Biography.

Early life.

Maria Sofia De la Gardie was born to count Jacob De la Gardie and Ebba Brahe. She was the sister of Magnus Gabriel De la Gardie, the favorite of Queen Christina, Queen of Sweden and the sister-in-law of Princess Countess Palatine Maria Eufrosyne of Zweibrücken, the cousin of the queen. She was born and raised in Swedish Estonia, where her father was governor of Reval. In 1643, she married baron Gustaf Gabrielsson Oxenstierna (1613–1648), nephew of regent Axel Oxenstierna (1583–1654) who succeeded her father as governor of Estonia. As was the custom in 17th century Swedish nobility, she kept her own name also after marriage. Both her own family and the family of her spouse was extremely wealthy. During his absence, she managed his estates.

Life at court.

After the death of her spouse in 1648, she became the guardian of her two underage daughters and responsible of the vast estates of the family. After the death of her father in 1652, she was given the responsibility of several estates also after him, making her one of the greater landowners in Sweden.  Maria Sofia was described as a great beauty, temperamental, forceful and talented, and could speak both French and German fluently. She was close to her brother Magnus Gabriel, the favorite of the monarch, and it was possibly because of him that she was showered with gifts from the monarch. She was given an allowance which helped her sort out her affairs, and her late spouse was posthumously granted the title of count, giving her the title and rank of precedence of countess at court. In 1651, she was appointed head lady-in-waiting, first with the title Court Mistress ("Hovmastarinna") but soon with the title Chief Court Mistress ("Overhovmastarinna"), the highest office for a female at the royal court, though it was split on several people during the reign of Christina. She often hosted the queen at her residence Tyresö Palace, were the monarch liked to hunt.  In 1649, there was reports of a possible marriage with the heir to the throne, future King Charles X of Sweden. The Danish ambassador reported about them in November that year. The plans was never realized, but the rumors continued until 1652. They were possibly staged by Queen Christina of Sweden as a way of avoiding the pressure of Christina to marry Charles. In reality, they are not considered to have been serious if they did occur. It is however known that she was proposed to by the Duke of Croy. Maria Sofia had many suitors but preferred to stay unmarried.  It is known that she passionately supported her brother when he fell from grace in 1653, but this does not seem to have affected neither his nor her own position. With some exceptions, such as Ebba Sparre, lady Jane Ruthven and Louise van der Nooth, Christina did not show any interest in her female courtiers, and generally mentions them only to express contempt over their femininity and portray herself as more masculine than them. After the abdication of Christina in 1654, Maria Sofia left court to devote her life to her industrial interests, for which she has become known in history.

Industrial activity.

Maria Sofia De la Gardie resided in Tyresö Palace, from where she managed her estates around the Baltic Sea. On her brothers suggestion she made a study trip to the Netherlands, to study the industrial life. She was interested in cattlebreeding and gardening. She managed glovemaking and a brassmakery. Her most successful enterprise was a textile industry: by the energy of waterfalls on her estate, she manufactured the broadcloth and textiles which equipped to the army.  During the 1650s, De la Gardie engaged in banking activity and competed with her competitor, Stockholms Banco, by taking up large loans in the bank and then using the sums by lending it to the customers in her own bank: this was initially very lucrative, but eventually, problems enabled the Stockholms Banco to confiscate and sell her banking security.  Maria Sofia De la Gardie took part in the pacification of Skåne by acquiring several estates there after it had been incorporated into Sweden in 1658. In 1667, she bought Krapperup Castle and managed a colliery for export. She built ships, exported timber and grain, founded papermills and fabricated linseed oil.  During the famous Katarina witch trial in Stockholm in 1676, the main witness Lisbeth Carlsdotter, inspired by the Gävle-Boy, tried to implicate her and her sister-in-law Maria Eufrosyne for witchcraft. This accusation was not taken seriously and never brought to trial, but rather, it damaged the credibility of the witness to such a point which eventually led to the end of the whole witch hunt.  At the Great Reduction of King Charles XI of Sweden in the 1680s, most of her and her brothers property was confiscated by the crown, something which affected her deeply. She died in 1694.

Maria Sofia De la Gardie (1627 – 22 August 1694) was a Swedish noble, countess, courtier, banker and industrialist entrepreneur. She is most known for her industrial enterprises, and she has been referred to as the first female grand entrepreneur of her country. She served as "överhovmästarinna" to Queen Christina of Sweden.

Maria Sofia De la Gardie (geboren 1627 in Reval; gestorben 22. August 1694 in Stockholm) war eine schwedische Gräfin, Hofdame, Bankier und industrielle Unternehmerin. Sie wurde als die erste weibliche Großunternehmerin ihres Landes bezeichnet. Sie diente zuvor als Obersthofmeisterin der Königin Christina von Schweden.


Life.

Mahmut Esat was born to Hasan Bey of Hacı Mahmutoğulları in Kuşadası, Aydın Vilayet during the Ottoman Empire era in 1892. He finished the idadi (high school) in İzmir in 1908, and graduated from İstanbul University's School of Law in 1912. He traveled to Fribourg, Switzerland for further studies. He completed his doctorate thesis "Du régime des capitulations ottomanes" ("On the Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire") with "summa cum laude", "highest honor" at the University of Fribourg. In Lausanne, he served as the leader of the Turkish Student Association.  In 1919, after Greek landing at Smyrna, he returned home to join the nationals in the Turkish War of Independence. He secretly traveled in an Italian ship, which was carrying ammunition to the Italian occupation troops in Anatolia. Although he was arrested by the Italians, he managed to escape.

Politics.

He became a member of the Turkish parliament established on 23 April 1920. He held this post up to his death in 1943. Before the proclamation of the Republic in the 4th cabinet of the Executive Ministers of Turkey, he was appointed Minister of Economy on 12 July 1922. He held this post in the 5th cabinet of the Executive Ministers of Turkey up to 24 September 1923. After the Republic was proclaimed on 29 October 1923, he was elected a deputy of İzmir and served as Minister of Justice in the 3rd, 4th and the 5th government of Turkey between 22 November 1924 – 27 September 1930. As Minister of Justice, he was member of the Reform Council for the East () who prepared the Report for Reform in the East () which recommended to resettlement of the Kurds and the prohibition of non-Turkish languages. It was Mahmut Esat, who introduced the Swiss Civil Code in Turkey in 1926. Mahmut Esat is known as the progenitor of Turkish civil code. The preamble of the code written by Mahmut Esat is considered to reflect the philosophy of Turkish Revolution.

Later years.

After resigning from the post of Justice Minister, he became a professor at Ankara University and taught International law at the Law School and Constitutional law at the Faculty of Political Science. He authored the books "Lotus Davasında Türkiye-Fransa Müdafaaları" (1927), "Türk İhtilalinde Vatan Müdafaası" (1934), "Türk Köylü ve İşçilerinin Hakları" (1939), "Devletlerarası Hak" (1940), "Atatürk İhtilali" (1940) and "Aksak Timur’un Devlet Politikası" (1943).  He died from intracerebral hemorrhage in Istanbul on 21 December 1943.

"Lotus" case.

Mahmut Esat was also known by his struggles in an international trial named the "Lotus" case. On 2 August 1926, a French streamship named S.S. "Lotus" collided on high seas with the Turkish steamer S.S. "Boz-Kourt" causing the death of eight Turkish seamen. As the lieutenant on watch duty of the French vessel was arrested by the Turkish government, French government accused Turkey in the Permanent Court of International Justice claiming that Turkey had no right to arrest any French person. The French side was represented in court by the renowned law professor Jules Basdevant. Mahmut Esat personally defended the Turkish position in court. The court rejected France's position.

Mahmut Esat Bozkurt (1892–21 December 1943) was a Turkish jurist, politician, government minister and academic. His birth name was Mahmut Esat. But after the adaptation of the Turkish Surname Law in 1934, he chose the surname "Bozkurt" in remembrance of the Grey Wolf, a symbol for Turkdom. The surname also refers to Turkish steamer S.S. "Bozkurt" in Lotus case.

Mahmut Esat Bozkurt (* 1892 in Kuşadası; † 21. Dezember 1943 in Istanbul) war ein türkischer Jurist und Politiker. Bozkurt war 1922/23 Wirtschaftsminister und von 1924 bis 1930 Justizminister.


Organisation.

The Transbaikal Cossack Host was one of those created during the 19th century as the Russian Empire expanded to the Far East and South-East. It remained smaller than the Don Cossacks and other longer-established Hosts. The Transbaikal Cossack Host partially consisted of Siberian Cossaks, Buryats, Evenk (Tungus) military units, and included the peasant population of some of the regions. The military component included three cavalry regiments and three unmounted brigades. Its main purpose was to patrol the Sino-Russian border and perform everyday military duties in the region. The official leader of the Transbaikal Cossack Host had the title of "Nakazny ataman" ("the one who was appointed"). From 1872 he also served as military governor of the Transbaikal oblast, which had with its headquarters in Chita.  In the early 20th century, the Transbaikal Cossack Host normally supplied one "polusotnya" (fifty men) of guards for rural policing work, four cavalry regiments, and two batteries in time of peace. During World War I, the Host expanded to one polusotnya, nine cavalry regiments, four batteries, and three reserve "sotnyas" (each of one hundred men). In 1916, the Cossack population of the Transbaikal Cossack Host numbered 265,000 people, out of which 14,500 men served in the military.

History.

The Transbaikal Cossack Army is known to have participated in the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion in 1899-1901, the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, and World War I. During the Russian Civil War, the more prosperous Cossacks joined the ranks of the anti-Soviet armies of General Grigory Semenov and baron Roman Ungern. The poorer Cossacks took an active part in the guerrilla movement.  In 1920 at the end of the Russian Civil War, the Transbaikal Cossack Host was disbanded.  However, the remnant of Baikal Cossacks fled to Manchuria and some of their troops came under Manchukuo Imperial Army to resist Soviet Union.

Distinctions.

The distinguishing colour of the Transbaikal Cossack Host was yellow; worn on the cap bands, epaulettes and wide trouser stripes of a dark green uniform of the loose-fitting cut common to the Steppe Cossacks. Individual regiments were distinguished by numbers on the epaulettes. High lambs-wool hats (papakha) were worn on occasion, with yellow cloth tops. From 1908 the new khaki service jacket of the regular Russian cavalry was adopted, but the yellow shoulder straps of the full dress uniform were retained, as was yellow piping on the blue/grey breeches.

Baikal Cossacks were Cossacks of the Transbaikal Cossack Host (); a Cossack host formed in 1851 in the areas beyond Lake Baikal (hence, Transbaikal).

Das Baikal-Kosakenheer (: Забайкальское казачье войско), auch Transbaikal-Kosakenheer, wurde per Dekret des russischen Zaren Nikolaus I. (* 1796; † 1855) am 17. März 1851 als ein vereinigtes Regiment von Sibirischen Kosaken, Tungusen und Burjaten aufgestellt und zählte zu den 11 Kosakenheeren der Kaiserlich-russischen Armee. Daraus entwickelten sich zunächst das Baikal-Kosakenheer und danach das Transbaikal-Kosakenheer. Sie wurden 1922 von den Sowjets aufgelöst und 1991 durch Präsident Wladimir Wladimirowitsch Putin reaktiviert.


Exhibits and amenities.

The museum occupies the lower three floors of the renovated Haus zur Enge, a ten-story mixed-use building located in the Enge quarter across from the Zürich Enge railway station and the FIFA-owned Hotel Ascot. The building also contains a sports bar, a bistro, a café, a library, a museum shop and conference rooms; the upper floors have office spaces and 34 luxury apartments.  The museum shows over 1,000 objects. Exhibits include memorabilia from every FIFA World Cup and FIFA Women's World Cup, the most famous one being the original FIFA World Cup Trophy. The exhibition features various interactive and multimedia installations such as the biggest pinball machine ever made and an audiovisual media installation called "Visions of Football" using 8 meter LED screens. In 2017, the museum was nominated for the German Design Award.  Every year the museum participates in Zürich's Long Night of Museums.

History.

Plans for a museum dedicated to the history of world football to be located in Zürich were proposed by FIFA president Sepp Blatter and the FIFA Executive Committee in 2012. In April 2013, FIFA signed a 40-year lease with Swiss Life for the Haus zur Enge, which would be dismantled and rebuilt to house the museum; an earlier proposal would have had a museum on the grounds of the FIFA headquarters. The City of Zürich Building Authority approved planning permission for the museum in November 2013.  Construction on the renovated Haus zur Enge began in 2014 and was completed in December 2015.  The 30 million Fr. ($30 million USD) museum opened on 28 February 2016, during a ceremony presided by the newly elected president of FIFA, Gianni Infantino.

The FIFA World Football Museum is an association football museum owned and operated by FIFA. The museum is located in Zürich, Switzerland, across town from the FIFA headquarters. It opened on 28 February 2016.

Das FIFA World Football Museum ist ein Museum in Zürich, das der Geschichte und Entwicklung des internationalen Fussballs gewidmet ist.


Early life and education.

Silikyan was born in the town of Vartashen in the Nukhinsky Uyezd of Elisabethpol Governorate (present-day Oguz in Azerbaijan), then part of the Russian Empire. He was of Udi origin.  Silikyan graduated from the Moscow Military Gymnasium, Alexandrople Military School and the officer rifle school.

Military career.

From 1884 Silikyan served in the Russian Army, being promoted from battalion adjutant to division commander. On the eve of the First World War, he was the deputy commander of the forces stationed in Yerevan, part of the Caucasus Army.

World War I - Caucasus Campaign.

In 1915 during the early stages of World War I, Colonel Silikyan commanded a regiment during the Van Resistance. In 1916, he took part in the taking of Mush during the Battle of Mush. He also gained Bitlis during the Battle of Bitlis. He participated in the assault of the Battle of Erzerum.  After his regiment entered Erzurum, Silikyan was promoted to General. He was rewarded with many governmental honors, including the Order of St. George following his 1916 victories in the Battles of Erzerum and Bitlis. He was promoted to Major General before the Russian Revolution.

First Republic of Armenia.

After the Russian Revolution of 1917, the Russian Caucasus Army disintegrated and Silikyan left the Russian army. People from Georgia, Azerbaijan and Armenia struggled to determine how to proceed, and began to organize their own military forces and governments.  When the Armenians reorganized their units, Silikyan became the commander of the 1st Armenian rifle division in January 1918. In 1918, he effectively commanded the Armenian forces in Yerevan. With the declaration of independence of the First Republic of Armenia on April 24, 1918, his forces united under the Armenian military. Within a short period, Silikyan created combat-effective regular units and prepared them to repulse the forces of the Ottoman Empire, which was struggling to impose control in areas populated by Armenians.  On 3 March 1918 the Grand vizier Talat Pasha signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Russian SFSR. It stipulated that Bolshevik Russia cede Batum, Kars, and Ardahan, which were within Armenia, to the Ottoman Empire. The First Republic of Armenia did not accept the loss of its territory, and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk acknowledged the state of war between Armenia and the Ottoman Empire.  In May 1918, the Ottoman Third Army began to advance toward Batum, Kars, and Ardahan. Silikyan commanded the regular troops and militia. In the Battle of Sardarabad and the Battle of Bash Abaran, his forces defeated those of the Ottoman Empire. The Armenian Army included numerous talented military officers of the time: Andranik Ozanyan, Drastamat Kanayan, Garegin Nzhdeh, Christophor Araratov, and Ivan Bagramyan, the future Marshal of the Soviet Union.  The First Republic of Armenia was forced to negotiate a treaty with the Ottoman Empire.  In the aftermath of World War I, the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the concessions imposed upon it, a Turkish nationalist movement was organized. By 1920 it had gained an alliance with the Bolsheviks, who were also opposed to the Western powers. By the fall of 1920, Turkish revolutionaries started the Turkish-Armenian War in an attempt to recover four provinces allotted to Armenia. Silikyan commanded Armenian troops against Turkish forces, which had been fortified by the Russian Bolsheviks under Vladimir Lenin.

Transcaucasian SFSR.

The Bolsheviks took over Armenia and established the Transcaucasian SFSR. Afterward Silikyan was appointed to a number of positions with the Soviets.  In 1937 during Joseph Stalin's Great Purge against the military and other suspected enemies, his secret police arrested Silikyan, imprisoned him and finally executed him in Nork gorge, together with Christophor Araratov and other military heroes of Sardarabad. The charges were "nationalism," as they had earlier fought for an independent Armenian state. Their awards were stripped from them, in some cases their family members were sent to the Gulag labor camps, and their names were removed from acknowledgement in history books.  Following Stalin's death in 1953, since the late 1950s and the era of Nikita Khrushchev, Silikyan and hundreds of thousands of other victims of Soviet repression have been "rehabilitated" politically and socially. The Soviet Union acknowledged that many people had been falsely charged and convicted during the political repression of the excesses of Stalin's regime. This has enabled full recognition of Silikyan's military achievements.

Legacy and honors.

These were restored to him (his descendants) after rehabilitation.

Movses Silikyan (,, Movses Silikov) (1862 – 10 December 1937) was an Armenian general and national hero of World War I. He served as a major general in the Russian Imperial Army before the Bolshevik Revolution.

Mowses Silikjan (, ; * 26. September 1862 in Vartashen; † 1937 in Jerewan) war ein armenischer General, der bis 1918 in der russischen Armee diente und durch seinen Kampf gegen die Türken zum armenischen Nationalhelden wurde.


History.

Khatyrka is one of the oldest settlements in Anadyrsky district, having been founded around 1756. The name of the village and the nearby river was taken from the cape first mapped by the naval officer Sarychyevym, but first visited by the merchants Bakov and Novikov.  The Chuckchi call the place Vatyrkan, meaning dry or exhausted as the area surrounding the village is used for reindeer grazing. There are currently two brigades operating as the Khatyrskoye municipal agricultural unitary enterprise, tending for around 2000 reindeer on the tundra. Within the village, the cultural centre supports the national ensemble "Chukotka Dawns" ().

Demographics.

The population according to the 2010 census was 377, of which 191 were male and 186 female, which is essentially in line with an April 2003 estimate, which recorded the population at 375, of which around 87% are of indigenous origin.

Economy.

The main occupations revolve around traditional indigenous economic activities of fishing and hunting, both on land and sea. There is also a successful reindeer herding enterprise on the pastures surrounding Khatyrka with around four hundred heads. Although this is a traditional enterprise among many Arctic peoples, these formerly nomadic enterprises were grouped together in the Soviet Union to form a collective farm (kolkhoz).  Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, almost all government support was removed from the state farms as the market economy took over. However, unlike in villages such as Alkatvaam and Tavayvaam, when the state farm became the Municipal Unitary Enterprise of Rural Agricultural Producers, the herders were able to continue their livelihood.  There is an irony that the traditional economic driver of reindeer herding is succeeding here for the time being when it has either disappeared or been significantly reduced elsewhere given that the name of the village used by the Chukchi is "Vatyrkan" which translates as ""a dry, exhausted land"", despite the pastures surrounding the village.  As with many Chukotkan villages, Khatyrka has a traditional Chukchi ensemble and a cultural center. Additionally, the village has a new secondary boarding school, kindergarten, local hospital, recreation center, library, post office, communications center, shop and a bakery. The main occupation of the inhabitants is livestock. Brigades herd reindeer on pastures in the vicinity of the village above the river. In the village the municipal agricultural enterprise "Khatyrskoye" is based to run the reindeer herding operations. The village is also involved in traditional fishing and hunting of sea mammals, and a fish processing plant operates to service this. In 2011 the company launched a new slaughterhouse complex. Electricity is provided to the village by a local generator.

Transport.

Khatyrka is not connected to any other inhabited place by any permanent road being situated on the coast at the mouth of the River Khatyrka. There is however, a number of roads within the village, including:  A helicopter service to Anadyr is provided once or twice a month.

Administrative vs. municipal jurisdiction.

Until July 2008, Khatyrka was a part of both Beringovsky Municipal and Beringnovsky Administrative District. In May 2008, Beringovsky Municipal District was merged into Anadyrsky Municipal District; however, this change did not affect the borders of Beringovsky Administrative District. Khatyrka continued to administratively be a part of the latter until June 2011, when Beringovsky Administrative District was merged into Anadyrsky Administrative District and ceased to exist.

Climate.

Khatyrka has a tundra climate (Köppen "ET") because the warmest month has an average temperature between and.

Khatyrka () is a rural locality (a "selo") in Anadyrsky District of Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, Russia, located on the shore of the Bering Sea southwest of Beringovsky. Population: with an estimated population as of 1 January 2015 of 349. Municipally, it is incorporated as Khatyrka Rural Settlement.

Chatyrka () ist ein Dorf "(selo)" im Autonomen Kreis der Tschuktschen (Russland) mit Einwohnern (Stand ). Der Ort liegt an der Mündung des gleichnamigen Flusses ins Beringmeer.


Biography.

Early Life.

John Shaw Billings was born on April 12, 1838 in Allensville, Switzerland County in Indiana. In the century before, his father's family moved to Syracuse, New York after leaving England in 1654. His father was born in Saratoga, New York and was kin of William Billings. Billings' mother, Abby Shaw Billings, was born in Raynham, Massachusetts. In 1843, Billings' family moved to Rhode Island and later returned to Allensville, Indiana in 1848 due to the father's relocation of career as a postmaster. During his childhood, Billings received education in both Providence, Rhode Island and Indiana. He inherited his mother's love for reading and learned Latin and Greek. Due to his love for learning and education, he agreed to renounce any inheritance if his father allowed him to attend college. In 1852, at the age of fourteen, Billings entered Miami University in Oxford, Ohio. Through his five years at the university, he spent most of his time reading in the library. In 1857, Billings graduated from Miami University second in his class and was admitted a year later to Cincinnati's Medical College of Ohio, today the University of Cincinnati College of Medicine. Billings received his medical degree in 1860. His thesis on "The Surgical Treatment of Epilepsy" drew attention from the faculty as it provided accurate indications of the operations implemented at the time.

Civil War Medical Career.

Settling in Cincinnati, Billings decided to continue surgical practice. Hoping to improve hospital service on the battlefield, he became the anatomy demonstrator at the Cincinnati's Medical College. However, in 1861, he declined an offer to become a surgeon assistant. Instead in 1861, Billings went in for an examination for the regular army, becoming first of his class. However, no vacant spots were available in the regular corps, so he was appointed to be an assistant surgeon in Union Hospital in Georgetown. The year after, on April 16, Billings was commissioned first lieutenant, and then took charge of Cliffburne Hospital's development in Georgetown as Union Hospital's operations relocated to Cliffburne. In August of that year, he was transferred to Satterlee General Hospital, a new hospital in West Philadelphia. After serving as the Executive Officer at the hospital for several months, he was directed to the Army of the Potomac in March 1863 and was assigned to Sykes' Division of Meade's Corps in the 11th Infantry.

Post Civil War Medical Career.

After the Civil War, Billings assumed direction of the Army Surgeon General's library from about 1867 to 1895. During this time, Billings expanded the library from 2,300 to 124,000 volumes, making it the largest medical library in the Americas. When Billings inherited the library, its contents were listed primarily by author and secondarily by subject. Billings redesigned the catalog with author and subject indexes. However, his catalog could not meet the demands of increased publications, so he created a separate indexing system for medical periodicals, which became known as the "Index Medicus".  Billings supervised the collection and tabulation of vital statistics for the 1880 and 1890 U.S. Censuses and worked with the compilation of statistics. He played an important role as he introduced the punch-card system of calculating vital statistics with electro-mechanical methods, which was then implemented into the 1890 census.  After he left the Surgeon General's Office, he united the libraries of New York to form the New York Public Library from 1896 to 1913. The punch-card system he introduced in the U.S. Censuses was further used in the New York Public Library construction. It was Billings who inspired Andrew Carnegie to provide $5 million for the construction of sixty-five branch libraries throughout New York and 2509 libraries in cities and towns across North America and Britain. During the library's construction, Billings directed the re-cataloging of the works from the Lenox, Tilden, and Astor Foundations, which were used to form the Library in 1895. Billings also recruited a young man named Harry Miller Lydenberg to work as his personal assistant and head of reference. Lydenberg expanded upon the collection practices of Billings, and eventually served as Director of NYPL from 1934-1941.  Billings was the senior editor of books reporting the work of the Committee of Fifty to Investigate the Liquor Problem in the early 1900s. The Committee researched the activities and publications of the Department of Scientific Temperance Instruction of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU).

Affiliation with Johns Hopkins University.

Overview.

Billings' involvement with Johns Hopkins University began in the late 1870s with the initiation of his plans for the hospital and ended in 1889 with his rejection of the position of Hospital superintendent.

Hospital Architecture.

Billings is renowned for his work of planning the construction of the Johns Hopkins University Hospital. He is credited with designing the original buildings of Johns Hopkins Hospital, which opened in 1889, as well as conducting the national and international search for the initial faculty for Johns Hopkins University. He drafted organization and construction plans for the hospital in 1873 and also recommended the construction pavilion plan, which soon became a plan utilized across the nation. The design of the hospital was inspired by Billings' trips to several hospitals throughout Europe, where he learned the importance of cleanliness. He took European ideas of ventilation and applied them in the context of the hospital's environment, which was a crucial factor to consider in light of Baltimore's varying weather. In addition, Billings' intentionally included electrical wiring in his plans, at a time where electricity wasn't fully accessible by the hospital, highlighting his capacities in design. It is due to his contributions that the building with the hospital's trademark dome was subsequently named for Billings.

Hospital Infrastructure.

Billings was involved in the hospital's infrastructure, as he wrote numerous reports regarding the training of hospital staff and the organization of the hospital administration. He understood the importance of choosing who works in the hospital. By hiring the right people, Billings believed a lot of medical errors could be avoided, thus improving the efficacy of the hospital. One of such people was William Henry Welch, whom he recommended to President Daniel Coit Gilman for hiring.

Curriculum for Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine.

Billings served as the primary advisor to Gilman, in charge of engineering and implementing the initial educational infrastructure of Johns Hopkins School of Medicine. During a time period where masses of students were trained to become doctors, Billings made decisions to ensure the quality of the students who entered and graduated the School of Medicine. To achieve this, Billings harshened entrance requirements by requiring a bachelor's degree. Furthermore, he proposed that the curriculum be a four-year program consisting of small-sized classes.  Billings' proposed medical curricula and partitioning of faculty into departments based on specialties laid the foundation for the resurgence of modern medical schools in the United States. Department chairs of the medical school were jointly the heads of services at the Hopkins hospital, allowing both organizations to benefit from their expertise. Billings also played a significant role in the determination of the philosophy, structure, organization, and faculty of the Johns Hopkins Medical School.  Billings emphasized Hopkins' Medical School's unique location in Baltimore as something to be taken fully advantage of, knowing its potential for research about illnesses as well as the capacity to treat them effectively. Billings' therefore pressed for clinical laboratories at the School of Medicine, an idea inspired by other prestigious institutions such as Harvard and schools in Michigan and Pennsylvania.

Scientific Contributions.

Public Health Service.

Throughout the years of 1869 to 1874, Billings was appointed by the Secretary of the Treasury to inspect and report upon the hygienic conditions of the Marine Hospital Service. With this appointment, Billings was required to travel across the United States in order to inspect and provide recommendations for improving the sanitations policies of the hospitals. In accordance to Billings' recommendations, the Secretary of the Treasury acknowledged Billings' contributions to improving the hospitals by saying, "The condition of the marine hospitals has been improved during the past year. This result is largely due to Dr. J. S. Billings, of the Surgeon-General's Office, who has visited nearly all of them, and through whose advice many important changes have been made." His main contribution to the hospital service was take the organization methods out of political hands and affiliate it with those with military methods of organization. This became known as the Public Health Service, which is the branch of government that works with the medical personnel of the Army and Navy to further preventive medicine.

Yellow Fever.

In 1879 Billings with Dr. Charles F. Folsom, Colonel George E. Waring, Jr., and other members of the National Board of Health surveyed citizens of Memphis, Tennessee in order to gather data regarding the outbreak of yellow fever in the city. His recommendations to the city board members regarding the sanitation policies were described as a "miracle tonic" by local newspapers as yellow fever cases dropped following his visit. Billings details his findings about the disease in his article found in the "International Review" in January, 1880. In his article, he outlines the cause of the disease to be "a minute organism somewhat like the yeast plant, or it may be the product of such an organism, like alcohol". In addition to detailing the probable cause of the disease, Billings also wrote about observations he saw regarding the patients. These observations included where they had contracted they illness, physical symptoms, and possible transmission. He elaborates on the transmission process by saying in his article, "yellow fever can't go anywhere unless yer tote it", which served as the early theory for spread of yellow fever by mosquitoes.

Notable achievements.

Contributions to the National Library of Medicine.

A senior surgeon in the war, Billings built the Library of the Surgeon General's Office (now the National Library of Medicine), the centerpiece of modern medical information systems. Billings figured out how to analyze medical and demographic data mechanically by turning it into numbers and punching onto cardboard cards as developed by his assistant at the Census Office, Herman Hollerith. This was the origin of the computer punch card system that dominated statistical data manipulation until the 1970s. The punch cards were first used when Billings acted as a supervisor for the Eleventh (1890) Census, and were quickly adapted by census bureaus, insurance companies and large corporations around the world. He came up with the idea for the library when working on his doctoral thesis when he discovered that there was not one library that had the resources needed for his research. To fix this, John Shaw Billings built a collection and also created Index-catalogues. By the time Billings retired from the army, he had already collected 116,847 books and 191,598 pamphlets. This collection made up the National Library of Medicine and it has grown ever since.

Billings' Building.

Billings was known for his expertise in hospital construction since the Civil War. He played a significant role in designing the Johns Hopkins Hospital, making the plans and perfecting the layout perfect for teaching. Billings also helped plan the building of six other institutions, including another hospital. He is recognized for the contributions he made to the U.S. Army. His successful organization of army hospitals set him up for a continuing career in hospital planning. Despite many changes since opening in 1889, the main entrance of Johns Hopkins Hospital remains the same and is known as the Billing's Building.

Personal life.

Billings married Kate M. Stevens on September 3, 1862 in St. John's Church, Georgetown (Washington, D.C.). They had five children. His wife died on August 19, 1912, which was a tremendous blow to Billings. During the last several years of his life, he developed a cancer of the lip in 1890 and was diagnosed with bilary calculus, causing him to undergo operation for his cancer and for the removal of his gall bladder. On March 11, 1913, Billings died of pneumonia after an operation for urinary calculus at the age of 74 in New York City. He was buried at Arlington National Cemetery with military honors.  His portrait, painted by Cecilia Beaux, hangs in the Main Reading Room of the U.S. National Library of Medicine, where several collections of his papers are located.

Works.

Among his publications are:

John Shaw Billings (April 12, 1838 – March 11, 1913) was an American librarian, building designer, and surgeon. However, he is best known as the modernizer of the Library of the Surgeon General's Office of the Army. His work with Andrew Carnegie led to the development and his service as the first director of the New York Public Library. Billings oversaw the building of the Surgeon General's Library, which was the nation's first comprehensive library for medicine. Because of his approach to improving public health and hospitals, Billings headed the U.S. Census Office's division of Vital Statistics and oversaw statistical compilation of censuses. With Robert Fletcher, Billings developed "Index Medicus", a monthly guide to contemporary medicine that ran for 16 months until his retirement at the Medical Museum and Library. At the latter end of his work with the military, Billings aided the United States' Secretary of the Treasury in adjusting the organization of the military hospitals. With his growing credibility in the medical field, Billings also oversaw work done to aid those struggling with yellow fever. He also served as Johns Hopkins Hospital's medical advisor, authored reports regarding criteria for medical and nursing curricula, and hospital design. Although his name is not included in the infamous "Big Four" at Hopkins, Billings made major contributions, by the means of the Johns Hopkins Hospital's architecture, infrastructure, and curriculum for the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine.

John Shaw Billings (* 12. April 1838 im Switzerland County, Indiana; † 11. März 1913 (nach anderen Angaben am 10. März 1913) in New York, New York) war ein US-amerikanischer Chirurg und Bibliothekar. Er ist vor allem als eigentlicher „Begründer“ der "Library of the Surgeon General’s Office" bekannt, der heutigen United States National Library of Medicine.


Playing career.

Juniors.

Cirelli started his junior career with the Oshawa Generals of the Ontario Hockey League. Cirelli went undrafted in the OHL draft, and would end up making the team as a walk-on. Cirelli scored the game-winning goal in overtime against the Kelowna Rockets in the 2015 Memorial Cup. On June 27, 2015, the Tampa Bay Lightning selected Cirelli 72nd overall in the 3rd round of the 2015 NHL Entry Draft. On January 28, 2016, Cirelli was named as captain of the Generals. On May 19, 2016, the Lightning signed Cirelli to a three-year entry level contract.  On January 9, 2017, Cirelli was traded by the Oshawa Generals to the Erie Otters. Cirelli would go on to help the Otters capture the J. Ross Robertson Cup, which is awarded to the champion of the OHL. However, the Otters would ultimately fall in the championship game to the Memorial Cup Tournament host Windsor Spitfires in the 2017 Memorial Cup.

Professional.

On March 1, 2018, Cirelli was recalled by the Tampa Bay Lightning from the Syracuse Crunch of the American Hockey League. Prior to his recall Cirelli was enjoying a productive rookie season with the Crunch. He had appeared in 51 games where he had 14-goals and 37 points. Cirelli would make his NHL debut that night against the Dallas Stars at American Airlines Center. Cirelli recorded his first career NHL goal and assist in the game, which resulted in a 5–4 overtime win. Cirelli also became only the fourth player in Lightning history to have a multiple point game in their NHL debut. On April 12, 2018, Cirelli made his NHL Stanley Cup Playoff debut in a 5–2 Lightning victory over the visiting New Jersey Devils. On April 21, 2018, Cirelli recorded his first career playoff assist and point in a 3–1 Lightning series clinching win over the New Jersey Devils. On May 2, 2018, he recorded his first career playoff goal in a 4–1 win over the Boston Bruins.

International play.

On April 29, 2019, Cirelli was selected to make his full international debut after he was named to the Team Canada roster for the 2019 IIHF World Championship, held in Slovakia. He helped Canada progress through to the playoff rounds before losing the final to Finland to finish with the Silver Medal on May 26, 2019. Cirelli finished the tournament posting 3 goals and 4 points in 10 games.

Anthony Cirelli (born July 15, 1997) is a Canadian professional ice hockey center who is currently playing for the Tampa Bay Lightning of the National Hockey League (NHL). He was selected by the Lightning in the 3rd round (72nd overall) of the 2015 NHL Entry Draft.

Anthony Cirelli (* 15. Juli 1997 in Etobicoke, Ontario) ist ein kanadischer Eishockeyspieler, der seit Mai 2016 bei den Tampa Bay Lightning aus der National Hockey League unter Vertrag steht.


Development.

Many different subscale aircraft were tested first, and different design variants were studied where the wings would fold forward, so that the aircraft could be driven as a VTOL and recharge in only few hours from a standard 240 V electrical outlet. A first half-scale demonstrator, "Falcon", flew in 2015. The unmanned first flight of the two-seat "Eagle" full size prototype was on 20 April 2017 at the Mindelheim-Mattsies airfield, Bavaria, Germany.  The five-seat unmanned Lilium Jet is flight tested at Oberpfaffenhofen airfield near Munich. By October 2019, after 100 flights, it was transitioned from vertical to horizontal flight, reaching over, but not yet fully horizontal. It managed 25° banked turns, high ascent/descent rates like in operations, hover turns and sideward translations. Electrical, fan and flap failures were mitigated by the electrical and flight control systems. The company employs around 350 people in Munich and expects to create around 500 jobs by 2025.  In July 2019, Lilium announced London, UK as its base to develop its software engineering team. The engineering team is led by Carlos Morgado, former chief technology officer of Just Eat. Lilum announced the completion of its first manufacturing facility in October 2019. The same month, the Lilium five-seater Jet received a Red Dot Award: Design Concept for “Best of the Best”.  The first prototype was destroyed by fire during maintenance on 27 February 2020. A second partially-constructed prototype was undamaged.

Design.

The Lilium Jet is planned as a five-seater aircraft. It is powered by 36 electric motors with six of them on each of the two front wings and twelve on each rear wing. Additionally to the fixed part of the wings, the propellers and engines are each installed in twelve tiltable wing parts. They are referred to by the manufacturer in analogy to Landing flaps as flaps. The drive-carrying "flaps" are pivoted downwards for vertical launch. At the transition in the horizontal position, a forward thrust is generated. This is energetically much more economical than the lift by pure rotorcraft.  The five-seat Lilium Jet targets a range of, its 36 electric ducted fans are powered by a lithium-ion battery, less than are required to cruise.

Specifications.

The technical data is for the two-seater from the early phase of 2016.

Usage.

The Lilium GmbH plans to found an air taxi service for urban air mobility with the Lilium Jet. The company expects that pilots will be needed for around 10 years until autonomous flights can take over.

The Lilium Jet is a proposed German vertical take-off and landing electrically powered personal air vehicle designed by Lilium GmbH. The Lilium Jet five-seater prototype first flew in May 2019.

Der Lilium Jet ist ein 36-motoriges elektrisch angetriebenes, senkrecht startendes und landendes Luftfahrzeug des deutschen Herstellers Lilium. Es ist geplant, dass es fünf Personen autonom selbstgesteuert befördern und als Lufttaxi eingesetzt werden kann. Entgegen der verwendeten Bezeichnung „Jet“ besitzt das Fluggerät keine Strahltriebwerke, sondern schwenkbare Mantelpropeller.


Music career.

Gärdestad was a songwriter who co-wrote lyrics for many of his younger brother Ted Gärdestad's (1956–1997) songs. This included his Melodifestivalen song entries "Oh, vilken härlig dag" in 1973 and "Rockin' 'n' Reelin'" in 1975. As such, Gärdestad also won Melodifestivalen 1979 with Ted's song "Satellit". The song went on to represent Sweden in Eurovision 1979, finishing 17th during the final held in Jerusalem.  Gärdestad also competed in 2008 in the SVT music show "Doobidoo" along with Lotta Engberg. He took part again in Melodifestivalen in 2010, with lyrics for "Hur kan jag tro på kärlek?" performed by singer Erik Linder. The song placed fifth in the semi-final and was eliminated. In 2016, he was awarded the Musikförläggarnas pris, an honorary award for "many years of work for Swedish music and for creating timeless stories which he shares". In 2018, he won an honorary Grammis award, citing "his many years in the music industry and for his work in it, and many wonderful lyrics."

Tributes to his brother.

Gärdestad, with Keijo Liimatainen, wrote "Jag vill ha en egen måne" (2005), a biography about his brother Ted and the circumstances surrounding his suicide in 1997. In 2018, a biographical film about his brother, "", was released. Gärdestad took part in creating realistic scenes for the film and gave it his support. Peter Viitanen portrayed Kenneth Gärdestad in the film.  Gärdestad was a special guest on the show "Så mycket bättre" in 2016, which was broadcast on Swedish national television station TV4. The last episode of the 2016 season featured the season's chosen singers performing several of his brother's well-known hits, including "Helt nära dig" (interpreted by Little Jinder), "Sommarlängtan" (by Magnus Carlson), "Himlen är oskyldigt blå" (by Jill Johnson), "505 to Casablanca" (by Freddie Wadling), "Sol, vind och vatten" (by Lisa Ekdahl), "I den stora sorgens famn" (by Tommy Nilsson) and "För kärlekens skull" (by Danny Saucedo).

Architecture work.

Gärdestad was head architect at Kunskapsskolan from 2008 until his death, and designed many of the schools' rooms. Kunskapsskolan (literally "The Knowledge School") is a Swedish network of independent schools that provides education for students from grades 4 to 9 (ages 10 to 16). It also provides gymnasium schools for grades 10 to 12 (ages 16 to 19) in different areas of Sweden. Designed by Gärdestad, the architecture is very open, with glass and colourfully painted walls. There are 36 Kunskapskolan schools in Sweden.

Activism.

Gärdestad worked to educate and create understanding about psychological illness after his brother Ted's mental illness and suicide in 1997. He was the creator of the annual "Ted Gärdestad Stipend" awarded to amateur singers and songwriters since 1999 to promote their work. The prize includes a tribute concert.

Personal life.

Gärdestad's brother Ted was a noted Swedish singer who represented Sweden in Eurovision with one of Kenneth's songs. Their other brother Kjell (1944–2000) was also a songwriter who co-wrote the song "Viking" with Ted.

Death.

Kenneth Gärdestad revealed in 2014 that he was suffering from skin cancer and latent lymphoma. He died on 3 March 2018, aged 69.

John Charles Kenneth Gärdestad (9 May 1948 – 3 March 2018) was a Swedish songwriter, best known for writing lyrics for the songs of his brother, Ted Gärdestad. He won Melodifestivalen 1979 as a songwriter for "Satellit" performed by his brother. The song went on to Eurovision the same year, where it placed 17th. Gärdestad was also an architect, affiliated to the private Kunskapsskolan, where he designed the interior of several of its high schools. Gärdestad published the biography "Jag vill ha en egen måne" in 2005. In later years he became a mental health activist, and created the "Ted Gärdestad Stipend", a prize awarded to amateur singers and songwriter.

John Charles Kenneth Gärdestad (* 9. Mai 1948 in Sollentuna; † 3. März 2018 in der Kirchengemeinde Sollentuna) war ein schwedischer Songwriter und Architekt. Er wurde vor allem bekannt für die Arbeit für seinen Bruder Ted Gärdestad. 1979 gewann er zusammen mit seinem Bruder das Melodifestivalen mit dem Song "Satellit". Als Architekt war er unter anderem für 80 sogenannte Wissensschulen verantwortlich, dabei handelte es sich um unabhängige Schulen, die weltweit verbreitet sind und eine spezielle Architektur haben.


Etymology and taxonomy.

Danish zoologist Morten Thrane Brünnich described the species in 1788. The genus name "Lampris" is derived from the Ancient Greek word "lampros", meaning "brilliant" or "clear", while the Latin species name "guttatus" means "spotted" and refers to the spotted body of this fish.  Although traditionally recognized as one of only two species of opah, the other being the southern opah ("L. immaculatus"), a review in 2018 found that the widely distributed ""L. guttatus"" consists of five distinct groups that differ in geographic range, genetics, morphology and meristics: North Atlantic opah ("L. guttatus") of the northeast Atlantic including the North Sea and Mediterranean, East Atlantic opah ("L. lauta") of the subtropical and warm temperate northeast Atlantic including the Mediterranean, southern spotted opah ("L. australensis") of the subtropical and warm temperate Southern Hemisphere, smalleye Pacific opah ("L. incognitus") of the central and northeast Pacific, and bigeye Pacific opah ("L. megalopsis") found in tropical and subtropical parts of the West Atlantic, Pacific, Indian oceans.

Description.

"Lampris guttatus" is a large discoid and deeply keeled fish with an attractive form and a conspicuous coloration. They can reach a maximum length of and a maximum weight of. The body is a deep steely blue grading to rosy on the belly, with white spots in irregular rows covering the flanks. Both the median and paired fins are a bright vermillion. Jaws are vermillion, too. The large eyes stand out as well, ringed with golden yellow. The body is covered in minute cycloid scales and its silvery, iridescent guanine coating is easily abraded. They have long falcated pectoral fins inserted (more or less) horizontally. The caudal fins are broadly lunated, forked, and emarginated. The pelvic fins are similar but a little longer than pectoral fins, with about 14–17 rays. The anterior portion of a dorsal fin (with about 50–55 rays) is greatly elongated, also in a falcate profile similar to the pelvic fins. The anal fin (34–41 rays) is about as high and as long as the shorter portion of the dorsal fin, and both fins have corresponding grooves into which they can be depressed. The snout is pointed and the mouth small, toothless, and terminal. The lateral line forms a high arch over the pectoral fins before sweeping down to the caudal peduncle.

Endothermy.

In May 2015, "L. guttatus" was shown to maintain its "entire" body core above ambient temperature, becoming the first known fish with this trait ('whole-body endothermy'). The fish generates heat as well as propulsion with continuous movements of its pectoral fins (the musculature of which is insulated by a one-cm-thick layer of fat), and the vasculature of its gill tissue is arranged to conserve heat by a process of countercurrent heat exchange, a structure known as a rete mirabile (plural, retia). It can consistently keep its body core approximately 5 °C warmer than its environment. Elevated body core temperature should improve aerobic performance and physiologic function. Other adaptions of "L. guttatus" to increase aerobic performance include high hematocrit and a relatively large heart, gill surface area and aerobic muscle mass. These adaptations for high performance predation are similar to those found in tuna and lamnid sharks, which actively chase down their prey, but are very unusual among lampridiform fish, which are mostly sluggish ambush predators.  Previously, "L. guttatus" was known to exhibit cranial endothermy, generating and maintaining metabolic heat in the cranial and optic regions to keep them 2 °C warmer than the rest of the body. This adaptation is important for maintaining brain and eye function during the wide range of temperatures it experiences with its vertical movements.  Most fish are completely cold-blooded. Some, such as tuna and lamnid sharks (such as the salmon shark), have evolved regional endothermy, in which parts of the body core are kept at a warmer temperature. These fish have retia arranged to warm muscles used for propulsion, and some visceral organs, while other organs, such as the heart, remain cooler. Only "L. guttatus" is known to have retia within its gill arches (which are also insulated by fat), an arrangement that warms the entire body core including the heart.

Distribution and habitat.

"Lampris guttatus" has a worldwide distribution, from the Grand Banks to Argentina in the Western Atlantic, from Norway and Greenland to Senegal and south to Angola in the Eastern Atlantic (also in the Mediterranean), from the Gulf of Alaska to southern California in the Eastern Pacific, in temperate waters of the Indian Ocean, and rare forays into the Southern Ocean.  This species is presumed to live out its entire life in the open ocean, at mesopelagic depths of, with possible forays into the bathypelagic zone. Typically, it is found within water at 8 to 22 °C. To better understand the depths "L. guttatus" inhabited in the tropical and temperate ocean waters, a study was performed, tagging them in the central North Pacific. Their location was found to be related to a temporal scale, inhabiting depths of 50–100 m during the night and 100–400 m during the day. The depths of the vertical habitat varied with local oceanogeographic conditions, though the patterns of deeper depths during the day is universal to the species.  The endothermy of "Lampris guttatus" gives them a major advantage at the depths where they live. Since they are relatively warm-blooded at those depths compared to the water around them, they can move more quickly to hunt prey. Most predators at such low depths do not have the energy to be able to move much and therefore must wait for prey to pass them.

Behavior.

The life history and development of "L. guttatus" remains rather uncertain. They are apparently solitary, but are known to school with tuna and other scombrids. They propel themselves by a lift-based mode of swimming using their pectoral fins. This, together with their forked caudal fins and depressible median fins, indicates that they swim at constantly low speeds. They are able to swim at over 25 cm/s, and one was even observed reaching 4 m/s in a burst of speed.  Like many other large pelagic visual predators, such as swordfish and big-eye tuna, they exhibit vertical behavior. Based on those caught off the Hawaiian coast, squid and krill make up the bulk of their diet, though they also consume small fish. Those caught along the Patagonian Shelf also showed a narrow range of prey, the most common of which was the deepwater onychotenhid squid ("Moroteuthis ingens").  They probably spawn in the spring. Their planktonic larvae lack dorsal and pelvic fins. The slender hatchlings undergo a marked and rapid transformation from a slender to deep-bodied form; this transformation is complete by 10.6 mm standard length.

Lampris guttatus, commonly known as the opah, cravo, moonfish, kingfish, and Jerusalem haddock, is a large, colorful, deep-bodied pelagic lampriform fish belonging to the family Lampridae, which comprises the genus "Lampris".

Lampris guttatus (engl.: North Atlantic Opah) ist eine Fischart aus der Gattung der Gotteslachse ("Lampris"), die im östlichen Atlantik, in der Irischen See, in der Nordsee und im Mittelmeer vorkommt. Die Art wurde im Jahr 1788 durch den dänischen Zoologen Morten Thrane Brünnich als "Zeus guttatus" erstmals beschrieben, also den Petersfischen zugeordnet. Die Beschreibung basierte auf einem in der Nordsee gefangenen Exemplar. Schon 1799 führte der schwedische Naturforscher Anders Jahan Retzius die Gattung "Lampris" für die Art ein. Bis auf den 1904 beschriebenen "Lampris immaculatus" wurden alle weiteren im Folgenden beschrieben Gotteslachsarten später mit "Lampris guttatus" synonymisiert. So nahm man eine fast weltweite Verbreitung der Art an. Eine auf DNA-Vergleichen beruhende Untersuchung aus dem Jahr 2014 ergab allerdings, das sich hinter der Bezeichnung "Lampris guttatus" fünf kryptische Arten verbargen. Deshalb wurde "Lampris lauta" in einer im April 2018 veröffentlichten Revision der Gattung wieder zu einer eigenständigen, von "Lampris guttatus" zu unterscheidenden Art und drei weitere Gotteslachsarten wurden neu beschrieben.


Early and personal life.

He was born Nils Johan Nilsen to a Norwegian family in Seljeskog in Salangen on 3 June 1894, as the oldest of six children. As a child, Nelsen was an active skier and ski jumper, with more than fifteen ski jumps located in the area. In 1913, his family emigrated to Big Eddy near Revelstoke. Once in Canada, he anglicized his name. His brother, Ivind Nilsen was also a champion ski jumper, and became among other things Boy's World Champion in 1922. Ivind, who chose not to anglicize his last name, was known for his supreme style, while Nels was better known for his length. Nelsen married Emma Pickard, with whom he had ten children. Except for a brief period as a ski instructor, he worked as a brakeman and conductor for the Canadian Pacific Railway, whose flexibility made it easier to participate in tournaments. He moved to North Vancouver where he raised his 10 kids with his wife Emma Picard.

Athletic career.

Nelsen won the home-town Winter Carnival Tournament, setting the hill record of 56 meters (183 ft) in Big Hill in the inauguration tournament in 1916. With this and subsequent better distances, he would hold the hill record in Revelstoke until 1932. In 1916, he won the Championship of Canada Ski Jumping Contest, which he would subsequently defend every year until 1920. He continued by setting the Canadian amateur record in 1920, and breaking it again in 1921 and 1923. He was among the most successful jumpers in Canada from 1916 to 1925, taking home most trophies. Among his methods to improve his jumps was placing pieces of lead at the front or back of the skies to give optimal balance. Nelsen traveled throughout Canada and the United States to attend ski jumping competitions. In British Columbia, he attended competitions in Nelson, Trail, Rossland, Princeton, Kamloops, Sandon, Nakusp, Kimberley and Cranbrook. In Alberta, he attended tournaments in Calgary, Edmonton, Banff and Camrose; in eastern Canada in Ottawa and Montreal. In the United States, he attended events in Mount Rainier and Leavenworth in Washington; Dillon, Steamboat Springs and Denver in Colorado; Salt Lake City; and Brattleboro, Vermont. He became Canadian champion five times, in 1917, 1918, 1919, 1920 and 1922. His various best jumps were Canadian records from 1916 to 1932.  During the 1925 Winter Carnival Tournament, Nelsen, sick with influenza, set a world record at the Big Hill. Jumping 73 meters (240 ft), the record remained until it was broken by Adolph Badrut at Bernina-Roseg-Schanze in Switzerland in 1930, who jumped. However, Bob Lymburne was able to again claim the world record for the Big Hill, when he jumped in 1932. Although accepted as a record, it was not at the time favored in Europe to stress distance records. This was because it was regarded that simply building a larger hill would undoubtedly give a longer jump, and in part because such records did not take style into consideration. Nelsen and Melbourne McKenzie planned to travel to St. Moritz, Switzerland, to attend the 1928 Winter Olympics, but lack of funding meant that they planned for work for their fare on a freighter. These plans were stopped by officials from the British delegation, who felt it was inappropriate and not fitting for the team, and Nelsen never competed in any Winter Olympics. Nelsen kept his amateur status, but did well against professionals those times he competed against them. During the winter of 1932, he worked as a ski instructor in Quebec. In a hunting accident in 1932, he lost an arm, and never jumped again.

Organizer career and legacy.

After arriving in Revelstoke, Nelsen was instrumental in the establishment of Revelstoke Ski Club and the Big Hill located within Mount Revelstoke National Park. In 1927, he helped establish a ski jump in Grouse Mountain in North Vancouver. After his accident, he started working to establish Field Ski Club in Field, British Columbia, where he spent time between trains. He promoted a strict adherence to the amateur code, and stated that debates regarding professionalism were disruptive for the United States National Ski Association.  Traditionally, governing of skiing in Canada was split between the Canadian Amateur Ski Association (CASA) and the Western Canada Amateur Ski Association (WCASA). Nelsen was the latter's president, and after years of rivalry, which even reached the point where they did not recognize each other, Nelsen eventually was part of the negotiation for an amalgamation which took into consideration the needs of the western clubs. Nelsen subsequently became vice-president of CASA from 1934.  He died of heart failure in Field on 3 June 1943—his 49th birthday. In 1948, after Big Hill had been expanded, it was renamed Nels Nelsen Hill. Nelsen was inscribed in the U.S. National Ski Hall of Fame in 1971, the Canadian Ski Hall of Fame in 1983, and the following year in the BC Sports Hall of Fame.

Ski jumping world records.

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Nels Nelsen (3 June 1894 – 3 June 1943), born Nils Johan Nilsen and sometimes referred to as Nels Nelson, was a Norwegian-born Canadian ski jumper active between 1916 and 1932. Later he was ski jumping organizer. He was among the world's best ski jumpers during the 1920s, and held the world record of 73 meters from 1925 to 1930. Born in Salangen, he moved with his family to Revelstoke, British Columbia, in 1912. Credited with bringing the sport of ski jumping to Canada, he made his debut on the nearby Big Hill in 1915. He competed throughout Canada and the United States, and became Canadian champion five times. Despite holding the world record at the time, he was not allowed to participate in the 1928 Winter Olympics because the officials did not find it suitable for him to have to work his way to Switzerland.

Nels Nelsen (geboren am 3. Juni 1894 in Salangen, Norwegen als "Nils Johan Nilsen"; gestorben am 3. Juni 1943 in Field, British Columbia, Kanada; auch "Nels Nelson") war ein kanadischer Skispringer norwegischer Herkunft. Er war einer der weltbesten Skispringer während der 1920er-Jahre und hielt mit einer Weite über 73 Meter zwischen 1925 und 1930 den Weltrekord in dieser Sportart. Geboren im norwegischen Salangen, zog er 1912 mit seiner Familie nach Revelstoke. Später wurde ihm zugerechnet, das Skispringen nach Kanada gebracht zu haben. Sein Debüt gab er 1915 am nahegelegenen „Big Hill“ Revelstokes. In den folgenden Jahren nahm er an Wettkämpfen in den Vereinigten Staaten und Kanada teil und wurde fünfmal Kanadischer Meister. Obwohl er zu jenem Zeitpunkt den Weltrekord hielt, durfte er nicht an den Olympischen Winterspielen 1928 teilnehmen.


History.

Development.

Matthias Felleisen founded PLT in the mid 1990s, first as a research group, soon after as a project dedicated to producing pedagogic materials for novice programmers (lectures, exercises/projects, software). In January 1995, the group decided to develop a pedagogic programming environment based on Scheme. Matthew Flatt cobbled together MrEd, the original virtual machine for Racket, from libscheme, wxWidgets, and a few other free systems. In the years that followed, a team including Flatt, Robby Findler, Shriram Krishnamurthi, Cormac Flanagan, and many others produced DrScheme, a programming environment for novice Scheme programmers and a research environment for soft typing. The main development language that DrScheme supported was named PLT Scheme.  In parallel, the team began conducting workshops for high school teachers, training them in program design and functional programming. Field tests with these teachers and their students provided essential clues for directing the development.  Over the following years, PLT added teaching languages, an algebraic stepper, a transparent read–eval–print loop, a constructor-based printer, and many other innovations to DrScheme, producing an application-quality pedagogic program development environment. By 2001, the core team (Felleisen, Findler, Flatt, Krishnamurthi) had also written and published their first textbook, "How to Design Programs", based on their teaching philosophy.  "The Racket Manifesto" details the principles driving the development of Racket, presents the evaluation framework behind the design process, and details opportunities for future improvements.

Version history.

The first generation of PLT Scheme revisions introduced features for programming in the large with both modules and classes. Version 42 introduced units – a first-class module system – to complement classes for large scale development. The class system gained features (e.g. Java-style interfaces) and also lost several features (e.g. multiple inheritance) throughout these versions. The language evolved throughout a number of successive versions, and gaining milestone popularity in Version 53, leading to extensive work and the following Version 100, which would be equivalent to a "1.0" release in current popular version systems.  The next major revision was named Version 200, which introduced a new default module system that cooperates with macros. In particular, the module system ensures that run-time and compile-time computation are separated to support a "tower of languages". Unlike units, these modules are not first-class objects.  Version 300 introduced Unicode support, foreign library support, and refinements to the class system. Later on, the 300 series improved the performance of the language runtime with an addition of a JIT compiler and a switch to a default generational garbage collection.  By the next major release, the project had switched to a more conventional sequence-based version numbering. Version 4.0 introduced the codice_1 shorthand to specify the language that a module is written in. Further, the revision introduced immutable pairs and lists, support for fine-grained parallelism, and a statically-typed dialect.  On 7 June 2010, PLT Scheme was renamed Racket. The renaming coincided with the release of Version 5.0. Subsequently, the graphical user interface (GUI) backend was rewritten in Racket from C++ in Version 5.1 using native UI toolkits on all platforms. Version 5.2 included a background syntax checking tool, a new plotting library, a database library, and a new extended REPL. Version 5.3 included a new submodule feature for optionally loaded modules, new optimization tools, a JSON library, and other features. Version 5.3.1 introduced major improvements to DrRacket: the background syntax checker was turned on by default and a new documentation preview tool was added.  In version 6.0, Racket released its second-generation package management system. As part of this development, the principal DrRacket and Racket repository was reorganized and split into a large set of small packages, making it possible to install a "minimal racket" and to install only those packages needed.  Version 7 of Racket was released with a new macro expander written in Racket as part the preparations for supporting moving to the Chez Scheme runtime system and supporting multiple runtime systems. On 19 November 2019, Racket 7.5 was released. The license of Racket 7.5 is less restrictive. They use now either the Apache 2.0 license or the MIT license.

Features.

Racket's core language includes macros, modules, lexical closures, tail calls, delimited continuations, parameters (fluid variables), software contracts, green and OS threads, and more. The language also comes with primitives, such as eventspaces and custodians, which control resource management and enables the language to act like an operating system for loading and managing other programs. Further extensions to the language are created with the powerful macro system, which together with the module system and custom parsers can control all aspects of a language. Unlike programming languages that lack macro systems, most language constructs in Racket are written on the base language using macros. These include a mixin class system, a component (or module) system as expressive as ML's opaque ascription, and pattern matching.  Further, the language features the first contract system for a higher-order programming language. Racket's contract system is inspired by the Design by Contract work for Eiffel and extends it to work for higher-order values such as first-class functions, objects, reference cells, and so on. For example, an object that is checked by a contract can be ensured to make contract checks when its methods are eventually invoked.  Racket includes both bytecode and JIT (JIT) compilers. The bytecode compiler that translates to an internal bytecode format that is run by the Racket virtual machine, with the JIT compiler translating bytecode to native code on x86, x86-64, ARM and PowerPC platforms at runtime.  Since 2004, the language has also shipped with PLaneT, a package manager that is integrated into the module system so that third-party libraries can be transparently imported and used. Also, PLaneT has a built-in versioning policy to prevent dependency hell.  At the end of 2014, much of Racket's code was moved into a new packaging system separate from the main code base. This new packaging system is serviced by a client program named "raco". The new package system provides fewer features than PLaneT; a blog post by Jay McCarthy on the Racket blog explains the rationale for the change and how to duplicate the older system.

Integrated Language Extensibility and Macros.

The features that most clearly distinguish Racket from other languages in the Lisp family are its integrated language extensibility features that support building new domain-specific and general-purpose languages. Racket's extensibility features are built into the module system to allow context-sensitive and module-level control over syntax. For example, the codice_2 syntactic form can be overridden to change the semantics of function application. Similarly, the codice_3 form allows arbitrary static analysis of the entire module. Since any module can be used as a language, via the codice_1 notation, this effectively means that virtually any aspect of the language can be programmed and controlled.  The module-level extensibility features are combined with a Scheme-like hygienic macro system, which provides more features than Lisp's s-expression manipulation system, Scheme 84's hygienic extend-syntax macros, or R5RS's syntax-rules. Indeed, it is fair to say that the macro system is a carefully tuned application programming interface (API) for compiler extensions. Using this compiler API, programmers can add features and entire domain-specific languages in a manner that makes them completely indistinguishable from built-in language constructs.  The macro system in Racket has been used to construct entire language dialects. This includes Typed Racket, which is a gradually typed dialect of Racket that eases the migration from untyped to typed code, Lazy Racket—a dialect with lazy evaluation, and Hackett, which combines Haskell and Racket. The pedagogical programming language Pyret was originally implemented in Racket.<ref name="Index of / 2017"></ref>  Other dialects include FrTime (functional reactive programming), Scribble (documentation language), Slideshow (presentation language), and several languages for education. Racket's core distribution provides libraries to aid the process of constructing new programming languages.  Such languages are not restricted to s-expression based syntax. In addition to conventional readtable-based syntax extensions, Racket's codice_1 makes it possible for a language programmer to define any arbitrary parser, for example, using the parser tools library. See Racket logic programming for an example of such a language.

Programming environment.

The language platform provides a self-hosted IDE named DrRacket, a continuation-based web server, a graphical user interface, and other tools. Racket is also a viable scripting tool and can be used for scripting the Unix shell. It can parse command line arguments, execute external tools and includes libraries like all common scripting languages.

DrRacket IDE.

DrRacket (formerly DrScheme) is widely used among introductory computer science courses that teach Scheme or Racket and is lauded for its simplicity and appeal to beginner programmers. The IDE was originally built for use with the TeachScheme! project (now ProgramByDesign), an outreach effort by Northeastern University and a number of affiliated universities for attracting high school students to computer science courses at the college level.  The editor provides source highlighting for syntax and run-time errors, parenthesis matching, a debugger and an algebraic stepper. Its student-friendly features include support for multiple "language levels" (Beginning Student, Intermediate Student and so on). It also has integrated library support, and sophisticated analysis tools for advanced programmers. Further, module-oriented programming is supported with the module browser, a contour view, integrated testing and coverage measurements, and refactoring support. It provides integrated, context-sensitive access to an extensive hyper-linked help system named "Help Desk".  DrRacket is available for Windows, macOS, Unix, and Linux with the X Window System and programs behave similarly on all these platforms.

Code examples.

Here is a trivial hello world program:  "Hello, World!"  Running this program produces the output:  Here is a slightly less trivial program: (require 2htdp/image)  This program, taken from the Racket website, draws a Sierpinski triangle, nested to depth 8.  Using the codice_1 directive, a source file can be written in different dialects of Racket. Here is an example of the factorial program in Typed Racket, a statically typed dialect of Racket:

Applications and practical use.

Apart from having a basis in programming language theory, Racket was designed to be used as a general-purpose language in production systems. Thus, the Racket distribution features an extensive library that covers systems and network programming, web development, a uniform interface to the underlying operating system, a dynamic foreign function interface, several flavours of regular expressions, lexer/parser generators, logic programming, and a complete GUI framework.  Racket has several features useful for a commercial language, among them an ability to generate standalone executables under Windows, macOS, and Unix, a profiler and debugger included in the integrated development environment (IDE), and a unit testing framework.  Racket has been used for commercial projects and web applications. A notable example is the Hacker News website, which runs on Arc, which is developed in Racket. Naughty Dog has used it as a scripting language in several of their video games.  Racket is used to teach students algebra through game design in the Bootstrap program.

Racket is a general-purpose, multi-paradigm programming language based on the Scheme dialect of Lisp. It is designed to be a platform for programming language design and implementation. In addition to the core Racket language, "Racket" is also used to refer to the family of programming languages and set of tools supporting development on and with Racket. Racket is also used for scripting, computer science education, and research.

Racket ist eine multi-paradigmatische Programmiersprache in der Lisp-Scheme-Familie. Sie ist Nachfolger des Scheme-Dialekts PLT Scheme. Racket ist auch eine integrierte Entwicklungsumgebung (IDE) mit umfangreicher Bibliothek.


Education.

Berger was raised in Brooklyn, NY, where he attended the Yeshiva of Flatbush for both elementary and high school. He received a Bachelor's degree from Yeshiva College in 1964; he majored in Classics and was class valedictorian. He then went on to Columbia University where he completed a Master of Arts degree in 1965 and his Doctor of Philosophy in 1970. He received rabbinic ordination from the Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary and is a member of the Rabbinical Council of America, the official organization representing Modern Orthodox rabbis.

Activities.

Before Berger prominently criticized Chabad, he was most famous as an expert on interfaith dialogue and medieval Jewish-Christian debate. He has written commentaries on the Roman Catholic church's declarations on relations with other faiths "Nostra aetate" ("In Our Age," promulgated 1965), and "Dominus Iesus" ("Lord Jesus," promulgated 2000) and Rabbi Joseph Soloveitchik's "Confrontation". The Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America (OU) asked him to write a response to the broadly ecumenical "Dabru Emet" ("Speak the Truth," 2000), and that response was subsequently adopted as the OU's official position. He has also contributed an essay about Jacob Katz's views on medieval Jewish-Christian debate in the book, "Pride of Jacob".

Chabad controversy.

Berger's 2001 book criticizing Lubavitcher messianism as "precisely what Jews through the generations have seen as classic, Christian-style false messianism" made him a leading voice in criticism of Chabad. Berger argues that Chabad messianism goes beyond traditional halakhic boundaries of Orthodox Judaism to the point that Orthodox Jews should not participate in prayer quorums with Chabad Jews.

David Berger is an American academic, dean of Yeshiva University's Bernard Revel Graduate School of Jewish Studies, as well as chair of Yeshiva College's Jewish Studies department. He is the author of various books and essays on medieval Jewish apologetics and polemics, as well as having edited the modern critical edition of the medieval polemic text Nizzahon Vetus. Outside academic circles he is best known for "The Rebbe, the Messiah, and the Scandal of Orthodox Indifference", a criticism of Chabad messianism.

David Berger (* 24. Juni 1943) ist ein US-amerikanischer Judaist. Er ist Dekan der Bernard Revel Graduate School of Jewish Studies der Yeshiva University sowie Vorsitzende der Abteilung für Jüdische Studien des Yeshiva College. Er ist Autor verschiedener Bücher und Essays über die jüdische Apologetik und Polemik des Mittelalters sowie der modernen kritischen Ausgabe des mittelalterlichen Polemiktextes Nizzahon Vetus. Außerhalb der akademischen Kreise ist er am bekanntesten für das Buch, "The Rebbe, the Messiah, and the Scandal of Orthodox Indifference", eine Kritik des Chabad-Messianismus.


Foreign nationals.

“Heydar Aliyev” Order is given to foreign nationals for the following services:  “Heydar Aliyev” Order is pinned to the left side of the chest. If there are any other orders and medals, “Heydar Aliyev” Order follows them.

Description.

“Heydar Aliyev” Order includes the star, symbol and the order chain. Two variants of the star and the chain are made-with and without the sword. The order is made of 525 carat bronze weighing 533,29 grams, 999 carat silver weighing 3,89 grams, 750 carat gold weighing 57,42 grams, 999 carat gold weighing 6,42 grams, 8 brilliants weighing 0,83 carats, 224 brilliants weighing 5,34 carats, 67 brilliants weighing 1 carat (total number of used brilliants is 299). Eight-pointed star of the order, provided to be worn on the chest, is made of silver. The ends of the star are made in the form of flower petals. Distance between the opposite ends of the star is 82 mm. A plate with wavy circle is placed on the surface of the star. This plate on the star with sword is mounted on two crossed swords passing through the four ends of the star. The swords are made of silver colored with gold. Each sword's length is 82 mm and width is 4 mm. A brilliant is mounted on the handle of each sword. Bas-relief of Heydar Aliyev is portrayed on a round medallion located on a polished plate, which is located on the plate with wavy circle. The medallion is made of 750 carat gold. The medallion is surrounded by an inner ring with 42 brilliants on it. The words “Heydar Aliyev” are written with golden letters on the top of a middle ring covered with red enamel and surrounding the inner ring. The bottom of the middle ring is adorned with three brilliants within a diamond-shaped ornament, there are two arched stripes covered with green enamel between them. The middle ring is surrounded by the external blue-colored ring with wavy circle; 20 brilliants are mounted on it within triangular engravings. Badge of “Heydar Aliyev” Order, which is worn around the neck and hang down the chest, consists of a base with a rectangular ornament covered with white enamel. Brilliants are mounted on elements of the ornament made in the forms of stars covered with red enamel. The rectangular ornament covered with blue enamel is located on the surface of the basis. Brilliants are mounted to each of four ends of the ornament. The basis and the ornament located on it are made of silver colored with gold. A plate made of 750 carat gold is mounted to the central part of the badge. The plate is colored with dark red color. The bas-relief of Heydar Aliyev made of 750 carat gold is located in the center of the plate. The bas-relief is surrounded by a frame of a regular geometric shape in the form of two crossed squares. 112 brilliants are mounted on the surface of the squares. The frame is made of silver colored with gold. The badge’s height is 67 mm, and the width is-67 mm. The chain of the order consists of 15 elements, arranged in a certain order. These elements are:  Mentioned elements are mounted to the large chain with plates decorated with 112 brilliants (16 plates with 7 brilliants on each). The rear side of the order is polished and has an engraved order number and an element to wear it on.

Recipients.

The order is awarded rarely. Following persons were awarded the order until the beginning of 03.09.2014:

Heydar Aliyev Order () - supreme order of Azerbaijani Republic. The order was ratified by legislation of Azerbaijan Republic by the Decree No. 896-IIQ on April 22, 2005. The Heydar Aliyev Order is given to the citizens of the ElRepublic of Azerbaijan for special contributions to the prosperity, greatness and glory of Azerbaijan; for courage and bravery displayed in defense of the Motherland and state interests of the Azerbaijan Republic. The Order is given to the President of Azerbaijan according to status.

Der Heydər-Əliyev-Orden (aserbaidschanisch: "") ist der höchste Orden der Republik Aserbaidschan. Gestiftet wurde er am 22. April 2005 vom Präsidenten der Republik Aserbaidschan İlham Əliyev und der Nationalversammlung der Republik Aserbaidschan und ersetzte den İstiqlal-Orden als höchsten Orden Aserbaidschans.


Education.

Katoen received his master's degree with distinction in Computer Science from the University of Twente in 1987. In 1990, he was awarded a Professional Doctorate in Engineering from the Eindhoven University of Technology, and in 1996, he received his Ph.D. in Computer Science from the University of Twente.

Research.

Katoen's main research interests are formal methods, computer aided verification, in particular model checking, concurrency theory, and semantics, in particular semantics of probabilistic programming languages. His research is largely tool and application oriented.  Together with Christel Baier he wrote and published the book "Principles of Model Checking".

Career.

From 1997 to 1999, Katoen was a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg. In 1999, he became an Associate Professor at the University of Twente, where he still holds a part-time position. In 2004, he was appointed a Full Professor at RWTH Aachen University.  In 2013, Katoen became Theodore von Kármán Fellow and Distinguished Professor at RWTH Aachen University. Also in 2013, he was elected member of the Academia Europaea. In 2017, he received an Honorary Doctorate from Aalborg University. In 2018, Katoen was awarded the highly remunerated ERC Advanced Grant.  Katoen is a founding member of the IFIP Working Group (WG) 1.8 on Concurrency Theory and a member of the WG 2.2 Formal Description of Programming Concepts. From 2006 to 2010, he was engaged in the Review College of the British Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC). Since 2015, he is chair of the Steering Committee of the European Joint Conferences on Theory and Practice of Software (ETAPS).  For his commitment to work-life balance, especially for young Ph.D. students with children, he was awarded the FAMOS Prize by RWTH Aachen University in 2017.

Personal life.

Joost-Pieter Katoen was born in Krimpen aan den IJssel in 1964. Katoen is married and has three sons. He lives in Maastricht. In his private time, he enjoys cycling and listening to music.

Joost-Pieter Katoen (born October 6, 1964) is a Dutch theoretical computer scientist based in Germany. He is distinguished professor in Computer Science and head of the Software Modeling and Verification Group at RWTH Aachen University. Furthermore, he is part-time associated to the Formal Methods & Tools group at the University of Twente.

Joost-Pieter Katoen (* 6. Oktober 1964 in Krimpen aan den IJssel) ist ein niederländischer theoretischer Informatiker. Er ist distinguished professor der Informatik und Inhaber des Lehrstuhls für Softwaremodellierung und Verifikation an der RWTH Aachen. Des Weiteren gehört er der Formal Methods & Tools group der Universität Twente an.


Mac Networks.

The first Microsoft Mail product was introduced in 1988 for AppleTalk Networks. It was based on InterMail, a product that Microsoft purchased and updated. An MS-DOS client was added for PCs on AppleTalk networks. It was later sold off to become Star Nine Mail, then Quarterdeck Mail, and has long since been discontinued.

PC Networks.

The second Microsoft Mail product, Microsoft Mail for PC Networks v2.1, was introduced in 1991. It was based on Network Courier, a LAN email system produced by Consumers Software of Vancouver BC, which Microsoft had purchased. Following the initial 1991 rebranding release, Microsoft issued its first major update as Version 3.0 in 1992. This version included Microsoft's first Global Address Book technology and first networked scheduling application, Microsoft Schedule+.  Versions 3.0 through 3.5 included email clients for MS-DOS, OS/2 1.31, Mac OS, Windows (both 16 and 32-bit), a separate Windows for Workgroups Mail client, and a DOS-based Remote Client for use over pre-PPP/pre-SLIP dialup modem connections. A stripped-down version of the PC-based server, Microsoft Mail for PC Networks, was included in Windows 95 and Windows NT 4.0. The last version based on this architecture was 3.5; afterwards, it was replaced by Microsoft Exchange Server, which started with version 4.0.  The client software was also named Microsoft Mail, and was included in some older versions of Microsoft Office such as version 4.x. The original "Inbox" (Exchange client or Windows Messaging) of Windows 95 also had the capability to connect to an MS Mail server.  Microsoft Mail Server was eventually replaced by Microsoft Exchange; Microsoft Mail Client, Microsoft Exchange Client, and Schedule+ were eventually replaced by Outlook (Windows and Mac).

Server Architecture.

Microsoft Mail was a shared-file mail system; the "postoffice" was a passive database of files which could reside on any file server. Clients used mapped network drives and file sharing to write mail to the postoffice. Clients also acted as Message Transfer Agents (MTAs) for their own postoffices, moving around messages on the postoffice as needed, including queueing messages for outbound delivery to other postoffices, and processing messages queued as arriving from external sources.  Mail that needed to travel between postoffices were moved by an external MTA called External (external.exe), which originally ran on MS-DOS. A version of External for OS/2 1.31 was added with Microsoft Mail for PC Networks version 3.2, and a multitasking MTA for Windows NT was added with version 3.5. This ran in the OS/2 subsystem of Windows NT and Windows 2000, and consisted mostly of the Version 3.2a External with wrappers containing hooks allowing control by NT administration utilities.  The database design and passive nature of the server both created several weakness. A complete lack of distinction between "header" and "envelope" addressing data meant that now-standard functionality such as Bcc: could not be implemented. Mailing lists were similarly problematic. Also, a single postoffice was limited to 500 mailboxes; a large enterprise would require many postoffices and many MTAs to connect these postoffices. Since scheduling data and address lists were also stored locally in these postoffices, moving schedule and global address book information required yet more, separate agents called Dispatch and Microsoft Schedule+ Distribution Agent. Dispatch would synchronise the various copies of the Global Address List using MSMail 3.x Directory Synchronization Protocol.

Client Architecture.

Client handling of messages remained inconsistent through the life of the product. Clients for MS-DOS, dialup, and Mac OS left messages stored on server; the Windows and OS/2 clients downloaded the messages instead, using a local file (.MMF) as storage. While this storage could be located on a file server, the various file locking issues meant a user could only login to their mail from a single PC at a time.  Further, the differing storage mechanisms made using MSMail across multiple client architectures problematic at best. While the inbox could be synchronised, other folders could not be, meaning that only inbox messages could be accessed across the two client architectures. Plans to create a Mac OS client which could access.MMF storage were abandoned before version 3.0 shipped, though working - if buggy - versions did exist.  The Windows and OS/2 clients were built around an early version of MAPI called MAPI 0, and could in theory enable the client to talk to any server by replacing the MAPI DLL with a fully compliant DLL for the appropriate system. Unlike the Microsoft Mail 3.x server product, the clients could support Bcc: functionality. This functionality was not exposed to Microsoft Mail for PC Networks users due to limitations in the server architecture, but the corporate internal MAPI.DLL enabling these particular clients to talk to Xenix-based mail transport systems utilised this functionality. The first and almost immediately recalled version of the Microsoft Press book on using Microsoft Mail accidentally used screenshots from the Xenix backend, revealing this concealed capability of the client.

Gateways.

Connections to other email systems were made possible by gateways to "foreign mail systems". Microsoft shipped gateways to PROFS, SNADS (Office Vision), SMTP, X.400 over X.25, Novell's Message Handling System (MHS), MCI Mail, AT&T Mail, and others. Many companies running these gateways quickly replaced them with Microsoft Exchange Server connectors once Microsoft Exchange 4.0 shipped. In particular an early part of a migration from MSMail to Exchange included replacing the Microsoft Mail for PC Networks Gateway to SMTP to the Microsoft Exchange Internet Mail Connector, later renamed to the Microsoft Exchange Internet Mail Service.  Connection to UUCP-based email systems were supported indirectly, using the Microsoft Mail Gateway to SMTP client combined with a Unix system, typically running sendmail as a smarthost. SCO Unix and Interactive Unix were both recommended products for this structure, though any SMTP-UUCP smarthost-capable system would work.

References.

Original reference 2 missing as of 2018. Replacement link: Q94178: PC WFW: Differences Between Win for Workgroups Mail & PC Mail on KnowledgeBase Archive

Microsoft Mail (or MSMail/MSM) was the name given to several early Microsoft e-mail products for local area networks, primarily two architectures: one for Macintosh networks, and one for PC architecture-based LANs. All were eventually replaced by the Exchange and Outlook product lines.

Microsoft Mail war ein Produkt, das einen Mailserver sowie Clients für verschiedene Betriebssysteme bereitstellte. Es handelt sich um den Vorgänger von Microsoft Exchange.


Early life.

Burch was raised in Wayne, Pennsylvania, in a middle-class family. His mother Robin Sinkler, an Episcopalian, was from a Philadelphia Main Line family and his father, John Walter Burch, a Roman Catholic, was one of 10 children born to a middle-class Baltimore family. His father owned a distributor of mining equipment and supplies. Burch attended Tilton School, an independent college preparatory school in Tilton, New Hampshire. He graduated from Tilton in 1972, and later attended Ithaca College.

Career.

Fashion industry.

In 1976, while an undergraduate at Ithaca College, Burch and his brother Robert started Eagle's Eye apparel with a $2,000 investment, buying sweaters for $10 each and selling them for $15. Burch decided to find a factory to produce a new brand of "preppy" sweaters so that he could sell them door-to-door on campus. His operation soon expanded to other campuses, and, eventually, to retail stores. Over the next decade, the company expanded to $140 million in sales and a national distribution footprint, including more than 50 of its own retail stores. The company was partially sold to Swire Group, in 1989, and entirely, in 1998 in a deal that valued the brand at $60 million.  In 2004, Burch helped his then wife to launch the Tory Burch fashion label, and served as co-Chairman of the company. He also owned 28.3%, selling half of it in December 2012, as the company was estimated to be worth $3.5 billion. He then established J. Christopher Capital LLC in 2008, later renamed Burch Creative Capital. The company was developed to incubate his new brands and to manage his investments. In 2011, he launched C. Wonder, an apparel, accessories and home decor retailer. In July 2015 the C. Wonder brand was purchased by Xcel Brands.

Real estate.

In 2004, Burch partnered with architect Philippe Starck and hotelier Alan Faena to develop the Faena Hotel+Universe in Buenos Aires. The investment into the building, first built in 1902 as a grain storage facility, was in excess of $100 million. In 2014 he once again invested in the real estate developer's projects after purchasing a condo in Faena House, a South Beach development.  In 2005, Burch purchased a luxury home in Southampton, New York for $14 million, and sold the home for $25 million four months later after renovating the property. Burch then founded J.B. Christopher, a supplier of construction materials to real estate developers, in 2006. In 2011, Burch and his partner Austin Hearst completed the development of a $19 million luxury home developments in Nantucket, Massachusetts. In 2012 he acquired a townhouse in the West Village for $11 million after he had been previously renting it. He subsequently undertook a renovation project that was left unfinished before the property was once again put on the market.  In 2013, Burch purchased the Nihiwatu resort on the island of Sumba, a 27 villa estate resort near Bali.

Other investments.

In 1993, Burch was a producer for the feature-length romantic comedy film "Watch It", directed by Tom Flynn, which received a favorable review from the "New York Times". He was one of the earliest investors in the Internet IPO for Internet Capital Group, and has made several investments in telecommunications, including Aliph and Powermat. He was also an investor in the online office retailer Poppin. In a partnership with James McBride, he acquired Nihiwatu Resort on the Indonesian island of Sumba in 2013. After a $30 million investment, the pair opened the resort in 2015 under the name Nihi. In 2014, he invested in BaubleBar, leading an investment round of $10 million. That year he also partnered with Ellen DeGeneres to launch her lifestyles collection E.D.

Personal life.

In 1982, Burch married Susan Cole in an Episcopal ceremony. They had three children, all daughters: Alexandra "Pookie" (b. 1985), Elizabeth "Izzie" (b. 1986), and Louisa "Weezie" (b. 1989). In 1996, he married the fashion designer Tory Robinson with whom he had three children, all sons: twins Henry and Nicholas (b. 1997) and Sawyer (b. 2001). They divorced in 2007.  Burch was on the board of the Rothman Institute Orthopedic Foundation. He is a past president of The Pierre Hotel Co-op Board, and a past board member of Guggenheim Partners, and The Continuum Group. In 2013, Burch donated $1.3 million to his alma mater, Tilton School, and was on the school's Board of Trustees from 1982-1985.

J. Christopher Burch (born March 28, 1953) is the founder and CEO of Burch Creative Capital, a firm based in New York City that manages venture investments and brand development, and co-founder of Tory Burch LLC. He became a billionaire in 2012, with "Forbes" magazine's profile of him in its annual "The World's Billionaires" stating that the 2012 valuation of Burch's majority stake in C. Wonder pushed his net worth over the ten figure mark. In addition to his personal investments, he was an investor with the Guggenheim Partners.

J. Christopher Burch (geboren 28. März 1953 in Wayne, Pennsylvania) ist ein US-amerikanischer Unternehmer. Er ist der Gründer und CEO von Burch Creative Capital, einer Firma mit Sitz in New York, die Risikokapital- Investments und Markenentwicklungen managt. Außerdem ist der Mitbegründer von Tory Burch LLC. Burch wurde durch seine Beteiligung am Modeunternehmen C. Wonder 2012 zum Milliardär. Zusätzlich zu seinen persönlichen Investitionen war er ein Investor mit dem Finanzunternehmen Guggenheim Partners LLC.