Character.

Caliban is half human, half monster. After his island becomes occupied by Prospero and his daughter Miranda, Caliban is forced into slavery. While he is referred to as a calvaluna or mooncalf, a freckled monster, he is the only human inhabitant of the island that is otherwise "not honour'd with a human shape" (Prospero, I.2.283). In some traditions he is depicted as a wild man, or a deformed man, or a beast man, or sometimes a mix of fish and man, a dwarf or even a tortoise.  Banished from Algiers, Sycorax was left on the isle, pregnant with Caliban, and died before Prospero's arrival. Caliban, despite his inhuman nature, clearly loved and worshipped his mother, referring to Setebos as his mother's god, and appealing to her powers against Prospero. Prospero explains his harsh treatment of Caliban by claiming that after initially befriending him, Caliban attempted to rape Miranda. Caliban confirms this gleefully, saying that if he had not been stopped he would have peopled the island with a race of Calibans – ""Thou didst prevent me, I had peopled else this isle with Calibans"" (Act I:ii). Prospero then entraps Caliban and torments him with harmful magic if Caliban does not obey his orders. Resentful of Prospero, Caliban takes Stephano, one of the shipwrecked servants, as a god and as his new master. Caliban learns that Stephano is neither a god nor Prospero's equal in the conclusion of the play, however, and Caliban agrees to obey Prospero again. <poem> Be not afeard; the isle is full of noises Sounds, and sweet airs, that give delight and hurt not. Sometimes a thousand twangling instruments Will hum about mine ears; and sometime voices That, if I then had waked after long sleep, Will make me sleep again; and then in dreaming, The clouds me thought would open, and show riches Ready to drop upon me, that when I waked I cried to dream again. </poem>

Name.

There is a long history of enthusiastic speculation on the name's origin or derivation.  One of the most prominent suggestions concerns Caliban being an anagram of the Spanish word "canibal" (Carib people), the source of "cannibal" in English. The character may be seen as a satire on "Noble cannibal" from Montaigne's "Essays" (A.30, "Of Cannibals"). Also popular has been comparison to "kaliban" or "cauliban" in the Romani language, which mean black or with blackness. The first Romanichal had arrived in England a century before Shakespeare's time.  Since 1889, it has been suggested that Shakespeare may have named Caliban after the Tunisian city Calibia (now called Kelibia) that is seen on maps of the Mediterranean dating to 1529.  Many other, though less notable, suggestions have been made, primarily in the 19th century, including an Arabic word for "vile dog", a Hindu "Kalee-ban" "satyr of Kalee, the Hindoo Proserpine", German "Kabeljau" ("codfish"), etc.

Other works.

In the 1844 preface to his main work, "World as Will and Representation", the philosopher Schopenhauer refers to Hegel as a "spiritual Caliban". In the film "Clash of the Titans", the main antagonist is a character based on Caliban named Kalibos, the evil son of the sea goddess Thetis, transformed by Zeus from a handsome man into a monster as punishment for his malevolence.  In the 1956 science fiction film "Forbidden Planet", Caliban is re-imagined as "the Monster from the Id", a wild and violent monster that is invisible to the naked eye. The monster later turns out to be born of the subconscious of the film's Prospero character, Dr. Morbius, using the advanced technology of the Krell. Like Caliban, the monster ultimately rebels and attempts to kill its master. Captain Adams confronts Dr. Morbius with the fact that he is giving form to his subconscious, and his guilty conscience, from having brought it into existence, finally ends the monster's destructive rampage.  In John Fowles's 1963 novel "The Collector", Miranda refers to her kidnapper as Caliban.  In J.G. Ballard's 1965 novel "The Drought", Lomax refers to Quilter as his Caliban.  In the 1965 movie "Doctor Zhivago", during the scene where Victor Komarovsky convinces Zhivago to allow him to rescue Lara by taking her to Vladivostok, Komarovsky refers to himself as a Caliban: "Do you accept the protection of this ignoble Caliban on any terms that Caliban cares to make?"  Caliban was the central character in James Clouser's rock ballet "Caliban", a 90-minute adaptation of "The Tempest" that was scored with live performances by St. Elmo's Fire. The rock ballet was performed in Houston, Dallas, and Chicago in 1976 and 1977.  Caliban is the name of a character from Marvel comics. He is an albino mutant who lives underground with the Morlocks.  In the Swedish 1989 film "The Journey to Melonia", an animated film loosely inspired by "The Tempest", there is a character named Caliban, a creature whose face consists of mainly vegetables. Unlike Caliban in "The Tempest", this Caliban is kind at heart, and even becomes a hero later in the film.  Caliban is the central character in two works of fiction that act as both re-tellings of and sequels to "The Tempest": "Caliban's Hour" by Tad Williams (HarperCollins, 1994, ) and "Rough Magic" by Caryl Cude Mullin (Second City Press, 2009, ). In both works, Caliban is a more noble character and presented more as Prospero's victim rather than the villain in Shakespeare's play.  Caliban is a supporting character in Grace Tiffany's novel "Ariel" (HarperCollins, 2005, ), another re-telling of "The Tempest"; rather than having a monstrous shape, he grows up to be a handsome teenager, with his only deformity being a twisted left leg, and it is Ariel's cruel illusions and deceptions that make Prospero see him as a monster.  Caliban is featured as an antagonist in Dan Simmons' "Ilium/Olympos" duology (2003, 2005).  Rob Thurman's "Cal Leandros" series (first published 2006) centres around Caliban "Cal" Leandros, a half-human, half-Auphe (a nightmarish monster) hybrid who kills monsters for fun and cash in NYC with his human brother and their sleazy cohort, car-salesman Robin Goodfellow. This Cal struggles for control every day against his monster half, dealing with sarcasm and dark humor.  "Caliban's War" is the title of the second novel of "The Expanse" series, a space opera by James S. A. Corey.  The 2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony (directed by Danny Boyle) titled "Isles of Wonder" (a name inspired by "The Tempest") was heavily influenced by "The Tempest". The musical piece played during the was entitled "Caliban's Dream", and Caliban's monologue from Act 3, Scene ii was quoted by Kenneth Branagh in character as Isambard Kingdom Brunel at the start of the Industrial Revolution set piece. "And I Will Kiss", the title of another specially commissioned track from the ceremony, is also a quote from "The Tempest" (2:2:148-149). These two songs also appeared on the ceremony's official soundtrack. The 2012 Summer Olympics closing ceremony also featured a recitation of the same monologue, this time by Timothy Spall playing Winston Churchill.  In the preface of "The Picture of Dorian Gray", Oscar Wilde muses: "The nineteenth century dislike of Realism is the rage of Caliban seeing his own face in a glass. The nineteenth century dislike of Romanticism is the rage of Caliban not seeing his own face in a glass."  In "The Chilling Adventures of Sabrina", Caliban is a prince of Hell competing for Sabrina's throne, portrayed by Sam Corlett.

Caliban ( ), son of the witch Sycorax, is an important character in William Shakespeare's play "The Tempest". His character is one of the few Shakespearean figures to take on a life of its own "outside" Shakespeare's own work: as Russell Hoban put it, "Caliban is one of the hungry ideas, he's always looking for someone to word him into being... Caliban is a necessary idea".

Caliban ist eine Figur aus William Shakespeares Theaterstück "Der Sturm". Er ist bis zum Ende des Stückes der Sklave des weisen Zauberers Prospero. Caliban ist der Sohn der wegen Zauberei angeklagten und aus Algerien verbannten Sycorax. Diese wurde auf einer Insel, schwanger mit Caliban, zurückgelassen und starb vor Prosperos Ankunft. Caliban weist darauf hin, dass Setebos der Gott seiner Mutter sei. Prospero, der seine Triebe kontrolliert, kann als Inbegriff von Kultur gedeutet werden. Der wilde Caliban (dessen Name ein Anagramm von "canibal" ist) stellt einen Gegensatz zur Kultur dar: Er verkörpert die Natur als ungebildete, triebgesteuerte Energie, „unfähig zu freier Selbstbestimmung und daher wesensmäßig dazu ausersehen, beherrscht und benutzt zu werden – eine Auffassung, die der Unterwerfung »wilder« Völker seit der Renaissance ethische Argumente lieferte“ (vgl. Kindlers Literaturlexikon). Caliban verändert jedoch seinen Charakter während des Stückes und sieht schließlich mit einer antrainierbaren Dienstwilligkeit ein, dass dem Gebieter Prospero der Vorzug vor dem Alkoholiker Stephano zu geben sei.


Family.

Leverson was born into a Jewish family. Her father was Samuel Henry Beddington, a wool merchant, and her mother's name was Zillah.  She had eight younger siblings, one of whom died in infancy. Her living siblings were named Evelyn, George, Charles, Sybil, Frank, Arthur and Violet. Sybil (who later married David Seligman) had a brief affair and long friendship with Giacomo Puccini. Violet (1874–1962) turned down a marriage proposal from composer Arthur Sullivan and later married author Sydney Schiff.  At 19 Ada married Ernest Leverson (1852–1921) without her parents' consent. The marriage broke up when he moved to Canada in 1905. It has been suggested that her trilogy, "The Little Ottleys", is loosely based on her own marriage. Her daughter and biographer, Violet Leverson, married Guy Percy Wyndham in 1923 as his second wife. Her grandson was short story-writer and novelist Francis Wyndham. Ernest Leverson's cousins include actor Darrell Fancourt and, by marriage, actor-playwright Brandon Thomas.

Career.

Leverson began writing during the 1890s, as a contributor to "Black and White", "Punch", "The Yellow Book", "St. Stephen's Review", "Saturday Review", and "Referee". She also worked as a drama critic, though when and what she wrote is unknown. Much of her work cannot be identified because she wrote anonymously, because she frequently befriended the people she parodied and critiqued.  She was known as a wit; her writing has been compared to the work of Max Beerbohm and the stories of "Saki".  She was a loyal friend to Oscar Wilde, who called her "Sphinx;" Max Beerbohm; and George Moore. Osbert Sitwell wrote an anecdote in "Great Morning" in which she tries, unsuccessfully, to get Moore to see the young William Walton. Sacheverell Sitwell dedicated a poetry collection to her, while she was hopelessly in love with Osbert  After publishing "Love at Second Sight", Leverson stopped writing fiction. She worked on ever smaller projects, such as writing the preface to "Whom You Should Marry", a book about astrology.  She spent her later life at the Hotel Porta Rossa in Florence, where she died of pneumonia in 1933.

Friendship with Wilde.

Leverson's friendship with Wilde helped her career to flourish. There was no separation between their personal relationship and their creative collaboration. Their work had many stylistic differences; for example, Leverson had a stronger interest in human nature. But the two shared many similarities; they were from the same cultural background, and they shared interests such as the love of conversation and the sense of fantasy. They quickly became fast friends.  The limits of their friendship were tested when Wilde's homosexuality was exposed and he went on trial. Leverson and her husband invited Wilde to stay in their nursery, because no hotel or inn would accept him as a guest. At her meeting him on a railway platform Wilde remarked "My dear Sphinx- only You would know exactly what to wear at this hour of the morning to greet a friend who has been away". Wilde's and Leverson's other friendships were seriously challenged by Leverson's "grand gesture", which, according to James Scanell, is "the dramatic act of welcoming back an outcast."  After Wilde left the Leversons' home, the two friends never saw each other in person again. Their friendship continued through telegrams and letters. Charles Burkhart believes that it is most fitting for Leverson's last piece of work to be a remembrance of the friend who expanded her career.

Reception.

Leverson's work, though not extremely popular, has been critiqued and analyzed from the 19th century to the present.  Critics disagree on which of her novels is the best, some suggesting "The Limit", others "Tenterhooks", and others "Love at Second Sight". She is often praised for her skilful dialogue and characterization, leading many to believe that she would have excelled in theatre. It is interesting that she never acted upon this beyond a single unfinished play; it is assumed that this is because, for Leverson, writing was a hobby rather than a means of financial security.  One critic in "The Bookman" commented on how her lack of characterization distracted the reader from understanding what "The Twelfth Hour" was about. Dennis Poupard says, "some have found Leverson's characters merely vehicles for her wit, others believe she conveys accomplished characterization deftly and swiftly in the epigrammatic dialogue". John Mason Brown recommended that Leverson's work be read by "those who find laughter no hardship, high comedy a delight, nonsense relaxing, and who are not made uncomfortable by worldlings both comfortable and conscienceless". Margaret Crosland summarized several critics' feelings toward Leverson and reports that she is seen "as a distant descendant of Jane Austen, sensitive to the hidden motives of behavior, ready to laugh at vanity, understanding of married couples, parents, and children, yet seemingly preoccupied with all that was going on in the world outside".  Over the years, her work has been more appreciated. Many readers have realized that her perspective was quite modern for her day. Her views are more accepted in today's society, especially as homosexuality is becoming more socially acceptable.

Portrayal in film.

In the 1960 film "The Trials of Oscar Wilde" she is played by Maxine Audley.  In the 1997 film "Wilde" she is played by Zoë Wanamaker.

Ada Esther Leverson (née Beddington; 10 October 1862 – 30 August 1933) was a British writer who is known for her friendship with Oscar Wilde and for her work as a witty novelist of the fin-de-siècle.

Ada Leverson (* 10. Oktober 1862 in London; † 30. August 1933 in London), geboren als Ada Beddington war eine englische Schriftstellerin. Sie war eine Freundin von Oscar Wilde.


Geography.

Shebaa Farms is an area of about 9 km (5.5 mi) in length, and 2.5 km (1.5 mi) in width, coming to about 22 km2 (8 sq mi; 5,400 acres). It is located about 3 to 12 km (2 to 7.5 mi) southwest of the Lebanese village of Shebaa, and about 5 to 7 km (3 to 4 mi) northwest of the Druze village of Majdal Shams. Shebaa Farms is situated on the southeastern side of a long, broad ridge descending to the southwest from Mount Hermon. The northwestern edge of the area corresponds to the international Lebanese-Syrian border recognized by the United Nations along that ridge. The southeastern edge follows Wadi al-Asal (Nahal Si'on), a 16 km long wadi that flows into Israel, draining a portion of the relatively precipitation-rich Hermon ridge in the northern Golan Heights. These "edges" are connected by the Shebaa Farms' northeastern limit 2.5 km east of IDF military camp at Har Dov as defined by a 2007 UN report.  The same report defines the southwestern limit as a line roughly following the foot of the ridge and starting at just over a kilometer northwest of Banias, then running northwest to the international Lebanon-Syrian border's sharp turning point 3.4 km east of Ghajar and 1.0 km "south of the (Lebanese) village of El Majidiye." This southwestern limit of Shebaa Farms comes within about 1 km of the 1949 Armistice Line, international border between Israeli and Syria. The only overland route between Lebanon and Syria south of the Mount Hermon ridge used to run between these two lines. The small farms in this area have not been used since the Six-Day War. The area includes heights overlooking parts of southern Lebanon and Israel to the west. Elevations range from about 250 to about 1,500 m (825–4,940 ft).

Terminology.

Lebanese press and officials often refer to the northern, higher part of the Shebaa Farms, just southeast of the Lebanese village of Kafr Shuba, as the Kafr Shuba Hills. The wide mountainous ridge in that part is called Jabel Rus (the mountain of the heads) in Arabic.  Israel refers to this northern, higher part as "Har Dov" (Mount Dov) after Dov Rodberg, an IDF officer killed there in 1970.

History.

Both Islamic and Jewish tradition hold that a location in the Sheeba farms, called Maqam 'Ibrahim al-Khalil in Arabic and Makom Habětarim in Hebrew, is the site of Covenant of the pieces, God’s first covenant with Abraham, in the biblical land of Israel.  Documents from the 1920s and 1930s indicate that some local inhabitants regarded themselves as part of Lebanon, but after the French mandate ended in 1946 the land was administered by Syria, and represented as such on maps of the time, including 1949 Armistice Agreement maps and Syrian and Lebanese military maps. Shebaa Farms were then occupied by Israel in the 1967 Six-Day War. According to BBC, Syria agrees with Lebanon that Shebaa farms is part of Lebanon. Syria accepts the Lebanese claim but refuses any binding demarcation.  When Israel captured the Golan Heights in 1967, Shebaa Farms was considered Syrian territory. Lebanon was not an active participant in the war. In 1981 Israel extended Israeli law to the region under its Golan Heights Law. The United Nations Security Council declared this extension of "[Israeli] laws, jurisdiction and administration... null and void and without international legal effect" in Resolution 497, which was not passed with Chapter VII enforcement powers.  A controversy arose following the from Southern Lebanon on 24 May 2000. On 18 June 2000, the United Nations affirmed that Israel had withdrawn its forces from Lebanon, in accordance with Resolution 425. Syria and Lebanon disputed the United Nations certification that Israel's withdrawal from Lebanon was complete. Hezbollah cites the occupation of Shebaa farms as one reason for its continued attacks on Israel.  Between 2000–2005, Hezbollah attacked the IDF at Shebaa/Har Dov 33 times, resulting in seven Israeli soldiers killed in action, three taken prisoner, and dozens wounded.  For decades the international diplomatic community has requested that Syria and Lebanon take steps to determine the exact boundary and officially register the demarcated border with the United Nations. However, President Bashar al-Assad of Syria has refused to do so. On 31 October 2007, the definition of the physical extent of the Shebaa Farms area by former UN cartographer Miklos Pinther was released by the UN. This could be a prelude to an eventual negotiated demarcation of the territory. However, as of October 2013, neither Israel nor Syria had given an official response to the proposal.

Territorial dispute.

The dispute over the sovereignty of Shebaa Farms resulted in part from the failure of the French Mandate administrations, and subsequently the Lebanese and Syrian governments, to demarcate the border between Lebanon and Syria. Documents from the 1920s and 1930s indicate that local inhabitants paid taxes to the Lebanese government, while French officials expressed confusion as to the actual location of the border. One French official in 1939 declared that the uncertainty was sure to cause trouble in the future.  The region continued to be represented in the 1930s and 1940s as Syrian territory, under the French Mandate. Detailed maps showing the border were produced by the French in 1933, and again in 1945. After the French Mandate ended in 1946, the land was administered by Syria and represented as such on maps of the time.  The maps of the 1949 Armistice Agreements between Syria and Israel also designated the area as Syrian. However, border disputes erupted from time to time, also with respect to land ownership in other border villages. Syria and Lebanon formed a joint Syrian-Lebanese border committee in the late 1950s to demarcate a border between the two nations. In 1964, the committee suggested that the area be deemed the property of Lebanon and recommended that the international border be reestablished consistent with its suggestion. However, neither Syria nor Lebanon adopted the committee's suggestion, and neither country took any action along the suggested lines. Thus, maps of the area continued to reflect the area as being in Syria. Even maps of both the Syrian and Lebanese armies continued to demarcate the region within Syrian territory.  A number of local residents regarded themselves as Lebanese but the Lebanese government showed little interest in their views. The Syrian government administered the region, and on the eve of the 1967 war, the region was under effective Syrian control.  In 1967 most Shebaa Farms land owning farmers lived outside the Syrian-controlled region, across the Lebanon-Syrian border, in the Lebanese village of Shebaa. After the Six-Day War, the landowners were no longer able to farm it.

Operation Litani.

In 1978 Israel invaded southern Lebanon in Operation Litani. The UN Security Council passed Resolution 425, calling on Israel "to withdraw forthwith its forces from all Lebanese territory". The phrase "all territory" was used in Resolution 425, in contrast to the language in Resolution 242 (1967), which led to semantic disputes.  On 22 May 2000, Israel completed its withdrawal from southern Lebanon in accordance with Resolution 425. The UN certified the completion of Israel's pullout.<ref name="SC/6878"></ref>

Lebanese claims.

In 2000, Lebanon disputed Israel's compliance with Resolution 425. Lebanon claimed that the Shebaa Farms area was actually Lebanese and demanded that the Israelis should therefore withdraw from there as well. Lebanon asserted that the UN certification of the Israeli withdrawal was "invalid", because of Lebanon's claim to the farms.  Lebanese officials point to land deeds, stamped by the Lebanese government, that were held by a number of area residents in the 1940s and 1950s. The Lebanese claim to this area is asserted by Hezbollah for its hostilities with Israel and its cross-border attacks after the Israeli withdrawal. Senior Lebanese officials also linked the withdrawal of Israeli forces from Shebaa to Hezbollah's disarmament. "If the U.S. and friendly countries help us achieve the withdrawal of Israel from Shebaa farms, this would make it possible for the Lebanese forces to be the sole owner of weapons and arms in the country", Lebanese Prime Minister Fouad Seniora said. Those comments were echoed by Lebanese President Émile Lahoud who said that "the resistance should be kept until a just and comprehensive peace is achieved in the region", adding that "if the Lebanese army were deployed along the borders (with Israel)... it would be turned into a police force to protect Israel's borders, and this is not acceptable."  Walid Jumblatt, a Lebanese Druze politician and leader of the Progressive Socialist Party, stated that Lebanon has no claims to the Shebaa Farms. The prime minister and president stated that Lebanon has a claim to the area. On 28 August 2006, Hezbollah fighters withdrew from positions facing Israeli occupation lines in the Shebaa Farms area.  Maps published on the Lebanese army website show different versions of the Lebanese southern border. The Shebaa Farms are not marked on the maps but it is evident from one map that the border runs north of the Shebaa Farms, while another map marks the border south of the farms.  According to the Arab newspaper, "Al-Hayat", "The issue over these farms was created to justify resistance operations from Lebanon after the UN had created the Blue Line following Israel's withdrawal from Lebanon. The Shebaa farms were placed inside Syrian territory. Syria, which claims that the farms are Lebanese, has not presented a single document to the UN to prove it. Moreover, Syria refuses to demarcate its borders with Lebanon."

Syrian claims.

Syria has at times supported Lebanon's claim that the Shebaa Farms are part of Lebanon and not Syrian territory, at the UN and in official government press releases. But at other times it has made contrary statements. In August 1972, Syrian president Hafez al-Assad said, "Syria and Lebanon are a single country." On 16 May 2000, the Syrian Foreign Minister, Farouq al-Shara, indicated to UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan in a telephone conversation that Syria supported Lebanon's claim. This was made public in the UN Press Release SC/6878 of 18 June 2000 which stated "Concerning the Shab'a farmlands, both Lebanon and Syria state that this land belongs to Lebanon."  However, on 21 January 2006, the President of Syria Bashar al-Assad stated in a speech before the convention of the Arab Lawyers Union in Damascus and translated into English by SANA, the official state news agency of Syria, that there are two legal requirements for demarcating the border: first, the complaint must be registered with the UN; and second, engineers must precisely define the border. As neither Syria nor Lebanon have access to the area, Assad argues that resolution is waiting on Israeli withdrawal from the occupied territory.  In an interview with Assad reported by SANA on 24 August 2006, Assad flatly refused demarcation of the Syrian/Lebanese border near Shebaa Farms before a withdrawal of Israeli troops.  Former Vice President of Syria Abdel-Halim Khaddam, in an interview with the Lebanese Future Television on 27 August 2006, said: "Saying that the farms are occupied, and hence cannot be demarcated, is nothing but a pretext. The demarcation would not take more than an hour if there was a political will."

Israeli claims.

Israel claims that the area is not covered by UN Security Council Resolution 425, which governed Israel's withdrawal from Lebanon, stating that the Farms were not Lebanese territory. In support of that view, Israel points to the fact that the UN certified Israel's pullout from Lebanon as having been completed.  Israel says the land was Syrian when it was captured during the Six-Day War, and the dispute is being used by Hezbollah to continue its attacks on Israel.

US position.

John Bolton, in his former capacity as United States Ambassador to the United Nations, said on 26 April 2006: "I think the overwhelming preponderance of the evidence is that Shebaa Farms is Syrian territory."  In June, 2008, US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice visited Beirut, stating that "the United States believes that the time has come to deal with the Shebaa Farms issue... in accordance with [U.N. Security Council Resolution] 1701."

UN position.

The United Nations certified Israel's pullout under Resolution 425 as conforming to the "withdrawal line" it had laid down in accordance with the maps at its disposal "for the practical purpose of confirming the Israeli withdrawal". At the same time the UN noted that its decision was "without prejudice to future border agreements between the Member States concerned," referring to Israel, Syria, and Lebanon. The UN stated:  In an 18 June 2000 statement, the Security Council noted that Israel and Lebanon had confirmed to the Secretary General, that identification of the withdrawal line was solely the responsibility of the UN and that both sides would respect the line as identified. On a fact-finding visit to the region, Terje Rød-Larsen, the UN special envoy to the Middle East, noted that both 1923 Anglo-French maps and the 1949 Armistice agreement place the area in Syria.  In April 2002, UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, said:  On 20 January 2005, UN Secretary-General's report on Lebanon stated:  The BBC quoted Timur Goksel, then spokesman for the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) as saying that "no-one disputed that the village of Shebaa itself was in Lebanon, but most of the farms fell into an undefined area that may be either in Lebanon or Syria" and although the UN was not a "boundary marking authority [...] on all maps the UN has been able to find, the farms are seen on the Syrian side [of the border]."  In 2006, Terje Rød-Larsen, the UN special envoy on implementation of Resolution 1559, declared that "the Shaba Farms area is not part of Lebanon. Therefore, any Lebanese'resistance' to 'liberate' the area from continued Israeli occupation cannot be considered legitimate."  Following the Israeli war against Hezbollah in 2006, U.N. Security Council Resolution 1701 called for the "Delineation of the international borders of Lebanon, especially in those areas where the border is disputed or uncertain, including in the Shebaa farms area."

Arab League.

The Arab League backed Lebanon's claim with a communique issued at Arab League's 13th session in 2001, asking for "complete Israeli withdrawal from all occupied Palestinian territory, including Jerusalem, from the occupied Syrian Golan Heights to the line of 4 June 1967 and from the remaining occupied Lebanese territory up to the internationally recognized borders, including the Shab`a farmlands".

Research findings.

In 2002, Asher Kaufman of the Harry S. Truman Research Institute at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, discovered previously unknown documents in French government archives. In one, French litigants in a private dispute entered into a private commercial agreement that suggested that the border should put the Farms in Lebanon. Two other documents, from 1937 and 1939, were reports from the administrative councilor of south Lebanon and the head of the Services Spéciaux in the Syrian town of Quneitra. They noted a discrepancy between the border, as determined by the 1:200,000 Ottoman map, and their view of the "reality" in the region. Collecting "unofficial information" from "various sources," they concluded that in their view the area was Lebanese. Their conclusion was based on the facts that: a) some area residents paid taxes to Lebanon; and b) three or four sheep pens in the Farms belonged to residents of the Lebanese village of Shaba.  In a book published in 1988, Moshe Brawer, an Israeli geographer, mentions two French maps published in 1932 and 1946, the former shows the farm area as being part of Lebanon while the latter shows the area as a Syrian territory.

Other people's opinions.

Former US president Jimmy Carter suggested in "the Washington Post" on 1 August 2006, that: "Israel should withdraw from all Lebanese territory, including Shebaa Farms."  Walid Jumblatt, a Lebanese Druze politician and leader of the Progressive Socialist Party, stated that Lebanon has no claims to the Shebaa Farms.

Shebaa Farms, also spelled Sheba'a Farms (, "";, "Havot Sheba‘a" or הר דוב, "Har Dov") is a small strip of disputed land at the intersection of the Lebanese-Syrian border and the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights. The territory is about long and wide.

Die Schebaa-Farmen (, hebräisch חוות שבעא "Chawot Scheb'a") sind ein seit 1967 von Israel besetztes kleines, politisch umstrittenes Gebiet an der Grenze zwischen dem Libanon, Israel und Syrien. Es umfasst 14 seit 1967 nicht mehr existierende Bauernhöfe südlich des libanesischen Dorfes Schebaa (Aardatâ, Al-Aqareb Jouret, Al-Mouloul Marah, Al-Roubaa, EL-Dhimmi Beit, Fashkûl, Kfardûmâ, Khallet Ghazâale, Mughr Shab'â, Mazra'at Qafwâ, Ramthâ und Zebdîn). In dem Gebiet befinden sich auch einige militärische Außenposten Israels (Nahal Si'on, Har Dow, Ziwanit). Das unumstrittene libanesische Dorf Schebaa selbst gehört nicht zum Gebiet der Schebaa-Farmen.


Life.

Early years.

He was born into a Swiss Calvinist family in Unter-Embrach. His father, Johann Ulrich Ganz, was a cantor teacher. His mother, Katharina Remi, died when he was just 10 years old. He was the oldest son out of nine children.

Escher Wyss AG.

Because of financial difficulties he had to work as a carpenter's apprentice, but before his liberation he went to Zurich to work at the foundry of Escher Wyss AG as a casting apprentice. At the age of twenty he travelled a lot in Germany, France, Austria and Italy, and worked in different factories where he gathered experience. In 1841 he arrived in Buda where he was involved in the construction of the Szechenyi Mill.

István Széchenyi initiated the building of a steam mill in Buda, and he established the Josef Rollmill Company ("József Hengermalom Társulat"). Ábrahám Ganz started to work there as a mechanic. He saw that there was a lack of good iron industry experts in the quickly developing Hungarian manufacturing industry. Soon, he became the first casting master of the foundry of the steam mill. The foundry could achieve, with the new technology of indirect casting, very pure casts which made it easier to combine different metals. The finished casts were introduced to the public at the first Hungarian Industrywork Exhibition ("Magyar Iparmű Kiállítás") in 1842. Their special combination and purity was praised even by Lajos Kossuth. After that Ganz was nominated to be the head of the foundry and the machine repairing yard. In the same year he gave a job to his brother, Konrád Ganz, who was also a casting master.  In 1843, while he was working in the foundry, the cast splashed out. He became blind in one of his eyes. According to some sources he said then:

Ganz Works.

The management of the steam mill paid a share of the profit to Ganz. This enabled him to buy, in 1844, land and a house for 4500 Forints in Víziváros. He built his own foundry on this site and started to work there with seven assistants. They made mostly casting products for the needs of the people of the city. In 1845, he bought the neighbouring site and expanded his foundry with a cupola furnace. He gave his brother, Henrik a job as a clerk, because of the growing administration work. He made a profit in the first year, and his factory grew, even though he had not yet engaged in mass production. In 1846, at the third Hungarian Industrywork Exhibition ("Magyar Iparmű Kiállítás"), he introduced his stoves to the public. He won the silver medaille of the exhibition committee and the bronze medaille from Archduke Joseph, Palatine of Hungary.  During the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 to 1849 the foundry made ten cannons and many cannonballs for the Hungarian army. Because of this, the Military Court of Austria impeached him. He got seven weeks in prison as penalty, but because of his Swiss citizenship he was acquitted of the charge.  Ganz recognized that, to develop his factory, he had to make products that were mass-produced. In 1846 the Pest-Vác railway line was built. At that time, European foundries made wrought iron rims for spoked wagon wheels by pouring the casts in shapes in sand, and leaving them to cool down. Meanwhile, in the United States and England a better method was being used. This was chill casting, which was invented by the Englishman John Burn in 1812. The essence of this process is to cool the cast faster. The metal will then be harder, and have better wear-resistance. This is possible if the casting frame is made of a good heat conductor. Ganz made one for the first time in 1853 and he was able to improve the method further by using antimony. He got a patent for this invention in 1856.  Ganz describes thus the essence of his process:  He used antimony for covering the inner surface of the mold casting to separate the fluid iron from the cooling iron. This was the source of his success. Between 1852 and 1862 he built and ran Europe's first, and for a long time only, crust wheel foundry. His customers were Austro-Hungarian, German, French and Russian railway companies. Because of the large number of orders his foundry proved to be too small, so he built a new factory in 1858.  Between 1853 and 1866 his company delivered 86,074 wheels to 59 railway companies. Ganz also bought an English patent, the invention of Ransomes and Biddel, which concerned parts for rail switches. He improved this also, and got two patents in 1861 and in 1865. Between 1860 and 1866, his company delivered 6,293 crust cast rail switch parts to railway companies. The company did not only produce parts for railways. They also made parts for bridges (e.g. most of the Lánchíd's cast iron cross beams and the molding pieces of the Szeged Bridge in Szeged), as well as crust cast notched cylinders for the mill industry. Later the company achieved world-famous success with this product, under the leadership of András Mechwart.  The number of employees at Ganz Works was 60 in 1854, 106 in 1857 and 371 in 1867. The daily production was 2-3 tonnes of casts (with 50-60 wheels). The products of the company obtained international recognition: at the World's Fairs in Paris (three bronze medals Exposition Universelle (1855)), in London (bronze medaile 1862 International Exhibition) and, at the Swiss Industrywork Exhibition, a silver medal in 1867.

Personal life.

On the 24 October 1849 he married Jozefa Heiss, the daughter of the city judge of Buda, Laurentius Heiss. They could not have their own children, so they adopted two related orphan girls, Anna Pospech and Jozefina Ganz.  He was nominated honorary citizen of Buda by the city council on 4 September 1863. In 1865 the emperor, Francis Joseph I, personally expressed his highest appreciation to Ábrahám Ganz. On the 23 November 1867 they celebrated the production of the hundredth wheel, made by chill casting, and Ganz gave a dinner for all his employees and their families. During his life he spent a lot of money for social purposes. In his company he uniquely opened a retirement fund and a patient fund.  He kept his Swiss citizenship. There is no evidence that he learned or could speak any Hungarian. He spoke with his family in German, and the employees of his factory spoke with him in German also.

Death.

In his last years he worked a lot, but was not happy with his life. He saw all his brothers going crazy and he was convinced that he would have the same future. After the death of his brother, Konrád, he committed suicide on 15 December 1867. His ashes were buried in the Kerepesi Cemetery. In 1872, Miklós Ybl built him a mausoleum. After the death of his widow in 1913, they both lie there forever.

Legacy.

He is considered to be one of the pioneers of Hungarian heavy industry. With his works he contributed a lot to the development of the Hungarian casting and machine manufacturing industry.  After the death of Ábrahám Ganz, András Mechwart continued his plans and managed the company. With his leadership, under the name of Ganz & Co. Foundry and Machine Manufacturing Inc. ("Ganz és Társa Vasöntöde és Gépgyártó Rt."), it became the most significant group of companies in Hungary. It was active in the machine, vehicle and electrical manufacturing industries with world-famous inventions and technical solutions.  In the original foundry production stopped in 1964 and the building, with all the objects left, became the Foundry Museum ("Öntödei Múzeum"). The building is, since 1997, under monument protection.

Ábrahám Ganz (born as Abraham Ganz, 6 November 1814, Unter-Embrach, Switzerland - 15 December 1867, Pest, Austria-Hungary) was a Swiss-born Hungarian iron manufacturer, machine and technical engineer, entrepreneur, father of Ganz Works. He was the founder and the manager of the company that he made the flagship of the Hungarian economy in the 19th century. Despite his early death in 1867 the company remained one of the strongest manufacturing enterprise in Austria-Hungary. Many famous engineers worked at Ganz Works inter alia Károly Zipernowsky, Ottó Bláthy, Miksa Déri, András Mechwart, Kálmán Kandó, Donát Bánki, János Csonka and Theodore von Kármán and several world-famous inventions were done there, like the first railway electric traction, or the invention of the roller mill, the carburetor, the transformer and the Bánki-Csonka engine.

Ábrahám Ganz (* 6. November 1814 oder 24. November 1815 in Unter-Embrach, Schweiz; † 15. Dezember 1867 in Pest, Österreich-Ungarn) war ein aus der Schweiz stammender und dort aufgewachsener, in Ungarn im damaligen Kaisertum Österreich tätiger Großindustrieller.


Basic profile.

The design principles of ISO general-purpose metric screw threads ("M" series threads) are defined in international standard ISO 68-1. Each thread is characterized by its major diameter, "D" ("D" in the diagram), and its pitch, "P". ISO metric threads consist of a symmetric V-shaped thread. In the plane of the thread axis, the flanks of the V have an angle of 60° to each other. The thread depth is 0.614 × pitch. The outermost and the innermost of the height "H" of the V-shape are cut off from the profile.  The relationship between the height "H" and the pitch "P" is found using the following equation where "θ" is half the included angle of the thread, in this case 30 degrees:  or  In an external (male) thread (e.g., on a bolt), the major diameter "D" and the minor diameter "D" define "maximum" dimensions of the thread. This means that the external thread must end flat at "D", but can be rounded out below the minor diameter "D". Conversely, in an internal (female) thread (e.g., in a nut), the major and minor diameters are "minimum" dimensions; therefore the thread profile must end flat at "D" but may be rounded out beyond "D".  The minor diameter "D" and effective pitch diameter "D" are derived from the major diameter and pitch as

Designation.

A metric ISO screw thread is designated by the letter M followed by the value of the nominal diameter "D" (the maximum thread diameter) and the pitch "P", both expressed in millimetres and separated by the hyphen sign, "-" (e.g., M8-1.25). If the pitch is the normally used "coarse" pitch listed in ISO 261 or ISO 262, it can be omitted (e.g., M8). The length of a machine screw or bolt is indicated by a following "x" and the length expressed in millimetres (e.g., M8-1.25x30 or M8x30). Tolerance classes defined in ISO 965-1 can be appended to these designations, if required (e.g., M500– 6g in external threads).  External threads are designated by lowercase letter, g or h. Internal threads are designated by upper case letters, G or H.

Preferred sizes.

ISO 261 specifies a detailed list of preferred combinations of outer diameter "D" and pitch "P" for ISO metric screw threads. The 1st choice column follows (approximately) the R10 series from ISO 3, while the 2nd choice column are rounded off values from the R20 series from ISO 3.  ISO 262 specifies a shorter list of thread dimensions – a subset of ISO 261.  The “coarse” pitch is the commonly used default pitch for a given diameter. In addition, one or two smaller “fine” pitches are defined, for use in applications where the height of the normal “coarse” pitch would be unsuitable (e.g., threads in thin-walled pipes). The terms “coarse” and “fine” have (in this context) no relation to the manufacturing quality of the thread.  In addition to coarse and fine threads, there is another division of extra fine, or “superfine” threads, with a very fine pitch thread. Superfine pitch metric threads are occasionally used in automotive components, such as suspension struts, and are commonly used in the aviation manufacturing industry. This is because extra fine threads are more resistant to coming loose from vibrations. Fine and superfine threads also have a greater minor diameter than coarse threads, which means the bolt or stud has a greater cross-sectional area (and therefore greater load-carrying capability) for the same nominal diameter.

Spanner (wrench) sizes.

Below are some common spanner (wrench) sizes for metric screw threads. Hex head widths (width across flats, spanner size) are for DIN 934 hex nuts and hex head bolts. Other (usually smaller) sizes may occur for reasons of weight and cost reduction.

The ISO metric screw threads are the most commonly used type of general-purpose screw thread worldwide. They were one of the first international standards agreed when the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) was set up in 1947.

Das metrische ISO-Gewinde ist ein weltweit standardisiertes Gewinde mit metrischen Abmessungen und 60° Flankenwinkel. Es ersetzt die leicht abweichenden älteren metrischen Gewinde, vor allem aber die meisten Gewinde mit Zoll-Abmessungen (von den wenigen noch verwendeten zölligen Gewinden ist das bekannteste das Whitworth-Gewinde mit 55°-Flankenwinkel).


Geography.

The village is located in a major tourist area between Costa de los Pinos and Cala Murada. Its small bay opens to the southeast and seems almost closed on the right, by a large rock called Es Morro de Sa Carabassa. At its end, a lighthouse built in 1851 rises. The slope called Punta d'Es Pelats partially closes the pier of Port de Manacor/Porto Cristo and a stretch of sea rises a quarter mile west juts and twists later, at a right angle, in north direction prolonging itself some three hundred meters more. This hardly navigable area constitutes the last primitive vestige of the port, which has been gradually blinded by the alluvial lands, now converted into fords and small orchards, at the end of the depression, which reaches about two kilometers, The height of the Caves of the Hams, was the pier during the Roman domination.  By road is communicated from north to south by 4 routes:

Tourism.

Porto Cristo remains a modern but unspoilt all year round location. Though in no way a primary tourist destination in Mallorca, Port de Manacor/Porto Cristo promotes itself as a quiet resort and tries to encourage foreign visitors. The main tourist attractions are two sets of caves, the larger Coves del Drach and the Coves dels Hams. To improve the traffic flow in the main tourist season a by pass road around Porto Cristo has now been opened. This new road connects the PMV 4023 to the MA 4020 and MA 4014. The name Port de Manacor/Porto Cristo, meaning "The Port of Manacor/The Port of Christ" given to it back in 1260 AD at the time of the Christian invasion of Mallorca, A fishing boat was found washed up on the beach containing a crucifix. Legend has it that an ox was carrying an icon of God through the town, and the ox stopped and refused to walk anymore. Hence the people saw this as a sign and the name was derived from that belief it was a clear sign that Christ wanted to be here.  What sets Port de Manacor/Porto Cristo apart from most of the other Mallorcan resorts is that its income is not solely dependant on tourism; Port de Manacor/Porto Cristo still maintains its functions as a Spanish fishing village. Its larger municipality, Manacor, is the centre of the pearl manufacturing industry on Mallorca.  Port de Manacor/Porto Cristo Harbour is a natural harbour which still shelters small fishing boats from storms. The addition in recent years of the new marina now provides moorings to high-end pleasure boats. The mix of the new and the old has been done tastefully, as Porto Cristo seeks to ensure it retains its heritage.  Port de Manacor/Porto Cristo is a quiet town perfect for a stroll along the main front or a romantic meal overlooking the breathtaking ocean. Crime is rare in Port de Manacor/Porto Cristo and it has a very active police presence ensuring it retains its reputation as a safe place to visit on the island.

Residents.

The professional tennis player, Rafael Nadal, has a family holiday home in Port de Manacor/Porto Cristo.

Port de Manacor is a small town on the eastern coast of Mallorca. It is from the town of Manacor and is within the Manacor municipality.

Porto Cristo („Christushafen“), auch "Port de Manacor" oder "Es Port" genannt, ist ein vom Tourismus geprägter Ort auf der spanischen Baleareninsel Mallorca. Er liegt an der Ostküste der Insel in der Region (Comarca) Llevant. Porto Cristo gehört zum Gemeindegebiet der im Inselinneren gelegenen Stadt Manacor. Der Ort hat 7355 Einwohner (Stand: 2011), wovon 607 außerhalb des eigentlichen Siedlungskerns, aber in unmittelbarer Nähe wohnen. Damit leben in Porto Cristo etwa 18 % der Einwohner des Gemeindegebietes.


Orbit and classification.

When applying the synthetic hierarchical clustering method (HCM) by Nesvorný, or the 1995 HCM-analysis by Zappalà, "Algunde" is a member of the Flora family (), a giant asteroid family and the largest family of stony asteroids in the main-belt. However, according to another HCM-analysis by Milani and Knežević (AstDys), it is a background asteroid as this analysis does not recognize the Flora asteroid clan. "Algunde" orbits the Sun in the inner asteroid belt at a distance of 2.0–2.5 AU once every 3 years and 4 months (1,224 days; semi-major axis of 2.24 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.11 and an inclination of 4° with respect to the ecliptic. The body's observation arc begins at Heidelberg Observatory on 12 March 1920, two nights after its official discovery observation.

Naming.

This minor planet was named "Algunde", after a female name picked from the "Lahrer Hinkender Bote", published in Lahr, southern Germany. A "Hinkender Bote" (lit. "limping messenger") was a very popular almanac, especially in the alemannic-speaking region from the late 17th throughout the early 20th century. The calendar section contains feast days, the dates of important fairs and astronomical ephemerides. For 30 January, the calendar gives "Algunde" as the German name day analogue next to "Adelgunde" and "Martina", the protestant and catholic entries in the calendar of saints, likely referring to Saint Aldegonde and Martina of Rome.

Reinmuth's "calendar names".

As with 22 other asteroids – starting with 913 Otila, and ending with 1144 Oda – Reinmuth selected names from this calendar due to his many asteroid discoveries that he had trouble thinking of proper names. These names are not related to the discoverer's contemporaries. Lutz Schmadel, the author of the "Dictionary of Minor Planet Names" learned about Reinmuth's source of inspiration from private communications with Dutch astronomer Ingrid van Houten-Groeneveld, who worked as a young astronomer at Heidelberg.

Physical characteristics.

In the Tholen classification, "Algunde" is a common stony S-type asteroid. It is also an S-type in the Bus–DeMeo taxonomy and in the Tholen-like taxonomy of the Small Solar System Objects Spectroscopic Survey (S3OS2). Only in the SMASS-like taxonomy of the S3OS2, "Algunde" is an Sl-subtype asteroid that transitions between the S-type and the uncommon L-type.

Rotation period.

In March 2007, a rotational lightcurve of "Algunde" was obtained from photometric observations by Slovak astronomers Adrián Galád and Leonard Kornoš at Modra Observatory. Lightcurve analysis gave a well-defined rotation period of hours with a low brightness amplitude of magnitude, indicative of a spherical rather than elongated shape (). Between 2008 and 2018, numerous follow-up observations by other astronomers confirmed the period of 3.31 hours with brightness variation maxima between 0.11 and 0.17.

Diameter and albedo.

According to the survey carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE), "Algunde" measures () and () kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of () and (), respectively. The "Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link" takes Petr Pravec's revised WISE data with an albedo of 0.2055 and a diameter of 12.45 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 11.86. Another publication by the WISE team gives a mean-diameter of () kilometers and an albedo of ().

929 Algunde ("prov. designation:" "or" ), is a stony Flora asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, that measures approximately in diameter. It was discovered by German astronomer Karl Reinmuth at the Heidelberg-Königstuhl State Observatory on 10 March 1920. The S-type asteroid has a short rotation period of 3.3 hours and is likely spherical in shape. It was named "Algunde", a common German female name unrelated to the discoverer's contemporaries, that was taken from the almanac "Lahrer Hinkender Bote".

(929) Algunde ist ein Asteroid des Hauptgürtels, der am 10. März 1920 von dem deutschen Astronomen K. Reinmuth in Heidelberg entdeckt wurde.


Early life.

Alvensleben was born on May 19, 1902, in Wittenmoor (now part of Stendal) to Ludolf Udo von Alvensleben (1852–1923) and Ida, née von Glasenapp (1866–1924). He was taught in various convent schools at Magdeburg in Brandenburg an der Havel and passed his Abitur in 1921 at the Klosterschule Roßleben. After four years of practical training he commenced studies in agriculture, forestry, and law in Eberswalde and Munich.  In 1927, Alvensleben married Cora von Erxleben and started to work at his wife's country estates at Tankow-Seegenfelde in the district of Friedeberg and at Dertzow in the district of Soldin, New March, in 1929. In 1936, he bought the forested estate of Viarthlum, in the district of Rummelsburg (now Miastko), Farther Pomerania. Alvensleben by now had two daughters, born in 1934 and 1936, and was a Knight of Justice of the Order of Saint John as well as a deeply religious Christian.

Military service.

In 1939, Alvensleben became an Officer of the German Wehrmacht, earning the rank of Captain, and served in Poland, France, Russia, Africa, and Italy. He was wounded in 1941 in Russia and received various decorations, including the Wound Badge, the Infantry Assault Badge, and the Iron Cross 1st Class. His wife committed suicide at the arrival of the Soviet Red Army in Tankow-Seegenfelde on 29 January 1945.  In late April 1945, a group of 140 high-status prisoners were transferred to Tyrol, guarded by SS troops. A delegation from the prisoners contacted senior German army officers, made known the identity of the high-status prisoners, and conveyed the apprehension that those prisoners were to be executed. A regular German army unit under the command of Captain von Alvensleben moved in to protect the prisoners. Outnumbered, the SS guards moved out, leaving the prisoners behind. The prisoners were then set free, with the majority taking sanctuary for a time in Pragser Wildsee until the arrival of U.S. troops.

After the war.

In autumn 1945, Alvensleben was released from U.S. custody and started to work as a transport operator in a sugar refinery in Nörten-Hardenberg. In August 1946, Alvensleben married Astrid von Brand (widowed von Brockdorff-Ahlefeldt) and in 1952 he became an administrator of the von Brockdorff estate Ascheberg near Plön. In 1956, Alvensleben was involved with "Diakonisches Werk", a charity organisation of the Lutheran Church at Rendsburg. He retired in 1974 and died on 14 August 1982, in Ascheberg.

Wichard von Alvensleben (May 19, 1902 – August 14, 1982) was a German agriculturist, Wehrmacht Officer, and Knight of the Order of Saint John. Alvensleben was the commander of Wehrmacht troops stationed in April 1945 at Bozen, whence he led his troops to liberate the prisoners being held by the SS at Tyrol.

Wichard von Alvensleben (* 19. Mai 1902 in Wittenmoor; † 14. August 1982 in Ascheberg (Holstein)) war ein deutscher Landwirt und Förster. Er befreite 1945 als deutscher Offizier prominente SS-Geiseln in Südtirol.


Description.

Due to the number of uses for the word praetorium, describing can be difficult. A praetorium could be a large building, a permanent tent structure, or in some cases even be mobile.

Exterior.

Since the praetorium originated as the officer's quarters it could be a tent, but was often a large structure. The important design aspect of the praetorium is not symmetry, but rather proportion of one element to another. The Praetorium was constructed around two open courts, which correspond to the atrium and peristyle of the Roman house. Most praetoriums had areas surrounding them delegated for exercise and drills conducted by the troops. The area ahead of the camp would be occupied by the tents housing the commander's soldiers. They were made with brick, covered in plaster, with many arches and columns.

Interior.

Within the praetorium Roman officers would be able to conduct official business within special designed and designated areas. A Praetorium would normally display information regarding the sportulae (schedule of fees and taxes) of its region carved directly into the walls of its main public areas. This would often be located near the office of the financial procurator.

Biblical reference.

In the New Testament, praetorium refers to the palace of Pontius Pilate, the Roman prefect of Judea, which is believed to have been in one of the residential palaces built by Herod the Great for himself in Jerusalem, which at that time was also the residence of his son, king Herod II. According to the New Testament, this is where Jesus Christ was tried and condemned to death. Praetorium is variously translated as "common hall", "governor's house", "judgment hall", "Pilate's house", or "palace". (see Gospel of John 18:28, Mark 15:16) As well, Paul was held in Herod's Praetorium.

References.

Notes

The Latin term'— or'or — originally signified a general's tent within a Roman castrum, castellum, or encampment. It derived from the name of one of the chief Roman magistrates, the praetor. (Latin, "leader") was originally the title of the highest-ranking civil servant in the Roman Republic, but later became a position directly below the rank of consul.

Ein Praetorium ( "praitōrion", eingedeutscht Prätorium) war in der Römischen Republik ursprünglich das Zelt des Befehlshabers in einem Legionslager. Man kann hierbei erkennen, dass ursprünglich der Prätor den Oberbefehl innehatte. Wurde ein Marschlager errichtet, wurde als erstes ein Platz für das Praetorium gesucht (Polybios 6,27), das die zentrale Stelle eines Lagers einnahm. Flankiert wurde das Zelt von einem offenen Markt und dem Zelt des Quästors. Straße und Tor, die dem Zelt am nächsten waren, nannte man "via praetoria" und "porta praetoria".


Early life.

After studying law briefly in Warsaw he went to the Kraków Academy of Fine Arts, where his teachers included Jan Stanislawski and Jozev Mehoffer. Moving to Paris in 1903, he spent a short time at the Académie Julian under Jules Lefebvre. The first time a painting of his was shown in a major exhibition was at the Salon d'Automne in 1905, and over the next quarter-century his work was shown in many other important exhibitions, in particular at the Salon des Indépendants and the Salon des Tuileries.  He drew cartoons for satirical journals, as he had earlier in Poland. In Paris he needed to earn his own living, and also took on other drawing and illustration work. In the cafés of Montmartre and Montparnasse he got to know Apollinaire, Braque, Degas, Picasso and many more artists and writers. It was Apollinaire who suggested Markus' French name, Marcoussis, after a village not far from Paris.

Cubist epoch.

Impressionism influenced his early paintings, but from about 1911 he was part of the Cubist movement alongside other avant-garde painters like Picasso, Braque, Juan Gris and those of the Section d'Or. His work was shown in exhibitions in many European cities and in the US. In 1925 he had his first solo exhibition in Paris. As well as painting still lifes and musical instruments in the Cubist manner, he also produced portraits, views of Paris, and images from the Breton seaside.  In 1913 he had married Alice Halicka, a painter who came from Kraków. Their daughter Malène was born in 1922. Marcoussis served in a Polish company of the French Foreign Legion from 1914–1919. He became a French citizen, while also staying in touch with Poland, both personally and professionally. He did not generally talk about his Jewish ancestry, and his family had converted to Catholicism, but today Marcoussis is often described as a Jewish artist.

Later life.

From 1930 onwards, much as his friend Clément Serveau, he concentrated on printmaking and illustration, including work inspired by Apollinaire's "Alcool", Tzara's "Indicateur des chemins de cœur", and Éluard's "Lingères légères" and "Aurélia". In the late 1930s Marcoussis collaborated with Spanish surrealist Joan Miró and taught him etching techniques, culminating in Miró's Black and Red Series, now in the collection of the Museum of Modern Art. He also taught at the Académie Schlaefer.  After Nazi troops arrived in Paris in 1940, Marcoussis and Alice moved to Cusset near Vichy. He died there on 22 October 1941.  (List from )

Louis Marcoussis, formerly Ludwik Kazimierz Wladyslaw Markus or Ludwig Casimir Ladislas Markus, (1878 or 1883, Łódź – October 22, 1941, Cusset) was a painter and engraver of Polish origin who lived in Paris for much of his life and became a French citizen.

Louis Marcoussis (* 14. November 1878 in Warschau; † 22. Oktober 1941 in Cusset, Frankreich; eigentlich "Ludwig Kasimir Ladislas Marcus") war ein französischer Graphiker und Maler jüdischer Herkunft aus Polen. Er ist dem Kubismus zuzuordnen.


History.

The municipality is situated in wooded rolling moraine landscape, created during the last Ice Age, about 160,000 years ago.  In Plasmolen the remains of a Roman villa from the 2nd century AD were found and on the banks of the Meuse are the remains of a Roman bridge. These remains are from the 4th century.  The Mookerheide ("Mook Heath"), situated on the border of Mook, saw the Battle of Mookerheyde in 1574 which was fought as part of the Eighty Years War. Spanish forces under Sancho d'Avila defeated the rebel forces of Louis of Nassau, who was killed.  The "Mookerschans" and "Heumense schans" were defenses on the "Mookerheide" probably from the 17th century. The historical "Mookerheideschans" (defense work) has been restored and offers a beautiful view over the Meuse valley.  Middelaar belonged to Overkwartier (Upper Quarter) of Guelders or Upper Guelders. During the War of the Spanish Succession Middelaar was occupied by Prussian troops, and it remained German for about a century (until 1814).  In the Second World War a fierce battle raged around this area. In May 1940 the invaders were stopped by large bunkers on the Brabant-side of the Meuse, the railway bridge between Mook and Katwijk was blown up. In September 1944 Mook, Plasmolen and Middelaar were in the front area and the war caused much devastation. While under fire of German guns that were shooting from the woods near Groesbeek, allied soldiers had to secure the Heumen bridge over the Maas-Waal canal that was an important hub for operation Market Garden. Fierce fighting caused the front to move so the little village, of which most houses were shot in this period, was liberated to fall back in German hands, to be liberated again. Soldiers killed in this vicinity during World War II found their final resting place in Mook War Cemetery Most inhabitants of Mook and Middelaar sought refuge elsewhere until the liberation.  To support the cement industry, sand was dug out in the fields next to the river Maas (known as 'Cuyksesteeg') which consequently lead to the forming of the Mookerplassen recreational lakes, between Middelaar and the Mookerheide. After a couple of floodings in the 80's and 90's a removable lock was built to save the area from flooding again.

Public transport.

Mook and the municipality is served by three bus lines and has its own train station, Mook-Molenhoek railway station.

Mook en Middelaar (, ) is a municipality in the upper southeastern part of the Netherlands, at the northern tip of the province of Limburg and is a part of Stadsregio Arnhem Nijmegen. The municipality is located about 100 km from provincial capital Maastricht and has an area of of which is water.

Mook en Middelaar () ist eine Gemeinde im äußersten Norden der niederländischen Provinz Limburg. Im Westen grenzt die Gemeinde an die Provinz Noord-Brabant. Die Gemeinde Mook en Middelaar besteht aus den Ortschaften Middelaar, Molenhoek (teilweise), Mook und Plasmolen. Sitz der Gemeindeverwaltung ist Mook. Durch die Gemeinde verläuft der Maas-Niederrheinpfad.


Details.

The Born rule states that if an observable corresponding to a self-adjoint operator formula_1 with discrete spectrum is measured in a system with normalized wave function formula_2 ("see" Bra–ket notation), then  In the case where the spectrum of formula_4 is not wholly discrete, the spectral theorem proves the existence of a certain projection-valued measure formula_22, the spectral measure of formula_4. In this case,  Given a wave function formula_26 for a single structureless particle in position space, implies that the probability density function formula_27 for a measurement of the position at time formula_28 is

History.

The Born rule was formulated by Born in a 1926 paper. In this paper, Born solves the Schrödinger equation for a scattering problem and, inspired by Einstein's work on the photoelectric effect, concludes, in a footnote, that the Born rule gives the only possible interpretation of the solution. In 1954, together with Walther Bothe, Born was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for this and other work. John von Neumann discussed the application of spectral theory to Born's rule in his 1932 book.

Interpretations.

Within the Quantum Bayesianism interpretation of quantum theory, the Born rule is seen as an extension of the standard Law of Total Probability, which takes into account the Hilbert space dimension of the physical system involved. In the ambit of the so-called Hidden-Measurements Interpretation of quantum mechanics the Born rule can be derived by averaging over all possible measurement-interactions that can take place between the quantum entity and the measuring system. It has been claimed that Pilot wave theory can also statistically derive Born's law. While it has been claimed that Born's law can be derived from the many-worlds interpretation, the existing proofs have been criticized as circular. Kastner claims that the transactional interpretation is unique in giving a physical explanation for the Born rule.

The Born rule (also called the Born law, Born's postulate, Born's rule, or Born's law) is a key postulate of quantum mechanics which gives the probability that a measurement of a quantum system will yield a given result. In its simplest form, it states that the probability density of finding a particle at a given point is proportional to the square of the magnitude of the particle's wavefunction at that point. It was formulated by German physicist Max Born in 1926.

Die bornsche Wahrscheinlichkeitsinterpretation oder bornsche Regel (vorgeschlagen 1926 von Max Born), ist als Interpretation der quantenmechanischen Wellenfunktion ein wesentlicher Bestandteil der Kopenhagener Interpretation der Quantenmechanik. Sie beschreibt, mit welcher Wahrscheinlichkeit bei der Durchführung einer Messung an einem Quantensystem ein bestimmter Messwert auftritt. In ihrer ursprünglichen Formulierung besagt sie, dass die Wahrscheinlichkeitsdichte, das Teilchen an einem bestimmten Punkt zu finden, proportional zum Betragsquadrat der Wellenfunktion des Teilchens an diesem Punkt ist.


History.

Today's Bausparkasse Schwäbisch Hall AG was founded in 1931 in Cologne as a German building society AG, construction savings and debt relief fund by members of the local Chamber of Crafts. After the transfer of the business office to Berlin in 1936, the German Central Cooperative Fund and most of the Central Commercial Funds participated in the company, which was meanwhile called "Gesellschaft für zweitstelligen Grundkredit", "Deutscher Bausparer Aktiengesellschaft". In 1941 the "Volksbanks" followed, since then it was called "Bausparkasse der deutschen Volksbanken".  The company headquarter was bombed out in 1943, 1944 the operation together with the rescued business documents was moved to Schwäbisch Hall. The decision to retain this city as a corporate seat was made in 1947. At that time the creation of new housing was important, which was promoted from 1952 with the housing subsidy by the state. Since the conversion into the common mortgage lending institute of the "Volksbanks" and the "Raiffeisenverband" in 1956, the enterprise bears the name Bausparkasse Schwäbisch Hall AG. 1970 the last name changes to Bausparkasse Schwäbisch Hall AG, "Bausparkasse der Volksbanken und Raiffeisebanken" took place.  As a result of the fall of the Berlin wall, the company was able to extended its business to the new federal states in 1990. The legal change in the year 1991 caused that for the first-time own holding companies could be established abroad. Branches in Luxembourg and France and subsidiaries in Slovakia, the Czech Republic, Romania, Hungary and the China were founded.

Bausparkasse Schwäbisch Hall AG is a building society in Germany, active abroad with subsidiaries in Eastern Europe and China. It has more than 10 million customers. Shareholders are the cooperative central bank DZ Bank (96.8 percent) in Frankfurt am Main and around 600 cooperative banks. The building society has its headquarters in the city of Schwäbisch Hall in Baden-Württemberg.

Die Bausparkasse Schwäbisch Hall AG ist mit über 7 Millionen Kunden die größte Bausparkasse in Deutschland. Im Ausland ist Schwäbisch Hall mit Beteiligungsgesellschaften in Osteuropa und China aktiv. Als Bausparkasse und Dienstleister für das private Baufinanzierungsgeschäft der etwa 900 Genossenschaftsbanken in Deutschland ist Schwäbisch Hall seit der Unternehmensgründung 1931 fest im genossenschaftlichen Bankensektor verankert. Anteilseigner sind die genossenschaftliche Zentralbank DZ Bank, Frankfurt am Main sowie rund 600 Genossenschaftsinstitute. Die Bausparkasse hat ihren Hauptsitz in der gleichnamigen Stadt Schwäbisch Hall in Baden-Württemberg.


Orbit and classification.

"Buda" is a non-family asteroid of the main belt's background population when applying the hierarchical clustering method to its proper orbital elements. It orbits the Sun in the inner asteroid belt at a distance of 2.1–2.8 AU once every 3 years and 11 months (1,421 days; semi-major axis of 2.47 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.15 and an inclination of 13° with respect to the ecliptic. The body's observation arc begins at Heidelberg Observatory with its official discovery observation on 30 November 1918.

Naming.

This minor planet was named after Buda, the smaller part of the Hungarian capital city of Budapest (the larger part being Pest). It is located on the west bank of the Danube River. The asteroid's citation was mentioned in "The Names of the Minor Planets" by Paul Herget in 1955 ().

Physical characteristics.

In the Bus–Binzel SMASS classification, "Buda" is an uncommon L-type, while in the Bus–DeMeo taxonomy, it is a D-type asteroid.

Rotation period and poles.

In March 2009, a rotational lightcurve of "Buda" was obtained from photometric observations by Brian Warner at his Palmer Divide Observatory in Colorado. Analysis gave a classically shaped bimodal lightcurve with a rotation period of hours and a brightness variation of magnitude (). This supersedes a period determination by French amateur astronomer Laurent Bernasconi from January 2005, who determined a period of hours with an amplitude of magnitude (). Observations by Julian Oey in 2015 gave two similar periods ().  In 2016, a modeled lightcurve using photometric data from various sources of an international collaboration of astronomers, rendered a concurring sidereal period of and two spin axes of (40.0°, 5.0°) and (225.0°, 16.0°) in ecliptic coordinates (λ, β).

Diameter and albedo.

According to the survey carried out by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, the Japanese Akari satellite, and the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE), "Buda" measures (), () and () kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of (), () and (), respectively. The "Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link" derives an albedo of 0.1509 and calculates a diameter of 24.33 kilometers based on an absolute magnitude of 10.74. Alternative mean-diameter measurements published by the WISE team include () and () with corresponding albedos of () and ().

908 Buda ("prov. designation": "or" ) is a background asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately in diameter. It was discovered by German astronomer Max Wolf at the Heidelberg Observatory on 30 November 1918. The uncommon L-type asteroid has a rotation period of 14.6 hours. It was named after Buda, the smaller part of the Hungarian city of Budapest.

(908) Buda ist ein Asteroid des Hauptgürtels, der am 30. November 1918 vom deutschen Astronomen Max Wolf in Heidelberg entdeckt wurde.