Life.

Soldier.

Martin was born in AD 316 or 336 in Savaria in the Diocese of Pannonia (now Szombathely, Hungary). His father was a senior officer (tribune) in the Roman army. A few years after Martin's birth his father was given veteran status and was allocated land on which to retire at Ticinum (now Pavia), in northern Italy, where Martin grew up.  At the age of ten he attended the Christian church against the wishes of his parents and became a catechumen. Christianity had been made a legal religion (in

Monk and hermit.

Martin declared his vocation, and made his way to the city of Caesarodunum (now Tours), where he became a disciple of Hilary of Poitiers Christian orthodoxy. He opposed the Arianism of the Imperial Court. When Hilary was forced into exile from Pictavium (now Poitiers), Martin returned to Italy. According to Sulpicius Severus, he converted an Alpine brigand on the way, and confronted the Devil himself. Having heard in a dream a summons to revisit his home, Martin crossed the Alps, and from Milan went over to Pannonia. There he converted his mother and some other persons; his father he could not win. While in Illyricum he took sides against the Arians with so much zeal that he was publicly scourged and forced to leave. Returning from Illyria, he was confronted by the Arian archbishop of Milan Auxentius, who expelled him from the city. According to the early sources, Martin decided to seek

Bishop.

In AD 371 Martin was acclaimed bishop of Tours, where he impressed the city with his demeanour. He had been drawn to Tours by a ruse — he was urged to come to minister to someone sick — and was brought to the church, where he reluctantly allowed himself to be consecrated bishop. According to one version, he was so unwilling to be made bishop that he hid in a barn full of geese, but their cackling at his intrusion gave him away to the crowd; that may account for complaints by a few that his appearance was too disheveled to be commensurate with a bishopric, but the critics were hugely outnumbered.  As bishop, Martin set to enthusiastically ordering the destruction of pagan temples, altars and sculptures: "[W]hen in a certain village he had demolished a very ancient temple, and had set about cutting down a pine-tree, which stood close to the temple, the chief priest of that place, and a crowd of other heathens began to oppose him; and these people, though, under the influence of the Lord, they had been quiet while the temple was being

On behalf of the Priscillianists.

The churches of other parts of Gaul and in Spain were being disturbed by the Priscillianists, an ascetic sect, named after its leader, Priscillian. The First Council of Saragossa had forbidden several of Priscillian's practices (albeit without mentioning Priscillian by name), but Priscillian was elected bishop of Avila shortly thereafter. Ithacius of Ossonoba appealed to the emperor Gratian, who issued a rescript against Priscillian and his followers. After failing to obtain the support of Ambrose of Milan and Pope Damasus I, Priscillian appealed to Magnus Maximus,

Abbey of Marmoutier.

The Abbey of Marmoutier was a monastery just outside today's city of Tours in Indre-et-Loire, France established by Martin around 372. Martin founded the monastery to escape attention and live life as a monastic. The Abbey at Tours was one of the most prominent and influential establishments in medieval France. Charlemagne awarded the position of Abbot to his friend and adviser Alcuin. At this time the abbot could travel between Tours and the court at Trier in Germany and always stay overnight at one of his own properties. It was at Tours that Alcuin's scriptorium (a room in monasteries devoted to the copying of manuscripts by monastic scribes) developed

Legend of Martin's cloak.

While Martin was a soldier in the Roman army and stationed in Gaul (modern-day France), he experienced a vision, which became the most-repeated story about his life. One day as he was approaching the gates of the city of Amiens, he met a scantily clad beggar. He impulsively cut his military cloak in half to share with the man. That night, Martin dreamed of Jesus wearing the half-cloak he had given away. He heard Jesus say to the angels: "Martin, who is still but a catechumen, clothed me with this robe." (Sulpicius, ch 2). In another version, when Martin woke, he found his cloak restored to wholeness. The dream confirmed Martin in his piety, and he was baptised at the age of 18.

Hagiography.

The early life of Martin was written by Sulpicius Severus, who knew him personally. It expresses the immediacy the 4th-century Christian felt with the Devil in all his disguises, and has many accounts of

Veneration.

The veneration of Martin was widely popular in the Middle Ages, above all in the region between the Loire and the Marne, where Le Roy Ladurie and Zysberg noted the densest accretion of place names commemorating Martin. Venantius Fortunatus had earlier declared, "Wherever Christ is known, Martin is honored."  When Bishop Perpetuus took office at Tours in 461, the little chapel over Martin's grave, built in the previous century by Martin's immediate successor, Bricius, was no longer sufficient for the crowd of pilgrims it was already drawing. Perpetuus built a larger basilica, 38 m long and 18 m wide, with 120 columns. Martin's body was taken from the simple chapel at his hermitage at Candes-St-Martin to Tours and his sarcophagus was reburied behind the high altar of the new basilica. A large block of marble above the tomb, the gift of bishop Euphronius of Autun (472-475), rendered it visible to the faithful gathered behind the high altar. Werner Jacobsen suggests it may also have been visible to pilgrims encamped in the atrium of the basilica. Contrary to the usual arrangement, the atrium was situated behind the church, close to the tomb in the apse, which may have been visible through a "fenestrella" in the apse wall.  St. Martin's popularity can be partially attributed to his adoption by successive royal houses of France. Clovis, King of the Salian Franks, one of many warring tribes in sixth-century France, promised his Christian wife Clotilda that he would be baptised if he was victorious over the Alemanni. He credited the intervention of St Martin with his success, and with several following triumphs, including the defeat of Alaric II. The popular devotion to St Martin continued to be closely identified with the Merovingian monarchy: in the early seventh century Dagobert I commissioned the goldsmith Saint Eligius to make a work in gold and gems for the tomb-shrine. The bishop Gregory of Tours wrote and distributed an influential "Life" filled with miraculous events of St. Martin's career. Martin's "cultus" survived the passage of power to the Merovingians' successors, the Carolingian dynasty.

Revival of the popular devotion to St. Martin in the Third Republic.

Excavations and rediscovery of the tomb.

In 1860 excavations by Leo Dupont (1797–1876) established the dimensions of the former abbey and recovered some fragments of architecture. The tomb of St. Martin was rediscovered on December 14, 1860, which aided in the nineteenth-century revival of the popular devotion to St. Martin.  After the radical

Franco-Prussian War.

Martin's renewed popularity in France was related to his promotion as a military saint during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871. During the military and political crisis of the Franco-Prussian war, Napoleon III's Second Empire collapsed. After the surrender of Napoleon to the Prussians after the Battle of Sedan in September 1870, a provisional government of national defense was established, and France's Third Republic was proclaimed. Paris was evacuated due to the advancing enemy and for a brief time, Tours (September–December 1870) became the effective capital of France.  St Martin was promoted by the clerical right as the protector of the nation against the German threat. Conservatives associated the dramatic collapse of Napoleon III's regime as a sign of divine retribution on the irreligious emperor. Priests interpreted it as punishment for a nation led astray due to years of anti-clericalism. They preached repentance and a return to religion for political stability. The ruined towers of the old royal basilica

Opposition from Anticlericals.

During the 1870s, the procession to St. Martin's tomb at Tours became a display of ecclesiastical and military cooperation. Army officers in full uniform acted as military escorts, symbolically protecting the clergy and clearing the path for them. Anti-clerics viewed the staging of public religious processions as a violation of civic space. In 1878, M. Rivière, the provisional mayor of Tours, with anticlerical support banned the November procession in honor of St. Martin. President Patrice de Mac-Mahon was succeeded by the Republican Jules Grévy, who created a new national anticlerical offensive. Bishop Louis-Édouard-François-Desiré Pie of Poitiers united conservatives and devised a

St. Martin as a French Republican patron.

St. Martin has long been associated with France's royal heritage. Monsignor René François Renou (Archbishop of Tours, 1896–1913) worked to associate St. Martin as a specifically "republican" patron. Renou had served as a chaplain to the 88 Régiment des mobils d'Indre-et-Loire during the Franco-Prussian war and was known as the "army bishop." Renou was a strong supporter of St. Martin and believed that the national destiny of France and all its victories were attributed to him. He linked the military to the cloak of St. Martin, which was the "first flag of France" to the French tricolor, "the symbol of the union of the old

Patronage.

He is the patron saint of beggars (because of his sharing his cloak), wool-weavers and tailors (also because of his cloak), he is also the patron saint of the US Army Quartermaster Corps even though he detested violence (also because of sharing his cloak), geese (some say because they gave his

Iconography.

Martin is most generally portrayed on horseback dividing his cloak with the beggar. His emblem in English art is often that of a goose, whose annual migration is about late Autumn.

Hammer of Martin of Tours.

The Museum Catharijneconvent in Utrecht has a relic in its collection which is called "the hammer of St. Martin of Tours" (Latin: "maleus beati Martini"). It was made in the 13th or 14th century from a late Bronze Age stone axe from ca. 1,000 - 700 BC,

Influence.

By the early 9th century, respect for Saint Martin was well-established in Ireland. His monastery at Marmoûtiers became the training ground for many Celtic missions and missionaries. Some believe that St. Patrick was his nephew and that Patrick was one of many Celtic notables who lived for a time at Marmoûtiers. St. Ninian definitely studied at Marmoûtiers and was profoundly influenced by Martin, carrying a deep love and respect for his teacher and his methods back to Scotland. Ninian was in the process of building a church when news reached him of Martin's death. Ninian dedicated that church to Martin. The Book of Armagh contains three distinct groups of material:

Legacy.

Ligugé Abbey.

Founded by Martin of Tours in 360, Ligugé Abbey is one of the earliest monastic foundations in France. The reputation of the founder attracted a large number of

European folk traditions.

From the late 4th century to the late Middle Ages, much of Western Europe, including Great Britain, engaged in a period of fasting beginning on the day after St. Martin's Day, November 11. This fast period lasted 40 days, and was, therefore, called "Quadragesima Sancti Martini", which means in Latin "the forty days of St. Martin." At St. Martin's eve and on the feast day, people ate and drank very heartily for a last time before they started to fast. This fasting time was later called "Advent" by the Church and was considered a time for spiritual preparation for Christmas.  On St. Martin's Day, children in Flanders, the southern and north-western parts of the Netherlands, and the Catholic areas of Germany and Austria still participate in paper lantern processions. Often, a man dressed as St. Martin rides on a horse in front of the procession. The children sing songs about St. Martin and about their lanterns. The food traditionally eaten on the day is goose, a rich bird. According to legend, Martin was reluctant to become bishop, which is why he hid in a stable filled with geese. The noise made by the geese betrayed his location to the people who were looking for him. In the east part of the Belgian province of East-Flanders (Aalst) and the west part of West Flanders (Ypres), traditionally children receive presents from St. Martin on November 11, instead of from Saint Nicholas on December 6 or Santa Claus on December 25. They also have lantern processions, for which children make lanterns out of beets. In recent years, the lantern processions have become widespread as a popular ritual, even in Protestant areas of Germany and the Netherlands. Most Protestant churches no longer officially recognize Saints.  In Portugal, where the saint's day is celebrated across the country, it is common for families and friends to gather around the fire in reunions called "magustos," where they typically eat roasted chestnuts and drink wine, "jeropiga" (drink made of grape must and firewater) and "aguapé" (a sort of weak and watered-down wine). According to the most widespread variation of the cloak story, Saint Martin cut off half of his cloak in order to offer it to a beggar and along the way, he gave the remaining part to a second beggar. As he faced a long ride in a freezing weather, the dark clouds cleared away and the sun shone so intensely that the frost melted away. Such weather was rare for early November, so was credited to God's intervention.

In modern film.

The Dutch film "Flesh and Blood" (1985) prominently features a statue of Saint Martin. A mercenary in Renaissance

Martin of Tours (; 316 – 8 November 397) was the third bishop of Tours. He has become one of the most familiar and recognizable Christian saints in Western tradition. A native of Pannonia, he converted to Christianity at a young age. He served in the Roman cavalry in Gaul, but left military service at some point prior to 361, when he became a disciple of Hilary of Poitiers, establishing the monastery at Ligugé. He was consecrated as Bishop of Caesarodunum (Tours) in 371. As bishop, he was active in the suppression of the remnants of Gallo-Roman religion, but he opposed the violent persecution of the Priscillianist sect of ascetics.

Martin von Tours, (* um 316/317 in Savaria, römische Provinz Pannonia prima, heute Szombathely, Ungarn; † 8. November 397 in Candes bei Tours in Frankreich), war der Begründer des abendländischen Mönchtums und der dritte Bischof von Tours. Er ist einer der bekanntesten Heiligen der katholischen Kirche und der erste, dem sie diese Würde nicht als Märtyrer, sondern als Bekenner zugesprochen hat. Er wird auch in der orthodoxen, anglikanischen und evangelischen Kirche als Heiliger verehrt.


Etymology.

"Marshal" is an ancient loanword from Norman French (cf. modern French "maréchal"), which in turn is borrowed from Old Frankish *"marhskalk" (="stable boy, keeper, servant"), being still evident in Middle Dutch "maerscalc", "marscal", and in modern Dutch "maarschalk" (="military chief commander"; the meaning influenced by the French use).  It is cognate with Old High German "mar(ah)-scalc" "id.", modern German "(Feld-)Marschall" (="military chief commander"; the meaning again influenced by the French use).  It originally and literally meant "horse servant", from Germanic "*marha-" "horse" (cf. English "mare" and modern German "Mähre", meaning "horse of bad quality") and "*skalk-" "servant" (cf. Old Engl. "scealc" "servant, soldier" and outdated German "Schalk", meaning "high-ranking servant"). This "horse servant" origin is retained in the current French name for "farrier": "maréchal-ferrant".  The late Roman and Byzantine title of "comes stabuli" ("count of the stables") was a "calque" of the Germanic, which became Old French "con(n)estable" and modern "connétable", and, borrowed from the Old French, the English word "constable". Finally, in Byzantium, a marshal with elevated authority, notably a borderlands military command, was also known as an "exarch".

Military.

In many countries, the rank of marshal, cf. field marshal, is the highest army rank, outranking other general officers. The equivalent navy rank is often admiral of the fleet.  Marshals are typically, but not exclusively, appointed only in wartime. In many countries, especially in Europe, the special symbol of a marshal is a baton, and their insignia often incorporate batons.  In some countries, the term "marshal" is used instead of "general" in the higher air force ranks. The four highest Royal Air Force ranks are marshal of the Royal Air Force, air chief marshal, air marshal and air vice marshal (although the first named, which has generally been suspended as a peacetime rank, is the only one which can properly be considered a marshal). The five-star rank of marshal of the Air Force is used by some Commonwealth and Middle Eastern air forces.  In the French Army and most National Armies modeled upon the French system, "maréchal des logis" ("marshal-of-lodgings") is a cavalry term equivalent to sergeant.  Some historical rulers have used special "marshal" titles to reward certain subjects. Though not strictly military ranks, these honorary titles have been exclusively bestowed upon successful military leaders, such as the famous grand marshal of Ayacucho Antonio José de Sucre. Most famous are the Marshals of France ("Maréchaux de France"), not least under Napoléon I. Another such title was that of "Reichsmarschall", bestowed upon Hermann Göring by Adolf Hitler, although it was never a regular title as it had been "invented" for Göring who was the only titleholder in history. In England during the First Barons' War the title "Marshal of the Army of God and Holy Church" was bestowed upon Robert Fitzwalter by election.  Both the Soviet Union and Russia have army general as well as "marshal" in their rank system, the latter being largely an honorary rank.

Marshal ranks by country.

The following articles discuss the rank of marshal as used by specific countries:  See also:

Marshal equivalents.

These ranks are considered the equivalent to a marshal:

Military police.

The name is also applied to the leader of military police organizations.

Ceremonial and protocol.

Usually in monarchies, one or several of the senior dignitaries wear the title of "Marshal" or a compound such as "Court Marshal" (not related to court martial, therefore usually called "Marshal of the Court" to prevent confusion) or more rarely "Grand Marshal".  The function of the "Marshal of the Court" varies according to national tradition, but frequently he is the chief of staff of the monarch's household (meaning the palace and other domains). Often, the charge includes also the honorary privilege as chief of the protocol to announce formally the arrival of VIP guests at audiences, state dinners, and conferences in the monarch's premises. This office was often made hereditary in the high nobility, e.g., the English Earl Marshal, or the Scots Earl Marischal.

Civilian.

The term is also used in more ordinary contexts, such as modern pageantry; for example, the "grand marshal" of a parade is often an honored guest or dignitary.  In the United States, many colleges and universities have marshals. In some cases, there is a single "faculty marshal," appointed to the post on a more or less permanent basis. In other cases, there are one or several faculty marshals, and often one or several student marshals appointed for a single occasion. In all cases, the post is one of honor given to a senior faculty member or outstanding student, and the functions are generally limited to leading processions or parts of processions during commencement exercises, academic convocations, encaenia and similar events. These marshals often carry maces, staffs or wands of office.  A chief usher at a large wedding is sometimes called a "wedding marshal". In addition to coordinating other ushers in attending guests, the wedding marshal may be a messenger between parties to signal the impending start of the service or communicate delays. In a church wedding, particularly a nuptial mass, these functions may be assumed by a verger. The wedding marshal is a position of honor and trust, often filled by a close friend or relative.

Political.

Dignitaries of Poland.

Apart from its military uses, the Polish word "marszałek" (marshal) also refers to certain political offices:

Demonstration marshal.

Demonstration marshals, also called stewards, are used by the organizers of large or controversial demonstrations, rallies and protests, to help ensure the safety of the participants. They are especially important for preventing infiltration by agents provocateurs.

Sports.

Racing and other competitions.

In motorsports, such as auto racing, motorcycle racing, and rallying, the track marshals wave the racing flags and assist crashed or broken-down vehicles and their drivers, while pit marshals watch over the procedures in the pits, and fire marshals assist in the event of a fire on the track or in the pit. The FIA provides general rules and recommendations on marshalling. In the 1977 South African Grand Prix, 1977 Japanese Grand Prix, 2000 Italian Grand Prix, 2001 Australian Grand Prix, and 2013 Canadian Grand Prix, track marshals were victims of fatal accidents.  In some organized competitions, such as the endurance competition "Tough Guy," officials seeing to the observance of the rules are styled marshals. In road running races, in particular, "course marshals" enforce rules of competition and assist runners as needed.

Games.

The marshal is the highest playing piece in the board game "Stratego".

Law enforcement.

The word "Maréchaussée" derives from the French word "Maréchal" (plural "Maréchaux"), which was the second highest military charge in feudal France after "Connétable" (Constable), the military Commander-in-Chief of the Royal Armed Forces until 1627, when the charge of Constable was abolished. The Constable and the Marshals had also jurisdictional powers, at first only over members of the armed forces. The additional conferring of police powers led to the creation of the "Corps of the "Maréchaussée"" ("Marshalcy"; the forerunner of the modern "Gendarmerie") and to an Ancien Régime Court of Justice called the "Tribunal of the Constable and the Marshals of France" which was competent for judging military personnel and civilians alike in cases of petty violations of the law.  The term "Maréchaussée" was also used for the Continental Army's military police during the American Revolution.  In the present-day Netherlands, the "Koninklijke Marechaussee" ("Royal Marshalcy") is a national military police force with civilian competences, similar to the French "Gendarmerie nationale".

United States.

In the United States, "marshal" is used particularly for various types of law enforcement officers.

Federal marshals.

The federal court system in the United States is organized into 94 federal judicial districts, each with a court (and one or several judges), a United States Attorney with assistants such as prosecutors and government lawyers, and one marshal, appointed by the president, in charge of federal law enforcement. The courts are part of the independent judicial branch of the government, while the marshals and U.S. attorneys are part of the Department of Justice in the executive branch.  In actual practice, the U.S. marshal for the district primarily oversees court security, and has a unit of appointed deputies and special deputies. (Other law enforcement operations and the federal prison system are handled by a variety of federal police agencies.)  The United States Marshals Service is a professional, civil service unit of federal police, part of the system of marshals, made up of career law enforcement personnel rather than the appointed district marshals. The U.S. Marshals Service assists with court security and prisoner transport, asset forfeiture, serves arrest warrants and seeks fugitives.  The Federal Air Marshal Service is a separate armed federal law enforcement service employed to protect commercial airliners from the threat of aircraft hijacking. These air marshals work for the Transportation Security Administration of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security.  The U.S. Supreme Court maintains its own, separate Marshal of the United States Supreme Court, who also controls the U.S. Supreme Court Police, a security police service answerable to the court itself, rather than to the president or attorney general. It handles security for the Supreme Court building and for the justices personally, and undertakes whatever other missions the court may require or assign.

State and local marshals.

In many U.S. states, marshals can be found acting at the state, local or municipal court level; marshals can be court bailiffs or process servers, or even full police officers. In certain states, they may be sworn peace officers, however their job is, in some cases, entirely civil rather than criminal law enforcement. Some communities maintain a Town or City Marshal who is responsible for general law enforcement as well as court duties, while others are strictly court officers. This is especially true in communities with both police and marshals. The position of Marshal vastly differs from state to state. At least one local railroad servicing company's part-time public safety staff, which are both fire and police trained, is supervised by a chief marshal.  American Old West (for example, Arizona Territory and Texas of the 1880s): Marshals, usually called "town marshals" or "city marshals" (since the larger cities were often punctilious about their titles), were appointed or elected police officers of small communities, with powers and duties similar to those of a police chief; these powers generally ended at the border of the community. By contrast, federal marshals (U.S. marshals) worked in a larger territory, especially in pioneer country, and this area could potentially overlap with the state or territorial office of county sheriff (who then, as now, policed communities, as well as areas between communities). The word "marshal" is still used in this sense, especially in the American Southwest. ("See" List of Western lawmen.) Town or city marshal is still the name for the head officer of some community police forces.  Arizona: Cities and towns decide whether to appoint or elect a marshal, or have the board, council, or city manager hire a chief of police as the top criminal law enforcement official for their jurisdiction (as in the town of Tombstone). Marshals are elected by the trustees to serve a fixed term, and chiefs of police can be fired at will by whomever hired them, just like any other employee.  California: Several urban counties (including Los Angeles, San Bernardino County, California, and San Diego) once maintained separate county marshal's offices, which served as court officers similar to U.S. marshals or constables, but mainly for the municipal court system. This system was abolished by state law in 2000, when the sheriffs of those counties announced that those counties' marshals would be absorbed into their departments. Therefore, many have been merged into or taken over by the local county sheriff's office, with the exceptions of Shasta County and Trinity County both located in Northern California. As of 2010, the marshal of San Benito County has been disbanded as an independent organization, with its employees becoming part of the sheriff's office. California also has fire marshals and deputy fire marshals, who may work for the State of California Fire Marshal's Office, or various county, city or special districts throughout the state. Fire marshals and deputy fire marshals are full-time sworn peace officers throughout the state, with powers of arrest statewide under section 830.37 of the California Penal Code. Their responsibilities include fire and arson investigation, bomb and explosives investigation, general law enforcement, as well as enforcement of the fire code.  Colorado: Cities, towns and villages decide whether to appoint or elect a marshal, or have the board, council, or city manager hire a chief of police as the top criminal law enforcement for their jurisdiction. Marshals are elected by the trustees to serve a fixed term, and chiefs of police can be fired at will by whoever hired them, just like any other employee.  Connecticut: In 2000, Connecticut eliminated the county sheriff system, and replaced it with two types of marshals. "State" marshals operate out of the executive branch of state government. They are sworn peace officers who perform a wide range of duties, including service of process, seizing money and property under court order, evictions, serving tax warrants, and arresting individuals on bench warrants. "Judicial" marshals are employed by the judicial branch. They are sworn peace officers who perform court security and transport detainees to and from court.  Georgia: The marshal is a commissioned armed and uniformed law enforcement officer of the county state courts which have jurisdiction over civil matters and state ordinances. In the Atlanta metro counties, marshal's offices enforce evictions, foreclosures, subpoenas, civil forfeitures, judgements, seizure, liens, repossession, and garnishment. With a few exceptions, elsewhere in Georgia, the sheriff's office is responsible for enforcement of these duties, with some sheriffs' offices having an assigned unit or personnel for these duties.  Indiana: Many towns still utilize the Town Marshal's Office within local government. Police terms in Indiana vary by what local government one works for; for example: counties have Sheriff's/deputies, cities have Police Departments/Officers or Patrolmen and Towns have Marshals/deputies. In Indiana, a town is managed by a council without an elected mayor, whereas a city has a mayor and, thus, a city police department. Marshals are responsible for all law enforcement in their town, and their primary duties are the enforcement of local and state laws or ordinances as well as code enforcement. The town marshal may also be the town's humane law enforcement officer. Town marshals are fully sworn state police officers, having law enforcement authority statewide; therefore, it is not at all uncommon for Town Marshals to be seen outside of their bailiwicks assisting other police agencies. Some town marshal agencies in Indiana can be quite large. Any Town Marshal can appoint any number of unpaid deputy town marshals or reserve officers who may exercise full police powers in the state. Indiana Town Marshals are authorized to enforce not only city/town code, but also county ordinances; this differs from city police departments where a city police officer may only enforce city code or a sheriff's deputy, who may only enforce county code. Indiana Code recognizes Town Marshals as Police Officers, therefore it is very common for Indiana Town Marshal's Offices to go simply by "Police Department".  Under Indiana Code IC36-5-7 the marshal is described as "the chief police officer of the town and has the powers of other law enforcement officers in executing the orders of the legislative body and enforcing laws. The marshal or his deputy:  Maine: The State Marshal Service provides physical security and law enforcement duties to the judicial system, as well as protection of all state judges. Deputy marshals are fully sworn state law enforcement officers with statewide authority.  Missouri: There are two types of marshal:  Nevada  New York: There are two levels of marshals:  Ohio: The term "village marshal" has been used for the same function, often filled without colleagues, directly under the mayor.  Texas: City marshals and deputy city marshals have, by law, the same authority as a municipal (village, town, or city) police officer. However, municipalities (like Fort Worth), that have both a police force as well as a city marshal's office, often utilize the police as the general law enforcement agency of the municipality, while court security and process service is provided by the city marshal's office. In municipalities that do not have a police department, the city marshal's office sometimes serves as the agency that provides general law enforcement services to residents.  Washington State: The city of Seattle employs marshals in their municipal court, with the senior officer holding the title of chief marshal and the subordinate officers known as deputy marshals. Seattle Marshals provide court security and law enforcement services within the court. They handle arrests of out-of-custody defendants within the courthouse and transport in custody defendants to and from court hearings. The King County Sheriff's Office (county seat in Seattle) also employs court marshals, which is a unit under the sheriff's office. In the Old-West themed town of Winthrop, the municipal police force is headed by a town marshal, consistent with the Old West restoration of the buildings and tourist attractions.  Wisconsin: The duty of a marshal, that he or she generally speaking, occupies the same relation to the governmental affairs of the municipality as the sheriff does to the county.

United Kingdom.

England.

The hereditary title of "marshal" at one time designated the head of household security for the King of England. William Marshal, 1st Earl of Pembroke, served four kings in this office, ultimately becoming one of the most powerful men in Europe; by the time he died in 1219, people throughout Europe (not just England) referred to William Marshal simply as "the marshal". The office of hereditary Marshal (or Earl Marshal) thus evolved into that of a Great Officer of State.  The task of maintaining law and order within the King's Court then devolved upon the office of Knight Marshal (established in 1236). Together with his officers, the King's (or Queen's) Marshalmen, the Knight Marshal continued to have restricted powers of arrest within a radius of the sovereign's palace until 1846, when the office was abolished.  In 1595, Queen Elizabeth I issued letters patent giving powers to a marshal to maintain order within the City of London. Later, an under-marshal and six city marshalmen were appointed to assist the marshal in his duties. As a result of the Police Acts of 1829 and 1839, the marshal's role changed significantly., one city marshal, currently Colonel Billy King-Harman, CBE, still acts as peacekeeper to the Lord Mayor of London, leading processions and representing the Lord Mayor at all Entries of Troops (challenging and then escorting those few regiments entitled to march though the City of London).

Scotland.

The office of "marischal of Scotland" ("marascallus Scotie" or "marscallus Scotie") had been held heritably by the senior member of the Keith family since Hervey de Keith, who held the office of marischal under Malcolm IV and William I. The descendant of Herveus, Sir Robert de Keith (d. 1332), was confirmed in the office of "Great Marischal of Scotland" by Robert Bruce around 1324.  Robert de Keith's great-grandson, William, was raised to the peerage as Earl Marischal by James II in about 1458. The peerage died out when George Keith, the 10th Earl, forfeited it by joining the Jacobite Rising of 1715.  The marischal was to serve as custodian of the Royal Regalia of Scotland, and protect the king's person when attending parliament. The former duty was fulfilled by the 7th Earl during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, who hid the Royal Regalia at Dunnottar Castle. The role of regulation of heraldry carried out by the English Earl Marshal is carried out in Scotland by the Lord Lyon King of Arms.  The separate office of Knight Marischal was first created for the Scottish coronation of Charles I in 1633. The office is not heritable, although it has been held by members of the Keith family.

France.

In France, the "Maréchaussée" ("Marshalcy") was the forerunner of the French "Gendarmerie". A military corps having such duties was first created in 1337, placed under the command of the Constable of France (the Commander-in-Chief of the Royal Armed Forces), and named the "Connétablie". In 1627 after the abolition of the title of "Connétable", it was put under the command of the "Marshals of France," and renamed the "Maréchaussée". Its main mission was to protect the roads from highwaymen.  The "Maréchaussée" was a mounted military police force organised and equipped along military lines. The force wore uniforms similar to those of the dragoons of the regular army and carried the same muskets and sabres. While its existence ensured the relative safety of French rural districts and roads, the "Maréchaussée" was regarded in contemporary England (which had no effective police force of any nature) as a symbol of foreign tyranny.  In 1789, on the eve of the French Revolution, the "Maréchaussée" numbered 3,660 men divided into small detachments called brigades. By law dated 16 February 1791, this force was renamed the "Gendarmerie Nationale," though at first its personnel remained unchanged. Later many of them died under the guillotine, especially the members of the nobility.  The new designation "Gendarmerie" was derived from the term "gens d'armes" (gentlemen/people at arms) who were originally heavy cavalry regiments (called at first "Ordonnances royales") which were part of the King's household, the equivalent of the English "Honourable Corps of Gentlemen at Arms".  The title "Marshal of France" is a "Dignité d'État" ("State Dignity") in the contemporary French Republic, not strictly speaking a military rank. It is granted to generals for exceptional achievements, especially in times of war or national crisis.  However, the Marshal of France was one of the Great Officers of the Crown of France during the "Ancien Régime" and Bourbon Restoration and one of the Great Dignitaries of the Empire during the First French Empire (when the title was not "Marshal of France" but "Marshal of the Empire")  A Marshal of France displays seven stars and is equivalent to a six star general in armies of other countries. The marshal also receives a baton, a blue cylinder with stars, formerly fleurs-de-lis during the monarchy and Eagles during the First French Empire. It has the Latin inscription: "Terror belli, decus pacis", which means "terror in war, ornament in peace".  The position in the French Navy ("Marine nationale") equivalent to the "Marshal of France" is called "Amiral de France" ("Admiral of France"). The title has not been conferred since 1869. Theoretically, the equivalent title in the French Air Force is "Général de France" ("General of France"), but it has never been conferred to anyone yet.  Six Marshals of France have been given the even more prestigious rank of "Marshal General of the King's Armies and Camps": Biron, Lesdiguières, Turenne, Villars, Saxe, and Soult. This rank and title no longer exists in present-day republican France.

Netherlands.

In the Netherlands, the "Koninklijke Marechaussee" are the "gendarmerie" force created by King William I to replace the French "gendarmerie" on October 26, 1814. The word "gendarmerie" had gained a negative connotation, so William called the new force ""marechaussée"" (an alternate French word for "gendarmerie"). At that time, the "marechaussee" was part of the army ("landmacht"). The "marechaussee" performed police duties for the army, as well as civilian police work as a part of the national police ("rijkspolitie"). The "marechaussee" formed the only police force in many small cities like Venlo, especially in the southern provinces of Limburg and North Brabant. As of 1998, the "marechaussee" is a separate branch of the Dutch military, and is assigned both military and civilian police tasks.

Marshal is a term used in several official titles in various branches of society. As marshals became trusted members of the courts of Medieval Europe, the title grew in reputation. During the last few centuries, it has been used for elevated offices, such as in military rank and civilian law enforcement.

Der Marschall, auch Feldmarschall, ist ein hoher militärischer Dienstgrad. Symbol des Ranges war in Deutschland der Marschallsstab, der formal mitverliehen wurde; der Ausdruck kann aber auch ein zeremonielles Hofamt bezeichnen. Dem Rang des Feldmarschalls entsprach in der Marine jener des "Großadmirals".


Taxonomy.

In the history of the carnivores, the family Canidae is represented by the two extinct subfamilies designated as Hesperocyoninae and Borophaginae, and the extant subfamily Caninae. This subfamily includes all living canids and their most recent fossil relatives. All living canids as a group form a dental monophyletic relationship with the extinct borophagines, with both groups having a bicuspid (two points) on the lower carnassial talonid, which gives this tooth an additional ability in mastication. This, together with the development of a distinct entoconid cusp and the broadening of the talonid of the first lower molar, and the corresponding enlargement of the talon of the upper first molar and reduction of its parastyle distinguish these late Cenozoic canids and are the essential differences that identify their clade.  The cat-like feliformia and dog-like caniforms emerged within the Carnivoramorpha Around 45–42 Mya (million years ago). The Canidae first appeared in North America during the Late Eocene (37.8-33.9 Ma). They did not reach Eurasia until the Miocene or to South America until the Late Pliocene.

Phylogenetic relationships.

This cladogram shows the phylogenetic position of canids within Caniformia, based on fossil finds:

Evolution.

The Canidae today includes a diverse group of some 34 species ranging in size from the maned wolf with its long limbs to the short-legged bush dog. Modern canids inhabit forests, tundra, savannahs, and deserts throughout tropical and temperate parts of the world. The evolutionary relationships between the species have been studied in the past using morphological approaches, but more recently, molecular studies have enabled the investigation of phylogenetics relationships. In some species, genetic divergence has been suppressed by the high level of gene flow between different populations and where the species have hybridized, large hybrid zones exist.

Eocene epoch.

Carnivorans evolved from miacoids about 55 Mya during the late Paleocene. Some 5 million years later, the carnivorans split into two main divisions: caniforms (dog-like) and feliforms (cat-like). By 40 Mya, the first member of the dog family proper had arisen. Called "Prohesperocyon wilsoni", its fossilized remains have been found in what is now the southwestern part of Texas. The chief features which identify it as a canid include the loss of the upper third molar (part of a trend toward a more shearing bite), and the structure of the middle ear which has an enlarged bulla (the hollow bony structure protecting the delicate parts of the ear). "Prohesperocyon" probably had slightly longer limbs than its predecessors, and also had parallel and closely touching toes which differ markedly from the splayed arrangements of the digits in bears.  The canid family soon subdivided into three subfamilies, each of which diverged during the Eocene: Hesperocyoninae (about 39.74–15 Mya), Borophaginae (about 34–2 Mya), and Caninae (about 34–0 Mya). The Caninae are the only surviving subfamily and all present-day canids, including wolves, foxes, coyotes, jackals, and domestic dogs. Members of each subfamily showed an increase in body mass with time and some exhibited specialized hypercarnivorous diets that made them prone to extinction.

Oligocene epoch.

By the Oligocene, all three subfamilies of canids (Hesperocyoninae, Borophaginae, and Caninae) had appeared in the fossil records of North America. The earliest and most primitive branch of the Canidae was the Hesperocyoninae lineage, which included the coyote-sized "Mesocyon" of the Oligocene (38–24 Mya). These early canids probably evolved for the fast pursuit of prey in a grassland habitat; they resembled modern viverrids in appearance. Hesperocyonines eventually became extinct in the middle Miocene. One of the early members of the Hesperocyonines, the genus "Hesperocyon", gave rise to "Archaeocyon" and "Leptocyon". These branches led to the borophagine and canine radiations.

Miocene epoch.

Around 9–10 mya during the Late Miocene, the "Canis", "Urocyon", and "Vulpes" genera expanded from southwestern North America, where the canine radiation began. The success of these canines was related to the development of lower carnassials that were capable of both mastication and shearing. Around 8 Mya, the Beringian land bridge allowed members of the genus "Eucyon" a means to enter Asia and they continued on to colonize Europe.

Pliocene epoch.

During the Pliocene, around 4–5 Mya, "Canis lepophagus" appeared in North America. This was small and sometimes coyote-like. Others were wolf-like in characteristics. "C. latrans" (the coyote) is theorized to have descended from "C. lepophagus".  The formation of the Isthmus of Panama, about 3 Mya, joined South America to North America, allowing canids to invade South America, where they diversified. However, the most recent common ancestor of the South American canids lived in North America some 4 Mya and more than one incursion across the new land bridge is likely. One of the resulting lineages consisted of the gray fox ("Urocyon cinereoargentus") and the now-extinct dire wolf ("Canis dirus"). The other lineage consisted of the so-called South American endemic species; the maned wolf ("Chrysocyon brachyurus"), the short-eared dog ("Atelocynus microtis"), the bush dog ("Speothos venaticus"), the crab-eating fox ("Cerdocyon thous"), and the South American foxes ("Lycalopex" spp.). The monophyly of this group has been established by molecular means.

Pleistocene epoch.

During the Pleistocene, the North American wolf line appeared, with "Canis edwardii", clearly identifiable as a wolf, and "Canis rufus" appeared, possibly a direct descendant of "C. edwardii". Around 0.8 Mya, "Canis ambrusteri" emerged in North America. A large wolf, it was found all over North and Central America and was eventually supplanted by its descendant, the dire wolf, which then spread into South America during the Late Pleistocene.  By 0.3 Mya, a number of subspecies of the gray wolf ("C. lupus") had developed and had spread throughout Europe and northern Asia. The gray wolf colonized North America during the late Rancholabrean era across the Bering land bridge, with at least three separate invasions, with each one consisting of one or more different Eurasian gray wolf clades. MtDNA studies have shown that there are at least four extant "C. lupus" lineages. The dire wolf shared its habitat with the gray wolf, but became extinct in a large-scale extinction event that occurred around 11,500 years ago. It may have been more of a scavenger than a hunter; its molars appear to be adapted for crushing bones and it may have gone extinct as a result of the extinction of the large herbivorous animals on whose carcasses it relied.  In 2015, a study of mitochondrial genome sequences and whole-genome nuclear sequences of African and Eurasian canids indicated that extant wolf-like canids have colonized Africa from Eurasia at least five times throughout the Pliocene and Pleistocene, which is consistent with fossil evidence suggesting that much of African canid fauna diversity resulted from the immigration of Eurasian ancestors, likely coincident with Plio-Pleistocene climatic oscillations between arid and humid conditions. When comparing the African and Eurasian golden jackals, the study concluded that the African specimens represented a distinct monophyletic lineage that should be recognized as a separate species, "Canis anthus" (African golden wolf). According to a phylogeny derived from nuclear sequences, the Eurasian golden jackal ("Canis aureus") diverged from the wolf/coyote lineage 1.9 Mya, but the African golden wolf separated 1.3 Mya. Mitochondrial genome sequences indicated the Ethiopian wolf diverged from the wolf/coyote lineage slightly prior to that.  Wild canids are found on every continent except Antarctica, and inhabit a wide range of different habitats, including deserts, mountains, forests, and grasslands. They vary in size from the fennec fox, which may be as little as in length and weigh, to the gray wolf, which may be up to long, and can weigh up to. Only a few species are arboreal—the gray fox, the closely related island fox and the raccoon dog habitually climb trees.  All canids have a similar basic form, as exemplified by the gray wolf, although the relative length of muzzle, limbs, ears, and tail vary considerably between species. With the exceptions of the bush dog, the raccoon dog and some domestic breeds of "Canis lupus", canids have relatively long legs and lithe bodies, adapted for chasing prey. The tails are bushy and the length and quality of the pelage vary with the season. The muzzle portion of the skull is much more elongated than that of the cat family. The zygomatic arches are wide, there is a transverse lambdoidal ridge at the rear of the cranium and in some species, a sagittal crest running from front to back. The bony orbits around the eye never form a complete ring and the auditory bullae are smooth and rounded. Females have three to seven pairs of mammae.  All canids are digitigrade, meaning they walk on their toes. The tip of the nose is always naked, as are the cushioned pads on the soles of the feet. These latter consist of a single pad behind the tip of each toe and a more-or-less three-lobed central pad under the roots of the digits. Hairs grow between the pads and in the Arctic fox, the sole of the foot is densely covered with hair at some times of the year. With the exception of the four-toed African wild dog ("Lycaon pictus"), five toes are on the forefeet, but the pollex (thumb) is reduced and does not reach the ground. On the hind feet are four toes, but in some domestic dogs, a fifth vestigial toe, known as a dewclaw, is sometimes present, but has no anatomical connection to the rest of the foot. The slightly curved nails are not retractile and more-or-less blunt.  The penis in male canids is supported by a bone called the baculum. It also contains a structure at the base called the bulbus glandis, which helps to create a copulatory tie during mating, locking the animals together for up to an hour. Young canids are born blind, with their eyes opening a few weeks after birth. All living canids (Caninae) have a ligament analogous to the nuchal ligament of ungulates used to maintain the posture of the head and neckwith little active muscle exertion; this ligament allows them to conserve energy while running long distances following scent trails with their nose to the ground. However, based on skeletal details of the neck, at least some of the Borophaginae (such as "Aelurodon") are believed to have lacked this ligament.

Dentition.

Dentition relates to the arrangement of teeth in the mouth, with the dental notation for the upper-jaw teeth using the upper-case letters I to denote incisors, C for canines, P for premolars, and M for molars, and the lower-case letters i, c, p and m to denote the mandible teeth. Teeth are numbered using one side of the mouth and from the front of the mouth to the back. In carnivores, the upper premolar P4 and the lower molar m1 form the carnassials that are used together in a scissor-like action to shear the muscle and tendon of prey.  Canids use their premolars for cutting and crushing except for the upper fourth premolar P4 (the upper carnassial) that is only used for cutting. They use their molars for grinding except for the lower first molar m1 (the lower carnassial) that has evolved for both cutting and grinding depending on the candid's dietary adaptation. On the lower carnassial, the trigonid is used for slicing and the talonid is used for grinding. The ratio between the trigonid and the talonid indicates a carnivore's dietary habits, with a larger trigonid indicating a hypercarnivore and a larger talonid indicating a more omnivorous diet. Because of its low variability, the length of the lower carnassial is used to provide an estimate of a carnivore's body size.  A study of the estimated bite force at the canine teeth of a large sample of living and fossil mammalian predators, when adjusted for their body mass, found that for placental mammals the bite force at the canines was greatest in the extinct dire wolf (163), followed among the modern canids by the four hypercarnivores that often prey on animals larger than themselves: the African wild dog (142), the gray wolf (136), the dhole (112), and the dingo (108). The bite force at the carnassials showed a similar trend to the canines. A predator's largest prey size is strongly influenced by its biomechanical limits.  Most canids have 42 teeth, with a dental formula of:. The bush dog has only one upper molar with two below, the dhole has two above and two below. and the bat-eared fox has three or four upper molars and four lower ones. The molar teeth are strong in most species, allowing the animals to crack open bone to reach the marrow. The deciduous, or baby teeth, formula in canids is, molars being completely absent.

Life history.

Social behavior.

Almost all canids are social animals and live together in groups. In general, they are territorial or have a home range and sleep in the open, using their dens only for breeding and sometimes in bad weather. In most foxes, and in many of the true dogs, a male and female pair work together to hunt and to raise their young. Gray wolves and some of the other larger canids live in larger groups called packs. African wild dogs have packs which may consist of 20 to 40 animals and packs of fewer than about seven individuals may be incapable of successful reproduction. Hunting in packs has the advantage that larger prey items can be tackled. Some species form packs or live in small family groups depending on the circumstances, including the type of available food. In most species, some individuals live on their own. Within a canid pack, there is a system of dominance so that the strongest, most experienced animals lead the pack. In most cases, the dominant male and female are the only pack members to breed.  Canids communicate with each other by scent signals, by visual clues and gestures, and by vocalizations such as growls, barks, and howls. In most cases, groups have a home territory from which they drive out other conspecifics. The territory is marked by leaving urine scent marks, which warn trespassing individuals. Social behavior is also mediated by secretions from glands on the upper surface of the tail near its root and from the anal glands.

Reproduction.

Canids as a group exhibit several reproductive traits that are uncommon among mammals as a whole. They are typically monogamous, provide paternal care to their offspring, have reproductive cycles with lengthy proestral and dioestral phases and have a copulatory tie during mating. They also retain adult offspring in the social group, suppressing the ability of these to breed while making use of the alloparental care they can provide to help raise the next generation of offspring.  During the proestral period, increased levels of oestradiol make the female attractive to the male. There is a rise in progesterone during the oestral phase and the female is now receptive. Following this, the level of oestradiol fluctuates and there is a lengthy dioestrous phase during which the female is pregnant. Pseudo-pregnancy frequently occurs in canids that have ovulated but failed to conceive. A period of anoestrus follows pregnancy or pseudo-pregnancy, there being only one oestral period during each breeding season. Small and medium-sized canids mostly have a gestation period of 50 to 60 days, while larger species average 60 to 65 days. The time of year in which the breeding season occurs is related to the length of day, as has been demonstrated in the case of several species that have been translocated across the equator to the other hemisphere and experiences a six-month shift of phase. Domestic dogs and certain small canids in captivity may come into oestrus more frequently, perhaps because the photoperiod stimulus breaks down under conditions of artificial lighting.  The size of a litter varies, with from one to 16 or more pups being born. The young are born small, blind and helpless and require a long period of parental care. They are kept in a den, most often dug into the ground, for warmth and protection. When the young begin eating solid food, both parents, and often other pack members, bring food back for them from the hunt. This is most often vomited up from the adult's stomach. Where such pack involvement in the feeding of the litter occurs, the breeding success rate is higher than is the case where females split from the group and rear their pups in isolation. Young canids may take a year to mature and learn the skills they need to survive. In some species, such as the African wild dog, male offspring usually remain in the natal pack, while females disperse as a group and join another small group of the opposite sex to form a new pack.

Canids and humans.

One canid, the domestic dog, entered into a partnership with humans a long time ago. The dog was the first domesticated species. The archaeological record shows the first undisputed dog remains buried beside humans 14,700 years ago, with disputed remains occurring 36,000 years ago. These dates imply that the earliest dogs arose in the time of human hunter-gatherers and not agriculturists.  The fact that wolves are pack animals with cooperative social structures may have been the reason that the relationship developed. Humans benefited from the canid's loyalty, cooperation, teamwork, alertness and tracking abilities, while the wolf may have benefited from the use of weapons to tackle larger prey and the sharing of food. Humans and dogs may have evolved together.  Among canids, only the gray wolf has widely been known to prey on humans. Nonetheless, at least two records of coyotes killing humans have been published, and at least two other reports of golden jackals killing children. Human beings have trapped and hunted some canid species for their fur and some, especially the gray wolf, the coyote and the red fox, for sport. Canids such as the dhole are now endangered in the wild because of persecution, habitat loss, a depletion of ungulate prey species and transmission of diseases from domestic dogs.

Canidae (; from Latin, "canis", "dog") is a biological family of dog-like carnivorans. A member of this family is called a canid. There are three subfamilies found within the canid family, which are the extinct Borophaginae and Hesperocyoninae, and the extant "Caninae". The "Caninae" are known as canines, which includes domestic dogs, wolves, foxes and other extant and extinct species.

Die Hunde (Canidae) sind eine Familie innerhalb der Überfamilie der Hundeartigen (Canoidea). Zu den Hunden gehören beispielsweise die Füchse, verschiedene als „Schakal“ bezeichnete Arten, Kojoten und Wölfe, deren domestizierte Formen, die Haushunde, die als Namensgeber für die Gruppe dienten.


Life and career.

Born in Hanover, Germany, he was a radio operator and artillery observer in the Wehrmacht during World War II. By war's end, he held the rank of "Leutnant der Reserve" (reserve officer).  He founded "Der Spiegel" in 1946/1947, which became (and still is) the most important investigative weekly magazine in Germany. During the "Spiegel" scandal in 1961 and 1962, he was arrested and jailed for 103 days, until Franz Josef Strauß was forced to resign as Minister of Defense under continuing protest from the public and the resignation of the FDP cabinet members.  Augstein became a member of the "Bundestag" in 1972 for the Free Democrats for North Rhine-Westphalia, but resigned only a year later, to focus on his duties as a journalist. It has been speculated that he considered himself much more influential with his magazine than he ever was in the legislature.  An amateur historian, Augstein published several successful books, among them "Preußens Friedrich und die Deutschen" (1981, ), "Otto von Bismarck" (1990, ), and, about his lifetime opponent, "Überlebensgroß Herr Strauß. Ein Spiegelbild" (1983, ). During the "Historikerstreit" of 1986-1987, Augstein was fierce in his criticism of Ernst Nolte and Andreas Hillgruber for creating what Augstein called the "New Auschwitz Lie". A controversial statement by Augstein was his description of Hillgruber as a "constitutional Nazi". Augstein called for Hillgruber to be fired from his post at the University of Cologne for being a "constitutional Nazi", and argued that there was no moral difference between Hillgruber and other "constitutional Nazis" like Hans Globke. Augstein wrote in opposition to Nolte that:Not for nothing did Nolte let us know that the annihilation of the kulaks, the peasant middle class, had taken place from 1927 to 1930, "before" Hitler seized power, and that the destruction of the Old Bolsheviks and countless other victims of Stalin's insanity had happened between 1934 and 1938, "before" the beginning of Hitler's war. But Stalin's insanity was, in contrast to Hitler's insanity, a realist's insanity. After all this drivel comes one thing worth discussing: whether Stalin pumped up Hitler and whether Hitler pumped up Stalin. This can be discussed, but the discussion does not address the issue. It is indeed possible that Stalin was pleased by how Hitler treated his bosom buddy Ernst Röhm and the entire SA leadership in 1934. It is not possible that Hitler began his war against Poland because he felt threatened by Stalin's regime... One does not have to agree in everything with Konrad Adenauer. But in the light of the crass tendency to deny the co-responsibility of the Prussian-German Wehrmacht ("The oath! The oath!") ones gains an understanding for the point of the view of the nonpatriot Adenauer that Hitler's "Reich" was the continuation of the Prussian-German regime  Since Stefan Aust became editor-in-chief of "Der Spiegel," Augstein retreated more and more to private life, although he continued to publish commentaries regularly in the magazine almost until his death. For his lifetime achievements for peace, civil liberties and freedom of the press he was honoured with the title "Journalist of the century" in 2000 by 101 German journalists. Augstein was among International Press Institute's 50 World Press Freedom Hero laureates in 2000 for his role in the Spiegel scandal.  Augstein married five times: including Maria Carlsson, a German translator in 1968 and until their divorce in 1970. The couple had 2 children; Franziska Augstein, Jakob Augstein. His fifth marriage, solemnized in Tonder on 13 October 2000, was to his long-standing companion, the Hamburg art dealer Anna Maria Hürtgen.  He died on 7 November 2002 from pneumonia and was buried on the island of Sylt.

Rudolf Karl Augstein (5 November 1923 – 7 November 2002) was one of the most influential German journalists, founder and part-owner of "Der Spiegel" magazine.

Rudolf Karl Augstein (* 5. November 1923 in Hannover; † 7. November 2002 in Hamburg; Pseudonyme unter anderem "Moritz Pfeil" oder "Jens Daniel") war ein deutscher Journalist, Verleger, Publizist und der Gründer des Nachrichtenmagazins "Der Spiegel", dessen Herausgeber er bis zu seinem Tode blieb.


Geography.

Location.

Dornbirn is located in western Vorarlberg at 437 metres above sea level in the Alpine Rhine Valley, at the foot of the Karren mountain, part of the Bregenz Forest Mountain chain at the edge of the Eastern Alps. It is near the borders to Switzerland, Germany and Liechtenstein. The Dornbirner Ach river flows through the town and later into Lake Constance.

Municipal structure.

Dornbirn once consisted only of 4 "quarters": Markt, Hatlerdorf, Oberdorf and Haselstauden. By the 20th century Dornbirn had annexed two formerly independent communities to the west: Rohrbach and Schoren, thus bringing the total number of districts to 6.

Neighbouring municipalities.

The Town of Dornbirn constitutes almost 70% of the surface of the district Dornbirn and has numerous borders to other municipalities. As well as bordering on the two other municipalities in the Dornbirn district (Hohenems and Lustenau), the town shares borders with 15 municipalities of the Bregenz District: (Lauterach, Wolfurt, Schwarzach, Bildstein, Alberschwende, Schwarzenberg, Reuthe, Mellau, Damüls) and four with the Feldkirch District: (Laterns, Zwischenwasser, Viktorsberg, Fraxern).

History.

The earliest evidence of human presence in the Dornbirn area can be dated from the Mesolithic era. The name "Dornbirn" derives from 'torrin puirron', meaning the 'Settlement of Torro' (the name of an Alemannic farmer living there) and thus has nothing to do with "pears" (German "Birnen"), although this fruit is prominently portrayed on the town emblem. This name is mentioned for the first time in 895, in a document from St. Gallen (Switzerland).  Dornbirn became part of the Habsburg Monarchy in 1380. In 1793 it was elevated to a market community. It was not given municipal status until 1901. In 1932 the mountain village of Ebnit was annexed. In 1969 Dornbirn became the seat of the new Dornbirn district administrative authority.

Historic marginalia.

1881: the first phone in the K&K empire was inaugurated by Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria on 8/10/1881

Politics.

Municipal Council.

The Dornbirn Municipal Council has 36 seats and the following party mandates:  The current mayor (since 2013) is Andrea Kaufmann (ÖVP).

International relations.

Dornbirn has town partnerships with

Culture.

Museums.

The City Museum Dornbirn is Dornbirn's local museum about the city's history, early photography, traditional crafts, agriculture and the former flourishing textile industry.  The FLATZ Museum sees itself as a forum for dealing with artistic impulses and contemporary positions. It shows changing exhibitions designed by international guest curators with a focus on photographic art, organises readings, lecture series, discussions and performances.  Inatura is an interactive natural history museum. The museum includes a documentation center about the nature of Vorarlberg as well as an interactive exhibition.  The Mohren Biererlebniswelt is a beer museum of Vorarlberg's oldest brewery Mohrenbrauerei. It shows traditional brewery equipment and gives insight in the history of beer brewing. Additionally, it hosts workshops on beer.  The Rolls-Royce Museum is a privately owned automobile museum. It has been said to have the world's largest collection of Rolls-Royce cars.  ART BODENSEE is an annual meeting point for artists, art collectors and appreciators. Since 2001, it displays the works of international artists.

Architecture.

The Messestadion is an indoor sporting arena located in Dornbirn, and home to the local ice hockey team.  An example for modern Vorarlberg architecture is the LifeCycle-Tower ONE (LCT ONE), a role model in architecture for environmental and energy efficiency. It is the first modular wooden hybrid complex of eight floors and was built in 2012.

Economy.

Vorarlberg's regional studio of the ORF (Austrian Broadcasting Corporation) is located in Dornbirn.  Zumtobel Group is an ATX traded company based in Dornbirn. Many other large companies are situated there. The town was formerly a major centre of the textile industry, which has been in decline since the 1980s.  The Mohrenbrauerei August Huber is Vorarlberg's oldest brewery and market leader with a total market share of 47.2 percent in the gastronomy and retail sectors.

Transport.

Located in the middle of the Rhine valley, Dornbirn is an important junction of regional and interregional bus lines, connecting Bregenz to the north, Feldkirch to the south, and the Bregenz Forest to the east. The A14 "Rheintal" freeway/motorway (Autobahn) passes by to the west. The "Achrain" tunnel, opened in 2009, directly connects Dornbirn/Haselstauden with the Bregenz Forest - Alberschwende region. The town has an excellent network of municipal buses.  Dornbirn's railway station connects is an important stop for all trains from west to east Austria.  A small airport is located at nearby Hohenems.

Education.

Educational institutions in Dornbirn include the Vorarlberg University of Applied Sciences, two General Education Secondary Schools, and a Higher Technical Vocational College ("Höhere Technische Lehranstalt").  The "Vorarlberg University of Applied Sciences" (German: Fachhochschule Vorarlberg) was originally founded as technical school in 1989. It achieved status of an officially recognized university in 1999. To date, it is the only institution of higher education in Vorarlberg. It currently offers Bachelor's and master's degrees in the fields of Business, Engineering & Technology, Design and Social Work. About 1350 students have enrolled for the term 2018/19.

Sports.

One of the most important sportive institutions in Dornbirn is the RHC Dornbirn, one of the most powerful Austrian Rink Hockey teams. In 2010 it hosted the 2010 Rink Hockey Men's B World Championship.  Baseball & Softball Club Dornbirn was founded in 1990, and has won the Austrian title twice. BSC Dornbirn consists of one youth team, two men's teams, and two women's teams.  Dornbirn hosted the World Gymnaestrada event in 2007 and again in 2019.

Dornbirn is a city in the Austrian state of Vorarlberg. It is the administrative centre for the district of Dornbirn, which also includes the town of Hohenems, and the market town Lustenau.

Dornbirn (, lokales Vorarlbergerisch: []) ist die bevölkerungsreichste Stadtgemeinde im österreichischen Bundesland Vorarlberg und zugleich Sitz der Bezirkshauptmannschaft Dornbirn. Die Stadt ist ein wirtschaftliches Zentrum im Norden des westlichsten Bundeslandes Österreichs und ein regionaler Verkehrsknotenpunkt. Mit ihren Einwohnern (Stand ) ist Dornbirn die zehntgrößte Stadt Österreichs und die größte ohne eigenes Statut.


The instrument.

A transposing instrument pitched in the key of B, modern soprano saxophones with a high F key have a range from B to F and are therefore pitched one octave above the tenor saxophone. Some saxophones have additional keys, allowing them to play an additional F and G at the top of the range. These extra keys are commonly found on more modern saxophones. Additionally, skilled players can make use of the altissimo register, which allows them to play even higher. There is also a soprano pitched in C, which is less common and until recently had not been made since around 1940.  The soprano saxophone may sometimes be confused with the B clarinet, although the clarinet can play an augmented fourth lower and over a fifth higher. Additionally, the saxophone is made of brass, and is gold while the clarinet is either dark blue or black. Due to the relatively wide bore of the soprano, it is less forgiving with respect to intonation than the lower saxophones, though an experienced player will use alternate fingerings or vary breath support, tongue position or embouchure to compensate. Professional players will use the technique of voicing to fix problems with intonation. Due to its similarity in tone to the oboe, the soprano saxophone is sometimes used as a substitute for it.  In addition to straight sopranos, there are also slightly and fully curved sopranos. The fully curved variety looks much like a small alto saxophone with a straighter crook. There is some debate over the effect of the straight and curved neck, with some players believing that a curved neck on a soprano gives it a warmer, less nasal tone. The soprano has all the keys of other saxophone models (with the exception of the extra 'A' on some baritones and altos) and some (e.g. those made by Yanagisawa, Selmer, and Yamaha) may have a top 'G' key next to the F key.  Soprano saxophone mouthpieces are available in various designs, allowing players to tailor their tone as required.  In 2001, François Louis created the aulochrome, a woodwind instrument made of two joined soprano saxophones, which can be played either in unison or in harmony.

In classical music.

The soprano saxophone is mainly used as a solo and chamber instrument in classical music, though it is occasionally used in a concert band or orchestra. It is included in the saxophone quartet and plays a lead role. Many solo pieces have been written for it by composers such as Heitor Villa-Lobos, Alan Hovhaness, Jennifer Higdon, Takashi Yoshimatsu, Charles Koechlin, John Mackey, Miklos Maros, Marc Mellits, Jennifer Higdon, Belinda Reynolds.  As an orchestral instrument, it has been used in several compositions. It was used by Richard Strauss in his Sinfonia Domestica, where included in the music are parts for four saxophones, including a soprano saxophone in C. It is also used in Maurice Ravel's "Boléro" and has a featured solo directly following the tenor saxophone's solo. Vincent d'Indy includes a soprano in his opera Fervaal.  Notable classical soprano saxophonists include Carina Rascher, Christine Rall, Michael Hernandez, Eugene Rousseau, Kenneth Tse, Jean-Yves Fourmeau, Jean-Denis Michat, Vincent David, Rob Buckland, John Harle, Mariano Garcia, Claude Delangle, Arno Bornkamp, Timothy McAllister and Christopher Creviston.

In jazz.

While not as popular as the alto and tenor saxes in jazz, the soprano saxophone has played a role in its evolution. Greats of the jazz soprano sax include 1930s virtuoso Sidney Bechet, 1950s innovator Steve Lacy, and, beginning with his landmark 1960 album "My Favorite Things", John Coltrane.  Other well known jazz players include: Wayne Shorter, Paul McCandless, Johnny Hodges, Walter Parazaider, Oliver Nelson, Bob Berg, Joe Farrell, Lucky Thompson, Sonny Fortune, Anthony Braxton, Sam Rivers, Gary Bartz, Dan Forshaw, Bennie Maupin, Branford Marsalis, Kirk Whalum, Jan Garbarek, Danny Markovitch of Marbin, Paul Winter, Dave Liebman, Evan Parker, Sam Newsome, Kenny G and Charlie Mariano (including in his work with bassist Eberhard Weber).  Other notable soprano saxophonists include Joshua Redman, Jay Beckenstein, Dave Koz, Grover Washington Jr., Ronnie Laws, LeRoi Moore Sarah Skinner of Red Dirt Skinners and Nigerian Afrobeat multi-instrumentalist Fela Kuti.

In popular culture.

Similar to the flute, the soprano saxophone is culturally associated with smooth jazz and easy listening. Thus, it is often the subject of various instrumental "background music" played in elevators, hotels, supermarkets, shopping malls and other indoor facilities.  In some popular music interpretations, the soprano saxophone is commonly paired with FM-type electric piano and electronic drum sounds to create a smooth, R&B-like arrangement. It is also popular in Japanese music, most commonly within the AOR and "city pop" genre.

The soprano saxophone is a higher-register variety of the saxophone, a woodwind instrument, invented in the 1840s. The soprano is the third smallest member of the saxophone family, which consists (from smallest to largest) of the soprillo, sopranino, soprano, alto, tenor, baritone, bass, contrabass saxophone and tubax. Soprano saxophones are the smallest saxophone in common use.

Ein Sopransaxophon ist ein Saxophon der hohen Lage in B. Es besitzt einen näselnden bis durchdringenden, sehr biegsamen Klang, der sich gut für solistische Arbeit oder zur Führung eines Satzes eignet, die Bedienung aber für den Anfänger deutlich erschwert. Der Tonumfang beträgt bei dem in B gestimmten Instrument as – es ( – f). Moderne Instrumente haben oft noch Klappen, die den Tonumfang bis klingend e oder gar f erweitern, ohne Überblastechniken (Altissimo) einsetzen zu müssen. Das Sopransaxophon (in B) klingt zwei Halbtöne (eine große Sekunde) tiefer als notiert und ist somit ein transponierendes Instrument.


History.

Background.

The MP3 lossy audio data compression algorithm takes advantage of a perceptual limitation of human hearing called auditory masking. In 1894, the American physicist Alfred M. Mayer reported that a tone could be rendered inaudible by another tone of lower frequency. In 1959, Richard Ehmer described a complete set of auditory curves regarding this phenomenon. Between 1967 and 1974, Eberhard F. Zwicker did work in the areas of tuning and masking of critical frequency bands, which in turn built on the fundamental research in the area from Harvey Fletcher and his collaborators at Bell Labs.  Perceptual coding was first used for speech coding compression with linear predictive coding (LPC), which has origins in the work of Fumitada Itakura (Nagoya University) and Shuzo Saito (Nippon Telegraph and Telephone) in 1966. In 1978, Bishnu S. Atal and Manfred R. Schroeder at Bell Labs proposed an LPC speech codec, called adaptive predictive coding, that used a psychoacoustic coding algorithm exploiting the masking properties of the human ear. Further optimisation by Schroeder and Atal with J.L. Hall was later reported in a 1979

Development.

The genesis of the MP3 technology is fully described in a paper from Professor Hans Musmann, who chaired the ISO MPEG Audio group for several years. In December 1988, MPEG called for an audio coding standard. In June 1989, 14 audio coding algorithms were submitted. Because of certain similarities between these coding proposals, they were clustered into four development groups. The first group was MUSICAM, by Matsushita, CCETT, ITT and Philips. The second group was ASPEC, by AT&T, France Telecom, Fraunhofer Gesellschaft, Deutsche and Thomson-Brandt. The third group was ATAC, by Fujitsu, JVC, NEC and Sony. And the fourth group was SB-ADPCM, by NTT and BTRL.  The immediate predecessors of MP3 were "Optimum Coding in the

Standardization.

In 1991, there were two available proposals that were assessed for an MPEG audio standard: MUSICAM (Masking pattern adapted Universal Subband Integrated Coding And Multiplexing) and ASPEC (Adaptive Spectral Perceptual Entropy Coding). The MUSICAM technique, proposed by Philips (Netherlands), CCETT (France), the Institute for Broadcast Technology (Germany), and Matsushita (Japan), was chosen due to its simplicity and error robustness, as well as for its high level of computational efficiency. The MUSICAM format, based on sub-band coding, became the basis for the MPEG Audio compression format, incorporating, for example, its frame structure, header format, sample rates, etc.  While much of MUSICAM technology and ideas were incorporated into the definition of MPEG Audio Layer I and Layer II, the filter bank alone and the data structure based on 1152 samples framing (file format and byte oriented stream) of MUSICAM remained in the Layer III (MP3) format, as part of the computationally inefficient hybrid filter bank. Under the chairmanship of Professor Musmann of the Leibniz University Hannover, the editing of the standard was delegated to Leon van de Kerkhof (Netherlands), Gerhard

Going public.

A reference simulation software implementation, written in the C language and later known as "ISO 11172-5", was developed (in 1991–1996) by the members of the ISO MPEG Audio committee in order to produce bit compliant MPEG Audio files (Layer 1, Layer 2, Layer 3). It was approved as a committee draft of ISO/IEC technical report in March 1994 and printed as document CD 11172-5 in April 1994. It was approved as a draft technical report (DTR/DIS) in November 1994, finalized in 1996 and published as international standard ISO/IEC TR 11172-5:1998 in 1998. The reference software in C language was later published as a freely available ISO standard. Working in non-real time on a number of operating systems, it was able to demonstrate the first real

Fraunhofer example implementation.

A hacker named SoloH discovered the source code of the "dist10" MPEG reference implementation shortly after the release on the servers of the University of Erlangen. He developed a higher-quality version and spread it on the internet. This code started the widespread CD ripping and digital music distribution as MP3 over the internet.

Internet distribution.

In the second half of the 1990s, MP3 files began to spread on the Internet, often via underground pirated song networks. The first known experiment in Internet distribution was organized in the early 1990s by the Internet Underground Music Archive, better known by the acronym IUMA. After some experiments using uncompressed audio files, this archive started to deliver on the native worldwide low speed Internet some compressed MPEG Audio files using the MP2 (Layer II) format and later on used MP3 files when the standard was fully completed. The popularity of MP3s began to rise rapidly with the advent of Nullsoft's audio player Winamp, released in 1997. In 1998, the first portable solid state digital audio player

Design.

File structure.

An MP3 file is made up of MP3 frames, which consist of a header and a data block. This sequence of frames is called an elementary stream. Due to the "bit reservoir", frames are not independent items and cannot usually be extracted on arbitrary frame boundaries. The MP3 Data blocks contain the (compressed) audio information in terms of frequencies and amplitudes. The diagram shows that the MP3 Header consists of a sync word,

Encoding and decoding.

The MP3 encoding algorithm is generally split into four parts. Part 1 divides the audio signal into smaller pieces, called frames, and a modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT) filter is then performed on the output. Part 2 passes the sample into a 1024-point fast Fourier transform (FFT), then the psychoacoustic model is applied and another MDCT filter is performed on the output. Part 3 quantifies and encodes each sample, known as noise allocation, which adjusts itself in order to meet the bit rate and sound masking requirements. Part 4 formats the bitstream, called an audio

Quality.

When performing lossy audio encoding, such as creating an MP3 data stream, there is a trade-off between the amount of data generated and the sound quality of the results. The person generating an MP3 selects a bit rate, which specifies how many kilobits per second of audio is desired. The higher the bit rate, the larger the MP3 data stream will be, and, generally, the closer it will sound to the original recording. With too low a bit rate, compression artifacts (i.e., sounds that were not present in the original recording) may be audible in the reproduction. Some audio is hard to compress because of its randomness and sharp attacks. When this type of

Bit rate.

Bitrate is the product of the sample rate and number of bits per sample used to encode the music. CD audio is 44100 samples per second. The number of bits per sample also depends on the number of audio channels. CD is stereo and 16 bits per channel. So, multiplying 44100 by 32 gives 1411200—the bitrate of uncompressed CD digital audio. MP3 was designed to encode this 1411 kbit/s data at 320 kbit/s or less. As less complex passages are detected by MP3 algorithms then lower bitrates may be employed. When using MPEG-2 instead of MPEG-1, MP3 supports only lower sampling rates (16000, 22050 or 24000 samples per second) and offers choices of bitrate as low as 8 kbit/s but no higher than 160 kbit/s. By lowering the sampling rate, MPEG-2 layer III removes all frequencies above half the new sampling rate that may have been present in the source audio.  As shown in these two tables, 14 selected bit rates

Ancillary data.

The ancillary data field can be used to store user defined data. The ancillary data is optional and the number of bits available is not explicitly given.

Metadata.

A "tag" in an audio file is a section of the file that contains metadata such as the title, artist, album, track number or other information about the file's contents. The MP3 standards do not define tag formats for MP3 files, nor is there a standard container format that would support metadata and obviate the need for tags. However, several "de facto" standards for tag formats exist. As of 2010, the most widespread are ID3v1 and ID3v2, and the more recently introduced APEv2. These tags are

Licensing, ownership, and legislation.

The basic MP3 decoding and encoding technology is patent-free in the European Union, all patents having expired there by 2012 at the latest. In the United States, the technology became substantially patent-free on 16 April 2017 (see below). MP3 patents expired in the US between 2007 and 2017. In the past, many organizations have claimed ownership of patents related to MP3 decoding or encoding. These claims led to a number of legal threats and actions from a variety of sources. As a result, uncertainty about which patents must have been licensed in order to create MP3 products without committing patent infringement in countries that allow software patents was a common feature of the early stages of adoption of the technology.  The initial near-complete MPEG-1 standard (parts 1, 2 and 3) was publicly available on 6 December 1991 as ISO CD 11172. In most countries, patents cannot be filed after prior art has been made public, and patents expire 20 years after the initial filing date, which can be up to 12 months later for filings in other countries. As a result, patents required to implement MP3 expired in most countries by December 2012, 21 years after the publication of ISO CD 11172.  An exception is the United States, where patents in force but filed prior to 8 June 1995 expire after the later of 17 years from the issue date or 20 years from the priority date. A lengthy patent prosecution process may result in a patent issuing much later than normally expected (see submarine patents). The various MP3-related patents expired on dates ranging from 2007 to 2017 in the United States. Patents for anything disclosed in ISO CD 11172 filed a year or more after its publication are questionable. If only the known MP3 patents filed by December 1992 are considered, then MP3 decoding has been patent-free in the US since 22 September 2015, when, which had a PCT filing in October 1992, expired. If the longest-running patent mentioned in the aforementioned references is taken as a measure, then the MP3 technology became patent-free in the United States on 16 April 2017, when, held and administered by

Alternative technologies.

Other lossy formats exist. Among these, Advanced Audio Coding (AAC) is the most widely used, and was designed to be the successor to MP3. There also exist other lossy formats such as mp3PRO and MP2. They are members of the same technological family as MP3 and depend on roughly similar psychoacoustic models and MDCT algorithms. Whereas MP3 uses a hybrid coding approach that is part MDCT and part FFT, AAC is purely MDCT, significantly improving compression efficiency. Many of the basic patents underlying these formats are held by Fraunhofer Society, Alcatel-Lucent, Thomson Consumer Electronics, Bell, Dolby, LG Electronics, NEC, NTT Docomo, Panasonic, Sony Corporation, ETRI, JVC Kenwood, Philips, Microsoft, and NTT.  There are also open compression formats like Opus and Vorbis that are available free of charge and without any known patent restrictions. Some of the newer audio compression formats, such as AAC, WMA Pro and Vorbis, are free of some limitations inherent to the MP3 format that cannot be overcome by any MP3 encoder.  Besides lossy compression methods, lossless formats are a significant alternative to MP3 because they provide unaltered audio content, though with an increased file size compared to lossy compression. Lossless formats include FLAC (Free Lossless Audio Codec), Apple Lossless and many others.

MP3 (formally MPEG-1 Audio Layer III or MPEG-2 Audio Layer III) is a coding format for digital audio. Originally defined as the third audio format of the MPEG-1 standard, it was retained and further extended—defining additional bit-rates and support for more audio channels—as the third audio format of the subsequent MPEG-2 standard. A third version, known as MPEG 2.5—extended to better support lower bit rates—is commonly implemented, but is not a recognized standard.

MP3, Eigenschreibweise "mp3" (Bezeichnung nach der Dateinamenserweiterung; eigentlich MPEG-1 Audio Layer III oder MPEG-2 Audio Layer III) ist ein Verfahren zur verlustbehafteten Kompression digital gespeicherter Audiodaten. MP3 bedient sich dabei der Psychoakustik mit dem Ziel, nur für den Menschen wahrnehmbare Signalanteile zu speichern. Dadurch wird, bei nicht (oder kaum) verringert wahrgenommener Audioqualität, eine starke Reduktion der Datenmenge möglich.