the Hungarian Revolution had erupted back in Budapest. The players decided against going back to Hungary and arranged for the return with Athletic to be played at the "Heysel Stadium" in Brussels. Despite drawing 3–3 they went out on 6–5 on aggregate.  Elimination left Honvéd in limbo. The players summoned their families from Budapest and, despite opposition from FIFA and the Hungarian football authorities, they organised a fundraising tour of Italy, Portugal, Spain and Brazil. After returning to Europe, the players parted ways. Some, including Bozsik, returned to Hungary while others, including Czibor, Kocsis and Puskás, found new clubs in Western Europe.

FC Barcelona and coaching career.

Kocsis spent one season with Young Fellows Zürich before another Hungarian refugee, László Kubala, persuaded him and Zoltán Czibor to join him at FC Barcelona where he became a vital member of the team. He subsequently scored on his La Liga debut in a 4–1 win over Real Betis and as part of a team that also included Ramallets, Evaristo and Luis Suárez, Kocsis won a Copa del Generalísimo/La Liga double in 1959 and a La Liga/Fairs Cup double in 1960. FC Barcelona also reached the final of the European Cup in 1961 and this saw Czibor and Kocsis return to the Wankdorf Stadium in Bern, where in 1954, while playing for Hungary, they had lost the World Cup Final. Despite both of them scoring, they finished on the losing side once again. They also lost by the same 3–2 score again, this time to S.L. Benfica.  He scored twice in the 1959 Copa del Generalísimo final as FC Barcelona defeated Granada CF 4–1. In the 1960 European Cup he scored four of the goals in a 5–2 quarter-final win over Wolves. He also scored a hat trick against Real Sociedad in a La Liga game in 1961 and scored all three goals in the 1962 Fairs Cup final that they lost to Valencia CF 7–3 on aggregate. In 1961, he also played as a guest for Valencia CF and helped them win their own summer trophy, the "Trofeo Naranja". He scored in both games as Valencia beat Botafogo and FC Barcelona. Kocsis also scored in the 1963 Copa del Generalísimo final held at the Camp Nou. FC Barcelona beat Real Zaragoza 3–1.

Later life and death.

Kocsis retired as a player in 1966 and opened a restaurant in Barcelona called "Tete D’ Or". He also worked as a coach with FC Barcelona and managed Hércules CF between 1972 and 1974. However his coaching career was cut short when he was diagnosed with leukemia and then stomach cancer. On 22 July 1979, aged 49, he fell to his death from the fourth floor of a hospital in Barcelona. It has been alleged that he committed suicide, though it may have been only an accident.

Career statistics.

Club.

Source:

International.

Sources:

Sándor Péter Kocsis (; 21 September 1929 – 22 July 1979) was a Hungarian footballer who played for Ferencváros TC, Budapest Honvéd, Young Fellows Zürich, FC Barcelona and Hungary as a striker. During the 1950s, along with Ferenc Puskás, Zoltán Czibor, József Bozsik and Nándor Hidegkuti, he was a member of the "Mighty Magyars". After the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, he moved to Spain where he became a member of the FC Barcelona team of the late 1950s.

Sándor Péter Kocsis [] (* 21. September 1929 in Budapest, Königreich Ungarn; † 22. Juli 1979 in Barcelona, Spanien) war ein ungarischer Fußballspieler und Stürmer in der legendären "Goldenen Elf" Ungarns.


History.

The pavilion was commissioned by Sultan Abd-ul-Mejid I (1823–1861), and designed by the architects Garabet Amira Balyan and his son Nigoğayos Balyan in the neo-baroque style. Completed in 1857, the structure took the place of a two storey timber palace built during the reign of Mahmud I (1696–1754) by his Grand Vizier Divittar Mehmed Pasha, then successively used by Selim III (1761–1808) and Mahmud II (1785–1839).  The building consists of two main stories and a basement on a footprint of 15 x 27 m. Unlike other pavilion gardens with high walls; its garden is surrounded by cast iron railings with one gate at each of the four sides. The basement was appointed with kitchen, larder, and servant's quarters, with the floors above reflecting the design of a traditional Turkish house - four corner rooms surrounding a central hall. The rooms at the waterfront have two fireplaces while the others have one each, all fashioned from colorful Italian marble. The rooms boast crystal chandeliers from Bohemia, with curtains, furniture upholstery, and carpets woven in Hereke. The halls and the rooms exhibit paintings and arts objects; Charles Séchan, stage designer at Vienna State Opera, was charged for the decoration of the interior.  During the reign of Sultan Abd-ul-Aziz (1830–1876), more elaborate decoration was added to the façade; some of the original garden outbuildings were demolished at that time. In the beginning of the Republican era, the site was used as a state guesthouse for some years. Since a thorough restoration in 1944, the palace has been open to the public as a museum.  The pavilion appeared in the James Bond film ""The World Is Not Enough"" as the mansion of oil heiress Elektra King in Baku. The pavilion also appeared in popular Bollywood film Ek Tha Tiger.

Küçüksu Pavilion (), a.k.a. Göksu Pavilion, is a summer pavilion in Istanbul, Turkey, situated in the Küçüksu neighborhood of Beykoz district on the Asian shore of the Bosphorus between Anadoluhisarı and the Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge. The pavilion was used by Ottoman sultans for short stays during country excursions and hunting.

Küçüksu („Kleines Wasser“) ist ein Stadtteil von Beykoz in Istanbul und Geburtsort des Prinzen Sabahaddin. Sehenswert ist der luxuriöse osmanische Ausflugspalast "Küçüksu Kasrı", der ganz aus weißem Marmor erbaut ist. Die Sultane kamen nur für Ausflüge hierher und kehrten noch am selben Tag zurück. Daher gibt es in dem Palast auch kein einziges Bett. Für viele Jahrzehnte diente Küçüksu als Picknickort für die Bevölkerung, bis die Erbauer der ersten Bosporus-Brücke die weiten Wiesen als Montageort für die Brückenteile besetzten. Obwohl die Brücke bereits seit 1979 fertig ist, wurden die Anlagen bislang noch nicht wiederhergestellt (Stand 2009).


Physiological examples.

Protists.

In protists, syncytia can be found in some rhizarians (e.g., chlorarachniophytes, plasmodiophorids, haplosporidians) and acellular slime moulds, dictyostelids (amoebozoans), acrasids (Excavata) and Haplozoon.

Plants.

Some examples of plant syncytia, which result during plant development, include:

Fungi.

A syncytium is the normal cell structure for many fungi. Most fungi of Basidiomycota exist as a dikaryon in which thread-like cells of the mycelium are partially partitioned into segments each containing two differing nuclei, called a heterokaryon.

Animals.

Skeletal muscle.

A classic example of a syncytium is the formation of skeletal muscle. Large skeletal muscle fibers form by the fusion of thousands of individual muscle cells. The multinucleated (symplastic) arrangement is important in pathologic states such as myopathy, where focal necrosis (death) of a portion of a skeletal muscle fiber does not result in necrosis of the adjacent sections of that same skeletal muscle fiber, because those adjacent sections have their own nuclear material. Thus, myopathy is usually associated with such "segmental necrosis", with some of the surviving segments being functionally cut off from their nerve supply via loss of continuity with the neuromuscular junction.

Cardiac muscle.

The syncytium of cardiac muscle is important because it allows rapid coordinated contraction of muscles along their entire length. Action potentials propagate along the surface of the muscle fiber from the point of synaptic contact through intercalated discs. Although a syncytium, cardiac muscle differs because the cells are not long and multinucleated. Cardiac tissue is therefore described as a functional syncytium, as opposed to the true syncytium of skeletal muscle.

Osteoclasts.

Certain animal immune-derived cells may form aggregate cells, such as the osteoclast cells responsible for bone resorption.

Placenta.

Another important vertebrate syncytium is in the placenta of placental mammals. Embryo-derived cells that form the interface with the maternal blood stream fuse together to form a multinucleated barrier - the syncytiotrophoblast. This is probably important to limit the exchange of migratory cells between the developing embryo and the body of the mother, as some blood cells are specialized to be able to insert themselves between adjacent epithelial cells. The syncytial epithelium of the placenta does not provide such an access path from the maternal circulation into the embryo.

Glass sponges.

Much of the body of Hexactinellid sponges is composed of syncitial tissue. This allows them to form their large siliceous spicules exclusively inside their cells.

Tegument (helminth).

The fine structure of tegument is essentially the same in both the cestodes and trematodes. A typical tegument is 7-16 μm thick, with distinct layers. It is a syncytium consisting of multinucleated tissues with no distinct cell boundaries. The outer zone of the syncytium, called the "distal cytoplasm," is lined with a plasma membrane. This plasma membrane is in turn associated with a layer of carbohydrate-containing macromolecules known as the glycocalyx, that varies in thickness from one species to another. The distal cytoplasm is connected to the inner layer called the "proximal cytoplasm", which is the "cellular region or cyton or perikarya" through cytoplasmic tubes that are composed of microtubules. The proximal cytoplasm contains nuclei, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, mitochondria, ribosomes, glycogen deposits, and numerous vesicles. The internal most layer is bounded by a layer of connective tissue known as the "basal lamina". The basal lamina is followed by a thick layer of muscle.

Pathological examples.

Viral infection.

Syncytia can also form when cells are infected with certain types of viruses, notably HSV-1, HIV, MeV, and pneumoviruses, e.g. respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). These syncytial formations create distinctive cytopathic effects when seen in permissive cells. Because many cells fuse together, syncytium are also known as multinucleated giant cells, or polykaryocytes. During infection, viral fusion proteins used by the virus to enter the cell are transported to the cell surface, where they can cause the host cell membrane to fuse with neighboring cells.

Reoviridae.

Typically, the viral families that can cause syncytia are enveloped because viral envelope proteins on the surface of the host cell are needed to fuse with other cells. Certain members of the Reoviridae family are notable exceptions due to a unique set of proteins known as fusion-associated small transmembrane (FAST) proteins. Reovirus induced syncytium formation is not found in humans, but is found in a number of other species and is caused by fusogenic orthoreoviruses. These fusogenic orthoreoviruses include reptilian orthoreovirus, avian orthoreovirus, Nelson Bay orthoreovirus, and baboon orthoreovirus.

HIV.

HIV infects CD4 T cells and makes them produce viral proteins, including fusion proteins. Then, the cells begin to display surface HIV glycoproteins, which are antigenic. Normally, a cytotoxic T cell will immediately come to "inject" lymphotoxins, such as perforin or granzyme, that will kill the infected T helper cell. However, if T helper cells are nearby, the gp41 HIV receptors displayed on the surface of the T helper cell will bind to other similar lymphocytes. This makes dozens of T helper cells fuse cell membranes into a giant, nonfunctional syncytium, which allows the HIV virion to kill many T helper cells by infecting only one. It is associated with a faster progression of the disease

Mumps.

The mumps virus uses HN protein to stick to a potential host cell, then, the fusion protein allows it to bind with the host cell. The HN and fusion proteins are then left on the host cell walls, causing it to bind with neighbour epithelial cells.

A syncytium or symplasm (; plural syncytia; from Greek: σύν "syn" "together" and κύτος "kytos" "box, i.e. cell") is a multinucleate cell which can result from multiple cell fusions of uninuclear cells (i.e., cells with a single nucleus), in contrast to a coenocyte, which can result from multiple nuclear divisions without accompanying cytokinesis. The term may also refer to cells interconnected by specialized membranes with gap junctions, as seen in the heart muscle cells and certain smooth muscle cells, which are synchronized electrically in an action potential.

Als Syncytium oder Synzytium (von und κύτος "kýtos" „Gefäß“, „Höhlung“ bzw. „Zelle“; Plural: "Syncytien" bzw. "Synzytien"), auch Coenoblast (κοινός "koinós" „gemeinsam“, βλάστη "blástē" „Spross“) oder Coenocyt (κοινός + κύτος), wird eine mehrkernige (polyenergide) Zelle oder ein vielkerniges Lebewesen ohne zellige Untergliederung bezeichnet. Ein Syncytium kann entweder durch Kernteilungen ohne nachfolgende Zellteilungen oder sekundär durch Verschmelzung von Zellen entstehen. Letzteres ist die ursprüngliche und weiterhin vorherrschende Bedeutung von "Syncytium", während primär vielkernige Organismen als "Coenoblasten", siphonal oder als Plasmodien bezeichnet werden.


History.

The area now known as Beyoğlu has been inhabited since Byzas founded the City of Byzantium in the 7th century BC, and predates the founding of Constantinople. During the Byzantine era, Greek speaking inhabitants named the hillside covered with orchards Sykai (The Fig Orchard), or Peran en Sykais (The Fig Field on the Other Side), referring to the "other side" of the Golden Horn. As the Byzantine Empire grew, so did Constantinople and its environs. The northern side of the Golden Horn became built up as a suburb of Byzantium as early as the 5th century. In this period the area began to be called Galata, and Emperor Theodosius II (reigned 402–450) built a fortress. The Greeks believe that the name comes either from "galatas" (meaning "milkman"), as the area was used by shepherds in the early medieval period, or from the word "Galatai" (meaning "Gauls"), as the Celtic tribe of Gauls were thought to have camped here during the Hellenistic period before settling into Galatia in central Anatolia, becoming known as the Galatians. The inhabitants of Galatia are famous for the Epistle to the Galatians and the Dying Galatian statue. The name may have also derived from the Italian word "Calata", meaning "downward slope", as Galata, formerly a colony of the Republic of Genoa between 1273 and 1453, stands on a hilltop that goes downwards to the sea.

Genoese and Venetian periods.

The area came to be the base of European merchants, particularly from Genoa and Venice, in what was then known as Pera. Following the Fourth Crusade in 1204, and during the Latin Empire of Constantinople (1204–1261), the Venetians became more prominent in Pera. The Dominican Church of St. Paul (1233), today known as the "Arap Camii", is from this period.  In 1273 the Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos granted Pera to the Republic of Genoa in recognition of Genoa's support of the Empire after the Fourth Crusade and the sacking of Constantinople in 1204. Pera became a flourishing trade colony, ruled by a podestà.  The "Genoese Palace" (Palazzo del Comune) was built in 1316 by Montano de Marinis, the Podestà of Galata (Pera), and still remains today in ruins, near the Bankalar Caddesi (Banks Street) in Karaköy, along with its adjacent buildings and numerous Genoese houses from the early 14th century.  In 1348 the Genoese built the famous Galata Tower, one of the most prominent landmarks of Istanbul. Pera (Galata) remained under Genoese control until May 29, 1453, when it was conquered by the Ottomans along with the rest of the city, after the Siege of Constantinople.  During the Byzantine period, the Genoese Podestà ruled over the Italian community of Galata (Pera), which was mostly made up of the Genoese, Venetians, Tuscans and Ragusans.  Following the Turkish siege of Constantinople in 1453, during which the Genoese sided with the Byzantines and defended the city together with them, the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II allowed the Genoese (who had fled to their colonies in the Aegean Sea such as Lesbos and Chios) to return to the city, but Galata was no longer run by a Genoese Podestà.  Venice, Genoa's archrival, regained control in the strategic citadel of Galata (Pera), which they were forced to leave in 1261 when the Byzantines retook Constantinople and brought an end to the Latin Empire (1204–1261) that was established by Enrico Dandolo, the Doge of Venice.  Venice immediately established political and commercial ties with the Ottoman Empire, and a Venetian Bailo was sent to Pera as an ambassador, during the Byzantine period. It was the Venetians who suggested Leonardo da Vinci to Bayezid II when the Sultan mentioned his intention to construct a bridge over the Golden Horn, and Leonardo designed his Galata Bridge in 1502.  The Bailo's seat was the "Venetian Palace", originally built in Beyoğlu in the early 16th century and replaced by the existing palace building in 1781; which later became the "Italian Embassy" after the unification of Italy in 1861, and the "Italian Consulate" in 1923, when Ankara became the new Turkish capital.  The Ottoman Empire had an interesting relationship with the Republic of Venice. Even though the two states often went to war over the control of East Mediterranean territories and islands, they were keen on restoring their trade pacts once the wars were over, such as the renewed trade pacts of 1479, 1503, 1522, 1540 and 1575 following major sea wars between the two sides. The Venetians were also the first Europeans to taste Ottoman delicacies such as coffee, centuries before other Europeans saw coffee beans for the first time in their lives during the Battle of Vienna in 1683. These encounters can be described as the beginning of today's rich "coffee culture" in both Venice (and later the rest of Italy) and Vienna.  Following the conquest of Constantinople and Pera in 1453, the coast and the low-lying areas were quickly settled by the Turks, but the European presence in the area did not end. Several Roman Catholic churches, as St. Anthony of Padua, SS. Peter and Paul in Galata and St. Mary Draperis were established for the needs of the Levantine population.

Nineteenth-century Beyoğlu.

During the 19th century it was again home to many European traders, and housed many embassies, especially along the Grande Rue de Péra (today İstiklâl Avenue). The presence of such a prominent European population - commonly referred to as Levantines - made it the most Westernized part of Constantinople, especially when compared to the Old City at the other side of the Golden Horn, and allowed for influxes of modern technology, fashion, and arts. Thus, Pera was one of the first parts of Constantinople to have telephone lines, electricity, trams, municipal government and even an underground railway, the Tünel, inaugurated in 1875 as the world's second subway line (after London's Underground) to carry the people of Pera up and down from the port of Galata and the nearby business and banking district of Karaköy, where the "Bankalar Caddesi" ("Banks Street"), the financial center of the Ottoman Empire, is located. The theatre, cinema, patisserie and café culture that still remains strong in Beyoğlu dates from this late Ottoman period. Shops like İnci, famous for its chocolate mousse and profiteroles, predate the founding of the republic and survived until recently.  Pera and Galata in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were a part of the "Municipality of the Sixth Circle" (), established under the laws of 11 Jumada al-Thani (Djem. II) and 24 Shawwal (Chev.) 1274, in 1858; the organisation of the central city in the city walls, "Stamboul" (), was not affected by these laws. All of Constantinople was in the "Prefecture of the City of Constantinople" ().  The foreign communities also built their own schools, many of which went on to educate the elite of future generations of Turks, and still survive today as some of the best schools in Istanbul (see list of schools in Istanbul).  The rapid modernization which took place in Europe and left Ottoman Turkey behind was symbolized by the differences between Beyoğlu, and the historic Turkish quarters such as Eminönü and Fatih across the Golden Horn, in the Old City. When the Ottoman sultans finally initiated a modernization program with the Edict of Tanzimat (Reorganization) in 1839, they started constructing numerous buildings in Beyoğlu that mixed traditional Ottoman styles with newer European ones.  In addition, Sultan Abdülmecid stopped living in the Topkapı Palace and built a new palace near Beyoğlu, called the Dolmabahçe Palace, which blended the Neo-Classical, Baroque and Rococo styles.

20th-21st centuries.

When the Ottoman Empire collapsed and the Turkish Republic was founded (during and after the First World War) Beyoğlu went into gradual decline. The decline accelerated with the departure of the large Greek population of Pera and adjacent Galata as a result of Turkish pressure over the Cyprus conflict, during the 1950s and 1960s. The widespread political violence between leftist and rightist groups which troubled Turkey in the late 1970s also severely affected the lifestyle of the district, and accelerated its decline with the flight of the middle-class citizens to newer suburban areas such as Levent and Yeşilköy.  By the late 1980s, many of the grandiose Neoclassical and Art Nouveau apartment-blocks, formerly the residences of the late Ottoman élite, became home to immigrants from the countryside. While Beyoğlu continued to enjoy a reputation for its cosmopolitan and sophisticated atmosphere until the 1940s and 1950s, by the 1980s the area had become economically and socially troubled.  The first decades of the 21st century have witnessed the rapid gentrification of these neighborhoods. Istiklal Avenue has once again become a destination for tourists, and formerly bohemian neighborhoods like Cihangir have once again become fashionable and quite expensive. Some 19th and early 20th century buildings have been tastefully restored, while others have been converted into mammoth luxury malls of dubious aesthetic value. As newer, more international and affluent residents have begun to creep down the hills into Tophane and Tarlabasi, disagreements with more conservative elements in the neighborhoods have become common.  The low-lying areas such as Tophane, Kasımpaşa and Karaköy, and the side-streets of the area consist of older buildings.

Infrastructure.

Roads.

Parallel to İstiklal Avenue runs the wide bi-directional boulevard named Tarlabaşı Caddesi, which carries most of the traffic through the area and was constructed in the 1980s. The streets on either side of this road contain historic buildings and churches. The once cosmopolitan areas surrounding them have deteriorated.

Culture.

Foreigners, especially from Euro-Mediterranean and West European countries, have long resided in Beyoğlu. There is a cosmopolitan atmosphere in the heart of the district, where people from various cultures live in Cihangir and Gümüşsuyu. Beyoğlu also has a number of historical Tekkes and Türbes. Several Sufi orders, such as the "Cihangirî" (pronounced "Jihangiri") order, were founded here.  Most of the consulates (former embassies until 1923, when Ankara became the new Turkish capital) are still in this area; the Italian, British, German, Greek, Russian, Dutch, and Swedish consulates are significant in terms of their history and architecture.  Beyoğlu is also home to many high schools like Galatasaray Lisesi, Deutsche Schule Istanbul, St. George's Austrian High School, Lycée Sainte Pulchérie, Liceo Italiano, Beyoğlu Anatolian High School, Beyoğlu Kız Lisesi, Zografeion Lyceum, Zappeion Lyceum, and numerous others.  The unique international art project United Buddy Bears was presented in Beyoðlu during the winter of 2004–2005.

Tourism.

The main thoroughfare is İstiklâl Caddesi, running into the neighbourhood from Taksim Square, a pedestrianised long street of shops, cafés, patisseries, restaurants, pubs, winehouses and clubs, as well as bookshops, theatres, cinemas and art galleries. Some of İstiklâl Avenue has a 19th-century metropolitan character, and the avenue is lined with Neoclassical and Art Nouveau buildings. The nostalgic tram which runs on İstiklal Avenue, between Taksim Square and Tünel, was also re-installed in the early 1990s with the aim of reviving the historic atmosphere of the district.  Some of the city's historic pubs and winehouses are located in the areas around İstiklal Avenue (İstiklal Caddesi) in Beyoğlu. The 19th century Çiçek Pasajı (literally "Flower Passage" in Turkish, or "Cité de Péra" in French, opened in 1876) on İstiklal Avenue can be described as a miniature version of the famous Galleria in Milan, Italy, and has rows of historic pubs, winehouses and restaurants. The site of Çiçek Pasajı was originally occupied by the Naum Theatre, which was burned during the great fire of Pera in 1870. The theatre was frequently visited by Sultans Abdülaziz and Abdülhamid II, and hosted Giuseppe Verdi's play "Il Trovatore" before the opera houses of Paris. After the fire of 1870, the theatre was purchased by the local Greek banker Hristaki Zoğrafos Efendi, and architect Kleanthis Zannos designed the current building, which was called "Cité de Péra" or "Hristaki Pasajı" in its early years. "Yorgo'nun Meyhanesi" (Yorgo's Winehouse) was the first winehouse to be opened in the passage. In 1908 the Ottoman Grand Vizier Sait Paşa purchased the building, and it became known as the Sait Paşa Passage. Following the Russian Revolution of 1917, many impoverished noble Russian women, including a Baroness, sold flowers here. By the 1940s the building was mostly occupied by flower shops, hence the present Turkish name "Çiçek Pasajı" (Flower Passage). Following the restoration of the building in 1988, it was reopened as a galleria of pubs and restaurants.  "Pano", established by Panayotis Papadopoulos in 1898, and the neighbouring "Viktor Levi", established in 1914, are among the oldest winehouses in the city and are located on Kalyoncu Kulluk Street near the British Consulate and Galatasaray Square. "Cumhuriyet Meyhanesi" (literally "Republic Winehouse"), renamed in the early 1930s but originally established in the early 1890s, is another popular historic winehouse and is located in the nearby Sahne Street, along with the "Hazzopulo Winehouse", established in 1871, inside the "Hazzopulo Pasajı" which connects Sahne Street and Meşrutiyet Avenue. The famous "Nevizade Street", which has rows of historic pubs next to each other, is also in this area. Other historic pubs are found in the areas around "Tünel Pasajı" and the nearby "Asmalımescit Street". Some historic neighbourhoods around İstiklal Avenue have recently been recreated, such as "Cezayir Street" near Galatasaray High School, which became known as "La Rue Française" and has rows of francophone pubs, cafés and restaurants playing live French music. "Artiste Terasse" (Artist Teras) on Cezayir Street is a popular restaurant-bar which offers panoramic views of the Hagia Sophia, Topkapı Palace, Sultan Ahmed Mosque and Galata Tower.  Throughout Beyoğlu, there are many night clubs for all kinds of tastes. "Babylon" and "Nu Pera" are among the most popular European style night clubs and restaurants in the district, while "Kemancı" plays rock, hard rock and heavy metal. "Maksim" plays Oriental music, while "Andon" is a place where one can eat, drink and dance to the traditional Turkish music called "fasıl". There are restaurants on the top of historic buildings with a view of the city, such as "360". "Asmalımescit Street" has rows of traditional Turkish restaurants and "Ocakbaşı" (grill) houses, while the streets around the historic "Balıkpazarı" (Fish Market) is full of eateries offering seafood like fried mussels and calamari along with beer or rakı, or the traditional "kokoreç". Beyoğlu also has many elegant "pasaj" (passages) from the 19th century, most of which have historic and classy chocolateries and patisseries, such the "Markiz Pastanesi", along with many shops lining their alleys. There is also a wide range of fast-food restaurants in the district, of international chains such as McDonald's, Burger King, Domino's Pizza, Pizza Hut, etc.; as well as local Turkish chains, such as "Simit Sarayı" which serves simit (sesame-covered, ring-shaped pretzel bread) along with cheese and tea, or individual eateries such as döner kebab houses.  Apart from the hundreds of shops lining the streets and avenues of the district, there is also a business community. "Odakule", a 1970s high rise building (the first "structural expressionism" style building in Turkey) is the headquarters of "İstanbul Sanayi Odası (ISO)" (Istanbul Chamber of Industry) and is located between İstiklal Avenue and Tepebaşı, next to the Pera Museum. Most of the upper floors of the buildings in Beyoğlu are office space, and small workshops are found on the side streets.

Landmarks.

Istanbul Modern, located near Karaköy Port on the Bosphorus, frequently hosts the exhibitions of renowned Turkish and foreign artists.  Pera Museum exhibits some of the works of art from the late Ottoman period, such as the "Kaplumbağa Terbiyecisi" (Turtle Trainer) by Osman Hamdi Bey. Apart from its permanent collection, the museum also hosts visiting exhibitions, which included the works of renowned artists such as Rembrandt.  Doğançay Museum, Turkey's first contemporary art museum dedicated to the works of a single artist, officially opened its doors to the public in 2004. While the museum almost exclusively displays the works of its founder Burhan Doğançay, a contemporary artists, one floor has been set aside for the works of the artist's father, Adil Doğançay.  Hotel Pera Palace was built in the district in 1892 for hosting the passengers of the Orient Express. Agatha Christie wrote the novel "Murder on the Orient Express" in this hotel. Her room is conserved as a museum.  S. Antonio di Padova, the largest Catholic church in Turkey, and the Neve Shalom Synagogue, the largest synagogue in Turkey, are also in Beyoğlu. There are other important Catholic and Orthodox churches in the area, such as the Saint Mary Draperis church or centrally located Hagia Triada Church at the conjunction point between Istiklal Avenue and Taksim Square. It is the seat of the Chaldean Catholic Archeparchy of Diyarbakir.  The only Jewish Museum of Turkey, which has been converted from a synagogue, is located in the Karaköy quarter, which was known as Galata in the medieval period.  İstiklal Avenue is also located in the historic Beyoğlu (Pera) district. The famous street with shops, cafes, cinemas and other venues stretches for 1.4 kilometres (0.87 mi) and hosts up to 3 million people each day.

Education.

Primary and secondary schools in the district:  Universities:  The original campus of the Ottoman Imperial School of Medicine, established in 1827, was in Galatasaray, Pera. After a fire in 1848 it temporarily moved to the Golden Horn.  Lycée Saint-Joseph, Istanbul was in Pera after its establishment; its official founding year is 1870.

International relations.

Twin towns — sister cities.

Beyoğlu is twinned with:

Beyoğlu () is a district on the European side of İstanbul, Turkey, separated from the old city (historic peninsula of Constantinople) by the Golden Horn. It was known as the region of Pera (Πέρα, meaning "Beyond" in Greek) surrounding the ancient coastal town Galata which faced Constantinople across the Horn. Beyoğlu continued to be named Pera during the Middle Ages and, in western languages, into the early 20th century.

Beyoğlu ist ein Landkreis der türkischen Provinz Istanbul sowie ein Stadtbezirk auf der europäischen Seite von Istanbul. Beyoğlu hat 241.520 Einwohner (Stand 2014).


Gameplay.

Simulating duties on a real farm, "SimFarm" puts players in charge of building up the land, placing the buildings, buying and selling livestock and planting crops. A weather and season system are in place as well, presenting the same kind of challenges found in a real-world farm. As with "SimCity", there are disasters that can wreak havoc on the player's farm. Tornadoes, droughts, pests, and dust storms are some of the events that can disrupt farm crops and harvests. There are four types of livestock in "SimFarm", all of which have specific food requirements, need water, and breed new livestock. Animals' value can be increased by making a barn available for their use.  "SimFarm" also has a small town included in its simulation. This town is reminiscent of "SimCity" in its form and function. The player may interact with the town occasionally by suggesting new tile types and joining competitions with livestock (such as sending in a prize pig to potentially earn a blue ribbon and a cash prize.) Suggesting an airport to be built in the town will usually cause its construction, thus unlocking the ability to buy and use a crop duster.  The homestead in "SimFarm" is where the player lives and is expanded at the beginning of each game year if the player has made enough money in the previous year. "SimFarm" allows the player to choose a location derived from the region and climate of one of nine areas of the US or to design one's own climate by selecting average winds, rainfall, and temperatures.  Equipment is necessary to maintain your farm and bring your crops to harvest. Structures store equipment, livestock, seeds, etc. The minimum equipment required to bring one field to harvest is one tractor, one planter, one plow, one harvester, one truck, and one trailer. The crops are the main revenue-raising item in "SimFarm". All crops have specific maturity cycles, water requirements, temperature requirements, and resistance to pests, weeds, and diseases.

Reception.

"Computer Gaming World" in 1993 approved of the game's graphics and documentation. The magazine concluded that "it's not perfect, but learning how to "SimFarm" is a lot of fun". Despite giving an overall fun rating of 74%, PC Games Magazine expressed disdain for the game's monotony, further stating, "On the packaging they advertise it as "Sim City's Country Cousin", and you should not expect anything more from this program."

SimFarm: SimCity's Country Cousin is a video game in which players build and manage a virtual farm. It was developed by Maxis and released in 1993 as a spin-off of "SimCity". The game included a teacher's guide to teaching with "SimFarm" with black line masters for photo copying for the class and a user's manual. In 1996 SimFarm alongside several of Maxis' simulation games were re-released under the "Maxis Collector Series" with greater compatibility with Windows 95 and differing box art, including the addition of "Classics" beneath the title.

Sim Farm ist eine Wirtschaftssimulation des Unternehmens Maxis, welche den Aufbau und die Verwaltung eines landwirtschaftlichen Betriebes nachbildet. Es gehört zur "Sim"-Reihe, die vornehmlich durch die "SimCity"-Spiele sehr bekannt geworden ist. Es wurde 1993 für MS-DOS und Windows und 1994 für Mac OS veröffentlicht. Die Designer waren Eric Albers und Michael Perry.


Compression methods.

In an LZH archive, the compression method is stored as a five-byte text string, e.g.. These are the third through seventh bytes of the file.

Canonical LZH.

LHarc compresses files using an algorithm from Yoshizaki's earlier LZHUF product, which was modified from LZARI developed by, but uses Huffman coding instead of arithmetic coding. LZARI uses Lempel–Ziv–Storer–Szymanski with arithmetic coding.

Joe Jared extensions.

Joe Jared extended LZSS to use larger dictionaries.  Jared ported LZH to Atari. The fact that lh8 is the same as lh7 was an oversight. Files using larger numbered methods may as well not exist, as Jared only considers them planned features.

UNLHA32 extensions.

UNLHA32.DLL uses its own method for testing purposes.

PMarc extensions.

These compression methods are created by PMarc, a CP/M archiver created by Miyo. The archive usually has a.PMA extension.

LArc extensions.

LArc uses the same file format as.LZH, but was written by Kazuhiko Miki, Haruhiko Okumura, Ken Masuyama, with extension name ".LZS". The program seems to have come before LZH. It uses a binary search tree in the LZ matching.  Common implementations appear to only support lzs, lz5, plus the storage-only lz4.

Issues.

LHICE/ICE.

There are copies of LHICE marked as version 1.14. According to Okumura, LHICE is not written by Yoshi.

y2k11 bug.

Because of a bug, DOS timestamps from Level 0 and 1 headers after the year 2011 will be set to 1980, meaning that some utilities need to be patched. This is caused by a bug that interprets the unsigned 8-bit year number bitfield as a 5-bit number. The maximum year should be 2107 instead.  The newer Level 2 and 3 headers use a 32-bit Unix time instead. It suffers from the Year 2038 problem.

Header size.

According to Micco, the author of a popular LHA library UNLHA32.DLL, many LHA implementations do not check for the length of LHA file headers when reading the archive. Two problems could emerge from this scenario: a buffer-overrun may occur for naive implementations assuming a 4KB max size from the original specification; antivirus software may skip over files with such large headers and fail to scan for a virus. A similar problem exists with ARJ. Micco reported this problem to Japanese authorities, but they do not consider it a valid vulnerability.  Micco went so far to conclude the development of UNLHA32 and advise people to give up on the format. Nevertheless, they came back in 2017 to fix a DLL hijacking issue.

LHA or LZH is a freeware compression utility and associated file format. It was created in 1988 by, and originally named LHarc. A complete rewrite of LHarc, tentatively named "LHx", was eventually released as "LH". It was then renamed to "LHA" to avoid conflicting with the then-new MS-DOS 5.0 LH ("load high") command. According to early documentation, LHA is pronounced like "La".

LHa bezeichnet eine Kompressionsprogrammfamilie zur Dateiarchivierung. Das zugehörige Dateiformat LZH basiert auf dem LZHUFF-Verfahren, bei dem zuerst mit dem Lempel-Ziv-Storer-Szymanski-Algorithmus (LZSS) sich wiederholende Abschnitte eines Datenstroms dedupliziert und im zweiten Schritt mit einer Entropiekodierung nach Huffman noch stärker komprimiert werden. Aus den LHa-Quelltexten wurde der weit verbreitete Deflate-Algorithmus abgeleitet.


Pattresses.

Pattresses contain devices for input (switches) and output (sockets and fixtures), with transfer managed by junction boxs. A pattress may be made of metal or plastic. In the United Kingdom, surface-mounted boxes in particular are often made from urea-formaldehyde resin, or alternatively PVC, and usually white. Wall boxes are commonly made of thin galvanised metal. A pattress box is made to standard dimensions and may contain embedded bushings (in standard positions) for the attachment of wiring devices (switches and sockets). Internal pattress boxes themselves do not include the corresponding faceplates, since the devices to be contained in the box specify the required faceplate. External pattress boxes may offer include corresponding faceplates, limiting the devices to be contained in the box.  Although cables may be joined inside pattress boxes, due simply to their presence at convenient points in the wiring, their main purpose is to accommodate switches and sockets. They allow switches and sockets to be recessed into the wall for a better appearance. Enclosures primarily for joining wires are called junction boxes.

New work boxes.

New work boxes are designed to be installed in a new installation. They are typically designed with nail or screw holes to attach directly to wall studs.

Old work boxes.

Old work boxes are designed to attach to already-installed wall material (usually drywall). The boxes will almost always have two or more "parsellas" (from Latin: "small wing "or" part). The parsellas flip out when the box screws are screwed, securing the box to the wall with the help of the four or more tabs on the front of the box.

Alternative systems.

In some countries, for instance in Germany, wall boxes for electrical fittings generally are not actual rectangular boxes at all but standard-sized round recessed containers. This has the advantage that the corresponding round holes can be simply drilled out with a hole saw rather than needing the cutting-out of a rectangular cavity to accommodate the wall box. Even with those round-hole systems, the faceplates that cover them are mostly rectangular however.

A pattress or pattress box or fitting box (in the United States and Canada, electrical wall switch box, electrical wall outlet box, electrical Ceiling box, switch box, outlet box, electrical box, etc.) is the container for the space behind electrical fittings such as power outlet sockets, light switches, or fixed light fixtures. Pattresses may be designed for either surface mounting (with cabling running along the wall surface) or for embedding in the wall or skirting board. Some electricians use the term "pattress box" to describe a surface-mounted box, although simply the term "pattress" suffices. The term "flush box" is used for a mounting box that goes inside the wall, although some use the term "wall box". Boxes for installation within timber/plasterboard walls are usually called "cavity boxes" or "plasterboard boxes". A ceiling-mounted pattress (most often used for light fixtures) is referred to as a "ceiling pattress" or "ceiling box". British English speakers also tend to say "pattress box" instead of just "pattress". Pattress is alternatively spelt "patress" and Wiktionary lists both spellings. The word "pattress", despite being attested from the late 19th century, is still rarely found in dictionaries. It is etymologically derived from "pateras" (Latin for bowls, saucers).

Die Hohlwanddose ist in der Elektroinstallation eine Schalterdose oder Abzweigdose für den Einsatz in Wänden mit Hohlräumen, zum Beispiel mit Gipskartonplatten aufgebaute Wände. Hohlwanddosen dienen beispielsweise zum Einbau von Schaltern und Steckdosen. Der Standarddurchmesser beträgt 68 mm. Es gibt auch kleinere (z. B. 35 mm) und größere (z. B. 74 mm) Durchmesser, diese Dosen werden dann als Auslassdosen bei Leuchten bzw. als Abzweigdose verwendet.