Early life and career.

Hogerbeets was the son of Dirk Hendriksz. Hogerbeets, a medical doctor and burgomaster of Hoorn. When he was seven years old, he went into exile to Wesel with his parents, because they were persecuted by Alba's Council of Troubles. He attended Latin school in that city. He studied law under Donellus and received his doctorate in law from Leiden University in 1584. Already in 1590 he was appointed pensionary of the city of Leiden and secretary of the Board of Regents of Leiden University. He resigned these posts when he was made a Justice in the "Hoge Raad van Holland en Zeeland" (the supreme court of the provinces of Holland and Zeeland) in 1596. As "hoofdingeland" (member of the governing board) of the Holland North Quarter Drainage District he was closely involved in the draining of the Beemster lake around 1605. In 1611 he was a member of the diplomatic mission of the States-General of the Netherlands to mediate between Denmark and Sweden in the Kalmar War (which had harmed Dutch commerce). On 8 December 1617 he was again appointed pensionary of Leiden and he therefore resigned his seat in the "Hoge Raad".  Hogerbeets married Hillegonda Wentzen in March, 1591. They had one son and five daughters.

Arrest and trial.

As pensionary of Leiden, Hogerbeets was deeply involved in the political crisis that engulfed the Oldenbarnevelt regime in 1618 and brought about its fall. Leiden was one of the Holland cities whose regents were partisans of the Remonstrants and had agitated for the Sharp Resolution of 1617 which authorized city governments to raise private armies, called "waardgelders". The Counter-Remonstrants, the enemies of the Remonstrants opposed this, and the stadtholder, Maurice of Nassau viewed this policy as a challenge to his authority as commander-in-chief of the States Army. In the ensuing rounds of intrigue and counter-intrigue to procure the disbanding of the "waardgelder" companies, or to prevent the disbandment, Hogerbeets, together with Grotius and a few other Remonstrant regents from Holland, privately met with a like-minded group of Utrecht regents, led by Gilles van Ledenberg to discuss strategy in the political struggle with Maurice and the Counter-Remonstrants on 5 July 1618. This was later construed as a conspiracy.  Maurice went ahead with his plans to disarm the "waardgelders" in Utrecht at the end of July, 1618. His show of force thoroughly intimidated the group of regents around Oldenbarnevelt and they were prepared to make concessions. Nevertheless, on 28 August 1618 the States-General, on a secret majority-vote, authorized Maurice to arrest the Remonstrant "ringleaders" and the next day Oldenbarnevelt, Grotius, Ledenberg and Hogerbeets were duly taken prisoner and incarcerated at the Binnenhof.  As a citizen of Leiden and of Holland, Hogerbeets would normally have been tried by a court of law of that city or that province. This was a civil right, known as the "Jus de non evocando". However, the States-General decided to try the defendants themselves and as the confederation did not have its own judicial branch the matter was eventually delegated to a judicial commission of the States-General (a policy that was not unusual in itself). The pre-trial investigation in the case was handled by three "fiscals" (prosecutors): Laurens Sylla, Pieter van Leeuwen and Anthonie Duyck.  As an accomplished lawyer, Hogerbeets tried to avail himself of his legal rights under Dutch law. However, due process was systematically denied him, though he apparently was not threatened with torture like his colleague Ledenberg. After many interrogations and a long wait (during which his wife was denied access to him, though he was allowed to correspond with her) he finally expected to have his day in court on 18 May 1619. A few days earlier, members of the court had pressed him privately to ask for mercy, but he had refused, protesting his innocence. When the trial opened he was not allowed to state his defense, but made to listen to the reading of the verdict, that had already been decided upon. Together with Grotius he was convicted of treason against the federal government and sentenced to life imprisonment and forfeiture of his and his wife's assets.  Like Grotius, Hogerbeets was incarcerated in the fortress of Loevestein. Their wives were allowed to join them in jail. His wife fell ill, however, and after four months she died on 19 October 1620, her birthday. It apparently took three days to remove the body, and it caused him much distress to have to share the cell with his wife's corpse.  During his incarceration he authored a law manual, entitled: "Korte inleidinge tot de praktyk voor de Hoven van Justitie in Holland" (Short introduction to the practice of law before the courts of justice in Holland).  When Maurice's brother Frederick Henry succeeded the former in 1625, Hogerbeets was allowed to transfer to more pleasant surroundings in Wassenaar, where he was put under house arrest. He died there on 7 September 1625. He was buried in the Groote Kerk in The Hague on 12 September 1625.

Rombout Hogerbeets (Hoorn, 24 June 1561 — Wassenaar, 7 September 1625) was a Dutch jurist and statesman. He was tried for treason, together with Johan van Oldenbarnevelt, Hugo Grotius, and Gilles van Ledenberg during the political crisis of 1617-1618 in the Dutch Republic, and sentenced to life-imprisonment. He shared Loevestein prison with Grotius.

Rombout Hogerbeets (* 24. Juni 1561 in Hoorn; † 7. September 1625) war ein niederländischer Staatsmann. Hogerbeets studierte an der Universität Leiden unter Hugo Donellus Rechtswissenschaft. 1590 wählte ihn die Stadtregierung von Leiden zu ihrem Pensionär.


Background.

On April 15, 1809, the 10,000 Serbian rebels approached the villages of Kamenica, Donji and Gornji Matejevac, near the Fortress of Niš with Miloje Petrović as Commander-in-chief. They made six trenches. The first and the biggest one was on Čegar Hill in charge of "vojvoda" Stevan Sinđelić. The second one was in the village Gornji Matejevac with Petar Dobrnjac as the commander. The third trench was north-east to Kamenica with "vojvoda" Ilija Barjaktarević. The fourth trench was in Kamenica with Miloje Petrović as the chief commander. The fifth trench was in the mountain above Kamenica and under the control of "vojvoda" Paulj Matejić while the sixth one was in Donji Matejevac. The Ottoman commander of the fortress was Hurshid Pasha who had 8,000 troops in the fort and the surrounding area. The Serbs then launched several attacks against the Niš Fortress, but they could not take the fort due to lack of heavy artillery. In such circumstances, their strategy was to force Hursid Pasha to surrender with the long siege. But Hurshid had different tactics; after every Serbian attack, he was offered negotiations and this way he bought time while fresh troops arrived.  Meanwhile, on 20 May the Ottoman army was reinforced with 20,000 soldiers from Rumelia. One Ottoman unit then tried to surround the Serbian troops, 30 km east of the town. Hajduk-Veljko and his 2,000 soldiers then left their position, and moved to prevent the Ottoman attack from their rear approach. This manoeuvre further weakened Serbian positions on the main front line.  The Ottoman troops attacked on the trench of Petar Dobrnjac on 30 May. The following day, on 31 May 1809, the most prominent trench at Čegar Hill, under the command of Stevan Sinđelić, was under attack.

Battle.

The battle lasted for the whole day. Stevan and his unit became separated from the remainder of the Serb guerrilla positions and he and his men resisted fiercely. With hundreds of Ottoman soldiers pouring into the trench, Stevan saw that his Brigade had little hope of staving off the Ottoman offensive. Hand-to-hand combat ensued in the trenches. Stevan decided to fire his flintlock pistol into a pile of gunpowder kegs. When the Ottomans swarmed the trench from all sides and headed for him, Sinđelić squeezed the trigger. As Milovan Kukić witnessed:  It was earlier believed that the Serbian defeat at Kamenica was due to Miloje Trnavac, a commander of the Niš front.

Aftermath.

The fall of Sinđelić's trench forced the other Serbian units to retreat back to the town of Deligrad, where they entrenched themselves in a new, fortified front line. When Hurshid Pasha realized this, even though the post at Čegar hill had been taken, he ordered that the heads of the Serb victims be collected, skinned, and that the skulls be built into the "Skull Tower". This tower was built along the road to Constantinople, as a warning to anyone revolting against the Ottoman Empire. The Serbian defeat meant the loss of initiative in the war, which lasted until 1813. Thousands of Serbian revolutionaries and Ottoman troops were killed on Čegar Hill. In 1815 the Second Serbian Uprising began under the leadership of Miloš Obrenović.

The Battle of Čegar (), also known as the Battle of Kamenica (Бој на Каменици/Boj na Kamenici) was a battle of the First Serbian Uprising between the Serbian Revolutionaries and Ottoman forces near the Niš Fortress on 31 May 1809. Fought on the Čegar hill situated between the villages of Donji Matejevac and Kamenica near Niš in what is today southeastern Serbia, it ended in an Ottoman victory. Commander Stevan Sinđelić famously blew up the gunpowder magazine when the Ottomans overtook his trench, killing everyone in it. Skulls of dead Serb rebels were embedded into the Skull Tower.

Die Schlacht von Čegar war eine Schlacht zwischen osmanischen Truppen und serbischen Aufständischen, die am 31. Mai 1809 stattfand. Die Kämpfe auf dem Höhenzug "Čegar", wenige Kilometer nordöstlich von Niš, waren ausschlaggebend für den Ausgang des Ersten Serbischen Aufstandes (1804–1813).


Origins of the conflict.

In December 2007, Andry Rajoelina was elected mayor of Antananarivo. Tensions quickly grew between president Ravalomanana and the young mayor over the course of 2008 as Rajoelina became a vocal critic of a series of unpopular policies enacted by the president. He condemned what he called the "restriction of freedom" on the island, and criticized the president's plans to lease large parts of land to the Korean industrial company Daewoo.  On 13 December 2008, the Ravalomanana administration decided to shutter Viva TV, a television channel belonging to Rajoelina after broadcasting

Protests.

Rajoelina called a general strike during the weekend of 24–25 January 2009, in the capital city, Antananarivo, against Ravalomanana, whom he has called a dictator. Ravalomanana, who was in South Africa, cut short his trip to a regional summit in Pretoria, and flew back to Madagascar. In a statement Ravalomanana accused the mayor of attempting a coup saying, "The call for revolt and civil disobedience... corresponds to a coup d'état...tramples on the values of the constitution and the republic's institutions."  On 26 January 2009, the protests turned increasingly violent. Demonstrators set fire to the Madagascar state-owned radio building, attacked a private television station owned by Ravalomanana and looted shops and businesses throughout the city. That same day, armed government security agents reportedly disabled the transmitter of Viva Radio, a private radio station owned by Rajoelina.  Protesters ransacked two pro-government television stations in Antananarivo. Thousands of protesters raided and looted the headquarters of the Radio Nationale Malgache and Télévision Nationale Malgache building around 1 pm local time on 26 January 2009. About an hour later demonstrators burned down the Malagasy Broadcasting System, a private station owned by President Ravalomanana. A policeman and a fourteen-year-old protester were reportedly killed in the clashes at the Malagasy Broadcasting System attacks.  Firefighters found the bodies of at least 25 people in the ruins of a burned out, looted department store in downtown Antananarivo. The bodies were thought to be those of looters who became trapped in the burning shop when the roof caved in. In total, 44 people died. Their bodies were taken to a morgue, and all but ten of them were found to be severely burned.  In a show of defiance against the government, Rajoelina called for all Antananarivo residents to stay home on 29 January 2009. This "ghost town" ("ville morte") protest basically closed all stores and businesses in the capital city.  The Roman Catholic Cardinal emeritus of Antananarivo Armand Razafindratandra appealed for calm as the protests spread outside of the capital. All state and private radio stations in the country reportedly ceased broadcasting, with the exception of Radio Don Bosco, which is run by the Salesian religious institute.  Rajoelina said on 31 January that he was taking control of the country due to the failure of Ravalomanana and the government to fulfil their responsibilities. He said that a request for Ravalomanana's "immediate resignation" would be submitted to Parliament "in order to comply with the legal procedure". Furthermore, he asked that the central bank withhold money from the government, that all government ministries close, and that the security forces join him. Rajoelina said that he wanted the constitution to be respected and that it was Ravalomanana who had violated the constitution. According to Rajoelina, a new transitional government would soon be appointed under his leadership and a new presidential election would be held within two years. Speaking on the same day, Ravalomanana stated that he was "still the president of this country" and that he would "do what is necessary to develop this nation".  The African Union (AU) immediately warned Rajoelina that it would not accept an unconstitutional power grab in Madagascar: "It's totally forbidden to take power by non-constitutional means."  Opposition leaders allied to Rajoelina filed a petition with the High Constitutional Court on 2 February, asking it to remove Ravalomanana from office. By that point, attendance at Rajoelina's rallies had reportedly decreased. On 3 February, Rajoelina said at a rally that he would announce his new government on 7 February. On the same day, the High Constitutional Court ruled that it had no power to remove the President from office, as that power belonged to Parliament. Also on 3 February, Rajoelina was dismissed as Mayor and a special delegation, headed by Guy Randrianarisoa, was appointed instead. Rajoelina denounced the decision, saying that there was "no valid reason" for it and that he was prepared to face arrest if necessary; he warned that the city would "not accept this decision".  Rajoelina held another rally on 4 February, with about 1,500 people in attendance. On that occasion he described the appointment of Randrianarisoa as "an insult to the people of Madagascar"; he instead designated Michele Ratsivalaka to succeed him as Mayor and gave her his mayoral scarf.

Capture of palace and Ravalomanana's resignation.

On 16 March 2009, one of the palaces of President Ravalomanana, the Ambohitsorohitra Palace, was stormed and taken by soldiers of the Malagasy Army. Reports also indicate the capture of the country's central bank. The president was not in the stormed palace at the time. The African Union condemned the action, calling it an "attempted coup d'état". The actions followed an earlier call from opposition leader Andry Rajoelina for the President's arrest; Rajoelina insisted that the palace seizure was not a coup, although he immediately installed himself in the presidential offices of the captured palace.  Hours later, the BBC stated that Ravalomanana was to resign and hand over the powers of both the president and prime minister to a military board headed by Vice Admiral Hyppolite Ramaroson. Ravalomanana later said, "I never resigned. I was forced to hand power over, at gun point, on March the 17th." At the time, Ravalomanana had already moved out of the Iavoloha Palace to an undisclosed location; as of 24 March,

Backlash.

On the same day, Malagasy navy troops called for Rajoelina's resignation by 25 March, threatening to use force otherwise to protect the constitution of Madagascar. According to their statement, the navy troops "condemn all violence against civilians" committed by the army corps in March and denounce Rajoelina for the "civil war occurring in Madagascar". The navy troops claimed that there was "irrefutable" evidence that Rajoelina had paid the army corps hundreds of millions of ariaries and that they should face trials in accordance with military law. The navy troops called for other nations not to get involved in what they considered a purely domestic affair.  In a recorded message from Ravalomanana played to around 10,000 of supporters on 25 March, Ravalomanana encouraged people to "save the nation, defend the union and our national unity" because Rajoelina's government was "destroying our country with their coup."  Also on 25 March, Rajoelina invited Ravalomanana's political party to join other political parties, unions, and business leaders to discuss reconciliation on 2 and 3 April. Rajoelina said the meeting would also include planning for the next elections. Rajoelina said he would appoint the members of the group who would organize the meeting. Ravalomanana's political party, Tiako I Madagasikara (TIM), did not immediately comment on whether it would participate in those meetings.  On 26 March, Rajoelina's justice minister said that Rajoelina had given a presidential pardon to 28 "political prisoners" and that more would be pardoned in the future. Members of TIM spoke to the crowd. The names of the pardoned individuals were not made public.  About 6,000 people who supported Ravalomanana assembled in a park in downtown Antananarivo on 26 March, the fourth consecutive of such protests. Members of TIM spoke to the crowd. Referring to the reconciliation meeting proposed by Rajoelina, the speakers said that Ravalomanana would be involved only if he were recognized at the meeting as Madagascar's elected president and only if the United Nations, Southern African Development Community, or another neutral, international body organized the meeting. The speakers urged Ravalomanana to leave Swaziland, return to Madagascar, and call the bicameral parliament back in session. One speaker said that elections should only be held after Ravalomanana was reinstated as president. Following the speeches, security forces fired tear gas and shot bullets into the air to disperse the crowd.  The following day, about 6,000 people who supported Ravalomanana assembled again, the fifth such demonstration in five consecutive days. Police used tear gas on the assembled individuals at the end of the event, as they did at the end of the previous day's demonstration.  On 28 March, between 15,000 and 20,000 protesters assembled for the sixth consecutive day. In a recorded message played to the assembled crowd, Ravalomanana encouraged his supporters to continue protesting and gave assurance that he would return to Madagascar soon. While marching towards the 13 May Plaza, the same location that Rajoelina's supporters had assembled earlier in the year, police fired their weapons into the air and used tear gas to disperse the crowds, resulting in a stampede that injured 34 people. A young protester named "Razily", who was seen in a video of 28 March protests carrying the Malagasy flag at the head of the protests before being publicly beaten and carted off by police, became a cause célèbre when the video was distributed online; he has not been seen since his arrest. Police said they were trying to keep Ravalomanana's supporters from confronting Rajoelina's supporters. In response to the police actions, Ravalomanana's supporters encouraged a general strike on 30 March, saying, "Students should not go to school, office workers should stop their work and the private sector should stop paying taxes so as not to support an illegal regime." Protests continued nearly every day thereafter.  On 31 March, Rajoelina announced the individuals who would constitute the cabinet of his transitional administration for 24 months until elections are held. Rajoelina compared himself to Ravalomanana, saying that Ravalomanana was not immediately accepted by world leaders when he came to power in 2002. Rajoelina reiterated his previous statements that other countries should not "interfere" with his rise to the presidency of Madagascar. Rajoelina also announced a freeze of all mining contracts with foreign companies, saying that the foreign companies are not paying the fees and royalties that are legally due to Madagascar.  Still asserting that he was the legitimate president, Ravalomanana announced from exile that he was appointing Manandafy Rakotonirina as Prime Minister on 16 April. Ravalomanana made this announcement by telephone at a rally of his supporters in Antananarivo, with Rakotonirina in attendance.  On 20 April, people gathered in Antananarivo to listen to Ravalomanana speak by telephone and protest the closure of two radio stations, Radio Fahazavana and Radio Mada, the latter of which is owned by Ravalomanana. When the protesters began marching to a courthouse in the center of the city, police used tear gas to disperse the crowds and then fired their guns. A BBC reporter witnessed a protester killed after being shot in the back at close range. Another protester was also killed and twenty people went to the hospital for injuries sustained during the protests. The following day, thousands of people assembled to mourn the two deaths. Prime Minister Roindefo Monja announced that "all demonstrations are banned, including those in support of Andry Rajoelina, in order to restore law and order." Despite the ban, a demonstration was held the following day. Over a thousand people assembled to protest, fewer in number and shorter in duration as compared in previous days.  Cars and trucks were set on fire and people were looting in Antananarivo on 23 April. Police used tear gas, detonators, and gun fire to break up protests. Six protesters were arrested.  After Ravalomanana appointed him as Prime Minister, Rakotonirina began working out of the Carlton hotel in Antananarivo, and he appointed ministers to occupy the key government portfolios on 28 April. Soldiers with a warrant for Rakotonirina's arrest stormed the Carlton and arrested him on 29 April; they found him hiding in a bathroom after searching for about an hour. A spokesperson for Rajoelina described Rakotonirina as "the mastermind of last week's violence". Also in late April, Rajoelina's government informed the AU that it was prepared to hold an election by the end of 2009, earlier than it had previously stated.

Unity government deal.

On 7 November 2009, the leaders agreed to a power-sharing deal in which Rajoelina stays as president, creation of two co-presidents, Fetison Rakoto Andrianirina, aide to former President Ravalomanana

Other effects.

Environmental.

During the transition in the government, people have been illegally hunting and logging in Marojejy National Park and other conservation areas in Madagascar. While the new Malagasy government is otherwise preoccupied and some park rangers have left their posts, armed groups are cutting down valuable rosewood trees. Laws prohibiting the export of rosewood were repealed in January 2009, so the illegally acquired logs can be sold and exported for profit. Thousands of local people were involved in cutting a documented 123,000 rosewood logs representing an estimated 45,000 rosewood trees from Marojejy, Masoala and Makira National Parks between January–October 2009, with at least 871 containers already exported to China between March–April 2009 alone from the Vohemar and Toamasina ports. Floating the rosewood logs down rivers also requires cutting of 4–5 lighter trees, and several rosewood

Contracts.

In 2009, Rajoelina canceled a contract with South Korean company Daewoo. Under the contract, Daewoo would have leased of land, almost half of Madagascar's arable land, for 99 years to grow corn and palm oil for export to South Korea, a project that might have created as many as 45,000 jobs. On 10 April 2009, Madagascar's Minister of Land Reform confirmed that

Economic.

Finance Minister Benja Razafimahaleo reported a decrease in government revenue of 15 to 20 percent. Ravalomanana owns Tiko, the largest dairy farm in Madagascar. After Rajoelina became president, Rajoelina's supporters looted Tiko dairy farms, resulting in a milk shortage in Madagascar. Revenue from foreign tourists has decreased by

Sports.

On 28 January 2009, the Confederation of African Football canceled a match

International reactions.

Sanctions and suspensions of aid.

Since 16 March, Norway has instituted sanctions, mostly consisting of a freeze of economic aid, primarily due to the unstable atmosphere in the country prior to the resignation of Ravalomanana, and it has retained such sanctions for the time being.  On 20 March, U.S. State Department spokesman Robert Wood said the United States will suspend all non-humanitarian assistance to Madagascar.  The African Union suspended Madagascar's membership in the organization. The Peace and Security Council of the African Union announced that it would impose sanctions on the Madagascar government if an "unconstitutional" transfer of power were to take place, including total expulsion from the African Union. The African Union can enact sanctions if Madagascar does not restore constitutional order within six months.  The African Union's stance was corroborated by

Government response.

Most of the government response has been channeled through opposition prime minister Monja Roindefo, who denied that the events leading to Rajoelina's gaining of the presidency was a coup, but rather a "direct expression of democracy, when representative democracy does not express itself through the institutions", and called on the European Union to reconsider its reaction to the events. Rajoelina dismissed the condemnations, stating that "if they haven't understood the process, they may well react. But if they stick to their line after we have

The 2009 Malagasy political crisis began on 26 January 2009 with the political opposition movement led by Antananarivo mayor Andry Rajoelina, which sought to oust President Marc Ravalomanana from the presidency. The crisis reached its climax on 21 March 2009 when Andry Rajoelina was declared the president of the High Transitional Authority of Madagascar, five days after Ravalomanana transferred his power to a military council and fled to South Africa.

Der Regierungswechsel in Madagaskar 2009 war ein vom madagassischen Militär unterstützter Umsturz im Frühjahr 2009. Am 27. Januar 2009 brachen Unruhen gegen die Regierung des Staatspräsidenten Marc Ravalomanana aus, dem von der Opposition vorgeworfen wurde, sich durch seine Amtsführung persönlich auf Kosten des Landes zu bereichern. Auslöser war die Entscheidung der Regierung, den Fernsehkanal TV Viva zu schließen, der eine Rede von Didier Ratsiraka übertragen hatte. Der Anführer der Demonstration, Andry Rajoelina, bis dahin Bürgermeister der Hauptstadt Antananarivo und Besitzer des Fernsehkanals, rief eine demokratisch nicht legitimierte Gegenregierung aus. Verfassungsrechtler bewerten dies als Putschversuch. Als die Anhänger Rajaoelinas auf seine Aufforderung hin das Stadtpalais des Präsidenten stürmen wollten, wurden sie von den Ordnungskräften unter Einsatz von Schusswaffen daran gehindert.


Album information.

The album features substantial songwriting contributions from Vini Poncia, who had previously been Ringo Starr's post-Beatles songwriting partner. The album marked the first time Kiss had used the contributions of outside songwriters to such a large extent, as all tracks except two of the Frehley contributions, "Talk to Me" and "Two Sides of the Coin", were written or co-written by someone outside the band.  The band filmed a promotional video for "Shandi" with Criss. It was the last time he appeared with Kiss until he performed with them at a Kiss Convention on June 17, 1995. In the band's authorized biography, the drummer revealed that he was the last one left in the band's dressing room after filming and broke down crying. The album cover and poster insert, designed by artist Victor Stabin, featured a winking Criss. ""Unmasked" was like the tail end of a comet," reflected Stanley, "and I don't mean Frehley's."  A lip-synched German television performance of "Talk to Me" and "She's So European" featured the debut of Eric Carr, who became the band's permanent drummer until his death in 1991. The band would play a concert at the Palladium Theatre in New York City to officially introduce Carr as Criss' permanent replacement in the band. Kiss then toured Europe and Australia (where their popularity was at an all-time high) and played "Is That You?", "Talk to Me", "Shandi" and for a short time, "You're All That I Want". Otherwise, the album's songs have been largely ignored in live performances, with the exception of "Shandi", which is sometimes played in the band's shows, particularly in Australia (where the song became a top ten hit in 1980). "Talk to Me" was also played in 2001 during the Australian and Japanese concerts of the Farewell Tour, but has not been performed again since the departure of Frehley.  Heavy metal singer Jørn Lande covered "Naked City" on the album "Unlocking the Past" (2007). In 1999, German label Aor Heaven released a compilation with various artists covering the entire album, it was named "Undressed An Unmasked Tribute To Kiss".

Reception.

"Unmasked" went on sale on May 20, 1980 through Casablanca Records and reached number 35 on the Billboard 200, the worst position for the group since "Hotter Than Hell" (1974). The album got a gold certification from the RIAA two months after its launch. Meanwhile, in Europe and Oceania, Kiss maintained its popularity; "Unmasked" topped the charts in Norway and New Zealand, and reached the top 5 in Australia, Austria, Germany and the Netherlands.  "Shandi", published on June 1, 1980, was the first single from the album. Although in the United States it only reached No. 47, in Argentina it reached number one, while in Australia, New Zealand and Norway it reached the top 10. "Talk to Me" was the next single outside the United States. It went on sale on August 24 and its highest position was the tenth, reached on the Swiss charts. "Tomorrow" was the third and last single by "Unmasked" – the second in the United States – and reached No. 70 in Germany.  After its release, "Unmasked" divided the critics and received both positive and negative reviews. According to David Fricke of "Rolling Stone", the album "lacks the madness and amplified delusions of Love Gun and Alive!" And "Shandi" suggests The Doobie Brothers with kabuki makeup". Fricke also noted that rock songs such as "She's So European", "Easy As It Seems" and "You're All That I Want" are "disappointingly boring" and that "the sterile production" of Vini Poncia left "in the background the guitars and the harrowing voices of yesteryear." Jason Josephes of Pitchfork Media wrote that until he did not hear it he could not discern "how bad he was" and that he preferred to remain in that ignorance for the rest of his life. Examiner Rustyn Rose concluded that "Unmasked", "Is Kiss's adaptation to the new wave movement "and despite being" full of catchy pop-oriented melodies, they are far from the classic Kiss sound." Stepehen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic commented that none of the songs are memorable and that the group sounds uninspired throughout the album. Erlewine also added that "the music made it clear that it was time for Kiss to make a change."  For his part, Matthew Wilkening of "Ultimate Classic Rock" had positive comments on the album, according to him "Unmasked is an underrated gem of power pop in the middle of a race in free fall." Wilkening remarked that "Frehley manages to eclipse everyone by adding enough distorted guitars to bring together a sound comparable to the Rolling Stones in such outstanding subjects as 'Two Sides of the Coin,' 'Talk to Me,' and the wonderfully insane 'Torpedo Girl.'"  Although "Unmasked" marked a major musical departure for the band, it still reached #35 on the US "Billboard" chart and was certified gold by the RIAA on July 30, 1980.  One year after their last tour, which was somewhat a disaster, Criss was fired from the band due to his erratic behavior. Kiss played only one show in the US, at the Palladium with Carr. The band decided to take a break from the U.S. because the album was more successful in other countries, and Kiss played in Australia, England, New Zealand, Sweden, Netherlands, Norway, Denmark, Germany, France, and Italy.

Personnel.

Kiss Additional musicians  Singles

Unmasked is the eighth studio album by American hard rock band Kiss, released on May 20, 1980. Despite being credited, Peter Criss had no involvement with the recording of the album; Anton Fig played all the drums uncredited.

Unmasked ist das achte Studioalbum der US-amerikanischen Hard-Rock-Band Kiss. Es erschien 1980 und gehört musikalisch in eine kurze Zwischenphase in der Geschichte der Rockgruppe, die durch die damalige Discowelle bedingt war. Das Album erreichte hohe Chartplatzierungen. International bekannt wurde der Song "Shandi", der in einigen Ländern gute Platzierungen erlangte.


Life and career.

1968–88: Early life and feminism.

Hanna was born November 12, 1968, in Portland, Oregon. At age four, her family moved to Calverton, Maryland; as Hanna's father changed occupations, the family moved several more times.  Hanna first became interested in feminism around the age nine, after her mother took her to a rally in Washington D.C. where feminist icon Gloria Steinem spoke. In a 2000 interview with "BUST" magazine,  Hanna recalled: "My mom was a housewife, and wasn't somebody that people would think of as a feminist, and when "Ms." magazine came out we were incredibly inspired by it. I used to cut pictures out of it and make posters that said 'Girls can do anything', and stuff like that, and my mom was inspired to work at a basement of a church doing anti-domestic violence work. Then she took me to the Solidarity Day thing, and it was the first time I had ever been in a big crowd of women yelling, and it really made me want to do it forever."  Hanna's interest grew when her mother checked out a copy of Betty Friedan's "The Feminine Mystique" from the library. Their involvement in the women's rights movement was done quietly during Hanna's childhood, due to her father's disapproval.  Upon her parents' divorce, Hanna returned to Portland and attended Lincoln High School. After high school, she relocated from Portland to Olympia, Washington to attend The Evergreen State College in the late 1980s. During this time she worked as a stripper to pay her tuition. "My parents didn't go to college. I felt lucky [to attend]." While at Evergreen, with fellow student and photographer Aaron Baush-Greene, she set up a photo exhibit featuring the pair's photography, which dealt with sexism, violence against women, and AIDS-- issues that were heightened for Hanna when she volunteered for SafePlace, a domestic violence organization. However, the school administrators took the photos down before they had the chance to be viewed, an act of censorship that prompted what Hanna refers to as her "first foray into activism": the creation of Reko Muse, an independent feminist art gallery, with friends Heidi Arbogast and Tammy Rae Carland.  Hanna began doing spoken word performances that addressed sexism and violence against women. Eventually she abandoned spoken word in favor of music after a conversation with one of her favorite writers, countercultural icon Kathy Acker. Hanna recalled,  Hanna then formed a band with Arbogast and Carland, called "Amy Carter", which put on shows before the art exhibitions.

1989–99: Bikini Kill.

Later, Hanna started another band called Viva Knievel that toured the United States for two months before disbanding. Upon returning to Olympia, Hanna began collaborating with Evergreen student and punk zinester Tobi Vail after seeing a performance of The Go-Team (a band made up of Vail, Billy Karren, and Calvin Johnson) and recognizing Vail as the mastermind behind the fanzine "Jigsaw", which Hanna greatly admired and loved. The band, named Bikini Kill, soon became part of the seminal Olympia, Washington music scene of the early 1990s. One goal of the band was to inspire more women to join the male-dominated punk rock scene.  The band's first release for the Kill Rock Stars label was a self-titled EP produced by Ian MacKaye of Fugazi. Bikini Kill then toured the UK, recording a split LP with UK band Huggy Bear. This tour was filmed and the band was interviewed by Lucy Thane for her documentary, "". Upon returning to the U.S., the band began working with Joan Jett, who produced their single, "New Radio/Rebel Girl". After the release of this record, Hanna began co-writing some songs with Jett for her new album. At the same time Hanna produced several solo pieces for the Kill Rock Stars "Wordcore" series of recordings, including the 7" single "Rockstar" and the song "I Wish I Was Him" (a song written by Ben Lee and originally recorded by his band Noise Addict about alternative rock heartthrob Evan Dando) on the KRS compilation "Rock Stars Kill".  The first two Bikini Kill EPs were released on CD as "The C.D. Version of the First Two Records" in 1993. The band released two more full-length albums, "Pussy Whipped" in 1994 and "Reject All American" in 1996, and in 1998, Kill Rock Stars released "Bikini Kill: The Singles", a collection of the group's seven inch and compilation tracks. Bikini Kill amicably disbanded in mid-1998.

2000–present: Le Tigre, the Julie Ruin.

After Bikini Kill's breakup, Hanna began working on a solo project called Julie Ruin. The project was created entirely in Hanna's bedroom using a $40 drum machine. One self-titled album was released under the Julie Ruin pseudonym, and was partially inspired by the work of feminist theorist Julia Kristeva.  Hanna said of the project:  While in Portland, Oregon, Hanna began working with friend and zine editor Johanna Fateman on a live show for Julie Ruin. The collaboration resulted in the two briefly forming a band called the Troublemakers, named after a G. B. Jones film, which ended when Fateman relocated to New York City to attend art school.  Hanna soon moved to New York City as well, and with the addition of filmmaker Sadie Benning, they started another band called Le Tigre. Le Tigre was based upon a more electronic style of music, similar to the sampler-driven sound Hanna had begun to explore with Julie Ruin. Hanna refers to it as part of a "Punk Feminist Electronic genre". The band recorded for the Mr. Lady Records label, its first recording being an eponymous album which included the singles "Hot Topic" and "Deceptacon." Benning then left the band and was replaced by JD Samson for their second album, "Feminist Sweepstakes".  Mr. Lady Records folded, and the group switched to Universal Records for the 2004 release of "This Island". Hanna left the band in 2005 due to illness; she was later diagnosed with late stage Lyme disease. According to the Le Tigre website, during her time off from the band, Hanna volunteered as a band coach for the Willie Mae Rock and Roll Camp for Girls. She also taught an art class at NYU's grad school in the Fall 2007 semester and attended interior design classes. In 2010, Hanna DJed at the Museum of Modern Art, later joining the Raincoats on stage to cover the Slits' "Vindictive".  Also in 2010, Hanna announced she was rebuilding her 1997 act Julie Ruin, turning it into a full band called The Julie Ruin with Kenny Mellman and Kathi Wilcox, and that they would be creating a new record. The band played their first show at Knitting Factory in New York City. The show included songs from Bikini Kill and Le Tigre, and one new composition. From 2010 to 2013, director Sini Anderson worked on a documentary on Kathleen Hanna titled "The Punk Singer", documenting her works from Bikini Kill to the Julie Ruin. It premiered at SXSW in 2013. In June 2013, Julie Ruin released its first single, "Oh Come On". An album, "Run Fast" was released in September 2013 with the band going on tour. The Julie Ruin cancelled the tour planned for May to September 2014 due to Hanna's Lyme disease condition deteriorating. She has since recovered and The Julie Ruin's second album, Hit Reset, was published on July 2016 by Hardly Art.

Activism and impact.

Hanna's outspoken feminism has always influenced her work. She became a voice for third-wave feminism and the Riot Grrrl movement in 1991. In 1991, Bikini Kill spent the summer in Washington, D.C., where Hanna began collaborating with Allison Wolfe, Molly Neuman, and Jen Smith from the band Bratmobile on the zine "Riot grrrl", which became a call to action for young women to embrace feminism and equal female involvement in the punk rock scene.  The zines "cover[ed] strategies for safety in the mosh pit", "exploration of political ideas", and creating a collective for punk feminist women. The Bikini Kill Zine, which began in 1991, was born from this, along with the desire to present "feminist issues through a punk rock lens." By Issue Two, the Riot Grrrl Manifesto was born, urging women to defy society's expectations upon them as women, and to form a collective for women to freely discuss current issues. While Hanna never sought nor intended to become the spokeswoman for Riot Grrl, she hoped that it would provide a voice for issues that are relevant to women on local, national, and global levels.  At Bikini Kill concerts, Hanna would ask women to move to the front of the stage to avoid harassment from males, as part of her idea of "girls to the front' or "Revolution Girl Style Now." In a mostly male-dominated punk rock scene where shows often turned violent because of mosh pits (where women were often assaulted), Hanna wanted space for women to be able to feel safe. Additionally, with a barrier of girls in the front rows, she too could feel safe and supported at her own shows, where male hecklers were constantly present.  Her feminist contributions to punk music are also evident in her lyrics. In an interview with Nicole Brodeur from "The Seattle Times", it is said that, "Hanna's lyrics were about girls who did and wore what they wanted, despite societal expectations." Hanna: "It doesn't mean you're not a feminist because you expose your legs." She zeroed in on the idea that women should have the ability to express themselves in any way they please, without backlash, and her performances regularly reflected such themes. Bradeur: "Hanna exposed her breasts and rear-end with lust-killing bluntness; she wore a girlish ponytail and danced around with'slut' written in lipstick across her midriff."  In 1991, Hanna performed with Bikini Kill (alongside Fugazi) at the Pro-Choice Rally at the National Mall in Washington, D.C. before the Planned Parenthood v. Casey trial. Having had an abortion herself at 15, Hanna said: "It's about women not dying in back-alley abortions, but it's also about women saying: 'My life is worth it, too. I deserve to have control over my life and my health care.' Imagine if a man was told, 'You can't make the decision to have a vasectomy.'" Hanna also spoke at the 2011 Planned Parenthood "Stand Up for Women's Health" Rally. During her speech, she told her story of when she was 19 years old, on tour, and broke. She had acquired an infection, was extremely ill, and walked into a Planned Parenthood clinic for help. Despite having less than $10 in her pocket, she was "met with open arms" at the clinic, was treated with respect, and received medical care.  Hanna contributed the piece "Gen X Survivor: From Riot Grrrl Rock Star to Feminist Artist" to the 2003 anthology "", edited by Robin Morgan. The riot grrrl genre, to which Hanna was central, has been credited as a historical site for the empowerment of women by such documentaries as "The Punk Singer", which credits Hanna with having molded many tenets of third-wave feminism.  In 2009, the Fales Library at New York University created a Riot Grrrl Collection. This collection focuses on the early formation of the Riot Grrrl movement, and has a series of zines, art pieces, photography, video, music, journals, and more. Some of Hanna's solo work, along with zines that she has created with Bikini Kill and other collaborators are also included. In a 2014 interview with Amy Middleton of Australian webzine "Archer", Hanna stated that she supported marriage equality. Hanna also noted that while on tour with Le Tigre, she met teenagers who had told her of starting LGBT groups and gay/straight alliances in their high schools; she said, "Hearing that made me feel so hopeful for the future". In the same interview, Hanna stated she was saddened by trans-exclusionary feminist movements, and appeared to support transfeminism. Previously, critics had suggested Hanna was trans-exclusionary for having performed at the Michigan Womyn's Music Festival in 2001 and 2005, which had a policy of exclusively allowing "womyn-born-womyn" into the event.  In 2018, Hanna started "Tees 4 Togo", a project which sells t-shirts with drawings of Hanna's friends such as Kim Gordon, Patton Oswalt, Joan Jett, and Chuck D, along with artists such as Sarah Larnach, Adee Roberson, and Hannah Lucy. 100% of the proceeds go to the non-profit Peace Sisters, which helps fund local girls' school tuition costs in Dapaong, Togo. The cost of one $40 shirt funds an entire school year for a student.

Personal life.

In 2006, Hanna married Adam Horovitz of the Beastie Boys in a civil ceremony in Hawaii, after being a couple for nine years. The songs "Capri Pants" by Bikini Kill and "Just My Kind" by The Julie Ruin are written about her relationship with Horovitz.  Hanna suffered from Lyme disease for six years before it was correctly diagnosed. The disease forced her to enter a three-month course of treatment in 2014, resulting in canceling live performances with her band the Julie Ruin. By June 2015, tests revealed that she was Lyme-free.

Kathleen Hanna (born November 12, 1968) is an American singer, musician, artist, feminist activist, pioneer of the feminist punk riot grrrl movement, and punk zine writer. In the early-to-mid-1990s she was the lead singer of feminist punk band Bikini Kill, before fronting Le Tigre in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Since 2010, she has recorded as The Julie Ruin.

Kathleen Hanna (* 12. November 1968 in Portland, Oregon) ist eine US-amerikanische Musikerin, feministische Aktivistin und Autorin. Sie war Sängerin der Punkband Bikini Kill und gründete die Electropunkband Le Tigre. Außerdem veröffentlichte sie 1998 unter dem Namen Julie Ruin ein gleichnamiges Soloalbum. Sie trug erheblich zur Erneuerung des Feminismus in den USA bei und gilt als Symbolfigur der Riot-Grrrl-Bewegung.


Playing career.

Undrafted, Stapleton played for two seasons with the Green Bay Gamblers of the USHL. Stapleton then represented the University of Minnesota Duluth for four seasons, where he led the team in scoring as a freshman and had back-to-back 40 point seasons.  After a brief stint with the Portland Pirates of the AHL, he signed with Jokerit of the Finnish SM-liiga, completing a tryout which led to a one-year contract. During his first Jokerit season, Stapleton won the SM-liiga silver medal and finished second in playoff scoring.  On June 6, 2008, Stapleton signed as a free agent to the Toronto Maple Leafs for the 2008–09 season. Stapleton was assigned to the Toronto Marlies of the American Hockey League on September 26, 2008.  On 26 February 2009, Stapleton played his first career NHL game with the Toronto Maple Leafs, scoring the shootout winner. In his next game Stapleton was credited with his first NHL goal against the Ottawa Senators, goaltender Brian Elliott on February 28, 2009.  On July 1, 2009, Stapleton was traded to the Atlanta Thrashers with Pavel Kubina for Garnet Exelby and Colin Stuart. After signing with the Thrashers, Stapleton was then assigned to affiliate, the Chicago Wolves, for the 2009–10 season.  For the 2010–2011 season, Stapleton signed a Professional Try-out agreement with the San Antonio Rampage of the AHL. On November 30, 2010, Stapleton was signed to a 2-year contract by the Atlanta Thrashers.  On February 27, 2011, Stapleton scored his first goal since April 16, 2010. It was against his former team, the Toronto Maple Leafs. He was invited and accepted an invitation to join the USA hockey team for the 2011 IIHF tournament.  On April 10, 2011, Stapleton scored a goal in the 3rd period against the Pittsburgh Penguins. This was the last game of the season for the Thrashers and would be the last goal in their history. The following season, the Thrashers, including Stapleton, moved to Canada to become the Winnipeg Jets. For the first time Stapleton remained at the NHL level for an entire season, often playing the point on the power play despite playing his even-strength minutes as a third- or fourth-line forward; partly because of this, he logged career highs (and more than doubled his career NHL totals) in games played, goals, assists and points.  Despite this performance, Stapleton was not re-signed by the Jets when his contract expired the following summer. On July 10, 2012, it was announced that Stapleton had agreed to terms with Dinamo Minsk of the KHL. After a good performance with Dinamo, he signed in 2013 a two-year deal with Ak Bars Kazan.  After only one-season with Ak Bars, Stapleton was released from the remaining year of his contract and joined fellow KHL club, Neftekhimik Nizhnekamsk on a one-year deal on July 11, 2014. Stapleton was traded to Metallurg Magnitogorsk on December 15, 2014.  On April 17, 2015, Stapleton left the KHL and signed a one-year contract with Swiss club, EHC Biel of the NLA.  On August 1, 2016 he signed with the Karlstad-based, Swedish club Färjestad BK, of the Swedish Hockey League (SHL). After collecting just 4 points in 20 games, he parted company with the team on November 26, 2016, and inked a deal with HC Spartak Moscow in a return to the KHL for the remainder of the 2016–17 campaign the following day.  On April 21, 2017, Stapleton agreed to a one-year contract with EHC Olten of the Swiss League (SL). He contributed with 21 points in 29 games before opting to leave Switzerland and join German club, ERC Ingolstadt of the Deutsche Eishockey Liga for the closing stages of the 2017–18 season on January 6, 2018.

Personal info.

Despite being born and raised in the Chicago area, Stapleton is not related to 1970s Chicago Blackhawks star defenseman Pat Stapleton or former Winnipeg Jets and Atlanta Thrashers forward Mike Stapleton, despite wearing the latter's number with both franchises. Stapleton is half Filipino and half Irish.

Timothy Gabriel Stapleton (born July 19, 1982) is an American former professional ice hockey center. He played in the National Hockey League with the Toronto Maple Leafs, Atlanta Thrashers and Winnipeg Jets. In 2011, Stapleton scored the last goal in Thrashers' history.

Timothy Gabriel „Tim“ Stapleton (* 19. Juli 1982 in La Grange, Illinois) ist ein US-amerikanischer Eishockeyspieler, der seit der Saison 2017/18 beim EHC Olten in der National League B unter Vertrag steht.


Terminals.

The domestic terminal is a short distance north of the international terminal and offers inter-island flights with a peak of a departure every 10–15 minutes at busy times which corresponds with international arrivals/departures and every 30 minutes at other times. A cargo terminal is south of the international terminal and handles freight from all international and domestic movements; it is run by Air Seychelles.  A base of the Seychelles Public Defence Force (SPDF) is at the southeastern end of Runway 13 on an island that was joined with Mahé at the construction of the airport.

History.

Early years.

The opening of the Seychelles International Airport took place on 20 March 1972 by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II. Wilkenair of Kenya had, however, already started a ferry service between Mombasa and Mahé via Diego Suarez in Madagascar and Astove Island (Seychelles) using a twin engine Piper Navajo the previous year. It operated to the Seychelles once a week. The first pilot to land at Seychelles airport was Tony Bentley-Buckle, who flew his private plane from Mombasa to Mahe via Moroni in March 1971 even before the airfield was complete. The flying time was 9 hours 35 minutes.  This was followed by East African Airways in November 1971 and Luxair in December of the same year. A BOAC Super VC10 was the first jet aircraft to land at Seychelles International Airport on 4 July 1971. At the time of the opening it had a 2987 m runway and a control tower. Ground handling and all other airport operations were carried out by the DCA (Directorate of Civil Aviation). In 1972, John Faulkner Taylor and Tony Bentley-Buckle founded the first local aircraft company Air Mahé, which operated a Piper PA-34 Seneca between Praslin, Fregate, and Mahé Islands. This aircraft was later replaced by a Britten-Norman Islander. By 1974, over 30 airlines were flying to the Seychelles. Ground handling and all airport operations were being carried out by Aviation Seychelles Company, a company formed in 1973.  Construction works for the substantial expansion of the airport started in July 1980 Due to the continuous increase in passenger traffic, a terminal building was built that could cater for 400 more arriving and 400 more departing passengers at any time. Parking bays for up to six large aircraft were built and a parking area for five light aircraft.  In 1981, there was a gun battle at Seychelles International Airport, as British national Mike Hoare led a team of 43 South African mercenaries masquerading as holidaying rugby players in a coup attempt in what is known as the Seychelles affair. After their hidden weapons were discovered on arrival a skirmish ensued, with most of the mercenaries later escaping in a hijacked Air India jet.

Development since the 2000s.

The years 2005/2006 brought further development of civil aviation in the Seychelles. The Civil Aviation Authority Act was enacted on 4 April 2006 for the corporatisation of the Directorate of Civil Aviation to Seychelles Civil Aviation Authority. Works started to upgrade and extend the terminal building, which has been further extended to handle at least five medium to large jet aircraft (e.g., Boeing 767 or Airbus A330) as well as six smaller jet aircraft (e.g. Boeing 737 or Airbus A320).  Additional parking areas were made available to the north-east of the airport to handle the parking of charter, business, and long stay aircraft (e.g. some European flights arrive in the morning starting at 7 a.m. but do not depart until 10 p.m. onwards). This reduces jet-lag as any flight that leaves Seychelles at night will get to most Western European cities in the early morning and vice versa from the European cities to the Seychelles; it also provides sufficient rest for operating crews.  The airport has been home to unmanned aerial vehicles operated by the United States Air Force and possibly the Central Intelligence Agency for operations over Somalia and the Horn of Africa. President of Seychelles James Michel apparently welcomed the presence of U.S. drones in Seychelles to combat Somalian piracy and terrorism, dating back to at least August 2009. At least two MQ-9 Reaper UAVs have crashed into the Indian Ocean near the airport since December 2011.

Airlines and destinations.

All the following flights are currently suspended because of the COVID-19 pandemic:

Ground transport.

There is frequent service to the bus station in Victoria, with taxi ranks outside the terminal available to all locations on Mahé Island. Several tour operators' coach services also link passengers to the ferry terminal at the Old Port (Vieux Port) for inter-island ferry services and to the New Port (Nouveau port) for cruise holidays.  There are plans to link the airport with a light railway/tram system that will run along the east coast of Mahé island due to the high transportation density of this area. Companies were invited to tender by the government in 2007.

Seychelles International Airport, or "Aéroport de la Pointe Larue" in French, is the international airport of the Seychelles located on the island of Mahé near the capital city of Victoria. The airport is the home base and the head office of Air Seychelles and features several regional and long-haul routes due to its importance as an international leisure destination.

Der internationale Flughafen der Inselgruppe der Seychellen befindet sich auf der Hauptinsel Mahé nahe der Hauptstadt Victoria und ist der einzige internationale Flughafen des Staates im Indischen Ozean. Der Flughafen hat zwei offizielle Namen, zum einen Seychelles International Airport (englisch) und zum anderen Aéroport International de Seychelles (französisch), da beide Sprachen auf den Seychellen zu den Amtssprachen gehören.


Early life.

Born Jorge Tadeo Lozano de Peralta y González Manrique, he was the son of the Marqueses of San Jorge, Jorge Miguel Lozano de Peralta Varaés Maldonado de Mendoza y Olaya, and María González Manrique del Frago Bonis. He was born on January 30, 1771 in Santafé de Bogotá, the capital of Viceroyalty of New Granada, present day Colombia.  Lozano was the quintessential Renaissance man, belonging to one of the most prestigious and affluent families of the viceroyalty, and receiving a very extensive and profound education. He studied literature, philosophy, and medicine in the Our Lady of the Rosary University, then called the "Colegio Mayor del Rosario". After finishing his studies he opted for a career in the military, and continued his studies in Spain as part of the Walloon Guards, where he fought for Spain against the French in the War of the Pyrenees. Tadeo served under the command of the Spanish General Luis Firmin de Carvajal, Conde de la Union, and rose among the ranks to obtain the rank of Captain in the Royal Spanish Army. While in Madrid he also studied Chemistry and Mathematics in the Royal Laboratory of Chemistry of the Court of Madrid ("Real Laboratorio de Química de la Corte de Madrid") between 1792 and 1793. After finishing his studies, and retiring from his military service, Tadeo traveled through Europe and lived for a while in Paris.  When Lozano returned to New Granada in 1797, he became an active member of the tertulias of Bogotá, including the tertulia of the "Casino", which was directed by Antonio Nariño, and frequented by other prominent criollos like Francisco Antonio Zea and Manuel de Bernardo Alvarez.

Journalism.

In 1801, Lozano and his relative José Luis Azuola y Lozano, founded the newspaper "Correo curioso, erudito, económico y mercantil de la ciudad de Santafé de Bogotá", the third newspaper in the viceroyalty and in the history of Colombia. This weekly publication ran between February 17, 1801 and December 29 of the same year, with a total of 46 publications. This publication, along with the subsequent newspapers that were circulated at the time, were crucial in the formation of ideas among the criollos, who began propagating an idea of Neogranadine self-administration, governance, economy and culture separate to that of Europe, thus setting the stage for a future separation. Tadeo had the opportunity to publish some of his own articles in the newspaper, mostly dealing with the idea of forming an economic alliance to foment the economy of the viceroyalty.  Lozano returned to journalism again in 1814, when he founded and directed along with José Ángel Manrique the newspaper "El anteojo de larga vista", a short lived publication of only 15 issues, but which were filled with a patriotic and independentist sentiment.

Political life.

Lozano's first involvement in politics was 1799, when he was appointed Mayor of Bogotá by the Real Audiencia of Bogotá, he however did not last long in this office. On July 31, 1807 he was appointed Lieutenant Protector of Indians, for the regions of Bosa, Fusagasugá and Usaquén.  Following the events of the Independence of the New Granada, Lozano offered his services to the cause and became more involved in politics. When José Miguel Pey de Andrade took office of the Open Cabildo of Bogotá he called for a constituent assembly to set the course for the nascent state. Among those chosen as representative for the constituency of Soto, and was elected President of the Constituent Electoral College, having both executive and legislative powers. This legislative body drafted the first constitution of Cundinamarca. This constitution, of a liberal representative character, recognized the King of Spain as the monarch, but dismissed the claims of representation by the Viceroy, making the Colony into a commonwealth state. On April 1, 1811, Tadeo took office as the first President of the newly created confederation called the United Provinces of New Granada.

Resignation.

Although Lozano was elected President, his term did not last long. He was heavily criticised for being too weak, and for the constant scandals he and his family were involved. His biggest opponent was Antonio Nariño, who waved a propaganda campaign to wean him out of office, all orchestrated and divulged by his newspaper "La Bagatela", where he openly called for his impeachment or resignation. This campaign was only the product of a popular discontent with Tadeo, who was criticised by many criollos for his connections with Spain and his title of nobility.  Lozano finally resigned on September 19, 1811, letting Nariño assume office. Afterwards he retired from politics and focused himself to his studies and his personal affairs.

Death and legacy.

During the Reconquista of the New Granada, the "Pacificador" Pablo Morillo invaded Bogotá and ushered the Reign of Terror, the purging of the Independentists and their institutions. Morillo sought out Tadeo, for his involvement in Congress, in the revolutionary newspaper "El anteojo", and the fact that he was President of Cundinamarca, made him a prime target of the reign of terror. He was persecuted, his possessions taken away, and was finally arrested and held for two months, which culminated in his execution by firing squad on July 6, 1816, in the Orchard of Jaime, now the Plaza de los Mártires in Bogotá.  Lozano is considered a martyr and a hero of the Revolution and Independence of Colombia. His contribution to science, in the areas of Zoology, Botany and expeditions helped cement the basis of science in the education of the country. The Jorge Tadeo Lozano University was founded in his honour, an institution dedicated to the sciences that he sought to study in life.

Personal life.

Upon his return to the New Granada, Tadeo fell in love with his niece, María Tadea Lozano e Isasi, daughter of his brother José María Lozano de Peralta, 2nd Marquess of San Jorge. He expressed his desired to marry her, but the Roman Catholic Church could not marry them because of their level of consanguinity; he requested a dispensation from the Archbishop of Bogotá, Baltazar Jaime Martínez Compañón, for which he paid on June 7, 1797, 2 thousand pesos to be used as grants for the education of the girls of the "Enseñanza" school, six hundred pesos for church decorations, including two religious paintings, and the construction of an aqueduct in Funza. The dispensation was granted on June 28, 1797 and the wedding was subsequently held on July 2 of the same year. Out of this union, 8 children were born.

Titles and styles.

Jorge Tadeo Lozano was Viscount of Pastrana, this courtesy title was reserved to the eldest son of the Marquess of San Jorge of Bogotá; the title was originally held by his older brother Jorge Miguel, but ceded it to Jorge Tadeo when he married his daughter María Tadea Lozano e Isasi.  As President of the State of Cundinamarca and Vice-regent of the King's Person, he acted as the pretender Viceroy of the New Granada, however he was not recognized by King Ferdinand VII who had instead appointed Francisco Javier Venegas, Marquess of Reunión and New Spain to the post but was unable to take office. While in office he used the royal styling of Jorge I of Cundinamarca.  His full style was "His Excellency Jorge Tadeo Lozano Gonzaléz, Viscount of Pastrana, President of the State of Cundinamarca and Vice-regent of the King’s Person".

Jorge Tadeo Lozano, Viscount of Pastrana (January 30, 1771 – July 6, 1816) was a Neogranadine (now Colombian) scientist, journalist, and politician who presided over the Constituent College of Cundinamarca and was elected President of Cundinamarca in 1811.

Jorge Tadeo Lozano, Viscount Pastrana (* 30. Januar 1771 in Santafé de Bogotá; † 6. Juli 1816 ebenda) war ein neugranadischer Wissenschaftler, Journalist und Politiker, der den Vorsitz über das Verfassunggebende Colegio Electoral de Cundinamarca innehatte und der der erste gewählte Präsident der vereinigten Provinzen von Cundinamarca (dem heutigen Kolumbien) im Jahre 1811 wurde.


Career.

Although most of her success was in women's doubles or mixed doubles, Whittingstall reached the singles final of the 1928 French Championships and the 1931 US Championships. She lost both of these finals in straight sets to Helen Wills Moody. She twice won the women's doubles title at the French Championships: in 1928 with Phoebe Holcroft Watson and in 1931 with Betty Nuthall. Whittingstall and Nuthall lost the 1932 final to the team of Moody and Elizabeth Ryan.  Whittingstall teamed with Ermyntrude Harvey to reach the 1928 women's doubles final at Wimbledon, losing to the team of Watson and Peggy Saunders 2–6, 3–6. She also teamed with Shoemaker to win the 1931 women's doubles title at the U.S. Championships, defeating Helen Jacobs and Dorothy Round Little in the final in two sets. Whittingstall twice partnered with Henri Cochet to win the mixed doubles title at the French Championships. In both 1928 and 1929, they defeated the team of Moody and Frank Hunter in the final. Whittingstall and Cochet lost the 1930 French final to the team of Bill Tilden and Cilly Aussem.  Whittingstall and Cochet won the mixed doubles title at the 1927 US Championships, defeating Hazel Wightman and René Lacoste in the final.  According to A. Wallis Myers of "The Daily Telegraph]" and the "Daily Mail", Whittingstall was ranked in the world top 10 in 1928, 1929, 1931, and 1932, reaching a career high of World No. 3 in those rankings in 1931.  Bennett is credited with first wearing an above-the-knee form of divided skirt for competitive tennis.

Personal life.

She was married on 19 November 1929 to Edmund Fearnley-Whittingstall, a painter, and divorced in 1936. She married Marcus Marsh, a racehorse trainer, on 28 September 1936 and gave birth to a daughter on 7 March 1937. She was divorced from Mr Marsh in early 1947 and married Mr Geoffrey Ackroyd in June 1947. She married for a fourth and final time in June 1957 to Mr Carl Vyvyan Forslind who outlived her.

Grand Slam singles tournament timeline.

SR = the ratio of the number of Grand Slam singles tournaments won to the number of those tournaments played.

Eileen Bennett Whittingstall ("née" Bennett; 16 July 1907 – c. 18 August 1979, full name Eileen Viviyen Bennett Fearnley-Whittingstall) was a female tennis player from the United Kingdom who won six Grand Slam doubles titles from 1927 to 1931.

Eileen Bennett Whittingstall (* 16. Juli 1907 in London; † 18. August 1979) war eine britische Tennisspielerin aus England. Sie gewann in ihrer Karriere von 1927 bis 1931 jeweils drei Titel im Mixed- und Damendoppel bei Grand-Slam-Turnieren.


Company history and background.

Adopting the Nimbuzz brand from 2004 onwards, the company entered the mainstream VoIP market in January 2007. In May 2008, the company launched its combined Voice-over-Internet Protocol (VoIP) and instant messaging client. In January 2009, the company was selected as one of 100 winners of the Red Herring Global 100 technology industry awards for 2008.  Early stage investors over three rounds between December 2005 and July 2008 included Skype- and Wix.com-backer Mark Tluszcz's Mangrove Capital Partners, Naspers and HV Holtzbrinck Ventures, before its eventual majority acquisition by New Call in October 2014. MSM consolidated Nimbuzz with some of its other social media, digital currency, digital wallet, VoIP and instant messaging technologies in March 2017.  MSM is headquartered in Dubai with its principal development centres in Gurugram and New Delhi, India, after a relocation in May 2012 to be closer to the mobile Internet boom and rapidly growing smartphone penetration across South Asia. A fifth of Nimbuzz's users reside in India, and the app accounts for a quarter of the smartphone chat market in the country. The company has over 100 employees in its India development centres and about a further 30 in Kathmandu, Nepal. Additional offices are located in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, in San Francisco, California, in Sao Paulo, Brazil, and in Córdoba, Argentina, where a further software development team is located.  Revenue for the company, which in 2015 was reportedly approximately $30 million, comes from NimbuzzOut, e-commerce sales on N-World, from in-app purchases and subscriptions. An advertising and partners’ platform provides the majority of the revenue. The company also partners directly with telecom operators.

Features and functionality.

Nimbuzz has been made available for Android, iOS, BlackBerry OS, Symbian, Windows Phone and Java ME mobile operating systems. It was one of the few instant messaging apps available for Java-based phones, and they account for 25% of Nimbuzz users. For non-natively supported devices, a WAP interface is available. For desktop computers, clients are available for both Windows and Mac OS X. It is available in Spanish, French, German, Italian, Dutch, Portuguese, Russian, Hindi and Arabic.  Nimbuzz users can send XMPP based instant messages, images, and share their location. Group chat is also supported. Voice-over-Internet Protocol calls between most Nimbuzz clients is supported, and there is a VoIP-to-PSTN (landline/cellular) service branded as NimbuzzOut. Nimbuzz can be set up with any valid SIP (VoIP) account.  Nimbuzz supported interaction with popular messaging services such as Twitter, Facebook Chat and Google Talk. In February 2012, Nimbuzz announced the discontinuation of support for ICQ, AIM, Myspace and Hyves because of the general lack of usage of these chat services.  Nimbuzz has an in-app portal called N-World, with applications, gifts, games, avatars and other virtual goods for sale. N-World has its own digital currency called Nimbuckz.

Nimbuzz is a proprietary cross-platform instant messaging and voice-over-IP provider and aggregator for smartphones, tablets and personal computers developed by MSM Global Holdings Limited, with the origins of its technology dating back to the early 2000s. As of March 2013, Nimbuzz had 150 million users in 200 countries. By April 2014, Nimbuzz was growing by more than 210,000 new registrations per day. In October 2014, now with over 200 million users, New Call acquired 70% of Nimbuzz, valuing the app at $250 million. Under CEO Anubhav Nagar's leadership from March 2015, the Nimbuzz suite of applications enables users to enjoy free calls, instant messaging, social-network games, file sharing, and social networking on their mobile device. In addition, Nimbuzz offers discounted calling rates to most countries in the world. The platform processes more than a billion call minutes and in excess of 100 billion messages a month. The Nimbuzz site and servers went offline in mid-2019 and remain unavailable as at June 2020, although from August 2019 their Facebook page promises to relaunch soon as Nimbuzz Kuraakani.

Nimbuzz ist eine Kommunikationssoftware, die für Windows, macOS, diverse Smartphones und plattformunabhängig als Webanwendung verfügbar ist. Sie bietet Instant Messaging, Präsenzinformation und VoIP über mehrere Instant-Messaging-Netzwerke und soziale Netzwerke, zum Beispiel die VZ-Netzwerke. XMPP wird hingegen nicht mehr unterstützt.


Background.

He was educated in Toronto public and high schools (Dovercourt, Dewson and Givens Public Schools and Humberside Collegiate) and graduated from the Royal College of Dental Surgeons of Ontario. It was in 1904 that Conboy opened his office at Bloor and Westmoreland Street, a short distance from the family farm where he grew up. Since 1917 he had been professor of dental praxis at the School of Dentistry.  With the Masonic Order, Orange Order and the Odd Fellows, he again was a leader, but throughout Conboy's life his first interest lay in Westmoreland United Church. A charter member and elder of Westmoreland United Church, he was for over 20 years superintendent of the Sunday school. It was believed he was one of the first members of the church.  "The church," he often said, "never fails in the matter of relief for needy citizens and there is no better place where young people can fit themselves for future citizenship than in promoting its welfare work."  One thing his closest friends never quite understood was how Conboy could find time for such a variety of activities. He belonged to two golf clubs and, in the war years, he started a victory garden that was the envy of neighbours for blocks around him. Even while taking a holiday, he would find an occupation that would call for a fresh release of enthusiasm and energy.  In 1924, while summering at Wasaga Beach, he discovered a cannonball at the edge of the Nottawasaga River. Not content with this trophy he spent the next two seasons prowling around and discovered the hull of a sunken ship buried in a large island that had formed around the wreck. He had found the remains of HMS "Nancy", a British armed schooner sunk by the Americans on August 11, 1814, during the War of 1812. Conboy interested the Ontario government in the preservation of the historic relic and, thanks to his persistence, the hull was excavated, raised, placed on the island and made available for public inspection. In recognition of his enterprise, his friends presented him with a model of the ship carved from her original timber.

Dentistry.

He was a doctor of dental science at the University of Toronto. He served on the faculty of the dental college and was a member of the executive of the health section of the Ontario Educational Association.  In 1925, Conboy was appointed director of dental services for the province of Ontario. He contributed much to the advancement of the profession and devoted one day a week to organizing dental services in Toronto schools.  In 1926 he became director of dental service for the province, a position he held for ten years. He also served for twenty years as secretary and treasurer of the Ontario Dental Association. In 1935 he was appointed a professor at the School of Optometry.

Politics.

He entered civic government in 1935 when elected as alderman for Ward six, polling the largest vote of any alderman-elect. Also elected as aldermen at same time were future mayors Allan Lamport, Nathan Phillips and Robert Saunders.  Conboy immediately introduced resolutions which keynoted his public career: resolutions on unemployment, slum clearance, youth placement, city planning, relief works programs, street lighting, public health education. He was elected to the board of control one year later. As a member of city council, Conboy campaigned for the development of an island airport and harbour facilities.  During his wartime years in office as Mayor, Conboy began a campaign for better housing, which has resulted in such projects as Regent Park. He was also responsible for the introduction of resolutions connected with unemployment, slum clearance, relief words programs, public health education, street lighting and city planning. As an impetus to the city plan to raise $1,000,000 for war equipment in 1941, he gave one-fifth of his controller's salary.  He was first elected mayor with a majority of 22,000 votes. The following day, he modestly confessed that, because of the light poll, he figured he was going down to defeat. In 1942 he received an acclamation. Responding to an appeal to boost Canada's Reserve Army, he joined The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada as a Private and later accompanied his unit to camp at Niagara as Corporal Conboy.  During his fourth term, he was elected president of the Canadian Federation of Mayors. He was defeated by Robert Hood Saunders in the election of 1945.  Four times Mayor of Toronto and prominent in the dental profession and welfare service, Conboy was the youngest of James and Sarah Conboy's seven children. He was mayor of Toronto during 1941-42-43-44. He had served previously for four years as controller and two years as alderman in Ward 7. He was a member of the Board of Education from 1909 to 1914, and served a term as chairman. Conboy was a member of the board of directors of the Social Service Council of Ontario and had been prominent as organizer in social welfare, particularly in his own profession.  A president of the Community Welfare Council of Ontario, Conboy many times stated he felt public officials should be part of a church community. "I know my work there has been a worthwhile task", he said, regarding his position as Sunday school superintendent at Westmoreland church. "Never did a church school have as much responsibility as it has today in these troublous times."  In May 1943, at a convention of the Ontario Dental Association, Conboy was honored. He was presented with an oil portrait of himself (painted by Mr. Cleeve Horne, O.S.A.), which Conboy in turn presented to the University of Toronto to be hung in the Dental Faculty Building. At this presentation, Dr. E.W.Paul, said that Conboy was born in Toronto of humble, sturdy, but highly regarded Irish parents, who instilled in him the fear of God and the importance of hard work.  His Irish Protestant heritage was again noted on January 4, 1945, by Controller Saunders in his motion to record in the city records an appreciation of Conboy's work. The council stated that "A great measure of his (Conboy's) success may be attributed to his background of Irish Ancestry and the instilling into his youthful mind by his God-fearing parents, the importance in life of those attributes of honesty, perseverance, sympathy and tolerance and the lesson that men do not break down from overwork but from worry and dissipation.....His fine discriminating mind and broad and sympathetic outlook on life have been a tower of strength to his fellow colleagues in Council during the past four years of war fraught with such gave potentiality to the continuance of our present civilization....To him this Council gives the assurance that the citizens of Toronto will remember him always with pleasant recollections, as a true Canadian, who has done his full duty as a citizen of Toronto."  Conboy was, in April 1948, knocked down by a car, at the corner of St. Clair and Oakwood. Two months later he was in the thick of the provincial election as Progressive Conservative candidate in Bracondale and he campaigned with vigor. But the accident had shaken him more than he would admit.  In the fall of 1948 his health began to fail rapidly. He carried on without complaint until March 19, 1949, when he went to hospital for observation and rest. Two weeks previously his wife was taken to the same hospital for surgical treatment. He died on March 29, 1949, aged 66.  His death ended a career of outstanding public service. Toronto city council express its regret of his death. The council noted that the late Conboy was active in many organizations having for their objectives "the promotion of fellowship, the advancement of humanity and the protection of those civil rights and religious privileges gained by the sacrifice and devotion of our forefathers...Conboy was an outstanding citizen of his native city, a man of many parts, endowed with boundless energy, a great organizer and a keen student of municipal government".  For 23 of his 66 years he was in public life or in public office and he learned how to take both victory and defeat with equanimity. He was a gracious victor and a good loser.

References.

Obituaries, Toronto Star, Globe and Telegram. TPL Scrapbook, film T6833, V12, #316 located at the Toronto Reference Library, and the Toronto archive records.

Frederick Joseph Conboy (January 1, 1883 – March 29, 1949) was a Canadian politician, who served as mayor of Toronto, Ontario from 1941 to 1944. He was also a member of the Orange Order in Canada.

Frederick Joseph Conboy (* 1. Dezember 1882 in Toronto, Ontario; † 29. März 1949 in Toronto, Ontario) war ein kanadischer Zahnarzt, Politiker und 47. Bürgermeister von Toronto.


Geography.

The islands constitute a double atoll forming the number eight, with a total length of and up to wide; however, most of reef on the southern rim is submerged or poorly developed. The northern and eastern rims have several relatively large islets. The western lagoon is deeper and larger than its eastern counterpart. Both components are part of the same seamount. The total land area for both components combined is only.

History.

Woleai is culturally unique because a script was discovered to be in use among some speakers of the Woleaian language in 1913. As with all of the Caroline Islands, sovereignty passed to the Empire of Germany in 1899. The atoll came under the control of the Empire of Japan after World War I, and was subsequently administered under the South Seas Mandate.  In 1944, as the Allied forces closed in on the Mariana Islands, Woleai was heavily fortified by a contingent of 6,426 troops from the Imperial Japanese Army’s IJA 50th Independent Mixed Brigade and Imperial Japanese Navy’s 44th Base Guard Unit and 216th Base Construction Unit. Wolfe Islet was completely leveled, and made into an airfield with a single 3,290 foot runway and 2,050 foot taxiway. A seaplane anchorage was also constructed off the south-west corner of Woleai Islet. The island and its military facilities were bombed on numerous occasions through the end of 1944 until the middle of 1945, driving its defenders underground, and isolating them from supplies or reinforcements. By the surrender of Japan, only 1,650 survivors remained, the rest having perished by starvation or disease. The survivors were recovered by on September 17, 1945.  Following World War II, the atoll came under the control of the United States of America. It was administered as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands from 1947, and became part of the Federated States of Micronesia beginning 1979.

Education.

Public schools:

Woleai, also known as Oleai, is a coral atoll of twenty-two islands in the eastern Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district in the Yap State in the Federated States of Micronesia and is located approximately west-northwest of Ifalik and northeast of Eauripik. Woleai is also the name of the largest of the islets constituting the atoll, lying to the northeast.

Woleai, auch Furarappu genannt, früher: "Oleai", "Uleai" oder "Wolea", ist ein bewohntes Atoll im Pazifik. Es liegt im Osten von Yap, einem mikronesischen Inselgebiet, welches mit vier anderen Inselgebieten den heutigen Staat der Föderierten Staaten von Mikronesien bildet.


Erzbistum der orthodoxen Gemeinden russischer Tradition in Westeuropa

History.

During the 19th century, several parishes were created for the Russian diaspora in various countries of Western Europe, under the jurisdiction of the Russian Orthodox Church. In 1861, Alexander Nevsky Church was built in Paris, and soon became the main regional center of Russian Orthodoxy. Within the Russian Orthodox Church, jurisdiction over parishes in Western Europe was granted to the Metropolitan of Saint Petersburg.  After the onset of the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917, Russian Orthodox Christians based outside Russia, and those who fled there from the communist regime, found themselves in a very difficult situation. In 1920, Metropolitan Eulogius (Georgiyevsky) was sent to Western Europe in order to organize provisional administration. His jurisdiction was confirmed on 8 April 1921, by Patriarch Tikhon of Moscow and Metropolitan Benjamin of Petersburg, who issued a decree creating the "Provisional Administration of Russian Parishes in Western Europe", centered in Paris, and appointing Metropolitan Eulogius as its first hierarch.  Faced with new political realities in Russia, and severe restrictions imposed by the Soviet regime upon the Moscow Patriarchate, Metropolitan Eulogius and other exiled Russian hierarchs found a temporary solution in the formation of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (ROCOR). During the early 1920s, the vast majority of Russian Orthodox Christians in diaspora supported ROCOR, united in their opposition to the Soviet government.  At first, Metropolitan Eulogius was member of the ROCOR Synod, but in 1927 he came into conflict with the majority of ROCOR hierarchs and was subsequently suspended by them. In order to remove Metropolitan Eulogius from his office, ROCOR hierarchs decided to replace him with Metropolitan Seraphim (Lukyanov), but great majority of parishes in Western Europe remained loyal to Metropolitan Eulogius. Thus a split was created within the Russian community in Western Europe, between those who continued to follow Metropolitan Eulogius and those who recognized Metropolitan Seraphim as their new hierarch. Faced with those challenges, Metropolitan Eulogius appealed the Moscow Patriarchate, and received confirmation of his jurisdiction in Western Europe.  In 1930, Metropolitan Sergius (Stragorodsky), acting as "locum tenens" of the Russian Patriarchal Throne, initiated proceedings against Metropolitan Eulogius because of his public support for Christians suffering under the Soviet regime. On 10 June 1930, a decree was issued, intended to remove Metropolitan Eulogius from his office, and replace him with Metropolitan Vladimir (Tikhonicky). Decree failed, on both accounts, since both hierarchs decided not to obey it. Moscow responded by sending another hierarch, Metropolitan Eleutherius (Bogoyavlensky), who arrived in Paris at the beginning of 1931. Faced with new jurisdictional crisis, second in four years, majority of parishes decided to remain loyal to Metropolitan Eulogius, while minority recognized Metropolitan Eleutherius. Since there also was another group, created earlier (1927) under Metropolitan Seraphim, Russian diaspora in Western Europe found itself divided into three fractions, headed by Eleutherius (Moscow), Seraphim (ROCOR) and Eulogius (independent).

Under the Church of Constantinople.

In order to regulate his canonical position, Metropolitan Eulogius petitioned Patriarch Photius II of Constantinople, asking to be received under his canonical care. On 17 February 1931, he was appointed an exarch, with provisional jurisdiction over Russian parishes in Western Europe, and thus a provisional exarchate of the Ecumenical Patriarchate was created. That action caused a direct conflict between two Patriarchates (Constantinople and Moscow), leading to exchange of protests and accusations, without resolution.  Metropolitan Eulogius remained under the jurisdiction of Constantinople until 1944, when he decided to lead his community back into the Moscow Patriarchate. Reunion was formalized in 1945, but many important questions remained unsolved. However, after his death in 1946, a further break occurred in 1947, with a large number of parishes once again entering the Patriarchate of Constantinople.  The Provisional Exarchate was closed by Patriarch Athenagoras I through a letter dated 22 November 1965, with an assembly meeting 16–18 February 1966 noting that such provisional ethnic structures were no longer necessary, given that the passage of several generations had allowed immigrants to become accustomed to their new lands, which were now made up of more and more converts to the faith. The implementation of those decisions was challenged, and subsequently reconsidered. On 22 January 1971, the same Patriarch Athenagoras I regulated the position of the Archdiocese, under the Omophorion of the Patriarch of Constantinople, recognising its internal autonomy.  New reorganization was implemented on 19 June 1999, when Patriarch Bartholomew I of Constantinople created the exarchate by granting it a tomos. According to the Exarchate's own account, Patriarch Bartholomew "recognised the full autonomy of the Archdiocese in administrative, pastoral and material terms".  On 8 June 2006 the Holy Synod of the Patriarchate of Constantinople received Bishop Basil (Osborne) along with a number of parishes and clergy in the United Kingdom from Moscow Patriarchate's Diocese of Sourozh. This act was caused substantial controversy, as he had not been released from the Moscow Patriarchate. The same statement gave Bishop Basil the new title, "Bishop of Amphipolis" (taken from an ancient see in Greece that no longer has a bishop), and charged him with the care of parishes in Great Britain and Ireland, as auxiliary bishop under Archbishop Gabriel of Komana in Paris.. 9 June 2006 the Council of the Archdiocese during an extraordinary meeting created the "Episcopal Vicariate of Great Britain and Ireland" At that time, no such parishes existed. After his appointment a number of parishes and communities, as well as some of the clergy and laity of the Diocese of Sourozh, followed Bishop Basil into the Archdiocese and came to constitute the Episcopal Vicariate. Other parishes and communities were formed later, where none had previously existed, for example in Cumbria, and Northampton. Since the retirement of its bishop on 12 October 2009, it has become a Deanery within the Archdiocese. The formal name has become the Deanery of Great Britain and Ireland within the Archdiocese of Orthodox Parishes of Russian Tradition in Western Europe.

Disbandment by the Ecumenical Patriarchate and aftermath.

On 27 November 2018, the Synod of the Ecumenical Patriarchate decided unanimously to dissolve its exarchate of the Archdiocese of Russian Orthodox churches in Western Europe. According to communiqué, the Ecumenical Patriarchate "decided to revoke the patriarchal tomos of 1999 by which it granted pastoral care and administration of orthodox parishes of Russian tradition in Western Europe to His Archbishop-Exarch. [...] [T]he ecumenical patriarchate has decided to integrate and connect parishes to the various holy Metropolises of the ecumenical patriarchate in the countries where they are located."  On 23 February, the AROCWE held its Extraordinary General Assembly (EGA). 191 out of the 206 voters voted against the dissolution, 15 voted in favor of the dissolution. A new assembly may possibly be held in June to choose a jurisdiction. After the vote, Archbishop John of Charioupolis read a letter that Archbishop Anthony of Vienna and Budapest, head of the Moscow Patriarchate's Synodal Department for the Administration of Institutions Abroad, had written. In his letter, Anthony wrote that the Russian Orthodox Church was ready to receive the AROCWE under its jurisdiction. Following the assembly, the AROCWE published a communiqué that said: "For the moment, the life of the Archdiocese continues as on the eve of the EGA. In celebrations, the Archbishop commemorates the Ecumenical Patriarch and the parish clergy commemorate the Archbishop according to the canonical rule."  On 14 September, Archbishop personally joined the jurisdiction of the Moscow Patriarchate, and the ROC granted him the title of "Archbishop of Dubna". According to the Russian media, the change of jurisdiction also applied to the clergymen subordinated to him and parishes that were willing to join the Moscow Patriarchate.

Structure and composition.

As of December 2019, the Archdiocese comprised 67 monasteries, parishes, and communities. The AROCWE is financially independent.  Perhaps the best known institution of the Archdiocese was the St. Sergius Orthodox Theological Institute, founded in 1925 by Metropolitan Eulogius and sometime home of several well-known Orthodox theologians and writers of the twentieth century, including Georges Florovsky, Alexander Schmemann and John Meyendorff (although not Vladimir Lossky, who neither taught at St. Sergius nor was a member of the Archdiocese, himself remaining loyal to the Moscow Patriarchate).

Episcopal ordinaries.

‡ Deceased

External links.

Official websites  Miscellaneous

The Archdiocese of Russian Orthodox churches in Western Europe (abbreviation: "AROCWE", ), also called Archdiocese of Parishes of the Russian Tradition in Western Europe (), is a Paris-headquartered diocese consisting of parishes in Russian orthodox tradition, located in Western Europe. The diocese hails from the "Provisional Administration of Russian Parishes in Western Europe", created in 1921.

Erzbistum der orthodoxen russischen Gemeinden in Westeuropa ist der heutige Name einer orthodoxen kirchlichen Organisation mit der Alexander-Newski-Kathedrale in Paris als Zentrum (juristisch organisiert als "Union Directrice Diocésaine des Associations orthodoxes russes en Europe Occidentale"; UDAOREO). Das Erzbistum unterstand als Exarchat dem Ökumenischen Patriarchat Konstantinopel, bis die Synode von Konstantinopel am 27. November 2018 beschloss, das Erzbistum aufzulösen. Seither haben sich 2019 der Bischof Johannes von Charioupolis (jetzt Metropolit von Dubna) sowie ein Teil des Klerus und der Gemeinden dem Moskauer Patriarchat der Russischen Orthodoxen Kirche unterstellt. Weitere Fragen, auch solche staatskirchenrechtlicher Art, sind derzeit ungelöst.


History.

The museum was established as a teaching resource for the Department of Egyptian Archaeology and Philology at University College at the same time as the department was established in 1892. The initial collection was donated by the writer Amelia Edwards. The first Edwards Professor, William Matthew Flinders Petrie, conducted many important excavations, and in 1913 he sold his collections of Egyptian antiquities to University College, creating the Flinders Petrie Collection of Egyptian Antiquities, and transforming the museum into one of the leading collections outside Egypt. Petrie excavated dozens of major sites in the course of his career, including the Roman Period cemeteries at Hawara, famous for the beautiful mummy portraits in classical Roman style; Amarna, the city of king Akhenaten; and the first true pyramid, at Meydum, where he uncovered some of the earliest evidence for mummification.  The collection and library were arranged in galleries within the university and a guidebook published in 1915. Initially, the collection's visitors were students and academics; it was not then open to the general public. Petrie retired from University College London (UCL) in 1933, though his successors continued to add to the collections, excavating in other parts of Egypt and Sudan. During the Second World War (1939–1945) the collection was packed up and moved out of London for safekeeping. In the early 1950s it was moved into a former stable, where it remains adjacent to the science library of UCL.

Current description.

The museum is at Malet Place, near Gower Street and the University College London science library. Admission is free, and as of January 2018 the museum is open each afternoon 1pm-5pm, Tuesday to Saturday, with researchers accommodated at other times as well. The museum has an education programme for adults and families, and has an active Friends organisation allowing members to attend lectures, museum seminars, tours to Egypt and Egyptian collections, social events, and so on. As well, the Friends raise funds towards the conservation, publication and display of the Petrie Museum's outstanding collection.

Organisation and collections.

The museum is split into three galleries, with the main gallery (housed above the old stables) containing many of the museum's small artifacts, as well as tablets of writing and mummy portraits and cases. Another gallery contains mainly of pottery. The third is along a stairwell down to an emergency exit. Some parts of the collection are not lit to protect light-sensitive items, and torches (flashlights) are supplied to see inside the cases.  The collection has been digitised and the catalogue can be browsed and consulted online.

Notable holdings.

The collection contains some significant 'firsts': one of the earliest pieces of linen from Egypt (about 5000 BC); two lions from the temple of Min at Koptos, from the first group of monumental sculpture (about 3000 BC, these are located in the main UCL building); a fragment from the first kinglist or calendar (about 2900 BC); the earliest example of metal from Egypt, the first worked iron beads; the earliest example of glazing; the earliest 'cylinder seal' in Egypt (about 3500 BC); the oldest wills on papyrus paper; the oldest gynaecological papyrus; the only veterinary papyrus from ancient Egypt; and the largest architectural drawing, showing a shrine (about 1300 BC).  Costume is another strength of the collection. In addition to the 'oldest dress' there is a unique beadnet dress of a dancer from the Pyramid Age (about 2400 BC), two long sleeved robes of the same date, a suit of armour from the palace of Memphis, as well as socks and sandals from the Roman period. The collection contains works of art from Akhenaten’s city at Amarna: colourful tiles, carvings and frescoes, from many other important Egyptian and Nubian settlements and burial sites. The museum houses the world’s largest collection of Roman period mummy portraits (first to second centuries AD).  The collection also includes material from the Coptic and Islamic periods.  There is a substantial archive held in the museum, including excavation records, correspondence and photographs relating to excavations led by Flinders Petrie. There are additionally documents relating to the distribution of finds from fieldwork to museums worldwide between the 1887 and 1949.

Reputation.

The museum contains over 80,000 objects and ranks among some of the world's leading collections of Egyptian and Sudanese material. It only ranks behind the collections of the Cairo Museum, The British Museum and the Ägyptisches Museum, Berlin in number and quality of items.

Published works.

In 2015, the museum, in conjunction with UCL, published a multi-author compilation of articles, "The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology: Characters and Collections", which is available in both print and via a free open access download. It is edited by Alice Stevenson.

The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology in London is part of University College London Museums and Collections. The museum contains over 80,000 objects and ranks among some of the world's leading collections of Egyptian and Sudanese material.

Das Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology ist ein Teil vom University College London. Es handelt sich mit ca. 80 000 Objekten um eine der größten Sammlungen altägyptischer Funde außerhalb Ägyptens.