Inception and "Béisbol Romántico " (1938–1970).

Puerto Rican Baseball began at the end of the 19th century. The first two clubs were founded in 1897: the "Almendares" Baseball Club owned by Francisco Alamo Armas, and the "Borinquen" Baseball Club owned by Santos Filippi. According to "El Pais" newspaper, the first game was played on January 11, 1898 at the old velodrome in Santurce, San Juan. The "Borinquen" beat the "Almendares" 3 to 0. The first game to complete nine innings was played on January 30, 1898, when the "Borinquen" beat the "Almendares" again, 9 to 3. Enrique Huyke, a professor from Mayagüez, originally suggested the establishment of an organized baseball league in Puerto Rico. The idea was adopted by Teofilo Maldonado, president of the Commission on Recreation and Sports. A third party, Gabriel Castro, helped Huyke with the scouting of organizations which had to pay a thousand dollars prior to being admitted, while independent entities like the Guayama Rotary Club collaborated in raising funds for the teams. The "Liga de Béisbol Semiprofesional de Puerto Rico" (LBSPR) was founded in 1938, as a semi-professional league. Six team formed the new organization, these were the Senadores de San Juan, Leones de Ponce, Criollos de Caguas, Brujos de Guayama and Grises Orientales de Humacao. The first Puerto Rican players to play in Major League Baseball, Hiram Bithorn and Luis Olmo, were active in the rosters of San Juan and Caguas. Bithorn became the younger manager in the league's history, receiving the office when he was 22 years old. Huyke served as manager for Mayagüez for less than a month, because the team's owner threatened to remove its entry if he did not take the office. Maldonado was named the league's commissioner.  Changes in the rosters were allowed only during the first half of the season, meeting a deadline before the beginning of the second half. While the number of games has historically varied from 40 to 80 games per season. The All-Star game was scheduled to coincide with the traditional Three Kings Day, an idea suggested by Angel Colon so that the proceeds could be used to buy toys. This date was used for decades, until the emergence of television forced the league to comply with the dates requested by the networks. One of the main figures of the league in its early stage was veteran Negro leagues' veteran, Emilio Navarro. The Cangrejeros de Santurce and Tiburones de Aguadilla joined the original teams in the 1939–40 season. On January 8, 1939, Humacao and San Juan played an 18-inning game that lasted four hours, establishing a record. Between 1938 and 1941, the LBSPR was part of the National Semi-Professional Baseball Congress, with titleholder Guayama facing the champions of the Congress' United States branch in best-of-seven series in 1939, where they defeated the Duncan Cementers, and again in 1940, with a roster that included the league's Most Valuable Player, Satchel Paige. In 1939–40, Perucho Cepeda, the defending batting champion, won the league's batting title over Josh Gibson, who managed to win it the following season. The Criollos de Caguas won their first championship in 1940–41, defeating the Cangrejeros in the final series. Santurce's Luis Cabrera was the last player to win the LBSPR' Most Valuable Player award. On September 14, 1941, Rafael Delgado Márquez proposed that the league was renamed to "Liga de Béisbol Profesional de Puerto Rico" (LBPPR), effectively moving the league towards professionalism. A format of "vueltas" (halves) was adopted since the league's creation, where the winners of each vuelta facing each other for the championship. However, Ponce managed to win three consecutive championships (1941–1945) without having to participate in a final by winning both "vueltas". Consequently, the fans of teams that were mathematically eliminated by this format lost interest in the tournament. Some players also concluded their participation in the season after the teams were eliminated. To deal with this issue, the league established a new playoff format, where the top four teams where included.  Francisco Coimbre was a key member of Ponce's success with his offensive, winning two batting championships, establishing a league record for most consecutive games with hits and not recording a single strikeout in three consecutive seasons (1939–42). The consistency of his performances earned him a Most Valuable Player award. Other players that participated for Ponce included Juan Guilbe Colon (26 June 1914 - 29 April 1994) and Griffin Tirado. World War II affected the league directly, reducing the 1942–43 season's length with only four active teams. This number of teams continued until 1946, while the rule that allowed the participation of three imported players per team, was suspended from 1942 to 1944. In the 1944–45 season, Canena Marquez debuted in the league establishing a record of highest batting average for a rookie with.361, fulfilling the minimum required at-bats. The Senadores de San Juan won their first championship on 1945–46, defeating the Indios in the finals. During this season, Joe Buzas became the first foreign MLB player to manage in the LBPPR. Tomas “Planchardon” Quiñones won two back-to-back Most Valuable Player awards from 1943 to 1945. In 1947, the league's team participated in a series of five games against the New York Yankees, which featured Ponce defeating the visiting team. Jose “Pantalones“ Santiago debuted in this season, earning the Rookie of the Year recognition while Canena Marquez broke Josh Gibson's home run record of 13. Vic Power made his debut for the Criollos on the 1947–48 season, in which the team won the league's title with a roster that included Rafaelito Ortiz, who was the only pitcher to win 10 or more games for 3 different LBPPR teams.  Mayaguez won the 1948–49 championship with a roster that included Canena Marquez and Luke Easter. That same year, the LBPPR joined the Caribbean Series, beginning a rivalry with the Cuban League's champion that lasted throughout the next decade, until Cuba ceased to participate in the event. A decade after its foundation, the league was employing an 80-game schedule. Several new ballparks have been built by the 1949–50 season, this was due to an attendance average of 750,000. Each of the stadiums built surpassed 6,000 seats, with Ponce's Paquito Mountaner reaching 9,718 seats by then. The installation of lights that allowed the organizations of games at night increased attendance. Estadio Sixto Escobar had a maximum capacity of over 15,000, with 13,135 seats. Percucho Cepeda was one of the league's dominant figures during the 1940s, winning two batting championships and a Most Valuable Player award. Natalio Irizarry won the league's Rookie of the Year recognition in 1949–50. From 1949–1955, the league featured the participation of new MLB players, including Johnny Logan, Harvey Haddix and Hank Aaron among several others. The players began choosing the league to play due to its competitive level and warm climate during the winter, a custom that has continued until the current decade. Players of the Negro leagues preferred it due to lack of racism towards the players, as opposed to the United States.

Emergence of Clemente and Cepeda.

In 1952, Roberto Clemente made his debut with the Cangrejeros hitting.234. He was signed by Pedrin Zorilla, debuting in the league as a teenager. The team won that year's title and Cot Deal was named MVP. Clemente improved this average to.288 the following season, but Santurce finished last in the league. The league's champions were the Criollos, who also won the Caribbean Series. With a roster that also included Luis Olmo, Willy Mays and Ruben Gomez, the Cangrejeros won the 1954–55 championship defeating Caguas in the finals, 4–1. During this season, Clemente became the first Puerto Rican player to hit two home runs in the league's All-Star game. The team also went on to win the Caribbean Series, which were held in Venezuela. Jim Rivera hand an average of.450 and was named MVP. Puerto Rican fans received the team with a parade upon landing and Luis Muñoz Marín welcomed them in La Fortaleza. In 1955–56, the Criollos won the league's championship, in a season that marked Orlando Cepeda's debut in the league. Clemente won the season's batting championship with an average of.396. In 1956–57, the league's championship was won by the Indios. During this season, Clemente went on to break the league's record for most games with hits, previously established by Francisco Coimbre in 1943–44. The following season, the Criollos defeated the Cangrejeros to win the championship. Clemente who now played for Caguas, hit.529 during the final series. Juan "Terin" Pizarro won the Most Valuable Player Award, leading the league in wins, ERA, best win-to-loss margin and pitched the LBPPR's seventh no-hitter. In the Caribbean Series, he defeated Carta Vieja of Panama (8:0), recording 17 strikeouts. Both teams traded the final two championships of the decade. The 1959–60 season marked the first instance that LBPPR games were transmitted in two languages through radio. The Criollos won the championship, while Mayaguez's Ramon Luis Conde won the Most Valuable Player Award. During the 1950s, Puerto Rico's economy experienced significant growth, which propitiated baseball-related gambling. This tendency experienced a notable increase in the early 1960s.  Other changes were experienced in the game's style with the introduction of more player-managers, such as Luis Olmo's, who became the first to consistently employ pitching coaches and closers in the league. Vic Power used other unusual managing techniques, such as using Frank Howard as a relief pitcher as well as becoming the first player-manager to sit himself in favor of a pinch hitter, replacing his turn in the lineup with Herminio Cortes. After the Cuban Revolution, hotels and casinos in San Juan benefited from Havana's economic decay. During this timeframe, Puerto Rico expanded its presence in the Caribbean, and a native team frequently played against a representation of St. Thomas and Saint Croix in February. Julio Navarro was drafted from one of these exhibitions, eventually becoming one of the league's dominant pitchers. The Dominican Winter League was still not a member of the Caribbean Confederation back then, which allowed uncommon interleague trades between it and the LBPPR, which would have more trouble negotiating such deals with member leagues. During this decade, some of the league's teams would provide import players with houses and taxis for transportation. The Senadores de San Juan, led by Clemente, who had just won the MLB World Series with Pittsburgh, won the league's 1960–61 season, as well as Jose Santiago, who recorded a record of 10–2 with an ERA of 2.44 for the team. Luis "Tite" Arroyo won the season's Most Valuable Player award, registering a record of 10–2 with an ERA of 1.64. Due to political tension, the Caribbean Series that were planned to take place in Habana were cancelled. The event was replaced by the Interamerican Series, which San Juan attended with a roster that included pitcher Florentino Rivera.  The Interamerican Series were held three more times, with each team winning the one held in their home field. Mayaguez did so in 1963, in a series where Terin Pizarro recorded the only no-hitter in the history of the event, in a win over Valencia at the opening night. In 1961–62, the Lobos de Arecibo joined the league as an expansion team. On January 14, 1962, Julio Navarro pitched the first regular season no-hitter. For the 1962–63 season, Estadio Sixto Escobar was replaced by the Hiram Bithorn Stadium, with a capacity of 20,000 seats by then. In 1963–64, Clemente finished second with a batting average of.345, leading the Senadores to the title. San Juan once again played in the Interamerican Series, held in Nicaragua. In 1964–65, Orlando Cepeda joined the Cangrejeros, replacing Jim Beauchamp helping the team win the league's championship. During this season, Clemente was named San Juan' player-manager, leading them to the playoffs. The All-Star game featured a format where Latin American players faced North American players. The following season featured the debut of Jerry Morales who won the league's Rookie of the Year recognition after participating for Puerto Rico's national baseball team in the 1966 Central American and Caribbean Games. Carlos Bernier retired in 1966, having won five stolen base titles for a total of 285. On November 20, 1966, San Juan's Luis de Leon pitched the first perfect game in the league's history. Caguas won the league's championship in 1967–68. Nino Escalera, who finished his career third on the league's hit list, replaced Vic Power as the team's manager during this season. On December 20, 1969, Santurce and Arecibo participated in the only LBPPR game played outside of Puerto Rico, held in the United States Virgin Islands to honor Elrod Hendricks.

Increase of native international players (1970–2000).

Ponce won the second of back-to-back championships in 1969–70 as well as the Caribbean Series' title being led in both by Conde's offensive. Wayne Simpson was selected MVP. The Cangrejeros won the 1970–71 championship, defeating the Criollos in the finals. Ponce's Santos Alomar Sr. won the league's batting championship and was named MVP, while Willie Montañez of Caguas led the league in home runs after recording 30 in Major League Baseball. Clemente returned to serve as San Juan's manager for the season, naming Nino Escalera as his coach. He only accepted the work for a year, expecting Escalera to replace him during the following season. The team advanced to the playoffs, losing their series against Santurce. Clemente also managed Puerto Rico to a win in the All-Star game, which featured a format of natives versus foreign players. He was succeeded as Santurce's manager by Frank Robinson on the 1971–72 season. Ruben Gomez also performed in the office temporarily, while Robinson attended a tour in Japan with Baltimore. The Cangrejeros won the 1972–73 title. That season's All-Star game was dedicated in Clemente's honor, who died a week before while transporting supplies to victims of the 1972 Nicaragua earthquake. Both native and foreign players won a black band on their arms to symbolize grief.  The Criollos won the 1973–74 championship, possessing the league's strongest native lineup. Jerry Morales led the team, hitting 14 home runs as Caguas' lead-off hitter. Eduardo Figueroa led the league in wins on back-to-back seasons, recording 10-3 twice from 1973–75. This was the first year that the league employed the designated hitter rule, including the position in the batting lineups. Gomez who had continued pitching for Santurce, retired in the 1975–76 season. By this time, he has played for nine champion teams and worked under nine managers. The Crillos won the 1976–77 championship, being led by the league's MVP, Jose Cruz. The Indios won the title the following season with a lineup that included MVP Kurt Bevaqua and went on to win the Caribbean Series held in Mazatlan, Mexico, Jose Manuel Morales leading all batters with a.421 average. Caguas won its ninth championship in the 1978–79 season. Jose Cruz, along with his two brothers Cirilo and Hector, represented the team in the Caribbean Series. Bayamón won the last championship of this decade, with a roster that included the batting champion, Dave Bergman.

Reemergence in the Caribbean Series.

Coming back from a fourth-place regular season finish, the Criollos won their tenth championship in the 1980–81 season, but the Caribbean Series were not held that year. On January 2, 1981, Rickey Henderson established a new stolen bases record with 42. Orlando Gomez made his debut as a manager for Mayaguez and won the Manager of the Year award. Dickie Thon won the first of two back-to-back batting titles this season. This also marked Alomar Sr.'s last active season, retiring forth on the fourth place of league's all-time hit leaders. In 1981–82, the Lobos de Arecibo recessed and their native star players, Edwin Nuñez, Candy Maldonado and Ramón Avilés were drafted by the remaining teams. The team returned the following season, winning the franchise's first championship. The team won the 1983 Caribbean Series, receiving a large welcoming ceremony at Muñoz Marin Airport that included a parade from San Juan to Arecibo. Maldonado, who became the third native player to hit two home runs in an All-Star game, along with Clemente and Ismael Oquendo, was included in the Series' All Star team after recording a.348 average. In the 1974–75 season, the Senadores de San Juan were moved to Bayamón, being renamed Vaqueros de Bayamón. From 1974 to 1983, the team hosted their games in Estadio Juan Ramon Loubriel, which has 16,000 seats. Bayamon's Carmelo Martinez was selected MVP. Mayaguez won the 1983–84 season, with Santurce's Jerry Willard being selected MVP. Besides this, the players were rewarded with a cruise trip and met the Governor of Puerto Rico. Eduardo Figueroa led the league in ERA, winning the recognition of Comeback Player of the Year. For the 1984–85 season, the Vaqueros were moved back to San Juan and re-adopted their original name, Senadores de San Juan.  However, one year later they were rechristened as the Metros de San Juan, a name that they conserved until 1994. The team won the LBPPR title that season. The team also won the Caribbean Series being led by Francisco Javier Oliveras, who won a game in the series and had previously recorded eight regular-season wins and one in the semifinals. Henry Cotto of Caguas was selected the league's MVP. Rúben Sierra debuted for Santurce and won the league's Rookie of the Year award. One of Puerto Rico's most successful managers, Mako Oliveras, made his managing debut in December 1984, subsequently becoming responsible for giving playing time to unknown prospects such as Benito Santiago, Edgar Martinez and Carlos Baerga, all of which would go on to become stars. Mayaguez won the 1985–86 championship. This marked Roberto Alomar's debut in the LBPPR, debuting for the Criollos after being drafted by Arecibo while in high school. Caguas won the 1986–87 championship, the team went on to win the Caribbean Series, featuring a native lineup that included Alomar, Carmelo Martinez, Edgar Diaz, German Rivera, Henry Cotto, Orlando Mercado and Heidi Vargas. This was Jose Cruz's final year in the league, having amassed 119 home runs, 40 for the Leones and 70 with Caguas, finishing second in the all-time list. The Indios de Mayagüez won the 1985–86 season, being led by Luis Quiñones' three home runs in the finals over San Juan. Caguas won the 1986–87 championship and their third Caribbean Series‘ title, being led by a lineup that included Cotto and Oliveras. Mayagüez won the first of back to back titles in 1987–88. This year the All-Star Game commemorated the league's 50th anniversary, being dedicated to Angel Colon. The Metro region defeated the Island region, 1:0. Mayaguez won the 1988–89 title, once again being led by Quiñones‘ clutch hitting. Javier Lopez debuted in 1988, winning the league's Rookie of the Year recognition.

Rivalry with LBPRD and "Dream Team".

San Juan won the championship in the 1989–90 season. The season featured the debut of Juan González, who under the initiative of that season's Manager of the Year, Ramón Aviles, played every game with Caguas, finishing second in home runs with 9 and RBIs with 34. He was traded for Alomar during the off-season. Gonzalez also reinforced San Juan, recording two home runs in the Caribbean Series. Carlos Baerga and Edgar Martinez were named co-MVPs. Martinez became the first player in 41 seasons to win the batting crown with an average above.400, registering.424. Santurce won the title the following year, which featured the debut of Wil Cordero, who was named Rookie of the Year. In the 1991–1992 season, the Criollos de Caguas franchise was moved to Bayamón, but experienced low attendance in that municipality.  Due to this, their star players, Juan González and Iván Rodríguez, were drafted by Santurce and Mayagüez respectively. The Indios won that season's championship and the Caribbean Series held in Mexico, with Chad Kreuter winning the series' MVP award. Roberto Hernandez won a tie-breaker with Venezuela to secure the series. Cordero was recognized as the league's MVP. The 1992–93 season featured the return of Dickie Thon to the league, who led Santurce to a championship over San Juan in the finals as well as the debut of Jose Cruz as a manager. The finals series featured both Thon and Juan González, which attracted 90,369 fans throughout six games, including a record of 23,701 in the last game. González had won consecutive batting titles in Major League Baseball and was selected the MVP after recording an average of.333 with seven home runs and 14 RBIs. Other MLB players, including Iván Rodríguez, Sandy Alomar, Jr. and Omar Olivares returned to the league during that season. The Cangrejeros went on to win their fourth Caribbean Series' title. Cordero won the league's batting championship.  Until 1993, all of the ballparks featured natural grass, with Ponce being the first to install artificial turf during that year. The Senadores de San Juan defeated the Cuban national baseball team on December 1, 1993, with a walk-off home run by Javier Lopez. The 1993–94 championship was won by San Juan, which was led by Carmelo Martinez's second MVP season. The Criollos rejoined the league for the 1994–95 season and Gonzalez returned to the team. The Cangrejeros won that year's championship, repeating Puerto Rico's title in the Caribbean Series. That year, the Senadores de San Juan managed by Luis "Torito" Meléndez won the title, subsequently assembling one of the strongest teams in the history of the Caribbean Series. The group, which was dubbed "Dream Team", featured Major League Baseball players in most positions, counting with a lineup that included Roberto Alomar, Carlos Baerga, Bernie Williams, Juan González, Edgar Martínez, Carlos Delgado, Rubén Sierra, Rey Sánchez and Carmelo Martínez. Puerto Rico's offensive dominated the tournament, eventually winning the Caribbean Series' championship with an undefeated record of 6–0. The team was responsible for the only two losses of the Dominican Republic, the country that finished second, scoring victories against Pedro Martínez and José Rijo in the third and sixth games respectively. Alomar, who had been traded to the team from Ponce for Javier Lopez during the off-season, was named the series' Most Valuable Player after batting 560 with two home runs.

Loss of star players to MLB.

Suspension, restructuration and rename.

In August 2007, it was announced that the 2007–2008 season was cancelled due to shrinking attendance and profits over the last 10 years, and the league would instead work on a marketing plan and reorganization. In May 2008, it was announced that the league would come back for the 2008–09 season, and that the Manati Athenians would be moved once again to Santurce, and become the Santurce Crabbers. As part of the restructuring, Major League Baseball offered to work to increase publicity. On July 15, 2008, personnel from the league and Major League Baseball participated in a meeting where details about the league's merchandising were discussed. Ponce was the first team to classify to the post season, leading the league. Arecibo and Santurce also classified directly. The last space for the playoffs was decided with a "sudden death" game, with Mayagüez defeating Caguas in with scores of 6–0. On January 8, the players from eliminated teams participated in a special draft, with players including Iván Rodríguez, Saúl Rivera and Luis Matos going to new teams. The Indios and Cangrejeros were eliminated in the semifinals, with Ponce and Arecibo advancing. In the finals, the Leones won the first game, only losing the second before dominating three straight to win the league's championship.  On October 2, 2009, García resigned his position as president of the league, citing "personal reasons". Subsequently, Sadi Antonmattei was elected by the board of directors to serve as president. On October 19, 2009, the league revealed a contract with WIPR-TV to broadcast its games. The 2009–10 season was inaugurated on November 20, 2009, with games between Ponce versus Carolina and Arecibo versus Mayagüez-Aguadilla. This year marked the first time that the league only had five active participants since 1993–94, due to the Cangrejeros' recess. During this season, the inter-league games with the Dominican Winter Baseball League continued being included in the official record books of both organizations. Indios de Mayagüez won the 2009–10 season, their 16th championship (most in the league) when they defeated the Criollos de Caguas 4 games to 1. Three games in this series went to extra innings.

Criollos back to back; special tournament (2017–2018).

Due to the passing of hurricane Maria over Puerto Rico in 2017, the league was forced to adopt emergency measures prior to the 2017-18 season, abridging the schedule to only one month (being played in January 2018, in order to qualify and being able to defend the Caribbean Series championship), concessions were made to allow Mayagüez and Aguadilla to operate as a single team and changing the rules to play only daytime games due to infrastructure damage and to reschedule games if necessary. Other changes proposed included the creation of a third team in San Juan, which would feature foreign players in order to market to their diaspora in the city. With one week remaining and all teams still in contention, additional rules were implemented to break a tie by using the goal average if necessary for postseason seeding.  By winning the abridged tournament, the Criollos won their 18th title and tied the Indios as the two most successful teams.

Caribbean Series.

Despite being a club competition and not being relevant for IBAF rankings, the Confederación de Béisbol Profesional del Caribe (CBPC) allows the participating teams the option to wear their regular team colors or a variant of the uniform used by the national team of the league's base country.

Dream Team (1995).

In 1995, the Senadores de San Juan managed by Luis "Torito" Meléndez, assembled one of the strongest teams in the history of the Caribbean Series. The group, which was dubbed "Dream Team", featured Major League Baseball players in most positions, counting with a lineup that included Roberto Alomar, Carlos Baerga, Bernie Williams, Juan González, Edgar Martínez, Carlos Delgado, Rubén Sierra, Rey Sánchez and Carmelo Martínez. Puerto Rico's offensive dominated the tournament, eventually winning the Caribbean Series' championship with an undefeated record of 6–0. The team was responsible for the only two losses of the Dominican Republic, the country that finished second, scoring victories against Pedro Martínez and José Rijo in the third and sixth games respectively.

End of drought (2017).

After securing the title of the 2016–17 season, the Criollos de Caguas won the Caribbean Series by defeating Águilas de Mexicali (1–0), the first for the league in 17 years and the first for manager Luis Matos in his rookie season.

Back to back (2018).

As the winner of the special abridged tournament of 2018, the Criollos entered the Caribbean Series as the defending champions. The Criollos defeated the Águilas del Cibao in the final with a score of 9–4. By winning his second consecutive Caribbean Series in his first two tries, manager Luis Matos tied the record of consecutive titles held solely by Nap Reyes of Tigres de Marianao for six decades.

Champions.

Teams marked with asterisk (*) went on to win the Caribbean Series that year

The Liga de Béisbol Profesional Roberto Clemente or LBPRC formerly known as "Liga de Béisbol Profesional de Puerto Rico" and Puerto Rico Baseball League, is the main professional baseball league in Puerto Rico. It was founded in 1938. In 2007, the LBPRC suspended operations for the first time since its creation. In 2008, the organization resumed operations, after restructuring. These included renaming the league to Puerto Rico Baseball League and establishing a website. In May 2012, the league debuted its current name, choosing to honor hall of famer Roberto Clemente by naming it after him and adopting his philosophy of athletic development. Currently consisting of five teams as of the 2018–19 season, the league's champion participates in the Caribbean Series.

Die Puerto Rico Baseball League (PRBL) ist die Profiliga im Baseball in Puerto Rico. Sie besteht zurzeit aus fünf Mannschaften, der Meister nimmt an der Serie del Caribe ("Caribbean Series") teil. Die PRBL gehört zu den sogenannten "Winter Leagues", deren Spielzeiten in der Off-Season der nordamerikanischen Major League Baseball (MLB) liegen und in denen zum Teil Spieler aus den MLB-Kadern zum Einsatz kommen.


History.

The BSFA was the fourth attempt to set up a national organisation of science fiction fans in Britain. The first, the Science Fiction Association (SFA), was set up in 1937 by fans who attended the first British science fiction convention in Leeds in May of that year and was "devoted to the stimulation of interest in science fiction and scientific progress", but it had to be disbanded on the outbreak of the World War II barely two years later. The second attempt was the British Fantasy Society (which has no connection with the present organisation of the same name, which is a 1971 offshoot of the BSFA), which was established in June 1942 by many of the people behind the SFA with the objective of giving members (who numbered nearly one hundred) better access to science fiction through its extensive library. The BFS did not long survive the war, being wound-up in November 1946. In 1948 Captain Ken Slater, who ran "Operation Fantast" - a trading operation which bought and swapped books and magazines - proposed the founding of a new national fan organisation, and thus the Science Fantasy Society was born. Unfortunately Slater was later posted to the army in Germany and the remaining committee members did not share his "flaming enthusiasm" for the organisation; in September 1951 the SFS was declared to be "a glorious flop".  By the late 1950s, British science fiction fandom was in serious decline. The annual Eastercon had become a purely social event with a rapidly diminishing attendance (150 in 1954, 115 in 1955, 80 in 1956, fewer than 50 in 1958). Spurred by this, the 1958 Eastercon held in Kettering held a discussion on the whole future of British fandom. It was agreed that both British fanzines and science fiction conventions had become inward-looking and had moved so far away from science fiction that they were not attractive to newcomers, and there were no routes in to British fandom anyway. It was decided that the only way forward was a new national organisation devoted to the serious study of science fiction but also carrying material in its publication about fandom, so that newcomers could go on to more personal involvement in fandom. After considerable debate on the name ("science fiction" being considered a stigma in dealing with the Press), the BSFA was formed and had over 100 members by its first anniversary.

The British Science Fiction Association Limited is an organisation founded in 1958 by a group of British academics, science fiction fans, authors, publishers and booksellers, in order to promote the writing, criticism, and study of science fiction in every form. It is an open membership organisation, currently costing £29 per year for UK residents (£20 for students and the unwaged) and £45 for international members. The first president of the BSFA was Brian Aldiss. Stephen Baxter is the current President and the current Vice-President is Pat Cadigan. The BSFA currently publishes three magazines, sent to all members:

Die British Science Fiction Association (abgekürzt: BSFA) ist eine 1958 gegründete Science-Fiction-Fan-Organisation, bestehend aus Autoren, Redakteuren und Buchhändlern, deren Ziel es ist, Science Fiction in jeder Form zu fördern. Ihr erster Präsident war Brian Aldiss, außerdem hatte Arthur C. Clarke den Vorsitz inne. Stephen Baxter ist zurzeit Vizepräsident. Die BSFA veröffentlicht drei Magazine, die allen Mitgliedern zugeschickt werden, und verleiht den British Science Fiction Association Award.


Early life and infantry service.

Gustav Dörr was born in Blindgallen, East Prussia, the son of a building contractor. He completed trade school and began work at age 18 with Krupp AG. In 1908, he was drafted in the military and enlisted in Infanterie-Regiment 176, and mustered out as a non-commissioned officer.  In August 1914, with the start of World War I, he was recalled. On 20 August 1914, he was seriously wounded, taking until December to recover. Upon his return he fought in actions along the Rawka River near Warsaw. During an attack on 17 February 1915, he was bayoneted in his right hip. This wound put him in the garrison hospital at Naumburg. He was incapacitated for front line duty, and was recommended for service in the reserve battalion of his regiment.

Aerial service.

Dörr saw a circular from the War Ministry asking for volunteers for pilot training. Dörr applied and was accepted despite his physical condition and relatively advanced age. He reported for training with FEA 2 at Döberitz in July 1915 and later at FEA 3 in Gotha.  On 18 March 1916, he was posted as a Vizefeldwebel to FA 68, an artillery observation unit engaged in artillery spotting. One of his comrades there was future ace Ernst Udet. Dörr earned an Iron Cross Second Class while assigned to FA 68.  Dörr and his observer Oberleutnant Serger were transferred to FA 6 to help counter heavy Allied air pressure. He stayed with the unit through its redesignation as FA 257 in May 1916, and participated in air operations prior to the Battle of the Somme in July.  In June 1917, the elevator on Dörr's plane failed in flight, and he crashed from an altitude of 1400 meters (4,600 feet). His observer, Leutnant Bohn, was killed; Dörr survived with his jaw broken in six places. This serious injury kept him out of action for three months.  He returned to duty at Althaus as a test pilot from November 1917 until February 1918, and was awarded an Iron Cross First Class on 22 December 1917.  In February 1918, he was then transferred from flying two seaters into Jagdgstaffel 45. His first victory was on 17 March, in a dogfight that saw six Germans tackle 26 French and British machines. Dörr knocked down a Sopwith 11⁄2 Strutter.  He downed a French Breguet 14 on 28 May, only to be shot down in flames by others in the formation. Fortunately, his altitude was only 400 meters (1,300 feet); he crash landed in no man's land between the French and German trenchworks with minor burns and made it back to German lines under heavy fire.  He claimed an unconfirmed victory only three days later and added three confirmed claims for the rest of June. In July, he logged eleven more victories, scoring consistently and increasingly often through the month. August added six more victories, bringing his total to 23. On 29 August, he was awarded the Gold Military Merit Cross; this was the enlisted man's equivalent of the better-known Pour le Merite or "Blue Max" given to officers. He was commissioned a lieutenant. September saw seven confirmed victories—three Spad VIIs and four Spad XIs. His tally now stood at 30. By 25 October, he had added three more. On that day, he was proposed for the Pour le Merite. Two days later, he scored one and had another unconfirmed claim. Another probable came the next day. His last victory of the war came on 30 August. On 4 November, he had an indecisive bout.  Dörr was the most successful ace to fly the Fokker D.VII, accumulating 30 victories with it. He had been wounded four times in his country's service, twice as an infantryman, twice as a pilot. He had refused an assignment to the rear echelon to remain in the front line. Nevertheless, he did not receive his nation's greatest honor; the Kaiser abdicated without awarding Dörr's Blue Max. It was an embittering experience that may have been the root for false reports that he was given the Pour le Merite in January 1919.

After the war.

Gustav Dörr became one of the world's original commercial airline pilots after the war. He flew for Deutsche Luft Hansa.  On 11 December 1928, he was piloting a Junkers G 31 on a night flight from Cologne to Berlin. He attempted an emergency landing at Letzlinger Heide. His plane brushed a tree on final approach and crash landed. Spilled fuel caught fire and killed Dörr and his crew. Luft Hansa later commemorated him by naming one of its airliners after him.

Gustav Dörr (5 October 1887 – 11 December 1928) was a German World War I fighter pilot credited with 35 victories. He went on to become one of the world's first airline pilots.

Gustav Dörr (* 5. Oktober 1887 in Blindgallen/Ostpreußen; † 18. Juli 1928 bei Stendal) war einer der erfolgreichsten deutschen Jagdflieger im Ersten Weltkrieg und Träger des Goldenen Militärverdienstkreuzes. Trotz mehrerer Abstürze überlebte er den Krieg und wurde einer der ersten Verkehrsflieger der Deutschen Lufthansa.


2004-2005.

The team was founded in 2004 when Marty Roth purchased the Indy Pro Series equipment of Panther Racing and a new Dallara IndyCar chassis and competed in three Pro Series events and the Indianapolis 500 with himself doing the driving. The team ran a full Pro Series schedule with Roth finishing 8th in points in 2005 as well as the Indy 500 in conjunction with PDM Racing where Roth provided his chassis and funding and PDM provided their Chevrolet engine lease and technical expertise.

2006.

Roth sold his Pro Series equipment following the St. Petersburg race in April 2006 to focus on IndyCars and specifically his attempt to qualify for the 2006 Indianapolis 500. However, the team never managed to hit on a comfortable set-up for the race car and Roth crashed on bump day trying to find the speed necessary to bump PDM Racing rookie Thiago Medeiros from the field. The team then regrouped and participated in several tests on intermediate and large ovals and returned to the series at Michigan International Speedway in July and ran at Kentucky and Chicagoland to close out the season. Sponsored by Barabco, Roth managed to finish all three of the races he competed in though his best finish was eighteenth. Roth ended up twenty second in points just behind P. J. Chesson.

2007.

The team returned in 2007 to race on specific ovals and ran at Homestead and Kansas sponsored by Fountain Powerboats. Handling problems forced him to withdraw early from both races. Roth Racing returned to Indianapolis but wrecked the car on the 148th lap. Shortly after Indy, the team decided to participate in the IRL's new TEAM program to race full-time. Roth then decided to purchase Sam Schmidt Motorsports' IndyCar equipment and move into a larger shop in Indianapolis with the goal of expanding to a two-car operation. The team returned to the series in the 2007 finale at Chicagoland Speedway with the second car driven by P. J. Chesson and both cars finished the race, although several laps down. The team was sponsored by Dussault Apparel's Gene Simmons "Moneybag" clothing line.

2008.

The team announced on November 26, 2007 that they had signed Jay Howard to drive their second car for the 2008 IndyCar Series season and that Marty Roth would compete full-time in 2008 Sponsored by Cirrus Aircraft. Roth qualified well at Homestead starting eighth but Howard crashed while qualifying. The team began to struggle with finding sponsors after a three race deal with Cirrus Aircraft ran out. Lids and 1-800-Las Vegas sponsored the 25 and 24 cars at Indy but the team was without sponsors until Men's Wearhouse came aboard at Infineon. The team engineer David Cripps left after the Kansas race and was replaced by Vision Racing's Larry Curry who left the team after Watkins Glen. On the morning of Pole Day Roth hired veteran John Andretti to drive the team's #24 car replacing Jay Howard and he quickly posted the team's highest speeds of the month. Team president Margaret Roth confirmed that Howard will return after the Indy 500. However, on May 30 it was announced that Andretti would continue in the #24 car in the Milwaukee Mile and Texas Motor Speedway races. Andretti also stayed to drive at Iowa and Richmond. Due to lack of sponsorship the team ran one car and the team only fielded Jay Howard in the 24 car at Watkins Glen. In Nashville Roth drove the 24 car and the #25 car did not make an appearance. Roth drove the #25 car in the majority of the season's remaining races. Following being informed that his league license would not be renewed in 2009, Roth placed the team up for sale in October 2008.  It was rumored that former Champ Car World Series driver Nelson Philippe, brother Richard Philippe and their family had bought the team's equipment and race shop and would continue the team as Team France. but this did not come to fruition.

2009.

Roth Racing entered two cars in the 2009 Indianapolis 500, number 25 and 52. Neither car actually appeared at the track, although Roth Racing banners had been placed above the garages.  In August 2009, the teams' race equipment was sold to the new FAZZT Race Team.

Roth Racing was a race team owned by Canadian real estate magnate and racecar driver Marty Roth. It competed in the Indy Racing League IndyCar Series.

Roth Racing war ein Team der IndyCar Series und Indy Lights Serie, welches dem Fahrer Marty Roth gehörte. Das Team entstand 2004, als Roth das Indy Lights Equipment von Panther Racing kaufte und in einigen Rennen der Serie startete. Außerdem kaufte er ein IndyCar-Chassis um am Indianapolis 500 teilzunehmen. Roth schied in Indianapolis jedoch im Rennen aus; ebenso 2005, als das Auto gemeinsam mit PDM Racing eingesetzt wurde. 2006 konnte er sich gar nicht für das Rennen qualifizieren. Von jetzt an wurde aber die Strategie geändert, so dass Marty Roth auch bei einigen anderen Rennen der verbliebenen Saison 2006 sowie in der Saison 2007 auftauchte. Beim Saisonabschluss 2007 war man sogar mit zwei Autos am Start, das zweite wurde hier von P. J. Chesson gefahren.


Swiss Val Ferret.

The Swiss Val Ferret is a valley on the southern side of Rhône valley in the canton of Valais in Switzerland. It lies between the Mont Blanc Massif and the Pennine Alps, with the river "La Dranse de Ferret" running down the length of the valley from its source to "La Dranse" river.

Geography.

The valley starts at the Col Ferret (2490 m) on the Italian border. It is surrounded by high mountains, especially on the west side (Mont Dolent, Tour Noir and other summits of the Mont Blanc Massif).  The main villages of the Val Ferret are (from up to down): Ferret, La Fouly, Prayon, Praz de Fort, Issert and Som la Proz, all belonging to the municipality of Orsières. Altogether, the valley had approximately 700 inhabitants as at 2008).

Geography.

From Col Ferret (Swiss border), the valley runs down, beneath the Pré de Bar glacier and the towering Grandes Jorasses peaks. The stream running through the valley is the Dora di Ferret (), which, near La Palud (in front of the Italian Mont Blanc Tunnel exit), joins the Dora di Veny () flowing down from Val Veny to form the Dora Baltea, a left-hand tributary of Po The main villages are Arnouvaz, Planpincieux and La Palud, all in the Courmayeur municipality.

Tourism.

The valleys are mostly frequented by hikers on the route of the Tour du Mont Blanc. Many excursions are possible from the villages, such as: Cabane de l'A Neuve from La Fouly or Cabane de Saleina from Praz de Fort or Cabane du Trient above the Trient Glacier.

Val Ferret is the name of the two separate valleys, departing from the Col Ferret on the border between Italy and Switzerland, on the southern and eastern sides of the Mont Blanc Massif. The Swiss valley drains northeastwards towards Orsières and on into the Rhône basin; whereas the Italian valley drains southwestwards towards Courmayeur and on into the Po basin.

Das Val Ferret ist ein Seitental im Schweizer Kanton Wallis südlich von Martigny. Es ist nicht zu verwechseln mit dem südwestlich benachbarten gleichnamigen Tal in Norditalien, von dem es durch den Grand Col Ferret (Col du Ferret) getrennt ist.


Life.

Richard Stöss was born during the final part of World War II at Sankt Goar, a small wine producing town on the left bank along the narrow section of the Rhine Gorge between Koblenz and Mainz. He passed his school final exams ("Abitur") in 1965, just a few weeks short of his twenty-first birthday. Between 1969 and 1996 he worked at the Central Institute for Social Sciences Research at the Free University of Berlin, which is where in 1970 he received his first degree, in political sciences.  Till 1971 he combined his studies with part time work as a research assistant. Between 1971 and 1976 he was a research assistant, and between 1976 and 1996 he was a research associate (initially on the DFG "Party systems" project, and subsequently unrestricted). He was supervised for his doctorate, which he received in 1978, by. His habilitation, also awarded by the Free University of Berlin, followed in 1984, was received in return for a dissertation on the "structure and development of the party system" in West Germany, which was subsequently adapted for wider publication.  In 1996 Stöss became a member of the Department of Political Sciences (today the Department of Political and Social Sciences) at the Free University of Berlin, also taking on the top job at the Otto Suhr Institute's "Otto-Stammer-Zentrum". In 2004 he was appointed an extraordinary professor.  Richard Stöss is a member of the SPD.  He has been retired from his full-time university commitments since April 2009.

Richard Stöss (born 18 March 1944) is a German political scientist and extraordinary professor at the Free University of Berlin. The focus of his research is on right-wing extremism and on.

Richard Stöss (* 18. März 1944 in Sankt Goar) ist ein deutscher Politikwissenschaftler und außerplanmäßiger Professor an der FU Berlin. Schwerpunkte seiner Forschungsarbeit sind Rechtsextremismus und Parteienforschung.


The Greatest Story Ever Told (The Lawrence Arms album)

Cultural references.

In the liner notes and artwork the band members identify themselves under false names and as playing instruments not found on the album, specifically Gordon Shumway on vibraslap, Ivan Nikolayevich on harp and lyre, and Ferdinand Magellan on bassoon. The names are references to history, literature and pop culture:  They also fictitiously list several other famous figures as "additional musicians", including musician John Oates, actors Bronson Pinchot and Ian Ziering, poet Ezra Pound and former President Chester A. Arthur.

"The Master and Margarita".

Russian author Mikhail Bulgakov's novel "The Master and Margarita" is referred to several times: the album has a song called "Chapter 13: The Hero Appears", named after the same chapter in the book; its liner notes name one of the band members (corresponding to guitarist Chris McCaughan) as Ivan Nikolayevich; the song "A Wishful Puppeteer" includes the lyric "text to burn" in reference to Bulgakov's combustion of an early draft of the book and other works; and the liner notes' back page features the same quote from Faust that prefaces the novel.

Quotations.

In addition to the numerous historical, literary and cultural references made in the album's lyrics, the inside back cover of the liner notes bears a pair of quotations designed to illustrate the album's juxtaposition of "legitimate" literature and philosophy with American pop culture: "Part of that Power which eternally wills evil and eternally works good." -from Goethe's "Faust" (also prefaces "The Master and Margarita", which as noted above is referenced elsewhere in the album)  "Is this true?" "Yes, your honor, this man has no dick." -Bill Murray in "Ghostbusters"

The Greatest Story Ever Told is the fourth studio album by the American punk rock band The Lawrence Arms, released in 2003 by Fat Wreck Chords. A concept album of sorts, it follows a linear storyline and has several songs which call back to or refer to others. The album includes extensive liner notes with footnotes to the lyrics that detail the many literary and pop culture references. Its title is a direct reference to the movie "The Greatest Story Ever Told", a 1965 film about the life of Jesus.

The Greatest Story Ever Told ist ein Album der amerikanischen Punkrock-Band The Lawrence Arms. Es wurde am 23. September 2003 von dem Label Fat Wreck Chords veröffentlicht.


Biography.

Fréron was born at Quimper in Brittany and educated by the Jesuits. He made such rapid academic progress that he was appointed professor at the college of Louis-le-Grand before he turned twenty. He became a contributor to the "Observations sur les écrits modernes" of the abbé Guyot Desfontaines. The very fact of his collaboration with Desfontaines, one of Voltaire's bitterest enemies, was sufficient to arouse the latter's hostility, and although Fréron had begun his career as one of his admirers, his attitude towards Voltaire soon changed.  Fréron in 1746 founded a similar journal of his own, entitled "Lettres de la Comtesse de..." It was suppressed in 1749, but he immediately replaced it by "Lettres sur quelques écrits de ce temps", which, with the exception of a short suspension in 1752, on account of an attack on the character of Voltaire, was continued till 1754, when it was succeeded by the more ambitious "Année littéraire". His death at Paris in 1776 is said to have been hastened by the temporary suppression of this journal.

Legacy.

Fréron is now remembered solely for his attacks on Voltaire and the Encyclopaedists, and for the retaliation from Voltaire, who, besides attacking Fréron in epigrams, and even incidentally in some of his tragedies, directed against him a virulent satire, "Le Pauvre diable", and made him the principal personage in a comedy "L'Ecossaise", in which the journal of Fréron is designated "L'Âne littéraire", "the Literary Ass". Fréron is also mentioned in Voltaire's famous novel "Candide", in reference to a rude critic the title character meets at a theater. A further attack on Fréron entitled "Anecdotes sur Fréron..." (1760), published anonymously, is generally attributed to Voltaire.  Fréron was the author of an "Ode sur la bataille de Fontenoy" (1745) "Histoire de Marie Stuart" (1742, 2 vols.); and "Histoire de l'empire d'Allemagne" (1771, 8 vols.).  He was the father of Stanislas Fréron, revolutionary politician.

Élie Catherine Fréron (20 January 1718 – 10 March 1776) was a French literary critic and controversialist whose career focused on countering the influence of the "philosophes" of the French Enlightenment, partly thorough his vehicle, the "Année littéraire". Thus Fréron, in recruiting young writers to counter the literary establishment became central to the movement now called the Counter-Enlightenment.

Élie Catherine Fréron (* 20. Januar 1718 in Quimper/Bretagne; † 10. März 1776 in Montrouge bei Paris) war ein französischer Literat und Publizist, dessen Name vor allem dank seiner Fehden mit Voltaire eine gewisse Bekanntheit genießt.


Biosynthesis of NCS Chromophore.

The biosynthesis of neocarzinostatin takes place through a convergence of the activities of a gene cluster, which includes two separate iterative type I polyketide synthase (PKS) and deoxy sugar biosynthetic pathways. The first type I PKS gene, NcsE, codes for the enediyne moiety. The second type I PKS gene, NcsB, codes for the naphthoic acid moiety. Additionally, a cluster of "NcsC" genes are responsible for coding enzymes for the synthesis of the deoxyamino sugar moiety of NCS chromophore. The biosynthesis can be divided into three preliminary steps with a final convergence of the three moieties:  1. Synthesis of deoxyaminosugar moiety: This part is carried out by the enzymes encoded by a cluster of seven genes, named "NcsC" through "Ncs6". Since, these enzymes have similarity to dNDP-D-mannose synthases, it has been proposed that, the synthesis starts from D-mannose-1-phosphate. Since the C-2 hydroxyl group (-OH) is ultimately eliminated, the possibility of having D-glucose-1-phosphate cannot also be ruled out. However, additional studies indicate that, D-mannose-1-phosphate is the more likely starting point.  2. Synthesis of naphthoic acid moiety: "NcsB", "NcsB1", "NcsB2" and "NcsB3" are enzymes responsible for the synthesis of the naphthoic acid moiety. This is similar to other enediyne natural products, the genes involved in construction of the aromatic moiety are an iterative type I PKS rather than a type II PKS system. The methyl group on the phenol group is added by SAM.  3. Synthesis of enediyne moiety and convergent assembly: The enediyne is synthesized by 14 enzymes encoded by "NcsE" to "NcsE11" plus "NcsF1" and "NcsF2". "NcsE" to "NcsE11" constitute another iterative type I PKS, while "NcsF1" and "NcsF2" have epoxide hydrolase activity.  Finally, the building blocks are assembled in a convergent fashion. Ncs6 glycosyltransferase catalyzes the coupling between the enediyne core and the dNDP-deoxyaminosugar. The naphthoyl group is attached to the enediyne core by the enzyme NcsB2 CoA ligase. There is an additional carbonate functionality added, probably originating from CO (or bicarbonate), however, it remains to be determined whether this step is truly enzymatic.

Neocarzinostatin (NCS) is a macromolecular chromoprotein enediyne antitumor antibiotic secreted by "Streptomyces macromomyceticus". It consists of two parts, a labile chromophore (the non-protein molecular entity shown at right) and a 113 amino acid protein to which the chromophore is tightly and non-covalently bound with high affinity (K ~ 10 M). The non-protein component is a very potent DNA-damaging agent; However it is extremely unstable and the role of the protein is to protect it and release it to the target DNA. Opening of the epoxide under reductive conditions present in cells creates favorable conditions for a Bergman cyclization, leading to formation of benzyne, followed by DNA strand cleavage. Another important member of the chromoprotein group of natural products is kedarcidin.

Zu jung für ein Baby (Originaltitel: "Fifteen and Pregnant") ist ein US-amerikanisches Filmdrama aus dem Jahr 1998. Regie führte Sam Pillsbury, das Drehbuch schrieb Susan Cuscuna.


Types of trading strategies.

The term trading strategy can in brief be used by any fixed plan of trading a financial instrument, but the general use of the term is within computer assisted trading, where a trading strategy is implemented as computer program for automated trading. Technical strategies can be broadly divided into the mean-reversion and momentum groups.  All these trading strategies are speculative. In the moral context speculative activities are considered negatively and to be avoided by each individual.who conversely should maintain a long term horizon avoiding any types of short term speculation.

Development.

The trading strategy is developed by the following methods:  The development and application of a trading strategy preferably follows eight steps: (1) Formulation, (2) Specification in computer-testable form, (3) Preliminary testing, (4) Optimization, (5) Evaluation of performance and robustness, (6) Trading of the strategy, (7) Monitoring of trading performance, (8) Refinement and evolution.

Performance measurement.

Usually the performance of a trading strategy is measured on the risk-adjusted basis. Probably the best-known risk-adjusted performance measure is the Sharpe ratio. However, in practice one usually compares the expected return against the volatility of returns or the maximum drawdown. Normally, higher expected return implies higher volatility and drawdown. The choice of the risk-reward trade-off strongly depends on trader's risk preferences. Often the performance is measured against a benchmark, the most common one is an Exchange-traded fund on a stock index. In the long term a strategy that acts according to Kelly criterion beats any other strategy. However, Kelly's approach was heavily criticized by Paul Samuelson.

Executing strategies.

A trading strategy can be executed by a trader (Discretionary Trading) or automated (Automated Trading). Discretionary Trading requires a great deal of skill and discipline. It is tempting for the trader to deviate from the strategy, which usually reduces its performance.  An automated trading strategy wraps trading formulas into automated order and execution systems. Advanced computer modeling techniques, combined with electronic access to world market data and information, enable traders using a trading strategy to have a unique market vantage point. A trading strategy can automate all or part of your investment portfolio. Computer trading models can be adjusted for either conservative or aggressive trading styles.

In finance, a trading strategy is a fixed plan that is designed to achieve a profitable return by going long or short in markets. The main reasons that a properly researched trading strategy helps are its verifiability, quantifiability, consistency, and objectivity.

Handelsstrategie ist eine Strategie, die im Warenhandel oder beim Handel mit Finanzprodukten langfristig die Gewinnchancen erhöhen und Verlustgefahren verhindern soll.


Interstate 110 and State Route 110 (California)

Route description.

The Harbor Freeway, signed as Interstate 110, begins at Gaffey Street in San Pedro, where it then travels mostly due north to the Santa Monica Freeway (Interstate 10) at a point south of downtown Los Angeles, where it becomes signed as State Route 110. I-110 is primarily within the city limits of Los Angeles, running right along the South Los Angeles region and the Harbor Gateway, a two-mile (3 km) wide north–south corridor that was annexed by the city of Los Angeles specifically to connect San Pedro, Wilmington and the Port of Los Angeles with the rest the city.

Harbor Transitway.

In addition, the Harbor Transitway, a grade-separated bus and high-occupancy vehicle corridor in the median of Interstate 110, runs between State Route 91 (Gardena Freeway) and the south side of Downtown Los Angeles.  The Harbor Freeway, along with the Long Beach Freeway (Interstate 710), are the principal means for freight from the Port of Los Angeles to rail yards and warehouses further inland. Its interchange with the Santa Monica Freeway is notoriously busy and congested, and the portions bordering Bunker Hill in northwest Downtown Los Angeles are choked with traffic at peak travel times.

Landmarks.

Notable landmarks and attractions near the Harbor Freeway include the California State University, Dominguez Hills; Watts Towers; Exposition Park (including the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, the Banc of California Stadium and soon the Lucas Museum of Narrative Art); the University of Southern California; Staples Center; L.A. Live, Los Angeles Harbor College; the skyline of Downtown Los Angeles; and the Los Angeles Convention Center.  SR 110 continues north on the Arroyo Seco Parkway to Pasadena.  The Harbor Freeway is noted for its elaborate high-occupancy toll lane feature, with the HOT lanes elevated above the rest of traffic in many areas, constructed in 1994 by C.C. Myers, Inc. as HOV lanes and converted to HOT lanes in 2012. Of particular note is the Judge Harry Pregerson Interchange, which contains the most elaborate network of direct HOV/HOT connectors in Los Angeles County. It includes a 7-story ramp that connects the Century Freeway's HOV lanes to the Harbor Freeway's northbound HOT lanes and offers splendid views of the entire Los Angeles Basin and the San Gabriel Mountains. The interchange with State Route 91 (formally known as the Edmund J. Russ Interchange) is also fairly large.  Route 110 is part of the California Freeway and Expressway System, and is part of the National Highway System, a network of highways that are considered essential to the country's economy, defense, and mobility by the Federal Highway Administration.

History.

In the 1924 Major Street Traffic Plan for Los Angeles, a widening of Figueroa Street to San Pedro as a good road to the Port of Los Angeles was proposed. Progress was slow, and in 1933 the state legislature added the entire length to the state highway system as Route 165, an unsigned designation. This route not only extended from San Pedro north to Los Angeles, but continued through the city-built Figueroa Street Tunnels and along the northern extension of Figueroa Street to Eagle Rock, and then followed Linda Vista Avenue (via an overlap on Route 161 (SR 134) over the Colorado Street Bridge) to Route 9 (now I-210) at the Devil's Gate Reservoir. The entire length of Route 165 became Sign Route 11 in 1934. U.S. Route 6 was also assigned to the portion between SR 1 and Avenue 26 in 1937, and at about the same time US 66 was moved from Eagle Rock Boulevard to Figueroa Street, overlapping SR 11 between Sunset Boulevard (US 101) and Colorado Street (SR 134).  The state completed the Arroyo Seco Parkway which had been added to the state highway system in 1935 as Route 205, in early 1941, providing a faster route between SR 11 at Avenue 26 and Pasadena. US 66 was moved to the new route, while SR 11 remained on Figueroa Street and Linda Vista Avenue, the former also becoming a new U.S. Route 66 Alternate. Construction of a freeway to San Pedro was much slower, despite having been in the earliest plans for an integrated system. Initially, the Harbor Parkway was to split at the merge with the Venice Parkway northeast of the University of Southern California, with the East By-Pass and West By-Pass straddling the Los Angeles Central Business District and rejoining at the split between the Arroyo Seco Parkway and Riverside Parkway south of Dodger Stadium. The West By-Pass was soon incorporated into the Harbor Parkway, and the first short piece, by then renamed the Harbor Freeway, opened on July 30, 1952 from the Four Level Interchange south to 3rd Street. (The Arroyo Seco Parkway was completed to the Four Level Interchange on September 22, 1953, and renamed the Pasadena Freeway on November 16, 1954.)  The Harbor Freeway gradually pushed south, opening to Olympic Boulevard on March 23, 1954 and Washington Boulevard on May 14, 1954. On March 27, 1956, the highway was extended to 42nd Street, and on April 24, 1957 it reached temporary ramps at 88th Place. Further extensions were made to Century Boulevard on July 31, 1958, 124th Street on September 24, 1958, Alondra Boulevard (which the county widened to carry the load) on May 2, 1960, 190th Street on July 15, 1960, Torrance Boulevard on August 28, 1962, and finally Pacific Coast Highway (SR 1) on September 26, 1962. There it connected with a section that had been open since June 19, 1956, from Pacific Coast Highway south to Channel Street. Along with the Vincent Thomas Bridge to Terminal Island, the final piece in San Pedro opened on July 9, 1970, completing the Harbor Freeway to its present length.  In December 1978, the Harbor Freeway was approved as an Interstate Highway by the FHWA. In 1981, the SR 11 designation was renumbered as Interstate 110 on the Harbor Freeway, and State Route 110 on the Pasadena Freeway. The Interstate 110 designation had been previously applied to what is now a spur of I-10 from 1958 to 1968.

Richard Ankrom signage.

In 2001, Richard Ankrom, a local artist who got lost trying to get onto Interstate 5 North from northbound I-110 because there was no clear official signage labeling access to I-5 North, solved his frustration by covertly modifying one of the overhead signs on the freeway just before the Four Level Interchange (). Using official government sign specifications, Ankrom fabricated two sign pieces, one being an Interstate 5 marker shield and the other with the word "NORTH", and affixed them to the left side of the sign. He performed his modifications in broad daylight, disguised as a Caltrans worker. In that district, Caltrans has three sign crews, each thinking one of the other two crews did the installation. After nine months, at Ankrom's request, the "Los Angeles Downtown News" broke the story.  Prior to Ankrom's work, the only signage directing motorists to the 5 North off-ramp came at a quarter-mile before the exit, thus forcing many to merge across multiple lanes in a very short distance. The signs were inspected by Caltrans to ensure they would not fall off onto the road below. Ankrom was never charged, despite statements from officials that his actions were illegal. Ankrom referred to his sign project as "Guerilla Public Service".  Caltrans later added an additional "5 North" sign over the left northbound lane at the entrance to the Figueroa Street Tunnels, as well as new electric signage, which will note when an additional lane is available for those wishing to transition to northbound Interstate 5 (converting the current single lane transition to dual lanes).  In 2009, Caltrans replaced all signage along this segment with newer, more reflective versions. These new signs include Ankrom's original improvements.

Preservation.

Despite the increased traffic in Los Angeles, including trucks shipping products from the Port of Los Angeles in San Pedro, there are no plans to upgrade the rest of I-110 from I-10 to Pasadena to Interstate standards. Instead, Caltrans has pushed for a protected status alternative to preserve the Arroyo Seco Parkway as a historic landmark. The state legislature designated the original section, north of the Figueroa Street Viaduct, as a "California Historic Parkway" (part of the State Scenic Highway System reserved for freeways built before 1945) in 1993; the only other highway so designated is the Cabrillo Freeway (SR 163) in San Diego. The American Society of Civil Engineers named it a National Civil Engineering Landmark in 1999, and it became a National Scenic Byway in 2002.

Route 110, consisting of State Route 110 (SR 110) and Interstate 110 (I-110), is a state and auxiliary Interstate Highway in the Los Angeles metropolitan area of the U.S. state of California. The entire route connects San Pedro and the Port of Los Angeles with Downtown Los Angeles and Pasadena. The southern segment from San Pedro to Interstate 10 in downtown Los Angeles is signed as I-110, while the northern segment to Pasadena is signed as SR 110. The entire length of I-110, as well as SR 110 south of the Four Level Interchange with US 101, is the Harbor Freeway, and SR 110 north from US 101 to Pasadena is the historic Arroyo Seco Parkway, the first freeway in the western United States. I-110 is one of two 3-digit interstate designations to appear on opposite coasts; I-280 in California and New Jersey is the other.

Die Interstate 110 (kurz I-110) ist ein Interstate Highway in den Vereinigten Staaten, der größtenteils im Stadtgebiet von Los Angeles verläuft. Das südliche Ende der Interstate liegt im Vorort San Pedro an der California State Route 47, in der Nähe der Vincent Thomas Bridge und des Hafens von Los Angeles. Das entgegengesetzte Ende liegt 51 Kilometer weiter nördlich an der "Glenarm Street" in Pasadena. Nördlich des "Santa Monica Freeway" (Interstate 10) trägt die Straße nur noch die Bezeichnung "California State Route 110".


Biography.

Early years.

Louis Lingg was born on September 9, 1864 in Mannheim, in the Grand Duchy of Baden to Friedrich Lingg. His father was injured in the lumber mill where he worked. Louis wrote in his autobiography: "At this time I was thirteen and my sister seven years old, and at this age I received my first impressions of the prevailing unjust social institutions, i.e., the exploitation of men by men."  Lingg became an apprentice carpenter from 1869 to 1882. He then took a job in Strasbourg, in Alsace, then moved on to Freiburg, Germany where he joined the Working Men's Educational Society, a socialist organization.  To avoid military service, Lingg moved to Switzerland, but in the spring of 1885, the police in Zurich ordered him to leave the country. He then received a letter from his mother telling him that her new husband was willing to provide him with enough money to move to the United States.

Haymarket affair.

In July 1885, Lingg arrived in New York City then departed for Chicago, Illinois where he joined the International Carpenters and Joiners' Union. He arrived in Chicago seven months before the actions.  On May 4, 1886, Lingg was not present at Haymarket Square for what would be known as the Haymarket Riot. A bomb was thrown into the crowd of policemen by an unidentified person, but prosecutors presented evidence he was involved in the making the bomb. Seven men were arrested the next day in connection with the bombing which killed Officer Mathias Degan and other policemen. Lingg himself was discovered in his hiding place on May 14, 1886, when he pulled a revolver and fought with two police officers before being arrested. Lingg and eight other anarchists were charged on June 21, 1886, with criminal conspiracy. Lingg and six others were convicted and sentenced to death.  In Lingg's apartment, police found two spherical bombs and four pipe bombs. Witnesses interviewed by police placed Lingg in the basement of Greif's Hall the night before the bombing, along with other accused members of the conspiracy including Rudolph Schnaubelt, the lead suspect as the bomb thrower who would have stood trial with the other accused had he not fled Chicago. Lingg was placed on trial with seven anarchist associates, who were tried as a group.  Defense attorney Moses Salomon said in his opening statement to the jury: "It may seem strange why he (Lingg) was manufacturing bombs. The answer to that is, he had a right to have his house full of dynamite." Salomon argued that the accused plans did not target "the life of any single individual at any time or place," and did not conspire to murder Officer Mathias Degan or any number of policemen, "except in self-defense."  Salomon also conceded a pivotal point in explaining that his clients did conspire together to use force, their intentions being "...that when a general revolution or a general strike was inaugurated, when they were attacked, that then, in fact, while carrying out the purposes of that strike or revolution, that then they should use dynamite, and not until then." Ineptly, defense attorneys did not plead for manslaughter, though as an anarchist who did not recognize the court's authority, the defense's approach was probably of little concern to Lingg.  Gustave Lehman, a fellow anarchist carpenter, testified that Lingg was a member of a militant "armed wing" of his carpenters union. Lehman was stationed outside Greif's Hall as a lookout and recalled walking home with Lingg, William Seliger and two other men. When they asked what was going on, Lingg said, "You are all oxen — fools." Chemists testified that the bombs found in Lingg's apartment shared a unique chemical mixture to shrapnel from the Haymarket bomb.  Seliger, a revolutionary carpenter who subletted a room to Lingg, provided the most damning testimony against him. Seliger had been charged with the murder of officer Degan and with conspiracy, riot, and unlawful assembly. The charges were dropped when Seliger turned states evidence. He told the jury he rose early the morning of the bombing and asked Lingg to remove the bombs from the building. Lingg persuaded Seliger that helping him assemble bombs would allow him to remove them that day. Seliger said at least two other men, Ernst Hubner and Herman Mutzenberg, helped rush the bombs to readiness. The two did not appear in court but made statements to police corroborating Seliger's story. None of them were sure how many bombs they made with Lingg that day, their estimates ranging from 26 to 50.  Lingg allegedly told Seliger he was working too slowly, as they needed the bombs by the afternoon. Seliger quoted Lingg as saying they would be used that evening against "the police when they came to protect the capitalists." He said Lingg anticipated a "disturbance" on the West Side and that he had spotted the word "Ruhe" (quietude) in the anarchist newspaper "Arbeiter-Zeitung", the signal for armed groups to assemble.  Seliger testified he helped transport bombs to Neff's Saloon, an anarchist hub, where men helped themselves to the bombs. He then returned to Neff's with Lingg after the bombing. There, a man who came from the Haymarket yelled at Lingg, "You are the fault of all of it," an incident corroborated by the testimony of Moritz Neff, the anarchist bartender.  Under cross-examination Seliger stated that he had been paid by the police on two occasions. He also stated that his wife had also been paid by the police but that he did not know how many times or how much money she received, but on further questioning said "I think twenty or twenty-five dollars." After the trial Seliger and his family were sent to Germany at police expense.  Speaking before the court at his sentencing, Lingg denounced Seliger as a "bought squealer," adding the prosecution had failed to prove that the bombs he made were taken to the Haymarket. He also challenged the link of his bombs to the Haymarket bomb. "A couple of chemists also, have been brought here as specialists, yet they could only state that the metal of which the Haymarket bomb was made bore a certain resemblance to those bombs of mine," saying the prosecution attorney admitted there was a difference of a half inch in the bomb diameters. "I die happy on the gallows, so confident am I that the hundreds and thousands to whom I have spoken will remember my words. When you shall have hanged us, then they will do the bombthrowing! In this hope do I say to you, I despise you, I despise your order, your laws, your force propped authority. Hang me for it."

Death and legacy.

On November 6, 1887, four bombs were discovered in Lingg's cell. Lingg committed suicide on November 10, 1887, the day before he was scheduled to hang. He used a blasting cap smuggled to him by a fellow prisoner. He put it in his mouth and lit it at 9:00 AM. It blew off his lower jaw and damaged a large portion of his face. He survived for another 6 hours—writing "Hoch die anarchie!" (Hurrah for anarchy!) on the cell stones in his own blood before guards came—until his death at around 3:00 PM.  Lingg was buried, in a plot marked since 1893 by the Haymarket Martyrs Monument, in the Waldheim Cemetery (now Forest Home Cemetery) in Forest Park, Illinois. On June 26, 1893 Illinois governor, John Altgeld, pardoned all eight men who had been convicted of the Haymarket Riot, stating that they were innocent of the crime they had died for.

Louis Lingg (September 9, 1864 – November 10, 1887) was a German-born American anarchist who committed suicide while in jail after being convicted and sentenced to hang as a member of a criminal conspiracy behind the Haymarket Square bombing. Lingg committed suicide in his cell with an explosive shortly before his scheduled execution.

Louis Lingg (* 9. September 1864 in Schwetzingen oder Mannheim; † 10. November 1887 in Chicago) war ein deutscher Anarchist und Gewerkschafter, der im Gefängnis unter ungeklärten Umständen und nach offizieller Darstellung durch Selbstmord ums Leben kam, nachdem er nach dem Haymarket Riot verhaftet worden war.


Route.

The line passes through Taunusstein, Bad Schwalbach (called Langenschwalbach until 1927), Aarbergen and Hahnstätten, which all lie in the Aar valley in the Western Hintertaunus (the lower north-western ridges of the Taunus). The southern part of the Aar Valley Railway runs through Hesse and the section between Diez and Zollhaus lies in Rhineland-Palatinate.  The line formerly connected in Diez with the Lahn Valley Railway between Limburg and Koblenz.  Until 1951, passengers could change in Zollhaus to the narrow-gauge Nassau Light Railway ("Nassauische Kleinbahn", NKB), connecting to Sankt Goarshausen and Braubach on the Rhine.  Connections existed in Wiesbaden to trains towards Darmstadt and Aschaffenburg, Mainz, Koblenz, Niedernhausen and Frankfurt.

History.

After the annexation of the Duchy of Nassau by the Kingdom of Prussia in 1866, the Prussian state railways considered build a rail link between Wiesbaden and the Limburg area. Moritz Hilf, who had been technical director of the Nassau State Railway since 1862, was put in charge of building the line across the Taunus ridge and through the Aar valley. The project was implemented in three main phases between 1869/70 and 1894.  On 1 June 1870, the first section was opened between Limburg and Zollhaus. This section was mainly used for the transport of minerals, which were obtained in the Zollhaus area (iron ore, limestone, marble and porphyry). The line, which today is largely in the area of the municipalities of Hahnstätten and Diez, follows the relatively wide and flat Aar valley. Built as a mainline railway, the section was designed with curves with a large radius of 300 m for a top speed of 80 km/h; it was reclassified as a secondary or local railway on 19 April 1881.  On 15 November 1889, the section between the Wiesbaden Rhine station ("Wiesbaden Rheinbahnhof") and the spa of Langenschwalbach was opened. This had to climb the main ridge of the Taunus between the valleys of the Aar and the Rhine. The line passes through a gap in the main range known as the Eiserne Hand (iron hand); Eiserne Hand station is the highest station on the line. The section between Chausseehaus station and the apex of the line when it opened had a grade of 1 in 30, making it the steepest section of line without rack in Imperial Germany. This section of the route had curves with a very tight curve radius of 180 m, allowing a top speed of 40 km/h. This meant that the construction of expensive and elaborate tunnels and bridges could be avoided. It was not until 1907–1911 that the minimum curve radius was increased to 200 m and the maximum speed at these curves was increased to 50 km/h.  In 1894, the third phase of construction the gap between Langenschwalbach and Zollhaus was completed. This was done mainly at the behest of the industrialist family of Passavant in Kettenbach, which operated the Michelbach steel works. Since the Aar here runs through a gorge and is sinuous, four tunnels had to be built to shorten the loops of the Aar. This section had curves with a minimum radius of 250 m, which allowed a top speed of 60 km/h.  The line in Wiesbaden left from the Rhine station in a tight arc to the west (Niederwaldstraße and Aßmannshäuser Straße (streets) are on the former course of the line) and then parallel to Dotzheimer Straße to Dotzheim station. The line had to be realigned to connect to the new Central Station ("Hauptbahnhof"), opened in 1906, and Wiesbaden West freight yard. The new line was inaugurated on 2 May 1904 and ran through the stations of Landesdenkmal (opened 1907) and Waldstraße (opened 1905). On 28 November 1904, the West Wiesbaden freight yard on was opened on the new line. An important link for freight on the line, the Bahnhof (station) curve (at the station now called Wiesbaden Ost) was opened to traffic on 1 October 1906.  In 1986, passenger services were resumed as heritage services of the "Nassauische Touristik-Bahn" (Nassau Tourist Railway, NTB), which is based in Dotzheim station. A year later, the buildings and technical facilities of the line and stations were classified as a historical monument in anticipation of its closure. Some of the station buildings were sold, but the line was largely left in a state of disrepair.

Operations.

The track is single track throughout and is not electrified. Stations where trains can pass each other are at Dotzheim, Hahn-Wehen, Bad Schwalbach, Hohenstein, Kettenbach and Zollhaus. The track is in large part supported by steel sleepers.

Passengers.

The southern section—known as the "Langenschwalbacher Bahn" (Langenschwalbach Railway)—was used in the Wilhelmine era especially for spa traffic between the world-famous spa of Wiesbaden and the women's spa of Langenschwalbach. Between them in Chausseehaus was a summer resort with hotel, restaurant and several rest homes. The steep and winding line through the Eiserne Hand gap required the development of a short carriages with bogies, which was known as a "Langenschwalbacher". In 1892, the Langenschwalbach variant of the class T 9 tender locomotive was put into operation, since the slope was found to be too steep for the Prussian T 3 locomotives that were used originally.  After the First World War, the Aar Valley Railway crossed at Laufenselden the Free State Bottleneck ("Freistaat Flaschenhals"), a strip of land between the American bridgehead of Koblenz and the French bridgehead at Mainz.  After the Second World War, the line was cut between Zollhaus and Kettenbach by the border between the American and French occupation zone. Special passes were required to travel on the trains. Later this became the border between Hesse and Rhineland-Palatinate. From the 1960s on, this line was mainly served by accumulator railcars of class 517, known as "Limburger Zigarre" (Limburg cigars). In addition, the line was served by Silberling carriages, hauled by class 216 diesel locomotives. On 25 September 1983, the last scheduled passenger train ran between Wiesbaden and Bad Schwalbach. On 28 September 1986, the remaining northern section of the line was closed to traffic; at the end it was still used by Uerdingen railbuses.  On 28 December 1985, the Nassauische Touristik-Bahn began operating tourist trains, hauled by steam and diesel locomotives. These trains were based in Dotzheim station and originally operated to Hahn-Wehen. From 28 March 1991, was the line was extended to Bad Schwalbach and from 29 April 1994 to Hohenstein. The operation stopped in May 2007 when a bridge was damaged by the collision of a road vehicle and because of several defective sets of points.

Freight.

The Aar railway was used for the transportation of mining products. The Schaefer lime works in Oberneisen and the Michelbach steelworks ("Michelbacher Hütte") in Kettenbach are located directly on the line. While freight traffic on the Wiesbaden–Bad Schwalbach line was discontinued at the same time as passenger services on 24 September 1983, freight traffic ran from Diez to Bad Schwalbach until 28 December 1990 and traffic to Hohenstein was closed on 1 December 1992. The last train between Kettenbach and the northern end of the line ran on June 1999.  Since 2007, the operation of traffic was resumed between Wiesbaden Ost station and Henkell & Co. (a sparkling wine manufacturer) at the former Landesdenkmal station.

Reactivation plans.

Rhineland-Palatinate.

At the end of August 2008, the "Zweckverband Schienenpersonennahverkehr Rheinland-Pfalz-Nord" (Northern Rhineland-Palatinate Public Transport Association, SPNV-Nord) decided to reactivate the Limburg–Zollhaus section in 2014 with an hourly regional service as part of Rhineland-Palatinate integrated regular interval service ("Rheinland-Pfalz-Takt"). This would form part of the "Rheinland-Pfalz-Takt 2015" concept, which includes the reactivation of disused railway lines. The expected travel time on the 13.7 km long section between Zollhaus and Limburg (including a reversal in Diez) would be 20 minutes and thus only half as long as the existing bus service. A diesel multiple unit would operate a shuttle service on the line. In addition to the reactivation of the existing stations additional stations would be established in Niederneisen, Holzheim and Freiendiez. It was announced in 2011 that the commissioning would be delayed, however, until August 2015. A proposed extension of the reactivated section of line to Michelbach was ruled out for cost reasons, since it would require a second vehicle.

Hesse.

There have been plans since 1998 to restore and electrify the section of the Aar Valley Railway between Bad Schwalbach and Wiesbaden-Dotzheim as part of a proposed Wiesbaden Stadtbahn and building a new line from Dotzheim through the central city to Wiesbaden Central Station ("Hauptbahnhof"), including the option of an extension to Mainz. It was proposed to open the new line by 2005. After local elections in 2001, the majority in the Wiesbaden city council abandoned these plans. However, another election in 2011 has changed the balance in the council and plans for a Stadtbahn have been revived, although the proposed initial stage would not connect to the Aar Valley Railway.

The Aar Valley Railway () is a 53.7 km long line between Wiesbaden, the capital of the German state of Hesse, and Diez in Rhineland-Palatinate. From 1985 to 2007, the southern end was operated as a heritage railway with historic trains. The Hessian part of the line is heritage-listed. Currently, two bridges are unusable and several sets of points are defective and need to be repaired. Its northern end is operated with draisines.

Die Aartalbahn ist eine 53,7 Kilometer lange Eisenbahnstrecke zwischen dem hessischen Wiesbaden und dem rheinland-pfälzischen Diez und steht unter Denkmalschutz. Derzeit wird die Strecke zwischen Wiesbaden Ost und Eiserne Hand instandgesetzt, um wieder Museumsbahnverkehr aufzunehmen.


IBBY History.

In 1952 Jella Lepman organized a meeting in Munich, Germany, called "International Understanding through Children’s Books". Many authors, publishers, teachers and philosophers of the time attended the meeting and as a result a committee was appointed to create the International Board on Books for Young People – IBBY.  A year later in 1953, IBBY was registered as a non-profit organization in Zürich, Switzerland. The founding members included: Erich Kästner, Lisa Tetzner, Astrid Lindgren, Jo Tenfjord, Fritz Brunner, Bettina Hürlimann and Richard Bamberger. IBBY established an international award in 1956 and since then the Hans Christian Andersen Award has continued to be awarded every two years.  IBBY has six key aims:

IBBY Organization.

IBBY was founded in Zurich, Switzerland as a non-profit organization in 1953. Today, it is composed of more than seventy National Sections all over the world. It represents countries with well-developed book publishing and literacy programmes, and other countries with only a few dedicated professionals who are doing pioneer work in children's book publishing and promotion.  IBBY's policies and programmes are determined by its Executive Committee: ten people from different countries and a President, elected biennially by the National Sections at a General Assembly during the IBBY Congresses, held every two years. They work on a voluntary basis. The daily management of IBBY's affairs is conducted from the IBBY Secretariat in Basel, Switzerland.  The National Sections are organized in many different ways and operate on national, regional and international levels. In countries that do not have a National Section, individual membership in IBBY is possible. The membership of the National Sections include authors and illustrators, publishers and editors, translators, journalists and critics, teachers, university professors and students, librarians and booksellers, social workers and parents. Annual dues from the National Sections are IBBY's only source of regular income. Independent financing is necessary to support IBBY activities.  As a non-governmental organization with an official status in UNESCO and UNICEF, IBBY has a policy-making role as an advocate of children's books. IBBY is committed to the principles of the International Convention on the Rights of the Child, ratified by the United Nations in 1990. One of its main proclamations is the right of the child to a general education and to direct access to information. Thanks to IBBY's insistence, the resolution includes an appeal to all nations to promote the production and distribution of children's books.  IBBY also cooperates with many international organizations and children's book institutions around the world and exhibits at the International Children's Book Fair in Bologna and other international book fairs.

IBBY Awards and Activities.

Since its founding in 1953, IBBY has grown in the number of awards and projects it supports and in their geographical spread. All these awards and projects share the goal of encouraging quality children's literature and upholding the right of every child to become a reader.  The most prestigious award in the field of children's literature, the Hans Christian Andersen Award is given biennially to an author and an illustrator whose complete works have made a lasting contribution to children's literature. The IBBY-ASAHI Reading Promotion Award is given biennially to a group or institution whose activities are judged to be making a lasting contribution to reading promotion programmes. IBBY also compiles an IBBY Honour List, published biennially, of recommended works for children by outstanding writers, illustrators and translators from its National Sections.  Each year, an IBBY National Section sponsors the International Children's Book Day, held in the first week of April, on or around the anniversary of Hans Christian Andersen's birthday, 2 April. The day is celebrated to inspire a love of reading and to call attention to children's books.  As part of its belief that every child has the right to become reader, IBBY and its sponsors and donors, provide funding for several reading development projects. The IBBY-Yamada Fund supports projects for reading promotion, establishing libraries, teacher, librarian and parent training as well as workshops for writers, illustrators and editors of children's books.  The IBBY Children in Crisis Fund was established in 2005 to help children affected by natural disasters, civil disorder or war. The Fund seeks donations for projects that replace or create libraries/collections of appropriate children's books and provide bibliography, the therapeutic use of books and storytelling. In the region of Central Asia, the Middle East and North Africa, these activities are funded by the Sharjah/IBBY Fund for Children in Crisis.  IBBY has established several collections of children's books, each with its own emphasis. The largest is the IBBY Documentation Centre of Books for Young People with Disabilities, located at the Toronto Public Library, Toronto. Every two years a selection of Outstanding Books for Young People with Disabilities is compiled and catalogued. The Silent Books collection is a collection of children's books without words, created as a response to the need for books on the Italian island of Lampedusa, the destination for many refugees fleeing North Africa and the Middle East. Together with the IBBY Honour List selection, these collections are available as Exhibitions.  IBBY has also supported the creation of two virtual collections of children's books, Children's Books in Europe, a collection of books in European languages and Books for Africa/Books from Africa highlighting books published in African languages from Africa.  The Jella Lepman Medal, named after the founder of IBBY, was first awarded in 1991 to persons or institutions that have made a significant contribution to children's literature.  USBBY (IBBY in the USA) produces an annual USBBY Outstanding International Books List (the OIB List).

Bookbird.

Bookbird: A Journal of International Children's Literature () is a refereed journal published quarterly by IBBY.

The International Board on Books for Young People (IBBY) is a Swiss non-profit organization committed to bringing books and children together. The headquarters of the IBBY are located in Basel, Switzerland.

International Board on Books for Young People (IBBY), deutsch „Internationales Kuratorium für das Jugendbuch“, ist eine gemeinnützige Organisation zur Förderung der Kinder- und Jugendliteratur mit Sitz in Basel.


Life.

Diebold was born "Laure Mutschler" in Erstein (Alsace-Lorraine, part of the German Empire) to a French patriot family on 10 January 1915. She spent her childhood in Sainte-Marie-aux-Mines where her parents lived from the year 1922. At the end of her studies, just before World War II, she became an administrative assistant in the ""Etablissements Baumgartner"".  In 1940, Mutschler integrated the resistance network "A.V." (which means ""Army of the Volunteers"" in French) of Dr. Bareiss in the annexed Alsace, and, at the same time, became a special agent under the name "Mado" in another resistance network known as "Mithidate". Her secret job led her to host in her home in Alsace escaped war prisoners before helping them to escape to France; but just before Christmas 1941, she had to leave Alsace secretly. She went to Lyon in the free south of France hidden in a locomotive. There, she worked as an administrative assistant in the service which works with refugees from Alsace; and from 1942, she collected information for her resistance network "Mithidate" before encoding them and sending them to London by post mail.  On January 31, 1942, Mutschler was married to Eugène Diebold, who also escaped to Lyon. In July 1942 she was arrested with her husband, but they were released by the Gestapo. They moved to Aix-les-Bains where Mutschler became known only as "Mona".  In September 1942 she was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant of the Free French Forces. She was assigned to the position of private secretary of Jean Moulin. After the arrest of Jean Moulin in 1943, she was sent to Paris to be the secretary of Georges Bidault.  She was arrested again on 23 November 1943 with her husband and sent to Fresnes Prison. She was not tortured because she convinced her Nazi captors that she was just a secretary and not a major figure in the resistance network. Nevertheless, she was sent to the Nazi camp of Schirmeck and between January 1944 and her liberation in April 1945 she was transferred to Auschwitz, Ravensbrück and Buchenwald.  Diebold died suddenly on 17 October 1965 in Lyon and, in accordance with her last wishes, she was buried in her childhood place Sainte-Marie-aux-Mines in Alsace. Today a street in Lyon and a square in Sainte-Marie-aux-Mines are named in her honour.

Laure Diebold, sometimes written Laure Diebolt (10 January 1915 – 17 October 1965) was a high-profile female member of the French Resistance during World War II. She was also the private secretary of Jean Moulin before being arrested then deported from 1943 to 1945 to the Nazi camp of Auschwitz, Ravensbrück and finally Buchenwald. Moreover, she is one of only six female resistants to be awarded the title Compagnon de la Libération.

Laure Diebold, gelegentlich auch Laure Diebolt geschrieben, (* 10. Januar 1915 in Erstein, Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen; † 17. Oktober 1965 in Lyon) war ein wichtiges, profiliertes Mitglied der Résistance während des Zweiten Weltkriegs. Sie war zeitweilig die Privatsekretärin von Jean Moulin, bevor sie 1943 verhaftet und bis 1945 in verschiedenen Konzentrationslagern eingesperrt blieb. Sie war eine von sechs weiblichen Résistantes, die mit dem Ordre de la Libération ausgezeichnet wurden.