History.

20th century.

Although Úrvalsdeild, the Icelandic Football League, was founded in 1912, the country's first international match was played on 29 July 1930, against the Faroe Islands. Although Iceland won 1–0 away, both teams were at the time unaffiliated with FIFA. The first match officially recognised by FIFA took place in Reykjavík on 17 July 1946, a 0–3 loss to Denmark. The first international victory was against Finland in 1947. For the first 20 years of the Football Association of Iceland (KSÍ)'s existence, mostly the team did not participate in qualifying for the FIFA World Cup or the UEFA European Championship. In 1954, Iceland applied to take part in qualification for the 1954 World Cup, but the application was rejected. In qualification for the 1958 World Cup, Iceland finished last in their group with zero wins, conceding 26 goals.  In 1980, Iceland won the first edition of the friendly tournament known as the Greenland Cup.  Since 1974, the team has taken part in qualifying for every World Cup and European Championship. In 1994, the team reached their then best ever position in the FIFA World Rankings, 37th. This record stood until 2016 when they managed to reach 21st. In a friendly against Estonia on 24 April 1996 in Tallinn, Eiður Smári Guðjohnsen entered as a substitute for his father Arnór. This marked the first time that a father and son played in the same international match.

21st century.

In qualification for Euro 2004, Iceland finished third in their group, one point behind Scotland. As a result, they failed to qualify for a playoff spot.  In 2014, Iceland almost secured qualification for their first World Cup. Finishing second in Group D, they played Croatia in a two-leg playoff for qualification. After holding them to a 0–0 draw in the home leg, they lost 2–0 away.  Iceland qualified for a major tournament for the first time in 2015 after finishing second in Group A of qualification for Euro 2016, losing only two games, and beating the Netherlands – which had finished third in the 2014 World Cup – twice. During the qualification, they reached their then highest ranking in the FIFA World Rankings, 23rd. Iceland were drawn into a group with Portugal, Hungary and Austria for the final tournament.  At the tournament finals, Iceland recorded 1–1 draws in their first two group stage matches against Portugal and Hungary. They then advanced from their group with a 2–1 victory against Austria. Iceland qualified for the tournament's quarter-finals after a 2–1 upset win over England in the Round of 16, which led to England manager Roy Hodgson resigning in disgrace immediately after the final whistle. However, they were eliminated by host nation France in the quarter-finals, 5–2. Iceland qualified for the 2018 World Cup, their first ever appearance in the world championship, securing qualification on 9 October 2017 after a 2–0 win against Kosovo. In doing so, they became the lowest-populated country ever to reach the finals. Iceland were drawn to play Croatia, Argentina and Nigeria in a group that was considered by many as the "group of death". Despite a challenging group, Iceland were tipped to advance from the group by several journalist websites, based on their impressive performance in Euro 2016. Their maiden match at the World Cup was against 2014 runners-up Argentina, with Iceland surprisingly holding Argentina to a 1–1 draw. However, their chances of advancing from the group were hurt following a 2–0 loss to Nigeria, putting Iceland to play with full determination against already qualified Croatia. Iceland lost to Croatia in their final group game; and because Argentina won against Nigeria, Iceland finished bottom of the group with just a point.

Honours.

FIFA ranking history.

Source:

Players.

Current squad.

The following players were called up for friendly matches against Canada and El Salvador on 15 January and 19 January 2020. <br>"All caps and goals are correct as of 19 January 2020 after the match against El Salvador."

Recent call-ups.

The following players have been called up to the Iceland squad in the last 12 months.

Kit providers.

The official kit is produced by German sports manufacturing company Puma since 2020. Before that the kit providers were Umbro (1975), Adidas (1976–1992), ABM (1992-1996), Reusch (1996–2001) and Erreà (2002-2020)

Records.

Most caps.

As of 19 January 2020, the 20 players with the most caps for Iceland are:  "Note: Some unofficial matches are counted for some players, as per the KSÍ count."  In bold players still playing or available for selection.

Top goalscorers.

As of 19 January 2020, the 20 players with the most goals for Iceland are:  "Note: Some unofficial matches are counted for some players, as per the KSÍ count."  In bold players still playing or available for selection.

The Iceland national football team () represents Iceland in men's international football. The team is controlled by the Football Association of Iceland, and have been an FIFA member since 1947 and an UEFA member since 1957. The team's nickname is Strákarnir okkar meaning our boys.

Die isländische Fußballnationalmannschaft der Männer repräsentiert den Isländischen Fußball-Bund (KSÍ) als Auswahlmannschaft bei Länderspielen auf internationaler Ebene gegen Mannschaften anderer nationaler Verbände. In der FIFA-Weltrangliste steht sie auf Platz 38. Kapitän der Mannschaft ist aktuell Aron Gunnarsson, Rekordtorschütze mit 26 Toren ist Eiður Guðjohnsen.


Life and work.

Adriaan Daniël Fokker was born on 17 August 1887 in Buitenzorg, Dutch East Indies (now Bogor, Indonesia). He was a cousin of the aeronautical engineer Anthony Fokker.  Fokker studied mining engineering at the Delft University of Technology and physics at the University of Leiden with Hendrik Lorentz, where he earned his doctorate in 1913. He continued his studies with Albert Einstein, Ernest Rutherford and William Bragg. In his 1913 thesis, he derived the Fokker–Planck equation along with Max Planck. After his military service during World War I he returned to Leiden as Lorentz' and Ehrenfest's assistant. Fokker became a physics teacher at the Gymnasium of Delft after 1918 and was appointed in 1923 as the first professor of Applied Physics at the Technische Hoogeschool Delft (today Delft University of Technology). In 1928 Fokker succeeded Hendrik Lorentz as director of research at Teylers Museum in Haarlem.  Fokker made several contributions to special relativity, and some less well-known contributions to general relativity, particularly in the area of geodetic precession, the phenomena of precession of a freely falling gyroscope in a gravitational field.  Fokker began to study music theory during the Second World War, when the University of Leiden was closed; partly this was due to a desire to convince the Nazis he would be of no use to the war effort, and partly it was a response to reading the work of Christiaan Huygens on the 31 equal temperament.  In 1938, Fokker – along with Dirk Coster and Otto Hahn – helped Jewish-born physicist Lise Meitner escape from Austria to the Netherlands. "Fokker and Coster both knew that university positions were virtually unavailable for foreigners. Laboratory space was not a problem, however, either in Groningen or Haarlem. 'Perhaps we can tap colleagues for regular contributions,' Coster suggested. Fokker set a goal of f.20,000, enough to support Meitner for five years, and immediately began contacting colleagues for advice and donations." They were unsuccessful in obtaining funding, but Fokker succeeded in getting official permission for Meitner to leave, although he was unable to telegraph that to her due to secrecy. She escaped barely in time to evade arrest.  The year 1942 consequently marked a turning point in his life; after then he wrote many pieces in 31-equal, which are notable for using the 7th harmonic as a consonant interval (31-equal has a much better approximation of the 7th harmonic than the ubiquitous 12-equal). He also made notable contributions to music theory, such as the Fokker periodicity block.  In 1949 he became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.  He died on 24 September 1972, at the age of 85, in Beekbergen near Apeldoorn.

Musical instruments.

Fokker designed and had built a number of keyboard instruments capable of playing microtonal scales via a generalized keyboard. The best-known of these is his 31-tone equal-tempered organ, which was installed in Teyler's Museum in Haarlem in 1951. It is commonly called the Fokker organ. The Fokker organ is currently property of the Huygens-Fokker Foundation and it moved to the Bamzaal in Muziekgebouw aan 't IJ. Regularly concerts take place on this instrument in the Bamzaal.

Adriaan Daniël Fokker (; 17 August 1887 – 24 September 1972) was a Dutch physicist and musician. He was the inventor of the Fokker organ, a 31-tone equal-tempered (31-TET) organ.

Adriaan Daniël Fokker (* 17. August 1887 in Buitenzorg, Java; † 24. September 1972 in Beekbergen, Niederlande) war ein niederländischer Physiker und Musiker.


Life.

Emma was born into the Saxon noble family of the Immedinger, descendants of Widukind. She was the daughter of Count Immed (or Imad) from the diocese of Utrecht and also, according to Adam of Bremen, the sister of Meinwerk, Bishop of Paderborn. She married Liudger, a son of the Saxon duke Hermann Billung and brother of Bernard I, Duke of Saxony. Emperor Otto III made the couple a present in 1001 of the "Pfalz" or "palatium" in Stiepel (now Bochum-Stiepel), where in 1008 Emma had a church built dedicated to the Virgin Mary, which later became a popular place of pilgrimage. The only child of the marriage was Imad, consecrated Bishop of Paderborn in 1051.  After the early death of her husband by going to Russia and getting a rare sickness. in 1011, Emma withdrew to the estate of Lesum (now Bremen-Burglesum) and with her fortune generously supported Bremen Cathedral, where Unwan, Archbishop of Bremen, was another of her relatives, and granted the cathedral chapter her property at Stiepel with its church. She was portrayed as a great benefactress of the church, and indeed founded a number of churches in the Bremen area, although her greatest care was for the poor.  Emma was later venerated as a saint, although there is no evidence that she was formally ever either beatified or canonised. She was buried in Bremen Cathedral, where her tomb was still to be seen in the 16th century. Her tomb is one of the biggest in the cemetery.  There is a stained glass window of her in the Roman Catholic church of St. John's at Schnoor in Bremen. Her feast day is 3 December or 17 April, although some sources name 19 April instead. When the tomb was opened, her body had crumbled to dust except for her right hand (the hand that dispensed gifts). That relic was placed in the abbey of Saint Ludger at Werden.

Legend of the meadow.

There is a well-known Bremen legend concerning her gift of meadow to the town in 1032. When a delegation of the townspeople approached her with a request for more meadowland, Emma promised them as much meadow as a man could run round in an hour. Her brother-in-law Bernard or Benno, duke of Saxony, with an appraising eye on his inheritance, suggested mockingly that she might as well give them as much land as a man could run round in a day. Emma agreed to this, but Bernard asked to choose the man who was to do the running, and when Emma agreed to that too, picked out a legless cripple past whom they had just walked. This man proved however to have extraordinary strength and endurance and by the end of the day had succeeded in making his way round a very substantial area, bigger even than the present Bremen town meadow.  This story has been current in various forms since at least the 18th century, although there is no documentary evidence for it, and gives a whole new possible meaning to the inclusion of the figure of the "cripple" at the feet of the statue of Bremen Roland.

Naming.

In Bremen the "Emmasee" (Lake Emma) and a café in the main park are named after Emma, besides streets in the districts of Bremen-Burglesum and Bremen-Schwachhausen.  In Bochum-Stiepel there is a Gräfin-Imma-Strasse ("Countess Emma Street"), a Countess Emma church ("Gräfin-Imma-Kirche"), as well as a primary school ("Gräfin-Imma-Grundschule") and a kindergarten ("Gräfin-Imma-Kindergarten"), named after her.

Emma of Lesum or Emma of Stiepel (also known as Hemma and Imma) (ca. 975-980 – 3 December 1038) was a countess popularly venerated as a saint for her good works; she is also the first female inhabitant of Bremen to be known by name.

Gräfin Emma von Lesum, auch Imma von Stiepel (* um 975/980; † 3. Dezember 1038 in Lesum), Tochter der Adela von Hamaland, war eine mildtätige Gutsbesitzerin, die nach ihrem Tod als Heilige verehrt wurde. Sie ist die erste namentlich nachweisbare Bremerin.


Career.

Born in Périgueux, she began training at the CA Brive sports club. She competed for France in her teenage years as a junior athlete and came to prominence in her early twenties. She had her first 400 m national title at the French Athletics Championships in 1969 and her winning time of 52.8 seconds was a new championship record by a whole second.  She was selected to run both individually and in the relay at the 1969 European Athletics Championships. In the 400 m final she edged compatriot Colette Besson at the line by two hundredths to win the gold medal in a world record time of 51.77 seconds. This knocked two tenths off Shin Geum-Dan near-seven-year-old record. The time was the championship record for five years, after which it was broken by Finland's Riitta Salin, and remained the French record for the 400 m for much longer and was only improved upon in 1987 by Marie-José Pérec. Duclos broke another world record at the European Championships, teaming up with Bernadette Martin, Eliane Jacq and rival Besson in the 4×400 metres relay to run a time of 3:30.8 minutes. However, the team recorded the same time as Britain's women's team and despite sharing the world record, were only the silver medallists at the competition. For these feats she was chosen as that year's L'Équipe Champion of Champions, becoming only the second female winner of the award after Marielle Goitschel.  In spite of her success in 1969, she subsequently failed to win an individual medal internationally. The quality of competition greatly improved, with Marilyn Neufville of Jamaica improving the world record by seventh tenths of a second just ten months after Duclos's feat. Instead Duclos went on to be a medallist only with the national relay team. The 1970 European Athletics Indoor Championships saw her win gold in a novel medley relay event. At the 1971 European Athletics Championships she helped the French women to the relay final, but the team failed to finish. Her last two international medals came in the short-lived 4×380 metres relay at the 1972 and 1973 European Athletics Indoor Championships, where she was a bronze, then silver medallist.  Duclos returned to the top of the national podium at the 1972 French Championships and gained selection for France at the 1972 Summer Olympics as a result. Her national title-winning time of 52.3 seconds was a championship record which stood until 1980, when Sophie Malbranque became the first under 52 seconds at the contest. At the Munich Olympics Duclos was a semi-finalist in the 400 m and ranked fourth in the 4×400 m relay alongside Martine Duvivier, Besson and Martin. She won her third and final national title in the 400 m at the French Indoor Athletics Championships in 1973 (her last season in major competitions).

Nicole Duclos (née Salavert; born 15 August 1947) is a French former track and field athlete who competed in the 400 metres. She broke the world record for the event in 1969, running 51.77 seconds to become European champion in 1969. She also shared in a world record in the 4×400 metres relay. She represented France at the 1972 Summer Olympics and was a three-time national champion.

Nicole Duclos (* 15. August 1947 als Nicole Salavert) ist eine ehemalige französische Leichtathletin, die in den Jahren um 1970 als Läuferin über 400 Meter erfolgreich war. Sie startete für den CA Brive und wurde trainiert von Maurice Chaumeil.


Biography.

Early years.

Charbonneau was born in Boucherville, Quebec (near Montréal) around 1759. Boucherville was a community with strong links to exploration and the fur trade. His paternal great grandmother Marguerite de Noyon was the sister of Jacques de Noyon, who had explored the region around Kaministiquia, present day Thunder Bay, Ontario, in 1688. In the late 1790s he became a fur trader that lived among the Hidatsa and Mandan native tribes.  Charbonneau worked, for a time, as a fur trapper with the North West Company (NWC) assigned to the Pine Fort on the Assiniboine River in what is now Manitoba. The North West Company was founded to compete with the dominant Hudson Bay Company which was an English based company that employed many Frenchmen. This company pushed West which allowed it to trade with the Mandan and Hidatsa native tribes. John MacDonell, recorder of one of their expeditions, first noted Charbonneau in their historical journal. After several routine mentions of Charbonneau, MacDonell wrote on May 30, 1795: "Toussaint. Charbonneau was stabbed at the Manitou-a-banc end of the Portage la Prairie, Manitoba in the act of committing a Rape upon her Daughter by an old Saultier woman with a Canoe Awl— a fate he highly deserved for his brutality— It was with difficulty he could walk back over the portage."  While living among the Hidatsa people, Charbonneau purchased or won a Shoshone girl: Sacagawea (Bird Woman) from the Hidatsa. The Hidatsa had captured Sacagawea on one of their annual raiding and hunting parties to the west. It is possible that Sacagawea had little choice in the matter, or that she chose it because it was preferable to her previous position. When he married Sacagawea in 1804, he was already married to Otter Woman, another Shoshone woman. Charbonneau eventually considered these women to be his wives, though whether they were bound through Native American custom or simply through common-law marriage is indeterminate. By the summer of 1804, Sacagawea was pregnant with their first child.

Lewis and Clark Expedition.

In November 1804, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark came to the area, built Fort Mandan, and recruited members to the Corps of Discovery. Originally, Lewis and Clark were working with a Frenchman named Larocque, however the relationship became increasingly tense. This led Lewis and Clark to recruit Charbonneau who worked under Laroque. Charbonneau was asked to join the expedition as a translator. While Charbonneau could speak French and some Hidatsa, Lewis, and Clark were more enthusiastic about having two Shoshone women join them. With Charbonneau, Sacagawea, and the Otter Woman's skills combined, the expedition gained the ability to speak Hidatsa and Shoshone. They hired Charbonneau on November 4, and his wives moved into Fort Mandan with Charbonneau a week later.  On February 11, 1805 at the fort, Charbonneau and Sacagawea's son Jean-Baptiste was born. William Clark nicknamed the baby Pomp,  In the winter, as the expedition was being prepared, Charbonneau had second thoughts about his role with Lewis and Clark. This was because Charbonneau had received gifts from the North West Company upon news of his newborn son. The gifts given to him included; he brought two arms’ length of scarlet cloth and one of blue, a pair of corduroy coats, one vest, a length of red cloth decorated with bars, 200 musket balls, a supply of powder, three knives, and some tobacco. This upset Lewis and Clark as they saw these gifts as a bribe for Charbonneau to work with the company to deter American ventures in the fur trade. On top of being dissatisfied with the requirement to stand guard and perform manual labor amongst other tasks, he was also being treated as a traitor by his new employers. On March 12, 1805, he quit the expedition. However, on March 17 he returned and apologized, requesting to re-join the company; he was re-hired the following day. His performance during the journey was mixed: Meriwether Lewis called him "a man of no peculiar merit", and many historians have painted Charbonneau in a distinctly unfavorable light. One of the most well-known anecdotes about Charbonneau is the incident with the "white pirogue." On May 14, 1805, the pirogue guided by Charbonneau was hit by a gust of wind and lost control. Charbonneau panicked and nearly capsized the boat, which would have meant the loss of valuable equipment and papers. It was only with the help of his wife, Sacagawea, that these important items were saved. Meriwether Lewis was irate, writing that Charbonneau was "perhaps the most timid waterman in the world." Charbonneau was also known for his short temper with his wives. On August 14, 1805, he struck Sacagawea in a fit of anger and was reprimanded by Clark. This occasion in addition to the rape incident earlier in his life gave Charbonneau a deservedly bad reputation.  Charbonneau, however, did make several contributions to the success of the expedition. He was helpful when the expedition encountered French trappers from Canada and he served as a cook; his recipe for "boudin blanc" (a sausage made from bison meat) was praised by several members of the party. Additionally, his skill in striking a bargain came in handy when the expedition acquired much-needed horses at the Shoshone encampment.  Charbonneau and his family stayed with the Lewis and Clark expedition until August 1806. He was paid $500.33, plus a horse and a lodge, for his nineteen months with the expedition. In addition to the payment, William Clark wrote a parting letter to Charbonneau, inviting a continued relationship. He even asked if it was possible for Jean Baptiste to stay with the expedition to be raised by Clark.

Life after the expedition.

Clark offered to set up Charbonneau and his family in St. Louis after the expedition. Charbonneau initially declined Clark's offer, as he preferred life with the Mandan and Hidatsa. However, the family relocated to St. Louis in 1809 so that Jean Baptiste could be educated. Charbonneau bought land from Clark and briefly took up farming. He gave it up after a few months, selling the land back to Clark for 100 dollars. He also left Sacagawea and his two sons Toussaint and Jean Baptiste in Clark’s protection. In April, 1811, Charbonneau started working for Henry M. Brackenridge, an explorer headed up the Missouri River. In Charbonneau’s company was his older wife, Otter Woman.  He then took a job with Manuel Lisa's Missouri Fur Company, and was stationed at Fort Manuel Lisa Trading Post in present-day North Dakota. During this time, Sacagawea was pregnant and gave birth to a girl named Lisette. Shortly after the birth, Sacagawea died on December 20, 1812. Lisette was taken back to St. Louis to live with Jean Baptiste. The following year Charbonneau signed over formal custody of his son Jean Baptiste and daughter Lisette to William Clark.  During the period of 1811–1838, Charbonneau also worked for the Upper Missouri Agency's Indian Bureau (a federal agency) as a translator. He earned from $300 to $400 per year from the government. He may have gained this position by the patronage of William Clark, who was from 1813 the governor of the Missouri Territory; upon Clark's death, Charbonneau's employment with the government came to an abrupt halt. Surviving records show that Charbonneau was widely disliked by others in the Missouri Territory. Part of the reason for this may be his casual attitude toward employment: he was variously hired by Lisa's Missouri Fur Company and by John Jacob Astor's American Fur Company, bitter rivals. He is also said to have abandoned another employer, James Kipp, while on a fur expedition in 1834.  Charbonneau is known to have had a total of five wives, all young Native American women whom he married when they were sixteen years old or younger, which was not unusual for the time. He may have had more wives who have been lost to the record, however. His last known wife, an Assiniboine girl, was 14 when she married him in 1837; he was more than 70 years old.

Death.

While his exact death date is not known, Charbonneau probably died in 1843, because that is the year Jean-Baptiste settled his father's estate. It is generally accepted that he died and was buried in Fort Mandan, North Dakota, but some believe he is buried in Richwoods, Missouri with a headstone marked "Toussaint Charboneau, 1781–1866" [sic]. While these dates are wrong, people in Richwoods claim to be descendants of Charbonneau.

In popular culture.

Larry McMurtry's tetralogy "The Berrybender Narratives" include Charbonneau and his son Jean Baptiste as important characters.  He was portrayed by Alan Reed in "The Far Horizons" (1955).  In 1967, the actor Victor French played Charbonneau in the episode "The Girl Who Walked the West" of the syndicated television series, "Death Valley Days", hosted by Robert Taylor.  In "The Simpsons" episode "Margical History Tour", the story of Sacagawea is re-enacted, with Charbonneau played by Milhouse van Houten.  His relationship with Sacagawea and their son Jean-Baptiste Charbonneau is pivotal to Colin Sargent's 2008 novel "Museum of Human Beings"

Toussaint Charbonneau (March 20, 1767 – August 12, 1843) was a French Canadian explorer, trader and a member of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. He is also known as the husband of Sacagawea.

Toussaint Charbonneau (* 20. März 1767 in Boucherville, Québec, Kanada; † 12. August 1843 in Fort Mandan; siehe Anmerkung) war ein franko-kanadischer Forschungsreisender, Händler und Mitglied der Lewis-und-Clark-Expedition. Größere Bekanntheit erlangte er als Ehemann der indianischen Ureinwohnerin Sacajawea.


Early life.

Friederike was born on 9 October 1811 at Gottorp Castle near Schleswig in the Duchy of Schleswig as Princess Friederike of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck, the second-eldest daughter of Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck, and Princess Louise Caroline of Hesse-Kassel.  Friederike's father was the head of the ducal house of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Beck, a junior male branch of the House of Oldenburg which had occupied the throne of Denmark since 1448. Through her father, Friederike was thus a direct male-line descendant of King Christian III of Denmark.  Friederike's mother was a daughter of Landgrave Charles of Hesse, a Danish Field Marshal and Royal Governor of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, and his wife Princess Louise of Denmark, a daughter of Frederick V of Denmark. On 6 June 1825, Duke Friedrich Wilhelm was appointed Duke of Glücksburg by his brother-in-law Frederick VI of Denmark, as the elder Glücksburg line had become extinct in 1779. He subsequently changed his title to Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg and founded the younger Glücksburg line.

Duchess of Anhalt-Bernburg.

Friederike married Alexander Karl, Duke of Anhalt-Bernburg, son of Alexis Friedrich Christian, Duke of Anhalt-Bernburg and Princess Marie Friederike of Hesse-Kassel, on 30 October 1834 at Schloss Louisenlund, near Schleswig. The union was childless.  By November 1855 the Duke was confined to Schloss Hoym due to a progressive mental illness (some sources state that he suffered from schizophrenia). There, Alexander Karl spend the rest of his life under medical care in the company of his chamberlain, the painter Wilhelm von Kügelgen. Due to his incapacity, Friederike acted as regent.

Later life.

Alexander Karl died at Hoym on 19 August 1863 at age 58. Because the marriage produced no issue, the Duchy of Anhalt-Bernburg was inherited by his kinsman Leopold IV, Duke of Anhalt-Dessau-Köthen who merged the duchy with his own to form a united Duchy of Anhalt.  The Dowager Duchess Friederike died on 10 July 1902 at Alexisbad, Ballenstedt.

Princess Friederike of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg (9 October 1811 – 10 July 1902) was a daughter of Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg and Princess Louise Caroline of Hesse-Kassel and an elder sister of Christian IX of Denmark. Friederike became the Duchess of Anhalt-Bernburg upon her marriage to Alexander Karl, Duke of Anhalt-Bernburg, the last Duke of Anhalt-Bernburg. She served as Regent of the Duchy from 1855 to 1863.

Friederike Caroline Juliane von Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg (* 9. November 1811 auf Schloss Gottorf; † 10. Juli 1902 in Alexisbad) heiratete 1834 Herzog Alexander Carl von Anhalt-Bernburg und wurde so Herzogin von Anhalt-Bernburg.


Early life.

Edward was born at the Palace of Westminster, London, the only son of King Henry VI of England and his wife, Margaret of Anjou. At the time, there was strife between Henry's supporters and those of Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York, who had a claim to the throne and challenged the authority of Henry's officers of state. Henry was suffering from mental illness, and there were widespread rumours that the prince was the result of an affair between his mother and one of her loyal supporters. Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset and James Butler, 5th Earl of Ormonde, were both suspected of fathering Prince Edward; however, there is no firm evidence to support the rumours, and Henry himself never doubted the boy's legitimacy and publicly acknowledged paternity. Edward was invested as Prince of Wales at Windsor Castle in 1454.

War over the English throne.

In 1460, King Henry was captured by the supporters of the Duke of York at the Battle of Northampton and taken to London. The Duke of York was dissuaded from claiming the throne immediately, but he induced Parliament to pass the Act of Accord, by which Henry was allowed to reign but Edward was disinherited, as York or his heirs would become king on Henry's death.  Queen Margaret and Edward had meanwhile fled through Cheshire. By Margaret's later account, she induced outlaws and pillagers to aid her by pledging them to recognise the seven-year-old Edward as rightful heir to the crown. They subsequently reached safety in Wales and journeyed to Scotland, where Margaret raised support, while the Duke of York's enemies gathered in the north of England.  After York was killed at the Battle of Wakefield, the large army which Margaret had gathered advanced south. They defeated the army of Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, one of York's most prominent supporters, at the Second Battle of St Albans. Warwick had brought the captive King Henry in the train of his army, and he was found abandoned on the battlefield. Two of Warwick's knights, William Bonville, 1st Baron Bonville, and Sir Thomas Kyriell, who had agreed to remain with Henry and see that he came to no harm, were captured. The day after the battle, Margaret asked Edward what death the two knights should suffer. Edward readily replied that their heads should be cut off.

Exile in France.

Margaret hesitated to advance on London with her unruly army, and subsequently retreated. They were routed at the Battle of Towton a few weeks later. Margaret and Edward fled once again, to Scotland. For the next three years, Margaret inspired several revolts in the northernmost counties of England, but was eventually forced to sail to France, where she and Edward maintained a court in exile. (Henry had once again been captured and was a prisoner in the Tower of London.)  In 1467 the ambassador of the Duchy of Milan to the court of France wrote that Edward "already talks of nothing but cutting off heads or making war, as if he had everything in his hands or was the god of battle or the peaceful occupant of that throne."  After several years in exile, Margaret took the best opportunity that presented itself and allied herself with the renegade Earl of Warwick. King Louis XI of France wanted to start a war with Burgundy, allies of the Yorkist King Edward IV. He believed if he allied himself to restoring Lancastrian rule they would help him conquer Burgundy. As a compliment to his new allies Louis made young Edward godfather to his son Charles. Prince Edward was married to Anne Neville, Warwick's younger daughter, in December 1470, though there is some doubt as to whether the marriage was ever consummated.

Battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury.

Warwick returned to England and deposed Edward IV, with the help of Edward IV's younger brother, the Duke of Clarence. Edward IV fled into exile to Burgundy with his youngest brother the Duke of Gloucester, while Warwick restored Henry VI to the throne. Edward and Margaret lingered behind in France until April 1471. However, Edward IV had already raised an army, returned to England, and reconciled with Clarence. On the same day Margaret and Edward landed in England (14 April), Edward IV defeated and killed Warwick at the Battle of Barnet. With little real hope of success, the inexperienced prince and his mother led the remnant of their forces to meet Edward IV in the Battle of Tewkesbury. They were defeated and Edward was killed.  According to some accounts, shortly after the rout of the Lancastrians at Tewkesbury, a small contingent of men under the Duke of Clarence found the grieving prince near a grove, and immediately beheaded him on a makeshift block, despite his pleas. Paul Murray Kendall, a biographer of Richard III, accepts this version of events.  Another account of Edward's death is given by three Tudor sources: "The Grand Chronicle of London", Polydore Vergil, and Edward Hall. It was later dramatised by William Shakespeare in "Henry VI, Part 3", Act V, scene v. Their story is that Edward was captured and brought before the victorious Edward IV and his brothers and followers. The king received the prince graciously, and asked him why he had taken up arms against him. The prince replied defiantly, "I came to recover my father's heritage." The king then struck the prince across his face with his gauntlet hand, and his brothers killed the prince with their swords.  However, none of these accounts appear in any of the contemporaneous sources, which all report that Edward died in battle.  Edward's body is buried at Tewkesbury Abbey. His widow, Anne Neville, married the Duke of Gloucester, who eventually succeeded as King Richard III in 1483.

Epitaph.

The Latin memorial brass to Edward in Tewkesbury Abbey is set in the floor between the choir stalls, under the tower. It reads as follows: "Hic jacet" "Edwardus" "princeps Wallie, crude"= "liter interfectus dum adhuc juvenis" "anno dñi 1471 mense maie die quarto" "eheu hominum furore Matris" "tu sola lux es ⁊ gregis" "ultima" "spes"  This can be translated into English as follows:  "Here lies Edward, Prince of Wales, cruelly slain whilst but a youth. Anno Domini 1471, May fourth. Alas, the savagery of men. Thou art the sole light of thy Mother, and the last hope of thy race."

Edward of Westminster (13 October 1453 – 4 May 1471), also known as Edward of Lancaster, was the only son of King Henry VI of England and Margaret of Anjou. He was killed aged seventeen at the Battle of Tewkesbury, making him the only heir apparent to the English throne to die in battle.

Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales (* 13. Oktober 1453 im Palast von Westminster; † 4. Mai 1471 in der Schlacht von Tewkesbury) war das einzige Kind des englischen Königs Heinrich VI. und dessen Frau Margarete von Anjou und führte von Geburt an den Titel "Duke of Cornwall".


Plot.

Lucy Kelson (Sandra Bullock) is a frumpy, nervous, intelligent liberal lawyer who specializes in historic preservation, environmental law, and pro bono causes in New York City. George Wade (Hugh Grant) is an arrogant billionaire real estate developer and stylish womanizing playboy, who is also quite naïve. Lucy's hard work and devotion to others contrasts sharply with George's world-weary recklessness and greed.  Lucy meets George in an attempt to stop the destruction of the Coney Island community center from her childhood. Discovering that she graduated from prestigious Harvard law school, he attempts to hire her to replace his old Chief Counsel, overlooking their opposing views of real estate development. She is willing to overlook it too—and his playboy tendencies—when he lures her in with the promise to protect the community center and an annual salary of $250,000 and other perks.  She soon finds that what he really requires is advice in all aspects of his life. She becomes his indispensable aide, and he calls her for every little thing at all hours. At a friend's wedding, her cell phone loudly rings and disrupts the proceedings before she runs off answering his urgent page. When she discovers the "emergency" is he needs her advice on what to wear to an important event, she gets fed up and gives him her two weeks' notice of resignation. Yet, her departure is not so easy.  Lucy looks for work at other firms, but every one says no because George has called in advance asking them not to hire her, so that he can keep her on. Eventually he gives in, and she offers to help him find a replacement, but the camera shows us that they are not entirely aware of how close and interdependent they have become: they act like an old married couple at a restaurant, able to simultaneously carry out a conversation while involuntarily exchanging food out of habit from knowing each other's food preferences.  When the stylish and flirtatious June Carver (Alicia Witt) shows up without an appointment seeking the position, Lucy speaks to her, but is concerned that June lacks real estate experience. When George sees June he is immediately attracted and is ready to hire her on the spot, with little regard for Lucy's concerns. Rather than look the other way and let her soon-to-be-former boss deal with the foolishness of his sexist hiring practices, Lucy instead becomes increasingly jealous and competitive with her replacement. When George invites June to be included to business social events that formerly would be just between George and Lucy, Lucy increasingly perceives the business events to be more like dates, and is angry that June is intruding on them.  Lucy finds out that despite his promise, the community center is going to be knocked down and argues with George. She arrives at his hotel and finds June and George in his apartment in lingerie during a game of "strip chess". George sees that Lucy is hurt as she leaves. He confronts her the next day, her last day, saying that she must have feelings from what she saw the other night. Lucy, still upset about the community center, reminds him that he promised her to spare the community center and that she did not promise to sleep with him. George and Lucy have an argument after June and Lucy fight over a stapler. The argument ends when Lucy leaves after George tells her that she is a saint, making everyone else look bad because they are humans who make mistakes.  After she is gone, George realizes that his time with her has really changed him. Meanwhile, in her new job, Lucy is missing him terribly. He goes in search for her and reveals he decided to keep his promise to her. Lucy rebuffs him but then chases after him and they declare their feelings. George reveals he resigned.

Reception.

"Two Weeks Notice" received mixed reviews from critics. It holds a rating of 42% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 121 reviews. The site's consensus states: "Though "Two Weeks Notice" has nothing new to add to the crowded genre, Hugh Grant and Sandra Bullock make the movie a pleasant, if predictable, sit."

Box office.

The film opened at 2 at the U.S. Box office, raking in USD14,328,494 in its opening weekend, behind "". It had a total domestic gross of $93,354,851 and an overall gross of $199,043,242.

Soundtrack.

The soundtrack music to "Two Weeks Notice" was released on 28 January 2003.

Punctuation issue.

In the best-selling book on punctuation "", the author Lynne Truss points out that the spelling of the film's title is grammatically incorrect because it is missing an apostrophe (Two Weeks' Notice). The book's original hardcover edition featured Truss in her author's photo, glaring at the poster and holding a marker where the apostrophe should be.

Two Weeks Notice is a 2002 American romantic comedy film written and directed by Marc Lawrence and starring Hugh Grant and Sandra Bullock. Although critical response was mixed, the film was successful at the box office.

Ein Chef zum Verlieben (Originaltitel: "Two Weeks Notice") ist eine US-amerikanische romantische Komödie aus dem Jahr 2002 von Regisseur Marc Lawrence, der auch das Drehbuch schrieb. Die Hauptrollen spielten Sandra Bullock und Hugh Grant.


Biography.

Stratemeyer was born the youngest of six children in Elizabeth, New Jersey, to Henry Julius Stratemeyer, a tobacconist, and Anna Siegel. They were both from Hanover, Germany, immigrating to the United States in 1837. Although they were German, he and his siblings were educated in English and spoke English to each other.  Growing up, Edward read the likes of Horatio Alger and William T. Adams, writers who penned beloved rags-to-riches tales of the hardworking young American. These stories greatly influenced him. As a teenager, Stratemeyer operated his own printing press in the basement of his father's tobacco shop, distributing flyers and pamphlets among his friends and family. These included stories called "The Newsboy's Adventure" and "The Tale of a Lumberman". After he graduated from high school, he went to work in his father's store. It wasn't until the age of 26 in 1888 that Stratemeyer sold his first story, "Victor Horton's Idea", to the popular children's magazine "Golden Days" for $76—over six times the average weekly paycheck at the time.  Stratemeyer moved to Newark, New Jersey, in 1890 and opened a paper store. He ran his shop while continuing to write stories under pseudonyms. He was able to write for many genres including detective dime novels, westerns, and serials that ran in newspapers. In 1893, Stratemeyer was hired by the popular dime-novel writer Gilbert Patten, to write as an editor for the Street & Smith publication "Good News".  In 1894, he published his first full-length book, "Richard Dare's Venture", which was the first in his "Bound to Succeed" series. It contained autobiographical content and was similar to Alger's rags-to-riches story formula.  In 1899, Horatio Alger wrote Stratemeyer as editor of the "Good News", asking him to finish one of his manuscripts. Alger was in poor health at the time. When Alger died later the same year, Stratemeyer continued to edit and finish several of Alger's other books. That same year, after Alger died, Stratemeyer wrote and published The Rover Boys, which became a tremendously popular series in the vein of the classic dime novel. The Rover Boys was described as "The first highly successful series by Edward Stratemeyer; each volume had a preface from Edward Stratemeyer himself, thanking his readers and touting the other books. It's generally accepted that Stratemeyer wrote all of the books." He said this series was his personal favorite.  Stratemeyer formed the Stratemeyer Literary Syndicate in 1905 and hired journalists to write stories based on his ideas. He paid them a flat rate for each book and kept the copyrights to the novels.

Personal life.

He married Magdalena Van Camp, the daughter of a Newark businessman, on March 25, 1891. The couple had two daughters: Harriet Stratemeyer Adams (1892–1982) and Edna C. Squier (1895–1974), both of whom would later take over the future Stratemeyer Syndicate.  Stratemeyer enjoyed the outdoors and often took annual summer trips to the Great Lakes, Lake George, and Lake Champlain with his family. They traveled as far as the west coast and Yosemite. A humble man, he never sought public attention and preferred living a private and quiet life with his family at their home on N. 7th Street in the Roseville section of Newark. His relationships with his daughters was described as "warm", and his daughter Harriet recalled that it was a lively atmosphere growing up.  Stratemeyer was a member of the Roseville Athletic Club and the New Jersey Historical Association.  Stratemeyer died at age 67 in Newark, New Jersey on May 10, 1930, of lobar pneumonia and was buried in Evergreen Cemetery in Hillside, New Jersey. On May 12, 1930, two days after his death, the "New York Times" reported that his Rover Boys series "had sales exceeding 5,000,000 copies."

Accomplishments.

He pioneered the book-packaging technique of producing a consistent, long-running series of books using a team of freelance writers. All of the books in the series used the same characters in similar situations. All of the freelance writers, including Mildred Benson, who developed the character of Nancy Drew, were published under a pen name owned by his company.  Through his Stratemeyer Syndicate, founded in 1906, Stratemeyer employed a massive number of editors, copy writers, stenographers, co-authors, and secretaries. With their help, he greatly contributed to a new genre of juvenile fiction. He was responsible for launching several series including

References.

Notes Sources

Edward L. Stratemeyer (October 4, 1862 – May 10, 1930) was an American publisher and writer of children's fiction. He was one of the most prolific writers in the world, producing in excess of 1,300 books himself, selling in excess of 500 million copies. He also created many well-known fictional book series for juveniles, including The Rover Boys, The Bobbsey Twins, Tom Swift, The Hardy Boys, and Nancy Drew series, many of which sold millions of copies and are still in publication today. On Stratemeyer's legacy, "Fortune" wrote: "As oil had its Rockefeller, literature had its Stratemeyer."

Edward Stratemeyer (* 4. Oktober 1862 in Elizabeth, New Jersey; † 10. Mai 1930 in Newark, New Jersey) war ein US-amerikanischer Publizist und Kinderbuchschriftsteller. Er erschuf die Kinderbuchserien über die Hardy Boys, die Bobbsey Zwillinge, Nancy Drew, die Rover Boys, Tom Swift, Bomba, der Dschungelboy und viele andere.


In fiction.

Florence Kate Upton was born in 1873 in Flushing, New York, United States, the daughter of English parents who had emigrated to the United States three years previously. Following the death of her father, she moved back to England with her mother and sisters when she was fourteen. There she spent several years drawing and developing her artistic skills. To afford tuition to art school, she illustrated a children's book entitled "The Adventures of Two Dutch Dolls and a Golliwogg." The 1895 book included a character named the Golliwogg, who was first described as "a horrid sight, the blackest gnome", but who quickly turned out to be a friendly character, and is later attributed with a "kind face." A product of the blackface minstrel tradition, the Golliwogg had jet black skin; bright red lips; and wild woolly hair. He wore red trousers, a shirt with a stiff collar, red bow-tie, and a blue jacket with tails – all traditional minstrel attire.  Upton's book and its many sequels were extremely successful in England, largely because of the popularity of the Golliwogg. Upton did not trademark her character, and its name, spelt "golliwog", became the generic name for dolls and images of a similar type. The golliwog doll became a popular children's toy throughout most of the 20th century, and was incorporated into many aspects of British commerce and culture; for instance, some of Enid Blyton's books feature them, often as a villain and sometimes as heroes. Upton's Golliwogg was jovial, friendly and gallant, but some later golliwogs were sinister or menacing characters.

In culture.

The golliwog contributed enormously to the spread of blackface iconography in Europe. It also made its way back across the Atlantic in the form of children's literature, dolls, children's china and other toys, ladies' perfume, and jewellery. "Golliwogg's Cakewalk" is the sixth and final piece in the "Children's Corner", a suite for piano published by Claude Debussy in 1908.  British jam manufacturer James Robertson & Sons used a golliwog called Golly as its mascot from 1910, after John Robertson apparently saw children playing with golliwog dolls in the United States. Robertson's started producing promotional Golly badges in the 1920s, which could be obtained in exchange for tokens gained from their products. In 1983, the company's products were boycotted by the Greater London Council as offensive, and in 1988 the character ceased to be used in television advertising. The company used to give away golliwog badges and small plaster figures playing musical instruments (jazz musicians) or sports and other such themes. The Gollywog badge collection scheme was withdrawn in 2001.  According to an editorial in "The Times" newspaper, golliwogs were banned by the Nazis in 1934 on the grounds they were inappropriate toys for young German children, "for of all non-Aryans none is more completely non-Aryan than he [Golliwog]... Some say he is so attractive an advertisement for a black face that his presence makes it harder to teach the young to wash."  In a statement reported by the BBC, Virginia (Ginny) C. Knox, previously brand director for Robertson's and later Chief Operating Officer of the Culinary Brands Division of RHM, told "The Herald" newspaper in Scotland in 2001 that the decision to remove the Golly symbol from Robertson's jam and marmalade jars was taken after research found that children were not familiar with the character, although it still appealed to the older generations. "We sell 45 million jars of jam and marmalade each year and they have pretty much all got Golly on them," said Ms Knox. "We also sell 250,000 Golly badges to collectors and only get 10 letters a year from people who don't like the Golliwog image." Today, Robertson's Golly badges remain highly collectible, with the very rarest sometimes selling for more than £1,000.  An aniseed-flavoured chewy confection called a Blackjack was marketed in the United Kingdom from the 1920s with a golliwog's face on the wrapper. In the late 1980s, Trebor, the manufacturer, replaced the image with the face of a black-bearded pirate.  Art historian Sir Kenneth Clark said that the golliwogs of his childhood were "examples of chivalry, far more persuasive than the unconvincing Knights of the Arthurian legend."  A classic contortionist act is the rag doll act often performed in a golliwog costume, therefore also called the golliwogg act.  In "" and "", Alan Moore and Kevin O'Neill included Upton's original Golliwog with a slightly reimagined, alien past. When this was attacked as a racist character, Moore responded that the Upton's original Golliwog "was a dignified and respectable figure. His courage and strength of character were ably demonstrated in his picaresque adventures, as was his intellectual acumen."

Association with racism in the 21st century.

United Kingdom.

In March 2007, Greater Manchester police seized two golliwogs from a shop after a complaint that the dolls were offensive. In September 2008, a woman from Stockport claimed she was arrested for keeping a "golly doll" in her window. Greater Manchester Police denied this and said she was arrested after a series of complaints of alleged racially aggravated behaviour were made against her.  In February 2009, Carol Thatcher, daughter of Margaret Thatcher, former British Prime Minister, in an off-air conversation at the BBC, referred to the black French tennis player Jo-Wilfried Tsonga, competing in the Australian Open, as looking like a golliwog. The comment was considered by the BBC as "wholly unacceptable" and Thatcher was informed that unless she apologised she would no longer be a reporter on BBC's "The One Show". Thatcher stated that it was a silly joke and declined to make an "unconditional apology". Thatcher claimed that her comment was a reference to the golliwog motifs that she saw in her childhood on jars of jam (made by Robertson's). In April 2009 she appeared on the BBC in an interview on "The Andrew Marr Show" for the first time since the scandal, defending her use of the word. The French publication "Sportsweek" claimed that Thatcher, in talking about a previous competition, referred to another player as "the one who was defeated by the "golliwog" in the previous tour." The French publication, which showed a picture of Tsonga above a picture of a toy golliwog, claimed that Thatcher was "mortified" and that her comment was about the similarity of Tsonga's appearance to the doll that she had as a child.  In March 2011, Conservative English politician Bill Etheridge and his wife, Star, resigned from the Conservatives after their membership was suspended following complaints from party members that they were photographed posing with knitted golliwogs on their Facebook profile pages as part of a protest against political correctness.  In December 2013, a councillor in Brighton, was forced to apologise for stating to a newspaper reporter that golliwogs were not racist. Cllr Dawn Barnett was defending a local shop which was selling golliwog drinks mats. In her opinion, "I said I can see no harm in them. They are nostalgic, I'm 72 years old. My generation grew up with them." Bert Williams, speaking on behalf of Brighton and Hove Black History Group, said the word "golliwog" was historically used to tease black people, of which he had personal experience.  In April 2018, a man was fined £250 plus £85 costs for displaying a golliwog in a window opposite two Indian restaurants. He pleaded guilty to "displaying it with intent to cause harassment, alarm or distress and that the offence was racially aggravated."  In July 2018, a YouGov poll was set up that asked 1,660 Britons whether it was "racist to sell or display a golliwog doll", to which a 63% responded "No", 20% "Yes", and 17% "I'm Not Sure".

Australia.

In December 2013, in Toowoomba, Australia, Darrell Lea Chocolate Shop made no comment when customers complained about their sale of golliwogs.  On 1 December 2016, Australian Aboriginal activist, author and filmmaker Dr Stephen Hagan caused a national controversy when he labelled Toowoomba the "most racist city in Australia" after a display of nine golliwog dolls were placed by Terry White Chemists underneath a sign inviting shoppers to "Experience a White Christmas" (referring to the name Terry White Chemists). The controversy began when Toowoomba man George Helon spotted the dolls unfortunately placed beneath the sign and circulated a picture of it on Facebook and Twitter. The display was only in one store, as a franchisee can "stock and sell products at their discretion", however Terry White Chemists banned the sale of the doll in any franchise afterwards.

The golliwog, golliwogg or golly is a doll like character created by Florence Kate Upton that appears in children's books in the late 19th century and usually depicted as a type of rag doll. It was reproduced, both by commercial and hobby toy-makers, as a children's toy called the "golliwog", a portmanteau of "golly" and "polliwog", and had great popularity in the UK and Australia into the 1970s. The doll is characterised by black skin, eyes rimmed in white, red lips and frizzy hair. Though home-made golliwogs were sometimes female, the golliwog was generally male. For this reason, in the period following World War II, the golliwog was seen, along with the teddy bear, as a suitable soft toy for a young boy.

Golliwog (auch: "Golliwogg") ist eine Kinderbuchfigur der britischen Illustratorin Florence Upton mit schwarzem Gesicht und schwarzen abstehenden Haaren. In Uptons Buch "The Adventures of two Dutch Dolls and a Golliwogg" wird Golliwog mit Grödner Drechselpuppen reichlich illustriert.


Content.

This law includes a wide variety of provisions intended to bring about "a peaceful transition to a representative democracy and market economy in Cuba":

Summary.

Title I strengthened sanctions against the current Cuban Government. Among many other provisions, it codified the U.S. embargo on trade and financial transactions which had been in effect pursuant to a Presidential proclamation since the Kennedy Administration.  Title II describes U.S. policy toward and assistance to a free and independent Cuba. It required the President to produce a plan for providing economic assistance to a transition or democratic government in Cuba. (The President delivered the plan to Congress in January 1997.)  Title III creates a private cause of action and authorizes U.S. nationals with claims to confiscated property in Cuba to file suit in U.S. courts against persons that may be "trafficking" in that property. The filing fee for the Title III action is set by US Courts at $6,458 (from December 2016), a level that would discourage all but serious claims. The Act grants the President the authority to suspend the lawsuit provisions for periods of up to 6 months if it is necessary to the national interest of the United States and will expedite a transition to democracy in Cuba. Successive presidents have exercised this authority, most recently in June 2018, pursuant to a non-binding declaration of intention in April 1997 that came out of a trade dispute with the European Union. In 2019 President Trump allowed the suspension to expire, and Carnival Cruise was promptly sued under the act.  Title IV requires the denial of visas to and exclusion from the U.S. of persons who, after March 12, 1996, confiscate or "traffic" in confiscated property in Cuba claimed by U.S. nationals. The objective of this provision is to protect the status of confiscated U.S. property and to support existing sanctions against the current regime. The State Department reviews a broad range of economic activity in Cuba to determine the applicability of Title IV. The results of this effort appear not only in the actual determinations of "trafficking," but also in the deterrent to investment in confiscated U.S. property and in the exacerbation of the uncertainty of investing in Cuba.

Reactions.

The Helms–Burton Act was condemned by the Council of Europe, the European Union, Britain, Canada, Mexico, Brazil, Argentina and other U.S. allies that enjoy normal trade relations with Cuba. The governments argued that the law ran counter to the spirit of international law and sovereignty.  After a complaint by the European Union with the World Trade Organization, a dispute settlement panel was established. Later, the work of the panel was suspended to find a solution through negotiations. After a year, the panel lost its jurisdiction over the matter, and the EU did not pursue the matter any further before the WTO.  The law has also been condemned by humanitarian groups because these groups argue that sanctions against an entire country will affect only the innocent population.  The law provides for compensation of only the largest of claims for confiscated property, primarily only the claims of large multinational companies (valued at roughly $6 billion). It fails to provide for the claims of individuals of the exiled Cuban-American community whose personal residences were confiscated.  The European Union introduced a Council Regulation (No 2271/96) (law binding all member states) declaring the extraterritorial provisions of the Helms–Burton Act to be unenforceable within the EU, and permitting recovery of any damages imposed under it. The EU law also applied sanctions against US companies and their executives for making Title III complaints.  The United Kingdom had previously introduced provisions by statutory instrument extending its Protection of Trading Interests Act 1980 (originally passed in the wake of extraterritorial claims by the U.S. in the 1970s) to United States rules on trade with Cuba. United Kingdom law was later extended to counter-act the Helms–Burton Act as well. This included criminal sanctions for complying with extraterritorial provisions of the Helms–Burton Act whilst in the UK.  Mexico passed the Law of Protection of Commerce and Investments from Foreign Policies that Contravene International Law in October 1996, aimed at neutralizing the Helms–Burton Act. The law provides for a fine of 2.2 million pesos, or $280,254, against anyone who while in Mexican territory obeys another country's laws aimed at reducing Mexican trade or foreign investment in a third country. This law was used against the Sheraton Maria Isabel Hotel and Towers in Mexico City, which had expelled a group of Cuban officials upon pressure from the United States government and confiscated their funds.  Similarly, Canada passed the "An Act to amend the Foreign Extraterritorial Measures Act" (C-54), a law to counteract the effect of Helms–Burton. In addition, its legislature proposed (but did not pass) the Godfrey–Milliken Bill that mirrored Helms–Burton, replacing the Cuban revolution with the American revolution. Sponsored by Loyalist descendants, it demanded recompense for United Empire Loyalists and proposed travel restrictions on those trafficking in property confiscated during the American Revolution. One of its sponsors, MP Peter Milliken, went on to serve as Speaker of the Canadian House of Commons.  Presidents Bill Clinton, George W. Bush, Barack Obama and Donald Trump all signed a waiver of parts of the law.  Effective May 10, 1999, with CFR Title 31 Part 515, the act was amended. In 2000, the law was further amended with the passage of the Trade Sanction Reform and Export Enhancement Act, which allowed the export of US agriculture and medical goods to Cuba so long as certain conditions were met.

The Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity (Libertad) Act of 1996 (Helms–Burton Act),,, ) is a United States federal law which strengthens and continues the United States embargo against Cuba. The act extended the territorial application of the initial embargo to apply to foreign companies trading with Cuba, and penalized foreign companies allegedly "trafficking" in property formerly owned by U.S. citizens but confiscated by Cuba after the Cuban revolution. The act also covers property formerly owned by Cubans who have since become U.S. citizens.

Der ', offiziell'genannt, ist ein das Embargo der Vereinigten Staaten gegen Kuba verschärfendes Gesetz vom März 1996. Das nach seinen Initiatoren, dem Senator Jesse Helms und dem Abgeordneten des Repräsentantenhauses Dan Burton, benannte Maßnahmenpaket wurde nach Verabschiedung durch den Kongress von Präsident Bill Clinton unterzeichnet. Wesentliche Elemente des Gesetzes wurden erst im Mai 2019 durch Präsident Donald Trump zur Umsetzung freigegeben.


History.

Foundation.

King's College, so named to indicate the patronage of King George IV, was founded in 1829 in response to the theological controversy surrounding the founding of "London University" (which later became University College, London) in 1826. London University was founded, with the backing of Utilitarians, Jews and Nonconformists, as a secular institution, intended to educate "the youth of our middling rich people between the ages of 15 or 16 and 20 or later" giving its nickname, "the godless college in Gower Street".  The need for such an institution was a result of the religious and social nature

Duel in Battersea Fields, 21 March 1829.

The simultaneous support of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington (who was also Prime Minister of the United Kingdom then), for an Anglican King's College London and the Roman Catholic Relief Act, which was to lead to the granting of almost full civil rights to Catholics, was challenged by George Finch-Hatton, 10th Earl of Winchilsea, in early 1829. Winchilsea and his supporters wished for King's to be subject to the Test Acts, like the universities of Oxford, where only members of the Church of England could matriculate, and Cambridge, where non-Anglicans could matriculate but not graduate, but this was not Wellington's intent.  Winchilsea and about 150 other contributors withdrew their support of King's College London in response to Wellington's support of Catholic emancipation. In a letter to Wellington he accused the Duke to have in

19th century.

King's opened in October 1831 with the cleric William Otter appointed as first principal and lecturer in divinity. The Archbishop of Canterbury presided over the opening ceremony, in which a sermon was given in the chapel by Charles James Blomfield, the Bishop of London, on the subject of combining religious instruction with intellectual culture. Despite the attempts to make King's Anglican-only, the initial prospectus permitted, "nonconformists of all sorts to enter the college freely". William Howley: the governors and the professors, except the linguists, had to be members of the Church of England but the students did not, though attendance at chapel was compulsory.  King's was divided into a senior department and a junior department, also known as King's

20th century.

The King's College London Act 1903, abolished all remaining religious tests for staff, except within the Theological department. In 1910, King's was (with the exception of the Theological department) merged into the University of London under the King's College London (Transfer) Act 1908, losing its legal independence.  During World War I the medical school was opened to women for the first time. The end of the war saw an influx of students, which strained existing facilities to the point where some classes were held in the Principal's house.  In World War II, the buildings of King's College London were used by the Auxiliary Fire Service with a number of King's staff, mainly those then known as college servants, serving as firewatchers. Parts of the Strand building, the quadrangle, and the roof of apse and stained glass windows of the chapel suffered bomb damage in the Blitz. During the post-war reconstruction, the vaults beneath the quadrangle were replaced by a two-storey laboratory, which opened in 1952, for the departments of Physics and Civil and Electrical Engineering.  One of the most famous pieces of scientific research performed at King's were the crucial contributions to

2001 to present.

In July 2006, King's College London was granted degree-awarding powers in its own right, as opposed to through the University of London, by the Privy Council. This power remained unexercised until 2007, when King's announced that all students starting courses from September 2007 onwards would be awarded degrees conferred by King's itself, rather than by the University of London. The new certificates however still make reference to the fact that King's is a constituent college of the University of London. All current students with at least one year of study remaining were in August 2007 offered the option of choosing to be awarded a University of London degree or a King's degree. The first King's degrees were awarded in summer 2008.  In April 2011 King's became a founding partner in the UK Centre for Medical Research and Innovation, subsequently renamed the Francis Crick Institute, committing

Campus.

Strand Campus.

The Strand Campus is the founding campus of King's and is located on the Strand in the City of Westminster, sharing its frontage along the River Thames. The original campus comprises the Grade I listed King's Building of 1831 designed by Sir Robert Smirke, and the King's College London Chapel redesigned in 1864 by Sir Gilbert Scott, with the subsequent purchase of much of adjacent Surrey Street (including the Norfolk and Chesham Buildings) since the Second World War and the 1972 Strand Building. The Macadam Building of 1975 houses the Strand Campus Students' Union and is named after King's alumnus Sir

Guy's Campus.

Guy's Campus is situated close to London Bridge and the Shard on the South Bank of the Thames and is home to the Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine and the Dental Institute.  The campus is named for Thomas Guy, the founder and benefactor of Guy's Hospital established in 1726 in the London

Waterloo Campus.

The Waterloo Campus is located across Waterloo Bridge from the Strand Campus, near the South Bank Centre in the London Borough of Lambeth and consists of the James Clerk Maxwell Building, the Franklin–Wilkins Building and the Waterloo Bridge Wing Building.  Cornwall House, now the Franklin-Wilkins Building, constructed between 1912 and 1915 was originally the His Majesty's Stationery Office (responsible for Crown copyright and National Archives), but was requisitioned for use as a military hospital in 1915 during World War I. It became

St Thomas's Campus.

The St Thomas' Campus in the London Borough of Lambeth, facing the Houses of Parliament across the Thames, houses parts of the School of Medicine and the Dental Institute. The Florence Nightingale Museum is also located here. The museum is dedicated to Florence Nightingale, the

Denmark Hill Campus.

Denmark Hill Campus is situated in south London near the borders of the London Borough of Lambeth and the London Borough of Southwark in Camberwell and is the only campus not situated on the River Thames. The campus consists of King's College Hospital, the Maudsley Hospital and the Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience (IoPPN). In addition to the Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience,

Redevelopment programme.

As of 2016, King's is undergoing a £1 billion redevelopment programme of its estates. Since 1999 over half of the activities of King's have been relocated in new and refurbished buildings. Major completed projects include a £35 million renovation of the Maughan Library in 2002, a £40 million renovation of buildings at the Strand Campus, a £25 million renovation of Somerset House East Wing, a £30 million renovation of the Denmark Hill Campus in 2007, the renovation of the Franklin-Wilkins Library at the Waterloo Campus and the completion of the £9 million Cicely Saunders Institute of Palliative Care in 2010. The College Chapel at the Strand was also restored in 2001, and its organ in 2018.  The Strand Campus redevelopment won the Green

Organisation and administration.

Governance.

The head of King's College London is formally the Principal, currently held by Ed Byrne. The office is established by the charter of King's as "the chief academic and administrative officer of the College" and King's statutes require the principal to have the general responsibility to the council for "ensuring that the objects of the College are fulfilled and for maintaining and promoting the efficiency, discipline and good order of the College". The charter and statutes granted in 2009 created the additional position of "president". As such the full title of the head of King's College London is the "President and Principal". Senior officers are called the Principal's Central Team. Two Vice-Principals and Provosts for Health and Arts & Sciences deputies for the Principal and oversee the Executive Dean's of Faculty, whilst five Vice-Principals have responsibilities for specific vision areas of strategic importance - Education, Research, Service, International

Faculties and departments.

In the 19th century, King's College London had five departments: Theological, General Literature and Science, Applied Sciences, Medical and Military. The Theological Department provided studies in ecclesiastical history, pastoral theology and Exegesis of testaments. Languages and literature, history, law and jurisprudence, political economy, commerce, fencing, mathematics, zoology and natural history were taught within the Department of General Literature and Science, and natural philosophy, geology, mineralogy and arts-related subjects were taught within the Department of Applied Sciences. , King's comprises nine academic faculties, which are subdivided into schools (for Social Science & Public Policy, Life Sciences & Medicine), departments, centres and research divisions. The latest addition was King's Business School, hosted in Bush House, which opened in August 2017.

Faculty of Arts and Humanities.

The Faculty of Arts and Humanities was formed in 1989 following the amalgamation of the faculties of Arts, Music and Theology. The faculty encompasses traditional disciplinary subjects, as well as less-common subjects such as Hellenic, Portuguese and

Faculty of Dentistry, Oral & Craniofacial Sciences.

The Faculty of Dentistry, Oral & Craniofacial Sciences (formerly Dental Institute) is the dental school of King's and focuses on understanding disease, enhancing health and restoring function. The institute is the successor of Guy's Hospital Dental School, King's College Hospital Dental School, Royal Dental Hospital of London School of Dental Surgery, and the United Medical and Dental Schools of Guy's and St Thomas' Hospitals. It was a part of King's School of Medicine and Dentistry until 2005, when the dental school became the Dental Institute and then renamed in 2019.  In 1799 Joseph Fox started to give a series of lectures on dental surgery at Guy’s Hospital, and was appointed dental surgeon in the same year. Thomas Bell succeeded Fox as dental surgeon either in 1817 or 1825. Frederick Newland-Pedley, who was appointed assistant dental surgeon at Guy’s Hospital in 1885, advocated the establishment of a dental school

Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine.

The Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine was created as a result of the merger of the School of Medicine with the School of Biomedical Sciences in 2014.  There are two schools of education in the Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine: the GKT School of

Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience.

The Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience (IoPPN) is a faculty and a research institution dedicated to discovering what causes mental illness and diseases of the brain, and to help identify new treatments of the diseases.

Dickson Poon School of Law.

The Dickson Poon School of Law is the law school of King's. Law has been taught at King's since 1831. The Faculty of Laws was founded in 1909 and became the School of Law in 1991.  The school includes various research

Faculty of Natural and Mathematical Sciences.

The Faculty of Natural and Mathematical Sciences was established in 2010, following the reorganisation of the School of Physical Sciences and Engineering. The faculty provides education and research in chemistry, informatics, physics, mathematics and telecommunications. Physics and Mathematics has been studied at the university since 1829 and 1830 respectively, and there are six Nobel laureates who were either students or academic staff of the faculty. Most notably, its teaching of experimental Physics is the oldest in England having fostered the professorships of James Clerk Maxwell, Harold A. Wilson, Charles Glover Barkla, Sir Owen Richardson, Sir Edward Appleton and Sir Charles Ellis, three of whom

Florence Nightingale Faculty of Nursing and Midwifery.

The Florence Nightingale Faculty of Nursing and Midwifery is a school for nurses and midwives. It also carries out nursing research and provides continuing professional development and postgraduate programmes. Formerly known as the Nightingale Training School and Home for Nurses, the faculty

Faculty of Social Science and Public Policy.

The Faculty of Social Science and Public Policy was established in 2001, and is one of the largest university centres focusing on policy-oriented research in the UK. Following a restructuring in 2016, it is split into four schools:  The Department of War Studies is unique in the UK and is supported by research facilities such

King's Business School.

King's Business School was established in 2017 at Bush House. The School of Management and Business within the Faculty of Social Science and Public Policy was reformed to create King's Business School. It offers programmes in economics, management, finance, entrepreneurship, human resource management and marketing.

Finances.

In the financial year ended 31 July 2019, King's had a total income of £901.96 million (2017/18 – £841.03 million) and total expenditure of £1089.88 million (2017/18 – £842.43 million). Key sources of income included £393.79 million from tuition fees and education contracts (2017/18 – £342.25 million), £194.68 million from research grants and contracts (2017/18 – £194.42 million), £128.30 million from Funding Council grants (2017/18 – £123.89 million) and £5.12 million from endowment and investment income (2017/18 – £6.19 million). During the 2018/19 financial year King's had a capital expenditure of £78.9 million (2017/18

Coat of arms.

The coat of arms displayed on the King's College London charter is that of George IV. The shield depicts the royal coat of arms together with an inescutcheon of the House of Hanover, while the supporters embody King's motto of "". No correspondence is believed to have survived regarding the choice of this coat of arms, either in King's archives or at the College of Arms, and a variety of unofficial adaptations have been used throughout the history of King's. The current coat of arms was developed following the mergers with Queen Elizabeth College and Chelsea College in

Coat of arms of the medical schools.

Although the St Thomas's Hospital Medical School and Guy's Medical School became legal bodies separate from St Thomas' Hospital and Guy's Hospital in 1948, the tradition of using the hospitals' shields and coat of arms continues today.  In 1949, St Thomas's Hospital Medical School was granted its own coat of arms. However, the St Thomas' Hospital coat of arms has still been used. Guy’s Medical School proposed to apply for its own coat of arms after separating from Guy’s Hospital, yet the school decided to continue to use Guy's Hospital’s arms in 1954. The two medical schools merged in 1982 and became the United Medical and Dental Schools of Guy's and St Thomas' Hospitals (UMDS). Simon Argles, secretary of UMDS, said that because of the name of the medical school it was more appropriate to use the hospital's coat of arms.  UMDS merged with King's College Hospital to become Guy's, King's and St Thomas' School of Medicine in 1998. The shields of Guy’s and St Thomas’ hospitals are used in conjunction with King's shield in the medical schools' publications and graduation materials.

Affiliations and partnerships.

King's College London is a constituent college and was one of the two founding members of the federal University of London. King's is a member of Association of Commonwealth Universities (ACU), European University Association (EUA) and Universities UK. In 1998, King's joined the Russell Group, an association of 24 public research universities established in 1994. King's is currently the only British member of the Institutional Network of the Universities from the Capitals of Europe (UNICA), a network of major higher education institutions in the European capital cities.  King's is a founding member of Global Medical Excellence Cluster (GMEC), the largest life science bio-cluster in the world established with the Universities of Cambridge and Oxford, University College London and Imperial College London. King's is also the founding partner of FutureLearn, a massive open online course learning platform founded in December

Academics.

Admissions.

King's had the 13th highest average entry qualification for undergraduates of any UK university in 2018, with new students averaging 171 UCAS points. In 2015, the university gave offers of admission to 66.7% of its applicants, the 7th lowest amongst the Russell Group.  24.4% of King's undergraduates are privately educated, the fourteenth highest proportion amongst mainstream British universities. In the 2016-17 academic year, the university

Teaching.

King's academic year runs from the last Monday in September to the first Friday in June. Different faculties and departments adopt different academic term structures.

Graduation.

Graduation ceremonies are held in January (winter) and June or July (summer), with ceremonies for students from most faculties held in Europe's largest arts complex, the Barbican Centre. Owing to St Thomas's Medical School roots that could be traced to St

Research.

In 2013/14 King's had a total research income of £171.55 million, of which £47.64 million was from UK charitable bodies; £38.26 million from Research Councils; £32.97 million from UK central government, local authorities, health and hospital authorities; £21.38 million from EU government and other bodies; £17.09 million from overseas (excluding EU); £13.11 million from UK industry, commerce and public corporations; and £1.11 million from other sources.  King's submitted a total of 1,369 staff across 27 units

Medicine.

King's claims to be the largest centre for healthcare education in Europe. King's College London School of Medicine has over 2,000 undergraduate students, over 1,400 teachers, four main teaching hospitals – Guy's Hospital, King's College Hospital, St Thomas' Hospital and University Hospital Lewisham – and 17 associated district general hospitals. King's College London Dental Institute is the largest dental school in Europe. The Florence Nightingale School of Nursing & Midwifery is the oldest professional school of nursing in the world.  King's is a major centre for biomedical research. It is a founding member of King's Health Partners, one of

Libraries.

King's library facilities are spread across its campuses. The collections encompass over one million printed books, as well as thousands of journals and electronic resources.

Maughan Library.

The Maughan Library is King's largest library and is housed in the Grade II* listed 19th century gothic former Public Record Office building situated on Chancery Lane at the Strand Campus. The building was designed by Sir James Pennethorne and is home to the books and journals of the Schools of Arts & Humanities, Law,

Other libraries.

Additionally, King's students and staff have full access to Senate House Library, the central library for the University of London and the School of Advanced Study. Undergraduate and postgraduate students also have reference access to libraries of other University of London institutions under the University of London Libraries Access Agreement.

Museums, galleries and collections.

King's currently operates two museums: Gordon Museum of Pathology and Museum of Life Sciences. Opened in 1905 at Guy's Campus, the Gordon Museum is the largest medical museum in the United Kingdom, and houses a collection of approximately 8000 pathological specimens, artefacts, models and paintings, including Astley Cooper's specimens and Sir Joseph Lister's antiseptic spray. The Museum of Life Sciences was founded in 2009 adjacent to the Gordon Museum, and it houses historic biological and pharmaceutical collections from the constituent colleges of the modern King's College London.  Between 1843 and 1927, the

Rankings and reputation.

Among global university rankings, King's is ranked 31st equal by the 2021 "QS World University Rankings", 36th equal by the 2020 world university rankings of the "Times Higher Education" and 51st worldwide by the 2019 Academic Ranking of World Universities. In 2019, it ranked 58th among the universities around the world by "SCImago Institutions Rankings".  As of 2017, King's is ranked in the top seven UK universities in all the six major academic rankings of global universities: "QS", "Times Higher Education", "ARWU", "University Ranking by Academic Performance", "U.S. News & World Report" (Best Global Universities Rankings) and Center for World University Rankings.  King's was ranked joint 14th overall in "The Sunday Times" 10-year (1998–2007) average ranking of British

Associateship of King's College.

The Associateship of King's College (AKC) is the original award of King's College, dating back to its foundation in 1829 and first awarded in 1835. It was designed to reflect the twin objectives of King's College's 1829 royal charter to maintain the connection between "sound religion and useful learning" and to teach the

Fellowship of King's College.

The Fellowship of King's College (FKC) is the highest award that can be bestowed upon an individual by King's College London. The award of the fellowship is governed by a statute of King's College London and reflects distinguished service to King's by a member of staff, conspicuous service to King's, or the achievement of distinction by those who were at one time closely associated with King's College London.

Student life.

Students' union.

Founded in 1873, King's College, London Union Society which later, in 1908, reorganised into King's College London Students' Union, better known by its acronym KCLSU, is the oldest students' union in London (University College London Union being founded in 1893) and has a claim to being the oldest Students' Union in England. Athletic Club was one of the nineteenth-century student societies at King's formed in 1884. The union provides a wide range of activities and services, including over 50 sports clubs (which includes the boat club which rows on the River Thames and the rifle club which uses the college's shooting range located at the disused Aldwych tube station beneath the Strand Campus), over 200 activity groups, a wide range of volunteering opportunities, two bars/eateries (The Waterfront and Guy's Bar), a shop ("King's Shop")

Student media.

KCLSU Student Media won Student Media of the Year 2014 at the Ents Forum awards and came in the top three student media outlets in the country at the NUS Awards 2014.  "Roar News" is a tabloid newspaper for students at King's which is owned and funded by KCLSU. It is editorially independent of both the university and the students' union and its award-winning website is read by tens of thousands of people per

Sports.

There are over 50 sports clubs, many of which compete in the University of London and British Universities & Colleges (BUCS) leagues across the South East. The annual Macadam Cup is a varsity match played between the sports teams of King's College London proper (KCL) and King's College London Medical School (KCLMS). King's students and staff have played an important part in the formation of the London Universities and Colleges Athletics.  Created in

Societies and organisations.

In addition to their sporting societies, King's College London also boast 300 other societies and groups in a wide variety of

Student-led think tank.

In February 2011, King's College London students founded London's first student-led think tank, the King’s Think Tank (formerly known as KCL Think Tank). With a membership of more than 2000, it is

Music.

There are many music societies at King's including a cappella groups, orchestras, choir, musical theatre and jazz society. King's has three orchestras: King's College London Symphony Orchestra (KCLSO), King's College London Chamber Orchestra and KCL Concert Orchestra.  Founded in 1945, the Choir of King's College London, one of the most acclaimed university choirs in England, consists

Rivalry with University College London.

Competition within the University of London is most intense between King's and University College London, the two oldest institutions. Indeed, the University of London when it was established has been described as "an umbrella organisation designed to disguise the rivalry between UCL and KCL." In the early twentieth century, King's College London and UCL rivalry was centred on their respective mascots. University College's was Phineas Maclino, a wooden tobacconist's sign of a kilted Jacobite Highlander purloined from outside a shop in Tottenham Court Road during the

Rivalry with the London School of Economics.

On 2 December 2005, tensions between King's and the London School of Economics (LSE) were ignited when at least 200 students from LSE (located in Aldwych near the Strand Campus) diverted off from the annual "barrel run" and caused an estimated £32,000 of damage to the English department

Student residences.

Halls of residence.

King's has a total of thirteen halls of residence located throughout London. Accommodation is guaranteed for first year undergraduates and international postgraduates. Great Dover Street Apartments, Wolfson House and Iris Brook and Orchard Lisle are located on Guy's Campus in London Bridge. Brian Creamer House, which was named after Dean of St Thomas's Hospital Medical School Brian Creamer, and the Rectory are situated in the grounds of Lambeth Palace near St Thomas' Campus. Stamford

Intercollegiate halls of residence.

In addition to halls of residence run by King's, full-time students are eligible to stay at one of the Intercollegiate Halls of Residence offered by the University of London. King's has the largest number of bedspaces in the University of London Intercollegiate Halls. There are a total of eight intercollegiate halls of the University of London. Canterbury Hall, College Hall, Commonwealth Hall, Connaught Hall, Hughes Parry Hall and International Hall are located near Russell Square in Bloomsbury. Lillian Penson Hall is situated in Paddington, and Nutford House is situated in Marble Arch. Additionally, students can apply to live in International Students House.

Notable people.

Notable alumni.

Notable alumni in the sciences include Nobel laureates Peter Higgs (Physics), Michael Levitt (Chemistry), Max Theiler (Medicine) and Sir Frederick Hopkins (Medicine); polymath Sir Francis Galton; Raymond Gosling who took Photograph 51 which was critical evidence in identifying the structure of DNA; co-discoverers of Hepatitis C and of the Hepatitis D genome Michael Houghton and Qui-Lim Choo; pioneer of in-vitro fertilisation (IVF) Patrick Steptoe; mammal cloning pioneer Keith Campbell; pathologist Thomas Hodgkin; founder of modern hospice philosophy Dame Cicely Saunders; botanist David Bellamy; Shaw Prize laureate Sir Richard Doll; Kyoto Prize laureate Anthony Pawson; Wolf Prize laureates Michael Fisher (Physics) and Sir James Gowans (Medicine); Lasker Award winner John Hughes; Gairdner Foundation International Award winner R. John Ellis; Beriberi researcher Takaki Kanehiro; inventor of Kerosene Abraham Pineo Gesner; inventor of the Seismometer John Milne, and at least 111 Fellows of the Royal Society.  Notable King's alumni in poetry and literature include the poet

Nobel laureates.

There are 12 Nobel laureates who

Notable academics and staff.

King's has benefited from the services of academics and staff at the top of their fields, including Sir Charles Lyell (lawyer and geologist), Sir Charles Wheatstone (best known for the Wheatstone bridge), Robert Bentley Todd (best known for describing Todd's paresis), James Clerk Maxwell (mathematical physicist), Florence Nightingale (the founder of modern

In popular culture.

Film and television settings.

The neoclassical facade of King's, with the passage which connects the Strand to the Somerset House terrace has been utilised to reproduce the late Victorian Strand in the opening scenes of Oliver Parker's 2002 film "The Importance of Being Earnest". The East Wing of King's appears, as a part of Somerset House, in a number of other productions, such as "Wilde", "Flyboys", and "The Duchess".  In the 2016 film, Inferno, the character Dr. Sienna Brooks had earlier informed the main character, Harvard University Professor Robert Langdon, in his hospital bed that she saw him lecture at

King's College London (informally King's or KCL) is a public research university located in London, United Kingdom, and a founding college and member institution of the federal University of London. King's was established in 1829 by King George IV and Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, when it received its first royal charter (as a university college), and is one of the oldest universities in England. In 1836, King's became one of the two founding colleges of the University of London. In the late 20th century, King's grew through a series of mergers, including with Queen Elizabeth College and Chelsea College of Science and Technology (in 1985), the Institute of Psychiatry (in 1997), the United Medical and Dental Schools of Guy's and St Thomas' Hospitals and the Florence Nightingale School of Nursing and Midwifery (in 1998). King's has five campuses: its historic Strand Campus in central London, three other Thames-side campuses (Guy's, St Thomas' and Waterloo) nearby and one in Denmark Hill in south London. In 2018/19, King's had a total income of £902.0 million, of which £194.7 million was from research grants and contracts. It has the fourth largest endowment of any university in the United Kingdom, and the largest of any in London. It is the largest university in the United Kingdom by total enrolment. Its academic activities are organised into nine faculties, which are subdivided into numerous departments, centres, and research divisions.

Das King’s College London (umgangssprachlich auch genannt King's oder KCL) ist eine der angesehensten Hochschuleinrichtungen der Welt und das älteste College der University of London sowie eine der ältesten und reichsten Universitäten des Vereinigten Königreichs. Es wurde 1829 gegründet und erhielt seinen Namen nach der Schirmherrschaft König Georgs IV.