99th Infantry Regiment (France, 1855–1997)

History.

It was originally formed as the 24th Light Demi-Brigade in May 1796 and sent on the 1797 expédition d'Irlande, in which two of its three troopships were wrecked, drowning 705 men. Augustin Pons (1774–1854) served in the 2nd formation then in 24th Light Infantry Regiment, rising from corporal to lieutenant. The unit served in 1797 at and Neuhof, in 1800 in the crossing of the Grand-Saint-Bernard,, Marcaria, Pozzolo and the siege of Verona. It was renamed the 24th Light Infantry Regiment in 1803, fighting at Nordlingen and in 1805, in 1806,, Lomitten, and in 1807 and,,, and in 1809. It took part in the French invasion of Russia and the subsequent retreat, including,, and before finally being disbanded in 1814.  The regiment was re-formed in 1840 and took part in suppressing the June Days in Paris from 23 to 26 June 1848. It was renumbered as the 99th Infantry Regiment in 1855 and soon afterwards took part in the conquest of Algeria from 1855 to 1859. It formed part of 5th Corps during the 1859 Italian campaign but saw no actual fighting. Next it was put on garrison duties in Saint-Malo, Laval and Saint-Brieuc before being sent as part of the French intervention in Mexico, taking part in the siege of Puebla and the battle of Aculcingo and winning the légion d’honneur at the latter. It returned to garrison duties in Vienne and was still there on the outbreak on the Franco-Prussian War in 1870 – it fought at on 6 August and in September, whilst three of its companies were used to form the 44th Marching Regiment, which fought at Chilleurs, Ladon, Boiscommun, Neuville-aux-Bois and Maizières in the Loiret.  It spent the next forty years on garrison duties at Nîmes (1871–1873), Gap (1873), Embrun (1873), Briançon (1873), Montélimar (1874), Vienne (1875–1885), Lyon (1875–1885), Lyon (1885–1889), Romans (1885–1889), Lyon (1889–1893), Gap (1893–1896), Mont-Dauphin (1893–1896), Lyon (1896–1902), Bourgoin (1896–1902), Gap (1902–1905), Mont-Dauphin (1902–1905), Ubaye (1902–1905), Queyras (1902–1905), Vienne (1905–1914) and Lyon (1905–1914). On mobilisation in 1914 it was based in Vienne and formed part of 55th Infantry Brigade, 28th Infantry Division and 14th Army Corps. It fought in the 1914 campaign in the Vosges and in March the following year its depot formed two companies of the new 414th Infantry Regiment. Captain Félix Fontan (1880–1914) was commanding its 12th Company in October 1914. Captain Jacques Lazare Olchanski (1891–1918) also served with the regiment. It fought in the 2nd Battle of Champagne in September and October 1915, at in 1916 and Chemin des Dames in 1917. In the battle of the Lys (1918) it had to hold mont Kemmel for two hours on 24 April under heavy artillery assault, then at 6am it was attacked with trench mortars by a Bavarian division.  It was mobilised in September 1939 at Lyon and Modane as 99th Alpine Infantry Regiment under the command of colonel Lacaze, forming part of 28th Alpine Infantry Division on the Italian border. It was then based in northern Alsace from November 1939 to April 1940 before being rested near Poligny (Jura) before finding itself back at Chemin des Dames from 18 May 1940, twenty-three years after previously fighting there. The regiment was disbanded a few weeks later, though some of its men took part in the Ain-Jura resistance, a battle honour which was later added to its colours. The regiment re-formed in December 1944 on the Alpine front, where it took part in the recapture of the col de Larche (22–26 April 1945).  In the post-war period it was sometimes a regiment and sometimes a battalion, providing men for the 25th Foot Chasseurs Battalion on its creation in June 1954 for the Tunisian campaign. In November 1954 it was converted into a Marching Regiment, the 99e BMIA, for the Algerian campaign – under that name it briefly also stayed in Morocco in August and September 1955. On 1 October it was renamed 15th Alpine Chasseurs Battalion, marking the end of the presence of a unit numbered 99 in north Africa. What was left of the former 99th in mainland France was nicknamed the "neuf-neuf" or the "régiment de Lyon" and found itself demoted to training recruits for Algeria and to supporting the 8th Military Region.  On 1 October 1968 it reverted to its original name of 99th Infantry Regiment and was detached from the mountain troops. In 1978 it formed a reserve regiment, the 299th Infantry Regiment. From 1982 to 1986 it provided several detachments for the fighting in Lebanon and from 1989 its 1st Combat Company was converted to special forces duties. Its last theatre of operations was Bosnia in 1992 and 1993 and the regiment was finally disbanded on 31 May 1997.

The 99th Infantry Regiment (French – "99e régiment d'infanterie" or "99e RI") was an infantry regiment of the French Army. It was originally formed in 1796 as the 24th Light Demi-Brigade, which was renamed the 44th Light Infantry Regiment and finally (in 1855) the 99th Infantry Regiment. It disbanded in 1997.

Das 99 régiment d'infanterie (zeitweise auch 99 régiment d'infanterie alpin) war ein als Régiment Royal Deux-Ponts aus Ausländern angeworbenes Infanterieregiment im Dienste des Königs von Frankreich. Es war ein sogenanntes Fremdenregiment (Régiment étrangere) und bestand bis 1791 überwiegend aus deutschsprachigen Söldnern. (Der Zusatz Royal sagte aus, dass es ein Regiment der Krone war, der Regimentsinhaber (Colonel) war somit der König selbst und es wurde von einem Colonel en second militärisch geführt.) Aufgestellt im Jahre 1757, wurde es am 1. Januar 1791 in „99 régiment d'infanterie“ (99 RI) umbenannt. Es bestand mit Unterbrechungen bis zu seiner Auflösung im Jahre 1997. Während der Feldzüge der französischen Revolution und des Ersten Kaiserreichs zeichnete es sich besonders aus und fand auch lobende Erwähnung für seine Einsätze in der Endphase des Zweiten Weltkrieges.


History.

Ascaridole was the first, and for a long time only, discovered naturally occurring organic peroxide. It was isolated from "Chenopodium" oil and named by Hüthig in 1908, who described its explosive character and determined its chemical formula as CHO. Hüthig also noted the indifference of ascaridole to aldehydes, ketones or phenols that characterized it as non-alcohol. When reacted with sulfuric acid, or reduced with zinc powder and acetic acid, ascaridole formed cymene. These results were confirmed in a detailed study by E. K. Nelson in 1911, in particular that ascaridole explodes upon heating, reacting with sulfuric, hydrochloric, nitric, or phosphoric acids. Nelson showed that the new substance contained neither a hydroxyl nor a carbonyl group and that upon reduction with iron(II) sulfate it formed a glycol, now known as ascaridole glycol, CHO. The glycol is more stable than ascaridole and has a higher melting point of about 64 °C, boiling point of 272 °C, and density of 1.098 g/cm. Nelson also predicted the chemical structure of ascaridole which was almost correct, but had the peroxide bridge not along the molecular axis, but between the other, off-axis carbon atoms. This structure was corrected by Otto Wallach in 1912.  The first laboratory synthesis was demonstrated in 1944 by Günther Schenck and Karl Ziegler and might be regarded as mimicking the natural production of ascaridole. The process starts from α-terpinene which reacts with oxygen under the influence of chlorophyll and light. Under these conditions singlet oxygen is generated which reacts in a Diels–Alder reaction with the diene system in the terpinene. Since 1945, this reaction has been adopted into the industry for large-scale production of ascaridole in Germany. It was then used as an inexpensive drug against intestinal worms.

Properties.

Ascaridole is a colorless liquid that is soluble in most organic solvents. It is toxic and has a pungent, unpleasant smell and taste. Like other pure, low molecular weight organic peroxides, it is unstable and prone to explosion when heated to a temperature above 130 °C or treated with organic acids. When heated, it emits fumes which are poisonous and possibly carcinogenic. Ascaridole (organic peroxide) is forbidden to be shipped as listed in the US Department of Transportation Hazardous Materials Table 49 CFR 172.101.

Occurrence.

The specific flavor of the Chilean tree boldo ("Peumus boldus") primarily originates from ascaridole. Ascaridole is also a major component of epazote (or Mexican tea, "Dysphania ambrosioides", formerly "Chenopodium ambrosioides") where it typically constitutes between 16 and 70% of the plant's essential oil. The content of ascaridole in the plant depends on cultivation and is maximal when the nitrogen to phosphorus ratio in the soil is about 1:4. It also changes through the year peaking around the time when the plant seeds become mature.

Applications.

Ascaridole is mainly used as an anthelmintic drug that expels parasitic worms (helminths) from the human body and plants. This property gave the name to the chemical, after "Ascaris" – a genus of the large intestinal roundworm. In the early 1900s, it was a major remedy against intestinal parasites in humans, cats, dogs, goats, sheep, chickens, horses, and pigs, and it is still used in livestock, particularly in the Central American countries. The dosage was specified by the ascaridole content in the oil, which was traditionally determined with an assay developed by Nelson in 1920. It was later substituted with modern gas chromatography and mass spectrometry methods. The worms and their larvae were killed by immersion in a solution of ascaridole in water (about 0.015 vol%) for 18 hours at or 12 hours at or 6 hours at. Meanwhile, such immersion did not damage the roots and stems of plants such as "Iris", "Phlox", "Sedum" and others at for 15 hours or longer.  The wormseed plant itself (Mexican tea) is traditionally used in Mexican cuisine for flavoring dishes and preventing flatulence from bean-containing food. It is also part of tonic drinks and infusions to expel intestinal parasites and treat asthma, arthritis, dysentery, stomach ache, malaria, and nervous diseases in folk medicine practiced in North and South America, China, and Turkey.

Health issues.

The usage of wormseed oil on humans is limited by the toxicity of ascaridole and has therefore been discouraged. In high doses, wormseed oil causes irritation of skin and mucous membranes, nausea, vomiting, constipation, headache, vertigo, tinnitus, temporary deafness and blindness. Prolonged action induces depression of the central nervous system and delirium which transits into convulsions and coma. Long-term effects include pulmonary edema (fluid accumulation in the lungs), hematuria, and albuminuria (presence of red blood cells and proteins in the urine, respectively) and jaundice (yellowish pigmentation of the skin). Fatal doses of wormseed oil were reported as one teaspoon for a 14-month-old baby (at once) and daily administration of 1 mL over three weeks to a 2-year-old child. Ascaridole is also carcinogenic in rats.

Ascaridole is a natural organic compound classified as a bicyclic monoterpenoids that has an unusual bridging peroxide functional group. It is a colorless liquid with a pungent smell and taste that is soluble in most organic solvents. Like other low molecular weight organic peroxides, it is unstable and prone to explosion when heated or treated with organic acids. Ascaridole determines the specific flavor of the Chilean tree boldo and is a major constituent of the oil of Mexican tea (wormseed). It is a component of natural medicine, tonic drinks and food flavoring in Latin American cuisine. As part of the oil, ascaridole is used as an anthelmintic drug that expels parasitic worms from plants, domestic animals and the human body.

Ascaridol ist eine chemische Verbindung und ein pflanzlicher Naturstoff. Es handelt sich um ein monocyclisches Monoterpen-Peroxid mit nicht eindeutig aufgeklärter absoluter Konfiguration. 1943 konnte es zum ersten Mal durch Günther Otto Schenck und Karl Ziegler synthetisch hergestellt werden. Es wird aus Pinen und Sauerstoff in Anwesenheit von Chlorophyll synthetisiert. Früher wurde es als Anthelminthikum eingesetzt.


Background.

"Closer" was first performed at the Royal National Theatre in London on 22 May 1997; it was the second original play written by Patrick Marber.

Plot.

A young man, Dan, takes a young woman to hospital after she has been hit by a taxi; they flirt as they wait for the doctor to attend to her bloodied knee. Larry, a doctor in dermatology, inspects her leg briefly and leaves. Dan and the young woman introduce themselves—he is Daniel Woolf, an obituary writer and failed novelist who tells her how he and his colleagues use euphemisms humorously in their work in obituaries. At the girl's prompting, he says his euphemism would be "reserved" and hers would be "disarming". She is Alice Ayres, a self-described waif who has a scar along her leg shaped like a question mark. Wanting him to spend the rest of the day with her, she calls in sick for him.  More than a year later, Dan is on the verge of publishing a book based on Alice's past as a stripper, and Anna is taking his photograph for publicity. Dan falls in love with Anna, though he is in a relationship with Alice, having left his former girlfriend for her. He begs Anna to see him again, and she rejects him. Alice overhears his conversation with Anna. She asks Anna to take her photo, and when Dan has left, confronts her; Anna insists she is "not a thief" and snaps a photo of a tear-stricken Alice.  Six months later, Dan and Larry meet in an adult chat room. Dan impersonates Anna and has Internet sex with Larry. He tries to play a practical joke on Larry by arranging for Larry to meet him (Dan pretending to be Anna in the chat room) in the London Aquarium the next day. When Larry arrives, stunned to see Anna (who Dan didn't know would actually be there), he acts under the impression that she is the same person from last night and makes a fool of himself. Anna catches on and explains that it was probably Dan playing a practical joke on him. She reveals that it is her birthday and snaps a photo of Larry. They become a couple.  At Anna's showing, Alice stands in front of her photo, looking at it; Dan is watching her. They have an argument over Alice's presentiment that Dan will leave her. Larry meets Alice, whom he recognises as the woman in the photo, and knows that she is Dan's girlfriend. Meanwhile, Dan convinces Anna to carry on an affair with him. They cheat on their partners with each other, even through Anna and Larry's marriage. Finally, one year later, they tell their partners the truth and leave their respective partners for each other.  Alice, devastated, disappears from Dan's life and goes back to stripping, going by the name Jane. Larry finds her at one of the seedy strip clubs in London, where he pushes her to tell the truth about her name. In a poignant moment, he asks, "Tell me something true, Alice." She tells him, "Lying is the most fun a girl can have without taking her clothes off - but it's better if you do." They share a connection based on mutual betrayal and heartbreak. He asks her to meet him later for sex. She declines, but we later learn she does go home with him after all.  A month after this, Anna is late meeting Dan for dinner. She is coming from asking Larry to sign the divorce papers. Dan finds out that Larry had demanded Anna have sex with him before he would sign the papers. Dan becomes upset and jealous, asking Anna why she didn’t lie to him. They have a candid, brutally truthful conversation, and it is revealed that Anna did have sex with Larry and he did sign the papers.  Alice meanwhile has been sleeping with Larry. On his birthday, she summons him to the museum and sets up Anna to meet him there. Larry and Anna exchange words, as Anna discovers Alice and Larry have been having a casual relationship. Larry asks Anna if their divorce will ever become finalised; he leaves when Alice emerges. The two women share a heated exchange in which their mutual animosity is revealed. Anna calls Alice "primitive", a description Alice accepts. The younger Alice paints a pathetic picture of Larry's emotional state and gleans from Anna that Dan still calls out for "Buster" (Alice's nickname) in his sleep.  Anna goes back to Larry. Distraught, Dan confronts Larry at his office and has to come to terms with the fact that Anna no longer wants him. Larry recommends Dan go back to Alice and reveals that he had seen her in the strip club. He lies for Alice at first and tells Dan that they did not sleep together, since Alice feared that, if Dan found out, he would not want her any more. At the end, Larry decides to hurt Dan and reveals the truth—that they had slept together.  Dan and Alice, back together, are preparing to go to America. They relive the memories of their first meeting, but Dan is haunted by their encounters with Larry and Anna and pushes Alice to tell him the truth. In the moment when Alice becomes caught between telling the truth (which she refuses to do) and being unable to lie to him, she falls out of love with Dan and says, "I don't love you anymore. Goodbye." (She had told Dan in the beginning that these are the words she tells her significant others when their relationship is over and she is going to leave.) She tells Dan to leave. Dan struggles with her; she spits in his face, and he throws her back on the bed, grabbing her neck. She dares him to hit her, and he hits her; she leaves.  Later, Anna and Larry meet again, only to reveal that they have broken up once again and Larry is dating a young nurse named Polly. They are meeting because Alice has died the night before in New York, having been hit by a car while crossing the street. Larry leaves as Dan arrives because he has patients to see. Dan talks with Anna and says that no one could identify Alice's body and he is flying over to America to do so. Before Dan leaves, he tells Anna that Ruth, his ex-girlfriend whom he left for Alice/Jane, is now married, has a child, and is pregnant with a second. She married a poet, having fallen in love with him (without ever having met him) by reading his book of poems called "Solitude". Dan and Anna tell each other "goodbye" somewhat coldly and Dan leaves to catch his flight, leaving Anna alone.

Genre.

"Closer" is formed in the style of a drama, characteristically blending elements of classical tragedy, classical comedy, and melodrama. The characters very much resemble the viewing subjects and the conflicts occur between people, in the style of a melodrama. On the other hand, the way the plot progresses is comedic—several romances are pursued. Dan plays a massive comedic trick on Larry, which results in another romance emerging. There are moments of "cognito", where Alice realises that she does not love Dan any more and Dan realises he loves Alice—and the final moment of revelation occurs when Alice's true identity is unveiled. But these elements blend with melodramatic plot twists—the four characters switch partners frequently, and their emotional statuses constantly fluctuate between high and low, in a series of reversals that build toward increasing tension.

Spectacle.

The play is set in a few small locales—a hospital room, a studio, a pair of living rooms, a café, a room in the museum, in front of a photo at a showing, a doctor's office, a bench in front of a suggested aquarium. The text of the play insists on all settings being "minimal". Though evocative of real happenings, the lack of physical detail in setting is meant to balance the verbal excess. Places are evoked, not shown—benches instead of the front of a museum; a large photo instead of the entire showing.  According to Robert Brustein, in the original production, "Memorial blocks constitute the backdrop of the set—a design that gradually accumulates all the scenic pieces used in the play, as if these four lives were a detritus of props and furniture." The setting is formed to be deliberately symbolic.

Themes.

The central theme of "Closer" revolves around truth. All the characters have a tense relationship with truth—only Alice is "not passionate about veracity". Truth, for Dan, is what distinguishes humans from animals—and yet Alice accepts her identity as not quite human for any of the other characters, and loves her primitivism. Arguably, her inability to deal with the truth causes her to leave Dan at the end. Those who are passionate about veracity press each other to tell the complete truth, no matter the emotional pain caused by it—and the controlling irony of the situation is that though the truth clarifies, it does not bring together. No one is made "closer" by the truth.  Also being challenged and taken apart is the illusion of love and romance. Dan, the failed writer, speaks in romantic language but feels the least qualms about his infidelities. The characters are driven both by a need for love and a need for sex—these needs clash at times, as when Larry tells Dan that Alice needed love, and Dan had left her for a relationship with Anna. The mythic constructions surrounding personal relationships—the myth of love and truth bringing us together, is deliberately and willfully turned on its head by Marber.  "Closer" has been described as a work that "gets under its audience's skin, and... not for the emotionally squeamish", a work in which "Marber is alert to the cruel inequalities of love, as the characters change partners in what sometimes comes over like a modern reworking of Coward's "Private Lives"."

Language.

The language of Marber's play is brutal and sexually explicit. In scene three, where Dan and Larry are instant messaging on an adult website, Marber uses crude and up-to-date terminology and dialogue that you would only see in an instant messaging conversation via the Internet. In a review of the Broadway run in "New York" magazine, John Simon writes, "Marber tells his story in short, staccato scenes in which the unsaid talks as loudly as the said. The dialogue is almost entirely stichomythic, the occasional speech still not much longer than a few lines. There are frequent pauses, but not of the Pinteresque variety—more like skipped heartbeats... "Closer" does not merely hold your attention; it burrows into you." Dan is dismissive of simple words like "kind"—"Kind is dull; Kind will kill you." According to Matt Wolf, "the animalistic pulse of the play [is] reflected in its often scabrous language".

Music.

Although no music is indicated in Marber's script to specifically be used, different productions have often most commonly used classical music, like in the 2004 film version of "Closer". In one production, the music in "Closer" was composed by Paddy Cunneen, a score described as sounding like "modern Bach".

Productions.

Royal National Theatre.

It was first performed at the Royal National Theatre, London, on 22 May 1997.

West End.

In March the next year the play moved to the West End.

Music Box Theatre.

The first American performance was presented 9 March 1999, on Broadway at the Music Box Theater, New York, by Robert Fox, Scott Rudin, Roger Berlind, Carole Shorenstein Hays, ABC Inc., the Shubert Organization, and the Royal National Theatre.  The production core consisted of: "Closer" ran for 172 performances on Broadway during 1999, with Polly Draper replacing Richardson starting 15 June. "Closer" won the New York Drama Critics' Circle Award for Best Foreign Play and was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Play in 1999.

Theatre Fontaine.

It received its Paris premiere on 22 December 1998 at the Theatre Fontaine, in a production based on a French translation by Pierre Laville and directed by Patrice Kerbrat.

California.

Early productions of "Closer" on the West Coast of the United States include one featuring Maggie Gyllenhaal as Alice in a Berkeley Repertory Theatre production in May 2000 (directed by Wilson Milam), and another featuring Gyllenhaal opposite Rebecca De Mornay as Anna in a Mark Taper Forum production in December 2000, directed by Robert Egan.

Divadlo Na Jezerce.

Directed by Jan Hřebejk. The play had its premiere on 22 November 2009 in Jezerka Theatre, in Prague. The Czech title is "Na Dotek".

Slezské divadlo.

Directed by Ivan Krejčí. The play had its premiere on 21 March 2004 in the Silesian Theatre in Opava.  As of 2001, the play has been produced in more than a hundred cities in over thirty different languages around the world.  In February 2009 a new German translation of the play opened in Berlin under the title "Hautnah".

Film adaptation.

In 2004, Marber adapted the play for a film of the same title. The feature film was directed by Mike Nichols, with stars Julia Roberts, Jude Law, Natalie Portman, and Clive Owen.

References in popular culture.

The line Anna speaks to Larry, "he tastes like you, only sweeter", is used in the Fall Out Boy song "Thnks fr th Mmrs". Also, the line spoken by Larry to Alice/Jane in the strip club, "I love everything about you that hurts", is used in the Fall Out Boy song "G.I.N.A.S.F.S.".  The band Panic! at the Disco split a line from the play into two song titles on their album "A Fever You Can't Sweat Out": "Lying Is the Most Fun a Girl Can Have Without Taking Her Clothes Off" and "But It's Better If You Do".  Larry's line to Dan, "Have you ever seen a human heart? It looks like a fist wrapped in blood", is used by Canadian post-hardcore band Silverstein as a title to the song "Fist Wrapped in Blood" on their 2005 album "Discovering the Waterfront".  Dan and Alice's conversation where Alice tells Dan that she doesn't love him anymore is used by the American Depressive "Black Metal" band "Happy Days" in the song Abigail.

Awards and nominations.

The play won the 1997 "Evening Standard" Best Comedy Award and the 1998 Laurence Olivier Award for Best New Play.

Closer is the second play by British playwright Patrick Marber. The play premiered at the Royal National Theatre's Cottesloe Theatre in London in 1997 and made its North American debut at the Music Box Theatre on Broadway on 25 January 1999.

Hautnah ist ein Theaterstück von Patrick Marber, das 2004 von Mike Nichols auf der Basis von Marbers Drehbuch als "Hautnah" verfilmt wurde. Das Stück hatte am 15. März 1999 seine Premiere im Music Box Theater am Broadway in New York City mit Anna Friel als Alice, Rupert Graves als Dan, Ciarán Hinds als Larry, und Natasha Richardson als Anna. Es wurde 172-mal aufgeführt und wurde 1999 für den Tony Award als bestes Theaterstück nominiert. "Hautnah" wurde auch im deutschsprachigen Raum in vielen Städten gespielt.


History.

In the Middle Ages and until the 19th century, the island was known as Liadromia (). It was renamed in 1838, as it was – mistakenly according to later research – identified with Halonnesus of Antiquity. In reality, the present island of Alonnisos was known as Icus or Ikos () to the Ancient Greeks. Under that name, it is mentioned as having been colonised by Cnossians. The fleet of Attalus and the Rhodians sailed past Scyrus to Icus. Phanodemus wrote an account of the island.

Geography.

The island at its widest is from northwest to southeast and at its longest is from southwest to northeast. The area of the island is. The island is mostly limestone. It is located east of mainland Greece and Magnesia, northeast of Euboea and northwest of the island of Skyros.

The island.

Agriculture is widespread on Alonnisos, predominantly mixed farming and vineyards. The main products are almonds, grapes, figs and olives. Pine trees are abundant on the island. While fishing is a popular profession on the island, tourism is now the main industry.  Housing traditionally consists of closely constructed houses with stone walls, which, until 1965, were centered on the capital. A small fortress protected against enemies and pirates. The island and the village were heavily damaged in the 1965 earthquake. Many inhabitants returned not to the village of Alonnisos, but to Patitiri. The old village has been restored in recent years, with rebuilt houses now utilised for tourism.  The beaches around the island consist of pebbles. The ecosystem in the north side of the island is in good condition. The Mediterranean monk seal ("Monachus monachus") is common around the island, and in 1992 the Alonnisos Marine Park was created to protect these seals and other animals.

Communities and subdivisions.

The Municipality includes several other islands with small resident populations. The total land area of the municipality is. The 2011 census population was 2,750 inhabitants, of whom only 38 persons lived on the other islands.

Alonnisos (, ), also transliterated as Alonissos or Alonisos, is a Greek island in the Aegean Sea. After Skiathos and Skopelos it is the third member of the Northern Sporades. It is (2 nm) E of the island of Skopelos. Alonnisos is also the name of a village on the island, as well as the municipality that encompasses the island and the village. The village of Alonnisos is located on the southern part of the island. It is locally known as Chora and signposted as The Old Village. The main port of the island is located in the southeast and is called Patitiri. There are ferry, catamaran ("flying cat") and hydrofoil ("flying dolphin") services from Patitiri to Volos, Agios Konstantinos, and Thessaloniki on the mainland and to the islands of Skiathos, Skopelos and Skyros. The bay at the southern end of the island is also called Alonnisos.

Alonnisos ( ) ist eine griechische Insel der Nördlichen Sporaden. Zusammen mit drei bewohnten und zahlreichen umliegenden unbewohnten Inseln bildet Alonnisos eine Gemeinde in der griechischen Region Thessalien.


The DB Museum.

History.

The forerunner of the present-day DB Museum was opened in 1899 as a royal Bavarian railway museum and it is therefore the oldest railway museum in Germany. Today it is a company museum belonging to the Deutsche Bahn and portrays, amongst other things, the history of the railways. The present building was built in 1925.  On 1 July 1996, the Deutsche Bahn AG (DB AG) took over the museum from the Deutsche Bundesbahn for the symbolic purchase price of one deutschmark. At the same time Dr. Jürgen Franzke, previously head of the Museum of Industrial Culture ("Museums Industriekultur") in Nuremberg, was appointed as the museum's chief. The DB AG planned at that time to invest 6 million DM up to the museum's centenary year.

Exhibits.

In the displays of historical railway vehicles are the following important exhibits:  Some of the original vehicles are not in the museum itself, but in the wagon shed situated in the open area belonging to the museum on the opposite side of the street. The museum also owns a range of historical vehicles that can be used for special rail services.

Model collection.

A further attraction of the museum is its collection of 160, 1:10 scale models occupying 1000 square metres of the museum. These models have been built over the years since the end of the 19th century and are very finely detailed. The first were made in 1882 by apprentices of the Royal Bavarian State Railways ("Königlich Bayerische Staats-Eisenbahnen").  The museum also offers a walk-through tunnel, a level crossing, signals and points that can be operated, models equipped with sound and light and simulators.

Model railway.

A model railway covering an area of 80 m2 is used to demonstrate prototypical railway operations. During museum opening hours there is a ten-minute demonstration hourly, on the half-hour, with explanations of the key concepts of railway operating. The layout, built between 1960 and 1970, is worked using control panels with a total of some 5000 relays.

Library.

In the main building of the DB Museum there is a library with about 40,000 titles on railway subjects. The "Präsenzbibliothek" can be visited by appointment free of charge on workdays. Postal loans are not possible.

Damage following the fire of 17 October 2005.

On the evening of 17 October 2005 much of the roundhouse of the museum, less its steel frame, was burnt to the ground. Unlike the wagon shed, the locomotive shed was not located in the immediate vicinity of the museum and accessible to the public, but four kilometres away at the Nuremberg West locomotive depot in the suburb of Gostenhof. It was there that the DB Museum had stabled operational locomotives for which room could not be found in the museum.  A 1935 working replica of the "Adler", a locomotive from the first German railway between Nuremberg and Fürth, was badly damaged by the blaze. Apprentices and experienced specialists rebuilt the engine in the Meiningen Steam Locomotive Works. After two years of reconstruction the "Adler" was once again ready for operations in October 2007 and returned to the Nuremberg Transport Museum on 23 November 2007. Federal Government MPs, members of the DB AG management and the Bavarian minister-president, Beckstein, took part in the first journey of the restored "Adler" on 26 April 2008. A further, non-operational, 1953 replica is displayed in the museum.  Unfortunately the last surviving examples of the goods train locomotive, the DRG Class 45, the electric locomotive and other exhibits, especially locomotives, as well as numerous spare parts, also fell victim to the fire or were at least badly damaged.  A total of 24 historical engines and wagons went up in smoke. In the long term, the steam engines should be repairable, as should the E 75. The damaged diesel engines and railbuses, due to their light construction, were irreparable and were scrapped by July 2006. The burnt out and partly collapsed locomotive shed was torn down. Several locos were sold or loaned to railway museums for restoration. For example, number 23 105, the last steam engine bought by the Bundesbahn in 1959, was leased to the South German Railway Museum ("Süddeutsches Eisenbahnmuseum Heilbronn") in Heilbronn for visual restoration.

DB Museum branch in Koblenz.

In the Lützel district of Koblenz is the DB Museum, Koblenz, a branch of the museum that accommodates a number of vehicles including several Class 103, 110 and 113, E 44 and E 16 electric express locomotives, as well as several coaches belonging to the Joseph Goebbels special train. In addition a restored Prussian T 3, factory number 499 built by the Maschinenfabrik Christian Hagans in 1903 and stored under in accordance with strict heritage protection regulations, can be viewed. For decades it had been used as in a children's play park at Cologne Zoo. At present two of the steam locomotive exhibits damaged in the great fire at Nuremberg are also being restored there.

DB Museum branch in Halle (Saale).

The former locomotive shed in Halle (Saale) is a branch of the Nuremberg Museum. On display there are several Deutsche Reichsbahn vehicles, in particular the 03 1010 steam locomotive and the E 11 001 and E 18 31 electric locomotives. The vehicles are looked after by the Halle shed.

Museum of Communications.

The museum of communications in the Transport Museum came from the royal Bavarian postal museum and was integrated into the Transport Museum in 1902. It displays over 500 years of postal and telecommunication services history in Bavaria from the Middle Ages to the present. Major aspects covered are the development of postal transportation, post coach travel, telegraphy and telephony. Original vehicles, such as post coaches and motorised vehicles, are displayed, as well as technical equipment from old-fashioned teleprinters to modern news satellites.  Due to lack of space, several historical railway postal vehicles are located in the railway park at Augsburg.

Charter and tourist trains.

The Nuremberg Transport Museum owns several trains, not all stabled in Nuremberg, that are used for tourist and charter services including:

The Nuremberg Transport Museum (') is based in Nuremberg, Germany, and consists of the Deutsche Bahn's own DB Museum and the Museum of Communications ('). It also has two satellite museums at Koblenz-Lützel (the "DB Museum Koblenz") and Halle ("DB Museum Halle"). The Nuremberg Transport Museum is one of the oldest technical history museums in Europe.

Das Verkehrsmuseum Nürnberg beherbergt in seinem zentralen Gebäude das DB Museum der Deutschen Bahn AG und das Museum für Kommunikation. Es betreibt zwei Außenstellen des DB Museums in Koblenz-Lützel (DB Museum Koblenz) und Halle (Saale) (DB Museum Halle). Das Verkehrsmuseum gehört zu den ältesten technikgeschichtlichen Museen in Europa. Seit Anfang Februar 2007 lautet der Name des DB Museums Firmenmuseum der Deutschen Bahn AG. Es ist ein Ankerpunkt der Europäischen Route der Industriekultur sowie der Nordbayerischen Industriestraße.


Design.

"Hiryū" was one of two large carriers approved for construction under the 1931–32 Supplementary Program. Originally designed as the sister ship of "Sōryū", her design was enlarged and modified in light of the "Tomozuru" and Fourth Fleet Incidents in 1934–35 that revealed many IJN ships were top-heavy, unstable and structurally weak. Her forecastle was raised and her hull strengthened. Other changes involved increasing her beam, displacement, and armor protection.  The ship had a length of overall, a beam of and a draft of. She displaced at standard load and at normal load. Her crew consisted of 1,100 officers and enlisted men.

Machinery.

"Hiryū" was fitted with four geared steam turbine sets with a total of, each driving one propeller shaft, using steam provided by eight Kampon water-tube boilers. The turbines and boilers were the same as those used in the s. The ship's power and slim, cruiser-type hull with a length-to-beam ratio of 10:1 gave her a speed of and made her the fastest carrier in the world at the time of her commissioning. "Hiryū" carried of fuel oil which gave her a range of at. The boiler uptakes were trunked to the ship's starboard side amidships and exhausted just below flight deck level through two funnels curved downward.

Flight deck and hangars.

The carrier's flight deck was wide and overhung her superstructure at both ends, supported by pairs of pillars. "Hiryū" was one of only two carriers ever built whose island was on the port side of the ship ( was the other). It was also positioned further to the rear and encroached on the width of the flight deck, unlike "Sōryū". Nine transverse arrestor wires were installed on the flight deck that could stop a aircraft. One group of three wires was positioned further forward to allow the ship to land aircraft over the bow, although this was never done in practice. The flight deck was only above the waterline and the ship's designers kept this figure low by reducing the height of the hangars. The upper hangar was and had an approximate height of ; the lower was and had an approximate height of. Together they had an approximate total area of. This caused problems in handling aircraft because the wings of a Nakajima B5N "Kate" torpedo bomber could neither be spread nor folded in the upper hangar.  Aircraft were transported between the hangars and the flight deck by three elevators, the forward one abreast the island on the centerline and the other two offset to starboard. The forward platform measured, the middle one, and the rear. They were capable of transferring aircraft weighing up to. "Hiryū" had a designed aircraft capacity of 64, plus nine spares.

Armament.

"Hiryū"s primary anti-aircraft (AA) armament consisted of six twin-gun mounts equipped with 40-caliber 12.7-centimeter Type 89 dual-purpose guns mounted on projecting sponsons, three on either side of the carrier's hull. When firing at surface targets, the guns had a range of ; they had a maximum ceiling of at their maximum elevation of +90 degrees. Their maximum rate of fire was 14 rounds a minute, but their sustained rate of fire was approximately eight rounds per minute. The ship was equipped with two Type 94 fire-control directors to control the guns, one for each side of the ship; the starboard-side director was on top of the island and the other director was positioned below flight deck level on the port side.  The ship's light AA armament consisted of seven triple and five twin-gun mounts for license-built Hotchkiss 25 mm Type 96 AA guns. Two of the triple mounts were sited on a platform just below the forward end of the flight deck. The gun was the standard Japanese light AA gun during World War II, but it suffered from severe design shortcomings that rendered it largely ineffective. According to historian Mark Stille, the weapon had many faults including an inability to "handle high-speed targets because it could not be trained or elevated fast enough by either hand or power, its sights were inadequate for high-speed targets, it possessed excessive vibration and muzzle blast, and its magazines were too small to maintain high rates of fire". These guns had an effective range of, and an effective ceiling of at an elevation of +85 degrees. The maximum effective rate of fire was only between 110 and 120 rounds per minute because of the frequent need to change the fifteen-round magazines. The Type 96 guns were controlled by five Type 95 directors, two on each side and one in the bow.

Armor.

"Hiryū" had a waterline belt with a maximum thickness of over the magazines that reduced to over the machinery spaces and the avgas storage tanks. It was backed by an internal anti-splinter bulkhead. The ship's deck was thick over the machinery spaces and thick over the magazines and avgas storage tanks.

Construction and service.

Following the Japanese ship-naming conventions for aircraft carriers, "Hiryū" was named "Flying Dragon". The ship was laid down at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal on 8 July 1936, launched on 16 November 1937 and commissioned on 5 July 1939. She was assigned to the Second Carrier Division on 15 November. In September 1940, the ship's air group was transferred to Hainan Island to support the Japanese invasion of French Indochina. In February 1941, "Hiryū" supported the blockade of Southern China. Two months later, the 2nd Carrier Division, commanded by Rear Admiral Tamon Yamaguchi, was assigned to the First Air Fleet, or "Kido Butai", on 10 April. "Hiryū" returned to Japan on 7 August and began a short refit that was completed on 15 September. She became flagship of the Second Division from 22 September to 26 October while "Sōryū" was refitting.

Pearl Harbor and subsequent operations.

In November 1941, the IJN's Combined Fleet, commanded by Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, prepared to participate in Japan's initiation of a formal war with the United States by conducting a preemptive strike against the United States Navy's Pacific Fleet base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. On 22 November, "Hiryū", commanded by Captain Tomeo Kaku, and the rest of the "Kido Butai", under Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo and including six fleet carriers from the First, Second, and Fifth Carrier Divisions, assembled in Hitokappu Bay at Etorofu Island. The fleet departed Etorofu on 26 November and followed a course across the north-central Pacific to avoid commercial shipping lanes. Now the flagship of the Second Carrier Division, the ship embarked 21 Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters, 18 Aichi D3A "Val" dive bombers, and 18 Nakajima B5N "Kate" torpedo bombers. From a position north of Oahu, "Hiryū" and the other five carriers launched two waves of aircraft on the morning of 7 December 1941 Hawaiian time.  In the first wave, 8 B5N torpedo bombers were supposed to attack the aircraft carriers that normally berthed on the northwest side of Ford Island, but none were in Pearl Harbor that day; 4 of the B5N pilots diverted to their secondary target, ships berthed alongside "1010 Pier" where the fleet flagship was usually moored. That ship, the battleship, was in drydock and its position was occupied by the light cruiser and the minelayer ; all four torpedoes missed. The other four pilots attacked the battleships and. The remaining 10 B5Ns were tasked to drop armor-piercing bombs on the battleships berthed on the southeast side of Ford Island ("Battleship Row") and may have scored one or two hits on them, in addition to causing a magazine explosion aboard the battleship that sank her with heavy loss of life. The 6 A6M Zeros strafed parked aircraft at Marine Corps Air Station Ewa (MCAS Ewa), claiming 22 aircraft destroyed.  The second wave consisted of 9 Zeros and 18 D3As, one of each aborting with mechanical problems. The former strafed Naval Air Station Kaneohe Bay before moving on to attack Bellows Army Airfield. They strafed the airfield, and shot down two Curtiss P-40 fighters attempting to take off when the Zeros arrived and a Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress heavy bomber that had earlier diverted from Hickam Army Airfield, and also destroyed a Stinson O-49 observation aircraft on the ground for the loss of one of their own. The fighters with remaining ammunition expended it strafing MCAS Ewa, the rendezvous point for the second-wave fighters. The D3As attacked various ships in Pearl Harbor, but it is not possible to identify which aircraft attacked which ship. Two D3As from "Hiryū" were lost during the attack, one shot down by Second Lieutenant George Welch.  While returning to Japan after the attack, Vice Admiral Chūichi Nagumo, commander of the First Air Fleet, ordered that "Sōryū" and "Hiryū" be detached on 16 December to attack the defenders of Wake Island who had already defeated the first Japanese attack on the island. The two carriers reached the vicinity of the island on 21 December and launched 29 D3As and 2 B5Ns, escorted by 18 Zeros, to attack ground targets. They encountered no aerial opposition and launched 35 B5Ns and 6 A6M Zeros the following day. They were intercepted by the 2 surviving Grumman F4F Wildcat fighters of Marine Fighter Squadron VMF-211. The Wildcats shot down 2 B5Ns before they were shot down by PO3c Isao Towara. The garrison surrendered the next day after Japanese troops were landed.  The carriers arrived at Kure on 29 December. They were assigned to the Southern Force on 8 January 1942 and departed four days later for the Dutch East Indies. The ships supported the invasion of the Palau Islands and the Battle of Ambon, attacking Allied positions on the island on 23 January with 54 aircraft. Four days later the carriers detached 18 Zeros and 9 D3As to operate from land bases in support of Japanese operations in the Battle of Borneo. "Hiryū" and "Sōryū" arrived at Palau on 28 January and waited for the arrival of the carriers and "Akagi". All four carriers departed Palau on 15 February and launched air strikes against Darwin, Australia, four days later. "Hiryū" contributed 18 B5Ns, 18 D3As, and 9 Zeros to the attack. Her aircraft attacked the ships in port and its facilities, sinking or setting on fire three ships and damaging two others. The Zeros destroyed 1 P-40E as it was taking off, 2 Consolidated PBY Catalina seaplanes on the water, and a Zero was forced to crash land after being damaged by a P-40E of the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) 33rd Pursuit Squadron.  "Hiryū" and the other carriers arrived at Staring Bay on Celebes Island on 21 February to resupply and rest before departing four days later to support the invasion of Java. On 1 March 1942, the ship's D3As damaged the destroyer badly enough for her to be caught and sunk by Japanese cruisers. Later that day the dive bombers sank the oil tanker. The four carriers launched an airstrike of 180 aircraft against Tjilatjep on 5 March and set the town on fire, sinking five small ships, and damaging nine others that later had to be scuttled. Two days later, they attacked Christmas Island and "Hiryū"s aircraft sank the Dutch freighter "Poelau Bras" before returning to Staring Bay on 11 March to resupply and train for the impending Indian Ocean raid. This raid was intended to secure newly conquered Burma, Malaya, and the Dutch East Indies against any Allied attack by destroying base facilities and forces in the eastern Indian Ocean.

Indian Ocean raid.

On 26 March, the five carriers of the First Air Fleet departed from Staring Bay; they were spotted by a Catalina about southeast of Ceylon on the morning of 4 April. Six of "Hiryū"s Zeros were on Combat Air Patrol (CAP) and helped to shoot it down. Nagumo closed to within of Colombo before launching an airstrike the next morning. "Hiryū" contributed 18 B5Ns and 9 Zeros to the force; the latter encountered a flight of 6 Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers from 788 Naval Air Squadron en route and shot them all down without loss. The Japanese aircraft encountered defending Hawker Hurricane fighters from Nos. 30 and 258 Squadrons RAF over Ratmalana airfield and "Hiryū"s fighters claimed to have shot down 11 with 3 Zeros damaged, although the fighters from the other carriers also made claims. British losses were 21 Hurricanes shot down and 2 more forced to crash land. The D3As and B5Ns inflicted some damage to the port facilities, but a day's warning had allowed much of the shipping in the harbor to be evacuated. The British were attempting to find Nagumo's ships all morning and "Hiryū"s Zeros on CAP over the fleet helped to shoot down an RAF Catalina, shot down a Fairey Albacore torpedo bomber and drove off another from the carrier. Later that morning the British heavy cruisers and were spotted and "Hiryū" launched 18 D3As. They sank both ships in combination with the dive bombers from the other carriers.  On the morning of 9 April, "Hiryū"s CAP shot down another Catalina attempting to locate the fleet and, later that morning, contributed 18 B5Ns, escorted by 6 Zeros, to the attack on Trincomalee. The fighters engaged 261 Squadron RAF, claiming to have shot down two with two more shared with fighters from the other carriers. British losses were only eight fighters, but the Japanese pilots claimed a total of 49 aircraft shot down when the RAF only had 16 Hurricanes in the fight. The British pilots shot down one of "Hiryū"s B5Ns and forced another to crash land while they were bombing the port. Meanwhile, a floatplane from the battleship spotted the small aircraft carrier, escorted by the destroyer, and every available D3A was launched to attack the ships, escorted by nine Zeros. "Hiryū" contributed 18 dive bombers and 3 fighters, but they arrived too late to assist in sinking them and found two other ships further north. They sank the freighter RFA "Athelstone" and her escorting corvette,. While this was going on, "Akagi" narrowly escaped damage when 9 British Bristol Blenheim bombers from Ceylon penetrated the CAP and dropped their bombs from. "Hiryū" had eight Zeros aloft, along with 12 more from the other carriers, and collectively they accounted for 5 of the British bombers for the loss of 1 of "Hiryū"s Zeros. The Blenheims ran into the D3As from, escorted by "Hiryū"s Zeros, on their way back home and lost one more bomber to the Japanese aircraft. The dive bombers claimed to have shot down two Blenheims in conjunction with the Zeros, which claimed one on their own, for the loss of one Zero shot down by the bombers' gunners and one D3A damaged. After launching the dive bombers that sank "Hermes" and the other ships, the First Air Fleet reversed course and headed southeast for the Malacca Strait and Japan.  On 19 April, while transiting the Bashi Straits between Taiwan and Luzon en route to Japan, "Hiryū", "Sōryū", and "Akagi" were sent in pursuit of the American carriers and, which had launched the Doolittle Raid against Tokyo. They found only empty ocean, as the American carriers had immediately departed the area to return to Hawaii. The carriers quickly abandoned the chase and dropped anchor at Hashirajima anchorage on 22 April. Having been engaged in constant operations for four and a half months, the ship, along with the other three carriers of the First and Second Carrier Divisions, was hurriedly refitted and replenished in preparation for the Combined Fleet's next major operation, scheduled to begin one month hence. While at Hashirajima, "Hiryū"s air group was based ashore at Tomitaka Airfield, near Saiki, Ōita, and conducted flight and weapons training with the other First Air Fleet carrier units.

Midway.

Concerned by the US carrier strikes in the Marshall Islands, Lae-Salamaua, and the Doolittle raids, Yamamoto was determined to force the US Navy into a showdown to eliminate the American carrier threat. He decided to invade and occupy Midway Atoll, which he was sure would draw out the American carriers to defend it. The Japanese codenamed the Midway invasion Operation "MI". Unknown to the Japanese, the US Navy had divined the Japanese plan by breaking its JN-25 code and had prepared an ambush using its three available carriers, positioned northeast of Midway.  On 25 May 1942, "Hiryū" set out with the Combined Fleet's carrier striking force in the company of "Kaga", "Akagi", and "Sōryū", which constituted the First and Second Carrier Divisions, for the attack on Midway. Her aircraft complement consisted of 18 Zeros, 18 D3As, and 18 B5Ns. Also aboard were 3 A6Ms of the 6th Kōkūtai intended as the aerial garrison for Midway. With the fleet positioned northwest of Midway at dawn (04:45 local time) on 4 June 1942, "Hiryū"s portion of the 108-plane airstrike was an attack on the facilities on Sand Island with 18 torpedo bombers, one of which aborted with mechanical problems, escorted by nine Zeros. The air group suffered heavily during the attack: two B5Ns were shot down by fighters, with a third falling victim to AA fire. Heavy damage forced a fourth, flown by squadron leader Rokuro Kikuchi, to crash-land on Kure Atoll, where he and his crew were later discovered and killed by US forces. A fifth B5N was forced to ditch on its return, and five more were damaged beyond repair. In addition, two Zeros were also deemed unserviceable (although none were lost).  The carrier also contributed 3 Zeros to the total of 11 assigned to the initial CAP over the four carriers. By 07:05, the carrier had 6 fighters with the CAP which helped to defend the "Kido Butai" from the first US attackers from Midway Island at 07:10. At this time, Nagumo's carriers were attacked by 6 US Navy Grumman TBF Avengers and 4 USAAC Martin B-26 Marauders, all carrying torpedoes. The Avengers went after "Hiryū" while the Marauders attacked "Akagi". The 30 CAP Zeros in the air at this time, including the 6 from "Hiryū", immediately attacked the American airplanes, shooting down 5 of the Avengers and 2 of the B-26s. The Avengers shot down 1 of "Hiryū"s Zeros. The surviving aircraft dropped their torpedoes, but all missed.  At 07:15, Nagumo ordered the B5Ns on "Kaga" and "Akagi" rearmed with bombs for another attack on Midway itself. This process was slowed by the number of ordnance carts used to handle the bombs and torpedoes and the limited number of ordnance elevators. This meant that the torpedoes could not be struck below until after all the bombs were moved up from their magazine, assembled and mounted on the aircraft. This process normally took about an hour and a half; more time would be required to bring the aircraft up to the flight deck, and to warm up and launch the strike group. Around 07:40, he reversed his order when he received a message from one of his scout aircraft that American warships had been spotted. Depleted of ammunition, two of "Hiryū"s CAP Zeros landed aboard the carrier at 07:40.  At 07:55, the next American strike from Midway arrived in the form of 16 Marine Douglas SBD Dauntless dive bombers of Marine Scout Bomber Squadron (VMSB-241) under Major Lofton R. Henderson. "Hiryū"s 3 CAP fighters were among the 9 still aloft that attacked Henderson's planes, shooting down 6 of them as they executed a fruitless glide bombing attack on "Hiryū". In return, the gunner of one of the Dauntlesses shot down one of "Hiryū"s Zeros. At roughly the same time, the Japanese carriers were attacked by 12 USAAC B-17s, bombing from. The high altitude of the B-17s gave the Japanese captains enough time to anticipate where the bombs would land, and they successfully maneuvered out of the impact area. Four B-17s attacked "Hiryū", but missed with all their bombs.  "Hiryū" reinforced the CAP with launches of 3 more Zeros at 08:25. These fresh Zeros helped defeat the next American air strike from Midway, 11 Vought SB2U Vindicator dive bombers from VMSB-241, which attacked the battleship "Haruna" starting around 08:30. "Haruna" escaped damage and 3 of the Vindicators were shot down. Although all the American air strikes had thus far caused negligible damage, they kept the Japanese carrier forces off-balance as Nagumo endeavored to prepare a response to news, received at 08:20, of the sighting of American carrier forces to his northeast.  "Hiryū" began recovering her Midway strike force at around 09:00 and finished shortly by 09:10. The landed aircraft were quickly struck below, while the carriers' crews began preparations to spot aircraft for the strike against the American carrier forces. The preparations were interrupted at 09:18, when the first attacking American carrier aircraft were sighted. These consisted of 15 Douglas TBD Devastator torpedo bombers of VT-8, led by Lieutenant Commander John C. Waldron from the "Hornet". They attempted a torpedo attack on "Soryū", but all of the American planes were shot down by the 18 CAP fighters, leaving one surviving aviator treading water.  Shortly afterwards, 14 Devastators from Torpedo Squadron 6 (VT-6) from "Enterprise", led by Lieutenant Commander Eugene E. Lindsey, attacked. Lindsey's aircraft tried to sandwich "Kaga", but the CAP, reinforced by 4 additional Zeros launched by "Hiryū" at 09:37, shot down all but 4 of the Devastators, and "Kaga" dodged the torpedoes. "Hiryū" launched another trio of CAP Zeros at 10:13 after Torpedo Squadron 3 (VT-3) from "Yorktown" was spotted. Two of her Zeros were shot down by Wildcats escorting VT-3 and another was forced to ditch. While VT-3 was still attacking "Hiryū", American dive bombers arrived over the Japanese carriers almost undetected and began their dives. It was at this time, around 10:20, that in the words of Jonathan Parshall and Anthony Tully, the "Japanese air defenses would finally and catastrophically fail." Three American dive bomber squadrons now attacked the three other carriers and set each of them on fire. "Hiryū" was untouched and proceeded to launch 18 D3As, escorted by six Zeros, at 10:54. "En route", the Zeros engaged a group of "Enterprise" SBDs that they had spotted. They failed to shoot down any of the dive bombers, but two of the Zeros were shot up by the bombers' rear gunners, with one Zero forced to ditch near a destroyer on its return. American radar detected the incoming Japanese dive bombers at 11:52 and vectored "Yorktown"s CAP of 20 Wildcats against them. The Wildcats shot down three of the remaining Zeros for the loss of one of their own and engaged the D3As. Only seven of the dive bombers survived long enough to make their attack on "Yorktown" and two of those were shot down by flak during their dive, but they made three direct hits and two near misses that badly damaged the carrier and set her on fire.  Confident that his men had sunk "Yorktown", Yamaguchi launched a second wave of 10 B5Ns (including one from "Akagi"), escorted by six Zeros (two from "Kaga"), at 13:30, with the instruction that they attack a separate carrier than that hit by the first wave. However, the Americans had managed to extinguish the fires on "Yorktown" by 14:00, and the carrier was making by 14:30 when the second strike group approached. As a result, the strike pilots mistook her for one of her undamaged sisters, and launched the attack. At that moment, six Wildcats were on CAP duty, and four of these were vectored toward the attacking aircraft while the other two were retained to cover the takeoff of 10 Wildcats fueling on deck. The Japanese were jumped at 14:38 by two Wildcats, which shot down one torpedo bomber before they were both shot down by the escorting Zeros (two Zeros were shot down later for the loss of one Wildcat). Four more B5Ns fell during the attack, but two of the survivors managed to score hits on "Yorktown" that damaged three boilers and knocked out all electrical power so that she could not pump fuel oil to starboard to counteract her six degree list to port. Seventeen minutes later, after the list increased to 23 degrees, the crew was ordered to abandon ship. Of the four Zeros and five B5Ns that returned to "Hiryū", only two Zeros and three bombers were still flight-worthy. Yamaguchi radioed his intention to Nagumo at 16:30 to launch a third strike against the American carriers at dusk (approximately 18:00), but Nagumo ordered the fleet to withdraw to the west. Unbeknownst to the Japanese, "Enterprise" and "Hornet" had already launched airstrikes well before then. "Enterprise" launched a total of 26 Dauntlesses at 15:25 using her own aircraft plus those from "Yorktown" that had been forced to recover aboard her after "Yorktown" was damaged, and "Hornet" launched 16 more of her own Dauntlesses at 16:00. At this point in the battle, "Hiryū" had only 4 air-worthy dive-bombers and 5 torpedo-planes left. She also retained 19 of her own fighters on board as well as a further 13 Zeros on CAP (a composite force of survivors from the other carriers). At 16:45, "Enterprise"s dive bombers spotted the Japanese carrier and began to maneuver for good attacking position while reducing altitude. At 16:56, just as the first Dauntlesses were beginning their dives, Nagumo ordered a change in course to 120 degrees, possibly to prepare to recover his reconnaissance floatplanes, that threw off the aim of the leading SBDs. The Japanese did not even spot the Americans until 17:01. The CAP shot down two of the American aircraft in their dives and another after it was forced to abort its dive when some of "Yorktown"s SBDs passed in front of it starting their own dives. "Hiryū" was struck by four bombs, three on the forward flight deck and one on the forward elevator. The explosions started fires among the aircraft on the hangar deck. The forward half of the flight deck collapsed into the hangar while part of the elevator was hurled against the ship's bridge. The fires were severe enough that the remaining American aircraft attacked the other ships escorting "Hiryū", albeit without effect, deeming further attacks on the carrier as a waste of time because she was aflame from stem to stern. Beginning at 17:42, two groups of B-17s attempted to attack the Japanese ships without success, although one bomber strafed "Hiryū"s flight deck, killing several anti-aircraft gunners.  Although "Hiryū"s propulsion was not affected, the fires could not be brought under control. At 21:23, her engines stopped, and at 23:58 a major explosion rocked the ship. The order to abandon ship was given at 03:15, and the survivors were taken off by the destroyers and. Yamaguchi and Kaku decided to remain on board as "Hiryū" was torpedoed at 05:10 by "Makigumo" as the ship could not be salvaged. One torpedo missed and the other struck near the bow without the typical plume of water, although the detonation was quite visible. Around 07:00, one of's Yokosuka B4Y aircraft discovered "Hiryū" still afloat and not in any visible danger of sinking. The aviators could also see crewmen aboard the carrier, men who had not received word to abandon ship. They finally launched some of the carrier's boats and abandoned ship themselves around 09:00. Thirty-nine men made it into the ship's cutter only moments before "Hiryū" sank around 09:12, taking the bodies of 389 men with her. The cutter drifted for 14 days before being discovered by a Catalina and rescued by the seaplane tender. Four men died of their wounds or exposure before being picked up and a fifth died that night.  The loss of "Hiryū" and the three other IJN carriers at Midway, comprising two thirds of Japan's total number of fleet carriers and the experienced core of the First Air Fleet, was a strategic defeat for Japan and contributed significantly to Japan's ultimate defeat in the war. In an effort to conceal the defeat, the ship was not immediately removed from the Navy's registry of ships, instead being listed as "unmanned" before finally being struck from the registry on 25 September 1942.  The IJN selected a modified version of the "Hiryū" design for mass production to replace the carriers lost at the Battle of Midway. Of a planned program of 16 ships of the "Unryū" class, only six were laid down and three were commissioned before the end of the war.

After a brief refit, "Hiryū" and three other fleet carriers of the First Air Fleet ("Kido Butai") participated in the Battle of Midway in June 1942. After bombarding American forces on the atoll, the carriers were attacked by aircraft from Midway and the carriers,, and. Dive bombers from "Yorktown" and "Enterprise" crippled "Hiryū" and set her afire. She was scuttled the following day after it became clear that she could not be salvaged. The loss of "Hiryū" and three other IJN carriers at Midway was a crucial strategic defeat for Japan and contributed significantly to the Allies' ultimate victory in the Pacific.

Die Hiryū (jap., dt. "fliegender Drache") war ein Flugzeugträger der Kaiserlich Japanischen Marine und das zweite Schiff der "Sōryū"-Klasse. 1939 in Dienst gestellt, wurde das Schiff bis zu seinem Untergang am 5. Juni 1942 im Zweiten Weltkrieg eingesetzt.


Etymology.

The name "Silvānus" is a derivation from Latin "silva" ('forest, wood'). It is cognate with the Latin words "silvester" ('wild, not cultivated'), "silvicola" ('inhabiting woodlands') or "silvaticus" ('of woodlands or scrub'). The etymology is "silva" is unclear.

Attributes and associations.

Like other gods of woods and flocks, Silvanus is described as fond of music; the syrinx was sacred to him, and he is mentioned along with the Pans and Nymphs. Later speculators even identified Silvanus with Pan, Faunus, Inuus and Aegipan. He must have been associated with the Italian Mars, for Cato refers to him consistently as "Mars Silvanus". These references to Silvanus as an aspect of Mars combined with his association with forests and glades, give context to the worship of Silvanus as the giver of the art (techne) of forest warfare. In particular the initiation rituals of the evocati appear to have referenced Silvanus as a protective god of raiding for women and cattle, perhaps preserving elements of earlier Etruscan worship.  In the provinces outside of Italy, Silvanus was identified with numerous native gods:  The Slavic god Porewit has similarities with Silvanus.  Xavier Delamarre suggests the epithet "Callirius" may be related to Breton theonym "Riocalat(is)" (attested in Cumberland Quarries), and both mean "(God) With Wild Horses".

Worship.

The sacrifices offered to Silvanus consisted of grapes, ears of grain, milk, meat, wine and pigs. In Cato's "De Agricultura" an offering to "Mars Silvanus" is described, to ensure the health of cattle; it is stated there that his connection with agriculture referred to only the labour performed by men, and that females were excluded from his worship. (Compare Bona Dea for a Roman deity from whose worship men were excluded.) Virgil relates that in the very earliest times the Tyrrhenian Pelasgians had dedicated a grove and a festival to Silvanus.

In literature.

In works of Latin poetry and art, Silvanus always appears as an old man, but as cheerful and in love with Pomona. Virgil represents him as carrying the trunk of a cypress (), about which the following myth is told. Silvanus – or Apollo according to other versions – was in love with Cyparissus, and once by accident killed a pet hind belonging to Cyparissus. The latter died of grief, and was metamorphosed into a cypress.  In Edmund Spenser's epic poem "The Faerie Queene" (1590–96), Silvanus appears in Canto VI of Book I. His 'wyld woodgods' (Stanza 9) save the lost and frightened Lady Una from being molested by "Sans loy" and take her to him. They treat her as a Queen because of her great beauty. Spenser writes in Stanza 14:

Silvanus (; meaning "of the woods" in Latin) was a Roman tutelary deity of woods and uncultivated lands. As protector of the forest ("sylvestris deus"), he especially presided over plantations and delighted in trees growing wild. He is also described as a god watching over the fields and husbandmen, protecting in particular the boundaries of fields. The similarly named Etruscan deity Selvans may be a borrowing of Silvanus, or not even related in origin.

Silvanus war eine Gottheit der römischen Mythologie, die mit den Hirten und Wäldern assoziiert wurde. Daneben wurde Silvanus unter dem Namen "Silvanus Litoralis" als Gott der Meeresküsten verehrt.


History.

Pre-Hijōkaidan.

Hijōkaidan originally began in 1979 in Kyoto as a side project of Rasenkaidan members and. They played an improvised session at a studio with fellow Rasenkaidan member (a.k.a. Idiot) in attendance. Afterwards, Takayama said "This is not, it is more like."  This Hijōkaidan played live twice and recorded a few studio sessions. Recordings of this line-up were later released as Original Hijōkaidan or Pre-Hijōkaidan. At the end of the year, Zushi left, and Jojo decided to quit all of his musical projects (Hijōkaidan, Rasenkaidan, and Ultra Bidet). Idiot and Zushi briefly continued Rasenkaidan, and Idiot later formed Idiot O'Clock.

Corroded Marie.

In the spring of 1980, Jojo formed a new group called to play songs in the style of Hawkwind. Initial members were Jojo, (a.k.a. Oka), Katsuhiro Nakajima (a.k.a. Zuke), Masako Shigesugi (a.k.a. Mako), (a.k.a. Ichie), and. Zushi declined to take part. The practice sessions devolved into improvised noise, and Jojo considered disbanding the group, but was convinced otherwise by Oka, Zuke, and Ichiguchi.  In June 1980, Corroded Marie was invited to play ACB Hall in Shinjuku, Tokyo at the event, sponsored by the magazine "Heaven" and arranged by. By mistake, they were billed as Hijōkaidan, Jojo decided to keep the name. After the show Mako left. Disappointed that they didn't play songs or like Hawkwind, Jojo again thought about disbanding the group. He listened to a cassette of the performance repeatedly, and began to consider the possibility of releasing it. In August he met, who had started an independent label called Unbalance Records, and made a deal to release the show. He contacted Zuke and Oka about releasing the show and asked if they wanted to continue the group. Jojo discovered that they were thinking about continuing as a new group without him.  On November 3, the regrouped Hijōkaidan played at Sōzōdōjō in Osaka. The show started with a cover of "It's a Rainy Day, Sunshine Girl" by Faust, before turning into free-form noise. This show is also the beginning of the performance art aspect of Hijōkaidan's live show, with Zuke throwing around takoyaki.  The ACB show was released as one side of a split LP called in December 1980 by Unbalance, the other side had tracks by NG and Jurajium. The track was called in honor of their original name.

Alchemy Records.

Alchemy Records is a record label based in Osaka, Japan, specializing in noise / experimental music and psychedelic rock. It is run by Jojo Hiroshige of the noise group Hijokaidan. Alchemy has released albums by Hijokaidan, Balzac, Hanatarash, Masonna, Incapacitants, Borbetomagus, and Merzbow, among many others. Until April 2008, Alchemy also had a record store in Osaka's Amerikamura.

The group began at the very end of the 1970s as a performance art-based group whose anarchic shows would often involve destruction of venues and audio equipment, food and garbage being thrown around, and on-stage urination. As the group's lineup changed over time, their focus became less performance-based and more musically based, fine-tuning their sound into a dense wall of noise.

Hijokaidan ist eine japanische Noise-Band mit wechselnden Formationen um den Bandleader Jojo Hiroshige. 1979 gegründet, gelten sie als das älteste und – neben Merzbow – langlebigste Projekt des Japan-Noise der ersten Generation.


Tales.

The stories of Rhampsinit are told in book 2 (chapter 121–124) and today known as "Rhampsinit and the masterthief" and "Rhampsinit's visit to Hades". Herodotus starts the story in chapter 121 with a short introduction of the king: “After Proteus, they told me, "Rhâmpsinitós" received in succession the kingdom, who left as a memorial of himself that gateway to the temple of Hephaistos which is turned towards the West.” Then he tells the two tales of king Rhampsinit:

Rhampsinit and the masterthief.

The king was obviously a well-behaved and gifted business-man, he had hoarded a great treasure of gold, silver and jewelry like never seen or heard about before. To hide and control his treasury the king orders his treasure keeper to build him a secure and well-guarded room, in which the king wishes to store his goods. But the treasure keeper secretly leaves one brick stone loose, so that it could be removed at any time. When on his deathbed, the treasure keeper tells his two sons about the loose stone. The brothers decide to sneak into the treasury house frequently and fill their pockets with loots.  After some time has passed, Rhampsinit becomes aware that his treasury is decreasing and he gets upset. No one can tell him who stole the goods. Mysteriously, the royal seals are still intact and the doors are well guarded as always. After the third incident the king decides to set traps in the room between the vessels. One night the brothers sneak into the treasury room and one of them gets snared in a hidden loop. Recognizing that he cannot escape anymore, he begs his own brother to decapitate him, so that no one could ever identify him. The brother does as wished and with the head of his kinsman he runs to his mother. Meanwhile, king Rhampsinit throws a tantrum when he discovers the body of the trapped thief without head. He orders the guardians to impale the body and display it in town at the enclosure wall of the palace. Anyone who would stop before the corpse in grief should be arrested at once. The mother of the thief urges her son to find a way to retrieve the body of his brother. Should he refuse, she would immediately go to the king and tell him the truth. The thief has no other choice than obey and so he creates a plan.  On a very hot day he charges his two donkeys with full wineskins and guides them along the palace wall, close to the impaled body of his brother. When arriving, he deliberately makes the wineskins rip open. The guardians become curious when the thief laments and scolds his donkeys and the ruckus lures many bystanders who try to calm him down. The thief acts as if he was grateful for the guardian's help and gives them wine from his wineskins. Late that evening, the guards are completely drunk and fall asleep. The thief takes the body and binds it on the donkeys, then he shaves the right cheek of both guards in attempt to humiliate them. Then he flees. Rhampsinit is baffled when he hears about the clever thief. He wants the thief, no matter what the cost. In an attempt to catch him, the king orders his daughter to pretend to be a "maid" in the royal brothel. The princess is ordered to sweet-talk every lover in telling her his most sinister deed. Whoever would tell her the story of the manipulated treasure room, should be arrested by the royal guards. The masterthief visits the princess, too, but smelling a rat he tricks her: He brings the right arm of his deceased brother and then tells her about his deed. When the princess tries to hold him by the arm, he releases the dead arm and flees.  King Rhampsinit is so impressed by the cleverness and ability of the masterthief that he sends out a harbinger to invite him to make peace. He promises his daughter for marriage to the one who could prove he was the masterthief. The hero accepts the invitation and Rhampsinit keeps his word. The masterthief and the princess marry and the story ends happily.

Rhampsinit ́s visit to Hades.

After leaving the royal throne to the masterthief, Rhampsinit travels alive to the underworld, which is called “Hades” by the Hellenes. There he plays dice with the goddess Demeter. After defeating her, the king is allowed to return to the realm of the living, and Demeter gives him a golden towel as his prize. As soon as Rhampsinit returns home, all priests of Egypt celebrate a feast; Herodotus says that this feast was still celebrated in his lifetime.  Herodotus closes his stories in chapter 124, where Rhampsinit is followed by a king "Kheops", whom the author describes as "cruel" and "evil."

Further sources about Rhampsinit.

Rhampsinit is also mentioned by the late Roman Egyptian historian John of Nikiû, who evidently took his information from Herodotus. However, John of Nikiû confused Rhampsinit partly with king Khufu and additionally reports that Rhampsinit built three temples (the pyramids) and that he closed all temples of the country.

Modern evaluations.

The story of Rhampsinit is today evaluated as some sort of satire, in which a king is fooled by a humble citizen. The tale shows great similarities to other demotic fairy tales, in which Egyptian kings are depicted as being dimwits and their deeds are negligent or cruel. It is also typical for those fables to depict mere servants or citizens as superior to the king. Herodotus ́ stories fit perfectly into that schema. In all of his anecdotes he somehow manages to draw a negative or, at least, sinister character picture of any Egyptian ruler. Morris Silver points to similarities of Herodotus ́ story to that of "Trophónios and Agamedes and the treasury of Hyreus", written by Pausanias in 200 A.D.. The story of Rhampsinit playing dice with Demeter in Hades is seen as an allusion to the old tradition to throw dice in attempt to clear up economical and/or political decisions, such as division of conquered lands or allocations of estates.

Rhampsinit (also called Rhampsinitos, Rhampsinitus, Rampsinitus, Rampsinit, derived from Herodotus' Greek Ῥαμψίνιτος "Rhampsínitos") is the hellenized name of a fictitious king (pharaoh) from Ancient Egypt. He is named by the ancient Greek historian Herodotus as a literary figure in his Historiae. There it is told that Rhampsinit was the predecessor of the legendary king Kheops. The first tale of Rhampsinit is about two thieves who rob the king until one of them dies. His brother tries to rescue the corpse and then manages to fool the king to avoid arrest. The second tale is about Rhampsinit's visit to Hades.

Rhampsinitos (), auch Rhampsinit genannt, ist der gräzisierte Name eines fiktiven altägyptischen Herrschers (Pharao), der erstmals in den "Historiae" des griechischen Historikers Herodot erwähnt wird und die Hauptrolle in zwei Fabeln spielt. Die erste Erzählung handelt von zwei Dieben, die den König bestehlen, bis einer von beiden umkommt. Der hinterbliebene Bruder unternimmt alles, um den Leichnam des Anderen zu bergen. In der zweiten Geschichte reist Rhampsinit in den Hades.


Gameplay.

Although the game contains a series of single player training missions and operations accessible under the main page option "Missions", most players utilize the game's multiplayer option to compete online under the main page option "Novaworld" which connects the player to Novalogic's online gaming environment, Novaworld. Each "Joint Operations" server at Novaworld has the potential to hold up to 150 players, based on server bandwidth capacity, making the game a Massive Multiplayer Online First Person Shooter. Although a number of these servers are run by Novalogic, anyone with a PC and sufficient internet bandwidth can host a server, with a player limit of up to 64 people. Many independent servers exist, hosted by individuals or groups of players who form clans.  In the multiplayer setting, the game has five modes, which dictate how gameplay proceeds on any given map:

Teams.

Joint Operations (Blue Team).

The Joint Operations Task Force is an international assistance force that is under the command of the fictional "Coalition of Nations", which was formed before 1999, made up of elite special operations personnel from the United States, United Kingdom, Germany, France, Russia, Australia and Indonesia. The Task Force was previously employed in peacekeeping operations in East Timor. After requests from the Indonesian government, the Task Force was sent to the country as part of Operation Typhoon Rising, to stop the rebellion and re-establish government control over rebel-controlled territories.

Rebels (Red Team).

The Indonesian Separatist Movement grew out of the 1998 Indonesian Revolution which saw the downfall of Indonesian President Suharto. The rebels fight for varied reasons in their desire to attain independence of certain provinces, as well as to protect their people against the government. The instruction manual for the game states that the Rebels feel that they have been the victims of unfair and inhumane treatment at the hands of the Indonesian military and government. Joint Operations forces were sent to Indonesia to combat the rebel threat after three bombs were detonated by the Rebels, with one destroying part of a school, one destroying a government building in Jakarta, and one that nearly killed the Indonesian president. Recently, factions of the military started to join the movement resulting in the rebels taking control of several military bases and capturing large numbers of weapons and vehicles.

Expansion pack.

On November 19, 2004, Novalogic released an expansion pack, "Joint Operations: Escalation". The expansion pack was not a stand-alone release and required the original game be installed first prior to use. "Escalation" introduced new maps, weapons, and vehicles while focusing on an expansion of the conflict to other areas in Southeast Asia. Players had the option to use parachutes to jump out of helicopters or from elevated map locations.  In October 2005, Novalogic released both "Typhoon Rising" and "Escalation" as a compilation set called "Joint Operations: Combined Arms" which made it possible to buy both games in a single boxed product. This was done as a marketing move by the game manufacturer and there is no difference in game play between a player who owns "Joint Operations: Combined Arms" and a player who owns separate copies of both "Joint Operations: Typhoon Rising" and "Joint Operations: Escalation".  On August 11, 2009 Navarre Corporation re-released the compilation as "Joint Ops: Combined Arms Gold".

Reception.

"Typhoon Rising".

"Typhoon Rising" received "favorable" reviews according to video game review aggregator Metacritic.  "Joint Operations" was a runner-up for "Computer Games Magazine"s 2004 "Best Multiplayer" award, which ultimately went to "Unreal Tournament 2004".

"Escalation".

The expansion pack "Escalation" also received "favorable" reviews (though not as much as the original "Joint Operations") according to Metacritic.

Joint Operations: Typhoon Rising is a 2004 first-person shooter computer game from Novalogic that focuses almost entirely on its expansive online multiplayer mode. Set in Indonesia in the near future, Joint Operations takes the player to a country on the verge of disintegration. Regional independence movements have acquired advanced weaponry as the nation's military splits into competing factions. Escalating violence threatens innocent civilians and Western economic interests. Developed using the Black Hawk Down engine, Joint Operations promises superior rendering technology and an enhanced 3rd generation multiplayer experience.

Joint Operations: Typhoon Rising ist ein Ego-Shooter in einem Dschungel-Szenario aus dem Hause NovaLogic. Das Spiel ist hauptsächlich als Online-Spiel konzipiert, bei dem sich bis zu 150 Spieler (250 Slots wurden auch schon erfolgreich getestet) gegenüberstehen (vergleichbar mit der Battlefield-Reihe).


Life and work.

Wirkkala was born in Hanko in 1915. He attended the Töölö co-educational school in Helsinki. His father, Ilmari Wirkkala, was a cemetery architect, and mother Selma (née Vanhatalo) a wood-carver. His sister Helena Korvenkontio and brother Tauno Wirkkala were also artists.  Wirkkala's work ranges from designs of plastic ketchup bottles and metalware to glass, ceramics and plywood in a range of styles. His success as a glass designer began in 1946 when he designed the Kantarelli vase for Iittala, and the mass-produced Tapio collection was launched in 1954. His range was immense, including glassware, stoneware, jewelry, and furniture for mass production, as well as individual sculptures in several media. He also designed the Finnish markka banknotes introduced in 1955. In the early 1950s, Wirkkala worked as the artistic director at the Helsinki Central School of Industrial Design.  Among his most famous work have been the designs for the Finlandia vodka bottle (1970-1999) and for Iittala's Ultima Thule set of kitchen glasses. Both glassware items feature a dripping icicle look, and in the case of the Iittala's glassware it is said to have taken thousands of hours to develop a glassblowing technique that would produce the effect.  Wirkkala did much of his initial design work using a traditional Finnish carving knife, the puukko. Wirkkala designed his own version of the knife, the Tapio Wirkkala Puukko, which was manufactured by Hackman Cutlery and marketed by Brookstone in the US in the early-1970s.  Wirkkala died in Helsinki on 19 May 1985 and was buried in the artists' area of the Hietaniemi Cemetery, next to his wife Rut Bryk.

Tapio Veli Ilmari Wirkkala (2 June 1915 – 19 May 1985) was a Finnish designer and sculptor, a major figure of post-war design.

Tapio Wirkkala (* 2. Juni 1915 in Hanko; † 19. Mai 1985 in Helsinki) war ein finnischer Grafiker, Innenarchitekt und Designer.


First war with Rome.

The Latins first went to war with Rome in the 7th century BC during the reign of the Roman king Ancus Marcius.  According to Livy the war was commenced by the Latins who anticipated Ancus would follow the pious pursuit of peace adopted by his grandfather, Numa Pompilius. The Latins initially made an incursion on Roman lands. When a Roman embassy sought restitution for the damage, the Latins gave a contemptuous reply. Ancus accordingly declared war on the Latins. The declaration is notable since, according to Livy, it was the first time that the Romans had declared war by means of

War with Rome under Tarquinius Priscus.

When Rome was ruled by Lucius Tarquinius Priscus the Latins went to war with Rome on two occasions.  On the first, which according to the "Fasti Triumphales" occurred prior to 588 BC, Tarquinius took the Latin town

War between Clusium and Aricia.

In 508 BC, Lars Porsena king of Clusium (at that time reputed to be one of the most powerful cities of Etruria) departed Rome after ending his war against Rome by peace treaty. Porsena split his forces, and sent part of the Clusian army with his son Aruns to besiege the Latin city

The Pometian revolt.

In 503 BC two Latin towns, Pometia and Cora, said by Livy to be colonies of Rome, revolted against Rome. They had the assistance of the southern Aurunci tribe.  Livy says that a Roman army led by the consuls Agrippa Menenius Lanatus and Publius Postumius Tubertus met the enemy on the frontiers and was victorious, after which Livy says the war was confined to Pometia. Livy says many enemy prisoners were slaughtered by each side. Livy also says that the consuls celebrated a triumph, however the Fasti Triumphales record that an ovation

The battle of Lake Regillus and the foedus Cassianum.

In 501 BC word reached Rome that thirty of the Latin cities had joined in league against Rome, at the instigation of Octavius Mamilius of Tusculum. Because of this (and also because of a dispute with the Sabines), Titus Lartius was appointed as Rome's first dictator, with Spurius Cassius as his magister equitum.  However war with the Latins did not come to pass until at least two years later.  In 499 BC, or possibly 496 BC, war broke out. At first Fidenae was besieged (although it is not clear by whom), Crustumerium was captured (again it is not clear by whom), and Praeneste defected to the Romans. Aulus Postumius was appointed dictator, with Titus Aebutius Elva as his magister equitum. With the Roman army, they marched into the Latin territory and were victorious at the Battle of Lake Regillus.  Shortly afterwards, in 495 BC, the Latins resisted calls from the Volsci to join with

Defection of the Latins from Rome (389–385).

In 390 a Gaulish warband first defeated the Roman army at the Battle of the Allia and then sacked Rome. According to Livy the Latins and Hernici, after a hundred years of loyal friendship with Rome, used this opportunity to break their treaty with Rome in 389. In his narrative of the years that followed, Livy describes a steady deterioration of relations between Rome and the Latins. In 387 the situation with Latins and Hernici was brought up in the Roman senate, but the matter was dropped when news reached Rome that Etruria was in arms. In 386 the Antiates invaded the Pomptine territory and it was reported in Rome that the Latins had sent warriors to assist them. The Latins claimed they had not sent aid to the Antiates, but had not prohibited individuals from volunteering for such service. A Roman army under Marcus Furius Camillus and P. Valerius Potitus Poplicola met the Antiates at Satricum. In addition to Volscians the Antiates had brought a large number of Latins and Hernicians to the field. In the battle that followed the Romans were victorious and the Volscians were slaughtered in great number. The Latins and Hernicians now abandoned the Volscians, and Satricum fell to Camillus. The Romans demanded to know from the Latins and Hernici why for the last few years' wars they had not furnished any contingents. They claimed not to have been able to supply troops due to fear of Volscian incursions. The Roman senate considered this defence to be insufficient, but that time was not right for war. In 385 the Romans appointed Aulus Cornelius Cossus Dictator to deal

War between Rome and Praeneste (383–379).

In the last years of the 380s Praeneste emerged as the leading Latin city in opposition to Rome. In terms of territory Praeneste was the third largest city in Latium, but between 499 and 383 Praeneste is wholly absent from the sources and much of the fighting against the Aequi by Rome and the Latin League appear to have taken place to the south of her territory. Modern historians have therefore proposed that Praeneste was overrun or at least came to some kind of understanding with the Aequi. If this was the case Praeneste would not have been part of the Latin League for most of the 5th century. The end of the Aequan threat by the early 4th century freed Praeneste to move against Rome.

Outbreak.

Livy records that in 383 Lanuvium, which had so far been loyal to Rome, rebelled. In Rome, on the advice of the senate, the tribes unanimously declared for war on Velitrae after five commissioners had been appointed to distribute the Pomptine territory and three to settle a colony at Nepete. However, there was pestilence in Rome throughout the year and no campaign was launched. Among the revolting colonists a peace party was in favour of asking Rome for pardon, but the war party continued to hold the population's favour and a raid was launched into Roman territory, effectively ending all talk of peace. There was also a rumour that Praeneste had revolted, and the peoples of Tusculum, Gabii and Labici complained that their territories had been invaded, but the Roman senate refused to

Roman annexation of Tusculum.

Having described Camillus' victory against the Volsci, Livy and Plutarch move on to a conflict with Tusculum. According to Livy, Camillus found Tusculans among the prisoners taken in the battle against the Volscians. Camillus brought these back to Rome, and after the prisoners had been examined, war was declared on Tusculum. According to Plutarch, Camillus had just returned to Rome with the spoils when it was reported that the Tusculans were about to rebel. The conduct of the war was entrusted to Camillus, who chose L. Furius as his colleague. Tusculum, however, offered no resistance whatsoever, and when Camillus entered the city he found everyone going about their daily life as if there was no war. Camillus ordered the leading men of Tusculum to go to Rome and plead their case. This they did with

Dictatorship of T. Quinctius Cincinnatus.

Livy provides the only full narrative for 380. After a failed census in Rome, the plebeian tribunes started agitating for debt relief and obstructed the enrollment of fresh legions for the war against Praeneste. Not even the news that the Praenestines had advanced into the district of Gabii deterred the tribunes. Learning that Rome had no army in the field, the Praenestine army pushed on until it stood before the Colline Gate. Alarmed, the Romans appointed T. Quinctius Cincinnatus as Dictator with A. Sempronius Atratinus as his Master of the Horse and assembled the army. In response the Praenestines withdrew to the

Destruction of Satricum (377).

According to Livy, in 377 the Volsci and Latins united their forces at Satricum. The Roman army, commanded by consular tribunes P. Valerius Potitus Poplicola and L. Aemilius Mamercinus, marched against them. The battle that followed was interrupted on the first day by a rainstorm. On the second the Latin resisted the Romans for some time, being familiar with their tactics, but a cavalry charge disrupted their ranks and when the Roman infantry followed up with a fresh attack they were routed. The Volsci and Latins retreated first to Satricum and thence to Antium. The Romans pursued, but lacked the equipment to lay siege to Antium. After a quarrel whether to continue the war or sue for peace, the Latin forces departed and the Antiates surrendered their city to the Romans. In fury the Latins set fire to Satricum and burned the whole city down except the temple of Mater Matuta – a voice coming from the temple is said

War between Rome and Tibur (361–354).

Tibur was one of the largest Latin cities, but is only scarcely attested in the sources. Like Praeneste, Tibur might therefore have been overrun or detached from the Latin League by the Aequi in the 5th century. Livy then records a long war between Rome and Tibur lasting from 361 to 354. Two triumphs connected to this war are recorded in the Fasti Triumphales. From a notice in Diodorus Siculus, it appears that also Praeneste was at war with Rome in this time period, but, except in connection with the Gallic invasion of 358, Praeneste is nowhere mentioned in Livy's account of this time period.

Tibur allies with the Gauls.

According to Livy the immediate cause for this war came in 361 when the Tiburtes closed their gates against a Roman army returning from a campaign a Q. Servilius Ahala as dictator. The dictator defeated the Gauls in a battle near the Colline Gate. The Gauls fled towards Tibur, but were intercepted by the consul. The Tiburtes sallied in a failed attempt to assist their allies, and both the Tiburtes and Gauls were driven within the gates. The dictator praised the consuls and laid down his office. Poetilius celebrated a double triumph over

Renewed alliance between Roman and the Latins.

In 358 Latium was again threatened by invasion from the Gauls. Livy records that the Romans granted a new treaty to the Latins on their request. The Latins sent a strong contingent to fight against the Gauls, who had reached Praeneste and settled in the country round Pedum, in accordance with the old treaty which for many years had not been observed. Led by the Roman dictator C. Sulpicius Peticus, the Roman-Latin army defeated the Gauls.

Conclusion of the war.

Livy only provides brief descriptions of the final years of this war. In 356, consul M. Popilius Laenas commanded against the Tiburtes. He drove them into their city and ravaged their fields. In 355, the Romans took Empulum from the Tiburtes without serious fighting. According to some of the writers consulted by Livy, both consuls, C. Sulpicius Peticus and M. Valerius Poplicola, commanded against the Tiburtes; according to others, it was only Valerius, while Sulpicius campaigned against the Tarquinienses. Then, in 354, the Romans took Sassula from Tibur. After this, the Tiburtes surrendered and

The Latin War (340–338).

With the Latin War the Latins and the Volsci made a final bid to shake off Roman dominion. Once again Rome was victorious. In the peace settlement that followed, Rome annexed some states outright, while others remained autonomous Latin states, but the Latin League was dissolved. Instead the surviving Latin states were bound to Rome by separate bilateral treaties. The Campanians, who had sided with the Latins, were organized as "civitas sine suffragio" – citizenship without a vote – which gave them all the rights and duties of a Roman citizen, including that of military service, except the right to vote in the Roman assemblies. This peace settlement was to become a template for how Rome later dealt with other defeated states.

The Roman–Latin wars were a series of wars fought between ancient Rome (including both the Roman Kingdom and the Roman Republic) and the Latins, from the earliest stages of the history of Rome until the final subjugation of the Latins to Rome in the aftermath of the Latin War.

Unter dem Begriff Latinerkriege versteht man zwei kriegerische Konflikte zwischen der Römischen Republik einerseits und einem Bund latinischer Städte andererseits. Beide Konflikte endeten zugunsten Roms, wodurch dieses seinen Einfluss und sein Territorium auf der Apenninen-Halbinsel ausdehnen konnte. Damit legte es einen wesentlichen Grundstein zur Errichtung des Römischen Reiches.