Structure.

The nuclear envelope is made up of two lipid bilayer membranes. An inner nuclear membrane and an outer nuclear membrane. These membranes are connected to each other by nuclear pores. Two sets of intermediate filaments provide support for the nuclear envelope. An internal network forms the nuclear lamina on the inner nuclear membrane. A looser network forms outside to give external support.

Outer membrane.

The outer nuclear membrane also shares a common border with the endoplasmic reticulum. While it is physically linked, the outer nuclear membrane contains proteins found in far higher concentrations than the endoplasmic reticulum. All four nesprin proteins (nuclear envelope spectrin repeat proteins) present in mammals are expressed in the outer nuclear membrane. Nesprin proteins connect cytoskeletal filaments to the nucleoskeleton. Nesprin-mediated connections to the cytoskeleton contribute to nuclear positioning and to the cell’s mechanosensory function. KASH domain proteins of Nesprin-1 and -2 are part of a LINC complex (linker of nucleoskeleton and cytoskeleton) and can bind directly to cystoskeletal components, such as actin filaments, or can bind to proteins in the perinuclear space. Nesprin-3 and-4 may play a role in unloading enormous cargo; Nesprin-3 proteins bind plectin and link the nuclear envelope to cytoplasmic intermediate filaments. Nesprin-4 proteins bind the plus end directed motor kinesin-1. The outer nuclear membrane is also involved in development, as it fuses with the inner nuclear membrane to form nuclear pores.

Inner membrane.

The inner nuclear membrane encloses the nucleoplasm, and is covered by the nuclear lamina, a mesh of intermediate filaments which stabilizes the nuclear membrane as well as being involved in chromatin function and entire expression. It is connected to the outer membrane by nuclear pores which penetrate the membranes. While the two membranes and the endoplasmic reticulum are linked, proteins embedded in the membranes tend to stay put rather than dispersing across the continuum. It is lined with a fiber network called the nuclear lamina which is 10-40 nm thick and provides strength.  Mutations in the inner nuclear membrane proteins can cause several nuclear envelopathies.

Nuclear pores.

The nuclear envelope is punctured by thousands of nuclear pores, large hollow protein complexes about 100 nm across, with an inner channel about 40 nm wide. They link the inner and outer nuclear membranes.

Cell division.

During the G2 phase of interphase, the nuclear membrane increases its surface area and doubles its number of nuclear pore complexes. In eukaryotes, such as yeast, which undergo closed mitosis, the nuclear membrane stays intact during cell division. The spindle fibers either form within the membrane, or penetrate it without tearing it apart. In other eukaryotes (animals as well as plants), the nuclear membrane must break down during the prometaphase stage of mitosis to allow the mitotic spindle fibers to access the chromosomes inside. The breakdown and reformation processes are not well understood.

Breakdown.

In mammals, the nuclear membrane can break down within minutes, following a set of steps during the early stages of mitosis. First, M-Cdk's phosphorylate nucleoporin polypeptides and they are selectively removed from the nuclear pore complexes. After that, the rest of the nuclear pore complexes break apart simultaneously. Biochemical evidence suggests that the nuclear pore complexes disassemble into stable pieces rather than disintegrating into small polypeptide fragments. M-Cdk's also phosphorylate elements of the nuclear lamina (the framework that supports the envelope) leading to the disassembly of the lamina and hence the envelope membranes into small vesicles. Electron and fluorescence microscopy has given strong evidence that the nuclear membrane is absorbed by the endoplasmic reticulum—nuclear proteins not normally found in the endoplasmic reticulum show up during mitosis.  In addition to the breakdown of the nuclear membrane during the prometaphase stage of mitosis, the nuclear membrane also ruptures in migrating mammalian cells during the interphase stage of the cell cycle. This transient rupture is likely caused by nuclear deformation. The rupture is rapidly repaired by a process dependent on "endosomal sorting complexes required for transport" (ESCRT) made up of cytosolic protein complexes. During nuclear membrane rupture events, DNA double-strand breaks occur. Thus the survival of cells migrating through confined environments appears to depend on efficient nuclear envelope and DNA repair machineries.  Aberrant nuclear envelope breakdown has also been observed in laminopathies and in cancer cells leading to mislocalization of cellular proteins, the formation of micronuclei and genomic instability.

Reformation.

Exactly how the nuclear membrane reforms during telophase of mitosis is debated. Two theories exist—

Origin of the nuclear membrane.

A study of the comparative genomics, evolution and origins of the nuclear membrane led to the proposal that the nucleus emerged in the primitive eukaryotic ancestor (the “prekaryote”), and was triggered by the archaeo-bacterial symbiosis. Several ideas have been proposed for the evolutionary origin of the nuclear membrane. These ideas include the invagination of the plasma membrane in a prokaryote ancestor, or the formation of a genuine new membrane system following the establishment of proto-mitochondria in the archael host. The adaptive function of the nuclear membrane may have been to serve as a barrier to protect the genome from reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced by the cells' pre-mitochondria.

The nuclear envelope, also known as the nuclear membrane, is made up of two lipid bilayer membranes which in eukaryotic cells surrounds the nucleus, which encases the genetic material.

Als Kernhülle oder auch Kernmembran bezeichnet man die Doppelmembran des Zellkerns einer eukaryotischen Zelle. Die Membran gleicht in ihrem Aufbau aus einer Doppelschicht von Phospholipiden der Zellmembran und umschließt den perinukleären Raum. Die Außenmembran ist von Ribosomen besetzt und geht an einigen Stellen in das endoplasmatische Retikulum (ER) über, sodass dieser perinukleäre Spalt das Kernlumen und das ER miteinander verbinden. An die innere Membran grenzt zum Kerninnern hin eine 30–100 nm dicke Schicht von intermediären Lamin-Filamenten (nuclear lamina). Sie stabilisieren den Zellkern, dienen als Fixierung für die Chromatinfäden und werden während der Mitose ab- und wieder aufgebaut. In der Kernhülle befinden sich zahlreiche Kernporen, die für den kontrollierten Austausch großer Moleküle zwischen dem Kern- und Zellplasma sorgen. An diesen Stellen verbinden sich die äußere und innere Kernmembran und die Pore wird von einem Ring von 8 Untereinheiten eingefasst, die mit einem speichenartigen Fortsatz in die Pore hineinragen. Im Zentrum sitzt dann ein „Stopfen“ (plug), der den Stofftransport kontrolliert. Die Pore hat einen Durchmesser von 10 nm und kann sich bis zu 26 nm aufdehnen. Moleküle mit einer Molmasse von über 60.000 Dalton können die Pore nicht passieren. Das verhindert, dass Ribosomen in den Kern gelangen können.


Early life.

Williams was the only child of Frederick Williams, who was originally from England, and Charlotte Rhodes, who hailed from St. John's, Newfoundland. At the age of 15, Williams suffered from rheumatic fever and was advised to avoid strenuous physical activities. However, as his high school required participation in athletic competitions, he started training in sprint in 1924 and by 1927 became a local champion.

Olympic competition.

At the 1928 Olympic trials, Williams won the 100 and 200 metres races, equaling the Olympic 100 metres record of 10.6 seconds.  To earn his travel ticket for the trials, Wiliams and his volunteer coach, Bob Granger, worked as waiters and dishwashers in a dining car, and Vancouver track fans raised the money to pay Granger's transatlantic ship passage to the 1928 Olympics.  In the second round of the 100 metres at Amsterdam, Williams again equaled the Olympic record with a time of 10.6 seconds and did the same in his semi-final, but placed second to Bob McAllister. The final opened with two false starts, first by Wilfred Legg and then one by Frank Wykoff. Williams took the lead off the start and never relinquished it, winning the gold over Jack London with Georg Lammers third. Williams then won the 200 metres two days later, coming from behind to overtake Helmut Körnig, who had led out of the bend. It was Williams' eighth race in four days and he was the first non-American to complete the sprint double. Williams was also part of the Canadian team which was disqualified in the final of the 4×100 metre relay contest.  Williams's victories were front-page news in Canada and he returned a national hero, feted by enormous crowds across the country. An estimated 25,000 people turned out to welcome him at the Canadian Pacific Railway station at the foot of Granville Street in Vancouver. Williams was met off the train by Mayor L. D. Taylor and Premier Simon Fraser Tolmie. They bundled him and Granger into cars and paraded them through the confetti-filled city. The event was broadcast live by reporters with microphones stationed along the route.  Williams showed that his success was not an accident, setting a World Record at the Canadian Track and Field Championships at Varsity Stadium in Toronto in 1930. He then won the 100 yard dash at the inaugural British Empire Games (now known as the Commonwealth Games) in Hamilton, Ontario, but tore the tendons in his upper left leg around the 70 yard mark and never made a full comeback. At the 1932 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, he was eliminated in the semi-finals of the 100 metre event. With the Canadian team he finished fourth in the 4×100 metre relay competition. Subsequently, Williams stopped running and became an insurance agent.

Later life and death.

In August 1940, Williams joined the Non-Permanent Active Militia, his occupation listed as "Salesman" and religion as "C of E" (Church of England). He also served as a civilian pilot during World War II, ferrying aircraft around the country for Canadian Airways, then became a civilian flight instructor for the Royal Canadian Air Force.  In 1971, after his former mentor's death, Williams was asked how much credit was due to Granger for his Olympic success. "Offhand, I'd say 100 percent," Williams answered.  In 1980, he donated his two gold medals from the 1928 Olympics to the BC Sports Hall of Fame, saying that he wanted them to be seen and remembered. Within weeks they were stolen. It was said at the time that Williams simply shrugged off the loss and no replacements were ever issued.  In later years, Williams grew bitter about his sporting experiences, culminating in being the only living Canadian Olympic gold medalist who refused the federal government's invitation to the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal.  In 1979, he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada.  Williams, who never married, stayed with his mother until her death in 1980, at the age of 92. After that, he lived alone and suffered from arthritic pain. A keen collector of guns, Williams shot himself in the head with a gun he had been awarded in 1928 as a prize for his Olympic feat. His suicide was a surprise to everyone and no note was left. He was interred at Masonic Cemetery of British Columbia, Burnaby, Canada.

Awards and Recognition.

In 1950, Williams was proclaimed by a Canadian press poll as Canada's greatest track athlete of the first half of the century. They updated that in 1972 to declare him Canada's all-time greatest Olympic athlete.  Percy Williams Junior Public School located in Scarborough, Ontario, was named after Williams.  In 1996, Canada Post released a postage stamp of Percy Williams as part of its "Sporting Heroes" series.  Outside the BC Sports Hall of Fame at BC Place is a life-sized statue of Williams, crouched in a sprinter's stance.

David Ben-Gurion ( ; ; born David Grün; 16 October 1886 – 1 December 1973) was the primary national founder of the State of Israel and the first Prime Minister of Israel. He was the preeminent leader of the Jewish community in British Mandate Palestine from 1935 until the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, which he led until 1963 with a short break in 1954-55.

David Ben-Gurion,, Aussprache (geboren als "David Grün" am 16. Oktober 1886 in Płońsk, damals Kongresspolen, Russisches Kaiserreich; gestorben am 1. Dezember 1973 in Ramat Gan, Israel) rief mit der Verkündung der israelischen Unabhängigkeitserklärung am 14. Mai 1948 den modernen Staat Israel aus. Er war dessen erster Ministerpräsident.


Economic definitions.

In economics, "factor income" is the return accruing for a person, or a nation, derived from the "factors of production": rental income, wages generated by labor, the interest created by capital, and profits from entrepreneurial ventures.  In consumer theory 'income' is another name for the "budget constraint," an amount formula_1 to be spent on different goods x and y in quantities formula_2 and formula_3 at prices formula_4 and formula_5. The basic equation for this is This equation implies two things. First buying one more unit of good x implies buying formula_7 less units of good y. So, formula_7 is the "relative" price of a unit of x as to the number of units given up in y. Second, if the price of x falls for a fixed formula_1 and fixed formula_10 then its relative price falls. The usual hypothesis, the law of demand, is that the quantity demanded of x would increase at the lower price. The analysis can be generalized to more than two goods.  The theoretical generalization to more than one period is a multi-period wealth and income constraint. For example, the same person can gain more productive skills or acquire more productive income-earning assets to earn a higher income. In the multi-period case, something might also happen to the economy beyond the control of the individual to reduce (or increase) the flow of income. Changing measured income and its relation to consumption over time might be modeled accordingly, such as in the permanent income hypothesis.

Full and Haig–Simons income.

"Full income" refers to the accumulation of both the monetary and the non-monetary consumption-ability of any given entity, such as a person or a household. According to what the economist Nicholas Barr describes as the "classical definition of income" (the 1938 Haig–Simons definition): "income may be defined as the... sum of (1) the market value of rights exercised in consumption and (2) the change in the value of the store of property rights..." Since the consumption potential of non-monetary goods, such as leisure, cannot be measured, monetary income may be thought of as a proxy for full income. As such, however, it is criticized for being unreliable, "i.e." failing to accurately reflect affluence (and thus the consumption opportunities) of any given agent. It omits the utility a person may derive from non-monetary income and, on a macroeconomic level, fails to accurately chart social welfare. According to Barr, "in practice money income as a proportion of total income varies widely and unsystematically. Non-observability of full-income prevent a complete characterization of the individual opportunity set, forcing us to use the unreliable yardstick of money income.

Income growth.

Income per capita has been increasing steadily in most countries. Many factors contribute to people having a higher income, including education, globalisation and favorable political circumstances such as economic freedom and peace. Increases in income also tend to lead to people choosing to work fewer hours. Developed countries (defined as countries with a "developed economy") have higher incomes as opposed to developing countries tending to have lower incomes.

Income inequality.

Income inequality is the extent to which income is distributed in an uneven manner. It can be measured by various methods, including the Lorenz curve and the Gini coefficient. Many economists argue that certain amounts of inequality are necessary and desirable but that excessive inequality leads to efficiency problems and social injustice.  National income, measured by statistics such as net national income (NNI), measures the total income of individuals, corporations, and government in the economy. For more information see Measures of national income and output.

Income in philosophy and ethics.

Throughout history, many have written about the impact of income on morality and society. Saint Paul wrote 'For the love of money is a root of all kinds of evil:' ( (ASV)).  Some scholars have come to the conclusion that material progress and prosperity, as manifested in continuous income growth at both the individual and the national level, provide the indispensable foundation for sustaining any kind of morality. This argument was explicitly given by Adam Smith in his "Theory of Moral Sentiments", and has more recently been developed by Harvard economist Benjamin Friedman in his book "The Moral Consequences of Economic Growth".

Accountancy.

The International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) uses the following definition: "Income is increases in economic benefits during the accounting period in the form of inflows or enhancements of assets or decreases of liabilities that result in increases in equity, other than those relating to contributions from equity participants." [F.70] (IFRS Framework).  According to John Hicks' definitions, income "is the maximum amount which can be spent during a period if there is to be an expectation of maintaining intact, the capital value of prospective receipts (in money terms)”.

History.

John Hicks used "I" for income, but Keynes wrote to him in 1937, ""after trying both, I believe it is easier to use Y for income and I for investment."" Some consider Y as an alternative letter for the phonem I in languages like Spanish, although Y as the "Greek I" was actually pronounced like the modern German ü or the phonetic /y/.

Income is the consumption and saving opportunity gained by an entity within a specified timeframe, which is generally expressed in monetary terms.

Einkommen bezeichnet die einer natürlichen oder juristischen Person in einem bestimmten Zeitraum als Geld oder Sache zufließenden Leistungen. Umgangssprachlich spricht man bei natürlichen Personen auch vom "Verdienst," bei juristischen Personen hingegen vom Gewinn oder "Überschuss."


Structure.

The two "Helios" probes look very similar. "Helios-A" has a mass of, and "Helios-B" has a mass of. Their scientific payloads have a mass of on "Helios-A" and on "Helios-B". The central bodies are sixteen-sided prisms in diameter and high. Most of the equipment and instrumentation is mounted in this central body. The exceptions are the masts and antennae used during experiments and small telescopes that measure the zodiacal light and which emerge from the central body. Two conical solar panels extend above and below the central body, giving the assembly the appearance of a diabolo or spool of thread.  At launch, each probe was tall with a maximum diameter of. Once in orbit, the telecommunications antennae unfolded on top of the probes and increased the heights to. Also deployed upon achieving orbit were two rigid booms carrying sensors and magnetometers, attached on both sides of the central bodies, and two flexible antennae used for the detection of radio waves, which extended perpendicular to the axes of the spacecraft for a design length of each.  The spacecraft spin around their axes, which are perpendicular to the ecliptic, at 60rpm.

Power.

Electrical power is provided by solar cells attached to the two truncated cones. To keep the solar panels at a temperature below when in proximity to the Sun, the solar cells are interspersed with mirrors, covering 50% of the surface and reflecting part of the incident sunlight while dissipating the excess heat. The power supplied by the solar panels is a minimum of 240watts when the probe is at aphelion. Its voltage is regulated to 28volts DC, and the energy is stored on an 8Ah silver-zinc battery. The batteries were only used during launch.

Thermal control.

The biggest technical challenge faced by the designers was the heat that the probe was subject to when close to the Sun. At from the Sun, approximate heat flow is 11 solar constants, (11 times the amount of received heat in Earth orbit), or 22.4 kW per exposed square meter. Under these conditions, the temperature of the probe can then reach. The solar cells, and the central compartment of instruments had to be maintained at much lower temperatures. The temperature of the solar cells could not exceed, while the central compartment had to be maintained between. These restrictions required the rejection of 96 percent of the heat received from the Sun. The conical shape of the solar panels is one of the measures that was taken to reduce the flow of heat. By tilting the solar panels with respect to sunlight arriving perpendicularly to the axis of the probe, a greater proportion of the solar radiation is reflected. Furthermore, "second surface mirrors" specially developed by NASA cover the entire central body and 50 percent of the solar generators. These are made of fused quartz, with a silver film on the inner face, which is itself covered with a dielectric material. For additional protection, multi-layer insulationconsisting of 18 layers of Mylar or Kapton (depending on location), held apart from each other by small plastic pins intended to prevent the formation of thermal bridgeswas used to partially cover the core compartment. In addition to these passive devices, the probes used an active system of movable louvers arranged in a shutter-like pattern along the bottom and top side of the compartment. The opening thereof is controlled separately by a bimetal spring whose length varies with temperature and causes the opening or closing of the shutter. Resistors were also used to help maintain a temperature sufficient for certain equipment.

Telecommunications system.

The telecommunication system uses a radio transceiver, whose power could be adjusted between 0.5 and 20 watts. Three antennas were overlaid on top of each probe. A high-gain antenna (23 dB), used to emit a top brush of 5.5° on either side of elliptical and 14° wide, a medium-gain antenna (3 dB for transmission and 6.3 dB for reception) emits a signal in all directions of the ecliptic plane at the height of 15°, and a dipole antenna (0.3 dB transmission and 0.8 dB for reception). The low-gain horn antenna was located under the center of the probe to allow for an adapter that connected the probe to the launch vehicle. To be directed continuously toward Earth, the high-gain antenna is kept in rotation by a motor at a speed that counterbalances exactly the body of the probe. Synchronizing the speed is performed using data supplied by a Sun sensor. The maximum data rate obtained with the large antenna gain was 4096 bits per second upstream. The reception and transmission of signals were supported by the Deep Space Network network antennas on Earth.

Attitude control.

To maintain orientation during the mission, the spacecraft rotated continuously at 60 RPM around its main axis. The orientation control system then started making corrections to the speed and orientation of the probe's shafts. To determine its orientation, Helios used a crude Sun sensor. Guidance corrections were performed using cold gas thrusters (7.7 kg nitrogen) with a boost of 1Newton. The axis of the probe was permanently maintained, both perpendicular to the direction of the Sun and the ecliptic plane.

On-board computer and data storage.

The onboard controllers were capable of handling 256 commands. The mass memory could store 500 kb, (this was a very large memory for space probes of the time), and was mainly used when the probes were in superior conjunction relative to the Earth (i.e. the Sun comes between the Earth and the spacecraft). The conjunction could last up to 65 days.

Experiments and instruments.

Both "Helios" probes had ten scientific instruments.

Mission.

Helios-A.

"Helios-A" was launched on December 10, 1974, from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 41 in Cape Canaveral, Florida. This was the first operational flight of the Titan IIIE rocket. The rocket's test flight had failed when the engine on the upper Centaur stage did not light, but the launch of "Helios-A" was uneventful.  The probe was placed in a heliocentric orbit of 192 days with a perihelion of from the Sun. Several problems affected operations. One of the two antennas did not deploy correctly, reducing the sensitivity of the radio plasma apparatus to low-frequency waves. When the high-gain antenna was connected, the mission team realized that their emissions interfered with the analyzer particles and the radio receiver. To reduce the interference, communications were carried out using reduced power, but this required using the large diameter terrestrial receivers already in place thanks to other space missions in progress.  During the first perihelion in late February 1975, the spacecraft came closer to the Sun than any previous spacecraft. The temperature of some components reached more than, while the solar panels reached, without affecting probe operations. During the second pass on September 21, however, temperatures reached, which affected the operation of certain instruments.

Helios-B.

Before "Helios-B" was launched, some modifications were made to the spacecraft based on lessons learned from the operations of "Helios-A". The small engines used for attitude control were improved. Changes were made to the implementation mechanism of the flexible antenna and high gain antenna emissions. The X-ray detectors were improved so that they could detect gamma ray bursts and allowing them to be used in conjunction with Earth-orbiting satellites to triangulate the location of the bursts. As temperatures on "Helios-A" were always greater than below the design maximum at perihelion, it was decided that "Helios-B" would orbit even closer to the Sun, and the thermal insulation was enhanced to allow the satellite to resist 15 percent higher temperatures.  Tight schedule constraints pressed on the "Helios-B" launch in early 1976. Facilities damaged during the launch of the "Viking 2" spacecraft in September 1975 had to be repaired, while the Viking landing on Mars in summer 1976 would make the Deep Space Network antennas that "Helios-B" would need to conduct its perihelion science unavailable.  "Helios-B" was launched on January 10, 1976, using a Titan IIIE rocket. The probe was placed in an orbit with a 187-day period and a perihelion of. The orientation of "Helios-B" with respect to the ecliptic was reversed 180 degrees compared to "Helios-A" so that the micrometeorite detectors could have 360 degree coverage. On April 17, 1976, "Helios-B" made its closest pass of the Sun at a record heliocentric speed of. The maximum recorded temperature was higher than measured by "Helios-A".

End of operations.

The primary mission of each probe spanned 18 months, but they operated much longer. On March3, 1980, four years after its launch, the radio transceiver on "Helios-B" failed. On January7, 1981, a stop command was sent to prevent possible radio interference during future missions. "Helios-A" continued to function normally, but with the large-diameter DSN antennae not available, data was collected by small diameter antennae at a lower rate. By its 14th orbit, "Helios-A"'s degraded solar cells could no longer provide enough power for the simultaneous collection and transmission of data unless the probe was close to its perihelion. In 1984, the main and backup radio receivers failed, indicating that the high-gain antenna was no longer pointed towards Earth. The last telemetry data was received on February10, 1986.

Results.

Both probes collected important data about the processes that cause solar wind and acceleration of the particles that make up the interplanetary medium and cosmic rays. These observations were made over a ten-year period from solar minimum in 1976 to a solar maximum in the early 1980s.  The observation of the zodiacal light has established some of the properties of interplanetary dust present between 0.1AU and 1AU from the Sun, such as their spatial distribution, color and polarization. It has been established that the powder was more sensitive to gravitational forces and electromagnetic forces. The amount of dust was observed up to 10 times around the Earth. Heterogeneous distribution was generally expected due to the passage of comets, but observations have not confirmed this. The probe instruments detected dust near the Sun showing that, despite the sunshine is still present in distance 0.09 AU.  "Helios" also allowed an increase in data to be collected on comets, observing the passage of C/1975 V1 (West) in 1976, C/1978 H1 (Meir) in November 1978 and C/1979 Y1 (Bradfield) in February 1980. During the last probe, instruments observed a disturbance wind solar which translated later by a break in the comet's tail. The plasma analyzer showed that the acceleration phenomena of the high-speed solar wind were associated with the presence of coronal holes. This instrument also detected, for the first time, the helium ions isolated in the solar wind. In 1981, during the peak of solar activity, the data collected by "Helios-A" at a short distance from the Sun helped complete visual observations of coronal mass ejections performed from the Earth's orbit. Data collected by magnetometers two probes "Helios" supplemented with interplanetary probes "Pioneer" and "Voyager" were used to determine the direction of the magnetic field at staggered distances from the Sun.  The radio and plasma wave detectors were used to detect radio explosions and shock waves associated with solar flares, usually during solar maximum. The cosmic ray detectors studied how the Sun and interplanetary medium influenced the spread of the same rays, of solar or galactic origin. The gradient of cosmic rays, as a function of distance from the Sun, was measured. These observations, combined with those made by "Pioneer11" between 1977 and 1980 on the outside of the solar system (12–23AU from the Sun) produced good modelling of this gradient. The GRBs "Helios-B" detector identified 18 events during the first three years of operation of the instrument, whose source can, for some, be identified with the help of searches made by satellites orbiting the Earth. Some features of the inner solar corona were measured during occultations. For this purpose, either a radio signal was sent from the spacecraft to Earth or the ground station sent a signal that was returned by the probe. Changes in signal propagation resulting from the solar corona crossing provided information on density fluctuations.

Current status.

As of 2020, the probes are no longer functional, but still remain in their elliptical orbits around the Sun.

Helios-A and Helios-B (also known as and ) are a pair of probes that were launched into heliocentric orbit to study solar processes. As a joint venture of West Germany's space agency DLR (70 percent share) and NASA (30 percent share) the probes were launched from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida, on December10, 1974, and January15, 1976, respectively. As built by the main contractor, Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm, they were the first space probes built outside the United States and the Soviet Union to leave Earth's orbit.

Die Helios-Raumsonden waren ein Gemeinschaftsprojekt der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und der Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika zur Erforschung der Sonne. Es wurden zwei Raumsonden gestartet. Ende 1974 startete die Erste und Anfang 1976 die Zweite.


Historical background.

The Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor had disputed over the precedence of ecclesiastical or secular power since the spread of the Gregorian Reforms in the 11th century. When Gregory VII, acclaimed Pope by the people of Rome in 1073, attempted to enact reforms to the investiture process by his "Dictatus papae" decree, he was met by resistance from Henry IV. The king insisted that he reserve the traditionally established right of previous emperors to "invest" bishops, abbots and other clergymen, despite the papal decree.  The conflict became increasingly severe, after Henry had been able to suppress the Saxon Rebellion in the Battle of Langensalza in June 1075. In September he installed a new Bishop of Milan, which annoyed Gregory, who openly required obedience. Shortly afterwards the Pope became the target of an assassination attempt during the 1075 Christmas celebrations. On 24 January 1076, Henry assembled several German bishops in a synod at Worms, where the ecclesiastical dignitaries abandoned all commitments to the Pope. The king finally demanded Gregory's abdication, referring to the rules of papal election according to the "In nomine Domini" bull of 1059.  In response, Gregory excommunicated and deposed Henry in the Lenten synod of 1076 at Rome. He stated furthermore that, one year from that day, the loss of kingship would become irrevocable.

Journey.

Gregory had also declared the oaths of allegiance sworn by the Princes null and void, which turned out to be more dangerous to Henry's rule, as the development met the interests of several territorial rulers in the Empire. When in October the Patriarch of Aquileia and the papal legate met with German princes at Trebur, they swore an oath not to recognize Henry unless the ban was lifted within a year. Fearing further rebellion among the German aristocracy, Henry felt he had to get rid of his excommunication. He was still popular among the common people, but the princes were threatening to elect a new king. He had to secure his position in the church before the rapidly approaching deadline given by the pope.  On the suggestion of his adversaries, he arranged to meet with the Pope, who had set out along the path across the Alps towards Augsburg. Henry commenced his trip in Speyer and, travelling southward down the Rhine, he found his position precarious. As the Swabian nobles refused to open the way to the Alpine passes, the king had to move through Burgundy and cross the Alps at steep Mont Cenis. According to the chronicles by Lambert of Hersfeld, Henry, his wife Bertha of Savoy, and their young son Conrad risked their lives by crossing the Alpine crest in harsh mid-winter conditions. After a long journey, they reached Gregory's accommodation in Canossa on 25 January 1077.

At the castle.

When Henry reached Matilda's castle, the Pope ordered that he be refused entry. Waiting at the gates, Henry took on the behavior of penance. He wore a hair-shirt, the traditional clothing of monks at the time, and allegedly walked barefoot. Many of his entourage, including the queen Bertha of Savoy and the prince Conrad, also supposedly removed their shoes. According to Lambert of Hersfeld and first-hand accounts of the scene (letters written by both Gregory and Henry in the following years), the king waited by the gate for three full days. Throughout this time, he allegedly wore only his penitent hair-shirt and fasted.  Finally, on 28 January, the castle gates were opened for Henry and he was allowed to enter. Contemporary accounts report that he knelt before Pope Gregory and begged his forgiveness. Gregory absolved Henry and invited him back into the Church. That evening, Gregory, Henry, and Matilda of Tuscany shared communion in the chapel of Sant'Apollonio inside the castle, signaling the official end of Henry's excommunication.  Whether Henry actually did formal repentance has not been conclusively established. In any case, he regained his freedom to act and quickly returned to Germany, while Gregory remained with Matilda at the castle and in other locations in Tuscany for several months.

Historical impact.

The immediate effects of the Canossa meeting were limited. Although Henry was restored to the Church, any expectations that the Pope would restore support of Henry's right to the throne were soon dashed; in March, a small group of powerful Saxon and South German territorial magnates, including the archbishops of Salzburg, Mainz and Magdeburg and several bishops, met at Forchheim and, on the assumption that Henry had irretrievably lost the imperial dignity, repudiated the Salian dynasty's claim to pass the imperial crown by heredity and, in the words of Bruno of Merseburg, present in his bishop's entourage, declared that "the son of a king, even if he should be preeminently worthy, should become king by a spontaneous election". The Pope confirmed the agreement. His deposition still in effect, Henry was forced into civil war with Duke Rudolph of Swabia. Gregory levied a second excommunication against Henry, who ultimately won the civil war, invaded Rome, and forced Gregory to flee, replacing him with Antipope Clement III.  The meaning in the greater history of Germany and Europe, however, was much more significant. During the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century, Henry was exalted as a defender of the rights of both Catholics and opponents of the Pope. Many German Lutherans considered him the "first Protestant" and looked to his example for guidance in their struggle against what they saw as a tyrannical and unjust institution. Still in 1728, when Gregory was canonized by Pope Benedict XIII, the papal decree caused offence among European monarchs and its publication was banned by Emperor Charles VI.  Later in history, the event took on a more secular meaning: the rejection of its example came to stand for Germany's refusal to be subjected to any outside power (although still especially, but not exclusively, the Catholic Church). The incident first was perpetuated by the Austrian politician and poet Anton Alexander von Auersperg (Anastasius Grün) in an 1868 speech before the House of Lords on the implementation of civil marriage. After German unification, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, when his Pulpit Paragraph and the Jesuits Law sparked the so-called "Kulturkampf" with Pope Pius IX, assured his countrymen in a Reichstag speech that "We will not go to Canossa–neither in body nor in spirit!" This meant that Germany would stand for itself and not abide any outside interference in its politics, religion or culture.  On the other side, Canossa is remembered in Italy by Benedetto Croce as the first concrete victory since the fall of the Western Roman Empire, as (in the view of the 19th-century historian) the Pope represented the Italian people against the domination of the Germans. Croce considered Canossa as the initial retreat from Italy of the Holy Roman Empire, starting the Italian Renaissance in which the Germans lost control of Northern Italy by the 15th century.

Modern usage.

In modern usage, "going to Canossa" refers to an act of penance or submission. To "go to Canossa" is an expression that describes doing penance, often with the connotation that it is unwilling or coerced. For example, Adolf Hitler used the expression to describe his meetings with Bavarian Minister President Heinrich Held after being released from Landsberg Prison, in his bid to have the ban on the Nazi Party lifted.  It is used often in German ("Gang nach Canossa"), Dutch ("naar Canossa gaan"), Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish ("Canossavandring" or "Kanossagång"), Finnish ("ryömiä Kanossaan"), French ("aller à Canossa"), Hungarian ("kanosszajárás"), Italian ("andare a Canossa"), Slovenian ("pot v Canosso") and Hebrew ("" - "halikha le'kanossa").

The Road to Canossa, sometimes called the Walk to Canossa (/"Kanossa") or Humiliation of Canossa (), refers to Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV's trek to Canossa Castle, Italy, where Pope Gregory VII was staying as the guest of Margravine Matilda of Tuscany, at the height of the investiture controversy in January 1077 to seek absolution of his excommunication.

Als Gang nach Canossa bezeichnet man den Bitt- und Bußgang des römisch-deutschen Königs Heinrich IV. von Dezember 1076 bis Januar 1077 zu Papst Gregor VII. zur Burg Canossa, wo dieser als Gast der Markgräfin Mathilde von Tuszien verweilte. Dies war notwendig geworden, nachdem Heinrich IV. im Zuge des Investiturstreits exkommuniziert worden war. Er soll drei Tage lang kniend um Einlass gefleht haben.


Gameplay.

Unlike its predecessors, "Quake III Arena" does not have a plot-based single-player campaign. Instead, it simulates the multiplayer experience with computer-controlled players known as bots. The game's story is brief: "the greatest warriors of all time fight for the amusement of a race called the Vadrigar in the Arena Eternal." The introduction video shows the abduction of such a warrior, Sarge, while making a last stand. Continuity with prior games in the "Quake" series and even "Doom" is maintained by the inclusion of player models and biographical information. A familiar mixture of gothic and technological map architecture as well as specific equipment is included, such as the Quad Damage power-up, the rocket launcher, and the BFG.  In "Quake III Arena", the player progresses through tiers of maps, combating different bot characters that increase in difficulty, from Crash (at Tier 0) to Xaero (at Tier 7). As the game progresses, the fights take place in more complex arenas and against tougher opponents. While deathmatch maps are designed for up to 16 players, tournament maps are designed for duels between 2 players and in the single-player game could be considered 'boss battles'.  The weapons are balanced by role, with each weapon having advantages in certain situations, such as the railgun at long-range and the lightning gun at close quarters. The BFG super-weapon is an exception to this; compared to other similarly named weapons in the "Doom"/"Quake" series, "Quake III Arena"'s incarnation of this weapon is basically a fast-firing rocket launcher and it is found in hard-to-reach locations. Weapons appear as level items, spawning at regular intervals in set locations on the map. If a player dies, all of their weapons are lost and they receive the spawn weapons for the current map, usually the gauntlet and machine gun. Players also drop the weapon they were using when killed, which other players can then pick up.  "Quake III Arena" comes with several gameplay modes: Free for All (FFA), a classic deathmatch, where each player competes against the rest for the highest score, Team Deathmatch (TDM), where usually two teams of four compete for the highest team frag (kill) total, Tournament (1v1), a deathmatch between two players, usually ending after a set time, Capture the Flag, which is played on symmetrical maps where teams have to recover the enemy flag from the opponents' base while retaining their own, and Freeze Rails, which is a freeze tag team deathmatch played with only the rail gun and gauntlet as weapons.  "Quake III Arena" was specifically designed for multiplayer. The game allows players whose computers are connected by a network or to the internet, to play against each other in real time, and incorporates a handicap system. It employs a client–server model, requiring all players' clients to connect to a server. "Quake III Arena"'s focus on multiplayer gameplay spawned a lively community, similar to QuakeWorld, that is active to this day.

Characters.

Quake III Arena features several characters from previous entries in the "Quake" series including "Bitterman" from Quake 2, the "Ranger" character from Quake 1, as well as Doomguy from id Software's sister franchise "Doom".

Development.

During early March 1999, ATI leaked the internal hardware vendor (IHV) copy of the game (which shown to the public in Macworld Conference & Expo at Moscone Center in January and Makuhari Messe in February). This was a functional version of the engine with a textured level and working guns. The IHV contained most of the weapons (excepting the Gauntlet) that would make it into the final game although most were not fully modeled; a chainsaw and grappling hook were also in the IHV but did not make it into the final release. Many of the sounds that would make it into the final release were also included.  After the IHV leak, id Software released a beta of the game called "Quake III Arena Test" on April 24, 1999, initially only for Mac OS before expanding to Windows at a later date. The Q3Test started with version 1.05 and included three levels that would be included in the final release: dm7, dm17, and q3tourney2. Id Software continued to update Q3Test up until version 1.09.  id co-founder and former technical director John Carmack has stated that "Quake III Arena" is his favorite game he has worked on.  "Quake III Arena" was shipped to retailers on December 2, 1999; the official street date for the game was December 5, although id Software chief executive officer Todd Hollenshead expected the game to be available as early as December 3 from retailers like Babbage's and EB Games.

Game engine.

The "id Tech 3" engine is the name given to the engine that was developed for "Quake III Arena". Unlike most other games released at the time, "Quake III Arena" requires an OpenGL-compliant graphics accelerator to run. The game does not include a software renderer.  The graphic technology of the game is based tightly around a "shader" system where the appearance of many surfaces can be defined in text files referred to as "shader scripts." "Quake 3" also introduced spline-based curved surfaces in addition to planar volumes, which are responsible for many of the surfaces present within the game. "Quake 3" also provided support for models animated using vertex animation with attachment tags (known as the.md3 format), allowing models to maintain separate torso and leg animations and hold weapons. "Quake 3" is one of the first games where the third-person model is able to look up and down and around as the head, torso and legs are separate. Other visual features include volumetric fog, mirrors, portals, decals, and wave-form vertex distortion.  For networking, id Tech 3 uses a "snapshot" system to relay information about game "frames" to the client over UDP. The server attempts to omit as much information as possible about each frame, relaying only differences from the last frame the client confirmed as received (Delta encoding). "id Tech 3" uses a virtual machine to control object behavior on the server, effects and prediction on the client and the user interface. This presents many advantages as mod authors do not need to worry about crashing the entire game with bad code, clients could show more advanced effects and game menus than was possible in "Quake II" and the user interface for mods was entirely customizable. Unless operations which require a specific endianness are used, a QVM file will run the same on any platform supported by "Quake III Arena." The engine also contains bytecode compilers for the x86 and PowerPC architectures, executing QVM instructions via an interpreter.  "Quake III Arena" features an advanced AI with five difficulty levels which can accommodate both a beginner and an advanced player, though they usually do not pose a challenge to high-tier or competitive players. Each bot has its own, often humorous, 'personality', expressed as scripted lines that are triggered to simulate real player chat. If the player types certain phrases, the bots may respond: for example, typing "You bore me" might cause a bot to reply "You should have been here 3 hours ago!". Each bot has a number of alternative lines to reduce the repetition of bot chatter. The Gladiator bots from "Quake II" were ported to "Quake III Arena" and incorporated into the game by their creator - Jan Paul van Waveren, aka Mr. Elusive. Bot chat lines were written by R. A. Salvatore, Seven Swords and Steve Winter. Xaero, the hardest opponent in the game, was based on the Gladiator bot Zero. The bot Hunter appears on magazine covers in the later id game Doom 3.  On August 19, 2005, id Software released the complete source code for "Quake III Arena" under the GNU General Public License, as they have for most of their prior engines. As before, the "engine", but not the content such as textures and models, was released, so that anyone who wishes to build the game from source will still need an original copy of the game to play it as intended.

Mods.

Like its predecessors, "Quake" and "Quake II", "Quake III Arena" can be heavily modified, allowing the engine to be used for many different games. Mods range from small gameplay adjustments like "Rocket Arena 3" and "Orange Smoothie Productions" to total conversions such as "Smokin' Guns", "DeFRaG", and "Loki's Revenge". The source code's release has allowed total conversion mods such as "Tremulous", "World of Padman", "OpenArena", and "Urban Terror" to evolve into free standalone games. Other mods like "Weapons Factory Arena" have moved to more modern commercial engines. "Challenge ProMode Arena" became the primary competitive mod for "Quake III Arena" since the Cyberathlete Professional League announced CPMA as its basis for competition. CPMA includes alternative gameplays, including air-control, rebalanced weapons, instant weapon switching, and additional jumping techniques. Another mod that underwent several open beta versions and was very popular in 1999-2001 was "Quake 3 Fortress" (Q3F). The initial version of this game was an indirect port of the "Quakeworld" "Team Fortress" mod with many clans and leagues competing in both games simultaneously. Q3F was eventually ported to another Quake 3 mod "Enemy Territory Fortress" which had limited success. The developers of Q3F eventually abandoned the mod but used it to create the standalone 2003 game "", which uses the Quake 3 engine and is still popular with approximately 9,400 active players in 2018.

Expansion.

An expansion pack titled "Quake III: Team Arena" was released on December 18, 2000 in North America, January 15, 2001 in Japan and January 26, 2001 in Europe. It was developed by id Software and published by Activision. The expansion focused on team-based gameplay through new game modes, as well as the addition of three new weapons (the Chaingun, Nailgun, and Prox Launcher), and new items and player models. "Quake III: Team Arena" was criticized, as its additions were long overdue and had already been implemented by fan modifications. "Quake III: Gold" was later released on September 26, 2001 in North America, March 29, 2002 in Japan and August 9, 2002 in Europe, including the original "Quake III Arena" and the "Quake III: Team Arena" expansion pack bundled together. Front Line Assembly made the soundtrack for the expansion, the counterpart to Sonic Mayhem's "Quake III Arena: Noize".

Ports.

Official.

"Quake III Arena" was released for the Dreamcast (ported by Raster Productions and released by Sega) in 2000 and featured 4 player online play versus Dreamcast and PC gamers. It is often considered one of the best PC to console ports of its time due to its smooth frame rate and online play. There are still communities that play this version online on the remaining dedicated servers running patch version 1.16n and the required map pack.  "Quake III Revolution" (ported by Bullfrog Productions, published by Electronic Arts in North America and Electronic Arts Square in Japan) was released for the PlayStation 2 in 2001 featuring several elements adopted from "Team Arena", along with a more mission-based single-player mode. It features split-screen multiplayer for up to 4 players (with PS2 Multitap), as well as the Id Software new animated logo called "The Laboratory", but lacks mouse support. It also lacks online play, as the PS2's network adapter was not released outside of Japan until 2004. Gamerankings.com rated the release at 83%. The PlayStation 2 version was widely criticized for having long loading times (which typically averaged over a minute compared to the Dreamcast and PC version).  "Quake III: Team Arena" was revealed in an ESRB listing for the Xbox 360. The title was developed by Pi Studios. "Quake III Arena" for the 360 was officially announced by id at QuakeCon 2007. The title, jointly developed by id and Pi Studios, was released on Xbox Live Arcade on December 15, 2010. The retail price of the game was set at 1200 Microsoft Points, or $15 USD. "Quake Arena DS" for the Nintendo DS was announced at QuakeCon on August 4, 2007. John Carmack announced the game and said that touch screen controls would not be implemented as much as in "Metroid Prime Hunters", for example. He stated that he would like all shooting in the game to be controlled with the D-pad instead of the Touch Screen. This version was silently cancelled. "Quake Zero" was announced at QuakeCon on August 3, 2007 and will be an updated version of "Quake 3 Arena", distributed by free download, run in a browser window and supported by built-in advertising content. On February 20, 2008 id announced that "Quake Zero" would be launched as "Quake Live". "Quake Live" was released in 2010.

Source ports.

"Quake III Arena" has been unofficially ported to several consoles, including the PlayStation Portable handheld and Xbox console. These versions require a modified console or handheld and the assets to the game to go along with the source port.  Carmack has said that Quake Trilogy (including Arena) will be ported on the iPhone/iPod Touch/iPad. An unofficial version for iOS was released through Cydia for jailbroken iOS devices in April 2008; it is a demo version similar to the original except that it integrates the iPhone and iPod Touch's accelerometer and touch controls to make gameplay possible. A high-definition version for iPad was released in November 2010, featuring re-created controls, sharper graphics, better gameplay, and better framerate; this improved version was also integrated into the iPhone and iPod touch version of the port.  A Moorestown prototype version was demonstrated on a reference design that demonstrated performance of up to 90 frames per second. An unofficial port of Quake III for Symbian mobile devices was made. It requires PAK files from original game to run. An unofficial port of the game to Android was created based on the released source code. This means the game can be run on several Android powered devices, most notably the Motorola Milestone, Motorola Droid, and the Nexus One, as well as other high specification Handsets.  In August 2011, the ARM-based Raspberry Pi credit card-sized computer was shown running a specially compiled ARM version of "Quake III" on Debian.

Reception.

Sales.

"Quake III"s sales surpassed 50,000 copies during its first three days of release, by which time 1 million copies had been printed. It debuted at #5 on PC Data's weekly computer game sales chart for the December 5–11 period. The game rose to fourth place in the weekly top 10 the following week. Domestically, it sold 222,840 copies and earned revenues of $10.1 million by early 2000.  In North America, "Quake III" sold 168,309 copies and earned $7.65 million from January through October 2000, according to PC Data. Its overall sales in the region, including its launch in 1999, totaled 319,970 units by November 2000. Its sales for 2000 alone ultimately reached 190,950 units and $8.4 million by the end of the year. The game later received a "Silver" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 100,000 copies in the United Kingdom.

Critical reception.

Reviews for the game were very positive, with many describing the game as fast and addictive Curved surfaces were a welcome addition to the series. Most reviewers felt the game was best when played with others online. A GameSpot review by Jeff Gerstmann described the game as outstanding. He noted the fun level designs, great-looking textures, impressive special effects and weapons sounds. The GameSpot review criticised the narrator's voice and thought that some levels could become too crowded when playing multiplayer. An IGN review felt the game lacked originality but enjoyed the detailed wall textures and outer space jump levels. The high number of character skins and the artificial intelligence of opponent bots were praised but the weapons were said to be "bland and predictable". A Eurogamer review described the game as "polished" and "stunning" and thought that it "was extremely well balanced and plays very well". The reviewer was especially pleased with the customisable 3D engine and looked forward to new maps and mods.  Blake Fischer reviewed the PC version of the game for "Next Generation", rating it five stars out of five, and stated that "The best deathmatch yet. Period. End of story. If you want single-player or a storyline, buy "Half-Life". It you want great DM and near-infinite expandability, "Quake III" is the best in the business."  Frank O'Connor reviewed the Dreamcast version of the game for "Next Generation", rating it four stars out of five, and stated that "A brilliant, if flawed, conversion of arguably the best online game ever made – it's sure a hell of a lot more interesting use of the Dreamcast modem than "Chu Chu Rocket"."  Garrett Kenyon reviewed the PlayStation 2 version of the game for "Next Generation", rating it four stars out of five, and stated that "All in all, this is a fast and beautiful game – easily the best shooter available for PS2."  "Quake III Arena" won "PC Gamer US"s 1999 "Special Achievement in Graphics" award, and wrote that it "set a new high-water mark in 3D graphics this year." The game was a finalist for the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences' 1999 "Action Game of the Year" award, which ultimately went to "".  In January 2016, Red Bull labeled Q3DM17 (The Longest Yard) one of the 10 greatest FPS multiplayer levels of all time.

Competitive play.

"Quake III Arena"'s multiplayer-focused development led to it developing a large community of competitive players and like its predecessors it was used extensively in professional electronic sports tournaments. In competitive "Quake III Arena" there are two distinct gameplays, often referred to as 'rulesets', the out-of-the-box "Quake III Arena" game, also known as vanilla "Quake 3" (VQ3), and the CPM ruleset of the "Challenge Pro Mode Arena" mod. On July 26, 2006, "Challenge Pro Mode Arena" with VQ3 gameplay was chosen by Cyberathlete Professional League as the mod of choice for their tournament, making it the standard competitive mod for "Quake III Arena". Previously, "Orange Smoothie Productions" was the most widely used tournament mod.  The following competitions have held "Quake III" events:  These competitions have now moved on to more recent games or have transitioned to its variant successor, "Quake Live".

Quake III Arena is a 1999 multiplayer-focused first-person shooter developed by id Software. It is the third game in the "Quake" series; it differs from previous games by excluding a story-based single-player mode and highly focusing on multiplayer gameplay. The single-player mode is played against computer-controlled bots. It features music composed by Sonic Mayhem and Front Line Assembly founder Bill Leeb.

Quake III Arena ist ein Computerspiel und der dritte Teil der "Quake"-Serie. Der Ego-Shooter von id Software kam Ende 1999 auf den Markt. In Deutschland wurde Quake III im Januar 2000 von der BPjS (heute BPjM) indiziert.


History.

Ahmad ibn Hanbal, the founder of Hanbali school, was a disciple of Al-Shafi‘i. Like Shafi'i and al-Zahiri, he was deeply concerned with the extreme elasticity being deployed by many jurists of his time, who used their discretion to reinterpret the doctrines of Quran and Hadiths to suit the demands of Caliphs and wealthy. Ibn Hanbal advocated return to literal interpretation of Quran and Hadiths. Influenced by the debates of his time, he was known for rejecting religious rulings ("Ijtihad") from the consensus of jurists of his time, which he considered to be speculative theology ("Kalam"). He associated them with the Mu'tazilis, whom he despised. Ibn Hanbal was also hostile to the discretionary principles of rulings in jurisprudence ("Usul al-fiqh") mainly championed by the people of opinion, which was established by Abu Hanifa, although he did adopt al-Shafi'i's method in usul al-fiqh. He linked these discretionary principles with "kalam". His guiding principle was that the Quran and Sunnah are the only proper sources of Islamic jurisprudence, and are of equal authority and should be interpreted literally in line with the Athari creed. He also believed that there can be no true consensus ("Ijma") among jurists (mujtahids) of his time, and preferred the consensus of Muhammad's companions ("Sahaba") and weaker hadiths. Imam Hanbal himself compiled "Al-Musnad", a text with over 30,000 saying, actions and customs of Muhammad.  Ibn Hanbal never composed an actual systematic legal theory on his own, though his followers established a systemic method after his death. Much of the work of preserving the school based on Ibn Hanbal's method was laid by his student Abu Bakr al-Khallal; his documentation on the founder's views eventually reached twenty volumes. The original copy of the work, which was contained in the House of Wisdom, was burned along with many other works of literature during the Mongol siege of Baghdad. The book was only preserved in a summarized form by the Hanbali jurist al-Khiraqi, who had access to written copies of al-Khallal's book before the siege.  Relations with the Abbasid Caliphate were rocky for the Hanbalites. Led by the Hanbalite scholar Al-Hasan ibn 'Ali al-Barbahari, the school often formed mobs of followers in 10th-century Baghdad who would engage in violence against fellow Sunnis suspected of committing sins and all Shi'ites. During al-Barbahari's leadership of the school in Baghdad, shops were looted, female entertainers were attacked in the streets, popular grievances among the lower classes were agitated as a source of mobilization, and public chaos in general ensued. Their efforts would be their own undoing in 935, when a series of home invasions and mob violence on the part of al-Barbahari's followers in addition to perceived deviant views led to the Caliph Ar-Radi publicly condemning the school in its entirety and ending its official patronage by state religious bodies.

Principles.

Sources of law.

Like all other schools of Sunni Islam, the Hanbali school holds that the two primary sources of Islamic law are the Qur'an and the Sunnah found in Hadiths (compilation of sayings, actions and customs of Muhammad). Where these texts did not provide guidance, Imam Hanbal recommended guidance from established consensus of Muhammad's companions (Sahabah), then individual opinion of Muhammad's companions, followed in order of preference by weaker hadiths, and in rare cases qiyas (analogy). The Hanbali school, unlike Hanafi and Maliki schools, rejected that a source of Islamic law can be a jurist's personal discretionary opinion or consensus of later generation Muslims on matters that serve the interest of Islam and community. Hanbalis hold that this is impossible and leads to abuse.  Ibn Hanbal rejected the possibility of religiously binding consensus ("Ijma"), as it was impossible to verify once later generations of Muslims spread throughout the world, going as far as declaring anyone who claimed as such to be a liar. Ibn Hanbal did, however, accept the possibility and validity of the consensus of the "Sahaba". the first generation of Muslims. Later followers of the school, however, expanded on the types of consensus accepted as valid, and the prominent Hanbalite Ibn Taymiyyah expanded legal consensus to later generations while at the same time restricting it only to the religiously learned. Analogical reasoning ("Qiyas"), was likewise rejected as a valid source of law by Ibn Hanbal himself, with a near-unanimous majority of later Hanbalite jurists not only accepting analogical reasoning as valid but also borrowing from the works of Shafi'ite jurists on the subject.  Ibn Hanbal's strict standards of acceptance regarding the sources of Islamic law were probably due to his suspicion regarding the field of "Usul al-Fiqh", which he equated with speculative theology ("kalam"). In the modern era, Hanbalites have branched out and even delved into matters regarding the upholding ("Istislah") of public interest ("Maslaha") and even juristic preference ("Istihsan"), anathema to the earlier Hanbalites as valid methods of determining religious law.

Theology.

Ibn Hanbal taught that the Qur'an is uncreated due to Muslim belief that it is the word of God, and the word of God is not created. The Mu'tazilites taught that the Qur'an, which is readable and touchable, is created like other creatures and created objects. Ibn Hanbal viewed this as heresy, replying that there are things which are not touchable but are created, such as the Throne of God. Unlike the other three schools of Islamic jurisprudence (Hanafi, Maliki, and Shafi), the Hanbali madhab remained largely traditionalist or Athari in theology and it was primarily Hanbali scholars who codified the Athari school of thought.

Reception.

The Hanbali school is now accepted as the fourth of the mainstream Sunni schools of law. It has traditionally enjoyed a smaller following than the other schools. In the earlier period, Sunni jurisprudence was based on four other schools: Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i and Zahiri; later on, the Hanbali school supplanted the Zahiri school's spot as the fourth mainstream school. Hanbalism essentially formed as a traditionalist reaction to what they viewed as speculative innovations on the part of the earlier established schools.  Historically, the school's legitimacy was not always accepted. Muslim exegete Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari, founder of the now extinct Jariri school of law, was noted for ignoring the Hanbali school entirely when weighing the views of jurists; this was due to his view that the founder, Ibn Hanbal, was merely a scholar of prophetic tradition and was not a jurist at all. The Hanbalites, led by al-Barbahari, reacted by stoning Tabari's home several times, inciting riots so violent that Abbasid authorities had to subdue them by force. Upon Tabari's death, the Hanbalites formed a violent mob large enough that Abbasid officials buried him in secret for fear of further riots were Tabari buried publicly in a Muslim graveyard. Similarly, the Andalusian theologian Ibn 'Abd al-Barr made a point to exclude Ibn Hanbal's views from the books on Sunni Muslim jurisprudence. In al-Muqaddimah, Ibn Khaldun—himself a Qadi in Egypt during the Mamluk-era—also noted that the following of this school was rare and stated that this is due to the fact that they largely reject Ijtihad as a whole.  Eventually, the Mamluk Sultanate and later the Ottoman Empire codified Sunni Islam as four schools, including the Hanbalite school at the expense of the Zahirites. The Hanafis, Shafi'is and Malikis agreed on important matters and recognized each other's systems as equally valid; this was not the case with the Hanbalites, who were recognized as legitimate by the older three schools but refused to return the favor.

Differences with other Sunni schools.

In comparison to the Hanafis and the Malikis, in the absence of a consensus, the opinion of a Sahabi is given priority over Qiyas (which early Hanbalis rejected) or al-'urf, which is completely rejected by Hanbalis. Where Hanbalis require a unanimous consensus, Hanafis tend to follow the consensus of Kufa and Malikis that of al-Madina.  Zahiris, a less mainstream school, is sometimes seen as the closest to Hanbalis and Hanafis. However the similarities are only true for early Zahiris who followed the Athari creed. The branch that was largely instigated by Ibn Hazm which developed in al-Andalus, al-Qarawiyyin and later became the official school of the state under the Almohads, differed significantly from Hanbalism. It did not follow the Athari and Taqlid schools and opted for "logical Istidlal" (deductive demonstration) as a way to interpret scripture that wasn't clear literally. Hanbalis rejected kalam as a whole and believed in the supremacy of the text over the mind and did not engage in dialectic debates with the Mu'tazila. Ibn Hazm, on the other hand, engaged in these debates and believed in logical reasoning rejecting most of Mu'tazila claims as sophists and absurd. Ibn Hazm, also scrutinised hadith more severely. He adopted an attitude where he'd reject hadiths if he discovered something suspicious about the lives of those who reported it, or in the case where a person in the Sanad is not a widely known figure. In doing so, he was aided by his vast historical knowledge.

Relationship with Sufism.

Sufism, often described as the inner mystical dimension of Islam, is not a separate "school" or "sect" of the religion, but, rather, is considered by its adherents to be an "inward" way of approaching Islam which complements the regular outward practice of the five pillars; Sufism became immensely popular during the medieval period in practically all parts of the Sunni world and continues to remain so in many parts of the world today. As Christopher Melchert has pointed out, both Hanbalism and classical Sufism took concrete shapes in the ninth and early tenth-centuries CE, with both soon becoming "essential components of the high-medieval Sunni synthesis." Although many Hanbali scholars today, identifying themselves with the Salafi and Wahhabi contemporary movements within Hanbalism, shun Sufi practices such as the veneration of saints at their tombs, which they deem heretical innovations in the religion, it is important to recognize that the Hanabali school of Sunni law has, in fact, had a very intimate relationship with Sufism throughout history, with such controversies only manifesting themselves after the eighteenth-century, once the movement of Wahhabism became the primary form of Islam practiced in Saudi Arabia.  There is evidence that many medieval Hanbali scholars were very close to the Sufi martyr and saint Hallaj, whose mystical piety seems to have influenced many regular jurists in the school. Many later Hanbalis, meanwhile, were often Sufis themselves, including figures not normally associated with Sufism, such as Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah. Both these men, sometimes considered to be completely anti-Sufi in their leanings, were actually initiated into the Qadiriyya order of the celebrated mystic and saint Abdul Qadir Gilani, who was himself a renowned Hanbali jurist. As the Qadiriyya order is often considered to be the largest and most widespread Sufi order in the world, with many branches spanning from Turkey to Pakistan, one of the largest Sufi branches is effectively founded on Hanbali fiqh.

Revival efforts.

Since the Al Saud succeeded in annexing Mecca in 1926 and the discovery of oil, Hanbali school of theology has benefited from the sponsorship of the Saudi state. Theology students from all over the world are educated in Saudi Arabia following this school of theology and Saudi-funded Dawah succeeded in attracting new followers all over the world. Since the beginning of the 20th-century, the school has therefore gained more acceptance and diffusion in the Islamic world.

The Hanbali school () is one of the four traditional Sunni schools of Islamic jurisprudence. It is named after the Iraqi scholar Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 855), and was institutionalized by his students. The Hanbali madhhab is the smallest of four major Sunni schools, the others being the Hanafi, Maliki and Shafi`i.

Die Hanbaliten,, sind eine der vier traditionellen Lehrrichtungen ("Madhahib") des sunnitischen Islams. Im Theologiebereich sind sie im Regelfall Befolger der Athari-Schule.


Biography.

Peter Zadek was born on 19 May 1926 to a Jewish family in Berlin. In 1934, he emigrated with his family to London where he later studied at Old Vic theatre, after a year at Oxford University. He began in weekly rep in Swansea and Pontypridd. He studied at the Old Vic, and his first productions included Oscar Wilde’s "Salome" and T. S. Eliot’s "Sweeney Agonistes". Zadek caused a stir in London in the late 1950s with his productions of works by Jean Genet. Indeed, Genet was so outraged by Zadek's world première of "The Balcony" at the Arts in 1957 that he apparently bought a gun with the intention of shooting its director. He also worked as a director for the BBC in this period.

Bremen years.

Returning to Germany in 1958, Zadek worked in Theater Bremen from 1962 to 1968. In 1969, he directed the film "I'm an Elephant, Madame". It was entered into the 19th Berlin International Film Festival, where it won a Silver Bear award.

Shakespeare as passion.

Zadek and his partner Elisabeth Plessen, have translated many of Shakespeare's works into German for the theater as well as works of Pinter and Chekhov, among others. Zadek was renowned for productions of Shakespeare's plays and for sparking a greater interest in English drama among German audiences. Almost three years, as the German critic and connoisseur of theater history, after his arrival in Germany was Zadek in to the German scene. 14 stagings in three years and four in the following six months: „Zadek was in a rush of making“ (im Rausch des Machens), and his „Theatermut“ (theater-courage) rejected the literary Shakespeare and took his absurdly grotesque side out.  So Zadek's acclaimed staging of "Der Kaufmann von Venedig" (The Merchant of Venice) at Burgtheater in 1988 f. e. moved the story from the bankrupt businessman and the deadly pledge for the saving credit wisely and harmoniously into the modern every daylife.

Illness and death.

Despite suffering from an illness, Zadek continued working in his later years. In 2008, he staged Pirandello's "Naked" at the St. Pauli Theater in Hamburg. Zadek's last production was Shaw's "Major Barbara", performed at the Schauspielhaus Zurich in February 2009. He died in 30 July 2009 in Hamburg, survived by his two children, Simon Zadek and Michele Zadek-Ewing.

Head of theaters.

He headed up such major German theaters as the Schauspielhaus Bochum, where he coined deeply the so-called "Zadek-Era" until today. from 1972 to 1979. Here he paved the career of two German artists, first Herbert Grönemeyer, today one of the most popular Singer-songwriter’s, who was his musical director then (1976) and also an actor in roles, such as the Till Eulenspiegel or Melchior in Frank Wedekind’s "Frühlings Erwachen," and secondly the German Natias Neutert, who performed his One-Mensch-Theater.  In 1984, Zadek worked at the Freie Volksbühne Berlin and got a great success with Josua Sobol’s playwright Ghetto with his discovery of the actor Ulrich Tukur (who later became staff actor within the ensemble of Deutsches Schauspielhaus) 1985–1989 at Deutsches Schauspielhaus, Hamburg. From 1992 to 1996 Zadek was appointed as one head among others at the Berliner Ensemble, the theater founded by Bertolt Brecht. After German reunification the Senate of Berlin appointed a "collective" of five stage directors to serve as Intendanten (General Administrators): Peter Zadek, Peter Palitzsch (1918–2004), Heiner Müller, Fritz Marquardt and Matthias Langhoff. In this former East German theater Zadek was a director who represented the West. Indeed, he brought with him an international team that formed a "Western invasion" which revived the Berliner Ensemble. In addition to bringing great actors such as Gert Voss and Eva Mattes, Zadek brought in young protégé stage directors such as British director Rosee Riggs and also appointed renowned American Berlin-based conductor Alexander Frey as Music Director of the theater. Frey was the first American to hold any position at the Berliner Ensemble, as well as being the theatre’s first non-German Music Director; his historic predecessors include the composers Kurt Weill, Hanns Eisler, and Paul Dessau —all of them worked under Brecht.

Opera director.

Zadek directed his first opera, Mozart’s "The Marriage of Figaro", in 1983. He also directed Kurt Weill's opera, "Aufstieg und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny" ("Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny") at the Salzburg Festival in 1998.

Acting.

Zadek acted in a small role in Rainer Werner Fassbinder's film "Die Sehnsucht der Veronika Voss" ("Veronika Voss", 1982).

Awards.

Beside of the fact, being chosen as "Director of the year" numerous times by the German "Theater heute" magazine, he got following awards:

Legacy.

Following Zadek's death, British critic Michael Billington wrote in "The Guardian":"Zadek was mercurial, intuitive, even populist in his approach – and the results were sometimes astonishing. Four of his shows came to the Edinburgh International festival and he always made you re-assess a play. I recall a modern-dress "Merchant of Venice" in which Gert Voss's assimilated Shylock, even after his humiliation in the trial scene, coolly strolled off stage as if preparing to phone his broker. In 2004, Zadek also brought us a brilliantly witty, ironic "Peer Gynt": one that suggested Ibsen anticipated Strindbergian dream-drama, Brechtian expressionism, the madhouse world of the Marat/Sade and even modern physical theatre."  Billington also wrote in the same article:"Although Zadek made his name in Germany, he never forgot his British roots. When I went to see his Berlin production of Pinter's "Moonlight", he told me that he loved Pinter's work because of its origins in weekly rep and because, as he said, "it was like a combination of Agatha Christie and Kafka". But Zadek also understood Pinter's play profoundly: rarely have I seen Pinter's idea that women possess an emotional awareness denied to men so vividly expressed." In 1999 in Vienna, when he directed "Hamlet" with a woman in the title role, the Austrian newspaper "Wiener Zeitung" criticized him having to much of a "children belief in justice" (Kinderglaube an Gerechtigkeit). In 2015, the city of Bochum designated a newly built street close to the Schauspielhaus Bochum as "Peter-Zadek-Straße".

Peter Zadek (; 19 May 1926 – 30 July 2009) was a German director of theatre, opera and film, a translator and a screenwriter. He is regarded as one of the greatest directors in German-speaking theater.

Peter Zadek (* 19. Mai 1926 in Berlin; † 30. Juli 2009 in Hamburg) war ein deutscher Regisseur und Theaterintendant am Schauspielhaus Bochum (1972 bis 1979) sowie dem Deutschen Schauspielhaus in Hamburg (1985 bis 1989). Darüber hinaus führte er Regie an allen maßgeblichen deutschsprachigen Bühnen. Theatergeschichte schrieben insbesondere seine unkonventionellen Inszenierungen von Shakespeare, der neben Tschechow und Ibsen von ihm zum „Theatergott“ erhoben wurde.


Personal.

Hans Asperger was born in Vienna, Austria, and raised on a farm not far from the city. The eldest of three sons, Asperger had difficulty finding friends and was considered a lonely, remote child. He was talented in language; in particular, he was interested in the Austrian poet Franz Grillparzer, whose poetry he would frequently quote to his uninterested classmates. He also liked to quote himself and often referred to himself from a third-person perspective.  As a youth, he joined the Wandering Scholars of the Bund Neuland, a conservative Catholic organization within the German Youth Movement. He considered this a formative experience, later stating: "I was molded by the spirit of the German youth movement, which was one of the noblest blossoms of the German spirit."  Asperger studied medicine at the University of Vienna under Franz Hamburger and practiced at the University Children's Hospital in Vienna. He earned his medical degree in 1931 and became director of the special education section at the university children's clinic in Vienna in 1932. He joined the Austrofascist Fatherland Front on May 10, 1934, nine days after Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss passed a new constitution making himself dictator. Asperger married in 1935 and had five children.

Career.

During World War II, he was a medical officer, serving in the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia; his younger brother died at Stalingrad. Near the end of the war, Asperger opened a school for children with Sister Viktorine Zak. The school was bombed and destroyed, Viktorine was killed, and much of Asperger's early work was lost.  Georg Frankl was Asperger's chief diagnostician until he moved from Austria to America and was hired by Leo Kanner in 1937.  Asperger published a definition of autistic psychopathy in 1944 that resembled the definition published earlier by a Russian neurologist named Grunya Sukhareva in 1926. Asperger identified in four boys a pattern of behavior and abilities that included “a lack of empathy, little ability to form friendships, one-sided conversations, intense absorption in a special interest, and clumsy movements”. Asperger noticed that some of the children he identified as being autistic used their special talents in adulthood and had successful careers. One of them became a professor of astronomy and solved an error in Newton's work he had originally noticed as a student. Another one of Asperger's patients was the Austrian writer and Nobel Prize in Literature laureate, Elfriede Jelinek.  In 1944, after the publication of his landmark paper describing autistic symptoms, Hans Asperger found a permanent tenured post at the University of Vienna. Shortly after the war ended, he became director of a children's clinic in the city. It was there that he was appointed chair of pediatrics at the University of Vienna, a post he held for twenty years. He later held a post at Innsbruck. Beginning in 1964, he headed the SOS-Kinderdorf in Hinterbrühl. He became professor emeritus in 1977, and died three years later. AS was named after Hans Asperger and officially recognized in the fourth edition of the "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders" (DSM) in 1994; it was removed from DSM-5 in 2013.

Posthumous developments.

Asperger syndrome diagnosis.

Asperger died before his identification of this pattern of behaviour became widely recognised. This was in part due to his work being exclusively in German and as such it was little-translated; medical academics, then as now, also disregarded Asperger's work based on its merits or lack thereof. English researcher Lorna Wing proposed the condition Asperger's syndrome in a 1981 paper, "Asperger's syndrome: a clinical account", that challenged the previously accepted model of autism presented by Leo Kanner in 1943. It was not until 1991 that an authoritative translation of Asperger's work was made by Uta Frith; before this AS had still been “virtually unknown”. Frith said that fundamental questions regarding the diagnosis had not been answered, and the necessary scientific data to address this did not exist. Unlike Kanner, who overshadowed Asperger, the latter's findings were ignored and disregarded in the English-speaking world in his lifetime.  In the early 1990s, Asperger's work gained some notice due to Wing's research on the subject and Frith's recent translation, leading to the inclusion of the eponymous condition in the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 10th revision (ICD-10) in 1993, and the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 4th revision (DSM-IV) in 1994, some half a century after Asperger's original research.  Despite this brief resurgence of interest in his work in the 1990s, AS remains a controversial and contentious diagnosis due to its unclear relationship to the autism spectrum. In 2010 there was a majority consensus to subsume AS into the diagnosis "Autistic Spectrum Disorder" in the 2013 DSM-5 diagnostic manual. The World Health Organization's ICD-10 Version 2015 describes AS as “a disorder of uncertain nosological validity”.  In his 1944 paper, as Uta Frith translated from the German in 1991, Asperger wrote, “We are convinced, then, that autistic people have their place in the organism of the social community. They fulfill their role well, perhaps better than anyone else could, and we are talking of people who as children had the greatest difficulties and caused untold worries to their care-givers.” Based on Frith's translation, however, Asperger initially stated: “Unfortunately, in the majority of cases the positive aspects of autism do not outweigh the negative ones.” Psychologist Eric Schopler wrote in 1998:  Asperger's own publications did not inspire research, replication, or scientific interest prior to 1980. Instead, he laid the fertile groundwork for the diagnostic confusion that has grown since 1980. Since 2009, Asperger's birthday, 18 February, has been declared International Asperger's Day by various governments.

Nazi involvement.

Edith Scheffer, a modern European history scholar, wrote in 2018 that Asperger cooperated with the Nazi regime, including sending children to the Spiegelgrund clinic which participated in the euthanasia program. Scheffer wrote a book further elaborating on her research called "Asperger's Children: The Origins of Autism in Nazi Vienna" (2018)"."  Another scholar and historian from the Medical University of Vienna, Herwig Czech concluded in a 2017 article in the journal "Molecular Autism", which was published in April 2018:  Asperger managed to accommodate himself to the Nazi regime and was rewarded for his affirmations of loyalty with career opportunities. He joined several organizations affiliated with the NSDAP (although not the Nazi party itself), publicly legitimized race hygiene policies including forced sterilizations and, on several occasions, actively cooperated with the child ‘euthanasia' program. Dean Falk, American anthropologist from Florida State University, questioned Herwig Czech's allegations against Hans Asperger in two papers in Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. Czech's reply was published in the same journal.  In May 2019, Ketil Slagstad, a Norwegian doctor and historical scholar, added his interpretation of both Scheffer's and Czech's work, in his article "Asperger, the Nazis and the children - the history of the birth of a diagnosis", in which he describes the nuances of the situation. He offers an alternative explanation of Asperger's involvement: citing the challenges of war, a desire to protect his career, and protection of the children for whom he was caring. Slagstad concludes:  The story of Hans Asperger, Nazism, murdered children, post-war oblivion, the birth of the diagnosis in the 1980s, the gradual expansion of the diagnostic criteria and the huge recent interest in autism spectrum disorders exemplify the historical and volatile nature of diagnoses: they are historic constructs that reflect the times and societies where they exert their effect.  Critically, though, Slagstad noted "Historical research has now shown that he [Asperger] was...a well-adapted cog in the machine of a deadly regime. He deliberately referred disabled children to the clinic Am Spiegelgrund, where he knew that they were at risk of being killed. The eponym Asperger’s syndrome ought to be used with awareness of its historical origin."

Johann "Hans" Friedrich Karl Asperger (, ; 18 February 1906 – 21 October 1980) was an Austrian pediatrician, eugenicist, medical theorist, and medical professor. He is best known for his early studies on mental disorders, specifically in children. His work was largely unnoticed during his lifetime except for a few accolades in Vienna, and his studies on psychological disorders acquired world renown only posthumously. He wrote over 300 publications, mostly concerning a condition he termed "autistic psychopathy" (AP).

Johann „Hans“ Friedrich Karl Asperger (* 18. Februar 1906 in Wien; † 21. Oktober 1980 ebenda) war ein österreichischer Kinderarzt und Heilpädagoge. Er gilt als Erstbeschreiber des später nach ihm benannten Asperger-Syndroms, einer Form des Autismus. Seine Rolle während der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus gilt als umstritten.


Origins.

Iggy Pop may have invented crowd surfing at 1970's Cincinnati Summer Pop Festival (Midsummer Rock Festival). Bruce Springsteen appears in the first documented video of crowd surfing in his 1980 Rock concert at Arizona State University, in Tempe, Arizona during his live performance of "Tenth Avenue Freeze-Out". In early 1980 Peter Gabriel was reported to have crowd surfed during performances of ‘Games Without Frontiers’ by falling into his audience “crucifix style” and then being passed around. During a later tour in 1982 Gabriel also crowd surfed during performances of 'Lay Your Hands on Me'. The rear sleeve of his 1983 album "Plays Live," recorded in during Gabriel's 1982 tour, features a photograph of him crowd surfing, although the image has been rotated 90 degrees so Gabriel appears to be standing.  "Iggy Pop had jumped into an audience prior to me," Gabriel explained to Mark Blake, "but he hadn't done that thing of lying on the hands and being carried around by the audience. I had the idea from a game you did with a therapy group where you had to fall backwards and trust the person behind to catch you. I was always interested in closing the gap between the performer and the audience. At an open-air show in Chicago I was passed around and returned to the stage minus every piece of clothing except my underpants. There was an edge to doing it and part of you was praying you'd get back to the stage in one piece."  The first official video release to depict Gabriel crowd surfing was "POV", a concert video released in 1990 and produced by Martin Scorsese. When Billy Joel crowdsurfed in a concert during his 1987 concert tour of the Soviet Union, bandmate Kevin Dukes described it as the "Peter Gabriel flop".

Dangers.

Crowd surfing is illegal in some countries and patrons can, in theory, be ejected from the venue for partaking in the act. This is usually written in the fine print of the concert or festival ticket.  Supporters of crowd surfing say that by standing in the mosh pit, concert-goers should expect such behavior as part of a rock show and by standing more towards the side or rear of the venue they can easily avoid such behavior. They also say that serious injuries caused by crowd surfing are extremely rare. It is true that the majority of injuries caused by crowd surfing are only mild bruising, which occurs in any mosh pit without crowd surfing. Supporters will also argue that most crowd surfers are considerate and will wear soft shoes such as trainers, and refrain from wearing jackets in order to minimize injuries, and that it is common mosh pit etiquette to pick up anyone who has fallen over.  At larger events, such as festivals, crowd surfing can be used as a means of transporting individuals out of the crowd. On occasion, individuals may wish to leave the event because of any given reason, but there can be too many people bringing other people in. Therefore, some people use crowd surfing as a means to get out. Crowdsurfing can be used to help injured or sick participants find medical help quickly. A person losing consciousness at a large hot outdoor summer festival can arrive at medical help in less than a minute by being passed to security. Those facing the stage are often unaware of crowd surfers heading towards it and it is not uncommon for audience members to be kicked or otherwise hit in the back of the head. Opponents of crowd surfing reject these claims, claiming that it is inappropriate for crowd surfers, stagedivers and moshers to dominate the most attractive area of the audience (directly in front of the stage) with the threat of (accidental) violence forcing people who do not want to get injured to stand at the back or to the side, which are much less attractive locations. Opponents argue that all visitors pay the same price for admission and are entitled to experience the concert without risk of getting kicked in the face or crushed by crowd surfers.  Crowd surfers also risk having personal items such as wallets or mobile phones stolen, or their shoes or clothes removed and thrown into inconvenient locations. This is known as "mosh-lobbing", usually done by audience members or even performers who oppose crowd surfing.  In December 2004 when the Beastie Boys performed at the Manchester Arena in Manchester, England, Ad Rock stopped partway through a song to warn the crowds to stop surfing as somebody had been injured, following up the discouragement with "that shit is so old" and telling them to "save that shit for the MTV music awards".

Crowd surfing events.

The world record holder for the highest number of crowd surfers (recorded) in one performance is a mixed genre band during their performance at Reading festival in 2009. Enter Shikari provided the music and encouragement for this whilst security safely caught and redirected them out of a side gate back into the crowd. For a world record, the crowd surfer must "surf" over the barrier to be classed as a valid entry.  Crowd surfing extended for the first time to the classical music scene, when in June 2014 at the Bristol Proms an audience-member was ejected by fellow audience members during a performance of Handel's Messiah after he took the director's invitation to "clap and whoop" to the music a step too far by attempting to crowd-surf.

Crowd surfing is the process in which a person is passed overhead from person to person (often during a concert), transferring the person from one part of the venue to another. The "crowd surfer" is passed above everyone's heads, with everyone's hands supporting the person's weight. At most concerts and festivals the crowd surfer will be passed towards a barrier in front of the stage by the crowd, where they will be pulled off and put on their feet by the security stewards. Then, they will be sent back to the side or rear of the crowd at the end of the barrier or they may be ejected from the venue (depending on the policy enforced).

Als Crowdsurfing bezeichnet man eine Betätigung auf einem Konzert, insbesondere auf Rock-, Punk- oder Metal-Konzerten. Ein Anwesender auf dem Konzert wird – auf dem Rücken oder Bauch liegend – von der Menge über die Menschen getragen, quasi ein „Surfen“ über dem Publikum (englisch "crowd" ‚Menschenmenge‘). Es kommt vor allem bei größeren Shows und auf Musikfestivals vor.


History.

The concept of bilocation has appeared in early Greek philosophy, shamanism, paganism, folklore, occultism, magic, the paranormal, Hinduism (as one of the siddhis), spiritualism, Theosophy, the New Age and mysticism in general, as well as Christian mysticism and Jewish mysticism.

In religion and mysticism.

Several Christian saints, monks and Muslim Sufis are said to have exhibited bilocation. Among the earliest is the apparition of Our Lady of the Pillar in the year 40. Isidore the Farmer claimed to be praying or attending Mass in Church while at the same time plowing in the fields.  Other Christian figures said to have experienced bilocation include Alphonsus Liguori, Anthony of Padua, Ursula Micaela Morata, Gerard Majella, Charles of Mount Argus, Pio of Pietrelcina, Severus of Ravenna, Ambrose, María de Ágreda, Martin de Porres and María de León Bello y Delgado.

Witchcraft.

In the 17th century, persons accused of witchcraft were reported to appear in dreams and visions of witnesses. The trials at Bury St. Edmunds and Salem included this "spectral evidence" against defendants. Matthew Hopkins described the phenomenon in his book "The Discovery of Witches".

Modern.

Neem Karoli Baba, Sri Yukteswar, Lahiri Mahasaya and many other prominent Hindu gurus were reported to have this ability.  The English occultist Aleister Crowley was reported by acquaintances to have the ability, even though he said he was not conscious of its happening at the time.  Bilocation figures heavily in David Lynch's film "Lost Highway" (1997) and Thomas Pynchon's novel "Against the Day" (2006). Bilocation also plays a part in the Christopher Priest novel "The Prestige". Additionally, the phenomenon is explored in an episode of "The X-Files", "Fight Club", and several season two episodes of "", including "Dead Ringer".  A mystical story that involved Soviet author Yevgeny Petrov served as inspiration for the film "Envelope" (2012) starring Kevin Spacey.

Skepticism.

Skeptical investigator Joe Nickell has written that there is no scientific evidence that bilocation is a real phenomenon and that cases are often from anecdotal reports that cannot be verified. Nickell listed self-delusion, hoaxing and illusion to explain alleged cases of bilocation.

Bilocation, or sometimes multilocation, is an alleged psychic or miraculous ability wherein an individual or object is located (or appears to be located) in two distinct places at the same time.

Bilokation bezeichnet die angebliche Fähigkeit einer Person, an zwei Orten gleichzeitig zu sein. In der katholischen Kirche wird dieses Phänomen einigen Heiligen zugeschrieben, z. B. Antonius von Padua, Josef von Cupertino, Pater Pio und Franziskus von Assisi. Dabei wird erklärt, dass diese Personen den Wunsch, Gutes zu tun, so stark fühlten, dass sie gleichzeitig an einem Ort ihre Pflicht erfüllten und an einem anderen Ort ihrer Bestimmung nachgingen. Z. B. soll der selige peruanische Dominikaner Martin de Porres seine Aufgaben im Kloster erfüllt haben und gleichzeitig im Krankenhaus bei der Pflege der Ärmsten gesehen worden sein.