Franchise history.

Quebec Nordiques (1972–1995).

The Quebec Nordiques were one of the World Hockey Association (WHA)'s original teams when the league began play in 1972. Though first awarded to a group in San Francisco, the team quickly moved to Quebec City when the California deal soured because of financial and arena problems. During their seven WHA seasons, the Nordiques won the Avco World Trophy once, in 1977 and lost the finals once, in 1975. In 1979, the franchise entered the NHL, along with the WHA's Edmonton Oilers, Hartford Whalers and Winnipeg Jets.  After making the postseason for seven consecutive years,

Colorado Avalanche (1995–present).

1995–96: First year, first Cup.

After buying the team, COMSAT organized its Denver sports franchises under a separate subsidiary, Ascent Entertainment Group Inc., which went public in 1995. COMSAT retained an 80% controlling interest, with the other 20% available on NASDAQ. The Avalanche played their first game in the McNichols Sports Arena in Denver (where the Denver Nuggets also played) on October 6, 1995, winning 3–2 against the Detroit Red Wings. It marked a return of the NHL to Denver after an absence of 13 years, when the Colorado Rockies (not to be confused with the Major League Baseball team of the same name) moved to New Jersey to become the New Jersey Devils. Valeri Kamensky scored the first goal as the Avalanche. Led by captain Joe Sakic, forward Peter Forsberg and defenseman Adam Foote on the ice and Pierre Lacroix as the general manager and Marc Crawford as the head coach, the Avalanche became stronger when All-Star Montreal Canadiens goalie Patrick Roy joined the team. Feeling humiliated for being left in the net after having let in 9 goals in 26 shots during a Canadiens game against the Red Wings, Roy joined the Avalanche

1996–2000: Early success.

In 1996–97, Colorado won the Pacific Division again as well as the presidents' Trophy for finishing the regular season with the best record in the NHL, at 49–24–9 for 107 points. The team was also the NHL's best scoring with an average of 3.38 goals scored per game. The Avalanche met the two lowest scorers of the Western Conference in the first two rounds of the playoffs, the Chicago Blackhawks and the Edmonton Oilers, and defeated them in six games and five games, respectively. During a rematch of the previous year Western Conference Finals, the Avalanche lost to the Detroit Red Wings in six games. Detroit went on to sweep the Stanley Cup Finals just as the Avalanche had done the year before. Sandis Ozolinsh was elected for the NHL's first All-Star team at the end of the season. As a free agent during the summer of 1997, Joe Sakic signed a three-year, $21 million offer sheet with the New York Rangers. Under the collective agreement in place at the time

2000–01: Second Stanley Cup.

The 2000–01 season was the best season the team has ever had due to phenomenal play by all-time leading scorer in Avalanche history, Joe Sakic. The Avalanche won the Northwest Division and captured their second presidents' Trophy after having finished the regular season with 52–16–10–4 for 118 points. Sakic finished the regular season with 118 points (54 goals and 64 assists), only three behind Jaromir Jagr's 121 points. On February 4, 2001, the Avalanche hosted the 51st NHL All-Star Game. Patrick Roy, Ray Bourque and Joe Sakic played for the North America team, who won 14–12 against the World team, that featured Milan Hejduk and Peter Forsberg. All but Hejduk were part of the starting lineups. Before the playoffs, the Avalanche acquired star defenseman Rob Blake and center Steven Reinprecht from the Los Angeles Kings in exchange for Adam Deadmarsh, Aaron Miller and their first-round 2001 Draft pick.  In the playoffs, Colorado swept their Western Conference Quarter-finals against the Vancouver Canucks. In the Western Conference Semi-finals, the Avalanche defeated the Los Angeles Kings in seven games, after having wasted a 3–1 lead. After the last

2001–2004: Remaining competitive.

In the 2001–02 season, Colorado finished the regular season with 99 points from a 45–28–8–1 record and won the Northwest Division. Colorado had the league's lowest goals conceded: 169, an average of 2.06 per game. The NHL season was interrupted once again for the 2002 Winter Olympics, in Salt Lake City. The Avalanche had nine players representing six countries. Canada won the ice hockey tournament and Rob Blake, Adam Foote and Joe Sakic won gold medals. American Chris Drury got a silver medal. With the win, Blake and Sakic became members of the Triple Gold Club. The Avalanche advanced through the first two rounds of the playoffs winning 4–3 against the Los Angeles Kings and 4–3 against the San Jose Sharks. Patrick Roy had a shutout on the decisive game of each series. The Avalanche made the Western Conference Finals for the fourth consecutive season (and sixth overall in the last seven seasons), meeting the Detroit Red Wings in the playoffs for

2005–2009: New beginnings.

After the 2004–05 NHL lockout and the implementation of a salary cap, the Avalanche were forced to release some of their top players. Peter Forsberg and Adam Foote were lost to free agency to save room in the cap for Joe Sakic and Rob Blake. Although the salary cap was a blow to one of the highest spenders of the league, the Colorado Avalanche finished the 2005–06 regular season with a 43–30–9 record for 95 points, good enough to finish second in the Northwest Division, seven behind the Calgary Flames and tied with the Edmonton Oilers. The season paused in February for the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy. The Avalanche sent an NHL leading 11 players from eight countries. Finnish Antti Laaksonen earned the silver medal, while Ossi Vaananen ended up not playing because of an injury; Czech Milan Hejduk won a bronze medal. In the Western Conference Quarter-finals, Colorado defeated the team with the second-best record in the Western Conference, the Dallas Stars, in five games. In the

2009–2013: Rebuilding.

In the 2009 off-season, the Avalanche named Greg Sherman the new general manager and Joe Sacco the new head coach. The following month, top scorer Ryan Smyth was traded to the Los Angeles Kings and Joe Sakic, the only team captain the Avalanche had ever known, retired after 21 seasons in the NHL. The Avalanche named Adam Foote as his replacement. Sakic's jersey retirement ceremony took place on October 1, 2009, before the season opener at home against the San Jose Sharks where the Avalanche won 5–2. The Avalanche started the season off strong until the Olympic break. Three Avalanche team members played in Vancouver: Paul Stastny for the United States, Ruslan Salei for Belarus and Peter Budaj for Slovakia. Following the Winter Olympics, the Avalanche struggled but eventually clinched a playoff spot with 95 points on the season, a 26-point improvement from the previous year's effort, and good enough for eighth place in the Western Conference.

2013–2016: Return of Patrick Roy.

After a disappointing 2012–13 season which saw the Colorado Avalanche finish 15th in the Western Conference and 29th overall in the League, it was announced on April 28, 2013, that head coach Joe Sacco had been relieved of his duties. On May 10, it was announced that former long-time Avalanche captain and Hockey Hall of Famer Joe Sakic would be named executive vice president of hockey operations, overseeing all matters involving hockey personnel. It was also announced that Josh Kroenke, son of owner Stan Kroenke, was named president of the Avalanche, succeeding Pierre Lacroix. On May 23, Patrick Roy returned to the Avalanche as head coach and vice president of hockey operations. Although Sherman retained his role as general manager, he was

2016–present: Jared Bednar era.

Following the departure of Roy, the Avalanche hired Jared Bednar from the Calder Cup champions, the Lake Erie Monsters of the American Hockey League (AHL), as head coach. Bednar walked into a difficult situation. He was hired just a month before the opening of training camp, and thus had nowhere near enough time to install his own system. He was also unable to bring his own staff, having to make do with holdovers from Roy's staff. On December 10, 2016, the Avalanche allowed ten goals in a 10–1 loss to the Canadiens. The Avalanche closed out their season with a record of 22–56–4 and 48 points, the worst record in the league and the franchise's worst since moving to Denver (only the 1989–90 and 1990–91 Nordiques finished with fewer points). It was also the worst record of any team in the NHL since the Atlanta Thrashers finished with a record of 14–61–7 and 39 points in the 1999–2000 season (which was their first season in the league). After much speculation about wanting out of

Team information.

Logo.

The Colorado Avalanche logo is composed by a burgundy letter A with snow wrapped around, similar to an avalanche, in the shape of the letter C. There is a hockey puck in the lower–right end of the snow and a blue oval on the background.  The team's original alternate logo was the foot of a Sasquatch/Bigfoot

Jerseys.

The team colors are burgundy, steel blue, black, silver and white. For the 2007–08 season, the NHL introduced the new-look "Rbk EDGE" jerseys. The Avalanche debuted their new version of the Rbk EDGE jerseys on September 12, 2007, at an Avalanche press conference. The design is similar to the previous jerseys, with some added piping.  The road jersey from 1995 to 2003, which became the team's home jersey in 2003 when the NHL decided to switch home and road jerseys, is predominantly burgundy and dark blue in color. Along the jersey, there are two black and white zigzag lines, one

Broadcasters.

Avalanche games air on regional sports network

Season-by-season record.

"This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Avalanche. For the full season-by-season history, see List of

Players and personnel.

Team captains.

"Note: This list of team captains does

General managers.

"Note: This list does not include

Head coaches.

The current head coach is Jared

Honored members.

Retired numbers.

In addition to those below, the NHL retired Wayne Gretzky's No. 99 for all its member teams at the 2000 NHL All-Star Game.  The

Hall of Famers.

The Colorado Avalanche hold an affiliation with a number of inductees to the Hockey Hall of Fame. Nine inductees from the players category of

Team culture.

Rivalry with the Detroit Red Wings.

In 1996, the Colorado Avalanche met the Detroit Red Wings in the Western Conference Finals and upset the Red Wings 4–2. During Game 6, Red Wings player Kris Draper was checked into the boards face-first by Avalanche player Claude Lemieux. As a result, Draper had to undergo facial reconstructive surgery and had to have his jaw wired shut for five weeks. The incident marked the beginning of a rivalry often considered one of the most intense in NHL history by the press and fans.  In the following season, in the last regular season meeting between the Avalanche and the Red Wings on March 26, 1997, a brawl known as the Brawl in Hockeytown broke out. The game ended with nine fights, 11 goals, 39 penalties, 148 penalty minutes, one hat-trick (by Valeri Kamensky) and a goaltender fight between Stanley Cup champion Patrick Roy and Mike Vernon. Claude

Franchise records and leaders.

Franchise records.

"Note: This list does not include records from

Franchise scoring leaders.

These are the top-ten-point-scorers in franchise (Quebec and Colorado) history. Figures are updated after each completed

The Colorado Avalanche are a professional ice hockey team based in Denver. They compete in the National Hockey League (NHL) as a member of the Central Division of the Western Conference. The Avalanche are the only team in their division not based in the Central Time Zone; the team is situated in the Mountain Time Zone. Their home arena is Pepsi Center, which they share with the Denver Nuggets of the National Basketball Association. Their general manager is Joe Sakic.

Die Colorado Avalanche (IPA: ) sind ein US-amerikanisches Eishockeyfranchise der National Hockey League aus Denver im Bundesstaat Colorado. Es wurde 1972 als Franchise der World Hockey Association unter dem Namen Québec Nordiques gegründet und nahm zum Beginn der Saison 1972/73 den Spielbetrieb auf. Nach der Auflösung der WHA im Jahr 1979 wurden die Nordiques gemeinsam mit drei weiteren Teams in die NHL aufgenommen, wo sie zur Saison 1979/80 erstmals antraten. Vor der Saison 1995/96 erfolgte der Umzug und die Umbenennung in den derzeitigen Namen. Die Teamfarben sind Burgund, Stahlblau, Schwarz, Silber und Weiß.


Overview.

In contrast with thermoplastic processes (the melt-freeze process that characterize the behaviour of most modern polymers), vulcanization, in common with the curing of other thermosetting polymers, is generally irreversible. Five types of curing systems are in common use:

Vulcanization with sulfur.

By far the most common vulcanizing methods depend on sulfur. Sulfur, by itself, is a slow vulcanizing agent and does not vulcanize synthetic polyolefins. Accelerated vulcanization is carried out using various compounds that modify the kinetics of crosslinking, this mixture is often referred to as a cure package. The main polymers subjected to sulfur vulcanization are polyisoprene (natural rubber) and styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR), which are used for most street-vehicle tires. The cure package is adjusted specifically for the substrate and the application. The reactive sites—cure sites—are allylic hydrogen atoms. These C-H bonds are adjacent to carbon-carbon double bonds. During vulcanization, some of these C-H bonds are replaced by chains of sulfur atoms that link with a cure site of another polymer chain. These bridges contain between one and several atoms. The number of sulfur atoms in the crosslink strongly influences the physical properties of the final rubber article. Short crosslinks give the rubber better heat resistance. Crosslinks with higher number of sulfur atoms give the rubber good dynamic properties but less heat resistance. Dynamic properties are important for flexing movements of the rubber article, e.g., the movement of a side-wall of a running tire. Without good flexing properties these movements rapidly form cracks, and ultimately will make the rubber article fail.

Vulcanization of polychloroprene.

The vulcanization of neoprene or polychloroprene rubber (CR rubber) is carried out using metal oxides (specifically MgO and ZnO, sometimes PbO) rather than sulfur compounds which are presently used with many natural and synthetic rubbers. In addition, because of various processing factors (principally scorch, this being the premature cross-linking of rubbers due to the influence of heat), the choice of accelerator is governed by different rules to other diene rubbers. Most conventionally used accelerators are problematic when CR rubbers are cured and the most important accelerant has been found to be ethylene thiourea (ETU), which, although being an excellent and proven accelerator for polychloroprene, has been classified as reprotoxic. The European rubber industry has started a research project SafeRubber to develop a safer alternative to the use of ETU.

Vulcanization of silicones.

Room-temperature vulcanizing (RTV) silicone is constructed of reactive oil-based polymers combined with strengthening mineral fillers. There are two types of room-temperature vulcanizing silicone:

Vulcanization (British: Vulcanisation) refers to a range of processes for hardening rubbers. The term originally referred exclusively to the treatment of natural rubber with sulfur, which remains the most common practice; however, it has also grown to include the hardening of other (synthetic) rubbers via various means. Examples include silicone rubber via room temperature vulcanizing and chloroprene rubber (neoprene) using metal oxides.

Als Vulkanisation bezeichnet man Verfahren, bei denen thermoplastische Naturkautschuke oder Synthesekautschuke in elastomere Kunststoffe (Gummis) überführt werden. Bei der Vulkanisation werden zwischen den Makromolekülen der Kautschuke kovalente Vernetzungen gebildet, sodass sich die Moleküle nicht mehr frei gegeneinander bewegen können, was zu einem elastischen Verhalten führt.


Geography.

Location.

Brixen im Thale lies in Kitzbühel District about 10 km west of the district town of Kitzbühel at the head of the Brixental at 794 m above sea level, nestling amongst the grass-covered mountains of the Kitzbühel Alps. The highest mountain in the municipality is the Fleiding at 1,892 metres above the Adriatic. North of the village rises the mountain ridge of the Hohe Salve. South of the village are the Nachtsöllberg and the Gaisberg, separated by the valley of the Brixenbach. The slopes north of the municipality (known as "Sonnberg" or "Sonseitn" - sunny side) are mainly used for farming and only sparsely covered in conifers. The slopes south of the village (referred to as "Schattseitn" - shadow side) are covered by spruce forest, apart from a few alpine meadows.

Municipal divisions.

Brixen im Thale consists of the following villages and sub-districts: Achenberg, Brixen-Zentrum, Buchberg, Buchschwent, Feuring, Griesberg, Hof, Lauterbach, Maria-Luisenbad, Ritschberg, Salvenberg, Schön, Sonnberg, Vordermoosen und Winkl.

Village development.

From 2009 to 2010 the village square in front of the community hall was thoroughly renovated and extended. The cobblestones were replaced and the square enlarged and raised. The fountain was moved to a new site, next to the beech tree, which had to stay where it was. Red and white bricks were used for the cobbles. Seating was built around the fountain and for the bus stop. The road was renewed from the "Brixner Höhe/Aschaber" to the "Brixnerwirt", with the aim of slowing traffic down through the village centre.  Since the ring road was built, quality of life in the village has improved considerably. In the last four years, large homes have been built, especially for local people. The parish encourages newcomers and especially the growth of the economy. in the future other land for building will be made available in the south of the area so that the actual village centre can come more into its own.

History.

Brixen im Thale has a long and varied history. The Celts first settled the valley and built small villages here as evinced by archaeological finds of axes and swords, as well as an urn cemetery.  The name Brixen im Thale appears to be Celtic in origin and indicates that there has always been a settlement here. In the 3rd century A.D., there was a kind of temple, built by the Romans, on the site of the present church.  In 788 A.D., the name Indiculus Arnonis, which means "a church with own fields", was given to the church by Bishop Arno. At that time, it was the only church in the Brixental. It is therefore the oldest parish in the Tyrolean Unterland along with those in of St. Johann in Tirol, Ebbs, Söll, Radfeld and St. Ulrich am Pillersee.  In 1481, a library (the Taz Library) was founded by Wilhelm Taz, who was a teacher and a priest, in Brixen im Thale. It still exists today.  Around 1600, copper was mined; but mining ceased at the end of the 18th century.  On Corpus Christi, the traditional "Antlassritt" takes place. This is a eucharistic procession by farmers from the towns of Kirchberg in Tirol, Brixen im Thale and Westendorf (Tirol). The "Antlassritt" commemorates the 30 Years' War in the 17th century, when the villagers of those communities beat back Swedish troops on the Klausenbach river. The farmers' ride to the "Klausenkapelle" chapel in Kirchberg in Tirol commemorates their victory.

Notable people.

This list contains some of the notable people who were either born in Brixen im Thale, lived there for a longer time or were in some significant way related to it.

Brixen im Thale is a municipality situated at the highest point of the Brixental valley in the Austrian state of Tyrol. Every year on the Feast of Corpus Christi, the village celebrates the traditional "Antlassritt". It is also the birthplace of Matthäus Hetzenauer, an Austrian sniper in the 3rd Mountain Division on the Eastern Front of the World War II, who was credited with 345 kills.

Brixen im Thale (im Tiroler Dialekt "Brix’n", kurz "Brixen i. Th.") ist eine Gemeinde in Tirol in Österreich mit Einwohnern (Stand ). Sie liegt etwa elf Kilometer (Luftlinie) westlich von der Bezirkshauptstadt Kitzbühel und ist der Hauptort des Brixentals. Die Gemeinde liegt im Gerichtsbezirk Kitzbühel.


Location.

Harrogate is a spa town in North Yorkshire, England. Historically in the West Riding of Yorkshire, the town is a tourist destination and its visitor attractions include its spa waters and RHS Harlow Carr gardens. Nearby is the Yorkshire Dales national park and the Nidderdale AONB. Harrogate grew out of two smaller settlements, High Harrogate and Low Harrogate, in the 17th century. The town became known as 'The English Spa' in the Georgian Era, after its waters were discovered in the 16th century. In the 17th and 18th centuries its 'chalybeate' waters (containing iron) were a popular health treatment, and the influx of wealthy but sickly visitors contributed significantly to the wealth of the town.  The Harrogate International Centre was chosen as the host venue for the contest. The grand convention and exhibition centre opened short time prior to the contest, and was the first big event held in the main 2000-seat auditorium.

Contest overview.

The opening of the contest showed a map of Europe, with the translation "Where is Harrogate?" popping up on-screen from the languages of the various countries. The question was always in the language in which the respective country's song was performed, with the exception of Ireland. The Irish entry was sung in English, but the translation of the question in the map was in Irish. Then the map zoomed into Harrogate's location in Yorkshire, followed by an introduction video spotlighting the town.  Greece was due to participate in the contest with the song "Sarantapente Kopelies" performed by Themis Adamantidis. Although drawn to perform in second place, ERT withdrew the entry a few weeks before the contest.  In November 1981, France's national broadcaster, TF1, declined to enter the Eurovision Song Contest for 1982, with the head of entertainment, Pierre Bouteiller, saying, "The absence of talent and the mediocrity of the songs were annoyance set in. [Eurovision is] a monument to inanity [sometimes translated as "drivel"]." Antenne 2 became the new broadcaster for Eurovision after public outcry, returning the country to the Contest in 1983.  The tradition of previous year's winners handing over the prize to current winners was not followed by Bucks Fizz, winners in 1981.  Irish band Chips lost out in their national finals, which, had they been successful, would have led to the unique situation of two bands in the same Eurovision with the same name (the other being Sweden).  This year, before the postcard of a specific country (with the exceptions of Israel, who had no commentator, and Yugoslavia, whose commentators were in their own country), the camera would zoom into the commentary box of that country's broadcaster, where the commentator/s would give a hand gesture, e.g. wave. The postcard would start with the country's flag on the screen and an excerpt of the country's national anthem (though in the case of the UK, the song played was Land of Hope and Glory instead of God Save the Queen, while the Israeli postcard began with an excerpt of Hava Nagila instead of Hatikvah).

Results.

There were 18 competitors in this year's final. No year since has had this few competitors in the final of the competition.

Voting structure.

Each country had a jury who awarded 12, 10, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 point(s) for their top ten songs.  Germany had the advantage of performing last. After coming second in 1980 and second in Dublin the year previously, Ralph Siegel and Bernd Meinunger took the first Grand Prix for Germany. The winner, Nicole, beat the nearest competition by 61 points and over 13 million West Germans watched her victory on television. Germany was the commanding leader for nearly the entire voting process.  Nicole went on to sing the reprise of her song in English, French and Dutch, as well as German, to the delight of the invited audience in Harrogate Conference Centre who stood to applaud her. The English version of her Eurovision winner, A Little Peace, subsequently shot to No. 1 in the UK Singles Chart.

Score sheet.

12 points.

Below is a summary of all 12 points in the final:

Commentators.

Radio.

Participating countries.

Some participating countries did not provide radio broadcasts for the event; the ones who did are listed below.

The Eurovision Song Contest 1982 was the 27th edition of the annual Eurovision Song Contest. It was held on 24 April 1982 in Harrogate, North Yorkshire, United Kingdom. The presenter was Jan Leeming.

Der 27. Eurovision Song Contest, bis 2001 in Deutschland unter dem französischen Namen Grand Prix Eurovision de la Chanson bekannt, fand am 24. April 1982 im nordenglischen Kurort Harrogate statt. Gastgeberin des Abends war die BBC-Nachrichtenmoderatorin Jan Leeming.


Etymology.

The word "squirrel", first attested in 1327, comes from the Anglo-Norman "esquirel" which is from the Old French "escurel", the reflex of a Latin word "sciurus". This Latin word was borrowed from the Ancient Greek word σκίουρος, "skiouros", which means shadow-tailed, referring to the bushy appendage possessed by many of its members.  The native Old English word for the squirrel, "ācweorna", survived only into Middle English (as "aquerne") before being replaced. The Old English word is of Common Germanic origin, cognates of which are still used in other Germanic languages, including the German "Eichhörnchen" (diminutive of "Eichhorn", which is not as frequently used), the Norwegian "ikorn/ekorn", the Dutch "eekhoorn", the Swedish "ekorre" and the Danish "egern".  A group of squirrels is called a "dray" or a "scurry".

Characteristics.

Squirrels are generally small animals, ranging in size from the African pygmy squirrel and least pygmy squirrel at in total length and just in weight, to the Bhutan giant flying squirrel at up to in total length, and several marmot species, which can weigh or more. Squirrels typically have slender bodies with bushy tails and large eyes. In general, their fur is soft and silky, though much thicker in some species than others. The coat color of squirrels is highly variable between—and often even within—species.  In most squirrel species, the hind limbs are longer than the fore limbs, while all species have either four or five toes on each paw. The paws, which include an often poorly developed thumb, have soft pads on the undersides and versatile, sturdy claws for grasping and climbing. Tree squirrels, unlike most mammals, can descend a tree head-first. They do so by rotating their ankles 180 degrees, enabling the hind paws to point backward and thus grip the tree bark from the opposite direction.  Squirrels live in almost every habitat, from tropical rainforest to semiarid desert, avoiding only the high polar regions and the driest of deserts. They are predominantly herbivorous, subsisting on seeds and nuts, but many will eat insects and even small vertebrates.  As their large eyes indicate, squirrels have an excellent sense of vision, which is especially important for the tree-dwelling species. Many also have a good sense of touch, with vibrissae on their limbs as well as their heads.  The teeth of sciurids follow the typical rodent pattern, with large incisors (for gnawing) that grow throughout life, and cheek teeth (for grinding) that are set back behind a wide gap, or diastema. The typical dental formula for sciurids is.  Many juvenile squirrels die in the first year of life. Adult squirrels can have a lifespan of 5 to 10 years in the wild. Some can survive 10 to 20 years in captivity. Premature death may be caused when a nest falls from the tree, in which case the mother may abandon her young if their body temperature is not correct. Many such baby squirrels have been rescued and fostered by a professional wildlife rehabilitator until they could be safely returned to the wild, although the density of squirrel populations in many places and the constant care required by premature squirrels means that few rehabilitators are willing to spend their time doing this and such animals are routinely euthanized instead.

Behavior.

Squirrels mate either once or twice a year and, following a gestation period of three to six weeks, give birth to a number of offspring that varies by species. The young are altricial, being born naked, toothless, and blind. In most species of squirrel, the female alone looks after the young, which are weaned at six to ten weeks and become sexually mature by the end of their first year. In general, the ground-dwelling squirrel species are social, often living in well-developed colonies, while the tree-dwelling species are more solitary.  Ground squirrels and tree squirrels are usually either diurnal or crepuscular, while the flying squirrels tend to be nocturnal—except for lactating flying squirrels and their young, which have a period of diurnality during the summer.

Feeding.

Because squirrels cannot digest cellulose, they must rely on foods rich in protein, carbohydrates, and fats. In temperate regions, early spring is the hardest time of year for squirrels because the nuts they buried are beginning to sprout (and thus are no longer available to eat), while many of the usual food sources have not yet become available. During these times, squirrels rely heavily on the buds of trees. Squirrels, being primarily herbivores, eat a wide variety of plants, as well as nuts, seeds, conifer cones, fruits, fungi, and green vegetation. Some squirrels, however, also consume meat, especially when faced with hunger. Squirrels have been known to eat small birds, young snakes, and smaller rodents, as well as bird eggs and insects. Some tropical squirrel species have shifted almost entirely to a diet of insects.  Predatory behavior has been observed in various species of ground squirrels, in particular the thirteen-lined ground squirrel. For example, Bernard Bailey, a scientist in the 1920s, observed a thirteen-lined ground squirrel preying upon a young chicken. Wistrand reported seeing this same species eating a freshly killed snake. Whitaker examined the stomachs of 139 thirteen-lined ground squirrels and found bird flesh in four of the specimens and the remains of a short-tailed shrew in one; Bradley, examining the stomachs of white-tailed antelope squirrels, found at least 10% of his 609 specimens' stomachs contained some type of vertebrate, mostly lizards and rodents. Morgart observed a white-tailed antelope squirrel capturing and eating a silky pocket mouse.

Taxonomy.

The living squirrels are divided into five subfamilies, with about 58 genera and some 285 species. The oldest squirrel fossil, "Hesperopetes", dates back to the Chadronian (late Eocene, about 40–35 million years ago) and is similar to modern flying squirrels.  A variety of fossil squirrels, from the latest Eocene to the Miocene, have not been assigned with certainty to any living lineage. At least some of these probably were variants of the oldest basal "protosquirrels" (in the sense that they lacked the full range of living squirrels' autapomorphies). The distribution and diversity of such ancient and ancestral forms suggest the squirrels as a group may have originated in North America.  Apart from these sometimes little-known fossil forms, the phylogeny of the living squirrels is fairly straightforward. The three main lineages are the Ratufinae (Oriental giant squirrels), Sciurillinae and all other subfamilies. The Ratufinae contain a mere handful of living species in tropical Asia. The neotropical pygmy squirrel of tropical South America is the sole living member of the Sciurillinae. The third lineage, by far the largest, has a near-cosmopolitan distribution. This further supports the hypothesis that the common ancestor of all squirrels, living and fossil, lived in North America, as these three most ancient lineages seem to have radiated from there; if squirrels had originated in Eurasia, for example, one would expect quite ancient lineages in Africa, but African squirrels seem to be of more recent origin.  The main group of squirrels also can be split into three subgroups, which yield the remaining subfamilies. The Sciurinae contains the flying squirrels (Pteromyini) and the Sciurini, which among others contains the American tree squirrels; the former have often been considered a separate subfamily, but are now seen as a tribe of the Sciurinae. The pine squirrels ("Tamiasciurus"), on the other hand, are usually included with the main tree squirrel lineage, but appear to be about as distinct as the flying squirrels; hence, they are sometimes considered a distinct tribe, Tamiasciurini.  Two of the three subfamilies are of about equal size, containing between nearly 70 and 80 species each; the third is about twice as large. The Sciurinae contains arboreal (tree-living) squirrels, mainly of the Americas and to a lesser extent Eurasia. The Callosciurinae is most diverse in tropical Asia and contains squirrels that are also arboreal, but have a markedly different habitus and appear more "elegant", an effect enhanced by their often very colorful fur. The Xerinae—the largest subfamily—are made up from the mainly terrestrial (ground-living) forms and include the large marmots and the popular prairie dogs, among others, as well as the tree squirrels of Africa; they tend to be more gregarious than other squirrels, which do not usually live together in close-knit groups.

Squirrels are members of the family Sciuridae, a family that includes small or medium-size rodents. The squirrel family includes tree squirrels, ground squirrels, chipmunks, marmots (including groundhogs), flying squirrels, and prairie dogs amongst other rodents. Squirrels are indigenous to the Americas, Eurasia, and Africa, and were introduced by humans to Australia. The earliest known fossilized squirrels date from the Eocene epoch, and among other living rodent families, the squirrels are most closely related to the mountain beaver and to the dormice.

Die Hörnchen (Sciuridae) sind eine Familie aus der Ordnung der Nagetiere (Rodentia). Unter anderem gehören das Eurasische Eichhörnchen, das Streifenhörnchen und das europäische Ziesel zu dieser Familie. Insgesamt werden die Hörnchen heute in 51 Gattungen mit etwa 270 bis 280 Arten eingeteilt, wobei die Klassifikation noch im Fluss ist. Hörnchen sind auf der ganzen Welt außer in Australien, Neuguinea, Madagaskar und der Antarktis verbreitet.


Forms.

A hechsher may be a printed and signed certificate displayed at a commercial venue or on a media advertisement advising the consumer that the subjected product is Kosher. Such certificates usually display the name of the rabbinical court issuing the hechsher, the name of the business or product, date of issue, expiry date and stamp of rabbi who issued the certificate.  It may also be a certification marking on individual retail packaging of items which have been certified as Kosher. This marking is usually a basic stamp or emblem indicating the issuing rabbinical court. Modern hechsherim display sophisticated holograms and seals which are hard to forge.

Types.

A hechsher is typically issued for food products and is issued on non-food items such as cleaning agents and disposable cutlery which come in contact with foods certifying its ingredients as not containing any animal extracts or other halakhically prohibited substances.  The dietary laws of kashrut specify food items that may be eaten and others that are prohibited as set out in the commandments of the Torah.  Observant Jews will generally only eat permitted foods. To assist Jewish consumers, rabbinic authorities produce and regulate their own "hechsherim". It is usually Orthodox rabbis who assume the jobs of "mashgichim" (singular: "mashgiach", "supervisor"). This means that they will "supervise" the products and processes that manufacture kosher food to ensure compliance with the required standards. The "mashgiach" will allow the manufacturer to apply a "hechsher" to the packaging of the product only if found to contain only kosher ingredients and produced following "halakha".  The rabbi may also apply additional words or letters after the "hechsher" to denote whether the product contains meat (often denoted "Meat"), dairy (D or Dairy), neither meat nor dairy (Pareve), whether the product is Kosher for Passover because it contains no chametz (P), whether the product is "Pas Yisroel" (bread baked at least in part by a Jew), "cholov yisroel" (milk whose extraction was done by, or under the supervision of a Jew), or whether the product is yoshon (lit. "old": all grain contents took root before the previous Passover).  It is also common for rabbis to issue a hechsher on religious accessories, such as tefillin, mezuzot and tzitzit which must be produced according to specific halakhic procedures and requirements. Other items which are used for religious practice such as Four Species bear hechsher testifying that they confirm to halakhic requirements.  In Israel, it is common for manufacturers of all kinds to display a hechsher on products or in commercial advertisement certifying that their production was not done during the Shabbat.

History.

Seals.

The Babylonian Talmud cites an early example of a kashrut seal: the seal of the Kohen Gadol on jugs containing olive oil used in the Jewish Temple for the lighting of the Menorah. The Menorah has since become a symbol for purity in Jewish tradition. 'LMLK seals' (למלך) were stamped on the handles of large storage jars mostly in and around Jerusalem during the reign of King Hezekiah (circa 700 BC) based on several complete jars found "in situ" buried under a destruction layer caused by Sennacherib at Lachish. None of the original seals have been found, but about 2,000 impressions (also referred to as "stamps") made by at least 21 seal types have been published.  The practice of marking food as a sign of kashrut can be dated back as far as the 6th century CE. A clay stamp bearing a Menorah image from this period was discovered in an excavation near Acre, Israel in 2011. According to archeologists, local Jews stamped their dough with Menorah impressions while preparing bread, in order for consumers to verify its kashrut.

Certification.

An 11th-century certificate found in the Cairo Geniza written by a rabbinical court, testified the kosher status "according to rabbinic law" of the cheeses being sold by a Karaite grocer, Yefet b. Meshullam of Jerusalem. The document explains that the cheese was produced in a factory on the Mount of Olives that followed rabbinic practice. The certificate reads: "The cheeses are kosher and it is appropriate for Rabbanite Jews to purchase them. We grant this permission only after having made a formal purchase from him and having witnessed an oath he took on the holy Torah." While Karaite and Rabbanite communities in this period were theologically at odds, they often maintained good social and economic relations. It was obviously as important for the Karaite grocer to do business with Rabbanite customers as it was for the latter to be able to rely on the religious acceptability of his products.

Specific authorities.

In America, one of the best known "hechsher" symbols is the "OU" from Orthodox Union Kosher the world's largest kosher certification agency, under the auspices of the Orthodox Union. As of 2010, it supervises more than 400,000 products in 8,000 plants in 80 different countries.  In Britain, the largest "hechsher" symbol in Europe, is the "KLBD" of the London Beth Din based in London.  Other hechsher include: OK Kosher Certification based in Brooklyn, New York, Star-K based in Baltimore, Maryland, EarthKosher Kosher Certification Agency with offices in Colorado, New York and Israel, the logo of both the Johannesburg and Cape Town Beth Din used in South Africa, MK Va'ad Ha'ir based in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, and The Kashrut Authority based in Sydney, Australia. The largest number of agencies is in the USA.  "Kashrus Magazine" publishes a bi-annual guide to almost all kosher supervision agencies worldwide; its 2013–2014 "Kosher Supervision Guide" (196 pages including an index) features 1,151 agencies. A bi-annual supplement of some 32 pages is published in alternate years. The latest supplement was published in September 2013 and brought the number of agencies listed to 1,253.

A hechsher (; "prior approval"; plural: "hechsherim") is a rabbinical product certification, qualifying items (usually foods) that conform to the requirements of halakha.

Ein Hechscher (hebräisch: הכשר), Plural "Hechscharim", vom hebräischen Wort "kascher" (כשר), (jiddisch: "koscher", deutsch: "geeignet", "rein") abgeleitet, umgangssprachlich auch Koscher-Stempel, ist ein Koscher-Zertifikat, das auf Lebensmitteln und weiteren Produkten in Form eines Siegels, bei Fleisch als Plombe, angebracht und in Geschäften und Restaurants ausgehängt wird. Ein Hechscher bescheinigt, dass die entsprechenden Erzeugnisse unter Beachtung der jüdischen Gesetze, der "Halacha", hergestellt und gemäß den Speisegesetzen, der "Kaschrut", zum Gebrauch und Verzehr zugelassen sind. Mit einem Hechscher zertifizierte Produkte müssen unter Aufsicht eines ausgebildeten Aufsehers (hebräisch: "Maschgiach") hergestellt worden sein, für die "Kaschrut" bürgt die auf dem Hechscher aufgeführte oder aus dem verwendeten Symbol erkenntliche mit der "Haschgacha" betraute, unter rabbinischer Aufsicht stehende Organisation. Neben dem Hechscher wird bei Lebensmitteln meist auch angegeben, ob sie milch- oder fleischhaltig oder parve (neutral) sind.


History.

DB Service.

Five prototypes of the V 200 were built by Krauss-Maffei in 1953/1954. Full production began in 1956, with 61 engines being built by Krauss-Maffei and 20 by MaK.  The five V 200.0 prototypes were put through extensive testing, the aim being to ensure the production locomotives would be as reliable as the technology and maintenance standards of the 1950s allowed. In 1955 one locomotive travelled under its own power through Yugoslavia, Greece and Turkey partly as a test and partly to demonstrate the locomotive's capability to potential customers in those countries.  Initially the V 200 hauled express trains on all main lines, replacing the DRG Class 05, DRG Class 03 and DRG Class 01. Following the electrification of many main lines the V 200 was used increasingly for commuter trains and freight trains, but the Hamburg-Westerland, Hamburg-Lübeck-Copenhagen and Munich-Lindau lines still saw the V 200 hauling express trains.  From 1962, the V 200.0 was followed by the more powerful DB Class V 200.1, later Class 221.  From 1977, the V 200.0s were concentrated in northern German engine sheds ("Bahnbetriebswerke"). These two-engine locomotives were more expensive to operate than single-engine locomotives like DB Class V 160. A further disadvantage was its steam heating system for carriages, since replaced by electric train heating. The last V 200 went out of service with the DB in 1984.

Post-DB service.

Saudi Arabia.

In 1977 two V 200.0 locomotives were sold to the Heitkamp organisation which had been contracted by the Saudi Arabian Government to carry out repairs and maintenance to a 565 km standard gauge railway line between Dharan and Riyadh. In 1978 a further three V 200s were sold to Heitkamp and shipped to Saudi Arabia. In 1979 the repair and maintenance project, including the locomotives, was taken over by the Greek construction company Archirodon. In 1982 Archirodon bought two further V 200s to break up in order to provide spare parts - particularly engines and transmissions - for the surviving V 200 in Saudi Arabia. These locomotives never went to Saudi Arabia. In Archirodon service most of V 200s were withdrawn due to accidents, the locomotives involved being stripped of parts to keep the remaining locomotives operational. In 1999 at least one damaged locomotive was still extant at Al Hufuf (220 021), along with one complete locomotive (220 046) which was cut up in 2002.

Italy.

Between 1982 and 1990, thirteen V 200.0s were sold to various private railway operators in Italy. These were:
 Ferrovia Suzzara-Ferrara (FSF) - Three locomotives in 1982;
 Cosfer, an infrastructure maintenance contractor, - One locomotive in 1982 and three in 1984;
 Ferrovie Padane (FP) - Two locomotives in 1984;
 Impresa Veltri, an infrastructure maintenance contractor, - One locomotive in 1984;
 IPE Locomotori, a locomotive handler, - One locomotive in 1985 which was scrapped in 1987;
 Impresa Valditerra, infrastructure maintenance contractor, - One locomotive in 1986;
 Ferrovie Nord Brescia (FNB) - One locomotive in 1990. (then sold to FSF)  In 2000 FSF and FP were merged into a larger company, Ferrovie Emilia-Romagna (FER). In 2003 FER acquired three more V 200.0s from the various track maintenance contractors based in Italy. Between 2002 and 2005, all of the FER V 200.0 locomotives underwent refurbishment in Zagreb which included replacement of the existing Maybach or Mercedes engines with Caterpillar D3508 V8 engines, capable of 810 kW, and modern digital engine control systems in place of the original Brown-Boveri electro-mechanical control system. All the FER locomotives are fitted with the Voith L306r transmission. The locomotives were painted in a rather garish Italian tri-colour (green-white-red) livery.

Greece.

After end-of-service with DB in 1988, 20 V200 locomotives were sold to Greece. During the 1990s, they were then decommissioned one by one and left to rust and rot, until 2002 when all 20 were bought by. A total of 11 were restored to their former glory, and subsequently used for cargo, and in repair and maintenance operations.

Spain.

In 1988 one of the Cosfer (Italian) locomotives was transported to Spain to work on the construction of the RENFE AVE lines. This locomotive was still operational in Spain during 2018.

France.

In 1985 and 1986 the French infrastructure maintenance company DEHE-Montcocol purchased four V 200.0 for use on construction and maintenance works in France and Belgium. These locomotives were overhauled at the DB works in Nuremberg. In 1987 they were shipped to Algeria to work on a new standard gauge railway construction project. In 1991 the locomotives returned to France to work on new TGV lines. All were scrapped in France between 1997 and 1999.

Switzerland.

In October 1986 Seven V 200.0 were sold to the Swiss SBB-CFF-FFS, numbered (SBB Am 4/4 18461-18467). They remained in service until 1997 and the six survivors were sold into private ownership in Germany. These locomotives were refurbished to the standard dictated by SBB-CFF-FFS by Regentalbahn AG of Viechtach, Germany. Refurbishment included additional silencing of the engines. SBB-CFF-FFS stipulated that all locomotives should be fitted with Maybach MD650 engines and Voith L306rb transmissions. In service the locomotives were used to haul trains over electrified railway lines where the electrification was de-energised due to infrastructure works.

Algeria.

Regentalbahn AG also refurbished one V 200.0 locomotive for the National Railways of Algeria (SNTF) in 1987. This locomotive was used on track maintenance works along with the four DEHE-Montcocol V 200.0. The loco - formerly 220 048 - was left behind in Algeria by its owners when the track refurbishment work was completed, and has been stored for many years at Constantine depot.

Albania.

Regentalbahn AG also were sold five V 200.1 locomotives for the National Railways of Albania (HSH) in 1989. These locos, painted in a nice red, were used with very good results but had to be stored early because the very scarce care of the Albanian railway men.

Germany.

It is still possible to see V 200.0 locomotives in Germany. The following locomotives are preserved in museums or operational, generally operating on private charter trains on DB main lines or hauling freight.  The sole surviving prototype V 200 001 is owned by the Franconian Museum Railway in Nuremberg. In 2010 they started the project www.v200-001.de to raise funds and begin restoration.  The DB Museum owned a second prototype V 200 002 until it was destroyed by fire at the museum on 17 October 2005. It also owns V 200 007 which is under the care of the BSW Gruppe at Lübeck. Both locomotives had been active since 1984. V 200 007 is not operational as it is waiting for funds to be made available for new tyres. V 200 007 is not on public display.  V 200 009 is on static indoor display at the Rügen Railway & Technology Museum, Prora, on Rügen Island.  V 200 017 is owned by Classic Train Tours AG of Düsseldorf and is in operational condition. It was fully refurbished and re-engined by WLH Reuschling at Hattingen. It is now fitted with CAT D3508 engines. Additionally the steam heating equipment has been removed and two small diesel generator sets installed, one for train heating and the other to supply auxiliary power to the locomotive. V 200 077 is also owned by CTT and is being refurbished to the same standard.  V 200 018 is on static indoor display at the Deutsches Technikmuseum in Berlin which is housed on the site of former Anhalter Bahnhof depot. On certain days the museum places locomotives outside the roundhouse for better photographic opportunity.  V 200 033 is owned and operated by the Hammer Eisenbahn Museum at Hamm. It operates private charter trains over DB main lines and also over the lines of the WLE from Hamm to Lippborg. It is the only authentic example of a V 200.0 still operational, retaining all the important original features, including Maybach engines, Mekydro transmissions and steam heating equipment.  V 200 053 is owned and operated by Brohltal-Eisenbahn GmbH, where it is numbered "D9". It was refurbished and re-engined by Gmeinder and is now fitted with CAT D3508 engines. This locomotive is primarily a freight engine although it has worked passenger trains in summer months.  220 058 & 220 071 are both on outdoor display at the Technikmuseum Speyer. Neither of these locomotives carry truly authentic liveries nor are they mechanically complete.  V200 013, V200 015 and V200 016 that were previously owned by Swiss Railways are still in existence at Altenbeken and Kornwestheim.

Technology.

The V 200 had two fast-running (1500 RPM) V12 diesel engines. The transmission was hydraulic, each engine drove one bogie set via a hydraulic torque converter. The maximum speed was 140 km/h. The prototypes had a maximum power of 1,471 kW, the V 200.0 had a power of 1,618 kW. Unlike some other diesel-hydraulic locomotives the V 200 was renowned for its high reliability. Maybach (type MD650), Mercedes-Benz (type MB820Bb) and MAN (type L 12 V 18/21) engines were used. The hydraulic transmissions fitted to the locomotives were supplied by Maybach (type Mekydro K104U) and Voith (type LT306r/rb). Although differing in several ways - for example the Mekydro K104 transmission had a single torque converter and four mechanicanical gear stages while the Voith L306 had three different-sized torque converters - the engines and transmissions were designed so that the various types were completely interchangeable, not just amongst V 200.0 but with other locomotive types (V80/V100) and diesel multiple units (VT11, VT08 & VT12) that DB ordered around the same time as the V 200.0. It was not uncommon to find a single locomotive with one Mercedes engine and one Maybach unit running together. The MAN engines were only fitted to five locomotives in 1959 as an experiment and these locomotives eventually had their engines replaced with the more common Maybach or Mercedes engines.  To reduce weight, the locomotives had unusual inside framed bogies. Combined with the high driving position and rounded body, this gave the V 200 a very distinctive appearance.

DR Class V 200.

The Deutsche Reichsbahn of the GDR had its own class with the designation V 200, later renamed DR Class 120. This were Russian made diesel-electric locomotives, nicknamed "Taigatrommel" ("Taiga tundra" and "trommel" as drums in English i.e. Tundra Drums ), referring to their typical noise and a cynical reference to the Siberian landscape of their Russian homeland.  After the reunification of Germany these engines were classified by the new Deutsche Bahn as Class 220 as well, since all Western German V 200 units were out of service by that time.

V 200 based developments & exports.

British Rail Warship Class.

The British Railways "Warship" class locomotives built in Britain between 1958 and 1962 were based on Krauss-Maffei's V 200.0 design, including the distinctive shape. British Railways licensed the design from Krauss Maffei and various British engineering firms built the different component parts, also under license.

ML2200 (JŽ D66/761).

Based on V 200 series, in 1956 Krauss Maffei built three ML2200 (designated JŽ D66, later 761) series locomotives for Yugoslav Railways. The number of axles was increased from 4 to 6 to cope with the low maximum axle load on Yugoslavian tracks. The locomotives remained in working order until 1991 and are now stored at a railway museum in a suburb of Belgrade.

ML2200/ML3000 - V 300 001/230 001-0.

A fourth example of the ML 2200 C'C' was built at Krauss-Maffei's own expense, awaiting a buyer, but the Yugoslavian state railways made no further purchases. In November 1957 Krauss-Maffei commenced a rebuild of the locomotive with more powerful engines and bigger transmissions, in the hope that it would be suitable for the Deutsche Bundesbahn. The designation given to the locomotive by the builder was ML3000 C'C'. Krauss-Maffei had hoped that DB would order more of the ML3000 design to replace steam locomotives in freight service, but instead DB opted for a modest uprating of the original V 200.0 in the form of the V 200.1. Eventually DB bought the locomotive and it worked until being retired in 1975.

ML2700CC (TCDD DH27).

In response to the 1955 visit to Yugoslavia, Greece and Turkey by one of the V200 prototypes, Turkish Railways (TCDD) ordered three Krauss Maffei ML2700 locomotives in 1960. As with the Yugoslavian ML2200 locomotives the Turkish locomotives had six axles, however the external design was completely different from the V200 carbody style with the final product looking more like contemporary US road switcher locomotives with a European twist. The locomotives worked freight and passenger trains radiating from Ankara until TCDD retired them in 1982.

RENFE Class 340.

Thirty Two locomotives of this type were built, ten by Krauss Maffei and exported to Spain, and twenty-two built in Spain by Babcock & Wilcox. Being Iberian gauge vehicles the overall dimensions are larger, and the engines are 16 cylinder versions, giving a total engine power of 4000 hp.

DB Class V 200.0 (from 1968: Class 220) was the first series production diesel-hydraulic express locomotive of the German Deutsche Bundesbahn and - as Am 4/4 - of the SBB-CFF-FFS in Switzerland.

Die Baureihe V 200.0 (ab 1968 Baureihe 220, später bei den SBB: Am 4/4) war eine der ersten Diesel-Streckenlokomotiven der Deutschen Bundesbahn (DB). Ihre markante Optik entspricht dem typischen Industriedesign der 1950er Jahre.


In Republican service.

The Legio II, Sabina was a Roman military unit of the late Republican era, which may have been formed by Julius Caesar in the year of the consulate of 48 BC and coincide, in this case, with the Legio II. Enlisted to fight against Pompey, they took part in the subsequent Battle of Munda of 45 BC.  Alternatively it could be the Legio II, formed by the consul, Gaio Vibio Pansa in 43 BC and recruited in Sabina, hence its nickname. It might have participated in the subsequent battle of Philippi of 42 BC on the side of the triumvirate, Octavian and Marc Antony.  After the defeat of the Republicans, Legio II swore allegiance to Octavian and with the same remained until the battle of Actium of 31 BC, after which it seems to have been dissolved in the years between 30 and 14 BC (sent on leave were between 105,000 and 120,000 veterans and some of its soldiers may have been integrated into the new Legio II Augusta.

In Imperial service.

At the beginning of Augustus' rule, in 25 BC, this legion was relocated in Hispania, to fight in the Cantabrian Wars, which definitively established Roman power in Hispania, and later camped in Hispania Tarraconensis. With the annihilation of Legio XVII, XVIII and XIX in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest (AD 9), II "Augusta" moved to Germania, possibly in the area of Moguntiacum. After 17, it was at Argentoratum (modern Strasbourg).

Invasion of Britannia.

The legion participated in the Roman conquest of Britain in 43. Future emperor Vespasian was the legion's commander at the time, and led the campaign against the Durotriges and Dumnonii tribes. Although it was recorded as suffering a defeat at the hands of the Silures in 52, the II "Augusta" proved to be one of the best legions, even after its disgrace during the uprising of queen Boudica, when its "praefectus castrorum", who was then its acting commander (its legatus and tribunes probably being absent with the governor Suetonius Paulinus), contravened Suetonius' orders to join him and so later committed suicide.  After the defeat of Boudica, the legion was dispersed over several bases; from 66 to around 74 it was stationed at Glevum (modern Gloucester), and then moved to Isca Augusta (modern Caerleon), building a stone fortress that the soldiers occupied until the end of the 3rd century. The legion also had connections with the camp at Alchester in Oxfordshire; stamped tiles record it in the 2nd century at Abonae (Sea Mills, Bristol) on the tidal shore of the Avon ("Princeton Encyclopedia").

2nd and 3rd centuries.

In 122, II "Augusta" helped to build Hadrian's Wall.  In 142, II "Augusta" helped to build the Antonine Wall and are recorded on The Bridgeness Slab.  In 196, II "Augusta" supported the claim for the purple of the governor of Britannia, Clodius Albinus, who was defeated by Septimius Severus. On the occasion of Severus' Scottish campaign, the Second moved to Carpow, to return to Caerleon under Alexander Severus.

Legio secunda Augusta ("Augustus' Second Legion") was a legion of the Imperial Roman army that was founded during the late Roman republic. Its emblems were the Capricornus, Pegasus, and Mars.

Die Legio II Augusta ("2. Erhabene Legion" oder "2. Augusteische Legion") war eine Legion der römischen Armee. Ihre Symbole waren Steinbock, Pegasus (seit dem Einsatz in Britannien) und Mars. Seit dem späten 3. Jahrhundert n. Chr. führte die Legion nur noch den Steinbock als Wappentier.


Early life.

Gal Costa was born on September 26, 1945, in the city of Salvador, the capital of the state of Bahia, Brazil. Her mother, Mariah Costa Penna (deceased 1993) spent hours listening to classical music during her pregnancy in hopes that Gal would be interested in music. Gal's father, Arnaldo Burgos (deceased 1960), died when Gal was 15 years old and the two would never meet.  At the age of 10, Gal befriended sisters, Sandra and Andréia Gadelha, the future spouses of singer-songwriters Gilberto Gil and Caetano Veloso, respectively. At 14, she first listened to João Gilberto's "Chega de Saudade" on the radio and became interested in Bossa Nova. She then went on to work as a clerk on Salvador's main record store to get closer to music. At 18, she was introduced to Caetano Veloso by Andréa Gadelha, engaging with him in a deep friendship that still lasts.

Career.

Costa debuted her professional career on the night of August 22, 1964 at the concert "Nós, por exemplo" (We, For Example), where she performed alongside Veloso, Gil, Maria Bethânia and Tom Zé, among others. The concert inaugurated the Vila Velha Theatre in her hometown. During the same year, she also performed in "Nova Bossa Velha, Velha Bossa Nova" (New Old Wave, Old New Wave), at the same place and with the same singing partners. She then left Salvador to live in the house of her cousin Nívea in Rio de Janeiro, following in the footsteps of Bethânia, whose concert "Opinião" (Opinion) had become a huge hit there.  Costa's first professional recording happened on Bethânia's debut album, released in 1965. It was the duet "Sol Negro" (Black Sun) written by Bethânia's brother, Caetano Veloso. She then released her first singles through RCA Records, "Eu vim da Bahia", written by Gil, and "Sim, foi você", written by Veloso. The following year Costa met Gilberto personally and participated in TV Rio's 1st International Music Festival performing "Minha Senhora", written by Gil and Torquato Neto. It failed to captivate the Festival's audience.  Costa's first album "Domingo" was released in 1967 through Philips Records. It was also Veloso's debut. Costa stayed on the label, which later became PolyGram, until 1983. One song released from this album, "Coração Vagabundo", became a huge hit. The same year, Costa also performed two songs on the 2nd International Music Festival, which was then hosted by Rede Globo. They were "Bom Dia", written by Gil and Nana Caymmi, and "Dadá Maria", written by Renato Teixeira. The latter was performed with Sílvio César at the Festival and with Teixeira on the recording.  In 1968, Costa became a part of the tropicália movement. She recorded four songs on "". They were "Mamãe coragem", written by Veloso and Torquato Neto, "Parque industrial", by Tom Zé, "Enquanto seu lobo não vem", by Veloso, and "Baby", also by Veloso. The latter became Costa's first nationwide solo hit, becoming a classic of Brazilian popular music. The same year, she participated in the 3rd International Music Festival, performing "Gabriela Mais Bela", written by Roberto and Erasmo Carlos. In November, she participated on Rede Record's 4th Music Festival, performing the song "Divino Maravilhoso", by Gil and Veloso. The song also became a nationwide hit and a classic song of popular music.  In 1969, Costa released her eponymous solo debut album, which included "Baby" and "Divino Maravilhoso". The album is considered a Tropicalismo classic, balanced between Brazilian stylizations and North American psychedelic influences. It also featured Costa's third and fourth solo hits, Jorge Ben Jor's "Que pena (Ele já não gosta mais de mim)" and Veloso's "Não identificado", respectively. In the same year, she recorded her second solo album, titled "Gal", and featuring the hits "Meu nome é Gal", by Roberto and Erasmo Carlos, and "Cinema Olympia", by Veloso. The album served as the basis for the repertoire of the concert "Gal!"  Her next album, "Legal", was not as far from the mainstream as its predecessor, and a live album the following year again balanced smooth Brazilian sounds with heavy rock. In 1973, the cover of Costa's album "Índia" was censored — it focuses on her red bikini bottom. Costa has recorded songs composed by a number of Brazil's most popular songwriters such as Tom Jobim, Ben and Erasmo Carlos. In 1982 the single "Festa Do Interior" from the double album "Fantasia" became her biggest ever hit, going multi-platinum by the end of the year. Costa appeared in the 1995 film "The Mandarin" ("O Mandarim") as the singer Carmen Miranda. She has recorded songs in Portuguese, Spanish and English.

Gal Costa (born Maria da Graça Costa Penna Burgos on 26 September 1945) is a Brazilian singer of popular music.

Gal Costa (eigentlich Maria da Graça Costa Penna Burgos; * 26. September 1945, Salvador da Bahía) ist eine brasilianische Sängerin.


History.

1902: TTA, SPTA, PTA, ROSTA.

The origin of TASS dates back to December 1902 when it began operations as the Commercial Telegraph Agency (TTA, Torgovo-Telegrafnoe Agentstvo) under the Ministry of Finance, with Torgovo-Promyshlennaya Gazeta's staff being the main supplier of journalists. As the demand for non-business began during the first battles of the Russo-Japanese War in February 1904, the agency had to change its name to the St. Petersburg Telegraph Agency (SPTA). As there was no change of headquarters and almost no change in its staff and function, it was a mere rebranding.  In August 1914, one day after St. Petersburg was renamed Petrograd, SPTA was renamed the Petrograd Telegraph Agency (PTA). It was seized by Bolsheviks in November 1917 and by December was renamed as the Central Information Agency of the Soviet Russian Council of People's Commissars. On 7 September 1918, the presidium renamed PTA and the Press bureau into the Russian Telegraph Agency (ROSTA), which became "the central information agency of the whole Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic".

1925: TASS.

In July 1925 the Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union ("Telegrafnoye agentstvo Sovetskogo Soyuza", TASS) was established by a decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, and took over the duties of the ROSTA as the country's central information agency. TASS enjoyed "exclusive right to gather and distribute information outside the Soviet Union, as well as the right to distribute foreign and domestic information within the Soviet Union, and manage the news agencies of the Soviet republics". Official state information was delivered as the "TASS Report" (, "Soobshchyeniye TASS").  TASS included affiliated news agencies in all 14 Soviet republics in addition to Russia: RATAU (Ukrainian SSR, now Ukrinform), BelTA (Byelorussian SSR), ETA (Estonian SSR), Latinform (Latvian SSR, now LETA), ELTA (Lithuanian SSR), ATEM (Moldavian SSR, now Moldpres), Armenpress (Armenian SSR), Gruzinform (Georgian SSR), Azerinform (Azerbaijan SSR, now AZERTAC), UzTAG (Uzbek SSR, now UzA), KazTAG (Kazakh SSR, now Kazinform), KyrTAG (Kyrgyz SSR, now Kabar), Turkmeninform (Turkmen SSR, now TDH) and TajikTA (Tajik SSR, now Khovar). Over the history other affiliates existed, e.g. KarelfinTAG for the Karelo-Finnish SSR.  TASS news and photos were received by 4,000 Soviet newspapers, TV and radio stations and over a thousand foreign media outlets. The news agency ran one of the biggest networks of correspondents in the world – 682 offices in the country and 94 bureaus abroad, with reporters in 110 countries. At its peak it employed nearly 5,000 people including close to 2,000 journalists and photo correspondents. In addition to producing reports for general consumption, TASS produced packages of content for non-public use. Western news reports and potentially embarrassing domestic news would be compiled daily into a collection known as "White Tass," and particularly important news would be compiled into a smaller collection known as "Red Tass." These collections were made available only to journalistic and political leaders, and to top journalists and political leaders, respectively.  TASS was organized with five Main Editorial Boards for Union Information, Foreign Information, Socialist Countries, Information for Foreign Countries, Photo information, supplemented by a Main Directorate of Communications. In 1961 Ria Novosti was created to supplement TASS, mainly in foreign reporting and human-interest stories. After 1971, TASS was elevated to the status of State Committee at the Government of the Soviet Union.  The agency was frequently used as a front organization by the Soviet intelligence agencies, such as the NKVD (later KGB) and Main Intelligence Directorate, with TASS employees serving as informants. In 1959, Alexander Alexeyev was dispatched to Cuba on a fact-finding mission, ostensibly working for TASS.

1992: ITAR-TASS.

In January 1992, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, a Presidential Decree signed by Boris Yeltsin re-defined status of TASS and renamed it the "Information Telegraph Agency of Russia". In May 1994 The Russian Government adopted a resolution ""On approval of the Charter of the Information Telegraph Agency of Russia"", under which it operates as a central government news agency. The TASS acronym was, by this point, well-recognized around the world and so was retained after being redefined as the "Telegraph agency of communication and messages" (). The agency as a whole was referred to as "ITAR-TASS".  In September 2014 the agency regained its former name as "Russian News Agency TASS".

Organization.

TASS is registered as a Federal State Unitary Enterprise, owned by the Government of Russia. Headquartered in Moscow, TASS has 70 offices in Russia and in the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), as well as 68 bureaus around the world.

TASS press center.

TASS multi-media press center is a communication floor in the heart of Moscow. Every year it hosts some 300 events featuring high-ranking Russian officials, foreign heads of state, leaders of main political parties, representatives of the world of arts and culture, scientists and sporting personalities as well as managers of Russian and foreign business enterprises. TASS press centers also operate in St. Petersburg, Yekaterinburg and Novosibirsk.  TASS is a media partner of high-profile conferences, forums and exhibitions in Russia and abroad. The agency organized the first News Agencies World Congress (NAWC) in 2004.

Russian News Agency TASS (), abbreviated TASS (), is a major news agency in Russia founded in 1904. TASS is the largest Russian news agency and one of the largest news agencies worldwide, along with Reuters, the Associated Press (AP) and Agence France-Presse (AFP).

TASS () ist eine der größten russischen Nachrichtenagenturen mit Hauptsitz in Moskau. Unter wechselnden Bezeichnungen besteht sie seit 1904. Von 1992 bis 2014 veröffentlichte die Agentur unter dem Namen "ITAR-TASS" als „zentrale staatliche Nachrichtenagentur“. Über ein Netz in- und ausländischer Büros werden Text- und Bilderdienste in vielen Sprachen bedient. Die Agentur ist in Form einer FGUP organisiert, d. h. sie ist ein Staatsunternehmen.


Breed name.

There is debate among fanciers whether there are two separate breeds of Akita. To date, only the American Kennel Club, consider American and Japanese Akitas to be two varieties of the same breed, allowing free breeding between the two. The United Kennel Club, The Federation Cynologique Internationale, The Kennel Club, the Australian National Kennel Council, the New Zealand Kennel Club, and the Japan Kennel Club consider Japanese and American Akitas as separate breeds. Some countries refer to the American Akita as simply the Akita and not the American Akita. The issue is especially controversial in Japan. For the FCI's 84 countries, the breed split formally occurred June 1999, when the FCI decided that the American type would be called the Great Japanese Dog, later renamed the American Akita in January 2006.

History.

Japanese history.

The Akita originates from native Japanese dogs from the Akita Prefecture of northern Japan and go as far back as 1000 years. This breed in the 1600s was involved in dog fighting, which at the time was popular in Japan. From the 1500s into the 1800s, the Akita served as companions for samurai.  During the early 20th century the Akita was in decline, as a result of being cross bred with the German Shepherd Dog, St. Bernard, Mastiff. As a result, a lot of specimens started to lose their spitz characteristics and instead took on drop ears, straight tails, non-Japanese color (black masks, and any color other than red, white or brindle), and loose skin. A native Japanese breed known as Matagi (hunting dog) was used along with the Hokkaido Inu breed to mix back into the remaining Akita Inu to bring back the spitz phenotype and restore the Akita breed. The modern day Japanese Akita have relatively few genes from western dogs and are spitz in phenotype after the reconstruction of the breed took place, however the larger American breed of Akita largely descends from the mixed Akita before the restoration of the breed, and thus American Akita are typically mixed and not considered true Akita by the Japanese standard.  The Akita were used during the Russo-Japanese War to track prisoners of war and lost sailors. During World War II the Akita was also crossed with German Shepherds in an attempt to save them from the wartime government order for all non-military dogs to be culled. Some were used as scouts and guards during the war. The ancestors of the American Akita were originally a variety of the Japanese Akita, a form that was not desired in Japan due to the markings, and which is not eligible for show competition. The story of Hachikō, the most revered Akita of all time, helped push the Akita into the international dog world. Hachikō was born in 1923 and owned by Professor Hidesaburō Ueno of Tokyo. Professor Ueno lived near the Shibuya Train Station in a suburb of the city and commuted to work every day on the train. Hachikō accompanied his master to and from the station each day. On May 25, 1925, when the dog was 18 months old, he waited for his master's arrival on the four o'clock train, but Professor Ueno had a fatal brain haemorrhage at work. Hachikō continued to wait for his master's return. He travelled to and from the station each day for the next nine years. He allowed the professor's relatives to care for him, but he never gave up the vigil at the station for his master. His vigil became world-renowned when, in 1934, shortly before his death, a bronze statue was erected at the Shibuya train station in his honor. This statue was melted down for munitions during the war, but a new one was commissioned after the war. Each year on April 8 since 1936, Hachikō's devotion has been honoured with a solemn ceremony of remembrance at Tokyo's Shibuya railroad station. Eventually, Hachikō's legendary faithfulness became a national symbol of loyalty, particularly to the person and institution of the Emperor.  In 1931, the Akita was officially declared a Japanese Natural Monument. The Mayor of Odate City in Akita Prefecture organized the Akita Inu Hozonkai to preserve the original Akita as a Japanese natural treasure through careful breeding. In 1934 the first Japanese breed standard for the Akita Inu was listed, following the breed's declaration as a natural monument of Japan. In 1967, commemorating the 50th anniversary of the founding of the Akita Dog Preservation Society, the Akita Dog Museum was built to house information, documents and photos. There is a tradition in Japan, that when a child is born they receive a statue of an Akita. This statue symbolizes health, happiness, and a long life. In 1937, Helen Keller travelled to Japan. She expressed a keen interest in the breed and was presented with the first two Akitas to enter the US. The first dog, presented to her by Mr. Ogasawara and named Kamikaze-go, died at 7 1/2 months of age from distemper, one month after her return to the States. A second Akita was arranged to be sent to Miss Keller: Kamikaze's litter brother, Kenzan-go. Kenzan-go died in the mid-1940s. By 1939 a breed standard had been established and dog shows had been held, but such activities stopped after World War II began. Keller wrote in the "Akita Journal": Just as the breed was stabilizing in its native land, World War II pushed the Akita to the brink of extinction. Early in the war the dogs had a lack of nutritious food. Then many were killed to be eaten by the starving populace, and their pelts were used as clothing. Finally, the government ordered all remaining dogs to be killed on sight to prevent the spread of disease. The only way concerned owners could save their beloved Akitas was to turn them loose in remote mountain areas, where they bred back with their ancestor dogs, the Matagi, or conceal them from authorities by means of crossing with German Shepherds. and naming them in the style of German Shepherds of the time. Morie Sawataishi and his efforts to breed the Akita is a major reason this breed exists today.  During the occupation years following the war, the breed began to thrive again through the efforts of Sawataishi and others. For the first time, Akitas were bred for a standardized appearance. Akita fanciers in Japan began gathering and exhibiting the remaining Akitas and producing litters in order to restore the breed to sustainable numbers and to accentuate the original characteristics of the breed muddied by crosses to other breeds. U.S. servicemen fell in love with the Akita and imported many with them upon their return.

American history.

The Japanese Akita and American Akita began to diverge in type during the Post World War II era. Helen Keller is credited with bringing the Akita to America after being gifted two Akitas by the Japanese government in 1938. A breed standard by 1939 and dog shows began to be held but then World War II began. It was during this time, that US servicemen serving as part of the occupation force in Japan first came into contact with the Akita, the breed so impressed them that many service members chose to bring an Akita back home with them upon completion of their tour. American service members were typically more impressed with the larger more bear-like fighting Akita or German Shepherd type than they were with the smaller framed and fox-like Akita-Inu; the types of dogs they brought back with them to the US reflected this sentiment. Japanese Akita fanciers focused on restoring the breed as a work of Japanese art or to 'Natural Monument' status. American Akita fanciers chose to breed larger, heavier-boned and more intimidating dogs. Although, both types derive from a common ancestry, there are marked differences between the two. First, while American Akitas are acceptable in all colors, Japanese Akitas are only permitted to be red, white, or brindle. Additionally, American Akitas may be pinto and/or have black masks, unlike Japanese Akitas where it is considered a disqualification and not permitted in the breed standards. American Akitas generally are heavier boned and larger, with a more bear-like head, whereas Japanese Akitas tend to be lighter and more finely featured with a fox-like head.  Recognized by the American Kennel Club in 1955, it was placed in the Miscellaneous class. It was not until the end of 1972 that the AKC approved the Akita standard and it was moved to the Working dog class, as such, the Akita is a rather new breed in the United States. Foundation stock in America continued to be imported from Japan until 1974 when the AKC cut off registration to any further Japanese imports until 1992 when it recognized the Japan Kennel Club. This decision set the stage for the divergence in type between the American Akita and Japanese Akita Inu that is present today.  Elsewhere in the world, the American Akita was first introduced to the UK in 1937, he was a Canadian import, owned by a Mrs. Jenson, the descendants of Mrs. Jenson live on today breeding American Akitas, the most widely known of them is Mr. Joseph Felton, a widely known and award-winning Akita breeder, however the breed was not widely known until the early 1980s. The breed was introduced in Australia in 1982 with an American Import and to New Zealand in 1986 with an import from the UK.

Description.

Appearance.

As a spitz breed, the appearance of the Akita reflects cold weather adaptations essential to their original function. The Akita is a substantial breed for its height with heavy bones. Characteristic physical traits of the breed include a large, bear-like head with erect, triangular ears set at a slight angle following the arch of the neck. Additionally, the eyes of the Akita are small, dark, deeply set and triangular in shape. Akitas have thick double coats, and tight, well knuckled cat-like feet. Their tails are carried over the top of the back in a gentle or double curl down the loin.  Mature American type males measure typically 26-28 inches (66-71 cm) at the withers and weigh between 100-130 lb (45-59 kg). Mature females typically measure 24-26 inches (61-66 cm) and weigh between 70-100 lb (32-45 kg). The Japanese type, as stated in the breed standards, are a little smaller and lighter.  Breed standards state that all dog breed coat colors are allowable in the American Akita, including pinto, all types of brindle, solid white, black mask, white mask, self-colored mask, even differing colors of under coat and overlay (guard hairs). This includes the common Shiba Inu coloring pattern known as Urajiro. The Japanese Akitas, as per the breed standards, are restricted to red, fawn, sesame, brindle, pure white, all with Urajiro markings whitish coat on the sides of the muzzle, on the cheeks, on the underside of jaw, neck, chest, body and tail and on the inside of the legs.

Coat types.

There are two coat types in the Akita, the standard coat length and the long coat. The long coat is considered a fault in the show ring, however. The long coat, also known as Moku is the result of an autosomal recessive gene and may only occur phenotypically if both sire and dam are carriers. They have longer (about 3-4 inches in length) and softer coats and are known to have sweeter temperaments. It is believed that this gene comes from the now extinct Karafuto-Ken Samurai dog. Unlike their short coat cousins, the long coats are less highly prized and thus more affordable.

Grooming needs.

American Akitas are a low maintenance dog breed. Grooming them should be an easy process. They are fairly heavy shedders and can go heavier than normal two to three times per year. Specifically, Akitas "blow out" their coats twice a year. Daily brushing could be a good way to reduce this problem. This breed needs to bathe every few months, although it can be more often, depending on the needs of each owner. Toenails should be trimmed every month, and their ears should be cleaned once a week.

Temperament.

The Akita is generally seen as territorial about its property, and can be reserved with strangers. It is sometimes described as feline in its actions; it is not unusual for an Akita to clean its face after eating, to preen its kennel mate, and to be fastidious in the house. They are known to be intolerant of other dogs of the same sex, as stated in the AKC breed standard.  Since it is a large, powerful dog, the Akita is not considered a breed for a first time dog owner. The breed has been targeted by some countries' breed-specific legislation as a dangerous dog. The Akita is a large, strong, independent and dominant dog. A well-trained Akita should be accepting of non-threatening strangers, otherwise they will treat all strangers in an aggressive manner. As a breed they should be good with children; it is said that the breed has an affinity for children. Not all Akitas will necessarily have the same temperament.  Akitas tend to take a socially dominant role with other dogs, and thus caution must be used in situations when Akitas are likely to be around other dogs, especially unfamiliar ones. In particular, Akitas tend to be less tolerant of dogs of the same sex. For this reason, Akitas, unless highly socialized, are not generally well-suited for off-leash dog parks. Sometimes spontaneous, it needs a confident, consistent handler, without which the dog will be very wilful and may become very aggressive to other dogs and animals.

Training.

The Akita Inu is one of the most dominant dog breeds. Therefore, training should start in an early age of seven to eight weeks.

Health.

Autoimmune diseases.

There are many autoimmune diseases that are known to sometimes occur in the Akita. These include, but are not limited to:

Immune-mediated endocrine diseases.

In addition to these there are also the immune-mediated endocrine diseases with a heritable factor, such as:

Non-immune specific conditions.

Other non-immune specific conditions known to have occurred in the Akita include:

Breed specific conditions.

There are two breed specific conditions mentioned in veterinary literature:

Working life.

Predecessors of the modern Akita were used for hunting bear, wild boar and deer in Japan as late as 1957. They would be used to flush out the bear and keep it at bay until the hunter could come and kill it. Today, the breed is used primarily as a companion dog. However, the breed is currently also known to be used as therapy dogs, and compete in all dog competitions including: conformation showing, obedience trials, canine good citizen program, tracking trials and agility competition, as well as weight pulling, hunting and Schutzhund (personal protection dogs).

The is a large breed of dog originating from the mountainous regions of northern Japan. There are two separate varieties of Akita: a Japanese strain, commonly called Akita Inu (inu means dog in Japanese) or Japanese Akita, and an American strain, known as the Akita or American Akita. The Japanese strain comes in a narrow palette of colors, with all other colors considered atypical of the breed, while the American strain comes in all dog colors. The Akita has a short double-coat similar to that of many other northern spitz breeds such as the German Shepherd or Siberian Husky, but long-coated dogs can also be found in many litters due to a recessive gene.

Der Akita (jap., "Akita inu/ken") ist eine von der FCI anerkannte Hunderasse aus Japan (FCI-Gruppe 5, Sektion 5, Standard Nr. 255).


Biography.

Abe was born on March 7, 1924 in Kita, Tokyo, Japan and grew up in Mukden (now Shenyang) in Manchuria. Abe's family was in Tokyo at the time due to his father's year of medical research in Tokyo. His mother had been raised in Hokkaido, while he experienced childhood in Manchuria. This triplicate assignment of origin was influential to Abe, who told Nancy Shields in a 1978 interview, "I am essentially a man without a hometown. This may be what lies behind the 'hometown phobia' that runs in the depth of my feelings. All things that are valued for their stability offend me." As a child, Abe was interested in insect-collecting, mathematics, and reading. His favorite authors were Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Martin Heidegger, Karl Jaspers, Franz Kafka, Friedrich Nietzsche, and Edgar Allan Poe. Abe returned to Japan briefly in April 1940 to study at Seijo High School, but a lung condition forced his return to Mukden, where he read Jaspers, Heidegger, Dostoyevsky, and Edmund Husserl. Abe began his studies at Tokyo Imperial University in 1943 to study medicine, partially out of respect for his father, but also because "[t]hose students who specialized in medicine were exempted from becoming soldiers. My friends who chose the humanities were killed in the war." He returned to Manchuria around the end of World War II. Specifically, Abe left the Tokyo University Medical School in October 1944, returning to his father's clinic in Mukden. That winter, his father died of eruptive typhus. Returning to Tokyo with his father's ashes, Abe reentered the medical school. Abe started writing novellas and short stories during his last year in university. He graduated in 1948 with a medical degree, joking once that he was allowed to graduate only on the condition that he would not practice.  In 1945 Abe married Machi Yamada, an artist and stage director, and the couple saw successes within their fields in similar time frames. Initially, they lived in an old barracks within a bombed-out area of the city center. Abe sold pickles and charcoal on the street to pay their bills. The couple joined a number of artistic study groups, such as "Yoru no Kai" (Group of the Night or The Night Society) and "Nihon Bungaku Gakko" (Japanese Literary School)'.  As the postwar period progressed, Abe's stance as an intellectual pacifist led to his joining the Japanese Communist Party, with which he worked to organize laborers in poor parts of Tokyo. Soon after receiving the Akutagawa Prize in 1951, Abe began to feel the constraints of the Communist Party's rules and regulations alongside doubts about what meaningful artistic works could be created in the genre of "socialist realism." By 1956, Abe began writing in solidarity with the Polish workers who were protesting against their Communist government, drawing the Communist Party's ire. The criticism reaffirmed his stance: "The Communist Party put pressure on me to change the content of the article and apologize. But I refused. I said I would never change my opinion on the matter. This was my first break with the Party." The next year, Abe traveled to Eastern Europe for the 20th Convention of the Soviet Communist Party. He saw little of interest there, but the arts gave him some solace. He visited Kafka's house in Prague, read Rilke and Karel Čapek, reflected on his idol Lu Xun, and was moved by a Mayakovsky play in Brno.  The Soviet invasion of Hungary in 1956 disgusted Abe. He attempted to leave the Communist Party, but resignations from the party were not accepted at the time. In 1962 he was forcibly expelled from the party. His political activity came to an end in 1967 in the form of a statement published by himself, his wife, Yasunari Kawabata, and Kenzaburō Ōe, protesting the treatment of writers, artists, and intellectuals in Communist China.  His experiences in Manchuria were also deeply influential on his writing, imprinting terrors and fever dreams that became surrealist hallmarks of his works. In his recollections of Mukden, these markers are evident: "The fact is, it may not have been trash in the center of the marsh at all; it may have been crows. I do have a memory of thousands of crows flying up from the swamp at dusk, as if the surface of the swamp were being lifted up into the air." The trash of the marsh was a truth of life, as were the crows, yet Abe's recollections of them tie them distinctively. Further experiences with the swamp centered around its use as a staking ground for condemned criminals with "[their] heads—now food for crows—appearing suddenly out of the darkness and disappearing again, terrified and attracted to us." These ideas are present in much of Abe's work.

Career.

Abe was first published as a poet in 1947 with "Mumei-shishū" (""Poems of an unknown poet""), which he paid for himself, and as a novelist the following year with "Owarishi michi no shirube ni" (""The Road Sign at the End of the Street""), which established his reputation. When he received the Akutagawa Prize in 1951, his ability to continue publishing was confirmed. Though he did much work as an avant-garde novelist and playwright, it was not until the publication of "The Woman in the Dunes" in 1962 that Abe won widespread international acclaim.  In the 1960s, he collaborated with Japanese director Hiroshi Teshigahara on the film adaptations of "The Pitfall," "Woman in the Dunes," "The Face of Another," and "The Man Without a Map". "Woman in the Dunes" received widespread critical acclaim and was released only four months after Abe was expelled from the Japanese Communist Party.  In 1971, he founded the Abe Studio, an acting studio in Tokyo. Until the end of the decade, he trained performers and directed plays. The decision to found the studio came two years after he first directed his own work in 1969, a production of "The Man Who Turned Into A Stick". The production's sets were designed by Abe's wife, and Hisashi Igawa starred. Abe had become dissatisfied with ability of the theatre to materialize the abstract, reducing it to a passive medium. Until 1979, he wrote, directed, and produced 14 plays at the Abe Studio. He also published two novels, "Box Man" (1973) and "Secret Rendezvous" (1977), alongside a series of essays, musical scores, and photographic exhibits. The Seibu Theater, an avant-garde theater in the new department store Parco, was allegedly established in 1973 specifically for Abe, though many other artists were given the chance to use it. The Abe Studio production of "The Glasses of Love Are Rose Colored" (1973) opened there. Later, the entirety of the Seibu Museum was used to present one of Abe's photographic works, "An Exhibition of Images: I".  The Abe Studio provided a foil for much of the contemporary scene in Japanese theater, contrasting with the Haiyuza's conventional productions, opting to focus on dramatic, as opposed to physical, expression. It was a safe space for young performers, whom Abe would often recruit from the Toho Gakuen College in Chofu City, on the outskirts of Tokyo, where he taught. The average age of the performers in the studio was about 27 throughout the decade, as members left and fresh faces were brought in. Abe "deftly" handled issues arising from difference in stage experience.  In 1977 Abe was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Awards.

Among the honors Abe received were the Akutagawa Prize in 1951 for "The Crime of S. Karuma," the Yomiuri Prize in 1962 for "The Woman in the Dunes," and the Tanizaki Prize in 1967 for the play "Friends." Kenzaburō Ōe credited Abe and other modern Japanese authors for "[creating] the way to the Nobel Prize", which he himself won. Abe was mentioned multiple times as a possible recipient, but his early death precluded that possibility.

, pen name of, was a Japanese writer, playwright, musician, photographer and inventor. Abe has been often compared to Franz Kafka and Alberto Moravia for his modernist sensibilities and his surreal, often nightmarish explorations of individuals in contemporary society.

Abe Kōbō (jap. ; * 7. März 1924 in Tokio; † 22. Januar 1993 in Tokio), bürgerlich "Abe Kimifusa" bei gleicher japanischer Schreibweise, war ein japanischer Schriftsteller.