High school career.

Wood attended Elder High School in Cincinnati, Ohio, where he played both the tackle and guard positions. His team went 28-2 over the last two seasons, including two consecutive state titles. After playing tight end as a junior, Wood started all 15 games at offensive tackle in his senior year and earned first team All-League honors.  Considered a two-star recruit by both "Rivals.com" and "Scout.com", Wood was not ranked among the nation's top offensive line prospects. He chose Louisville over Bowling Green, Ohio, Cincinnati, Indiana and Columbia.

College career.

After redshirting his initial year at Louisville, Wood started all 12 games at center for the Cardinals in 2005. He earned Freshman All-American honors by "Rivals.com", "Sporting News" and "College Football News". Wood was an excellent student, earned Academic All-Big East accolades as well.  Wood remained Louisville's starting center in his sophomore and junior seasons, starting all 13 and 12 games, respectively. Led by quarterback Brian Brohm, the 2007 Cardinals offense ranked sixth nationally with an average of 488.0 yards per game. Wood earned All-Big East honors in both years, and again in his senior season. He finished his career with 49 consecutive starts at center, the second-longest streak in school history behind Travis Leffew (51, 2002–05).

Professional career.

NFL draft.

Alongside Alex Mack, Wood was considered one of the best centers available in the 2009 NFL Draft. He has been compared to Brad Meester by "The Sporting News", but his instincts and "nastiness" on the field had scouts comparing him to the NFL's old time centers like Mike Webster of the Pittsburgh Steelers and Tim Grunhard of the Kansas City Chiefs.  Wood was selected with the 28th pick of the 2009 NFL Draft by the Buffalo Bills, using the pick acquired from the Philadelphia Eagles via a trade for Jason Peters. With Mack being selected with the 21st pick by the Cleveland Browns, at marked the first time two centers were drafted in round one since the 1983 NFL Draft, with Dave Rimington and Don Mosebar.

Buffalo Bills.

In his rookie season, Wood was counted on to start at right guard. He joined a completely retooled Bills offensive line that was expected to feature two rookie starters—him, and second round pick Andy Levitre at left guard—and no players returning at the same position. On July 28, 2009, Wood signed a five-year contract with the Bills, reportedly worth more than $12 million. Wood immediately became the Bills starting right offensive guard next to center Geoff Hangartner, with Levitre at left guard. On November 22, 2009, in his 10th game, Wood fractured his tibia and fibula in the fourth quarter of an 18–15 loss to the Jacksonville Jaguars, after Jaguars defensive tackle Montavious Stanley ran into Wood's leg. Wood underwent season-ending surgery in a Jacksonville hospital and did not return to Buffalo with the team. He was placed on the injured reserve list on November 24, 2009.  On March 30, 2010, Wood told the Buffalo Bills that his leg was healing well and that he gave it an 80% chance to be ready for training camp. He eventually started 14 games in the 2010 NFL season, missing only Steelers and Vikings games because of an ankle injury. The Bills were playing the same trio up the middle: Wood at right guard, Hangartner at center, and Levitre at left guard.  In 2011, Wood was switched to center, between Levitre and new starting right guard Kraig Urbik. These three have been instrumental in the resurgence in the Bills offense, led by Ryan Fitzpatrick at quarterback and Fred Jackson at running back. However, he was hurt in game 9 and did not play the rest of the year, replaced first by Urbik and then by Colin Brown.  In 2015, the NFL announced Wood as one of the 32 players honored as the Bills' "Man of the Year" and eligible to win the "Walter Payton NFL Man of the Year Award".  It was reported that Wood suffered a broken leg playing in a game against the Seattle Seahawks on November 7, 2016. The Bills reported that this injury would keep Wood out for the remainder of the season. He was placed on injured reserve on November 14, 2016.  On August 26, 2017, Wood signed a two-year, $16 million contract extension with the Bills.  On January 26, 2018, after the Bills made their first playoff appearance since 1999, Wood announced that he had failed his end-of-season physical and would no longer be cleared to play professional football. Adam Schefter of "ESPN" said the cause of the failed physical, a neck injury, was partially due to wear and tear, but also part of a "complicated medical situation" (Wood later specified that the disc between his second and third vertebrae had come dangerously close to his spinal cord, which he suspected happened during the week 6 game of the 2017 season). Wood had played through the entire 2017 season, handling every offensive snap that year without missing any. He had intended to wait until after the 2018 Pro Bowl to announce the injury; he had been designated as an alternate to the game and did not consider his condition to be a hindrance to playing in the game. News of the injury had leaked to the press two days before the game, and the two Pro Bowlers named to the position for the AFC both played in the game. He reached an injury settlement with the Bills on May 31, 2018, and was officially released.

Post-playing career.

In September 2018, Wood signed on as a columnist for "The Athletic". He replaced Mark Kelso as color commentator on the Buffalo Bills Radio Network in 2019.

Eric Wood (born March 18, 1986) is a former American football center. He played college football at the University of Louisville and was drafted in the first round of the 2009 NFL Draft (28th overall) by the Buffalo Bills of the National Football League (NFL). Wood played nine seasons in the NFL, including a Pro Bowl appearance, before retiring following the 2017 season due to a neck injury.

Eric Wood (* 18. März 1986 in Cincinnati, Ohio) ist ein ehemaliger US-amerikanischer American-Football-Spieler auf der Position des Centers. Er spielte neun Saisons bei den Buffalo Bills in der National Football League (NFL).


Background and release.

"Til It Happens to You" was written by Diane Warren and Lady Gaga, and recorded by the latter for "The Hunting Ground" (2015), a documentary film about campus rape in the United States. Director Kirby Dick and producer Amy Ziering wanted someone with "major" influence to record a song for the film, believing it would generate publicity and promote the subject. They contacted executive producer Paul Blavin, explaining their idea and added that they did not have the resources to find someone. Blavin started searching and met with music supervisor Bonnie Greenberg, who introduced him to Warren. Warren was moved by the idea saying: "I cannot not write a song for you. And not only can I not not write a song for this movie, I'm going to gift it to you." She wrote the song after viewing scenes from the film almost a year before the track's release. Warren then called Gaga and played her a rough demo, but was unsure about her involvement. So she decided to fly to New York and try to work with Gaga; the latter accepted the song and decided to record it. Warren said of the song and Gaga's contributions: "I heard about [the film] and it just really touched me, and she had stuff in her life that she could relate to. Gaga is one of the most talented artists I have worked with in my life and I'm excited about doing more with her... There are a lot of levels to the song. There's something very vulnerable about it and something very defiant about it, especially the way [Gaga] sings it. The first verse is vulnerable—'You tell me it's going to get better?'—and the second verse comes in and it builds. 'Really? It gets better? No. You don't know until it happens to you...'" Warren also added that the song's message was universal in nature and relatable to any loss faced in life. Gaga, who herself is a victim of rape, revealed during the Producers Guild of America Awards 2015, that the song's theme was important to her family as well. Her father's sister Joanne had been sexually assaulted while attending college, and the subsequent torment worsened her prevailing lupus, resulting in her death and profoundly affecting Gaga's family. The singer became involved with New York state Governor Andrew Cuomo's push for new legislation to help eradicate "rape culture" in American universities, signing a letter supporting it. Titled "Enough Is Enough", the legislation went into effect in July 2015.  The documentary features two versions of the song, one during the body of the film and the second at its closing, and highlights the sequences of the pain of sexual assault. While the song played, the lead subject, an assault survivor, reminisced about the impact of rape while walking around a college campus. Ziering concluded that having Gaga sing the track fulfilled their need for publicity since she "[brought] a whole other demographic. Anyone who has that kind of platform to reach all sorts of people that maybe would not necessarily be inclined to be interested in your issue... it's incredible." "Til It Happens to You" leaked onto the Internet before it was officially released, through an unofficial recording made at the film's premiere at the 2015 Sundance Film Festival. In April 2015, Warren confirmed that the song would have an official release and was waiting for a final audio mixing by Gaga. It was later released as a digital download single on September 18, 2015.

Recording and composition.

In an interview for a "Billboard" podcast, Nile Rodgers spoke about the song's recording sessions and working with Gaga and Warren. He had met Gaga at a party and she invited him to join them in the studio. During recording, Gaga was singing in a D note, over the F note of the music that was being played. Rodgers suggested to Warren that since the D vocals made the song sound like a country track, they could instead inverse the chords into thirteenth (an octave plus a sixth), thus serving a dominant function. Warren accepted the suggestion and the song was re-recorded. Gaga reportedly struggled while recording the song, since it caused her to recall her own trauma. Warren explained that it was: "very emotional for her. She couldn't even talk through it at times". Gaga told an interviewer with "Variety" that Warren had helped her feel comfortable about the song and its subject matter, allowing her to transcend the singing and put the correct emotional depth in her performance.  "When Diane first played me what she had begun with the song, I needed no convincing about the record... it was about sharing that part of myself with the world... We talked a lot about what I felt the song needed in order to reach as many young people as possible. I felt that it needed to not stay in a purely emotional state, but that it was going to somehow grow throughout the performance and the song and by the end, kind of be full of rage. I feel like what this song accomplishes is women—or men—rising to say, 'You think you can hurt me? You don't know about power. Because after what you did to me, you don't even know how much stronger I am.'"  "Til It Happens to You" is a somber tune featuring orchestral production and soaring strings. The pop ballad delivers an empowering message: "Hold your head up and be strong / When you fall you gotta get up", and has been described as "stirring and emotional". Featuring a classical production, the song emphasizes Gaga's vocals, keeping focus on the lyrics, which clarifies that one cannot understand the feelings of a victim unless they have been in similar situation. The first verse is sung by Gaga in a vulnerable voice, which gradually changes into an aggressive tone, and finally a joyous one during the final lyrics. According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com, "Til It Happens to You" is set in the time signature common for a slow tempo of 59 beats per minute. It is composed in the key of A minor with Gaga's vocals spanning from E to D. The song follows a basic sequence of Am–C–F–C–G/B as its chord progression.

Critical reception.

Jeff Benjamin from Fuse noted that the song contains a "powerful message" while the composition was evocative of her "biting" ballads like "Dope". Brennan Carly from "Spin" said the song "highlights [Gaga]'s evocative voice" and is similar in tone to "Speechless" and "Gypsy". While reviewing the documentary, Leslie Felperin of "The Hollywood Reporter" said that the song provided "an extra jolt of poignancy" in the film. Lauren Valenti from "Marie Claire" described the track as "robust and orchestral", adding that the lyrics "command attention". She complimented the decision to have Gaga sing the track, given her connection to sexual abuse. Bradley Stern from "MuuMuse" also compared it to "Dope" and "Speechless", while comparing the string arrangement to the music of Lana Del Rey. Stern described it as a "massive production" complimenting the lyrics by being straightforward. For Manohla Dargis of "The New York Times", Dick was able to successfully change the sombre mood of the documentary with the inclusion of the song. Spencer Kornhaber from "The Atlantic" praised the song and Gaga's vocals, saying that: "Even with such somber subject matter, [the singer's] booming delivery and dramatic phrasing will probably remind people of the time when [Gaga's 2009 single] 'Bad Romance' ruled the radio."  Declaring the song Gaga's "most stirring" release, Michelle Geslani from "Consequence of Sound" called the track: "a sweeping and intensely powerful number — it's not just any ordinary pop song". Christopher Tapley from "Variety" praised both Gaga and Warren's songwriting, describing it as: "something of an anthem for the cause... It is one of the strongest contenders in this year's race for best original song [in the Academy Awards]. But far more than that, it is a rally cry for a movement." Lisa Wright wrote in "NME" that the song is: "a somber piano ballad befitting of the topic with lyrics that depict the frustration of being told to pick yourself up and carry on by people who couldn't possibly understand your situation." Idolator's Robbie Daw claimed that the "powerful, unsettling" visuals were complemented by a "strong vocal performance" from Gaga. Brittany Spanos from "Rolling Stone" called it an "evocative track", which highlighted Gaga's vocals and believed it to be "a perfect follow-up to [Gaga's "Cheek to Cheek" album] with Tony Bennett". Spanos added that "[an Academy Award win would be a triumph] following [Gaga's] critical and commercial miss with most recent album "Artpop" and help break Warren's losing streak at the show."

Chart performance.

"Til It Happens to You" charted on the Ultratip charts of Belgium (Flanders and Wallonia) while in Finland it debuted and peaked at number 21 on the Finnish Download Chart. Across Europe it peaked at number 46 in France, number 29 in Spain, and also reached number 5 on the Greece Digital Songs chart published by "Billboard". In the United Kingdom, the song entered the UK Download Chart at number 67, while on the official UK Singles Chart it reached a peak of number 171. The song also reached a peak of number 52 in Scotland. On the Belgian Ultratip charts, "Til It Happens to You" reached number 45 in Flanders region and number 42 in Wallonia.  In the United States, the song initially failed to chart on the "Billboard" Hot 100, but later entered at number 95 in March 2016, following Gaga's performance of the song at the 88th Academy Awards. According to "Billboard", the song had sold less than 2,000 downloads during the week before the Academy Awards sales period. Following the performance, the song sold nearly 28,000 downloads (2,120% sales increase), becoming its best digital sales week, and debuted at number 27 on the Hot Digital Songs chart. It also garnered one million streams (up by 546%) for the tracking week, contributing its debut on the Hot 100. "Billboard" reported that the song sold more than "Writing's on the Wall" by Sam Smith, the latter having won the Academy Award for Best Original Song. According to Nielsen SoundScan, "Til It Happens to You" has sold a total of 71,000 downloads in the country as of March 2016.  On the Dance Club Songs, the song became Gaga's 14th entry to reach the top of the chart on the issue dated January 23, 2016, landing her in 10th place in the ranking of artists with the most number-ones on the dance chart. It was her first song to reach the top of the chart since "Applause" (2013). The rise to the top of the dance chart was aided by 30 remixed versions of the track, including those from Dave Audé, Tracy Young and Dirty Pop. On the "Billboard" issue dated February 20, 2016, the song debuted at number 24 on the Adult Contemporary chart; it has reached a peak of number 19. According to radio program directors, the song received positive response from their listeners prompting airplay.

Accolades.

"Til It Happens to You" won the award for Best Song in a Documentary, at the 2015 Hollywood Music in Media Awards, which took place on November 11, 2015, for Best Original Song at the 20th Satellite Awards, and for Best Song from a Movie at the 3rd iHeartRadio Music Awards. Other nominations for the song came from 21st Critics' Choice Awards and the St. Louis Film Critics Association (StLFCA), where it was listed for Best Song category, from Georgia Film Critics Association and Denver Film Critics Society in the category for Best Original Song, and from the 58th Annual Grammy Awards for Best Song Written for Visual Media. "Til It Happens to You" also received a nomination for an Academy Award in the category of Best Original Song for the 2016 ceremony. It is the fifth song from a documentary to be listed for an award in that category. Gaga dedicated the nomination to survivors of sexual assault, through a message on her Twitter account. In February 2016, Gaga and Warren were honored at the 11th Annual Los Angeles Italia Film, Fashion and Art Fest, with the festival's Song of the Year Award. The song also won an award at the 68th Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Original Music and Lyrics, however, just Warren was credited because of their cue sheet accreditation requirement. With its nomination, "Til It Happens to You" became the first song ever to be nominated at the Grammys, Oscars and Emmys in the same year.

Music video.

Development and synopsis.

In August 2015, it was announced that the song would be released as part of a public service announcement (PSA) video, directed by Catherine Hardwicke, to raise awareness about sexual assaults in college campuses. "The Hollywood Reporter" described it as casting "an emotional spotlight on young women in vulnerable situations that college students will readily recognize". Hardwicke said of the PSA's important message: "You can't watch the documentary without screaming at the screen. We tried to capture those stories in a very visceral way and add another voice to this powerful call to action." Production costs were underwritten by the film's executive producers, Paul Blavin and Regina K. Scully. The video was released the same day as the digital release, with Gaga tweeting out a link to it and adding: "We hope u feel our love & solidarity through the song & perhaps find some peace in knowing u r not alone through this film". Warren believed that the PSA video highlighted her observations about victims coming forward to speak about the assault on them:  "It seems like it's all coming out of this dark closet it was in... It was secretive. It wasn't what you talked about. But now, people are saying, 'We're not going to be victims anymore, we're going to call you on it, whether it's on a campus or anywhere'. I want [people] to know they're not alone and they're not victims, but they're survivors."  The clip portrays sexual assaults mostly against women, and how they cope after the incident. The black-and-white video opens with a warning message: "The following contains graphic content that may be emotionally unsettling but reflects the reality of what is happening daily on college campuses." It then shows a girl walking through an empty corridor, followed by young people in various activities in a college campus: reading (portrayed by actress Nikki Reed), a trans man adjusting his chest binder in the bathroom, attending a party (one of the partygoers being portrayed by actress Kiersey Clemons). However they are all sexually assaulted, with one of the scenes showing a couple of young girls being drugged and raped at the party. The heartbroken girls and the trans man cry, while alternate images show them expressing their emotions by inscribing words on themselves. Ultimately they find solace and hope in friendship, and leave the college with their friends, as the words inscribed on their bodies change to positive messages. Near its ending, the music video displays the message: "One in five college women will be sexually assaulted this year unless something changes", following which the message points the audience to the Facebook page for "The Hunting Ground" and Itsonus.org, the White House support website for people who have endured a sexual crime. A portion of the earnings from the song's digital sales will be donated to organizations supporting victims of sexual assault.

Reception and analysis.

Kornhaber described the video as a "sombre, socially conscious curveball" but wondered why Gaga released the PSA-like video, adding that she has: "always been good at surprises, and unfortunately, no time is better than any other when it comes to discussing the issues she's singing about". Christopher Rosen from "Entertainment Weekly" described the clip as "powerful, disturbing and emotional". Writing for "The Daily Telegraph", Radhika Sanghani declared that each scenario in the video appeared realistic and wrote: "by making sure the attacks differ in location, scenario and the appearances of both rapist and victim, Gaga is breaking the myth of there being a 'typical rape'". Corinne Heller from E! believed that the "graphic, emotional and hard to watch" video was able to deliver a "powerful message", one that was close to Gaga due to her real-life rape experience. Wright described the video for "NME" as a "brutal, monochrome rendering" of the subject matter, with "harrowing" depictions of the rapes. She added that the rape statistics at the end of the video were "horrifying" but complimented Gaga for using her popularity to promote awareness of the subject. Loretta Donelan from "Bustle" believed that Gaga's previous music videos had political aspects but were open to interpretations. But with the music video of "Til It Happens to You", she showed maturity by featuring "chilling scenes of staged sexual assaults".  Alex Rees from "Cosmopolitan" felt that the video contained "uncomfortable footage", but added that the "emotionally unsettling" images were able to reflect on the actual reality of what happens on college campuses. Claire Hodgson from the same publication described the clip as a "beautifully shot, brilliantly acted short film", which "really does not hold back when it comes to portraying the real horror of sexual assault in the most graphic way possible". Emily Shire from "The Daily Beast" was positive about the clip, calling it: "both chilling and beautiful. The overall effect is as much, if not more, a credit to acclaimed director Catherine Hardwicke. The brutality of these snapshot scenes are remarkably moving in the scariest and most sickening way possible". However, Shire was disappointed with one aspect of the PSA – that the victims are supported by their friends and close-ones and that was enough to cope through the trauma. Instead Shire wanted to see the legal ramifications of such traumatic incidents, with the victims going to the police. Shire concluded the review saying: "Gaga and Hardwicke deserve props for creating such a powerful, visceral, and aesthetically striking PSA. They've brought a tremendous amount of attention to rape and sexual assault. Yet, attention alone is inadequate balm for the victims of rape." Conversely, Dan Solomon of "Fast Company" believed the video to be an "important statement" from Gaga and believed that it would direct further attention to "The Hunting Ground".

Live performances.

Gaga performed "Til It Happens to You" live for the first time on October 29, 2015 at the annual amfAR gala, along with cover versions of "Call Me Irresponsible", "Bang Bang (My Baby Shot Me Down)" and "La Vie en rose". She also performed the song at the "Billboard" Women in Music event on December 11, 2015, where she was presented with the award for Woman of the Year. The song was also performed at an intimate gathering at the Peninsula Hotel in Beverly Hills. The audience consisted of the filmmakers and the rape survivors featured in the documentary. Gaga reportedly became emotional while performing the song, and thanked the filmmakers for including the song in the film. She also performed the song at the 2015 Producers Guild of America Awards, where "The Hunting Ground" was awarded a special recognition trophy. Actress America Ferrera introduced Gaga but she did not appear on stage for sometime leading to a few moments of "nervous laughter from the audience" as Ferrera tried to joke about the situation, until the singer finally arrived in front of her piano on stage.  Gaga performed the song at the 88th Academy Awards after an introduction by Joe Biden, then Vice President of the United States. She sang it while sitting in front of a white piano, and near its conclusion, over 50 survivors of sexual assaults joined her onstage, with words like "survivor" and "not your fault" written on their bodies. Mike Ayers from "The Wall Street Journal" called it a "poignant performance" of the night. Katie Atkinson from "Billboard" listed the performance as one of the best moments of the awards show, saying that Gaga "made a huge impact on the Oscars stage. Her performance alone would have been powerful enough, but when the curtains opened behind her to reveal a sea of sexual assault survivors standing in solidarity, the emotional bar was raised to the next level." Kesha performed a cover of the song, accompanied with Warren on piano, at the Humane Society Gala in Los Angeles on May 7, 2016.  Credits adapted from Soundtrack.Net

"Til It Happens to You" is a song produced and performed by American singer Lady Gaga. She co-wrote the song with Diane Warren for the 2015 documentary film "The Hunting Ground", which deals with campus rape in the United States. The song had leaked onto the Internet through an unofficial recording made at the film's premiere at the 2015 Sundance Film Festival. It was later released by Interscope Records to digital retailers on September 18, 2015. The director and producer of the film had looked for someone influential to write a song for it, and music supervisor Bonnie Greenberg contacted Warren, who was interested. She wrote the song with Gaga and producer Nile Rodgers accompanied them during the recording, providing his suggestions.

Til It Happens to You ist ein Lied der US-amerikanischen Sängerin Lady Gaga, das sie zusammen mit Diane Warren für den Dokumentarfilm "The Hunting Ground" geschrieben hat. Die Single erschien am 18. September 2015; der Song war aber schon im Januar 2015 für den Film verwendet worden. Er wurde für einen Grammy und einen Oscar nominiert.


Virtual collection.

The museum's collection is freely accessible online and displays works, documents, and artifacts from conceptual art, minimalist art, performance art, and painting, as well as from photography, literature, theatre, film, and music. In all, the collection extends over four ours, each with two wings, and with various tracts that are thematically dedicated to different way of approaching nothing:  The museum also provides background information in German, Spanish and English about all the works and artists. In addition, there is library that provides texts, publications, and exhibition catalogues for further research on nothing in art and other disciplines (philosophy, science, literature, music, etc.)

Mobile museum.

Converted bus.

Since 2015, the No Show Museum has been on a world tour with a converted bus. Inside, the mobile museum is a futuristic white cube (4 m long, 2 m wide, 2.10 m high), in which the current special exhibition is shown. It also offers access to the virtual collection via ipad stations and houses the museum shop with a limited selection of souvenirs such as the BUY NOTHING CARD® (personal credit card to buy nothing) or ART FREE AIR® (medicine for allergy sufferers). The matt black painted exterior of the bus serves as a moving blackboard, which can be labeled with announcements and information about the current exhibitions.

Thematic special exhibitions.

The special exhibitions in the Mobile Museum each illuminate certain aspects, variants and themes of nothingness in art: " INVISIBLE ARTWORKS " (2015) presented 24 intangible and invisible works of conceptual art. The show " NOTHING IS IMPOSSIBLE "(2016) focused on works of art that do not exist and can not possibly exist (eg because it simply exceeds the possibilities of producing the artwork, or because trying to realize it leads to unsolvable conceptual and logical contradictions.) The special exhibition " ¡NO FALTA NADA! " (2017) was about the art of nothing as an absence, eg because the artwork has been lost or irrevocably destroyed, or because it has never existed. The special exhibition entitled "NOTHING MATTERS - ICONS OF THE VOID" (2018) was developed in collaboration with Slovak artist Stano Masar. On display in the mobile museum were 20 iconic works of art history from the beginning of the 20th century to the present day, which promote the dematerialization of art and in various ways illuminate the concept of nothingness.

Nothing world tour.

The No Show Museum has committed itself to the mission of not spreading anything all over the globe. For this reason, the museum is touring year after year from continent to continent. The first stage of the World Tour started in Zürich in July 2015 and led through 20 countries of Central and Northern Europe. It included around 30 exhibitions in museums and empty galleries in public spaces and remote areas. The tour ended in October 2015 with an exhibition and presentation of nothing in Venice where the No Show Museum was invited by Pro Helvetia's Salon Suisse as an official participant of the 56th Art Biennale. In the summer of 2016, the mobile museum was shipped from Europe to America with the mission to spread nothing in the New World: The 80-day exhibition tour led from New York to Canada, then to the West Coast of the U.S., and finally down to Baja California Sur, Mexico. The third stage took place from November 2017 to January 2018 and led from Baja California in Mexico through the countries of Central America (Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama) to Colombia, with numerous exhibitions in public space and in collaboration with museums and local galleries. The fourth stage took place in October and November 2018 with exhibitions in France, Spain and Portugal, including a show at Museum of Art, Architecture and Technology in Lisbon.

Conceptual background.

Nothing as an aesthetic category.

In the course of the 20th century, nothing has become as distinctive an aesthetic category as “the beautiful”, “the ugly” or "the absurd". The artistic examination of the (non) phenomenon "nothing" has led artists and critics to question the traditional practices of art production and open up new possibilities of spatial, temporal and material interpretation. Nothing is usually understood as the negation of being and figuration, but strictly speaking, it is impossible to define nothing. Every attempt to describe, represent or materialize nothing is doomed to fail, and it is this very fact that has inspired many artists of the 20th century to work intensively with nothing and the paradoxes of its (re)presentation. The result is a large number of artistic strategies and works on nothing.

Nothing as a ready-made.

Already in 1913, Marcel Duchamp demonstrated with his first ready-mades how any object can be converted into art by removing it from the sphere of ordinary life and placing it in a gallery or museum. This move from one context to another changes the way spectators view an object: in the context of art, it is no longer perceived as a mere object, but instead as placeholder of an idea or of an artistic intention. The result of such attributions is that the formerly ordinary object is transformed into a work of art. The same principle can be applied to nothing, and nothing can equally acquire “the dignity of a work of art by the mere choice of the artist” (André Breton). The No Show Museum is an attempt to create such an institutional framework for ensuring in the long run that nothing is art.

The museum as a mobile art context.

Although the museum’s collection is virtual, the museum does have a physical space for presentations setup in a restored and customized post bus. Thus, the museum provides a moving art context that can either be attached to established institutions are function autonomously. Moreover, the mobile museum offers the opportunity to discover new regions and spaces for the contexts of nothing, and it serves as a marker to indicate any place as an exhibition area.

The No Show Museum is an art museum, established in Zurich, Switzerland in 2015, devoted to nothing and its various manifestations throughout the history of art. It claims to be the first of its kind. Founded by Swiss conceptual artist and curator Andreas Heusser, the museum's collection today includes around 500 works and documents from over 150 international artists of the 20th and 21st centuries.

Das No Show Museum ist ein Museum, das sich dem Nichts und seinen vielfältigen Erscheinungsformen in der Geschichte der Kunst widmet. Gegründet wurde es 2013 vom Schweizer Künstler und Kurator Andreas Heusser. Die Sammlung des Museums umfasst rund 500 Werke und Dokumente von über 150 internationalen Künstlern des 20. und 21. Jahrhunderts.


Discovery.

"Ideonella sakaiensis" was first identified in 2016 by a team of researchers led by Kohei Oda of Kyoto Institute of Technology and Kenji Miyamoto of Keio University after collecting a sample of PET-contaminated sediment near a plastic bottle recycling facility in Japan. The bacterium was isolated from a consortium of microorganisms in the sediment sample, including protozoa and yeast-like cells. The entire microbial community was shown to mineralize 75% of the degraded PET into carbon dioxide once it had been initially degraded and assimilated by "I. sakaiensis."

Characterization.

"Ideonella sakaiensis" is Gram-negative, aerobic, and rod-shaped. It does not form spores. Cells are motile and have a single flagellum. "I. sakaiensis" also tests positive for oxidase and catalase. The bacterium grows at a pH range of 5.5 to 9.0 (optimally at 7 to 7.5) and a temperature of 15–42 °C (optimally at 30–37 °C). Colonies of "I. sakaiensis" are colorless, smooth, and circular. Its size varies from 0.6-0.8 μm in width and 1.2-1.5 μm in length. The bacterium was shown to grow on PET surfaces in a community with other "I. sakaiensis" cells by adhering to the PET and other cells with thin appendages. These appendages may also function to secrete PET-degrading enzymes onto the PET surface.  Through phylogenetic analysis, the species was shown to be a part of the genus "Ideonella," but possessed a significantly different genome than other known species in the genus, including "Ideonella dechloratans" and "Ideonella azotifigens," thus justifying its classification as a new species"."

Degradation and Assimilation of PET.

"Ideonella sakaiensis" cells adhere to the PET surface and use a secreted PET hydrolase, or PETase, to degrade the PET into mono(2-hydroxyethyl)terephthalic acid (MHET), a heterodimer composed of terephthalic acid (TPA) and ethylene glycol. The "I. sakaiensis" PETase functions by hydrolyzing the ester bonds present in PET with high specificity. The resulting MHET is then degraded into its two monomeric constituents by a lipid-anchored MHET hydrolase enzyme, or MHETase, on the cell's outer membrane. Ethylene glycol is readily taken up and used by "I. sakaiensis" and many other bacteria. Terephthalic acid, a more recalcitrant compound, is imported into the "I. sakaiensis" cell via the terephthalic acid transporter protein. Once in the cell, the aromatic terephthalic acid molecule is oxidized by terephthalic acid-1,2-dioxygenase and 1,2-dihydroxy-3,5-cyclohexadiene-1,4-dicarboxylate dehydrogenase into a catechol intermediate. The catechol ring is then cleaved by PCA 3,4-dioxygenase before the compound is integrated into other metabolic pathways (e.g. TCA cycle). As a result, both of the molecules derived from the PET are used by the cell to produce energy and to build necessary biomolecules. Eventually, the assimilated carbon may be mineralized to carbon dioxide and released into the atmosphere.

Impact and Applications.

The discovery of "Ideonella sakaiensis" has potential importance for the degradation of PET plastics. Prior to its discovery, the only known degraders of PET were a small number of bacteria and fungi, including "Fusarium solani", and no organisms were definitively known to degrade PET as a primary carbon and energy source. The discovery of "I. sakaiensis" spurred discussion about PET biodegradation as a method of recycling and bioremediation.  The wild-type bacterium is able to colonize and break down a thin (0.2 mm thickness) film of low-crystallinity (soft) PET in approximately six weeks, and the responsible PETase enzyme was shown to degrade high-crystallinity (hard) PET approximately 30-fold slower than low-crystallinity PET. A large amount of manufactured PET is highly crystalline (e.g. plastic bottles), so it is thought that any prospective applications of the "I. sakaiensis" PETase enzyme in recycling programs will need to be preceded by genetic optimization of the enzyme. The MHETase enzyme could also be optimized and used in recycling or bioremediation applications in combination with the PETase enzyme. It degrades the MHET produced by the PETase into ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid. Once formed, these two compounds can be further biodegraded into carbon dioxide by "I. sakaiensis" or other microbes, or they can be purified and used to manufacture new PET in an industrial recycling plant setting.

Genetic engineering.

Ideonella sakaiensis has been genetically modified to break down PET faster, and also degrade PEF.

Ideonella sakaiensis is a bacterium from the genus" Ideonella" and family Comamonadaceae capable of breaking down and consuming the plastic poly ethylene terephthalate(PET) as a sole carbon and energy source. The bacterium was originally isolated from a sediment sample taken outside of a plastic bottle recycling facility in Sakai, Japan.

Ideonella sakaiensis ist ein Bakterium aus der Ordnung Burkholderiales, wobei die Gattung "Ideonella" nach aktueller Systematik (Stand 2019) keiner Familie zugeordnet ist. "Ideonella sakaiensis" ist in der Lage, den Kunststoff Polyethylenterephthalat (Kurzzeichen PET) vollständig zu verstoffwechseln.


History.

Tresorit was founded in 2011 by Hungarian programmers Istvan Lam, who remains CEO, Szilveszter Szebeni, who is currently CIO and Gyorgy Szilagyi, who is the CPO of the company.  Tresorit officially launched its client-side encrypted cloud storage service after emerging from its stealth beta in April 2014.  In August 2015, Wuala (owned by LaCie and Seagate), a pioneer of secure cloud storage, announced it was closing its service after 7 years, and recommended their users to choose Tresorit as their secure cloud alternative.  By the end of 2016, Tresorit launched a beta of the software development kit (SDK) ZeroKit. In January 2017, Apple's SDK project CareKit announced the option for mobile app developers using CareKit to integrate ZeroKit, enabling zero knowledge user authentication and encryption for medical and health apps.

Technology.

Tresorit encrypts files using client-side encryption with AES-256 before uploading them. Files are also secured by HMAC message authentication codes applied on SHA-512 hashes.  "Tresors" (German for vaults) are encrypted counterparts of uploaded directories. Tresors automatically sync with the cloud as files are added or removed from them, similar to Box.com and Dropbox's desktop software. The main difference between Tresorit and its competition is that Tresorit applies AES-256 client-side encryption to files while they are still local and then uploads them to the cloud. The company claims that due to its end-to-end encryption, users can share protected files and folders with others and work together on them, keeping the documents synced and secure in every step of the process. There are additional layers of security, but the core privacy feature of the service is that the encryption key never leaves the user: Using Zero-Knowledge encryption protocols, Tresorit is not in possession of the users’ authentication data, so the content of files cannot be accessed from their servers nor delivered to authorities upon request.

Hacking contest.

In 2013 and 2014, Tresorit hosted a hacking contest offering $10,000 to anyone who hacked their data encryption methods to gain access to their servers. After some months, the reward was increased to $25,000 and later to $50,000, challenging experts from institutions like Harvard, Stanford or MIT. The contest ran for 468 days and according to the company, nobody was able to break the encryption.

Reception.

Tresorit has received a number of nominations and awards. Up-Cloud Rewards named it one of the top 5 Cloud security solutions for 2012. Early 2016, Forbes listed Tresorit's cofounder Istvan Lam among the European "30 under 30". In 2017, Tresorit was listed as finalist in the Cybersecurity Excellence Awards, category Encryption.

Tresorit is an online cloud storage service based in Switzerland and Hungary that emphasizes enhanced security and data encryption for Businesses and individuals/freelancers. The Business version offers up to 1TB of storage space per user (the Solo version offers 2TB for one user) and extra security features such as DRM, granular access levels and other functions which aim to create a safer collaborative environment. Tresorit has been likened to a high-security alternative to Dropbox.

Tresorit ist ein Filehosting-Dienst (auch "Cloud Storage" genannt). Das gleichnamige Unternehmen hat Niederlassungen in der Schweiz und Ungarn und legt den Schwerpunkt auf erhöhte Sicherheit und Verschlüsselung. Der Name „Tresorit“ ist angelehnt an das deutsche Wort "Tresor". Der Dienst ist kostenpflichtig. Die Business-Version bietet 1 TB Speicherplatz pro Nutzer und erweiterte Sicherheitsfunktionen wie digitale Rechteverwaltung (DRM) und granulare Zugriffsrechte. Tresorit wurde wiederholt als sichere Alternative zu Dropbox bezeichnet.


Draft.

The 1968 NFL/AFL Draft, the first time that both leagues conducted a combined common draft, was held January 30–31, 1968, at New York City's Belmont Plaza Hotel. With the first pick, the Minnesota Vikings selected offensive tackle Ron Yary from the University of Southern California.

Division races.

The Eastern Conference was split into the Capitol and Century Divisions, and the Western Conference had the Coastal and Central Divisions. In the past, if two teams were tied for the division lead at season's end, a one-game playoff was conducted to break the tie. Starting in 1967, a tiebreaking system was implemented that started with net points in head-to-head competition, followed by the team that had less recently played in a title game. As such, only one team in a division would be the division winner, even if the won-lost record was the same.

Colts and Rams.

For the second straight season, the Colts and Rams waged a tight season long battle for the Coastal Division title. In 1967, the Rams defeated the Colts in the season's final game to claim the title. They appeared headed for a similar showdown in 1968 (they were scheduled to face each other in the season finale in L.A.), as the Rams entered week 13 with a 10-1-1 record while the Colts were 11-1-0. But in the next to last game, the Rams were upset by the Chicago Bears 17-16 in what was known as "the lost down game." The biggest play in the game came when the Rams completed a second down pass to get into field goal range in the final minute, but the play was wiped out by a holding penalty. It should have remained second down due to the Bears accepting the penalty on the Rams, but the referees forgot to reset the down marker. After two incomplete passes, the Rams lined up for a fourth down attempt, but the referees waived the Bears offense onto the field on a change of possession; the Bears ran out the clock and the Colts (who had already won earlier in the day) clinched the division. Note that in the now meaningless season finale, the Colts won 28-24.

Final standings.

"W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, PCT= Winning Percentage, PF= Points For, PA = Points Against"  "Note: Prior to 1972, the NFL did not include tie games when calculating a team's winning percentage in the official standings"

Postseason.

Super Bowl.

In an upset, the New York Jets, league champion of the 1968 American Football League season, defeated the Baltimore Colts, 16–7, at Orange Bowl in Miami, Florida

The 1968 NFL season was the 49th regular season of the National Football League. As per the agreement made during the 1967 realignment, the New Orleans Saints and the New York Giants switched divisions; the Saints joined the Century Division while the Giants became part of the Capitol Division.

Die NFL Saison 1968 war die 49. Saison im American Football in der National Football League (NFL), der damals, zusammen mit der American Football League (AFL), höchsten Footballliga der Vereinigten Staaten. Die Regular Saison begann am 14. September 1968 und endete drei Monate später, am 15. Dezember 1968.


Naming.

Although this article calls it the River Blackwater, Ordnance Survey maps, both ancient and modern, call it the Blackwater River. There is a small section to the west of Finchampstead which is called Long Water in both 1897 and on recent maps. The final section from the Whitewater to the Loddon is known by alternative names. The Ordnance Survey 1:50,000 map calls it the Blackwater River, the 1:25,000 map calls it the Broadwater, and the 1:2500 map calls it the Blackwater River at both ends of this section, but the Broadwater in the middle. This last option, with a small section of Broadwater in the middle where the river is somewhat wider, was also the convention in 1899.

Blackwater Valley.

The River Blackwater runs down the centre of the Blackwater Valley, which is maintained as an open space along the borders of the counties of Berkshire, Hampshire and Surrey. It runs for approximately from its source at Rowhill Nature Reserve near Aldershot in the south, northwards to Swallowfield where the river is joined by the River Whitewater and then joins the River Loddon. The Loddon eventually flows into the River Thames near Reading.  Although the lower reaches of the Blackwater are relatively rural, the upper reaches are heavily urbanised, with the river flowing through Aldershot, Farnborough, Camberley, Sandhurst and Yateley. Beneath the whole of the catchment there are chalk and greensand aquifers, but these are covered by a layer of impervious material, principally London clay. Some of the water of the Blackwater is provided by springs from these aquifers, but by far the largest component of the flow is the dischage from five major sewage treatment works on the upper reaches and two smaller ones on the lower reaches. The springs are on the edge of the Bagshot Beds, and the water from this source is quite acidic. After flowing over the London clay deposits, the underlying geology is more permeable near the mouth, consisting of Bagshot and Bracklesham Beds. In 1992, the five major sewage treatment works could discharge up to 74.4 Ml per day, and in summer months this accounted for around 85 per cent of the flow in the river above the confluence with the Whitewater.  The river valley is characterised by large areas of river gravels, which have been quarried extensively since the 1950s, and continue to be so. This activity accounts for the large number of lakes in the valley, as old workings fill with water, and have been landscaped to provide amenities, such as country parks and locations for fishing and boating. A number of them are designated Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) because of their rich and diverse ecology.  Although surrounded by urban development the Valley provides an important green corridor for local residents. As well as the Blackwater Valley SSSI and a small part of the Basingstoke Canal SSSI, three nature reserves within the Valley catchment and many other areas have been recognised for their ecological importance. The local planning authorities covering the Valley have designated 31 other areas as ‘Wildlife Sites’. As a result of an improvement programme, wildlife is returning, including the otter which has been absent for over 40 years, fishing stocks are improving and the construction of the long distance riverside path has opened up much of the riverbank.  A cycle route runs alongside the River Blackwater for most of its length. There is a running club named Blackwater Valley Runners who run there regularly.

Route.

The Blackwater rises as a series of springs on Rowhill Copse, a nature reserve to the south-west of Aldershot. The site contains a range of habitats, and is on the site of a private estate which once produced timber and bricks. The river heads in a south-easterly direction, passing under the railway line to station, between two lakes, under Badshot Lea Road and past some more lakes, which form part of Tice's Meadow nature reserve. This was a hop farm from 1851 until 1958, after which were quarried by Hanson Aggregates between 1998 and 2010. The site was adopted as a Site of Nature Conservation Interest (SNCI) in 2009, and was restored after quarrying stopped. Beyond the reserve, the river sweeps round in a large loop to head northwards, and is joined by the A331, which follows the river valley for a considerable distance. The Aldershot sewage treatment works is located on the left bank, and during dry weather supplies more than half of the river's flow. Willow Park Fishery is to the east of the river, which passes under an aqueduct carrying the Basingstoke Canal, and is then bordered by Lakeside Nature Reserve to the east and Gold Valley Lakes fishery to the west. The A331 road makes the first of several crossings over the river. Further north is Hollybush Park, a sand quarry which was then used as a landfill site, and is now an attractive grassland with wild flowers. The lakes to the north were the subject of a planning enquiry in 2020, to build 21 floating holiday homes and an equestrian centre. The river is hemmed in by lakes, railways and roads, and is crossed by the railway line to station.  After junction 4 on the M3 motorway, the river is joined by Cove Brook, which starts as a series of streams near Farnborough Airport and flows northwards. For much of its route it is bordered by housing on both sides, but then passes beneath the North Downs railway line to reach the junction. The tree-lined section immediately afterwards was once a gas works and railway sidings, but is now known as Blackwater Park, as far as the A30 road bridge. The small town of Blackwater is on the left bank and Camberley sewage treatment works is on the right bank at York Town. This was the cause of a serious pollution incident in 2012, when a malfunction in the works resulted in partially treated effluent being discharged into the river, and contaminating the river for downstream. This resulted in fish within the Shepherds Meadow SSSI suffocating and dying. Thames Water upgraded part of the works after the incident.  To the north of the bridge, the river is joined by the Wish Stream. This rises at Wishmoor Cross, in a danger area with restricted access, and flows to the south west along Wishmoor Bottom, a boggy valley which marks the border between Surrey and Berkshire. It is part of a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) because of its populations of Dartford Warbler, nightjar and woodlark, and is a nationally important habitat for dragonfly and damselfly. The Wish Stream then flows through the grounds of the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, entering Bathing Pool, and then passing through a series of engineered ponds and weirs, which create a significant obstacle to the movement of fish, to reach the Lower Lake. This is also supplied with water from the Upper Lake, located to the south of the Wish Stream. There is a large control structure at the outlet of the Lower Lake, which is totally impassable to fish, and then a series of high weirs again with no provision for the movement of fish. Below the grounds of the Academy, the stream flows in a culvert under a car park for a retail outlet, and several more culverts under roads to reach the Blackwater. The confluence used to be the point at which the counties of Berkshire, Hampshire and Surrey met, but when the Blackwater Valley road was being constructed in 1990, the Wish Stream was moved a short distance to the north to accommodate the roundabout that links the A30, A321 and A331 roads.  The river then flows through Shepherd Meadows, an SSSI noted for the Black Poplar tree, and a variety of wild flowers, including Sneezewort, Knapweed, Betony, Meadowsweet and Great Burnet. As the river curves to the west, it passes under the North Downs Line railway bridge, flows past Sandhurst sewage treatment works on the right bank and enters Trilakes Country Park. Former gravel pits flank the river on both sides, and as it passes the village of Finchampstead, the channel is briefly called Long Water. Soon it reaches New Mill, where there is a weir and sluice. The mill was a corn mill in 1871 and produced animal feed unti the 1950s, when the building was sold. The watermill and mill house are grade II listed, with parts of the buildings dating from the 15th century. They are now used as a restaurant, but the mill wheel, gears and machinery have been restored and can be seen working, encased behind glass screens. The river follows the northern edge of Bramshill Plantation, of woodland managed by the Forestry Commission. It is a Special Protection Area in view of the number of bird species to be found there, and also has large populations of damselflies, dragonflies and silver studded blue butterflies. Notable flora includes marsh clubmoss and pillwort.  The river turns to the north-west, and is joined by the River Whitewater, flowing northwards from Greywell, near Greywell Tunnel, the present end of the Basingstoke Canal. As it approaches Swallowfield, the channel splits and there are weirs on both branches. They enter Swallowfield Park, a grade II listed park and gardens. The park was enclosed by King Edward III in 1354, and remained the property of the monarch until the late 16th century, after which is was privately owned until 1965. The large country house was built in the late 17th century, was altered in 1820, and restored in the 1970s. The house and adjoining stable block are grade II* listed. The main drive to the house crosses the river on a five-arched brick bridge, dating from the late 18th century. The river continues through the park until it reaches the River Loddon.

Ash Aqueduct.

The Basingstoke Canal runs from the Greywell Tunnel at Greywell in the west to the River Wey in the east, and crosses the Blackwater Valley on an embankment in the village of Ash. The River Blackwater used to flow through a brick culvert under the embankment, but major reconstruction took place over the winter of 1994-95 as part of a project to route the A331 road along the river valley. Because bats were known to roost in the culvert, a new home for them was built on a nearby island. The central section of the embankment was then removed and replaced with a three-span aqueduct, with a centre span of and two side spans of each. The structure was built of post-tensioned concrete, using four cables on each side of the navigation channel, which were jacked apart until each was exerting a force of 820 tonnes to keep the concrete in compression. In order to avoid the aqueduct piers, the river channel was diverted to run through the western side span, and a new course was constructed until the road had risen sufficiently for a box-section culvert to carry the river under the new road to rejoin its original route. The new Ash Aqueduct affords views of the surrounding countryside. In the distance to the south is the Hog's Back, which runs between Farnham and Guildford, and is where the North Downs narrows.

Water Quality.

The Environment Agency measure water quality of the river systems in England. Each is given an overall ecological status, which may be one of five levels: high, good, moderate, poor and bad. There are several components that are used to determine this, including biological status, which looks at the quantity and varieties of invertebrates, angiosperms and fish, and chemical status, which compares the concentrations of various chemicals against known safe concentrations. Chemical status is rated good or fail.  The water quality of the Blackwater system was as follows in 2016.  Reasons for the quality being less than good include discharge from sewage treatment works; drainage from roads and transport infrastructure; contaminated land adjacent to the river; physical barriers such as weirs and impounding of the water which prevent the free migration of fish and other species; and the presence of the North American signal crayfish, an invasive species.

The River Blackwater is a tributary of the River Loddon in England and, indirectly, of the River Thames. It rises at Rowhill Nature Reserve between Aldershot in Hampshire and Farnham in Surrey and runs northwards to join the Loddon near the village of Swallowfield in Berkshire. Along part of its length, the river forms the boundary between Hampshire and Surrey, and then between Hampshire and Berkshire. Rowhill Nature Reserve is an isolated remnant of the extensive heathland that once surrounded Farnborough and Aldershot. After the Blackwater is joined by the River Whitewater near Eversley. The river gives its name to the small town of Blackwater, Hampshire, upon the river near Camberley.

Der Blackwater River ist ein Nebenfluss des River Loddon im Süden Englands. Er entsteht am südwestlichen Ortsrand von Aldershot auf der Grenze zwischen Surrey und Hampshire. Er fließt im Süden von Aldershot in östlicher Richtung. Westlich von Tongham wendet er sich nach Norden und fließt dann im Osten von Aldershot weiter. Zwischen Aldershot und Farnborough unterquert er den Basingstoke Canal. Bis er zwischen Camberley und Blackwater seinen Lauf nach Nordwesten wendet, bildet er die Grenze zwischen Surrey und Hampshire. Danach bildet er die Grenze zwischen Hampshire und Berkshire bis zur Mündung des River Whitewater, von wo ab er ganz in Berkshire bis zu seiner Mündung in den River Loddon nördlich von Swallowfield fließt.


Production.

The process of genetically engineering mammals is a slow, tedious, and expensive process. As with other genetically modified organisms (GMOs), first genetic engineers must isolate the gene they wish to insert into the host organism. This can be taken from a cell containing the gene or artificially synthesised. If the chosen gene or the donor organism's genome has been well studied it may already be accessible from a genetic library. The gene is then combined with other genetic elements, including a promoter and terminator region and usually a selectable marker.  A number of techniques are available for inserting the isolated gene into the host genome. With animals DNA is generally inserted into using microinjection, where it can be injected through the cell's nuclear envelope directly into the nucleus, or through the use of viral vectors. The first transgenic animals were produced by injecting viral DNA into embryos and then implanting the embryos in females. It is necessary to ensure that the inserted DNA is present in the embryonic stem cells. The embryo would develop and it would be hoped that some of the genetic material would be incorporated into the reproductive cells. Then researchers would have to wait until the animal reached breeding age and then offspring would be screened for presence of the gene in every cell, using PCR, Southern hybridization, and DNA sequencing.  New technologies are making genetic modifications easier and more precise. Gene targeting techniques, which creates double-stranded breaks and takes advantage on the cells natural homologous recombination repair systems, have been developed to target insertion to exact locations. Genome editing uses artificially engineered nucleases that create breaks at specific points. There are four families of engineered nucleases: meganucleases, zinc finger nucleases, transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs), and the Cas9-guideRNA system (adapted from CRISPR). TALEN and CRISPR are the two most commonly used and each has its own advantages. TALENs have greater target specificity, while CRISPR is easier to design and more efficient. The development of the CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing system has effectively halved the amount of time needed to develop genetically modified animals.

History.

Humans have domesticated animals since around 12,000 BCE, using selective breeding or artificial selection (as contrasted with natural selection). The process of selective breeding, in which organisms with desired traits (and thus with the desired genes) are used to breed the next generation and organisms lacking the trait are not bred, is a precursor to the modern concept of genetic modification Various advancements in genetics allowed humans to directly alter the DNA and therefore genes of organisms. In 1972 Paul Berg created the first recombinant DNA molecule when he combined DNA from a monkey virus with that of the lambda virus. In 1974 Rudolf Jaenisch created a transgenic mouse by introducing foreign DNA into its embryo, making it the world's first transgenic animal. However it took another eight years before transgenic mice were developed that passed the transgene to their offspring. Genetically modified mice were created in 1984 that carried cloned oncogenes, predisposing them to developing cancer. Mice with genes knocked out (knockout mouse) were created in 1989. The first transgenic livestock were produced in 1985 and the first animal to synthesise transgenic proteins in their milk were mice, engineered to produce human tissue plasminogen activator in 1987.  The first genetically modified animal to be commercialised was the GloFish, a Zebra fish with a fluorescent gene added that allows it to glow in the dark under ultraviolet light. It was released to the US market in 2003. The first genetically modified animal to be approved for food use was AquAdvantage salmon in 2015. The salmon were transformed with a growth hormone-regulating gene from a Pacific Chinook salmon and a promoter from an ocean pout enabling it to grow year-round instead of only during spring and summer.

Mammals.

GM mammals are created for research purposes, production of industrial or therapeutic products, agricultural uses or improving their health. There is also a market for creating genetically modified pets.

Medicine.

Mammals are the best models for human disease, making genetic engineered ones vital to the discovery and development of cures and treatments for many serious diseases. Knocking out genes responsible for human genetic disorders allows researchers to study the mechanism of the disease and to test possible cures. Genetically modified mice have been the most common mammals used in biomedical research, as they are cheap and easy to manipulate. Pigs are also a good target as they have a similar body size and anatomical features, physiology, pathophysiological response and diet. Nonhuman primates are the most similar model organisms to humans, but there is less public acceptance towards using them as research animals. In 2009, scientists announced that they had successfully transferred a gene into a primate species (marmosets) and produced a stable line of breeding transgenic primates for the first time. Their first research target for these marmosets was Parkinson's disease, but they were also considering amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and Huntington's disease.  Human proteins expressed in mammals are more likely to be similar to their natural counterparts than those expressed in plants or microorganisms. Stable expression has been accomplished in sheep, pigs, rats and other animals. In 2009, the first human biological drug produced from such an animal, a goat., was approved. The drug, ATryn, is an anticoagulant which reduces the probability of blood clots during surgery or childbirth was extracted from the goat's milk. Human alpha-1-antitrypsin is another protein that is used in treating humans with this deficiency. Another area is in creating pigs with greater capacity for human organ transplants (xenotransplantation). Pigs have been genetically modified so that their organs can no longer carry retroviruses or have modifications to reduce the chance of rejection. Pig lungs from genetically modified pigs are being considered for transplantation into humans. There is even potential to create chimeric pigs that can carry human organs.

Livestock.

Livestock are modified with the intention of improving economically important traits such as growth-rate, quality of meat, milk composition, disease resistance and survival. Animals have been engineered to grow faster, be healthier and resist diseases. Modifications have also improved the wool production of sheep and udder health of cows.  Goats have been genetically engineered to produce milk with strong spiderweb-like silk proteins in their milk. The goat gene sequence has been modified, using fresh umbilical cords taken from kids, in order to code for the human enzyme lysozyme. Researchers wanted to alter the milk produced by the goats, to contain lysozyme in order to fight off bacteria causing diarrhea in humans.  Enviropig was a genetically enhanced line of Yorkshire pigs in Canada created with the capability of digesting plant phosphorus more efficiently than conventional Yorkshire pigs. The A transgene construct consisting of a promoter expressed in the murine parotid gland and the "Escherichia coli" phytase gene was introduced into the pig embryo by pronuclear microinjection. This caused the pigs to produce the enzyme phytase, which breaks down the indigestible phosphorus, in their saliva. As a result, they excrete 30 to 70% less phosphorus in manure depending upon the age and diet. The lower concentrations of phosphorus in surface runoff reduces algal growth, because phosphorus is the limiting nutrient for algae. Because algae consume large amounts of oxygen, excessive growth can result in dead zones for fish. Funding for the Enviropig program ended in April 2012, and as no new partners were found the pigs were killed. However, the genetic material will be stored at the Canadian Agricultural Genetics Repository Program. In 2006, a pig was engineered to produce omega-3 fatty acids through the expression of a roundworm gene.  In 1990, the world's first transgenic bovine, Herman the Bull, was developed. Herman was genetically engineered by micro-injected embyonic cells with the human gene coding for lactoferrin. The Dutch Parliament changed the law in 1992 to allow Herman to reproduce. Eight calves were born in 1994 and all calves inherited the lactoferrin gene. With subsequent sirings, Herman fathered a total of 83 calves. Dutch law required Herman to be slaughtered at the conclusion of the experiment. However the Dutch Agriculture Minister at the time, Jozias van Aartsen, granted him a reprieve provided he did not have more offspring after public and scientists rallied to his defence. Together with cloned cows named Holly and Belle, he lived out his retirement at Naturalis, the National Museum of Natural History in Leiden. On 2 April 2004, Herman was euthanised by veterinarians from the University of Utrecht because he suffered from osteoarthritis. At the time of his death Herman was one of the oldest bulls in the Netherlands. Herman's hide has been preserved and mounted by taxidermists and is permanently on display in Naturalis. They say that he represents the start of a new era in the way man deals with nature, an icon of scientific progress, and the subsequent public discussion of these issues.  Researchers have developed GM dairy cattle to grow without horns (sometimes referred to as "polled") which can cause injuries to farmers and other animals. DNA was taken from the genome of Red Angus cattle, which is known to suppress horn growth, and inserted into cells taken from an elite Holstein bull called "Randy". Each of the progeny will be a clone of Randy, but without his horns, and their offspring should also be hornless. In 2011, Chinese scientists generated dairy cows genetically engineered with genes from human beings to produce milk that would be the same as human breast milk. This could potentially benefit mothers who cannot produce breast milk but want their children to have breast milk rather than formula. The researchers claim these transgenic cows to be identical to regular cows. Two months later, scientists from Argentina presented Rosita, a transgenic cow incorporating two human genes, to produce milk with similar properties as human breast milk. In 2012, researchers from New Zealand also developed a genetically engineered cow that produced allergy-free milk.

Research.

Scientists have genetically engineered several organisms, including some mammals, to include green fluorescent protein (GFP), for research purposes. GFP and other similar reporting genes allow easy visualisation and localisation of the products of the genetic modification. Fluorescent pigs have been bred to study human organ transplants, regenerating ocular photoreceptor cells, and other topics. In 2011 green-fluorescent cats were created to find therapies for HIV/AIDS and other diseases as feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) is related to HIV.

Conservation.

Genetic modification of the myxoma virus has been proposed to conserve European wild rabbits in the Iberian peninsula and to help regulate them in Australia. To protect the Iberian species from viral diseases, the myxoma virus was genetically modified to immunize the rabbits, while in Australia the same myxoma virus was genetically modified to lower fertility in the Australian rabbit population. There have also been suggestions that genetic engineering could be used to bring animals back from extinction. It involves changing the genome of a close living relative to resemble the extinct one and is currently being attempted with the passenger pigeon. Genes associated with the woolly mammoth have been added to the genome of an African Elephant, although the lead researcher says he has no intention of using live elephants.

Humans.

Gene therapy uses genetically modified viruses to deliver genes which can cure disease in humans. Although gene therapy is still relatively new, it has had some successes. It has been used to treat genetic disorders such as severe combined immunodeficiency, and Leber's congenital amaurosis. Treatments are also being developed for a range of other currently incurable diseases, such as cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, Parkinson's disease, cancer, diabetes, heart disease and muscular dystrophy. These treatments only affect somatic cells, meaning any changes would not be inheritable. Germline gene therapy results in any change being inheritable, which has raised concerns within the scientific community. In 2015, CRISPR was used to edit the DNA of non-viable human embryos. In November 2018, He Jiankui announced that he had edited the genomes of two human embryos, to attempt to disable the "CCR5" gene, which codes for a receptor that HIV uses to enter cells. He said that twin girls, Lulu and Nana, had been born a few weeks earlier and that they carried functional copies of CCR5 along with disabled CCR5 (mosaicism) and were still vulnerable to HIV. The work was widely condemned as unethical, dangerous, and premature.

Fish.

Genetically modified fish are used for scientific research, as pets and as a food source. Aquaculture is a growing industry, currently providing over half the consumed fish worldwide. Through genetic engineering It is possible to increase growth rates, reduce food intake, remove allergenic properties, increase cold tolerance and provide disease resistance.

Detecting pollution.

Fish can also be used to detect aquatic pollution or function as bioreactors. Several groups have been developing zebrafish to detect pollution by attaching fluorescent proteins to genes activated by the presence of pollutants. The fish will then glow and can be used as environmental sensors.

Pets.

The GloFish is a brand of genetically modified fluorescent zebrafish with bright red, green, and orange fluorescent color. It was originally developed by one of the groups to detect pollution, but is now part of the ornamental fish trade, becoming the first genetically modified animal to become publicly available as a pet when it was introduced for sale in 2003.

Research.

GM fish are widely used in basic research in genetics and development. Two species of fish, zebrafish and medaka, are most commonly modified because they have optically clear chorions (membranes in the egg), rapidly develop, and the 1-cell embryo is easy to see and microinject with transgenic DNA. Zebrafish are model organisms for developmental processes, regeneration, genetics, behaviour, disease mechanisms and toxicity testing. Their transparency allows researchers to observe developmental stages, intestinal functions and tumour growth. The generation of transgenic protocols (whole organism, cell or tissue specific, tagged with reporter genes) has increased the level of information gained by studying these fish.

Growth.

GM fish have been developed with promoters driving an over-production of "all fish" growth hormone for use in the aquaculture industry to increase the speed of development and potentially reduce fishing pressure on wild stocks. This has resulted in dramatic growth enhancement in several species, including salmon, trout and tilapia.  AquaBounty Technologies have produced a salmon that can mature in half the time as wild salmon. The fish is an Atlantic salmon with a Chinook salmon ("Oncorhynchus tshawytscha") gene inserted. This allows the fish to produce growth hormones all year round compared to the wild-type fish that produces the hormone for only part of the year. The fish also has a second gene inserted from the eel-like ocean pout that acts like an "on" switch for the hormone. Pout also have antifreeze proteins in their blood, which allow the GM salmon to survive near-freezing waters and continue their development. The wild-type salmon takes 24 to 30 months to reach market size (4–6 kg) whereas the producers of the GM salmon say it requires only 18 months for the GM fish to achieve this. In November 2015, the FDA of the USA approved the AquAdvantage salmon for commercial production, sale and consumption, the first non-plant GMO food to be commerialised.  AquaBounty say that to prevent the genetically modified fish inadvertently breeding with wild salmon, all the fish will be female and reproductively sterile, although a small percentage of the females may remain fertile. Some opponents of the GM salmon have dubbed it the "Frankenfish".

Insects.

Research.

In biological research, transgenic fruit flies ("Drosophila melanogaster") are model organisms used to study the effects of genetic changes on development. Fruit flies are often preferred over other animals due to their short life cycle and low maintenance requirements. It also has a relatively simple genome compared to many vertebrates, with typically only one copy of each gene, making phenotypic analysis easy. "Drosophila" have been used to study genetics and inheritance, embryonic development, learning, behavior, and aging. Transposons (particularly P elements) are well developed in "Drosophila" and provided an early method to add transgenes to their genome, although this has been taken over by more modern gene-editing techniques.

Population control.

Due to their significance to human health, scientists are looking at ways to control mosquitoes through genetic engineering. Malaria-resistant mosquitoes have been developed in the laboratory. by inserting a gene that reduces the development of the malaria parasite and then use homing endonucleases to rapidly spread that gene throughout the male population (known as a gene drive). This has been taken further by swapping it for a lethal gene. In trials the populations of "Aedes aegypti" mosquitoes, the single most important carrier of dengue fever and Zika virus, were reduced by between 80% and by 90%. Another approach is to use the sterile insect technique, whereby males genetically engineered to be sterile out compete viable males, to reduce population numbers.  Other insect pests that make attractive targets are moths. Diamondback moths cause US$4 to $5 billion of damage a year worldwide. The approach is similar to the mosquitoes, where males transformed with a gene that prevents females from reaching maturity will be released. They underwent field trials in 2017. Genetically modified moths have previously been released in field trials. A strain of pink bollworm that were sterilised with radiation were genetically engineered to express a red fluorescent protein making it easier for researchers to monitor them.

Industry.

Silkworm, the larvae stage of "Bombyx mori," is an economically important insect in sericulture. Scientists are developing strategies to enhance silk quality and quantity. There is also potential to use the silk producing machinery to make other valuable proteins. Proteins expressed by silkworms include; human serum albumin, human collagen α-chain, mouse monoclonal antibody and N-glycanase. Silkworms have been created that produce spider silk, a stronger but extremely difficult to harvest silk, and even novel silks.

Birds.

Attempts to produce genetically modified birds began before 1980. Chickens have been genetically modified for a variety of purposes. This includes studying embryo development, preventing the transmission of bird flu and providing evolutionary insights using reverse engineering to recreate dinosaur-like phenotypes. A GM chicken that produces the drug Kanuma, an enzyme that treats a rare condition, in its egg passed regulatory approval in 2015.

Disease control.

One potential use of GM birds could be to reduce the spread of avian disease. Researchers at Roslin Institute have produced a strain of GM chickens ("Gallus gallus domesticus") that does not transmit avian flu to other birds; however, these birds are still susceptible to contracting it. The genetic modification is an RNA molecule that prevents the virus reproduction by mimicking the region of the flu virus genome that controls replication. It is referred to as a "decoy" because it diverts the flu virus enzyme, the polymerase, from functions that are required for virus replication.

Evolutionary insights.

A team of geneticists led by University of Montana paleontologist Jack Horner is seeking to modify a chicken to express several features present in ancestral maniraptorans but absent in modern birds, such as teeth and a long tail, creating what has been dubbed a 'chickenosaurus'. Parallel projects have produced chicken embryos expressing dinosaur-like skull, leg, and foot anatomy.

Amphibians.

Genetically modified frogs, in particular "Xenopus laevis" and "Xenopus tropicalis", are used in development biology. GM frogs can also be used as pollution sensors, especially for endocrine disrupting chemicals. There are proposals to use genetic engineering to control cane toads in Australia.

Nematodes.

The nemotode "Caenorhabditis elegans" is one of the major model organisms for researching molecular biology. RNA interference (RNAi) was discovered in "C elegans" and could be induced by simply feeding them bacteria modified to express double stranded RNA. It is also relatively easy to produce stable transgenic nemotodes and this along with RNAi are the major tools used in studying their genes. The most common use of transgenic nematodes has been studying gene expression and localisation by attaching reporter genes. Transgenes can also be combined with RNAi to rescue phenotypes, altered to study gene function, imaged in real time as the cells develop or used to control expression for different tissues or developmental stages. Transgenic nematodes have been used to study viruses, toxicology, and diseases and to detect environmental pollutants.

Other.

Systems have been developed to create transgenic organisms in a wide variety of other animals. The gene responsible for Albinism in sea cucumbers has been found and used to engineer white sea cucumbers, a rare delicacy. The technology also opens the way to investigate the genes responsible for some of the cucumbers more unusual traits, including hibernating in summer, eviscerating their intestines, and dissolving their bodies upon death. Flatworms have the ability to regenerate themselves from a single cell. Until 2017 there was no effective way to transform them, which hampered research. By using microinjection and radiation scientist have now created the first genetically modified flatworms. The bristle worm, a marine annelid, has been modified. It is of interest due to its reproductive cycle being synchronised with lunar phases, regeneration capacity and slow evolution rate. Cnidaria such as "Hydra" and the sea anemone "Nematostella vectensis" are attractive model organisms to study the evolution of immunity and certain developmental processes. Other organisms that have been genetically modified include snails, geckos, turtles, crayfish, oysters, shrimp, clams, abalone and sponges.

Genetically modified animals are animals that have been genetically modified for a variety of purposes including producing drugs, enhancing yields, increase resistance to disease, etc. The vast majority of genetically modified animals are at the research stage with the number close to entering the market remains small.

Im Vergleich zu Pflanzen ist die gentechnische Veränderung von Tieren zum Teil wesentlich aufwendiger. Dies gilt insbesondere für Säuger, da die Eizelle nicht direkt zugänglich ist und somit Methoden der In-vitro-Fertilisation eingesetzt werden müssen.


History.

Nantucket is a uniquely preserved New England seaport, largely developed during the late 18th and early 19th centuries when the whaling industry dominated the town's economy. By 1774, Nantucket accounted for about sixty percent of the New England whaling fleet. In 1840, the town's population peaked at roughly 9,000. However, during the years that followed, several events occurred that resulted in a dramatic downturn in the island's fortunes. By this time, the nearby mainland port of New Bedford, Massachusetts had surpassed Nantucket as the leading whaling port in the nation. Also during this time, the formation of sand bars prevented the increasingly larger ships from entering Nantucket Harbor, forcing the industry to shift to nearby Edgartown on Martha's Vineyard. Another blow came in 1846, when a great fire destroyed much of the town's commercial center and wharves. By the end of the 19th century, when much of the country was experiencing dramatic growth, Nantucket's population had fallen to just 3,000. Thus, the existence of Nantucket's historic buildings is largely due to the island being forgotten for more than half a century, as its architecture survived through neglect. In 1894, the first preservation efforts on Nantucket occurred with a campaign to save the "Old Mill", a 1746 windmill built by Nathan Wilbur. In 1897, the mill was purchased at auction and donated to the Nantucket Historical Association. During this period, new construction began to reflect the island's historic character.  The oldest buildings within the historic district date from the late 17th century. Built mostly of wood, they are utilitarian in style with little ornamentation or detail. In the period that followed the American Revolution, with the rise in whaling wealth, more ornate buildings were constructed by sea captains and merchants in the Federal style. Among these is the Second Congressional Meetinghouse, built in 1809. The most outstanding buildings are situated on Main and Orange Streets, such as the Hadwen-Wright House at 94 Main Street. Immediately following the devastating fire of 1846, the entire commercial district was rebuilt with new two and three-story brick buildings. The rebuilt area is dominated by the predominant Greek Revival style of the 1840s.  It was not until the 1990s that Nantucket's population surpassed its 1840 peak of 9,000. The island's economy is now mostly based on seasonal tourism, which has put increased pressure on its historic properties. In 2000, the National Trust for Historic Preservation placed Nantucket on its 2000 list of America's 11 Most Endangered Historic Places, noting that while "Nantucket has a long history of commitment to preservation, an upsurge in the destructive practices of "teardowns" and "gut rehabs," along with the inappropriate sizing and siting of new homes, are dramatically altering the heritage, cultural landscape, and quality of community life on the island."

Contributing properties.

A partial list of contributing properties within the Nantucket Historic District includes:

The Nantucket Historic District is a National Historic Landmark District that encompasses the entire island of Nantucket, Massachusetts. The original December 13, 1966 listing on the National Register of Historic Places included only the historic downtown core and the village of Siasconset, but was expanded in 1975 to include the entire island, as well as the islands of Tuckernuck and Muskeget. At over 30,000 acres, it is the largest conventional historic National Historic Landmark District by area in the contiguous United States.

Der Nantucket Historic District umfasst die gesamte Insel Nantucket sowie die Inseln Tuckernuck und Muskeget im Bundesstaat Massachusetts der Vereinigten Staaten. Der National Historic Landmark District wurde 1966 in das National Register of Historic Places eingetragen. Mit einer Fläche von ist er der größte Historic District in den kontinentalen Vereinigten Staaten.


Backgrounds.

Peace of Riga.

The preliminary peace accord (later finalized in Peace of Riga), signed on October 12, 1920, set new borders between Poland and the Soviet republics that divided modern Belarus and Ukraine in two parts. A Belarusian delegation was not invited to the Riga congress — neither from the Belarusian Democratic Republic, nor from the puppet Soviet Socialist Republic of Belarus.  Due to the treaty, the demarcation line Kiyevichy-Lan lay in a way that the region of Slutsk, Belarus, stayed in a neutral zone for some time before being taken by the Red Army.

National movement in Slutsk.

The main moving power of the Slutsk defence was the local peasantry fighting against the Bolshevist agrarian policy of War Communism and supporting the independence of Belarus declared on March 25, 1918. Leaders of the defence were local intellectuals and szlachta.  Slutsk was an important centre of Belarusian national life. Local intellectuals kept tense contacts with groups supporting the Belarusian Democratic Republic in other regions.  In 1918 a Belarusian National Committee led by Pavał Žaŭryd was created in the town.

Soviet–Polish War and Slutsk.

During the Polish-Soviet War of 1919–1920 the region of Slutsk was occupied several times by Polish and Soviet troops. Finally, on October 11, 1920 the Polish took control over the town.  The news about the division of Belarus between Poland and the Bolsheviks provoked indignation in Belarusian society. Immediately after Polish reoccupation of the town the Belarusian National Committee recommenced its activity and started forming Belarusian self-defence units. First, a 500-man Belarusian militia corps was created.  The Polish military were preparing to withdraw to Polish territory and did not prevent the creation of Belarusian military units. Many Polish military consisted of Belarusians and sympathised with the self-defence activities.  Still, there was no unity among Belarusian activists as to how to further strategy. There was a fraction that advocated cooperation with Poland. On the other side, there were even proposals for cooperation with the Soviets. Because of these contradictions much time needed for military preparation was lost. Lack of solidarity had its negative effect during the whole military defence action.  Only in November 1920 the withdrawing Polish military authorities transferred the civil power to the Belarusian National Committee. In all local communities and villages democratic elections took place; new elected Committees replaced the previous Polish-appointed local administration.  Local representatives of Belarusian socialist revolutionaries, who were the main advocates of the idea of Belarusian independence, decided to call up a Congress to confirm the authority of the Belarusian Republic in the region. Delegates from all local communities (five from each) and Belarusian organisations (one from each) were invited.

Congress of Słuččyna.

On November 14, 1920 the Congress of Słuččyna (Slutsk region) started its work. There were 107 delegates from Słuck and its surroundings as well as several representatives of the Belarusian army of general Bułak-Bałachovič.  The government of the Belarusian National Republic appointed Pavał Žaŭryd its commissioner to Słuččyna.  The Congress passed a resolution declaring the authority of the government of the Belarusian National Republic and protesting against the Soviet invasion of Belarus. A decision was made to organize armed resistance against the "bolshevik occupation":  "The First Belarusian Congress of Słuččyna, formed of 107 persons, salutes the Upper Rada of the Belarusian Democratic Republic and declares that it will give all its powers for the revival of our Fatherland and categorically protests against the occupation of our Fatherland by foreign and impostor Soviet powers. Long live the independent National Belarusian Republic in its ethnographic borders!"

Military preparations.

A Rada of Słuččyna consisting of 17 people was elected with the chairman Uładzimier Prakulevič. Its function was to organise civil governance of Słuččyna before regular elections could be held as well as to organise a military defence.  Military command was given to a troika led by Pavał Žaŭryd. The Rada declared a general mobilisation and continued creation of military units.  The mobilisation was very successful among inhabitants of Słuččyna, in the villages of Cimkavičy, Kapyl, Siemiežava, Hrozava and surroundings. Soon there were ca. 10,000 men mobilised into the newly created forces.  Two regiments were formed by the Rada: "1st Słuck regiment" under lieutenant colonel Achrem Haŭryłovič and the "2nd Hrozaŭ regiment" under captain Siemianiuk. These two regiments formed the "Słuck brigade" under Anton Sokał-Kutyłoŭski. The military headquarters was transferred from Słuck to Siemiežava because of approaching bolshevik armies.  The military defence action was actively supported by Belarusian nationalists from different regions of Belarus at that time occupied by Polish troops.  From Hrodna a banner with the Pahonia and the motto "To those who went to die for the life of their Fatherland" was sent to Słuck. The military commission of the Government of the Belarusian People's Republic that was acting as Belarus' defence ministry, sent several military specialists to help to organise the defence. Soon a well-organised military hospital and military court were created by the Slutsk brigade.  The Słuck Rada had tight contacts with the army of Stanisłaŭ Bułak-Bałachovič and planned to coordinate with it.  On November 21, 1920 the Rada of Słuččyna made a new declaration:  "In the moment of self-determination of all nations and their struggle for freedom the Belarusian Rada of Słuččyna carries out the will of the peasantry that delegated the protection of the independence of our Fatherland Belarus to it. The Rada declares to the whole world the will of Belarusian peasantry that Belarus must be an independent republic in its ethnographc borders"  "Stating that and being the speaker of the will of the people, the Rada of Słuččyna declares that it will stand for the independence of Belarus and protect the interests of peasantry against violation by foreign invadors. If needed, we will do it by military means despite a numeral advantage of the enemy, because what we do is honest and honesty will always win."  The Rada gave the order to all military units and volunteers to group near Siemiežava on November 24. A demonstration took place on the central square of Słuck.

The battles.

On November 27 the first encounters between Belarusian and Soviet forces began.  The Słuck brigade made some successful attacks near Kapyl, Cimkavičy and Vyzna. Against the Belarusian forces fought the Omsk division of the Red Army. Despite some support from the local population, the Belarusian units lacked ammunition and arms.  There were fights near villages Bystrycy, Vasilčycy, Vierabiejčycy, Daškava, Vasiliški, Lutavičy, Mackievičy, Sadovičy, Morač. The Słuck brigade managed to occupy several villages.  This started an anti-bolshevik partisan movement. As people joined them, the Slutsk Rada made an appeal to the soldiers of the Red Army to stop resistance as well. Many of them did, as there were numerous Russian peasants opposing the Soviet agrarian policy among them. Therefore, the Bolsheviks had to bring in units consisting of Latvians and Chinese to combat the Belarusian units.  Still, the powers were unequal and on December 31 the Słuck brigade had to retreat to Polish territory where it was disarmed by Polish border guards.  Some of the defendants of Słuck later returned to Belarus but were captured by the bolsheviks and dealt with accordingly. Some of the Belarusian military stayed in the region as a partisan Green Army and continued armed resistance against Soviet rule till the 1930s.

Modern reflections of the Slutsk military defence.

During Perestroika, numerous political groups dedicated themselves to publicise the history of a movement that was virtually erased from history during the Soviet time. November 27 became a holiday that groups like the Belarusian Popular Front and some intellectuals celebrate as "Heroes Day". However, Belarusian officials under president Alexander Lukashenko do not recognise the Słuck military defense as significant, mostly due to the pro-Soviet official state ideology dominating in Belarus.  In 1948, a monument in honor of Słuck rebels was placed by Belarusian emigrants near Mittenwald, a German city near the Alps.

The Slutsk uprising or the Slutsk defence () was an unsuccessful armed attempt to establish an independent Belarus. It took place in late 1920, near the end of the Polish-Soviet War, in the region of the town of Slutsk. It involved a series of clashes between irregular Belarusian forces loyal to the Belarusian People's Republic and the Soviet Red Army, ending in a Soviet victory.

Der Aufstand von Sluzk (; auch Sluzker Verteidigungsaktion genannt) war ein antibolschewistischer Aufstand mit dem Ziel, die Weißrussische Volksrepublik wiederzuerrichten. Er ereignete sich vom 27. November bis zum 31. Dezember 1920 in der weißrussischen Stadt Sluzk und den umliegenden Dörfern.