History.

1903–1995.

"The Daily Mirror" was launched on 2 November 1903 by Alfred Harmsworth (later Lord Northcliffe) as a newspaper for women, run by women. Hence the name: he said, "I intend it to be really a mirror of feminine life as well on its grave as on its lighter sides... to be entertaining without being frivolous, and serious without being dull". It cost one penny (equivalent to p in ).  It was not an immediate success and in 1904 Harmsworth decided to turn it into a pictorial newspaper with a broader focus. Harmsworth appointed Hamilton Fyfe as editor and all of the paper's female journalists were fired. The masthead was changed to "The Daily Illustrated Mirror", which ran from 26 January to 27 April 1904 (issues 72 to 150), when it reverted to "The Daily Mirror". The first issue of the relaunched paper did not have advertisements on the front page as previously, but instead news text and engraved pictures (of a traitor and an actress), with the promise of photographs inside. Two days later, the price was dropped to one halfpenny and to the masthead was added: "A paper for men and women". This combination was more successful: by issue 92, the guaranteed circulation was 120,000 copies and by issue 269, it had grown to 200,000: by then the name had reverted and the front page was mainly photographs. Circulation grew to 466,000 making it the second-largest morning newspaper.  Alfred Harmsworth sold the newspaper to his brother Harold Harmsworth (from 1914 Lord Rothermere) in 1913. In 1917, the price was increased to one penny. Circulation continued to grow: in 1919, some issues sold more than a million copies a day, making it the largest daily picture paper. In 1924 the newspaper sponsored the 1924 Women's Olympiad held at Stamford Bridge in London. Lord Rothermere was a friend of Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler, and directed the "Mirror"s editorial stance towards them in the early 1930s. On Monday, 22 January 1934 the "Daily Mirror" ran the headline "Give the Blackshirts a helping hand" urging readers to join Sir Oswald Mosley's British Union of Fascists, and giving the address to which to send membership applications.By the mid-1930s, the "Mirror" was struggling – it and the "Mail" were the main casualties of the early 1930s circulation war that saw the "Daily Herald" and the "Daily Express" establish circulations of more than two million, and Rothermere decided to sell his shares in it.  In 1935 Rothermere sold the paper to H. G. Bartholomew and Hugh Cudlipp. With Cecil King (Rothermere's nephew) in charge of the paper's finances and Guy Bartholomew as editor, during the late 1930s the "Mirror" was transformed from a conservative, middle class newspaper into a left-wing paper for the working class. Partly on the advice of the American advertising agency J. Walter Thompson, the "Mirror" became the first British paper to adopt the appearance of the New York tabloids. The headlines became bigger, the stories shorter and the illustrations more abundant. By 1939, the publication was selling 1.4 million copies a day. In 1937, Hugh McClelland introduced his wild Western comic strip "Beelzebub Jones" in the "Daily Mirror". After taking over as cartoon chief at the "Mirror" in 1945, he dropped "Beelzebub Jones" and moved on to a variety of new strips.  During the Second World War the "Mirror" positioned itself as the paper of the ordinary soldier and civilian, and was critical of the political leadership and the established parties. At one stage, the paper was threatened with closure following the publication of a Philip Zec cartoon (captioned by William Connor), which was misinterpreted by Winston Churchill and Herbert Morrison. In the 1945 general election the paper strongly supported the Labour Party in its eventual landslide victory. In doing so, the paper supported Herbert Morrison, who co-ordinated Labour's campaign, and recruited his former antagonist Philip Zec to reproduce, on the front page, a popular VE Day cartoon on the morning of the election, suggesting that Labour were the only party who could maintain peace in post-war Britain. By the late 1940s, it was selling 4.5 million copies a day, outstripping the "Express"; for some 30 years afterwards, it dominated the British daily newspaper market, selling more than 5 million copies a day at its peak in the mid-1960s.  The "Mirror" was an influential model for German tabloid "Bild", which was founded in 1952 and became Europe's biggest-selling newspaper.  In 1955, the "Mirror" and its stablemate the "Sunday Pictorial" (later to become the "Sunday Mirror") began printing a northern edition in Manchester. In 1957 it introduced the Andy Capp cartoon, created by Reg Smythe from Hartlepool, in the northern editions.  The "Mirror" mass working class readership had made it the United Kingdom's best-selling daily tabloid newspaper. In 1960, it acquired the "Daily Herald" (the popular daily of the labour movement) when it bought Odhams, in one of a series of takeovers which created the International Publishing Corporation (IPC). The "Mirror" management did not want the "Herald" competing with the "Mirror" for readers, and in 1964, relaunched it as a mid-market paper, now named "The Sun". When it failed to win readers, the "Sun" was sold to Rupert Murdoch – who immediately relaunched it as a more populist and sensationalist tabloid and a direct competitor to the "Mirror". In an attempt to cater to a different kind of reader, the "Mirror" launched the "Mirrorscope" pull-out section on 30 January 1968. The "Press Gazette" commented: "The "Daily Mirror" launched its revolutionary four-page supplement "Mirrorscope". The ambitious brief for the supplement, which ran on Wednesdays and Fridays, was to deal with international affairs, politics, industry, science, the arts and business". The "British Journalism Review" said in 2002 that "Mirrorscope" was "a game attempt to provide serious analysis in the rough and tumble of the tabloids". It failed to attract significant numbers of new readers, and the pull-out section was abandoned, its final issue appearing on 27 August 1974.  In 1978, "The Sun" overtook the "Mirror" in circulation, and in 1984 the "Mirror" was sold to Robert Maxwell. After Maxwell's death in 1991, David Montgomery became Mirror Group's CEO, and a period of cost-cutting and production changes ensued. The "Mirror" went through a protracted period of crisis before merging with the regional newspaper group Trinity to form Trinity Mirror in 1999. Printing of the "Daily" and "Sunday Mirror" moved to Trinity Mirror's facilities in Watford and Oldham.

1995–2004.

Under the editorship of Piers Morgan (from October 1995 to May 2004) the paper saw a number of controversies. Morgan was widely criticised and forced to apologise for the headline "ACHTUNG! SURRENDER For you Fritz, ze Euro 96 Championship is over" a day before England met Germany in a semi-final of the Euro 96 football championships.  In 2000, Morgan was the subject of an investigation after Suzy Jagger wrote a story in "The Daily Telegraph" revealing that he had bought £20,000 worth of shares in the computer company Viglen soon before the "Mirror"'s 'City Slickers' column tipped Viglen as a good buy. Morgan was found by the Press Complaints Commission to have breached the Code of Conduct on financial journalism, but kept his job. The 'City Slickers' columnists, Anil Bhoyrul and James Hipwell, were both found to have committed further breaches of the Code, and were sacked before the inquiry. In 2004, further enquiry by the Department of Trade and Industry cleared Morgan from any charges. On 7 December 2005 Bhoyrul and Hipwell were convicted of conspiracy to breach the Financial Services Act. During the trial it emerged that Morgan had bought £67,000 worth of Viglen shares, emptying his bank account and investing under his wife's name too.  In 2002, the "Mirror" attempted to move mid-market, claiming to eschew the more trivial stories of show-business and gossip. The paper changed its masthead logo from red to black (and occasionally blue), in an attempt to dissociate itself from the term "red top", a term for a sensationalist mass-market tabloid. (On 6 April 2005, the red top came back.) Under then-editor Piers Morgan, the newspaper's editorial stance opposed the 2003 invasion of Iraq, and ran many front pages critical of the war. It also gave financial support to the 15 February 2003 anti-war protest, paying for a large screen and providing thousands of placards. Morgan re-hired John Pilger, who had been sacked during Robert Maxwell's ownership of the Mirror titles. Despite such changes, Morgan was unable to halt the paper's decline in circulation, a decline shared by its direct tabloid rivals "The Sun" and the "Daily Star".  Morgan was fired from the "Mirror" on 14 May 2004 after authorising the newspaper's publication of photographs allegedly showing Iraqi prisoners being abused by British Army soldiers from the Queen's Lancashire Regiment. Within days the photographs were shown to be fakes. Under the headline "SORRY.. WE WERE HOAXED", the "Mirror" responded that it had fallen victim to a "calculated and malicious hoax" and apologised for the publication of the photographs.

2004–present.

The "Mirror" front page on 4 November 2004, after the re-election of George W. Bush as U.S. President, read "How can 59,054,087 people be so DUMB?". It provided a list of states and their alleged average IQ, showing the Bush states all below average intelligence (except for Virginia), and all John Kerry states at or above average intelligence. The source for this table was "The Economist", although it was a hoax. Richard Wallace became editor in 2004.  On 30 May 2012, Trinity Mirror announced the merger of the "Daily Mirror" and "Sunday Mirror" into a single seven-day-a-week title. Richard Wallace and Tina Weaver, the respective editors of the "Daily Mirror" and "Sunday Mirror", were simultaneously dismissed and Lloyd Embley, editor of "The People", appointed as editor of the combined title with immediate effect. In 2018, Reach plc acquired the Northern & Shell titles, including the Daily Express, which led to a number of editor moves across the stable. Lloyd Embley was then promoted to editor-in-chief across the entire group, and Alison Phillips (previously deputy editor-in-chief for the Trinity Mirror titles) was appointed editor of the Daily Mirror.

Political allegiance.

The Mirror has consistently supported the Labour Party since the 1945 general election.  On 3 May 1979, the day of the general election, the "Daily Mirror" urged its readers to vote for the governing Labour Party led by James Callaghan. As widely predicted by the opinion polls, Labour lost this election, which was won by the Conservative Party and saw Margaret Thatcher become Prime Minister. The "Mirror"s continued support of the Labour government was in spite of its falling popularity over the previous few months which had been the result of the Winter of Discontent, where the country was crippled by numerous public sector strikes.  By the time of the 1983 general election, Labour support was at a postwar low, partly due to the strong challenge by the recently formed SDP-Liberal Alliance. Despite this, the "Daily Mirror" remained loyal to Labour and urged its readers to vote for the party (now led by Michael Foot), condemning the Thatcher-led Tory government for its "waste of our nation", condemning the rise in unemployment that Thatcher's Conservative government had seen in its first term in power largely due to monetarist economic policies to reduce inflation, although the government's previously low popularity had dramatically improved since the success of the Falklands conflict a year earlier. However, the Tories were re-elected and Labour suffered its worst postwar general election result, only narrowly bettering the SDP-Liberal Alliance in terms of votes whilst winning considerably more seats.  At the 1987 general election, the "Daily Mirror" remained loyal to Labour (now led by Neil Kinnock) and urged its readers "You know he's right, chuck her out". By this stage, unemployment was falling and inflation had remained low for several years. As a result, the Tories were re-elected for a third successive term, although Labour did cut the Tory majority slightly.  For the 1992 general election, the "Daily Mirror" continued to support Labour, still led by Neil Kinnock. By this stage Margaret Thatcher had stepped down and the Tory government was now led by John Major. The election was won by the Tories, although Labour managed to significantly cut the Tory majority to 21 seats compared to the triple-digit figure of the previous two elections, which led to a difficult term for Major. The outcome of this election had been far less predictable than any of the previous three elections, as opinion polls over the previous three years had shown both parties in the lead, although any Labour lead in the polls had been relatively narrow since the Conservative government's change of leader from Thatcher to Major in November 1990, in spite of the onset of a recession in 1990 which had pushed unemployment up again after several years of decline. Labour's credibility was helped by plans including extra NHS funding and moving away from firm commitments on re-nationalisation to reverse the Conservative policy of privatisation, but its decision to be up-front about tax increases was seen as a key factor in its failure to win.  By the time of the 1997 general election, support for the Labour Party, now led by Tony Blair, in the opinion polls had exceeded that of support for the Tory government (still led by John Major) since late 1992, the government's reduced popularity largely blamed on the failings of Black Wednesday in September of that year and it had failed to recover popularity in spite of a strong economic recovery and fall in unemployment. A reinvented "New Labour" had further improved its credibility under Blair by promising traditional Labour essentials including more funding for healthcare and education, but also promising not to increase income tax and ending its commitment to the nationalisation of leading industries. The "Daily Mirror" urged its readers that their country needed Tony Blair, and to vote Labour. The election produced a Labour landslide and ended the party's 18-year exile from power.  On 4 May 2010, the newspaper printed a picture of Conservative leader David Cameron with a giant red cross through his face. The headline read "How to stop him" in reference to the general election two days later, thus confirming the "Daily Mirror"s Labour allegiance. The election ended in Britain's first hung parliament since 1974, but Cameron still became prime minister of the country within days as the Conservatives formed a coalition with the Liberal Democrats. The "Daily Mirror" was the only leading national newspaper to remain loyal to Labour and Gordon Brown at a time when opinion polls showed the party on course for their worst election result since 1983.  The newspaper was critical of the Liberal Democrats for forming the coalition which enabled the Conservatives to form a new government in 2010, and branded leader Nick Clegg as Pinickio (alluding to the lying fictional character Pinocchio) for going back on numerous pre-election pledges. It has frequently referred to the party as the "Fib Dems" or "Lib Dumbs". The "Daily Mirror" endorsed Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton in the run-up for the 2016 U.S. presidential election. In 2016 the newspapers asked for Jeremy Corbyn's resignation "for the good of Labour and of the country".  Despite this critical position, the "Daily Mirror" endorsed again the Labour Party in the 2017 general election.

Famous features.

Blue issue.

On 2 April 1996, the "Daily Mirror" was printed entirely on blue paper. This was done as a marketing exercise with Pepsi-Cola, who on the same day had decided to relaunch their cans with a blue design instead of the traditional red and white logo.

Significant staff members.

Editors.

Source: "Tabloid Nation"

Notable columnists.

Notable former and current columnists of the "Daily Mirror" include:

Awards.

"The Daily Mirror" won "Newspaper of the Year" in 2002 at the British Press Awards. It won "Scoop of the Year" in 2003 ("3am", 'Sven and Ulrika'), 2004 (Ryan Parry, 'Intruder at the Palace'), 2006 and 2007 (both Stephen Moyes). The "Mirror" won "Team of the Year" in 2001 ('Railtrack'), 2002 ('War on the World: World against Terrorism'), 2003 ('Soham'), and 2006 ('London bombings'); and "Front Page of the Year" in 2007. The "Mirror" also won the "Cudlipp Award" in 2002, 2003, 2004 and 2010.

The Daily Mirror is a British national daily tabloid newspaper founded in 1903. It is owned by parent company Reach plc. From 1985 to 1987, and from 1997 to 2002, the title on its masthead was simply "The Mirror". It had an average daily print circulation of 716,923 in December 2016, dropping markedly to 587,803 the following year. Its Sunday sister paper is the "Sunday Mirror". Unlike other major British tabloids such as "The Sun" and the "Daily Mail", the "Mirror" has no separate Scottish edition; this function is performed by the "Daily Record" and "Sunday Mail", which incorporate certain stories from the "Mirror" that are of Scottish significance.

Der Daily Mirror ist eine britische Tageszeitung im Boulevardstil (Yellow Press) mit vielen Reportagefotos. Die Zeitung erscheint im Kleinformat (Tabloid). Hauptsitz ist das Gebäude One Canada Square in London. Der aktuelle Chefredakteur ist Lloyd Embley.


Biography.

Auenbrugger was a native of Graz in Styria, an Austrian province. His father, owner of the inn "Zum Schwarzen Mohren", gave his son every opportunity for an excellent preliminary education in his native town and then sent him to Vienna to complete his studies at the university. Auenbrugger was graduated as a physician at the age of 22 and then entered the Spanish Military Hospital of Vienna, where he spent 10 years.  He found out that, by applying his ear to the patient and tapping lightly on the chest, one could assess the texture of underlying tissues and organs. This technique of percussive diagnosis had its origins in testing the level of wine casks in the cellar of his father's hotel. With this method, he was able to plot outlines of the heart. It was the first time that a physician could relatively accurately and objectively determine an important sign of diseases. He published his findings in a booklet, but nobody paid much attention to it.  During his ten years of patient study, Auenbrugger confirmed his observations on the diagnostic value of percussion by comparison with post-mortem specimens, and besides made a number of experimental researches on dead bodies. He injected fluid into the pleural cavity, and showed that it was perfectly possible by percussion to tell exactly the limits of the fluid present, and thus to decide when and where efforts should be made for its removal.  His name is also associated with Auenbrugger's sign, a bulging of the epigastric region in the thorax, in cases of large effusions of the pericardium, the membrane which envelops the heart.  His later studies were devoted to tuberculosis. He pointed out how to detect cavities of the lungs, and how their location and size might be determined by percussion. He also recognized that information with regard to the contents of cavities in the lungs and conditions of lung tissue might be obtained by placing the hand on the chest and noting the vibration, or "fremitus", produced by the voice and breath. These observations were published in a little book called "Inventum Novum ex Percussione Thoracis Humani Interni Pectoris Morbos Detegendi", the full English title being "A New Discovery that Enables the Physician from the Percussion of the Human Thorax to Detect the Diseases Hidden Within the Chest". It is considered a book that marks an epoch in the modern history of medicine.  Like most medical discoveries, Auenbrugger's method of diagnosis at first met with indifference. Before his death, however, it had aroused the attention of French physician René Laennec, who, following up the ideas suggested by it, discovered auscultation. The value of percussion in physical examination was later recognized by Jean-Nicolas Corvisart, who popularized it teaching it to his students in France, and by Joseph Škoda in Vienna. He also translated and illustrated Auenbrugger's book in 1808, which helped to make Auenbrugger's work on percussion better known.  Auenbrugger lived to the age of 86. He was especially noted for his cordial relations with the younger members of his profession and for his kindness to the poor and to those suffering from tuberculosis. He is sometimes said to have died in the typhus epidemic of 1798, but he actually died over a decade later.  Auenrbugger's daughter, Marianna, was a composer and pupil of Antonio Salieri.

Josef Leopold Auenbrugger or Avenbrugger (19 November 1722 – 17 May 1809), also known as Leopold von Auenbrugger, was the Austrian physician who invented percussion as a diagnostic technique. On the strength of this discovery, he is considered one of the founders of modern medicine.

Johann Leopold Auenbrugger, ab 1784 "Edler von Auenbrugg" (* 19. November 1722 in Graz; † 18. Mai 1809 in Wien) war ein österreichischer Mediziner und nebenbei auch Librettist. Er war ein Arzt der Aufklärung und gilt als der Erfinder der medizinischen Untersuchungtechnik der Perkussion.


Professional.

Traditional method.

A proof is a typeset version of copy or a manuscript page. They often contain typos introduced through human error. Traditionally, a proofreader looks at an increment of text on the copy and then compares it to the corresponding typeset increment, and then marks any errors (sometimes called 'line edits') using standard proofreaders' marks. Unlike copy editing, the defining procedure of a proofreading service is to work directly with two sets of information at the same time. Proofs are then returned to the typesetter for correction. Correction-cycle proofs will typically have one descriptive term, such as 'bounce', 'bump', or'revise' unique to the department or organization and used for clarity to the strict exclusion of any other. It is a common practice for 'all' such corrections, no matter how slight, to be sent again to a proofreader to be checked and initialed, thus establishing the principle of higher responsibility for proofreaders as compared to their typesetters or artists.

Alternative methods.

'Copy holding' or 'copy reading' employs two readers per proof. The first reads the text aloud literally as it appears, usually at a comparatively fast but uniform rate. The second reader follows along and marks any pertinent differences between what is read and what was typeset. This method is appropriate for large quantities of boilerplate text where it is assumed that there will be comparatively few mistakes.  Experienced copy holders employ various codes and verbal short-cuts that accompany their reading. The spoken word 'digits', for example, means that the numbers about to be read are not words spelled out; and 'in a hole' can mean that the upcoming segment of text is within parentheses. 'Bang' means an exclamation point. A 'thump' or'screamer' made with a finger on the table represents the initial cap, comma, period, or similar obvious attribute being read simultaneously. Thus the line of text "(He said the address was 1234 Central Blvd., and to hurry!)" would be read aloud as ""in a hole" [thump] "he said the address was digits 1 2 3 4" [thump] "central" [thump] "buluhvuhd" [thump] "comma and to hurry bang"". Mutual understanding is the only guiding principle, so codes evolve as opportunity permits. In the above example, two thumps after 'buluhvuhd' might be acceptable to proofreaders familiar with the text.  'Double reading'. A single proofreader checks a proof in the traditional manner and then another reader repeats the process. Both initial the proof. Note that with both copy holding and double reading, responsibility for a given proof is necessarily shared by two individuals.  'Scanning', used to check a proof without reading it word for word, has become common with computerization of typesetting and the popularization of word processing. Many publishers have their own proprietary typesetting systems, while their customers use commercial programs such as Word. Before the data in a Word file can be published, it must be converted into a format used by the publisher. The end product is usually called a "conversion." If a customer has already proofread the contents of a file before submitting it to a publisher, there will be no reason for another proofreader to re-read it from the copy (although this additional service may be requested and paid for). Instead, the publisher is held responsible only for formatting errors, such as typeface, page width, and alignment of columns in tables; and production errors such as text inadvertently deleted. To simplify matters further, a given conversion will usually be assigned a specific template. Given typesetters of sufficient skill, experienced proofreaders familiar with their typesetters' work can accurately scan their pages without reading the text for errors that neither they nor their typesetters are responsible for.

Style guides and checklists.

Proofreaders are expected to be consistently accurate by default because they occupy the last stage of typographic production before publication.  Before it is typeset, copy is often marked up by an editor or customer with various instructions as to typefaces, art, and layout. Often these individuals will consult a style guide of varying degrees of complexity and completeness. Such guides are usually produced in-house by the staff or supplied by the customer, and it should be distinguished from professional references such as "The Chicago Manual of Style", the "AP Stylebook", "The Elements of Style", and "Gregg Reference Manual". When appropriate, proofreaders may mark errors in accordance with their house guide instead of the copy when the two conflict. Where this is the case, the proofreader may justifiably be considered a "copy editor".  Checklists are common in proof-rooms where there is sufficient uniformity of product to distill some or all of its components to a list. They may also act as a training tool for new hires. Checklists are never comprehensive, however: proofreaders still have to find all mistakes that are "not" mentioned or described, thus limiting their usefulness.

Qualifications.

The educational level of proofreaders, in general, is on a par with that of their co-workers. Typesetters, graphic artists, and word processors rarely need to have a college degree, and a perusal of online job listings for proofreaders will show that although listings may specify a degree for proofreaders, many do not. Those same listings will also show a tendency for degree-only positions to be in firms in commercial fields such as retail, medicine, or insurance, where the data to be read is internal documentation not intended for public consumption per se. Such listings, specifying a single proofreader to fill a single position, are more likely to require a degree as a method of reducing the candidate pool but also because the degree is perceived as a requirement for any potentially promotable white-collar applicant. Experience is discounted at the outset in preference to a credential, indicating a relatively low starting wage appropriate for younger applicants. In these kinds of multitasking desktop-publishing environments, human resources departments may even classify proofreading as a clerical skill generic to literacy itself. Where this occurs, it is not unusual for proofreaders to find themselves guaranteeing the accuracy of higher-paid co-workers.  In contrast, printers, publishers, advertising agencies and law firms tend not to require a degree specifically. In these professionally demanding single-tasking environments, the educational divide surrounds the production department instead of the company itself. Promotion is rare for these proofreaders because they tend to be valued more for their present skill set than for any potential leadership ability. They are often supervised by a typesetter also without a degree, or by an administrative manager with little or no production experience who delegates day-to-day responsibilities to a typesetter. It follows that such listings tend to stress experience, offer commensurately higher pay rates, and mention a proofreading test.

Proofreader testing.

Applicants. Although many commercial and college-level proofreading courses of varying quality can be found online, practical job training for proofreaders has declined along with its status as a craft. Many books also teach the basics to their readers. Such tools of self-preparation have by and large replaced formal workplace instruction.  Proofreader applicants are tested on their spelling, speed, and skill in finding mistakes in a sample text. Toward that end, they may be given a list of ten or twenty classically difficult words and a proofreading test, both tightly timed. The proofreading test will often have a maximum number of errors per quantity of text and a minimum amount of time to find them. The goal of this approach is to identify those with the best skill set.  A contrasting approach is to identify and reward persistence more than an arbitrarily high level of expertise. For the spelling portion of the test, that can be accomplished by providing a dictionary, lengthening the wordlist conspicuously, and making clear that the test is not timed. For the proofreading portion, a suitable language-usage reference book (e.g., "The Chicago Manual of Style") can be provided. (Note that knowing where to find needed information in such specialized books is itself an effective component of the test.) Removing the pressure of what is essentially an ASAP deadline will identify those applicants with slightly greater reservoirs of persistence, stamina, and commitment. At the same time, by mooting the need for applicants to make use of a memorized list of difficult words and a studied knowledge of the more common grammatical traps ("affect, effect, lay, lie"), applicants learn that their success depends on a quality at least theoretically available to anyone at any time without preparation.  Formal employee testing is usually planned and announced well in advance, and may have titles, such as "Levels Testing", "Skills Evaluation", etc. They are found in corporate or governmental environments with enough HR staff to prepare and administer a test.  Informal employee testing takes place whenever a manager feels the need to take a random sampling of a proofreader's work by double-reading selected pages. Usually, this is done without warning, and sometimes it will be done secretly. It can be highly effective, and there will certainly be times when such re-reading is justified, but care must be taken.  There are two basic approaches. The first is to re-read a proof within its deadline and in the department itself. Thus the manager will read from the same copy that the first reader saw, and be aware of any volume and deadline pressures the first reader was under, and can directly observe the individual in real time. This approach can also be followed as a matter of routine. The goal then is not to confirm a specific suspicion of poor job performance by a particular reader, but rather to confirm a general assumption that the proofreading staff needs ongoing monitoring.  The second approach to informal testing is to wait for some days or weeks and then, as time allows, randomly select proofs to re-read while outside the department. Such proofs may or may not be accompanied by the copy pages that the proofreader saw. Here the re-reader is examining the proof from the perspective of typographical and formatting accuracy alone, ignoring how many other pages the first reader had read that day, and had yet to read, and how many pages were successfully read and how many deadlines were met under a given day's specific conditions.

Economics.

Proofreading cannot be fully cost-effective where volume or unpredictable workflow prevents proofreaders from managing their own time. Examples are newspapers, thermographic trade printing of business cards, and network hubs. The problem in each of these environments is that jobs cannot be put aside to be re-read as needed. In the first two cases, volumes and deadlines dictate that all jobs be finished as soon as possible; in the third case, jobs presently on-site at the hub are hurried, regardless of their formal deadline, in favor of possible future work that may arrive unpredictably. Where proofs can programmatically be read only once, the quality will randomly but persistently fall below expectations. Even the best and most experienced readers will not be able to be consistently accurate enough to justify premium pay.  Production technology can also moot the need to pay a premium for proofreading. In the example of thermographic business-card printing, even when there are no reprints, there is considerable wastage of paper and ink in preparing each of the press runs, which are separated by color. When (as often happens) there is unused space available on the plate, there is no increase in production cost for reprints that use that space. Only when reprints are so numerous that they push production staff into significant overtime would they increase costs. But significant overtime is usually the result of a high volume in new orders using up the eight-hour day. In such industries proofreading need only – and can only – make a marginal difference to be cost-effective. As for the customers, many will never return even when their jobs are perfect, and enough of those who do need a reprint will find the retailer's cost-saving price to be satisfactory enough to tolerate a late delivery.  Only where workload volume does not compress all deadlines to ASAP and the workflow is reasonably steady can proofreading be worth a premium wage. Strict deadlines mandate a delivery time, but in doing so they necessarily do not mandate delivery "before" that time. If deadlines are consistently maintained instead of arbitrarily moved up, proofreaders can manage their own time by putting proofs aside at their own discretion for re-reading later. Whether the interval is a few seconds or overnight, it enables proofs to be viewed as both familiar and new. Where this procedure is followed, managers can expect consistently superior performance. However, re-reading concentrates responsibility instead of sharing it (as double-reading and copy holding, both described above, do), and it requires more effort from proofreaders and a measure of freedom from management. Instead of managers controlling deadlines, deadlines control managers, and leeway is passed to the proofreaders as well as commensurate pay.

Proofreading and copy-editing.

The term "proofreading" is sometimes incorrectly used to refer to copy-editing, and vice versa. Although there is necessarily some overlap, proofreaders typically lack any real editorial or managerial authority. What they "can" do is mark queries for typesetters, editors, or authors. To clarify matters at the outset, some advertised vacancies come with a notice that the job advertised is not a writing or editing position and will not become one. Creativity and critical thinking by their very nature conflict with the strict copy-"following" discipline that commercial and governmental proofreading requires. Thus proofreading and editing are fundamentally separate responsibilities. In contrast, "copy editors" focus on a sentence-by-sentence analysis of the text to "clean it up" by improving grammar, spelling, punctuation, syntax, and structure. The copy editor is usually the last editor that an author will work with. Copy editing focuses intensely on style, content, punctuation, grammar, and consistency of usage.

Self.

Primary examples include job seekers' own résumés and student term papers. Proofreading such material presents a special challenge, first because the proofreader/editor is usually the author; second because such authors are usually unaware of the inevitability of mistakes and the effort required to find them; and third, as final mistakes are often found when stress levels are highest and time shortest, readers fail to identify them as mistakes. Under these conditions, proofreaders tend to see only what they want to see.

Digital.

Digital proofreading has taken many forms in recent years, such as assistive software and grammar checking tools that have made finding and correcting errors convenient for writers of all kinds. These systems are unreliable. As well, new cloud computing developments such as Google doc editing services have allowed for real-time editing and proofreading that can be done for clients while they watch the process, thus helping them to improve their writing.

In fiction.

Examples of proofreaders in fiction include "The History of the Siege of Lisbon" ("Historia do Cerco de Lisboa"), a 1989 novel by Nobel laureate Jose Saramago, the short story "Proofs" in George Steiner's "Proofs and Three Parables" (1992), and the short story "Evermore" in "Cross Channel" (1996) by Julian Barnes, in which the protagonist Miss Moss is a proofreader for a dictionary. Under the headline "Orthographical" in James Joyce's novel "Ulysses", Leopold Bloom, watching the typesetter foreman Mr. Nannetti read over a "limp galleypage", thinks "Proof fever".

Demand for proof-editing.

For documents that do not require a formal typesetting process, such as reports, journal articles and e-publications, the costs involved with making changes at the proofreading stage are no longer as relevant. This, along with the time and cost pressures felt by businesses, self-publishers and academics, has led to a demand for one-stage proofreading and copy-editing services where a professional proofreader/copy-editor – often a freelancer, sometimes now called an author editor – will be contracted to provide an agreed level of service to an agreed deadline and cost.  Proof-editing tends to exist outside of the traditional publishing realm, and it usually involves a single stage of editing. It is considered preferable to have separate copy-editing and proofreading stages, so proof-editing is, by definition, a compromise but one that modern professional on-screen proofreaders and copy-editors are increasingly offering in order to meet the demand for flexible proofreading and editing services.

An example table of distinctions between different services: editing, copy-editing, proof-editing and proofreading.

As this is such a new term (discussed in a guest blog on the Chartered Institute of Editing and Proofreading website) and tends to be offered by freelancers to individuals and companies rather than being a formal, industry-defined service, exactly what is included can vary. Below is an example of the distinctions between services for work on non-fiction.

Proofreading is the reading of a galley proof or an electronic copy of a publication to find and correct production errors of text or art. Proofreading is the final step in the editorial cycle.

Unter Korrekturlesen versteht man die Revision eines Textes auf etwaige Fehler. Im traditionellen Druckwesen wurde dazu gewöhnlich ein Manuskript oder dessen Kopie als Vorlage verwendet, nach dessen Bearbeitung gesetzt wurde.


Career.

Ryder is noted for his gruff, wailing singing style and his dynamic stage performances. He was influenced by his father, a musician. As a teenager, Ryder sang backup with a black soul-music group known as the Peps, but racial animosities interfered with his continued presence in the group.  Ryder formed his first band, Tempest, when he was at Warren High School, and the group gained some notoriety playing at a Detroit soul music club called The Village. Ryder next appeared fronting a band named Billy Lee & The Rivieras, which had limited success until they met songwriter / record producer Bob Crewe. Crewe renamed the group Mitch Ryder & The Detroit Wheels, and they recorded several hit records for his DynoVoice Records and New Voice labels in the mid to late 1960s, most notably "Devil with a Blue Dress On", their highest-charting single at number four, as well as "Jenny Take a Ride!", which reached number 10 in 1965, and "Sock It to Me, Baby!", a number six hit in 1967. The Detroit Wheels were John Badanjek on drums, Mark Manko on lead guitar, Joe Kubert (not to be confused with the comic book illustrator Joe Kubert) on rhythm guitar, Jim McCarty (not to be confused with the Yardbirds drummer of the same name) on lead guitar and Jim McAllister on bass. Ryder was the last person to perform with Otis Redding, they performed the song "Knock On Wood", on December 9, 1967, in Cleveland, Ohio, on a local TV show called "Upbeat". Redding and four members of his touring band, The Bar-Kays, died in a plane crash near Madison, Wisconsin the following day, December 10, 1967.  Ryder's musical endeavors would see less success after the early 1970s. Ryder's participation with the Detroit Wheels ended just as the counterculture was becoming dominant in 1968. During 1968, trumpeters Mike Thuroff and John Stefan were hired to tour with his horn section and band. Thuroff and Stefan also recorded the trumpet parts of Ryder's song, "Ring My Bell". This song was not permitted to be played by radio in many states due to its sexual innuendos. Ryder had one hit single from that period, a cover version of "What Now, My Love". His last successful ensemble band was Detroit. The only original Wheel in the group was the drummer John Badanjek; other members were guitarists Steve Hunter, Robert Gillespie, and Brett Tuggle, organist Harry Phillips, and bassist W.R. Cooke. A single album was released by this grouping, a 1971 self-titled LP issued on Paramount Records (US #176 in 1972). They had a hit with their version of the Lou Reed-penned song "Rock & Roll", which Reed liked enough to ask Steve Hunter to join his backing band.  Reviewing Ryder's 1978 LP "How I Spent My Vacation", Robert Christgau wrote in "" (1981): "What he remembers best, apparently, is sex with men, and the songs that result put across all the sin, fear, passion, love-and-hate, pleasure, and release that buggery seems to have involved for him. The lyrics sometimes lack coherence, and the music is a more sensitive version of the now outdated r&b-based guitar flash he favored with Detroit back in 1970. But the overall effect is revelatory."  According to AlllMusic (which calls Ryder "the unsung hero" of Michigan rock and roll), Ryder withdrew from music after experiencing throat trouble, moving to Colorado with his wife and taking up writing and painting. In 1983, Ryder returned to a major label with the John Mellencamp-produced album "Never Kick a Sleeping Dog". The album featured a cover version of the Prince song "When You Were Mine", which was Ryder's last score on the "Billboard" Hot 100.  Ryder continues to record and tour in the United States and Europe.  In 2005, Mitch Ryder & The Detroit Wheels were inducted into the Michigan Rock and Roll Legends Hall of Fame.  In 2009, Mitch Ryder was inducted as a solo artist.  On February 14, 2012, Ryder released "The Promise", his first US release in almost 30 years.  On June 25, 2019, "The New York Times Magazine" listed Mitch Ryder among hundreds of artists whose material was reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.

Personal life.

Ryder spent his high school years in Warren, Michigan, a suburb north of Detroit. After many years living in Warren, and later Livonia, Ryder currently resides in northern Georgia.

Influence.

Ryder has influenced the music of such blue collar rock music artists as Bob Seger, John Mellencamp, and also Bruce Springsteen, whose version of the song "Devil With a Blue Dress" was part of the "No Nukes" concert album in the early 1980s. He has also been cited as a primary musical influence by Ted Nugent.  Bruce Springsteen still plays his music on stage. The song titled "Detroit Medley" refers directly to the Detroit Wheels. Included in this medley are the songs, "Devil With a Blue Dress", "Jenny Take a Ride", "Good Golly Miss Molly" and "C.C. Rider". The medley from time to time blends in a variety of other songs, but this remains the core section, often featuring guitar solos from Springsteen and piano solos by Roy Bittan.  Winona Ryder, the stage name of Winona Laura Horowitz, was inspired by Mitch Ryder's music.  Ryder has been credited by guitarist Steve Hunter for giving Hunter his first real break in rock and roll and introducing Hunter to producer Bob Ezrin. In 2017 he was inducted into Rhythm & Blues Hall of Fame.

Mitch Ryder (born William Sherille Levise, Jr.; February 26, 1945) is an American musician, who has recorded more than 25 albums over more than four decades.

Mitch Ryder (* 26. Februar 1945 in Hamtramck, Michigan), eigentlich William S. Levise, Jr., ist ein US-amerikanischer Rockmusiker und Sänger.


Naming.

George H. W. Bush became the U.S. Navy's youngest pilot when he received his Naval Aviator wings and naval commission on 9 June 1943, three days before turning 19. He flew torpedo bombers off on active duty from August 1943 to September 1945 during World War II. On 2 September 1944, during a mission over the Pacific, Japanese anti-aircraft fire hit his plane. The Navy submarine rescued him. He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross and three Air Medals for courageous service in the Pacific Theater.  USS "George H.W. Bush" is the second United States aircraft carrier to be named after a naval aviator ( was the first) and the second, following, to be named after a then living former president ("Ronald Reagan" was christened in 2001 while Reagan was still alive).

Ship's seal.

Each element of the seal is significant for its relevance to the ship's namesake, naval aviation, naval service, and the nation. There are six prominent features of the seal, beginning with the 41 white stars, symbolizing the ship's namesake (the 41st president). The rays of light that appear on the seal's horizon represent Bush's concept of a "thousand points of light", wherein he urged Americans to find meaning and reward by serving a purpose higher than themselves. The graphic depiction of the aircraft carrier reflects the carrier, as both a symbol and instrument of American strength as a force for freedom. Above the carrier are the overhead profiles of a TBM Avenger torpedo bomber (representing Bush's days as a Navy pilot), an F/A-18 Hornet strike fighter, and an F-35C Lightning II, superimposed one upon the other in reverse chronological order of the individual aircraft's service entry date, and in diminishing scale so each outline is contained within that of the newer aircraft.  Fouled anchors and shields, centered on naval aviators wings, honor the ship's namesake's aviation history. Finally, the motto "Freedom at Work" is adapted from Bush's inaugural speech, during which he said, "We know what works: Freedom works. We know what’s right: Freedom is right."

Description.

"George H.W. Bush" measures and displaces over 100,000 tons, making her one of the world's largest warships (though she is slightly shorter than ). Her top speed exceeds 30 knots; powered with two nuclear reactors, she can operate for more than 20 years without refueling.  Several features differentiate CVN-77 from other ships in the "Nimitz" class.

Hull.

New features include a bulbous bow design that provides more buoyancy to the forward end of the ship and improves hull efficiency, curved flight deck edges to reduce radar signature, a new underwater hull coating system, deck modernized coverings to reduce ship weight by 100 tons, low solar absorptive and anti-stain paint, a less cluttered hangar bay, and a new propeller design.

Island.

"George H.W. Bush" is the second carrier to have a modernized island, which includes a new radar tower (enclosed to reduce radar signature), navigation system upgrades, communication systems enhancements, and armored windows. The island is smaller and has been repositioned further aft to improve flight deck access and reduce signature and electronic self-interference.

Air operations.

New air operations design features include an updated aviation fuel storage and distribution system, semi-automated refueling and servicing with new deck locations to provide faster, more efficient aircraft pit stops, requiring fewer people, modernized aircraft launch, and recovery equipment, and redesigned jet blast deflectors.

Environmental.

Environmental upgrades have also been designed into the ship, including a vacuum collection/marine sanitation device (VC/MSD), a new marine sewage system that uses sea water in lieu of fresh water for lower maintenance costs. Many older ships in the U.S. Navy utilize a gravity-driven collection holding and transfer (CHT) system to handle sewage waste. Newer U.S. Navy ships, including now CVN-77, collect sewage waste by vacuum, allowing for greater flexibility in piping installation, smaller pipe sizes overall and reducing water consumption. The collection tanks of "George H.W. Bush" were modified to accommodate both the VCHT (Vacuum CHT) equipment and the elements of a marine sanitization device to treat the waste prior to discharge. "George H.W. Bush" is the only aircraft carrier in the U.S. Navy to combine the two technologies.  This new VC/MSD driven waste management system has, however, not been without problems. Reports began surfacing immediately after delivery in May 2009 of issues with the ship's toilet system. As of November 2011, the entire system has gone down at least twice, rendering all 423 commodes in the ship's 130 heads inoperable, with many more incidents that have rendered either half of the ship, or sections of the ship, without operating sanitary facilities. In one ship-wide incident, a repair crew spent 35 non-stop hours attempting to return the system to working order. The system is said to suffer breakdowns when inappropriate materials such as feminine hygiene products are flushed down the toilets. During a four-month maintenance period in the dock in 2012, anti-clog measures were installed in the ship's toilet disposal systems.

Electronics and communications.

New electronics and communications technology, space rearrangement, operational procedure changes, advanced sensor technologies and maintenance systems have been incorporated to reduce manning costs. A new zonal electrical distribution system will keep problems from affecting other parts of the ship. Automated material movement devices, semi-autonomous, gravity compensated weapons handling devices, damage control automation systems and components have also been installed. Medical and dental equipment have been upgraded, integrated display screens in Damage Control Central have been modernized to improve data integration and display, and equipment in general shops has been modernized to improve productivity.

History.

The contract to build CVN-77 was awarded to Northrop Grumman Shipbuilding Newport News on 26 January 2001. A naming ceremony was held on 9 December 2002 at Northrop Grumman Newport News, with former president George H.W. Bush attending. Secretary of the Navy Gordon R. England, presided at the ceremony.

Construction.

The keel laying ceremony was held on 6 September 2003, with former president George H. W. Bush serving as the keynote speaker. Former First Lady Barbara Bush also attended with their daughter, Dorothy Bush Koch, the ship's sponsor. The former president authenticated the keel by chalking his initials onto a metal plate. His initials were then welded onto the plate, which was permanently affixed to the ship.  The ship was modularly constructed, where large sections are assembled and then lifted into place using a large crane. Major milestones in the construction include the bow placement in March 2005, followed by the island placement on 8 July 2006. The was lifted onto the flight deck in a ceremony called "stepping the mast," which dates from antiquity and consists of placing coins or other items of significance under the step or bottom of a ship's mast during construction. Since at least the construction of in the 1790s, this tradition has been passed on as a symbol of good luck for U.S. Navy ships. George H. W. Bush participated in the event, placing his naval aviator wings underneath the island during the ceremony.  "George H.W. Bush" was christened on 7 October 2006. Former president George H. W. Bush attended the ceremony and became the first president in history to participate in the christening of his namesake ship. President George W. Bush also attended and honored his father during the ceremony as a special guest speaker. Other officials participating in the ceremony included Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld, Secretary of the Navy Donald Winter; Virginia Senators John Warner and George Allen, Virginia Gov. Tim Kaine, and Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Michael Mullen.  Other construction milestones included catapult system testing on the ship's flight deck on 25 January 2008. Former president George H. W. Bush signaled the launch of two "dead loads" off the deck of the carrier. Dead loads are large, wheeled, steel vessels weighing up to simulating the weight of actual aircraft.  On 11 August 2008, the Pre-Commissioning Unit (PCU) crew moved aboard the ship, the first meals were served in the galley, the U.S. flag was raised on the fantail for the first time, and the first watches were set. "George H.W. Bush" left Northrop Grumman Ship Building for the first time on 23 December 2008, proceeding a few miles down river to Norfolk Naval Station.

Commissioning.

"George H.W. Bush" was commissioned 10 January 2009 at Norfolk Naval Station prior to her official delivery to the Navy, in a ceremony attended by approximately 15,000 people. Veterans of, the ship George H.W. Bush served on during World War II, were also present. President George W. Bush delivered the principal address, George H.W. Bush set the first watch, and ship's sponsor Dorothy "Doro" Bush Koch gave the order to "man our ship and bring her to life!" A GM-built Grumman TBM Avenger like the one then-Lieutenant junior grade George Bush flew in World War II performed a fly-over.  Northrop Grumman Corporation Builder's sea trials were completed on 16 February 2009, providing an opportunity to test systems, components and compartments at sea for the first time. The trials included high-speed runs and a demonstration of the carrier's other capabilities. Following builder's trials, the ship underwent acceptance trials on 10 April 2009, conducted by representatives of the U.S. Navy Board of Inspection and Survey, to test and evaluate the ship's systems and performance.

Delivery and shakedown.

"George H.W. Bush" was officially delivered to the Navy on 11 May 2009.  The first fixed-wing flights were conducted on 19 May 2009 when F/A-18 Super Hornets from Air Test and Evaluation Squadron at Naval Air Station Patuxent River, Maryland began flight deck certification, which tests a carrier's ability to conduct air operations.  On 26 May 2009, former president George H.W. Bush and his daughter, Dorothy Bush Koch, flew aboard the carrier to observe flight operations during the ship's underway period in the Atlantic Ocean. USS "George H.W. Bush" successfully completed her first flight deck certification on that day.  "George H.W. Bush" returned to Northrop Grumman Newport News shipyard on 18 June 2009 for post-delivery maintenance work, also known as the ship's post shakedown availability (PSA). A PSA is a typical availability in the early life of a carrier that allows the Navy and builder to resolve any items that came up during trials and delivery and make any last-minute changes and upgrades. Work includes the installation of a Rigid Hull Inflatable Boat (RHIB) handling system and a new fresh water purification system. Other changes include compartment reconfigurations, combat system and radar equipment upgrades, and minor repairs. The work was scheduled to last through early 2010.

Maiden deployment.

The ship was assigned to Carrier Strike Group Two for her first deployment. Under the command of Rear Admiral Nora Tyson, "George H.W. Bush", Carrier Air Wing Eight and the four ships of her group departed on her first deployment on 15 May 2011. They sailed across the Atlantic to Britain to participate in Exercise Saxon Warrior, held in the Western Approaches and culminating in a so-called 'Thursday War'. She then moved towards Portsmouth, U.K on 27 May, anchoring adjacent to Stokes Bay through 31 May, because she was too large to enter the harbor, and the naval base did not have sufficient nuclear berths for the carrier to moor alongside. The carrier arrived at Naples, Italy on 10 June 2011.  The carrier returned to Norfolk on 10 December 2011, following a seven-month deployment supporting operations with the U.S. Navy's 5th and 6th fleets.

2012.

On 25 July 2012, "George H.W. Bush" began her four-month overhaul at Norfolk Naval Shipyard at Portsmouth, Virginia, included scheduled short-term technical upgrades. On 1 December 2012, "George H.W. Bush" completed her PIA maintenance cycle and began sea trials on 3 December 2012. After completing sea trials on 4 December 2012, the carrier started her training and qualification cycle in preparation for the group's 2013 deployment.

2013.

During a two-week underway period beginning 14 January 2013, "George H.W. Bush" tested the MV-22 tilt-rotor aircraft from squadron VMX-22 as a potential carrier onboard delivery aircraft as well as operating mine-sweeping MH-53E helicopters from squadron HM-14.  During another underway period, "George H.W. Bush" conducted at-sea tests for X-47B unmanned drone in the Atlantic Ocean, including the first time that an unmanned drone has been catapulted off an aircraft carrier on the morning of 14 May 2013 ("pictured"). On 17 May 2013, another first was achieved when the X-47B performed touch-and-go landings and take-offs on the flight deck of "Bush" while underway in the Atlantic Ocean. Also during this two-week underway period, the aircraft carrier tested a new torpedo self-defense system, as well as completed more than 115 launches and landings in assessing a new precision landing system, before returning to Norfolk on 24 May 2013.  On 10 July 2013, an unmanned X-47B drone completed an arrested landing on the flight deck of "George H.W. Bush". The landing marks the first time any unmanned aircraft had completed an arrested landing on board an aircraft carrier operating at sea. The drone completed a second successful arrested landing on "George H.W. Bush", but it was diverted to the Wallops Flight Facility in Virginia after an issue was detected, requiring that a planned third landing to be aborted. One of the drone's three navigational sub-systems failed, which was identified by the other two sub-systems. The anomaly was indicated to the mission operator, who followed test plan procedures to abort the landing. The Navy stated that the aircraft's detection of a problem demonstrated its reliability and ability to operate autonomously. On 15 July 2013, in a fourth attempt, an X-47B drone failed to make a successful flight deck landing on board the vessel due to "technical issues."

2014.

In late February 2014, "George H.W. Bush" transited the Strait of Gibraltar on the way to a scheduled port stop in Piraeus, Greece, for a scheduled port visit.  On 5 March 2014, "George H.W. Bush" arrived off southern Turkey, which is under 500 miles away from Crimea, amid developing tensions over Ukraine with Russia. On 9 March 2014, the carrier entered port in Antalya, in southern Turkey. Some news sources had speculated that the ship's stay in the Mediterranean Sea would be extended as a result of the annexation of Crimea, but this proved to not be the case with Carrier Strike Group 2 proceeding through the Suez Canal.  The carrier was transiting the Suez Canal on 18 March 2014. On 23 March 2014, officially turned over the watch to "George H.W. Bush" in the U.S. 5th Fleet area of responsibility conducting maritime security operations and supporting theater security cooperation efforts.  On 14 June 2014, "George H.W. Bush" was ordered to the Persian Gulf to protect US interests in Iraq in light of the militant group Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant's offensive and takeover of several major cities in that country.  On 8 August 2014, two F/A-18F Super Hornets launched from the ship and dropped two 500-pound laser-guided bombs on an ISIL mobile artillery cannon shelling Kurdish forces outside their capital city, Erbil. The mission was launched in accordance with President Obama's announcement on the evening of 7 August that the US would begin airstrikes to protect US personnel and the Yazidis in the region from ISIL attacks.  On 23 September 2014 F/A-18 Hornets and Super Hornets from Carrier Air Wing Eight launched from "George H.W. Bush" in the Persian Gulf to strike at specific targets in Syria such as command-and-control centers, training camps, and weapons depots.  On 15 November 2014, "George H.W. Bush" returned to her homeport in Norfolk, Virginia after a nine-month deployment.

2017.

Following a 14-month shipyard availability at Norfolk Naval Shipyard and a compressed training cycle, "George H.W. Bush" and Carrier Air Wing Eight departed Norfolk on 21 January for her third deployment. She transited the Strait of Gibraltar on 2 February and after a port visit to Souda Bay Crete, she again participated in strikes against ISIL in support of Operation Inherent Resolve.  In August 2017, "George H.W. Bush" arrived in the UK to take part in Exercise "Saxon Warrior", a joint exercise involving Carrier Strike Group 2 plus elements of the Royal Navy, German Navy, Royal Norwegian Navy and Swedish Navy. This included the staff of the Royal Navy's Carrier Strike Group embarking aboard "Bush" as part of their preparation for the entry into service of, the first of Britain's new aircraft carriers.

2018.

In May 2018, "George H.W. Bush" took part in the Franco-American exercise Chesapeake Mission, with twelve Dassault Aviation Rafale M and a Grumman E-2C Hawkeye from the French Navy embarked on board.

2019.

In February 2019, "George H.W. Bush" arrived at Norfolk Naval Shipyard for a planned 28-month docking planned incremental availability (DPIA). This is the ship's first DPIA of its lifecycle.  The United States Navy announced on 24 September that there had been three suicides aboard "George H.W. Bush" in one week. Two previous ship suicides had taken place in November 2017 and July 2019.

USS "George H.W. Bush" (CVN-77) is the tenth and final supercarrier of the United States Navy. She is named for the 41st President of the United States and former Director of Central Intelligence George H. W. Bush, who was a naval aviator during World War II. "Bush" callsign is "Avenger", after the TBM Avenger aircraft flown by then-Lieutenant George H.W. Bush in World War II. Construction began in 2003 at the Northrop Grumman Newport News shipyard's Dry Dock 12, the largest in the western hemisphere. She was completed in 2009 at a cost of $6.2 billion and her home port is Naval Station Norfolk, Virginia.

Die USS "George H. W. Bush" (CVN-77) ist ein Flugzeugträger der United States Navy und gehört der "Nimitz-Klasse" an. Als letzter Träger der Klasse ist die "Bush" gegenüber ihren Schwesterschiffen stark modifiziert und stellt einen technologischen Wandel in Richtung der nachfolgenden "Gerald-R.-Ford-Klasse" dar.


Sensor types.

Lane warning/keeping systems are based on:

Working principle.

A lane detection system used behind the lane departure warning system uses the principle of Hough transform and Canny edge detector to detect lane lines from realtime camera images fed from the front-end camera of the automobile. A basic flowchart of how a lane detection algorithm works to help lane departure warning is shown in the figures.

History.

The first production lane departure warning system in Europe was developed by the United States company Iteris for Mercedes Actros commercial trucks. The system debuted in 2000, and is now available on many new cars, SUV’s and trucks.  In 2002, the Iteris system became available on Freightliner Trucks' North American vehicles. In both these systems, the driver is warned of unintentional lane departures by an audible rumble strip sound generated on the side of the vehicle drifting out of the lane. No warnings are generated if, before crossing the lane, an active turn signal is given by the driver.

2001.

Nissan Motors began offering a lane-keeping support system on the Cima sold in Japan.

2002.

Toyota introduced its Lane Monitoring System on models such as the Caldina and Alphard sold in Japan; this system warns the driver if it appears the vehicle is beginning to drift out of its lane.

2003.

Honda launched its Lane Keep Assist System (LKAS) on the Inspire. It provides up to 80% of steering torque to keep the car in its lane on the highway. It is also designed to make highway driving less cumbersome, by minimizing the driver's steering input. A camera, mounted at the top of the windshield just above the rear-view mirror, scans the road ahead in a 40-degree radius, picking up the dotted white lines used to divide lane boundaries on the highway. The computer recognizes that the driver is "locked into" a particular lane, monitors how sharp a curve is, and uses factors such as yaw and vehicle speed to calculate the steering input required.

2004.

In 2004, the first passenger-vehicle system available in North America was jointly developed by Iteris and Valeo for Nissan on the Infiniti FX and (in 2005) the M vehicles. In this system, a camera (mounted in the overhead console above the mirror) monitors the lane markings on a roadway. A warning tone is triggered to alert the driver when the vehicle begins to drift over the markings. Also in 2004, Toyota added a Lane Keeping Assist feature to the Crown Majesta which can apply a small counter-steering force to aid in keeping the vehicle in its lane.

2005.

Citroën became the first in Europe to offer LDWS on its 2005 C4 and C5 models, and its C6. This system uses infrared sensors to monitor lane markings on the road surface, and a vibration mechanism in the seat alerts the driver of deviations.

2006.

Lexus introduced a multi-mode Lane Keeping Assist system on the LS 460, which utilizes stereo cameras and more sophisticated object- and pattern-recognition processors. This system can issue an audiovisual warning and also (using the Electric Power Steering or EPS) steer the vehicle to hold its lane. It also applies counter-steering torque to help ensure the driver does not over-correct or "saw" the steering wheel while attempting to return the vehicle to its proper lane. If the radar cruise control system is engaged, the Lane Keep function works to help reduce the driver's steering-input burden by providing steering torque; however, the driver must remain active or the system will deactivate.

2007.

In 2007, Audi began offering its Audi Lane Assist feature for the first time on the Q7. This system, unlike the Japanese "assist" systems, will not intervene in actual driving; rather, it will vibrate the steering wheel if the vehicle appears to be exiting its lane. The LDW System in Audi is based on a forward-looking video-camera in its visible range, instead of the downward-looking infrared sensors in the Citroën. Also in 2007, Infiniti offered a newer version of its 2004 system, which it called the Lane Departure Prevention (LDP) system. This feature utilizes the vehicle stability control system to help assist the driver maintain lane position by applying gentle brake pressure on the appropriate wheels.

2008.

General Motors introduced Lane Departure Warning on its 2008 model-year Cadillac STS, DTS, and Buick Lucerne models. The General Motors system warns the driver with an audible tone and a warning indicator on the dashboard. BMW also introduced Lane Departure Warning on the 5 Series (E60) and 6 Series, using a vibrating steering wheel to warn the driver of unintended departures. In late 2013 BMW updated the system with Traffic Jam Assistant appearing first on the redesigned BMW X5, this system works below. Volvo introduced the Lane Departure Warning system and the Driver Alert Control on its 2008 model-year S80, the V70, and XC70 executive cars. Volvo's lane departure warning system uses a camera to track road markings and sound an alarm when drivers depart their lane without signaling. The systems used by BMW, Volvo, and General Motors are based on core technology from Mobileye.

2009.

Mercedes-Benz began offering a Lane Keeping Assist function on the new E-class. This system warns the driver (with a steering-wheel vibration) if it appears the vehicle is beginning to leave its lane. Another feature will automatically deactivate and reactivate if it ascertains the driver is intentionally leaving his lane (for instance, aggressively cornering). A newer version will use the braking system to assist in maintaining the vehicle's lane.

2010.

Kia Motors offered the 2011 Cadenza premium sedan with an optional Lane Departure Warning System (LDWS) in limited markets. This system uses a flashing dashboard icon and emits an audible warning when a white lane marking is being crossed, and emits a louder audible warning when a yellow-line marking is crossed. This system is canceled when a turn signal is operating, or by pressing a deactivation switch on the dashboard; it works by using an optical sensor on both sides of the car.

2012.

Mobileye developed a system that detected lane markings, and identified when a vehicle departed from its driving lane without the use of the turn signal by issuing a visual and auditory warning prompting the driver to return his or her focus back to the wheel. Mobileye’s safety technology is integrated into hundreds of new car models from the world’s major automakers: BMW, Audi, Volkswagen, Nissan, Ford, Honda, General Motors, but it can also be retrofitted into any vehicle.

2013.

Mercedes began Distronic Plus with Steering Assist and Stop&Go Pilot on the redesigned S-class in 2013.

2014.

Tesla Model S comes with Advanced Lane Assistance Systems with their 2014 release. It was also released with a Speed Assist feature where the front facing camera reads the traffic speed limits using the technology of computer vision character recognition system, and then conveys it to the car. On roads where traffic signs are absent, it relies on the GPS data. When the car moves away from a lane at above, the system beeps and the steering wheel vibrate, alerting the driver of an unintended lane change. This happens during speed limit non-compliance as well.  Fiat is launching its Lane Keep Assist feature based on TRW's lane keeping assist system (also known as the Haptic Lane Feedback system). This system integrates the lane-detection camera with TRW's electric power-steering system; when an unintended lane departure is detected (the turn signal is not engaged to indicate the driver's desire to change lanes), the electric power-steering system will introduce a gentle torque that will help guide the driver back toward the center of the lane. Introduced on the Lancia Delta in 2008, this system earned the Italian Automotive Technical Association's Best Automotive Innovation of the Year Award for 2008. Peugeot introduced the same system as Citroën in its new 308.  Lane departure warning systems combine prevention with risk reports in the transportation industry. Viewnyx applies video-based technology to assist fleets in lowering their driving liability costs. By providing safety managers with driver- and fleet-risk assessment reports and tools, it facilitates proactive coaching and training to eliminate high-risk behaviors. The Lookout Solution is used by North American fleets, and there is research on implementing a lane departure warning system via a mobile phone.

2017.

An Insurance Institute for Highway Safety raised concern that drivers may be less vigilant when relying on automated safety systems or become distracted by dashboard displays that monitor how the systems are performing.  Two separate studies found that lane-keeping systems and blind spot monitoring systems had lower crash rates than the same vehicles without the systems. Police crash data from 25 states between 2009 and 2015 for vehicle models where the systems were sold as optional reduced rates of single-vehicle, sideswipe, and head-on crashes by 11 percent, and injuries in such crashes by 21 percent. The sample size was not large enough to control for demographic and other variables.

Lane keeping.

Lane keeping assist is a feature that, in addition to the lane departure warning system, automatically takes steps to ensure the vehicle stays in its lane. Some vehicles combine adaptive cruise control with lane keeping systems to provide additional safety.  While the combination of these features creates a semi-autonomous vehicle, most require the driver to remain in control of the vehicle while it is in use. This is because of the limitations associated with the lane-keeping feature.  The lane keeping assist system is being achieved in modern driverless vehicle systems using image processing techniques called hough transform and canny edge detection techniques. These advanced image processing techniques derive lane data from forward facing cameras attached to the front of the vehicle. Real-time image processing using powerful computers like Nvidia's Drive PX1 are being used by many Vehicle OEMs to achieve fully autonomous vehicles in which Lane detection algorithm plays a key part. Advanced lane detection algorithms are also being developed using deep learning and neural network techniques. Nvidia has achieved high accuracy in developing self-driving features including lane keeping using the neural network based training mechanism in which they use a front facing camera in a car and run it through a route and then uses the steering input and camera images of the road fed into the neural network and make it 'learn'. The neural network then will be able to change the steering angle based on the lane change on the road and keep the car in the middle of the lane.  Tesla uses the most advanced Lane assist system combined with their Adaptive cruise control system marketed together as 'Autopilot'. It includes features like lane-keeping assist and also automatic lane changing without driver input. A similar technology to lane assist is used to do Autopark feature as well.  A lane keeping assist mechanism can either reactively turn a vehicle back into the lane if it starts to leave or proactively keep the vehicle in the center of the lane. Vehicle companies often use the term "Lane Keep(ing) Assist" to refer to both reactive Lane Keep Assist (LKA) and proactive Lane Centering Assist (LCA) but the terms are beginning to be differentiated.

Vehicles.

Requires driver control while vehicle is in use, but adjusts steering if vehicle detects itself drifting out of lane ((LKA) refers to reactive "Lane Keep(ing) Assist" and (LCA) refers to proactive Lane Centering):  List shows up to 2015 model year. This feature has become more widespread since then, as seen below.  Allows unassisted driving under limited conditions

Limitations.

Lane Departure Warning Systems and Lane Keeping Systems rely on visible lane markings. They typically cannot decipher faded, missing, or incorrect lane markings. Markings covered in snow or old lane markings left visible can hinder the ability of the system.  Lane Departure Warning Systems also face many legal limitations regarding autonomous driving. As stated previously, this system requires constant driver input. Vehicles with this technology are limited to assisting the driver, not driving the vehicle.  Lane Departure Warning Systems biggest limitation is that it is not in complete control of the vehicle. The system does not take into account other vehicles on the road and cannot “replace good driving habits”.

In road-transport terminology, a lane departure warning system (LDWS) is a mechanism designed to warn the driver when the vehicle begins to move out of its lane (unless a turn signal is on in that direction) on freeways and arterial roads. These systems are designed to minimize accidents by addressing the main causes of collisions: driver error, distractions and drowsiness. In 2009 the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) began studying whether to mandate lane departure warning systems and frontal collision warning systems on automobiles.

Der Spurhalteassistent (auch "Spurassistent", engl. "lane departure warning system (LDW)" für Spurverlassenswarnung, und Lane Keeping Assist für den aktiven Spurhalteassistent mit Lenkunterstützung) ist ein Fahrerassistenzsystem, das den Fahrer eines Fahrzeuges vor dem Verlassen der Fahrspur auf einer Straße warnt. Hierbei sind unterschiedliche optische Systeme und Computer im Einsatz, mit deren Hilfe die Position des Fahrzeugs in der Fahrspur bestimmt wird. Das System warnt bei Unterschreitung des Abstandes zur Fahrbahnmarkierung ("Distance-to-Line-Crossing"-Kriteriums (DLC)) und kann diese Unterschreitung mit Hilfe des "Time to Line Crossing"-Kriteriums (TLC) vorausberechnen.


Example.

A person is given the choice between two scenarios, one with a guaranteed payoff and one without. In the guaranteed scenario, the person receives $50. In the uncertain scenario, a coin is flipped to decide whether the person receives $100 or nothing. The expected payoff for both scenarios is $50, meaning that an individual who was insensitive to risk would not care whether they took the guaranteed payment or the gamble. However, individuals may have different risk attitudes.  A person is said to be:  The average payoff of the gamble, known as its expected value, is $50. The smallest dollar amount that the individual would accept instead of the bet is called the certainty equivalent, and the difference between the expected value and the certainty equivalent is called the risk premium. For risk-averse individuals, it is positive, for risk-neutral persons it is zero, and for risk-loving individuals their risk premium is negative.

Utility of money.

In expected utility theory, an agent has a utility function "u"("c") where "c" represents the value that he might receive in money or goods (in the above example "c" could be $0 or $40 or $100).  The utility function "u"("c") is defined only up to positive affine transformation – in other words, a constant could be added to the value of "u"("c") for all "c", and/or "u"("c") could be multiplied by a positive constant factor, without affecting the conclusions.  An agent possesses risk aversion if and only if the utility function is concave. For instance "u"(0) could be 0, "u"(100) might be 10, "u"(40) might be 5, and for comparison "u"(50) might be 6.  The expected utility of the above bet (with a 50% chance of receiving 100 and a 50% chance of receiving 0) is  and if the person has the utility function with "u"(0)=0, "u"(40)=5, and "u"(100)=10 then the expected utility of the bet equals 5, which is the same as the known utility of the amount 40. Hence the certainty equivalent is 40.  The risk premium is ($50 minus $40)=$10, or in proportional terms  or 25% (where $50 is the expected value of the risky bet: (formula_3). This risk premium means that the person would be willing to sacrifice as much as $10 in expected value in order to achieve perfect certainty about how much money will be received. In other words, the person would be indifferent between the bet and a guarantee of $40, and would prefer anything over $40 to the bet.  In the case of a wealthier individual, the risk of losing $100 would be less significant, and for such small amounts his utility function would be likely to be almost linear, for instance if u(0) = 0 and u(100) = 10, then u(40) might be 4.0001 and u(50) might be 5.0001.  The utility function for perceived gains has two key properties: an upward slope, and concavity. (i) The upward slope implies that the person feels that more is better: a larger amount received yields greater utility, and for risky bets the person would prefer a bet which is first-order stochastically dominant over an alternative bet (that is, if the probability mass of the second bet is pushed to the right to form the first bet, then the first bet is preferred). (ii) The concavity of the utility function implies that the person is risk averse: a sure amount would always be preferred over a risky bet having the same expected value; moreover, for risky bets the person would prefer a bet which is a mean-preserving contraction of an alternative bet (that is, if some of the probability mass of the first bet is spread out without altering the mean to form the second bet, then the first bet is preferred).

Measures of risk aversion under expected utility theory.

There are multiple measures of the risk aversion expressed by a given utility function. Several functional forms often used for utility functions are expressed in terms of these measures.

Absolute risk aversion.

The higher the curvature of formula_4, the higher the risk aversion. However, since expected utility functions are not uniquely defined (are defined only up to affine transformations), a measure that stays constant with respect to these transformations is needed. One such measure is the Arrow–Pratt measure of absolute risk aversion (ARA), after the economists Kenneth Arrow and John W. Pratt, also known as the coefficient of absolute risk aversion, defined as  where formula_6 and formula_7 denote the first and second derivatives with respect to formula_8 of formula_4.  The following expressions relate to this term:  The solution to this differential equation (omitting additive and multiplicative constant terms, which do not affect the behavior implied by the utility function) is:  where formula_14 and formula_15. Note that when formula_16, this is CARA, as formula_17, and when formula_18, this is CRRA (see below), as formula_19. See  and this can hold only if formula_22. Therefore, DARA implies that the utility function is positively skewed; that is, formula_22. Analogously, IARA can be derived with the opposite directions of inequalities, which permits but does not require a negatively skewed utility function (formula_24). An example of a DARA utility function is formula_25, with formula_26, while formula_27 formula_28, with formula_29 would represent a quadratic utility function exhibiting IARA.

Relative risk aversion.

The Arrow–Pratt measure of relative risk aversion (RRA) or coefficient of relative risk aversion is defined as  Like for absolute risk aversion, the corresponding terms "constant relative risk aversion" (CRRA) and "decreasing/increasing relative risk aversion" (DRRA/IRRA) are used. This measure has the advantage that it is still a valid measure of risk aversion, even if the utility function changes from risk averse to risk loving as "c" varies, i.e. utility is not strictly convex/concave over all "c". A constant RRA implies a decreasing ARA, but the reverse is not always true. As a specific example of constant relative risk aversion, the utility function formula_32 implies RRA = 1.  In intertemporal choice problems, the elasticity of intertemporal substitution often cannot be disentangled from the coefficient of relative risk aversion. The isoelastic utility function exhibits constant relative risk aversion with formula_34 and the elasticity of intertemporal substitution formula_35. When formula_36 using l'Hôpital's rule shows that this simplifies to the case of "log utility," "u"("c") = log "c", and the income effect and substitution effect on saving exactly offset.  A time-varying relative risk aversion can be considered.

Implications of increasing/decreasing absolute and relative risk aversion.

The most straightforward implications of increasing or decreasing absolute or relative risk aversion, and the ones that motivate a focus on these concepts, occur in the context of forming a portfolio with one risky asset and one risk-free asset. If the person experiences an increase in wealth, he/she will choose to increase (or keep unchanged, or decrease) the "number of dollars" of the risky asset held in the portfolio if "absolute" risk aversion is decreasing (or constant, or increasing). Thus economists avoid using utility functions such as the quadratic, which exhibit increasing absolute risk aversion, because they have an unrealistic behavioral implication.  Similarly, if the person experiences an increase in wealth, he/she will choose to increase (or keep unchanged, or decrease) the "fraction" of the portfolio held in the risky asset if "relative" risk aversion is decreasing (or constant, or increasing).  In one model in monetary economics, an increase in relative risk aversion increases the impact of households' money holdings on the overall economy. In other words, the more the relative risk aversion increases, the more money demand shocks will impact the economy.

Portfolio theory.

In modern portfolio theory, risk aversion is measured as the additional expected reward an investor requires to accept additional risk. Here risk is measured as the standard deviation of the return on investment, i.e. the square root of its variance. In advanced portfolio theory, different kinds of risk are taken into consideration. They are measured as the n-th root of the n-th central moment. The symbol used for risk aversion is A or A.

Limitations of expected utility treatment of risk aversion.

The notion of using expected utility theory's approach to risk aversion to analyze "small stakes decisions" has come under criticism from behavioral economics. Matthew Rabin has showed that a risk-averse, expected-utility-maximizing individual who,  "from any initial wealth level [...] turns down gambles where she loses $100 or gains $110, each with 50% probability [...] will turn down 50–50 bets of losing $1,000 or gaining any sum of money."  Rabin criticizes this implication of expected utility theory on grounds of implausibility—individuals who are risk averse for small gambles due to diminishing marginal utility would exhibit extreme forms of risk aversion in risky decisions under larger stakes. One solution to the problem observed by Rabin is that proposed by prospect theory and cumulative prospect theory, where outcomes are considered relative to a reference point (usually the status quo), rather than to consider only the final wealth.  Another limitation is the reflection effect which demonstrates the reversing of risk aversion. This effect was first presented by Kahneman and Tversky as a part of the prospect theory, in the behavioral economics domain. The reflection effect is an identified pattern of opposite preferences between negative prospects as opposed to positive prospects. According to this effect, people tend to avoid risks under the gain domain, and to seek risks under the loss domain. Meaning, no risk aversion is expected under the loss domain. For example, in the gain domain, most people prefer a certain gain of 3000, than a gain of 4000 with a risk of 80 percent. When posing the same problem under the loss domain - with negative values, most people prefer a loss of 4000 with 80 percent chance, over a certain loss of 3000.  The reflection effect (as well as the certainty effect) is inconsistent with the expected utility hypothesis. It is assumed that the psychological principle which stands behind this kind of behavior is the overweighting of certainty. Meaning, options which are perceived as certain, are over-weighted relative to uncertain options. This pattern is an indication of a risk seeking behavior in negative prospects and eliminates other explanations for the certainty effect such as aversion for uncertainty or variability.  The initial findings regarding the reflection effect faced criticism regarding its validity, as it was claimed that there are insufficient evidence to support the effect on the individual level. Subsequently, an extensive investigation revealed its possible limitations, suggesting that the effect is most prevalent when either small or large amounts and extreme probabilities are involved.

In the brain.

Attitudes towards risk have attracted the interest of the field of neuroeconomics and behavioral economics. A 2009 study by Christopoulos et al. suggested that the activity of a specific brain area (right inferior frontal gyrus) correlates with risk aversion, with more risk averse participants (i.e. those having higher risk premia) also having higher responses to safer options. This result coincides with other studies, that show that neuromodulation of the same area results in participants making more or less risk averse choices, depending on whether the modulation increases or decreases the activity of the target area.

Public understanding and risk in social activities.

In the real world, many government agencies, e.g. Health and Safety Executive, are fundamentally risk-averse in their mandate. This often means that they demand (with the power of legal enforcement) that risks be minimized, even at the cost of losing the utility of the risky activity. It is important to consider the opportunity cost when mitigating a risk; the cost of not taking the risky action. Writing laws focused on the risk without the balance of the utility may misrepresent society's goals. The public understanding of risk, which influences political decisions, is an area which has recently been recognised as deserving focus. In 2007 Cambridge University initiated the Winton Professorship of the Public Understanding of Risk, a role described as outreach rather than traditional academic research by the holder, David Spiegelhalter.

Children.

Children's services such as schools and playgrounds have become the focus of much risk-averse planning, meaning that children are often prevented from benefiting from activities that they would otherwise have had. Many playgrounds have been fitted with impact-absorbing matting surfaces. However, these are only designed to save children from death in the case of direct falls on their heads and do not achieve their main goals. They are expensive, meaning that less resources are available to benefit users in other ways (such as building a playground closer to the child's home, reducing the risk of a road traffic accident on the way to it), and—some argue—children may attempt more dangerous acts, with confidence in the artificial surface. Shiela Sage, an early years school advisor, observes "Children who are only ever kept in very safe places, are not the ones who are able to solve problems for themselves. Children need to have a certain amount of risk taking... so they'll know how to get out of situations."

Vaccines.

A vaccine to protect children against the three common diseases measles, mumps and rubella was developed and recommended for all children in several countries including the UK. However, a controversy arose around fraudulent allegations that it caused autism. This alleged causal link was disproved by Madsen et al., and the doctor who made the claims was expelled from the General Medical Council. However, years after the claims were disproved, some parents wanted to avert the risk of causing autism in their own children and instead chose to spend significant amounts of their own money on alternatives from private doctors. These alternatives carried their own risks which were not balanced fairly, most often that the children were not properly immunized against the more common diseases of measles, mumps and rubella.

Mobile phones.

Mobile phones may carry some small health risk. While most people would accept that unproven risk to gain the benefit of improved communication, others remain so risk averse that they do not. (The COSMOS cohort study continues to study the actual risks of mobile phones.)

Game shows and investments.

One experimental study with student-subject playing the game of the TV show Deal or No Deal finds that people are more risk averse in the limelight than in the anonymity of a typical behavioral laboratory. In the laboratory treatments, subjects made decisions in a standard, computerized laboratory setting as typically employed in behavioral experiments. In the limelight treatments, subjects made their choices in a simulated game show environment, which included a live audience, a game show host, and video cameras. In line with this, studies on investor behavior find that investors trade more and more speculatively after switching from phone-based to online trading and that investors tend to keep their core investments with traditional brokers and use a small fraction of their wealth to speculate online.

In economics and finance, risk aversion is the behavior of humans (especially consumers and investors), who, when exposed to uncertainty, attempt to lower that uncertainty. It is the hesitation of a person to agree to a situation with an unknown payoff rather than another situation with a more predictable payoff but possibly lower expected payoff. For example, a risk-averse investor might choose to put their money into a bank account with a low but guaranteed interest rate, rather than into a stock that may have high expected returns, but also involves a chance of losing value.

Risikoaversion (Risikoscheu) ist eine Risikoeinstellung in der Entscheidungstheorie, welche die Eigenschaft eines Marktteilnehmers oder Entscheidungsträgers (z. B. eines Investors) bei der Wahl zwischen mehreren Alternativen gleichen Erwartungswerts wiedergibt, stets die Alternativen mit dem geringeren Risiko hinsichtlich des Ergebnisses – und damit auch dem geringstmöglichen Verlust – zu bevorzugen (siehe auch Verlustaversion). Das Gegenteil zur Risikoaversion ist die Risikoaffinität, zwischen beiden liegt die Risikoneutralität.


Early life.

He was born in Salem, Massachusetts, the son of Benjamin Peirce (1778–1831), later librarian of Harvard, and Lydia Ropes Nichols Peirce (1781–1868).  After graduating from Harvard University in 1829, he taught mathematics for two years at the Round Hill School in Northampton, and in 1831 was appointed professor of mathematics at Harvard. He added astronomy to his portfolio in 1842, and remained as Harvard professor until his death. In addition, he was instrumental in the development of Harvard's science curriculum, served as the college librarian, and was director of the U.S. Coast Survey from 1867 to 1874. He was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society of London in 1852.

Research.

Benjamin Peirce is often regarded as the earliest American scientist whose research was recognized as world class. He was an apologist for slavery, opining that it should be condoned if it was used to allow an elite to pursue scientific enquiry.

Mathematics.

In number theory, he proved there is no odd perfect number with fewer than four prime factors.  In algebra, he was notable for the study of associative algebras. He first introduced the terms idempotent and nilpotent in 1870 to describe elements of these algebras, and he also introduced the Peirce decomposition.  In the philosophy of mathematics, he became known for the statement that "Mathematics is the science that draws necessary conclusions". Peirce's definition of mathematics was credited by his son, Charles Sanders Peirce, as helping to initiate the consequence-oriented philosophy of pragmatism. Like George Boole, Peirce believed that mathematics could be used to study logic. These ideas were further developed by his son Charles, who noted that logic also includes the study of faulty reasoning. In contrast, the later logicist program of Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell attempted to base mathematics on logic.

Statistics.

Peirce proposed what came to be known as Peirce's Criterion for the statistical treatment of outliers, that is, of apparently extreme observations. His ideas were further developed by his son Charles.  Peirce was an expert witness in the Howland will forgery trial, where he was assisted by his son Charles. Their analysis of the questioned signature showed that it resembled another particular handwriting example so closely that the chance of such a match occurring at random, i.e. by pure coincidence, was extremely small.

Private life.

He was devoutly religious, though he seldom published his theological thoughts. Peirce credited God as shaping nature in ways that account for the efficacy of pure mathematics in describing empirical phenomena. Peirce viewed "mathematics as study of God's work by God's creatures", according to an encyclopedia. He was an avid juggler of devil sticks and wrote about the physics of the game in "Analytic Mechanics".  He married Sarah Hunt Mills, the daughter of U.S. Senator Elijah Hunt Mills. Peirce and his wife had four sons and one daughter:

Eponyms.

The lunar crater Peirce is named for Peirce.  Post-doctoral positions in Harvard University's mathematics department are named in his honor as Benjamin Peirce Fellows and Lecturers.  The United States Coast Survey ship USCS "Benjamin Peirce", in commission from 1855 to 1868, was named for him.

Benjamin Peirce (; April 4, 1809 – October 6, 1880) was an American mathematician who taught at Harvard University for approximately 50 years. He made contributions to celestial mechanics, statistics, number theory, algebra, and the philosophy of mathematics.

Benjamin Peirce (* 4. April 1809 in Salem, Massachusetts; † 6. Oktober 1880 in Cambridge, Massachusetts), Vater des Philosophen Charles S. Peirce, war ein amerikanischer Astronom, Mathematiker und Lehrer, der die Bahnstörungen der Planeten Uranus und Neptun berechnete.