History of genetic counseling.

The practice of advising people about inherited traits began around the turn of the 20th century, shortly after William Bateson suggested that the new medical and biological study of heredity be called “genetics”. Heredity became intertwined with social reforms when the field of modern eugenics took form. Although initially well-intentioned, ultimately the movement had disastrous consequences. Many states in the United States had laws mandating the sterilization of certain individuals, others were not allowed to immigrate and by the 1930s these ideas were accepted by many other countries including in Germany where euthanasia for the “genetically defective” was legalized in 1939. This part of the history of genetics is at the heart of the now “non directive” approach to genetic counseling.  Sheldon Clark Reed coined the term genetic counseling in 1947 and published the book "Counseling in Medical Genetics" in 1955. Most of the early genetic counseling clinics were run by non-medical scientists or by those who were not experienced clinicians. With the growth in knowledge of genetic disorders and the appearance of medical genetics as a distinct specialty in the 1960s, genetic counseling progressively became medicalized, representing one of the key components of clinical genetics. It was not, though, until later that the importance of a firm psychological basis was recognized and became an essential part of genetic counseling, the writings of Seymour Kessler making a particular contribution to this. The first master's degree genetic counseling program in the United States was founded in 1969 at Sarah Lawrence College in Bronxville, New York. In 1979, the National Society of Genetic Counselors (NSGC) was founded.

Genetic counselors.

Professional roles.

Genetic counselors work in a wide variety of patient-facing and non patient-facing settings.  Clinical genetic counselors may provide general care, or specialize in one or more areas. Examples include:  Outside the clinic, genetic counselors work in areas such as laboratories, research, education, public health settings, and corporate environments. Examples of roles include:

Education.

A genetic counselor is an expert with a Master of Science degree in genetic counseling. Programs in North America are accredited by the Accreditation Council for Genetic Counseling (ACGC). There are currently 45 accredited programs in the United States, four accredited programs in Canada, and three programs with the intent to become accredited. Students enter the field from a variety of disciplines, including biology/biological sciences and social sciences such as psychology. Graduate school coursework includes topics such as human genetics, embryology, ethics, research, and counseling theory and techniques. Clinical training including supervised rotations in prenatal, pediatric, adult, cancer, and other subspecialty clinics, as well as non-patient facing rotations in laboratories. Research training typically culminates in a capstone or thesis project.

Certification.

In the United States genetic counselors are certified by the American Board of Genetic Counseling. In Canada, genetic counselors are certified by the Canadian Association of Genetic Counsellors.  Graduates from an American Board of Genetic Counseling (ABGC) accredited program who have met specific criteria are eligible to take the examination which is offered twice per year by the ABGC. Although not every company requires its counselors to possess a certification, the certification shows that the practitioner has met the standards "necessary to provide competent genetic counseling services".

State licensure.

As of May 2019, 29 states have passed genetic counselor licensure bills that require genetic counselors to meet a certain set of standards to practice. These states are Alabama, Arkansas, California, Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Tennessee, Utah, Virginia, and Washington. Almost every other state in the United States is in the process of obtaining genetic counseling licensure.  Although genetic counseling has existed for over four decades, the first licenses for genetic counselors were not issued until 2002. Utah was the first state to do so. The American Society of Human Genetics (ASHG) has since encouraged more states to license genetic counselors before they are allowed to practice. ASHG argues that requiring practitioners to go through the necessary training and testing to obtain a license will ensure quality genetic services as well as allow for reimbursement for counselors’ services. Laws requiring licensure ensure that "professionals who call themselves genetic counselors are able to properly explain complicated test results that could confuse patients and families making important health decisions".

Reimbursement and recognition.

Insurance companies usually do not reimburse for unlicensed genetic counselors’ services. Patients who may benefit from genetic counseling may not be able to afford the service due to the expensive out-of-pocket cost. In addition, licensure allows genetic counselors to be searchable in most insurance companies’ databases which gives genetic counselors increased opportunities for earning revenue and clients the opportunity to see "the level of coverage insurers provide for their services".  The Center for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) does not currently recognize genetic counselors as healthcare providers and therefore does not reimburse for genetic counseling services unless they are provided by a physician or nurse practitioner. On June 12, 2019, H.R. 3235 "Access to Genetic Counselor Services Act of 2019," was introduced to the U.S. House of Representatives by U.S. Rep. Dave Loebsack (D-Iowa) and U.S. Rep. Mike Kelly (R-Pennsylvania). H.R. 3235 would authorize CMS to recognize certified genetic counselors as healthcare providers and to cover services furnished by genetic counselors under part B of the Medicare program. Genetic counselors are those licensed by states as such, or, for those in states without licensure, the Secretary of Health and Human Services will set criteria through regulation (likely ABGC certification). Genetic counselors would be paid at 85% of the physician fee schedule. Other providers currently providing genetic counseling services will not be affected by the bill.

Counseling session structure.

The goals of genetic counseling are to increase understanding of genetic diseases, discuss disease management options, and explain the risks and benefits of testing. Counseling sessions focus on giving vital, unbiased information and non-directive assistance in the patient's decision-making process. Seymour Kessler, in 1979, first categorized sessions in five phases: an intake phase, an initial contact phase, the encounter phase, the summary phase, and a follow-up phase. The intake and follow-up phases occur outside of the actual counseling session. The initial contact phase is when the counselor and families meet and build rapport. The encounter phase includes dialogue between the counselor and the client about the nature of screening and diagnostic tests. The summary phase provides all the options and decisions available for the next step. If patients wish to go ahead with testing, an appointment is organized and the genetic counselor acts as the person to communicate the results. Result delivery can happen both in person or via phone. Often counselors will call out results to avoid patients having to come back in as results can take weeks to be processed. If further counseling is needed in a more personal setting, or it is determined that additional family members should be tested, a secondary appointment can be made.

Reasons for testing and sub-specialties.

Detecting conditions.

Diagnostic testing occurs when an individual is showing signs or symptoms associated with a specific condition. Genetic testing can be used to arrive at a definitive diagnosis in order to provide better prognosis as well as medical management and/or treatment options. Testing can reveal conditions that—while debilitating without treatment—can be mild or asymptomatic with early treatment (such as phenylketonuria). Genetic tests are available for a number of genetic conditions, including but not limited to: Down syndrome, sickle cell disease, Tay–Sachs disease, muscular dystrophy. Establishing a genetic diagnosis alerts any other at-risk individuals in the family to consider testing, if appropriate.  Any reproductive risks (e.g. a chance to have a child with the same diagnosis) can also be explored after a diagnosis. Many disorders cannot occur unless both the mother and father pass on their genes, such as cystic fibrosis; this is known as autosomal recessive inheritance. Other autosomal dominant diseases can be inherited from one parent, such as Huntington disease and DiGeorge syndrome. Yet other genetic disorders are caused by an error or mutation occurring during the cell division process (e.g. aneuploidy) and are not hereditary.  Screening tests are often used prior to diagnostic testing, designed to separate people according to a fixed characteristic or property, with the intention of detecting early evidence of disease. For example, if a screening test during a pregnancy (such as maternal blood screening or ultrasound) reveals a risk of a health issue or genetic condition, patients are encouraged to receive genetic counseling to learn additional information regarding the suspected condition and about their options with discussion of management, therapy and treatments available for the conditions, including those after delivery, and those during pregnancy, such as the option to terminate the pregnancy. Patients may decline additional screening and testing, elect to proceed to diagnostic testing, or pursue further screening tests to refine the risk during the pregnancy.  Presymptomatic or predictive testing occurs when an individual knows of a specific diagnosis (typically adult onset) in their family and has other affected relatives, but they themselves do not manifest any clinical findings at the time when they seek testing. The decision about whether or not to proceed with presymptomatic testing should entail a thoughtful approach and consideration of various medical, reproductive, social, insurance, and financial factors, with no “right” or “wrong” answer. Availability of treatment and medical management options for each specific diagnosis, as well as the genetics and inheritance pattern of the particular condition should be reviewed as inherited conditions can have reduced penetrance.  Insurance and legal issues should also be discussed during genetic counseling. There are laws in the United States such as GINA (Genetic Information Non-discrimination Act) and ACA that provide certain protections against discrimination for individuals with genetic diagnoses.

Adult genetics.

Adult or general genetics clinics serve patients who are diagnosed with genetic conditions that begin to show signs or symptoms in adulthood. Many genetic conditions have varying ages of onset, ranging from an infantile form to an adult form. Genetic counseling can facilitate the decision making process by providing the patient/family with education about the genetic condition as well as the medical management options available to individuals at risk of developing the condition. Having the genetic information of other members of the family opens the door to asking important questions about the pattern of inheritance of specific disease‐causing mutations. Whilst there is a wealth of literature that describes how families communicate information surrounding single genes, there is very little which explores the experience of communication about family genomes. Adult-onset disorders may overlap multiple specialties.

ART/Infertility genetics.

Genetic counseling is an integral part of the process for patients utilizing preimplantation genetic testing (PGT), formerly called preimplantation genetic diagnosis. There are three types of PGT and all require in vitro fertilization (IVF) using assisted reproductive technology (ART). PGT-M, for monogenic disorders, involves testing embryos for a specific condition before it is implanted into the mother. This technique is currently being done for disorders with childhood onset, such as Cystic Fibrosis, Tay-Sachs and Muscular Dystrophy, as well as adult-onset conditions, including Huntington's Disease, Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer Syndrome, and Lynch Syndrome. PGT-SR, for structural rearrangements, involves testing embryos to establish a pregnancy unaffected by a structural chromosomal abnormality (translocation). PGT-A, for aneuploidy, was formerly called preimplantation genetic screening, and involved testing embryos to identify any de novo aneuploidy. The indications to carry out PGT-A are: previous aneuploidy in the couple, implantation failure, recurrent miscarriage, severe male factor or advanced maternal age. Finally, PGT seems to be: safe for the embryo, trustable in the diagnosis, more efficient from the reproductive point of view and cost-effective.  Genetic counseling can also involve medical evaluation and clinical work-up for couples with infertility and/or recurrent pregnancy loss, as these histories can be associated with parental chromosome aberrations (such as inversions or translocations) and other genetic conditions.

Cardiovascular genetics.

A rapidly expanding field in genetic counseling is cardiovascular genetics. More than 1 in 200 people have an inherited cardiovascular disease. Hereditary cardiac conditions range from common diseases, such as high cholesterol and coronary artery disease, to rare diseases like Long QT Syndrome, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, aortic and vascular diseases. Genetic counselors who specialize in cardiovascular disease have developed skills specific to the management of and counseling for cardiovascular disorders. Cardiovascular genetic counselors are also integral in local and national efforts to prevent sudden cardiac death (the leading cause of sudden death in young people) by identifying patients with known or suspected heritable cardiovascular diseases and promoting cascade family screening or testing of at-risk relatives.  Common referral reasons include:  Guidelines on cardiovascular genetics are published by multiple professional societies.

Hereditary cancer genetics.

Cancer genetic counselors see individuals with a personal diagnosis and/or family history of cancer or symptoms of an inherited cancer syndrome. Genetic counselors take a family history and assess for hereditary risk, or risk that can be passed down from generation to generation. If indicated, they can coordinate genetic testing, typically via blood or saliva sample, to evaluate for hereditary cancer risk. Personalized medical management and cancer screening recommendations can be provided based on results of genetic testing and/or the family history of cancer. While most cancers are sporadic (not inherited), some are more likely to have a hereditary factor, particularly when occurring at young ages or when clustering in families. These include common cancers such as breast, ovarian, colon and uterine cancers, as well as rare tumor types. General referral indications can include, but are not limited to:

Neurogenetics.

Genetic counselors specializing in neurogenetics are involved in the care of individuals who have or are at risk to develop conditions affecting the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) or peripheral nervous system (the nerves that leave the spinal cord and go to other places in the body, such as the feet and hands, skeletal muscles, and internal organs). Effects of these conditions can lead to various impairments some examples of which include cognitive decline, intellectual disability, seizures, uncontrolled movements (e.g. ataxia, chorea), muscle weakness, paralysis, or atrophy. Examples of neurogenetic disorders include:

Pediatric genetics.

Pediatric genetic counseling can be indicated for newborns, infants, children and their families. General referral indications can include:

Prenatal genetics.

Prenatal genetics involves services for women either during or prior to a pregnancy.  General indications for referral to genetic counseling in the preconception or prenatal setting may include, but are not limited to:  Prenatal genetic counseling may help with the decision-making process by walking patients through examples of what some people might do in similar situations, and their rationale for choosing that option. Decisions made by patients are affected by factors including timing, accuracy of information provided by tests, and risk and benefits of the tests. This discussion enables patients to place the information and circumstances into the context of their own lives, and in the context of their own values. They may choose to undergo noninvasive screening (e.g. ultrasound, triple screen, cell-free fetal DNA screening) or invasive diagnostic testing (amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling). Invasive diagnostic tests possess a small risk of miscarriage (1–2%) but provide more definitive results. Testing is offered to provide a definitive answer regarding the presence of a certain genetic condition or chromosomal abnormality.

Psychiatric genetics.

Psychiatric genetic counseling is a sub-specialty within genetic counseling focused on helping people living with a psychiatric disorder and/or their family members understand both the genetic and environmental factors that contributed to their illness and address associated emotions such as guilt or self-blame. Genetic counselors also discuss strategies to promote recovery and protect mental health and address any questions on chances for recurrence in other family members. While currently there is no single gene solely responsible for causing a psychiatric disorder, there is strong evidence from family, twin studies, and genome-wide-association studies that both multiple genes and environment interact together. Like other areas of genetic counseling, patients at all different stages of life (pediatric, adult, prenatal) can have psychiatric genetic counseling. Since the etiology of psychiatric disorders is complex and not fully understood, the utility of genetic testing is not as clear as it is in Mendelian or single gene disorders. Research has shown that individuals who receive psychiatric genetic counseling have significant increases in feelings of empowerment and self-efficacy after genetic counseling.  Psychiatric genetic counselors can help "dispel mistaken notions about psychiatric disorders, calm needless anxiety, and help those at risk to draw up a rational plan of action based on the best available information".

Psychosocial aspects of genetic counseling.

There are different approaches to genetic counseling. Some counselors favor a more purely psycho-educational approach while others incorporate more psycho-therapeutic techniques. Genetic counseling is psycho-educational as patients "learn how genetics contributes to their health risks and then process what this means and how it feels."

Psychotherapeutic.

"Whether the process of genetic counseling is a form of psychotherapy is up for debate". The relationship between the client and counselor is similar as are the goals of the sessions. As a psychotherapist aims to help his client improve his wellbeing, a genetic counselor also helps his client to address a "situational health threat that similarly threatens client wellbeing". Due to the lack of studies which compare genetic counseling to the practice of psychotherapy, it is hard to say with certainty whether genetic counseling can be "conceptualized as a short-term, applied, specific type of psychotherapy". However, there few existing studies suggest that genetic counseling falls "significantly short of psychotherapeutic counseling" because genetic counseling sessions primarily consist of the distribution of information without much emphasis placed on explaining any long-term impacts to the client.

Genetic counselors as support.

Genetic counselors provide supportive counseling to families, serve as patient advocates and refer individuals and families to community or state support services. They serve as educators and resource people for other health care professionals and for the general public. Many engage in research activities related to the field of medical genetics and genetic counseling. When communicating increased risk, counselors anticipate the likely distress and prepare patients for the results. Counselors help clients cope with and adapt to the emotional, psychological, medical, social, and economic consequences of the test results.  Each individual considers their family needs, social setting, cultural background, and religious beliefs when interpreting their risk. Clients must evaluate their reasoning to continue with testing at all. Counselors are present to put all the possibilities in perspective and encourage clients to take time to think about their decision. When a risk is found, counselors frequently reassure parents that they were not responsible for the result. An informed choice without pressure or coercion is made when all relevant information has been given and understood.  After counseling for other hereditary conditions, the patient may be presented with the option of having genetic testing. In some circumstances no genetic testing is indicated, other times it may be useful to begin the testing process with an affected family member. The genetic counselor also reviews the advantages and disadvantages of genetic testing with the patient.

Attitudes toward genetic counseling and genetic testing.

Many studies have examined the attitudes of the lay public toward genetic counseling and genetic testing. Barriers to obtaining genetic counseling include lack of understanding of genetics by both patients and healthcare providers, concerns about cost and insurance, and fears of stigma and/or discrimination.  No simple correlation has been found between the change in technology to the changes in values and beliefs towards genetic testing.

Genetic Counseling in the Media.

The National Society of Genetic Counselors (NSGC) blog provides information about current topics in genetic testing and genetic counseling.

International.

In 2018, there are nearly 7000 genetic counselors practicing worldwide, across at least 28 countries.

China.

Genetic counseling in China (mainland) has been primarily provided by pediatricians or obstetricians for prenatal or birth defect diagnoses. Most genetic tests can only be performed in academic institutions as research tests or in commercial direct-to-consumer companies for non-clinical use.  In China, genetic counseling is steered by the Chinese Board of Genetic Counseling (CBGC), a not-for-profit organization. CBGC is composed of senior experts engaged in genetic education and research. CBGC is committed to establishing standardized procedures of genetic counseling, training qualified genetic counselors, improving health for all, and reducing the incidence of birth defects. CBGC was established in 2015 and is the major professional organization for genetic counselors in mainland China, providing training through short term online and in-person lectures, educational conferences, and certification for trainees.  Genetics education in China began in the 1980s when selected medical schools began offering genetics courses that focused predominantly on molecular genetics and had limited clinical content. At present, there are no official master's level graduate programs in genetic counseling or clinical genetics in China, and there is great variability in the duration and content of genetics curricula among medical schools and professional organizations.  The Chinese Ministry of Health has not yet recognized genetic counselors as an independent health care occupation. There are no official statistics for the number of health care professionals (e.g., physicians, nurses, and lab technicians) who are providing genetic counseling services in China.

South Africa.

Genetic Counselling is a developing field in South Africa. Currently, there are about 20 registered genetic counsellors practicing in the country. In South Africa, genetic counsellors work within academic institutions, in the private health sector and more recently, private genetic laboratories. A few qualified genetic counsellors have been employed outside of the country or in other professions, owing to funding limitations that have impacted employment opportunities, particularly in the academic/public health sector.  The first Genetic Counselling Programme in South Africa started in 1989 at the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, in the Gauteng province. A second programme started in 2004 at the University of Cape Town in the Western Cape province. These are the only two programmes offering Masters level genetic counselling training in South Africa. Currently these courses are running at full capacity. This is a two-year degree and includes a research component. The majority of students enter the Masters programme with a science background but those with a psychology background are also be considered.  The Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA) requires two years of internship. Often the first year forms part of the master's degree in Genetic Counselling and a further 12-month internship thereafter. Genetic Counsellors are required by law to register with the HPCSA in order to practice as genetic counsellors. At the end of the training period, registrants submit a portfolio to HPCSA for assessment. If successful, the intern will be registered with the HPCSA and will be able to practice as a Genetic Counsellor in South Africa.  There is a professional organisation for Genetic Counsellors in South Africa, Genetic Counselling South Africa (GC-SA), which provides information and guidance to the HPCSA and others regarding professional issues. The GCSA is a focus group of the South African Society of Human Genetics (SASHG).

United Kingdom.

The majority of Genetic Counsellors in the UK work in the National Health Service (NHS) in one of the 33 Regional Clinical Genetics Services (some renamed Genomic Medicine Centres in England), Scotland, Wales or Northern Ireland. Others work in specialist roles in the NHS, education, policy or research. A minority work in the private sector.  The Association of Genetic Nurses and Counsellors (AGNC) is the UK's professional organisation representing genetic counsellors, genetic nurses and non-medical, patient-facing staff working within the discipline of Clinical Genetics. There are currently (March 2018) 330 AGNC members within the UK. The AGNC is one of the constituent groups of the British Society for Genetic Medicine (BSGM).  The first 2-year MSc in Genetic Counselling program established in the UK was from the University of Manchester 1992, followed by Cardiff University in Wales in 2000. 2016 saw major changes in the way genetic counsellors are trained in England. A 3-year training programme funded by Health Education England, the Scientist Training Programme (STP) uses a combination of work-based training in Genomic Medicine Centres and a part-time MSc in Genetics (Genomic Counselling) from the University of Manchester. Recruitment is performed nationally through the National School of Healthcare Science (NSHCS). A 3-year part-time MSc in Genetic and Genomic Counselling is also now delivered by Cardiff University, through blended learning, with most of the teaching delivered online, alongside some short face-to-face teaching blocks in Wales. A 2-year MSc Genetic and Genomic Counselling program began at the University of Glasgow in Scotland in 2016. Prerequisites for acceptance on all the programmes include a degree in a relevant science or a nursing or midwifery qualification, and experience in a caring role. All genetic counselling training programmes are accredited by the UK Genetic Counsellor Registration Board (GCRB) and the European Board of Medical Genetics (EBMG).  Genetic counsellors in the UK are regulated through the Genetic Counsellor Registration Board (GCRB), although currently GCRB registration is voluntary. The GCRB registry was accredited in 2016 by the Professional Standards Authority under its Accredited Registers programme. Over 200 genetic counsellors are currently registered through the GCRB. Genetic Counsellors trained through the STP programme are expected to be eligible to apply for statutory regulation through the Health Care Professions Council and it is planned that soon there will be equivalence arrangements with the GCRB to ensure statutory regulation for GCRB registered genetic counsellors.

Genetic counseling is the process of advising individuals and families affected by or at risk of genetic disorders to help them understand and adapt to the medical, psychological and familial implications of genetic contributions to disease. The process integrates:

Eine humangenetische Beratung, oft auch als genetische Beratung bezeichnet, dient dazu, genetisch (mit) bedingte Erkrankungen oder Risiken für Erkrankungen zu erkennen und zu verstehen. Sie wird von Fachärzten für Humangenetik (in Österreich Fachärzte für Medizinische Genetik) durchgeführt, die eine spezielle Erfahrung mit erblichen Krankheiten haben, sowohl in der Diagnostik als auch in der Betreuung von betroffenen Personen und Familien. Eine humangenetische Beratung wird non-direktiv durchgeführt, es werden also keine Empfehlungen gegeben. Vielmehr sollen Hintergründe erklärt und Missverständnisse ausgeräumt werden, damit die Betroffenen in der Lage sind, selber die für sie richtigen Entscheidungen zu treffen.


History.

The club was founded after Gambian independence in 1969. Not long after, it became a registered club and played in the First Division which was then called the National Division, the only division existed at the time. In 1970, the club won their first championship title, they won their two consecutive in 1971, Wallidan won two consecutive titles again in 1977 which was their fifth. More champ titles were won in 1979, 1985, 1988, 1992 and 1995, two times they won two consecutive titles in 2002 and in 2005, their recent championship title was won in 2008.  Wallidan became the masters of the Gambian Cup since 1974, four consecutive cup titles were won in 1974, three consecutive titles were won in 1978, their eighth title was won in 1981, their ninth in 1984, six consecutive titles cup were won in 1994, in the 1987 edition, Wallidan defeated the Hawks 5–1 in the cup final, the 1989, 1990 and the 1991 editions were cancelled, Wallidan defeated Peak Marwich in 1992 and Real de Banjul 2–1 in 1993. Two consecutive cup titles were won in 1999, all won in penalty shootouts, both of them 4–3 first in two matches that ended in a goal draw with the Gambia(n) Ports Authority in 1998 and then Mass Sosseh 1–1. Four consecutive cup titles were won in 2004. Walidan defeated Blackpool (a club now known as Interior, based in Serrekunda East) 3–0, the last cup final match with Real de Banjul 1–0 in 2002, the last cup final match with the Hawks 1–0 in 2003 where they won their 20th cup title and Armed Forces FC in 2004 as the match ended in a goal draw, it went to another penalty shootout and won 9 to 8. Wallidan won two more cups, in 2008 where they defeated Samger 4–2 in penalty shootouts as the match finished in a two-goal draw and in 2015 after defeating GAMTEL Banjul 2–0.

At the continentals.

Wallidan competed the most at the continentals. Their first was the 1975 CAF Cup Winner's Cup where they lost to Dakar's ASC Jeanne d'Arc in the Senegambian derby. They returned in 1977 and lost to Espoirs Nouakchott and again in 1979 but lost 4–5 in the penalty shootouts. Wallidan's first championship appearance was in 1978 and advanced up to the first round, their greatest, first to Garde Nationale of Mauritania, based in Nouakchott, they defeated that club, then to Cameroon's Canon Yaoundé and lost under the away goals rule. Their second championship was in 1980 and lost to Upper Volta's (now Burkina Faso) Silures Bobo-Dioulasso (now as FC Bobo-Dioulasso). Wallidan appeared in the 1982 CAF Cup Winners' Cup and lost to Accra Hearts of Oak and then to Horoya AC in 1985. Wallidan made their third continental champ appearance and lost to Accra's Hearts of Oak in the 1986 edition, their last under the name African Cup of Champions Clubs. Wallidan made their greatest continental appearance heading to the quarterfinals. They defeated Mauritania's Amical Douane (French for the friendly customs), that club withdrew and the match in Nouakchott was not played, then Marrakech (also as Marrakesh) as they withdrew, the Real Republicans of Freetown and lost to Bizertin from Tunisia. Wallidan missed the 1992 and the 1994 editions due to financial reasons. Wallidan came to their 7th Winners' Cup appearance in 199, as Marrakech (or Marrakesh) withdrew, they were to face Marsa, Wallidan withdrew. Wallidan's had their fourth championship appearance and their first as the CAF Champions League in 1998, in the qualifying round, lost to AS Douanes, Wallidan's second Senegambian derby. Their 8th continental cup appearance was in 2000 and lost to Benin's Mogas 90 FC, their last under the name CAF Cup Winners' Cup. Wallidan showed up in the 2002 Champions League and defeated Horoya AC, then lost to Raja Casablanca. A year later, they appeared once more and defeated Dragons FC de l'Ouémé and in the first round lost to USM Alger. After only winning their cup title in 2003, they appeared in their 9th cup competition and the first as the Confederation Cup in 2004, the club lost to Club Africain of Tunisia under the away goals rule. In their 7th champ appearance in 2005, the club was playing against Ghana's Asante Kotoko, as Wallidan fielded and ineligible player, the GFA disqualified Wallidan from the competition. The 2005 edition was the last time Wallidan played a match. Wallidan was to appear in the 2009 Champions League to face Hearts of Oak, due to financial concerns, Wallidan withdrew, it was their recent championship appearance totalling 9. In 2016, the club was to face MC Oran in the Confederation Cup, Wallidan withdrew.

Stadium.

Independence Stadium is a multi-use stadium in Bakau west of the city centre of Banjul. It is currently used mostly for football matches. The stadium holds 20,000. It is played along with other clubs such as the Hawks plays.

Logo.

Its logo has a blue coloured seal with a thick white rim in the outer part and a small one in the middle, inside are two white shrimps guarding the football, on top is the club name and on the bottom is the club's foundation year.  The older logo used up to the 2000s had a white seal with a thick red rim that is lighter on the bottom nearly to purple, along with its thick square inside, inside had a smaller circle with the letter "V" and the club name, first written in the Frenchified form of "Wallidane" and on the bottom "Gambian FC".

Wallidan Football Club is a Gambian football club based in Banjul and Bakau. They play in the top division in Gambian football, the GFA League First Division, and are the most decorated team in the country's football history. They play at the Independence Stadium (Bakau) which has a capacity of 20,000.

Der Wallidan Football Club (in der Presse oft „"The Blue boys"“ betitelt) ist ein Fußballverein aus Banjul, der Hauptstadt des westafrikanischen Staats Gambia. Er spielt in der höchsten Liga im gambischen Fußball, der GFA League First Division. Der Verein konnte sich zuletzt in der Saison 2008 die Meisterschaft sichern. Mit 16 gewonnenen Meisterschaften und 18 Pokalgewinnen ist er der erfolgreichste Verein im gambischen Fußball.


IRA.

The IRA had difficulty with cross-border communications between Dublin and Belfast after the outbreak of the Second World War, and some northern based members of the IRA believed a self-contained unit was required. Charlie McGlade, a printer from Belfast, was the architect of the idea, and Northern Command was formed in 1939 taking responsibility for IRA operations in the six counties of Northern Ireland and also County Donegal, while Southern Command took responsibility for the other 25 counties of Ireland. By the early 1950s, both Northern Command and Southern Command had faded away, and the leadership of the IRA was southern-based, with all commands being issued from Dublin.  Charlie McGlade became the O/C of the Northern Command, Jimmy Steele became Adjutant, also appointed was Seán McCaughey as Quartermaster. In 1940 McGlade stepped down as O/C of Northern Command and appointed McCaughey to the position.

Provisional IRA.

In the mid-1970s a new Northern Command was proposed by Gerry Adams and Ivor Bell, which would cover the six counties of Northern Ireland, and also County Louth, County Cavan, County Monaghan, County Leitrim and County Donegal. These counties were effectively the "war zone" where paramilitary operations were planned and carried out. The role of Southern Command, covering the remaining 21 counties, would be to provide logistical support for the campaign in the north. Veteran republicans such as Joe Cahill and Billy McKee opposed the idea fearing a split in the movement, but Chief of Staff Seamus Twomey backed the idea and a new Northern Command was formed in late 1976.

Northern Command was a command division in the Irish Republican Army (1922–1969) and Provisional IRA, responsible for directing IRA operations in the northern part of Ireland.

Das Northern Command war eine Division in der Irish Republican Army (IRA, 1922–1969) und der Provisional IRA, zuständig für die Leitung der IRA-Operationen in den nördlichen Teilen von Irland.


History.

Ancient times and Middle Ages.

Looked at through the lens of the visual arts, nature and wildness have been important subjects in various epochs of world history. An early tradition of landscape art occurred in the Tang Dynasty (618-907). The tradition of representing nature "as it is" became one of the aims of Chinese painting and was a significant influence in Asian art. Artists in the tradition of Shan shui (lit. "mountain-water-picture"), learned to depict mountains and rivers "from the perspective of nature as a whole and on the basis of their understanding of the laws of nature... as if seen through the eyes of a bird." In the 13th century, Shih Erh Chi recommended avoiding painting "scenes lacking any places made inaccessible by nature."  For most of human history, the greater part of the Earth's terrain was wilderness, and human attention was concentrated on settled areas. The first known laws to protect parts of nature date back to the Babylonian Empire and Chinese Empire. Ashoka, the Great Mauryan King, defined the first laws in the world to protect flora and fauna in Edicts of Ashoka around 3rd Century B.C. In the Middle Ages, the Kings of England initiated one of the world's first conscious efforts to protect natural areas. They were motivated by a desire to be able to hunt wild animals in private hunting preserves rather than a desire to protect wilderness. Nevertheless, in order to have animals to hunt they would have to protect wildlife from subsistence hunting and the land from villagers gathering firewood. Similar measures were introduced in other European countries.

19th century to present.

The idea of wilderness having intrinsic value emerged in the Western world in the 19th century. British artists John Constable and J. M. W. Turner turned their attention to capturing the beauty of the natural world in their paintings. Prior to that, paintings had been primarily of religious scenes or of human beings. William Wordsworth's poetry described the wonder of the natural world, which had formerly been viewed as a threatening place. Increasingly the valuing of nature became an aspect of Western culture.  By the mid-19th century, in Germany, "Scientific Conservation," as it was called, advocated "the efficient utilization of natural resources through the application of science and technology." Concepts of forest management based on the German approach were applied in other parts of the world, but with varying degrees of success. Over the course of the 19th century wilderness became viewed not as a place to fear but a place to enjoy and protect, hence came the conservation movement in the latter half of the 19th century. Rivers were rafted and mountains were climbed solely for the sake of recreation, not to determine their geographical context.  In 1861, following an intense lobbying by artists (painters), the French Waters and Forests Military Agency set an « artistic reserve » in Fontainebleau State Forest. With a total of 1 097 hectares, it is known to be the first World nature reserve.  Global conservation became an issue at the time of the dissolution of the British Empire in Africa in the late 1940s. The British established great wildlife preserves there. As before, this interest in conservation had an economic motive: in this case, big game hunting. Nevertheless, this led to growing recognition in the 1950s and the early 1960s of the need to protect large spaces for wildlife conservation worldwide. The World Wildlife Fund (WWF), founded in 1961, grew to be one of the largest conservation organizations in the world.  Early conservationists advocated the creation of a legal mechanism by which boundaries could be set on human activities in order to preserve natural and unique lands for the enjoyment and use of future generations. This profound shift in wilderness thought reached a pinnacle in the US with the passage of the Wilderness Act of 1964, which allowed for parts of U.S. National Forests to be designated as "wilderness preserves". Similar acts, such as the 1975 Eastern Wilderness Act, followed.  Nevertheless, initiatives for wilderness conservation continue to increase. There are a growing number of projects to protect tropical rainforests through conservation initiatives. There are also large-scale projects to conserve wilderness regions, such as Canada's Boreal Forest Conservation Framework. The Framework calls for conservation of 50 percent of the 6,000,000 square kilometres of boreal forest in Canada's north. In addition to the World Wildlife Fund, organizations such as the Wildlife Conservation Society, the WILD Foundation, The Nature Conservancy, Conservation International, The Wilderness Society (United States) and many others are active in such conservation efforts.  The 21st century has seen another slight shift in wilderness thought and theory. It is now understood that simply drawing lines around a piece of land and declaring it a wilderness does not necessarily make it a wilderness. All landscapes are intricately connected and what happens outside a wilderness certainly affects what happens inside it. For example, air pollution from Los Angeles and the California Central Valley affects Kern Canyon and Sequoia National Park. The national park has miles of "wilderness" but the air is filled with pollution from the valley. This gives rise to the paradox of what a wilderness really is; a key issue in 21st century wilderness thought.

National parks.

The creation of National Parks, beginning in the 19th century, preserved some especially attractive and notable areas, but the pursuits of commerce, lifestyle, and recreation combined with increases in human population have continued to result in human modification of relatively untouched areas. Such human activity often negatively impacts native flora and fauna. As such, to better protect critical habitats and preserve low-impact recreational opportunities, legal concepts of "wilderness" were established in many countries, beginning with the United States (see below).  The first National Park was Yellowstone, which was signed into law by U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant on 1 March 1872. The Act of Dedication declared Yellowstone a land "hereby reserved and withdrawn from settlement, occupancy, or sale under the laws of the United States, and dedicated and set apart as a public park or pleasuring ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people."  The world's second national park, the Royal National Park, located just 32 km to the south of Sydney, Australia, was established in 1879.  The U.S. concept of national parks soon caught on in Canada, which created Banff National Park in 1885, at the same time as the transcontinental Canadian Pacific Railway was being built. The creation of this and other parks showed a growing appreciation of wild nature, but also an economic reality. The railways wanted to entice people to travel west. Parks such as Banff and Yellowstone gained favor as the railroads advertised travel to "the great wild spaces" of North America. When outdoorsman Teddy Roosevelt became president of the United States, he began to enlarge the U.S. National Parks system, and established the National Forest system.  By the 1920s, travel across North America by train to experience the "wilderness" (often viewing it only through windows) had become very popular. This led to the commercialization of some of Canada's National Parks with the building of great hotels such as the Banff Springs Hotel and Chateau Lake Louise.  Despite their similar name, national parks in England and Wales are quite different from national parks in many other countries. Unlike most other countries, in England and Wales, designation as a national park may include substantial settlements and human land uses which are often integral parts of the landscape, and land within a national park remains largely in private ownership. Each park is operated by its own national park authority.

Conservation and preservation in 20th century United States.

By the later 19th century it had become clear that in many countries wild areas had either disappeared or were in danger of disappearing. This realization gave rise to the conservation movement in the United States, partly through the efforts of writers and activists such as John Burroughs, Aldo Leopold, and John Muir, and politicians such as U.S. President Teddy Roosevelt. The idea of protecting nature for nature's sake began to gain more recognition in the 1930s with American writers like Aldo Leopold, calling for a "land ethic" and urging wilderness protection. It had become increasingly clear that wild spaces were disappearing rapidly and that decisive action was needed to save them. Wilderness preservation is central to deep ecology; a philosophy that believes in an inherent worth of all living beings, regardless of their instrumental utility to human needs.  Two different groups had emerged within the US environmental movement by the early 20th century: the conservationists and the preservationists. The initial consensus among conservationists was split into "utilitarian conservationists" later to be referred to as conservationists, and "aesthetic conservationists" or preservationists. The main representative for the former was Gifford Pinchot, first Chief of the United States Forest Service, and they focused on the "proper use of nature," whereas the preservationists sought the "protection of nature from use." Put another way, conservation sought to regulate human use while preservation sought to eliminate human impact altogether. The management of US public lands during the years 1960s and 70s reflected these dual visions, with conservationists dominating the Forest Service, and preservationists the Park Service

Formal wilderness designations.

International.

The World Conservation Union (IUCN) classifies wilderness at two levels, 1a (Strict Nature Preserves) and 1b (Wilderness areas).  There have been recent calls for the World Heritage Convention to better protect wilderness and to include the word wilderness in their selection criteria for Natural Heritage Sites  Forty-eight countries have wilderness areas established via legislative designation as IUCN protected area management Category 1b sites that do not overlap with any other IUCN designation. They are: Australia, Austria, Bahamas, Bangladesh, Bermuda, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Botswana, Canada, Cayman Islands, Costa Rica, Croatia, Cuba, Czech Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Estonia, Finland, French Guyana, Greenland, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Japan, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, Marshall Islands, Mexico, Mongolia, Nepal, New Zealand, Norway, Northern Mariana Islands, Portugal, Seychelles, Serbia, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sweden, Tanzania, United States of America, and Zimbabwe. At publication, there are 2,992 marine and terrestrial wilderness areas registered with the IUCN as solely Category 1b sites.  Twenty-two other countries have wilderness areas. These wilderness areas are established via administrative designation or wilderness zones within protected areas. Whereas the above listing contains countries with wilderness exclusively designated as Category 1b sites, some of the below-listed countries contain protected areas with multiple management categories including Category 1b. They are: Argentina, Bhutan, Brazil, Chile, Honduras, Germany, Italy, Kenya, Malaysia, Namibia, Nepal, Pakistan, Panama, Peru, Philippines, the Russian Federation, South Africa, Switzerland, Uganda, Ukraine, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Venezuela, and Zambia.

Germany.

The German National Strategy on Biological Diversity aims to establish wilderness areas on 2% of its terrestrial territory by 2020 (714000 ha). However, protected wilderness areas in Germany currently only cover 0.6% of the total terrestrial area. In absence of pristine landscapes, Germany counts national parks (IUCN Category II) as wilderness areas. Professionally incorrect, the government counts the whole area of the 16 national parks as wilderness. This means, also the managed parts are included in the "existing" 0,6%. There is no doubt, that Germany will miss its own time-dependent quantitative goals, but there are also some critics, that point a bad designation practice: Findings of disturbance ecology, according to which process-based nature conservation and the 2% target could be further qualified by more targeted area designation, pre-treatment and introduction of megaherbivores, are widely neglected. Since 2019 the government supports bargains of land that will then be designated as wilderness by 10 Mio. Euro annually. The German minimum size for wilderness candidate sites is normally 1000 ha. In some cases (i.e. swamps) the minimum size is 500 ha.

France.

Since 1861, the French Waters and Forests Military Agency (Administration des Eaux et Forêts) put a strong protection on what was called the « artistic reserve » in Fontainebleau State Forest. With a total of 1 097 hectares, it is known to be the first World nature reserve.  Then in the 1950s, Integral Biological Reserves (Réserves Biologiques Intégrales, RBI) are dedicated to man free ecosystem evolution, on the contrary of Managed Biological reserves (Réserves Biologiques Dirigées, RBD) where a specific management is applied to conserve vulnerable species or threatened habitats.  Integral Biological Reserves occurs in French State Forests or City Forests and are therefore managed by the National Forests Office. In such reserves, all harvests coupe are forbidden excepted exotic species elimination or track safety works to avoid fallen tree risk to visitors (already existing tracks in or on the edge of the reserve).  At the end of 2014, there were 60 Integral Biological Reserves in French State Forests for a total area of 111 082 hectares and 10 in City Forests for a total of 2 835 hectares.

Greece.

In Greece there are some parks called "ethniki drimoi" (εθνικοί δρυμοί, national forests) that are under protection of the Greek government. Such parks include: Olympus, Parnassos and Parnitha National Parks.

Russia.

Due to Russia's size and in comparison non-dense population settlement, as well as of lack of infrastructure and the decades-long iron curtain the country is considered as one of the least explored areas and most natural places in the world.

New Zealand.

There are seven wilderness areas in New Zealand as defined by the National Parks Act 1980 and the Conservation Act 1987 that fall well within the IUCN definition. Wilderness areas cannot have any human intervention and can only have indigenous species re-introduced into the area if it is compatible with conservation management strategies.  In New Zealand wilderness areas are remote blocks of land that have high natural character. The Conservation Act 1987 prevents any access by vehicles and livestock, the construction of tracks and buildings, and all indigenous natural resources are protected. They are generally over 40,000 ha in size.

United States.

In the United States, a Wilderness Area is an area of federal land set aside by an act of Congress. Human activities in wilderness areas are restricted to scientific study and non-mechanized recreation; horses are permitted but mechanized vehicles and equipment, such as cars and bicycles, are not.  The United States was one the first countries to officially designate land as "wilderness" through the Wilderness Act of 1964. The Wilderness Act was—and is still—an important part of wilderness designation because it created the legal definition of wilderness and founded the National Wilderness Preservation System. The Wilderness Act defines wilderness as "an area where the earth and its community of life are untrammelled by man, where man himself is a visitor who does not remain."  Wilderness designation helps preserve the natural state of the land and protects flora and fauna by prohibiting development and providing for non-mechanized recreation only.  The first administratively protected wilderness area in the United States was the Gila National Forest. In 1922, Aldo Leopold, then a ranking member of the U.S. Forest Service, proposed a new management strategy for the Gila National Forest. His proposal was adopted in 1924, and 750 thousand acres of the Gila National Forest became the Gila Wilderness.  'The Great Swamp in New Jersey was the first formally designated wilderness refuge in the United States. It was declared a wildlife refuge on 3 November 1960. In 1966 it was declared a National Natural Landmark and, in 1968, it was given wilderness status. Properties in the swamp had been acquired by a small group of residents of the area, who donated the assembled properties to the federal government as a park for perpetual protection. Today the refuge amounts to that are within thirty miles of Manhattan. While wilderness designations were originally granted by an Act of Congress for Federal land that retained a "primeval character", meaning that it had not suffered from human habitation or development, the Eastern Wilderness Act of 1975 extended the protection of the NWPS to areas in the eastern States that were not initially considered for inclusion in the Wilderness Act. This act allowed lands that did not meet the constraints of size, roadlessness, or human impact to be designated as wilderness areas under the belief that they could be returned to a "primeval" state through preservation.  Approximately are designated as wilderness in the United States. This accounts for 4.82% of the country's total land area; however, 54% of that amount is found in Alaska (recreation and development in Alaskan wilderness is often less restrictive), while only 2.58% of the lower continental United States is designated as wilderness. Following the Omnibus Public Land Management Act of 2009 there are 756 separate wilderness designations in the United States ranging in size from Florida's Pelican Island at to Alaska's Wrangell-Saint Elias at.

Western Australia.

In Western Australia, a Wilderness Area is an area that has a wilderness quality rating of 12 or greater and meets a minimum size threshold of 8,000 hectares in temperate areas or 20,000 hectares in arid and tropical areas. A wilderness area is gazetted under section 62(1)(a) of the Conservation and Land Management Act 1984 by the Minister on any land that is vested in the Conservation Commission of Western Australia.

International Movement.

At the forefront of the international wilderness movement has been The WILD Foundation, its founder Ian Player and its network of sister and partner organizations around the globe. The pioneer World Wilderness Congress in 1977 introduced the wilderness concept as an issue of international importance, and began the process of defining the term in biological and social contexts. Today, this work is continued by many international groups who still look to the World Wilderness Congress as the international venue for wilderness and to The WILD Foundation network for wilderness tools and action. The WILD Foundation also publishes the standard references for wilderness professionals and others involved in the issues: "Wilderness Management: Stewardship and Protection of Resources and Values", the "International Journal of Wilderness", "A Handbook on International Wilderness Law and Policy" and "Protecting Wild Nature on Native Lands" are the backbone of information and management tools for international wilderness issues.  The Wilderness Specialist Group within the World Commission on Protected Areas (WTF/WCPA) of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) plays a critical role in defining legal and management guidelines for wilderness at the international level and is also a clearing-house for information on wilderness issues. The IUCN Protected Areas Classification System defines wilderness as "A large area of unmodified or slightly modified land, and/or sea retaining its natural character and influence, without permanent or significant habitation, which is protected and managed so as to preserve its natural condition (Category 1b)." The WILD Foundation founded the WTF/WCPA in 2002 and remains co-chair.

Extent.

The most recent efforts to map wilderness show that less than one quarter (~23%) of the world's wilderness area now remains, and that there have been catastrophic declines in wilderness extent over the last two decades. Over 3 million square kilometers (10 percent) of wilderness was converted to human land-uses. The Amazon and Congo rain forests suffered the most loss. Human pressure is starting to extend into almost every corner of the planet. The loss of wilderness could have serious implications for biodiversity conservation.  A previous study, "Wilderness: Earth's Last Wild Places," carried out by Conservation International, 46% of the world's land mass is wilderness. For purposes of this report, "wilderness" was defined as an area that "has 70% or more of its original vegetation intact, covers at least and must have fewer than five people per square kilometer." However, an IUCN/UNEP report published in 2003, found that only 10.9% of the world's land mass is currently a Category 1 Protected Area, that is, either a "strict nature reserve" (5.5%) or "protected wilderness" (5.4%). Such areas remain relatively untouched by humans. Of course, there are large tracts of lands in National Parks and other protected areas that would also qualify as wilderness. However, many protected areas have some degree of human modification or activity, so a definitive estimate of true wilderness is difficult.  The Wildlife Conservation Society generated a "human footprint" using a number of indicators, the absence of which indicate wildness: human population density, human access via roads and rivers, human infrastructure for agriculture and settlements and the presence of industrial power (lights visible from space). The society estimates that 26% of the Earth's land mass falls into the category of "Last of the wild." The wildest regions of the world include the Arctic Tundra, the Siberia Taiga, the Amazonia Rainforest, the Tibetan Plateau, the Australia Outback and deserts such as the Sahara, and the Gobi. However, from the 1970s, numerous geoglyphs have been discovered on deforested land in the Amazon rainforest, leading to claims about Pre-Columbian civilizations. The BBC's "Unnatural Histories" claimed that the Amazon rainforest, rather than being a pristine wilderness, has been shaped by man for at least 11,000 years through practices such as forest gardening and terra preta.  The percentage of land area designated "wilderness" does not necessarily reflect a measure of its biodiversity. Of the last natural wilderness areas, the taiga—which is mostly wilderness—represents 11% of the total land mass in the Northern Hemisphere. Tropical rainforest represent a further 7% of the world's land base. Estimates of the Earth's remaining wilderness underscore the rate at which these lands are being developed, with dramatic declines in biodiversity as a consequence.

Critique.

The American concept of wilderness has been criticized by some nature writers. For example, William Cronon writes that what he calls a wilderness ethic or cult may "teach us to be dismissive or even contemptuous of such humble places and experiences", and that "wilderness tends to privilege some parts of nature at the expense of others", using as an example "the mighty canyon more inspiring than the humble marsh." This is most clearly visible with the fact that nearly all U.S. National Parks preserve spectacular canyons and mountains, and it was not until the 1940s that a swamp became a national park—the Everglades. In the mid-20th century national parks started to protect biodiversity, not simply attractive scenery.  Cronon also believes the passion to save wilderness "poses a serious threat to responsible environmentalism" and writes that it allows people to "give ourselves permission to evade responsibility for the lives we actually lead...to the extent that we live in an urban-industrial civilization but at the same time pretend to ourselves that our real home is in the wilderness".  Michael Pollan has argued that the wilderness ethic leads people to dismiss areas whose wildness is less than absolute. In his book "Second Nature", Pollan writes that "once a landscape is no longer 'virgin' it is typically written off as fallen, lost to nature, irredeemable." Another challenge to the conventional notion of wilderness comes from Robert Winkler in his book, "Going Wild: Adventures with Birds in the Suburban Wilderness". "On walks in the unpeopled parts of the suburbs," Winkler writes, "I’ve witnessed the same wild creatures, struggles for survival, and natural beauty that we associate with true wilderness." Attempts have been made, as in the Pennsylvania Scenic Rivers Act, to distinguish "wild" from various levels of human influence: in the Act, "wild rivers" are "not impounded", "usually not accessible except by trail", and their watersheds and shorelines are "essentially primitive". Another source of criticism is that the criteria for wilderness designation is vague and open to interpretation. For example, the Wilderness Act states that wilderness must be roadless. The definition given for roadless is "the absences of roads which have been improved and maintained by mechanical means to insure relatively regular and continuous use." However, there have been added sub-definitions that have, in essence, made this standard unclear and open to interpretation.  Coming from a different direction, some criticism from the Deep Ecology movement argues against conflating "wilderness" with "wilderness reservations", viewing the latter term as an oxymoron that, by allowing the law as a human construct to define nature, unavoidably voids the very freedom and independence of human control that defines wilderness. True wilderness requires the ability of life to undergo speciation with as little interference from humanity as possible. Anthropologist and scholar on wilderness Layla Abdel-Rahim argues that it is necessary to understand the principles that govern the economies of mutual aid and diversification in wilderness from a non-anthropocentric perspective.

Wilderness or wildlands (usually in the plural), are natural environments on Earth that have not been significantly modified by human activity or any nonurbanized land not under extensive agricultural cultivation. The term has traditionally referred to terrestrial environments, though growing attention is being placed on marine wilderness. Recent maps of wilderness suggest it covers roughly one quarter of Earth's terrestrial surface, but is being rapidly degraded by human activity. Even less wilderness remains in the ocean, with only 13.2% free from intense human activity.

Wildnis ist – wie Landschaft und Natur – kein naturwissenschaftlicher, sondern ein alltagssprachlicher Begriff mit unterschiedlichen, kulturell geprägten Bedeutungen. Es gibt zwei verschiedenartige Begriffsbestimmungen:


Personal life.

Spinal meningitis in infancy and a fall when she was seventeen left Alice Nourse with frail health and back trouble which caused her to be semi-invalid at periods throughout her life.  She attended the University of Chicago, but never graduated, opting instead to take a job. She first traveled to China in 1908 to visit her sister Mary, who taught at a girls' school in Hangchow, and returned two years later to take up a post at the same establishment. After marrying Earle Tisdale Hobart, a Standard Oil Company executive, in Tientsin in 1914, she traveled to northeast China and in 1916 published an article on her experiences at the hands of "Honghuzi" bandits in "The Atlantic Monthly". It led to a series of pieces entitled "Leaves From a Manchurian Diary" and formed the basis for her first book, "Pioneering Where the World is Old" in 1917.  Her life in Changsha formed the backdrop for her second book, "By the City of the Long Sand" in 1926, while an assault on Nanking by Nationalist soldiers and her escape over the city wall to the safety of the waiting American gunboats was recounted in "Within the Walls of Nanking" in 1928. This book started as a piece in "Harper's Magazine". Her fictional account of her experiences in China, not surprisingly, focused on the role played by Western businessmen, especially those engaged in importing and selling petroleum products.  "Pidgin Cargo", set among traders on the Yangtze River, appeared in 1929 and "Oil for the Lamps of China" in 1933. After making her home in California in the 1940s, her subject matter expanded to encompass contemporary Mexico in "The Peacock Sheds His Tail" (1945) and Californian agrarian life in "The Cup and the Sword" (1942) and "The Cleft Rock" (1948). In 1959 she published her memoir, "Gusty's Child".  She published more than a dozen novels in all by the time of her death in 1967, with almost four million copies in print.

Alice Tisdale Hobart (January 28, 1882 – March 14, 1967) born Alice Nourse in Lockport, New York, was an American novelist. Her most famous book, "Oil for the Lamps of China", which was also made into a film, drew heavily on her experiences as the wife of an American oil executive in China amid the turmoil of the overthrow of the Manchu Dynasty in 1912.

Alice Tisdale Hobart geb. Nourse (* 28. Januar 1882 in Lockport, NY; † 14. März 1967 in Oakland, Kalifornien) war eine US-amerikanische Schriftstellerin.


Background.

After the War of the Austrian Succession, traditional European alliances fell apart and were replaced by an Anglo-Prussian pact and a Franco-Austrian alliance. Known as the Diplomatic Revolution, these events caused the Seven Years' War. Frederick II, King of Prussia and bitter rival of the Holy Roman Empress Maria Theresa of Austria, invaded Silesia in 1756 but suffered his first defeat at Kolin on June 18. In the aftermath of the battle, however, Frederick neglected to protect the approach to his capital, Berlin.

Battle.

Austrian commanders noticed this flaw, and Prince Charles of Lorraine, commander of Austrian troops facing Frederick's main army, dispatched Hungarian cavalry officer Count András Hadik and a force of about 5,100 men, mostly Hungarian or Croat hussars, to capture the city. However, to guard his main base at Elsterwerda, Hadik left behind enough troops that his raiding party was outnumbered by the unsuspecting Berlin garrison.  On October 16, Hadik and his raiding force arrived outside of Berlin. Although the Prussian defenders were surprised, they refused Hadik's surrender demands. Hadik promptly attacked the city gates, entering the city. The city's military governor, General Rotzow, believed that his forces were outnumbered and spirited the Royal Family to Spandau, while Hadik demanded that the city council pay a ransom of 200,000 thalers and a dozen pairs of gloves for the Empress. The ransom was paid, but Hadik left the city hurriedly when he realized that a significant Prussian force under the Prince of Anhalt-Dessau was marching toward Berlin in an attempt to intercept him.

The 1757 raid on Berlin took place during the Third Silesian War (part of the Seven Years' War). Cavalrymen of the Holy Roman Empire attacked and briefly occupied Berlin, the capital of Prussia.

Als Berliner Husarenstreich wurde eine gezielte Militäraktion im Siebenjährigen Krieg bekannt, in deren Verlauf die preußische Hauptstadt Berlin durch Truppen des kaiserlichen Feldmarschallleutnants Reichsgraf Andreas Hadik von Futak am 16. Oktober 1757 für einen Tag besetzt wurde. Die Anregung hierzu kam vom Prinzen Karl Alexander von Lothringen, unter dessen Oberbefehl Hadik stand.


Name.

Originally, the term "baju kurung" was used to refer to both the men's and women's outfits. However, in Malaysia, the men's outfit was renamed "Baju Melayu" as it was chosen to be the national costume of the Malays. The older definition is still maintained in Singapore.

Styles.

Cekak Musang.

In shirts made with the "cekak musang" collar, the placket of the "baju" will seem to form a third of the "baju" from the top when it is worn beneath the "kain samping" or "kain sarung". However, the hem line of the "baju" actually runs to the middle of the lap. The placket typically has three to five buttonholes and is fastened together by dress studs called "kancing" or "sitat" which are not unlike those used in Western-style formal dress shirts. The studs usually have screw-in backs and can be made from a variety of materials including gold, silver and precious or semi-precious stones. The studs may also be connected with a light metal chain which will be concealed behind the shirt when the placket is fastened.

Teluk Belanga.

In the state of Johor, both the design and the wearing of Baju Melayu is somewhat different from that of other areas. Here, the "kain samping" or "kain sarung" is worn below the "baju" rather than above it. The "baju" itself does not have the "cekak musang" collar or any placket. Instead, the opening is hemmed with stiff stitching called "tulang belut" (literally eel's spine) and ends with a small loop at the top of one side to fit a singular "kancing" (similar to the collars of "Baju Kurung" worn by women). This style is known as the "Teluk Belanga" style and was believed to be designed by Sultan Abu Bakar's aides to commemorate the move of Johor's administrative capital from Teluk Belanga in Singapore to Tanjung Puteri in 1866 (known as Johor Bahru from 1866).

Kolar Tunku.

Kolar Tunku is one of the collar of Baju Melayu. This type of collar is make special for Tunku Abdul Rahman by Omar Ali (Oldest Baju Melayu Brand in Malaysia).

Occasions for usage.

A black Baju Melayu with a black "Kain Samping" embroidered with gold thread is considered a form of formal dress, and is the official attire required during official national events, especially highly formal ones like the official celebration of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong's birthday. Malaysian ambassadors presenting their credentials to foreign heads of state are also required to wear the black Baju Melayu. The white Baju Melayu is worn by Malaysian royalty when mourning the passing away of a member of the royal family.  The Baju Melayu is commonly worn in Brunei, Malaysia, southern Thailand and Singapore by Malay men, although its use in Singapore & Thailand is usually restricted to Fridays at mosques, and the Eid ul-Fitr () holiday. Bruneian and Malaysian men usually wear the shirt for general religious occasions, such as visiting the mosque or for a religious gathering. In Brunei, it is commonly worn at formal events, such as festivals and weddings. Some companies allow their male workers to wear Baju Melayu on Fridays, whereas others have it as a policy. On the whole Singaporeans frequently refer to it as a "Baju Kurung", although this term in Malaysia usually refers only to the corresponding outfit for women.  In Indonesia, both the "Baju Melayu" in both collar styles (and other Malay clothes such as "Baju Kurung") is popular in provinces with large Malay populations such as Riau, the Riau Islands, West Kalimantan and a few other provinces mainly in Sumatera and other places where the presence of ethnic Malays are dominant. Recently, the "Baju Melayu" has become more popular and is not only worn at traditional events, but also in formal occasions. Government officials in Riau and other places wear them proudly during official events (even national events). It is also worn as a uniform in Silat, a traditional Malay martial arts. The Betawi version of "Baju Melayu" is called "Baju Demang", because Betawi are also part of the big Malay tradition, its customs and attire is similar to the Malay. Other local indigenous Malay ethnics in Indonesia also have their own style of "Baju Melayu" probably which have the same similarities such as the usage of the Songkok as the headdress for men and "kain samping".  The female version of the baju melayu is called the baju kurung.

Seluar.

The baju is traditionally worn by men with trousers called the seluar. The seluar are traditionally wide at the top, fastened with a running string called tali, and closer at the legs where it extends to below the knees. The styles of seluar include the Achenese seluar, seluar gadah which reaches to the ankles and seluar pende which terminates about the middle of the thighs. The seluar panjang are long and are sometimes buttoned at the feet.

Baju Melayu (Jawi: باجو ملايو) is a traditional Malay outfit for men. It literally translates as 'Malay shirt' and consists of two main parts. The first being the "baju" (long sleeved shirt) itself which has a raised stiff collar known as the "cekak musang" collar (literally fox's leash). The second part is the trousers called "seluar". The two parts are made out of the same type of fabric which is usually cotton, or a mixture of polyester and cotton. A skirt-type adornment is also commonly worn with the Baju Melayu, which is either the "kain samping", made out of songket cloth or the kain sarung, made out of cotton or a polyester mix. Both are loops of fabric which are folded around the wearer's waist. A jet-black or dark coloured headgear called the songkok can also worn to complete the attire.

Baju Melayu ist eine traditionelle, zweiteilige malaiische Kleidung aus Baumwolle, heute oft auch aus einer Baumwoll-Polyester-Mischung. Übersetzt bedeutet der Name "malaiisches Hemd". Außer an feierlichen Anlässen, wie dem Fest des Fastenbrechens "(Hari Raya Aidilfitri)", tragen malaiische Männer es vor allem bei religiösen Veranstaltungen und auch beim Beten. In Malaysia finden sich einige vom normalen Schnittmuster abweichende Modelle des "Bajus", wie beispielsweise das Johor-Design.


Flora and fauna.

The forests in the park are transitional between the drier Coastal Douglas-fir Biogeoclimatic Zone (CDF), which characterizes the east coast of Vancouver Island, and the wetter Coastal Western Hemlock Biogeoclimatic Zone (CWH), found along the island's west coast. Some of the trees are more than 800 years old and 9 metres in circumference. The flora of the park is typical of the region, and includes stands of old-growth tree species including western redcedar and bigleaf maple (found south of the highway), western hemlock, and grand fir. The understory (term for the area of the forest that grows in the shade the forest canopy) includes red huckleberry, salal, and devil's club. The park is home to several species of birds, including owls and woodpeckers; as well as such mammals as deer, black bear, elk and cougar. The Cameron River and Cameron Lake are stocked with rainbow, brown, and cutthroat trout.

History.

Indigenous peoples are believed to have used the area for ceremonial purposes prior to the arrival of European settlers in the mid-19th century. Evidence of "culturally modified trees", western redcedar trees which have had their bark stripped off, have been found and dated as far back as AD 1137.  The name "Cathedral Grove" is reputed to have originated from the Governor General of Canada, Viscount Willingdon, in 1928, and appeared in correspondence to the provincial government in the 1920s. Cathedral Grove was a well-known tourist stop in the 1920s and 1930s, long before its protection. Over the following quarter century the public pressured and petitioned the provincial government to acquire the lands known as Cathedral Grove, and for the property and timber owners to donate the land. H.R. MacMillan, who had served as first chief forester of British Columbia and became a well-known forester and logging industrialist as head of the H.R. MacMillan Export Company (later MacMillan Bloedel), after years of refusing to consider the public demands, in 1944 donated the 136 hectares of his company's timber holdings "for the perpetual enjoyment of the public in recognition of the unique stand of trees." In 1947 the area was established as a Class A provincial park.  Logging of the remainder of the valley upstream of the park throughout the late 20th century resulted in significant damage to the forest adjacent to the Cameron River. Extreme runoff from a 1990 tropical storm resulted in extensive flooding and streambank erosion, and 6 hectares of tree blowdown. In 1996 high winds caused extensive damage to the grove and surrounding forest. In the 1990s BC Parks initiated a trail rehabilitation program to prevent further damage from park visitation.

Parking lot controversy.

Visitor parking has traditionally been along both sides of the narrow highway just west of the Cameron River bridge, a condition that by the 1990s was judged to be dangerous for tour buses, cars, and loaded logging trucks. In 2003, a plan by the BC Government to build a new parking lot to service the park was met by protest from environmental groups. In the current arrangement, the park's estimated one million annual visitors are served by a road-side pullout-style parking lot. Government officials claim that the safety of tourists as well as passing motorists are threatened by the layout, and are seeking to build a new parking facility. The current plans for the lot involve the construction of a 5-hectare parking lot approximately 1.5 kilometres from the park. Critics claim that the construction will decrease the number of visitors to the park, and threaten the habitat and feeding grounds of the local elk population. In May 2004, the beginning of construction was halted by a protest organized by a coalition of environmental groups. The permanent protest involves a tree-top platform which is continuously occupied.

MacMillan Provincial Park is a 301-hectare provincial park in British Columbia, Canada. Located 25 km west of Qualicum Beach and 16 km east of Port Alberni, the park straddles Highway 4 in central Vancouver Island. It is nestled on the western shore of Cameron Lake, and protects the delta of the Cameron River. The park is home to a famous, 157-hectare stand of ancient Douglas fir, known as Cathedral Grove, which draws visitors from all over the world. The park provides the only highway-accessible protected old-growth Douglas-fir forest in British Columbia. In 2007 Cathedral Grove made the short list on CBC television's competition Seven Wonders of Canada.

Cathedral Grove ist der Name, unter dem der MacMillan Provincial Park auf Vancouver Island auch bekannt ist. Der nunmehr 301 ha umfassende Park ist besonders leicht zu erreichen, denn er liegt 16 km östlich von Port Alberni am Highway 4. Der Park liegt im Regional District of Nanaimo.


Career.

Early career.

Born in Niantic, Connecticut, Powes' love of cycling was apparent from an early age as he loved to tear around the house on his BMX bike, and it wasn't long before he started turning heads at local mountain bike races. He soon found his way to the Team Devo junior mountain bike program, and with their support he won his first major race in 2000, the Junior Mountain Bike World Cup in Napa Valley, California. Powers was introduced to cyclo-cross early in his cycling career as a way to stay fit at the end of the mountain bike season. It was the only time of the year when roadies and mountain bikers would converge in one place, and test each other's skills and fitness. In his native New England, cyclo-cross has been a regular part of each season for decades, and Powers excelled at the short, fast, technical races. Powers discovered that the frenetic pace and camaraderie of cyclo-cross suited his high energy and outgoing personality.  Powers earned a reputation as a strong rider, and success in New England earned him an invite to the junior race at the 2001 UCI Cyclo-cross World Championships in the Czech Republic. In his first international cyclo-cross race, Powers finished in 17th place. Encouraged by several friends and his coach Adam Myerson, Powers moved to Massachusetts, and changed his focus to road racing; however, Powers achieved one of his most significant victories very early in his career, when he won the 2001 Mountain Bike World Cup Cross Country event in the Junior division in Napa Valley, California.  While attending classes at Westfield State University, Powers tackled road racing, moving from a Category 5 to a Category 1 racer in a few short months, and closed out his road-racing season by signing a contract with for the 2004 season. Powers continued to race competitively in the Junior and Senior divisions of mountain biking, and was also competing in cyclo-cross in New England with the Northampton Cycling Club.

Jelly Belly–Aramark.

Powers would go on to race with at the biggest races in the U.S including the Tour of Georgia, Tour of California, Tour of Colorado, Tour of Missouri and many others. Despite his growing success on the road, every fall he would return to his true passion, cyclo-cross. Following his move to Jelly Belly in 2004, Powers made the decision to race an entire cyclocross campaign in Europe. In the 2004 season, his last as a under-23 rider, Powers returned briefly to the United States for the national championships, where he earned a silver medal. Powers returned to Europe to race full-time in 2005, his first year as an elite, again returning to the America to race the national championships. In 2006, Powers returned to full-time racing in the United States. Powers' full-time racing in Europe had prepared him well for racing in America, and he started to achieve good results in American competitions. Powers had podiums at two US Gran Prix of Cyclocross events, the Xilinx Cup and the Stumptown Cup. Powers also had some good results in his home region of New England, finishing on three podiums and finishing 4th in the Verge New England Cyclocross Championship Series.  A pair of top five time trial results in the 2006 Vuelta de Bisbie propelled him to a sixth place overall finish. Powers rode to prominence on the final stage of the 2008 Tour of Missouri, making half of the day's breakaway that was narrowly captured at the end of the stage. In September 2010, Powers won his first career stage race, winning Vermont's Green Mountain Stage Race by over two minutes ahead of's Tim Johnson, Powers' Cannondale prepared by Cyclocrossworld.com teammate, and's Gavin Mannion. Powers had a very successful 2011 road season with the team, participating in both of the United States' major tours – the Amgen Tour of California and the USA Pro Cycling Challenge. At the USA Pro Cycling Challenge, Powers got into the day's main break in stage 2, eventually won by George Hincapie.

Cyclocrossworld.com.

2007–08 season.

In 2007 Stu Thorne signed Powers to his Cyclocrossworld.com team, one of the first professional cyclo-cross teams in the U.S, joining Canadian Champion Lyne Bessette on the team. The support enabled Powers to tackle the U.S. Grand Prix of Cyclocross with renewed fervor, and he won his first major event, the Derby City Cup in Louisville, Kentucky that fall. Powers also won three Verge NECCS events.

2008–09 season.

2008 was Powers' first year with the Cannondale prepared by Cyclocrossworld.com team, and his first year teamed up with Tim Johnson. While Powers missed out on wins in the USGP series, he did stand on the podium at four of their events, and won the first race of the inaugural North American Cyclocross Trophy Series – Star Crossed in Redmond, Washington. Powers won six races in 2008, including his first back-to-back-to-back wins at the UCI3 Festival in Cincinnati, Ohio.

2009–10 season.

Powers' career was truly in the ascendancy in 2009, his second year with the Cannondale-Cyclocrossworld.com program. Powers accounted for nine of the team's 22 UCI victories in the 2009 cyclocross season, winning the first and last stops in the U.S. Gran Prix of Cyclocross series – the Planet Bike Cup in Sun Prairie, Wisconsin and the Stanley Portland Cup in Portland, Oregon. Powers finished up the season ranked second in the North American Cyclocross Trophy standings, behind teammate Tim Johnson, after winning day two of the Toronto International Cyclocross and finishing on the podium at a further seven races. Thanks to his consistency and some big wins, Powers finished up the 2009 season as the number 11 ranked rider on USA Cycling's Cyclocross Rankings.

2010–11 season.

Powers' 2010 cyclo-cross season was full of even more firsts. Powers continued his career progression, winning 10 UCI races in the United States, and secured victories in both the US Gran Prix of Cyclocross series and the North American Cyclocross Trophy Series, the first time this had ever happened. In the NACT series, Powers won four events, including a wire-to-wire victory at the first day of the Gran Prix of Gloucester to take home his first elite series title. In the USGP, Powers won the series, his first victory in the USGP at any level. Powers trailed Johnson by 16 points entering the series' final weekend in Portland, Oregon, but pulled even with his teammate following his win on the first day of the Stanley Portland Cup. With the title on the line, Powers proceeded to outsprint Johnson on the second day to win his first series title.  At the United States National Cyclo-cross Championships, Powers was part of the leading duo, when he was the victim of an untimely crash that saw him drop from the race lead to his eventual finishing spot of third. Despite the disappointment, Powers rebounded to finish 16th at the 2011 UCI Cyclo-cross World Championships in St. Wendel in January. Powers again finished the season ranked number 1 on the USA Cycling Cyclocross Rankings and finished 15th on the season's final UCI rankings.

Rapha–Focus.

2011 was Powers' first season with the Rapha–Focus professional cyclocross team. Powers joined Chris Jones, Zach McDonald and, later, Julie Krasniak to create one of the most successful teams of the season in American cyclo-cross. The biggest of Powers' 11 UCI wins was his first United States National Cyclo-cross Championships title, which he won by 17 seconds over former national Champion Ryan Trebon.  In the US Gran Prix of Cyclocross, Powers completed consecutive overall victories, winning the series' final five races, and standing on all but one of the series' podiums. At the Deschutes Brewery Cup in Bend, Oregon, Powers finally got his first victory on a course where he had had some bad luck in the past. 2011 saw Powers stand on 18 UCI podiums in the United States, making it onto all but two of the races that he entered. Internationally, Powers had his best finish at a UCI World Cup when he finished 10th at the World Cup in Plzeň, Czech Republic. Powers was named "Velonews" North American Cyclocross Rider of the Year for 2011.  Powers posted 14 UCI wins in 2012, winning another US Gran Prix of Cyclocross series and capped his US campaign with another CrossVegas win. Powers also found success in Europe, posting a 7th in the 1st World Cup and finished the season ranked 12th in the World. Powers posted 12 UCI wins in 2013 finishing the season ranked 11th in the world. On US soil, Powers once again was the USA Cycling PROCX Series winner.  In 2014, Powers won his second United States National Cyclo-cross Championships title at Boulder, Colorado. Powers posted 13 UCI wins finishing the year ranked 15th in the world.

Aspire Racing.

Following the 2014 season, Powers launched his own team, Aspire Racing focused solely on cyclo-cross. The 2014/15 campaign marked one of Powers' most successful seasons to date; he won his third United States National Cyclo-cross Championships title at Austin, Texas. and finished the season ranked ninth in the world.  In 2016, Powers signed Ellen Noble to his Aspire Racing program, a graduate of development program The JAM Fund. Noble earned a silver medal at the 2017 UCI Cyclo-cross World Championships in Bieles, Luxembourg riding for Aspire Racing, and won the National and Pan American Championships in the under 23 women's category.

Other ventures.

Behind the Barriers.

In 2010, Jeremy created Behind the Barriers – a web-based video series chronicling the 'day-in-the-life' of a pro cyclo-cross racer. In its first year, the series captured the attention of over 80,000 unique viewers. Today, Behind the Barriers TV has evolved into the preeminent American cyclo-cross media company and digital network with more than 370,000 unique visitors from 179 countries.

JAM Fund.

Developed with his longtime friends, Alec Donahue and Mukunda Feldman, the JAM Fund was created to enrich the lives of young cyclists from the New England cycling community. The JAM Fund strives to develop young cyclists in all aspects of their lives both on the bike and off. The JAM Fund raises money through many different avenues and then issues grants to riders under 25 who have applied to the program and have displayed commitment and enthusiasm to cycling. Over time, JAM transitions those young cyclists into a fully supported cyclo-cross program where the riders further develop and hone their skills as racers and people. In 2012, JAM Fund sent its first rider to a professional team when Jeremy Durrin was asked to join, and in 2013 JAM sent Steven Hyde to the newly formed Astellas Oncology team.

Jeremy Powers (born June 29, 1983) is an American former professional racing cyclist, who took over 90 UCI victories (the most wins by an American male cyclo-cross rider), four USA Cyclocross national championships, and the 2015 Pan American Championship during his career. He now works for the Global Cycling Network.

Jeremy Powers (* 29. Juni 1983) ist ein US-amerikanischer Radrennfahrer. Seine wichtigsten Erfolge erzielte Powers im Cyclocross. Er wurde 2015 panamerikanische Meister und in den Jahren 2012, 2014, 2015 und 2016 nationaler Titelträger. Außerdem gewann er zahlreiche Rennen des internationalen Kalenders.