History.

Early years and maiden World Cup debut.

Colombia played its first official matches at the 1938 Central American and Caribbean Games. The Colombia national football team was composed mostly by all the players of the "Club Juventud Bogotana" (now Millonarios). Alfonso Novoa was the manager of Colombia until 23 February.  The first game was played on 10 February 1938 against Mexico. Colombia was defeated 1–3; Luis Argüelles, Luis de la Fuente and Horacio Casarín scored for Mexico, while Marcos Mejía scored for Colombia. Colombia was able to obtain the bronze medal, with two wins and three losses. The same year, Colombia played at the I Bolivarian Games in Bogotá, where they finished fourth with one win and three losses. Fernando Paternoster was the manager of Colombia, the side's first foreign manager.  Colombia did not play again until 1945 when they participated for the first time at the South American Championship, finishing in fifth place. This time, Colombia was composed by players of Junior de Barranquilla save for Antonio de la Hoz (who played for Sporting de Barranquilla) and Pedro Ricardo López (who played for Boca Juniors de Cali). Roberto Meléndez was player and coach of Colombia throughout the tournament.  The first match of Colombia in the professional era was played on 6 April in the 1949 South American Championship, a 3–0 defeat against Paraguay. Austrian coach Friedrich Donnenfeld was the manager of Colombia during the tournament; he had moved with his family to Colombia due to World War II, and Atlético Junior would be his first team as a coach. As Junior was chosen to represent Colombia in the tournament, he became in the first European manager of the Colombia national team. The team, however, repeated their losing streak since, as in the previous tournament, ended eighth with two draws and five losses, scoring four goals.  After withdrawal in 1938 and getting banned in 1954 (due to the controversial El Dorado era), Colombia participated for the first time in qualifying for the 1958 FIFA World Cup in Sweden. Their first match was on 16 June 1957 against Uruguay in Bogotá, a 1–1 draw. Colombia lost their next matches, leaving them at the bottom of the group.  Colombia qualified for the 1962 World Cup, its first-ever FIFA World Cup by eliminating Peru 2–1 on aggregate. At the 1962 World Cup, Colombia was drawn into a tough group containing Uruguay, Soviet Union and Yugoslavia; both had achieved notable results comparing to Colombia. Colombia lost its first match, 2–1 against Uruguay. Luis Cubilla and Jorge Sasía scored for Uruguay at the 56th and 75th minute respectively, while Francisco Zuluaga scored a 19th-minute penalty goal for Colombia to give the Colombians their first-ever World Cup goal and a shock lead. In the second match, they earned a 4–4 draw with the USSR, champions of the 1960 European Nations' Cup. In this game, Colombia scored four goals against Soviet goalkeeper Lev Yashin, widely considered the best goalkeeper in football history. Also in that game, Marcos Coll scored the only olympic goal in World Cup history so far. Unfortunately, the Colombian campaign in 1962 ended with a 5–0 defeat against Yugoslavia, who finished in fourth place in the tournament. After the 1962 World Cup, Colombia didn't qualify for over 28 years before they returned in the 1990 edition.

1990s: The Golden Era.

At 1990 World Cup, Colombia was once again drawn with the Yugoslavs, alongside United Arab Emirates and powerhouse West Germany. Colombia defeated 2–0 to the United Arab Emirates to make its first-ever win in the World Cup, then lost to Yugoslavia 1–0, but earned their place in the Round of 16 after a respectable 1–1 draw with West Germany, who would later win the World Cup. Colombia would be eliminated in their next match against Cameroon with a 2–1 defeat in extra time, marked the rise of the new Colombian generation known as Colombian first Golden Generation.  For the 1994 World Cup, Colombia finished top of their qualifying group without having lost a match, which included a historic 5–0 win over Argentina in Buenos Aires. Expectations of the team were high, some even naming them as favorites to win the tournament. Colombia was assigned to the Group A with the hosts United States, Romania, and Switzerland. During the tournament, internal conflict within Colombia proved to be detrimental and harmful for the Colombian squad as the team was distracted from their main goal. Colombia only earned one win over Switzerland and suffered two losses, which would eliminate them in the first phase. The first match against Romania ended with a 3–1 defeat that resulted in cartels' threats to relatives of Colombian players. During the match against the United States, an unwanted incident occurred, when Andrés Escobar scored an own goal, leading to Colombia's elimination. Escobar was later murdered following the own goal in Colombia. This traumatic incident would lead to the demise of Colombia's first Golden Generation.  Colombia ended their qualification for the 1998 World Cup in third place with 28 points, two points below first-place Argentina with 30 points. Colombia was assigned to the Group G alongside Tunisia, England and once again, Romania. Romania, like the 1994 edition, obtained a 1–0 victory in the first match. Colombia's second match was a 1–0 win against Tunisia, with a goal from Leider Preciado. In the last match, however, England won the game 2–0, thereby eliminating Colombia from the tournament.

2001 Copa America.

The 2001 Copa América was the first Copa América held in Colombia. Prior to the tournament, meetings were held by CONMEBOL authorities who were concerned about potential security issues in Colombia, and the tournament was canceled on 1 July, just ten days before the opening match. On 6 July, CONMEBOL decided to reinstate the tournament, which was held on schedule. Canada had already disbanded its training camp and released its players, so Costa Rica (a CONCACAF invitee) was invited to the tournament. Claiming that Argentine players had received death threats from terrorist groups, the Argentine Football Association decided to withdraw from the competition the day before the first game, with Honduras (a CONCACAF invitee) hastily invited and flown in by the Colombian Air Force to participate. There were no terrorist incidents within the competition. Colombia had a strong run through the tournament, winning their first Copa América title by defeating Mexico (a CONCACAF invitee) with a goal from Iván Córdoba in the second half.

The Declining Years (2002–2010).

For the 2002 World Cup, Colombia only managed to place sixth in the qualification round, tied with Uruguay but failing to qualify due to goal difference. Colombia would also eventually fail to qualify for the 2006 edition in Germany and for the 2010 World Cup, mainly because their constant change of formations and struggles to score goals in the last games of the qualification.

The Revival and A New Golden Generation (2010–present).

In the 2011 Copa América, Colombia made a good run topping their group and achieving a draw to the host nation Argentina, who were the favorites. In the next round, Colombia would be eliminated in a 2–0 loss against Peru in extra time. The Colombian side gained Leonel Álvarez as the new coach following the resignation of Hernán Darío Gómez, but was sacked after three games with disappointing results, which led in the hiring of José Pékerman. The Colombian squad would break a personal qualifying best record, and raise the FIFA ranking consistently into the top ten and allowed them to qualify for the World Cup for the first time in 16 years. Celebrations broke throughout the nation, as many neutrals hailed Colombia as a dark-horse towards being a World Cup contender. Often, Colombia were noted by many figures in Colombia such as Carlos Valderrama as a team that could become the most successful Colombian squad in history.

2014 World Cup.

Colombia topped off their return in the 2014 World Cup after a 16-year absence by defeating Greece 3–0. Colombia then edged a 2–1 victory over the Ivory Coast to dispute Group C's top spot days later. On the same day, Japan and Greece drew 0–0 and automatically qualified Colombia to the round of 16 for the first time in 24 years since the 1990 World Cup. In its final group stage game, Colombia defeated Japan 4–1 to win Group C and become the third South American team (following Brazil and Argentina) to go 3–0 in group stage in World Cup history. The Japan match also saw goalkeeper Faryd Mondragón, the last active player from the country's previous World Cup appearance in 1998, become the oldest player ever to appear in a World Cup final tournament. Colombia went on to defeat Uruguay 2–0 on 28 June in the knockout round, securing a spot in the quarter-finals for the first time in their history. Colombia then fell to hosts Brazil 2–1 in the quarter-final round in controversy, where media and figures such as Diego Maradona criticized FIFA and Carlos Velasco Carballo for "favoring" Brazil and being biased in disallowing a goal from Mario Yepes and allowing too many fouls by the Brazilians to occur without any yellow cards being shown.  Despite the elimination, the national team was greeted by tens of thousands of Colombians in Bogotá, welcoming them back as heroes and restoring pride to the nation. Colombia would then receive the FIFA Fair Play Trophy and have James Rodríguez and Juan Cuadrado end as the World Cup's leading goal scorer and assist leader, respectively.

2015 Copa América.

Colombia had a disappointing 2015 Copa América, having won only a single game during the group stage match against Brazil, with their only goal of the tournament. Colombia would be eliminated by Argentina in the next round via penalty shootout, ending their campaign with one win, two draws, and one loss. Only one goal was scored for throughout the tournament, by Jeison Murillo, who would later win the tournament's Best Young Player award and be included in the tournament's Star XI.

Copa América Centenario.

Colombia began their campaign with a 0–2 victory against hosts United States. Days later, they sealed their qualification to the quarter-finals with a 2–1 victory against Paraguay. However, they fell to Costa Rica 2–3 and finished second in the group following a complete change with 11 of their starters. On 17 June, they advanced to the semi-finals with a win against Peru on penalties 4–2 in front of 79,000 fans at MetLife Stadium. Colombia would then lose (2–0) to eventual tournament winners Chile following mistakes by their defense. Colombia won the third-place match against the United States to seal their best result since winning the 2001 tournament.

2018 World Cup.

Colombia qualified for the 2018 FIFA World Cup by finishing fourth in CONMEBOL qualifying with 7 wins, 6 draws, and 5 losses and drew a challenging group; playing with Japan, Poland and Senegal. The team was nevertheless considered the group favorites, but began their campaign with an unexpected 2–1 controversial defeat to Japan, with Carlos Sánchez being sent off after just three minutes of play. Colombia resurrected their hopes of advancing from the group with a 3–0 win over Poland, whose own chances of advancing were ended with the defeat. After the match, head coach José Pékerman dedicated the win to Carlos Sánchez. On 28 June, Colombia beat Senegal by a scoreline of 1–0, topping their group and advancing into the round of sixteen, and eliminated Senegal in process as well. On 3 July in Moscow, Colombia were knocked out by England in the round of 16; the game finished 1–1 after extra time, with England winning 4–3 on penalties.  Match referee Mark Geiger proved to be controversial, with criticism from both sets of teams. Colombia captain Radamel Falcao and manager José Pékerman both accused Geiger of favouring the England team during the match. Diego Maradona once again claimed favouritism against Colombia, saying, "England's penalty was a terrible call and that the ref won the match for England," and that Colombia were victims of a "monumental robbery". In response, FIFA said Maradona's comments were "entirely inappropriate" and insinuations about the referee "completely unfounded". A FIFA statement read, "Following comments made by Diego Armando Maradona in relation to yesterday’s round of 16 game, Colombia vs England, FIFA strongly rebukes the criticism of the performance of the match officials which it considers to have been positive in a tough and highly emotional match. Furthermore, it also considers the additional comments and insinuations made as being entirely inappropriate and completely unfounded." Maradona subsequently apologized to FIFA and its president, admitting some of things he said were unacceptable: "I said a couple of things and, I admit, some of them are unacceptable."

2019 Copa America.

Following the federation's choice to not renew Pekerman's contract, former Iran's manager Carlos Queiroz was hired to coach the national team. After an impressive 8 goal run, winning 3 out of 4 of their pre-Copa America friendlies as well as conceding only 2 goals in only one, optimism for the Portuguese coach and the team itself was strong.;  Starting off their 2019 Copa América campaign, Colombia defeated favorites Argentina in a shocking 2–0 win, marking their first victory over the "La Albiceleste" since 2007.; Days later, they would face a very defensive Asian Cup champions and 2022 World Cup hosts Qatar with a 1–0 victory to end Qatar's unbeaten streak to eight and becoming in the first team in the group stages to advance to the next round.; Colombia would end their group stage run in perfect fashion with a 1–0 victory over Paraguay, resting a majority of their starters and finishing with 9 points with 4 goals scored and 0 conceded throughout the group stage.; Colombia would also be the only team since the 2001 edition to advance out of the group stage with a 100% perfect run.; Despite this achievement, Colombia was then eliminated by Chile in a penalty shootout during the quarter-finals match where Colombia performed poorly, only be saved by a referee over two disallowed goals of Chile.

Rivalries.

Colombia's main geopolitical rival has always been Venezuela. However, because of the lack of interest for football in Venezuela, the rivalry was historically very one-sided for Colombia and thus considered irrelevant. This state of affairs started to change from the late 1990s, when football slowly began replacing baseball as Venezuela's main sport.  In 2001, Coach Luis Garcia was sacked for only managing a draw in an away game in San Cristóbal which ended 2-2 when a victory had been taken for granted. This was just a sign of things to come. Four years later for the qualification for the 2006 World Cup, Venezuela stunned the continent by defeating Colombia in Barranquilla 0–1. The game showed the new direction of the rivalry: while Colombia remains ahead on all rankings and competitions, Venezuela always outperform themselves when meeting each other. Former skipper Valderrama started calling the games a "“classic”" and stated "“Venezuela kill themselves "[do their best]" playing against us.”"  As of 2020, Colombia has not been able to win in Venezuelan soil since 1996. During Jose Pekerman's coaching for the 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification, considered the rebirth of Colombian football, Venezuela still managed to win their game at home, which was one of only three defeats the Argentinean suffered. Venezuela also won the group stage game against Colombia in the 2015 Copa America which were their only 3 points, Colombia still managed to advance to the knockout stage while Venezuela ended last. However, the matches are still not as popular as the rival matches against Argentina.  The historical Colombian 5–0 victory in 1993, beating host Argentina in the 1994 World Cup qualifiers, was the very first time Argentina lost in its home stadium Estadio Monumental Antonio Vespucio Liberti during a qualifying match for a World Cup. Argentina comes as a previous twice World Cup champion. It caused a huge upset and start of a respective rivalry. Unlike other rivalries full of hostility, the Colombian–Argentine rivalry is more based on "respect" than a "hated" relationship always attracting great interest between both nations. After the wane of the Valderrama's generation, the rivalry became one-sided again and since then only Colombians kept considering a classic while Argentineans consider it many steps below their historic rivalries against Brazil, England and Uruguay.  Colombia also has another small rivalry against Peru, which both fought in the Leticia War to control the Amazon region. Peru is often seen as the buildup of Colombia's football successes, as Colombia had eliminated Peru at the 1962 World Cup qualification to secure its maiden appearance. Matches between two teams also draw a great level of intensity, though not as hostile as with Colombia's rivalry to Brazil.  Colombia has a more hostile rivalry against Brazil due to the 2014 FIFA World Cup encounter, where Brazil defeated Colombia 2–1 overshadowed by Neymar's injury and referee's favoritism towards Brazil against Colombia.; This would later cause matches between the two national teams to be more intense, aggressive and to a certain extent, played with great hostility with numerous violent incidents, especially during the 2015 Copa América.; The rivalry would soon improve in a less hostile manner after the 2016 Copa Sudamericana Finals after Atlético Nacional asked to award the trophy for Associação Chapecoense de Futebol.; Nonetheless, it remains a competitive rivalry between the two.

Competitive record.

Copa América.

Champions Runners-up Third Place Fourth Place

All-time head-to-head record.

Below is a result summary of all matches Colombia have played against FIFA recognized teams.

Players.

Current squad.

The following 34 players were called up to the Colombia preliminary squad for 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification against Venezuela and Chile on 26 and 31 March 2020 respectively. The call-ups were withdrawn after the matches were postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. <br>"Caps and goals updated as of 19 November 2019, after the match against Ecuador."

Recent call-ups.

The following players have been recently called up in the last 12 months.

The Colombia national football team () represents Colombia in men's international football and is managed by the Colombian Football Federation, the governing body for football in Colombia. They are an member of CONMEBOL and is currently ranked 10th in the FIFA World Rankings. The team are nicknamed "Los Cafeteros" due to the coffee production in their country.

Eine kolumbianische Fußballnationalmannschaft trat zum ersten Mal 1938 bei einem offiziellen Turnier, den Zentralamerikanischen und Karibischen Spielen in Panama, an. Bereits am 20. Juli 1937 hatte bei einem Turnier zum 400. Geburtstag der Stadt Cali eine Auswahl des kolumbianischen Fußballverbandes ein erstes Spiel gegen die mexikanische Mannschaft von Jalisco aus Guadalajara bestritten.


PDO requirements.

A must satisfy these requirements:  Manchego cheese can be made from pasteurised or raw milk; if the latter, it may be labelled as (artisan). The only permitted additives are natural rennet or another approved coagulating enzyme and salt.

Manufacture and labeling.

The moulds in which the cheese is pressed are barrel-shaped. Traditionally, manchego cheese was made by pressing the curd in plaited esparto grass baskets, which left a distinctive zig-zag pattern (known as ) on the rind. Today, the same effect is achieved by the mould, the inside of which has a design in relief that imparts to the finished cheese an embossed pattern similar to that of woven esparto grass. The top and bottom surfaces of the cheese are impressed with a design of a head of wheat.  During the maturation process, manchego cheese develops a natural rind. The regulations permit this to be washed, coated in paraffin, dipped in olive oil, or treated with certain approved transparent substances, but require that it must not be removed if the cheese is to be marketed as PDO.  Cheeses that meet the PDO requirements carry a casein tab that is applied when the cheese is in the mould, and bear a distinctive label that is issued by the Manchego Cheese Denomination of Origin Regulating Council; this carries the legend, a serial number, and artwork depicting Don Quixote de La Mancha.  A cheese that is similar to manchego and made in the same region, but from a blend of cow's, goat's, and ewe's milk, is sold as or cheese.

Varieties.

has variety of different flavours depending on its age:

Americas.

North America.

In Mexico and Spanish-speaking areas of the United States, or (manchego-type cheese) is the name given to a cow's milk cheese similar in taste to Monterey Jack. It melts well and is used as both a table cheese and for cooking. Apart from the name, this cheese has little in common with the Spanish variety.

Central America.

In Costa Rica, three companies (Dos Pinos, Los Alpes and Monteverde) produce a manchego-type cheese ("queso tipo manchego"), which can come with a drawing of Don Quijote on the labels.

James Francis Thorpe (Sac and Fox (Sauk): "Wa-Tho-Huk", translated as "Bright Path"; May 22 or 28, 1887March 28, 1953) was an American athlete and Olympic gold medalist. A member of the Sac and Fox Nation, Thorpe became the first Native American to win a gold medal for the United States. Considered one of the most versatile athletes of modern sports, he won Olympic gold medals in the 1912 pentathlon and decathlon, and played American football (collegiate and professional), professional baseball, and basketball. He lost his Olympic titles after it was found he had been paid for playing two seasons of semi-professional baseball before competing in the Olympics, thus violating the amateurism rules that were then in place. In 1983, 30 years after his death, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) restored his Olympic medals. Thorpe grew up in the Sac and Fox Nation in Oklahoma, and attended Carlisle Indian Industrial School in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, where he was a two-time All-American for the school's football team. After his Olympic success in 1912, which included a record score in the decathlon, he added a victory in the All-Around Championship of the Amateur Athletic Union. In 1913, Thorpe signed with the New York Giants, and he played six seasons in Major League Baseball between 1913 and 1919. Thorpe joined the Canton Bulldogs American football team in 1915, helping them win three professional championships; he later played for six teams in the National Football League (NFL). He played as part of several all-American Indian teams throughout his career, and barnstormed as a professional basketball player with a team composed entirely of American Indians.

James Francis „Jim“ Thorpe (* wahrscheinlich am 22. Mai 1887 bei Prague im Indianer-Territorium (heute Oklahoma) als "Wa-Tho-Huck"; † 28. März 1953 in Lomita, Kalifornien) war ein erfolgreicher US-amerikanischer Athlet in verschiedenen Sportarten. Er gewann olympische Goldmedaillen im Fünfkampf und im Zehnkampf, war Profispieler im American Football und im Baseball und spielte auch Basketball. Seine olympischen Medaillen wurden ihm aberkannt, da er vor den Olympischen Spielen 1912 zwei Jahre lang in einer halbprofessionellen Baseball-Liga gespielt und somit gegen die Amateurbestimmungen verstoßen hatte.


Overview.

In contrast to leading actors, they are generally seen as less glamorous. While a leading actor often has physical beauty needed to play the love interest, a character actor typically does not. Some character actors are known for their unusual looks. For example, the face of Chicago character actor William Schutz was disfigured in a car accident when he was five years old, but his appearance after reconstructive surgery helped him to be distinctive to theater audiences. Generally, the names of character actors are not featured prominently in movie and television advertising on the marquee, since a character actor's name is not expected to attract film audiences. Some character actors have been described as instantly recognizable despite their names being little known.  During the course of an acting career, an actor can sometimes shift between leading roles and secondary roles. Some leading actors, as they get older, find that access to leading roles is limited by their increasing age. In the past, actors of color, who were often barred from roles for which they were otherwise suited, found work performing ethnic stereotypes. Sometimes character actors have developed careers based on specific talents needed in genre films, such as dancing, horsemanship, acrobatics, swimming ability, or boxing. Many up-and-coming actors find themselves typecast in character roles due to an early success with a particular part or in a certain genre, such that the actor becomes so strongly identified with a particular type of role that casting directors steer the actor to similar roles. Some character actors play essentially the same character over and over, as with Andy Devine's humorous but resourceful sidekick, while other actors, such as Sir Laurence Olivier, have the capacity of submerging themselves in any role they play. That being said, some character actors can be known as "chameleons", actors who can play roles that vary wildly. One such example of this is Gary Oldman. Some character actors develop a cult following with a particular audience, such as with the fans of "Star Trek" or "The Rocky Horror Picture Show".  Character actors tend to play the same type of role throughout their careers, including Harvey Keitel as tough and determined characters, Christopher Lloyd as an eccentric, Claude Rains as sophisticated, sometimes morally ambiguous men, Abe Vigoda as an ageing criminal, Fairuza Balk as moody goth girls, and Forest Whitaker as composed characters with underlying volatility. Ed Lauter usually portrayed a menacing figure because of his "long, angular face" which was easily recognized in public, although audiences rarely knew his name. Character actors can play a variety of types, such as the femme fatale, gunslinger, sidekick, town drunk, villain, whore with a heart of gold, and many others. A character actor's roles are often perceived as being substantially different from their perceived real-life persona, meaning that they do not portray an extension of themselves, but rather a character substantially different from their off-screen persona. Character actors subsume themselves into the characters they portray, such that their off-screen acting persona is practically unrecognizable. According to one view, great character actors are rarely out of work, and often have long careers that span decades. They are also often highly regarded by fellow actors.

A character actor is a supporting actor who plays unusual, interesting, or eccentric characters. The term, often contrasted with that of leading actor, is somewhat abstract and open to interpretation. In a literal sense, all actors can be considered character actors since they all play "characters", but in the usual sense it is an actor who plays a distinctive and important supporting role.

Charakterrollen (als Fach auch Charakterfach) waren in der Schauspielpraxis des 18./19. Jahrhunderts Rollen für ältere Schauspieler ab etwa 30 Jahren. Charakterrollen lassen Wesenszüge einer Figur bis hin zur Typisierung oder Überzeichnung hervortreten, etwa das Poltern des alten Soldaten. Sie weichen vom Ideal des Schönen und Ebenmäßigen ab. Auf ernste Charakterrollen spezialisierte Schauspieler nennt man Charakterdarsteller. Auf komische Rollen spezialisiert waren die Charakterkomiker. Manchmal wird zwischen „komischem“ und „ernstem“ oder „leichtem“ und „schwerem“ Charakterfach unterschieden.


Background.

Rudimentary education in gemology for jewelers and gemologists began in the nineteenth century, but the first qualifications were instigated after the National Association of Goldsmiths of Great Britain (NAG) set up a Gemmological Committee for this purpose in 1908. This committee matured into the Gemmological Association of Great Britain (also known as Gem-A), now an educational charity and accredited awarding body with its courses taught worldwide. The first US graduate of Gem-A's Diploma Course, in 1929, was Robert Shipley, who later established both the Gemological Institute of America and the American Gem Society. There are now several professional schools and associations of gemologists and certification programs around the world. The first gemological laboratory serving the jewelry trade was established in London in 1925, prompted by the influx of the newly developed "cultured pearl" and advances in the synthesis of rubies and sapphires. There are now numerous gem laboratories around the world requiring ever more advanced equipment and experience to identify the new challenges - such as treatments to gems, new synthetics, and other new materials.  It is often difficult to obtain an expert judgement from a neutral laboratory. Analysis and estimation in the gemstone trade usually have to take place on site. Professional gemologists and gemstone buyers use mobile laboratories, which pool all necessary instruments in a travel case. Such so-called travel labs even have their own current supply, which makes them independent from infrastructure. They are also suitable for gemological expeditions.  Gemstones are basically categorized based on their crystal structure, specific gravity, refractive index, and other optical properties, such as pleochroism. The physical property of "hardness" is defined by the non-linear Mohs scale of mineral hardness.  Gemologists study these factors while valuing or appraising cut and polished gemstones. Gemological microscopic study of the internal structure is used to determine whether a gem is synthetic or natural by revealing natural fluid inclusions or partially melted exogenous crystals that are evidence of heat treatment to enhance color.  The spectroscopic analysis of cut gemstones also allows a gemologist to understand the atomic structure and identify its origin, which is a major factor in valuing a gemstone. For example, a ruby from Burma will have definite internal and optical activity variance from a Thai ruby.  When the gemstones are in a rough state, the gemologist studies the external structure; the host rock and mineral association; and natural and polished color. Initially, the stone is identified by its color, refractive index, optical character, specific gravity, and examination of internal characteristics under magnification.

Gemological instruments.

Gemologists use a variety of tools and equipment which allow for the accurate tests to be performed in order to identify a gemstone by its specific characteristics and properties.  These include:

General identification of gems.

Gem identification is basically a process of elimination. Gemstones of similar color undergo non-destructive optical testing until there is only one possible identity. Any single test is indicative, only. For example, the specific gravity of ruby is 4.00, glass is 3.15–4.20, and cubic zirconia is 5.6–5.9. So one can easily tell the difference between cubic zirconia and the other two; however, there is overlap between ruby and glass. Nothing does make glass eagerly different as it can also be 4.00 And, as with all naturally occurring materials, no two gems are identical. The geological environment they are created in influences the overall process so that although the basics can be identified, the presence of chemical "impurities" and substitutions along with structural imperfections create "individuals".

Identification by refractive index.

One test to determine the gem's identity is to measure the refraction of light in the gem. Every material has a critical angle, above which point light is reflected back internally. This can be measured and thus used to determine the gem's identity. Typically this is measured using a refractometer, although it is possible to measure it using a microscope.

Identification by specific gravity.

Specific gravity, also known as relative density, varies depending upon the chemical composition and crystal structure type. Heavy liquids with a known specific gravity are used to test loose gemstones.  Specific gravity is measured by comparing the weight of the gem in air with the weight of the gem suspended in water.

Identification by spectroscopy.

This method uses a similar principle to how a prism works to separate white light into its component colors. A gemological spectroscope is employed to analyze the selective absorption of light in the gem material. Essentially, when light passes from one medium to another, it bends. Blue light bends more than red light. How much the light bends will vary depending on the gem material. Coloring agents or chromophores show bands in the spectroscope and indicate which element is responsible for the gem's color.

Identification by inclusions.

Inclusions can help gemologists to determine whether or not a gemstone is natural, synthetic or treated (i.e. fracture-filled or heated).

Gemology or gemmology is the science dealing with natural and artificial gemstone materials. It is considered a geoscience and a branch of mineralogy. Some jewelers (and many non jewelers) are academically trained gemologists and are qualified to identify and evaluate gems.

Die Gemmologie, auch Wissenschaft von den Edelsteinen oder kurz Edelsteinkunde (vereinzelt auch "Gemnologie"), beschäftigt sich als Teilgebiet der Mineralogie ausschließlich mit als Schmucksteinen ("Edelsteinen") genutzten Mineralen und Varietäten sowie deren Synthesen und Imitationen. Mit esoterischer Bedeutung von Steinen, Heilkunde und Ähnlichem hat die Edelsteinkunde nichts zu tun.


Biography.

E.J. Corey (the surname was anglicized from the Lebanese Arabic "Khoury", meaning "priest") was born to Christian Lebanese immigrants in Methuen, Massachusetts, north of Boston. His mother changed his name to "Elias" to honor his father, who died eighteen months after Corey's birth. His widowed mother, brother, two sisters and an aunt and uncle all lived together in a spacious house, struggling through the Great Depression. As a young boy, Corey was independent and enjoyed sports such as baseball, football, and hiking. He attended a Catholic elementary school and Lawrence High School in Lawrence, Massachusetts.  At the age of 16 Corey entered MIT, where he earned both a bachelor's degree in 1948 and a Ph.D. under Professor John C. Sheehan in 1951. Upon entering MIT, Corey's only experience with science was in mathematics, and he began his college career pursuing a degree in engineering. After his first chemistry class in his sophomore year he began rethinking his long-term career plans and graduated with a bachelor's degree in chemistry. Immediately thereafter, at the invitation of Professor John C. Sheehan, Corey remained at MIT for his Ph.D. After his graduate career he was offered an appointment at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, where he became a full professor of chemistry in 1956 at the age of 27. He was initiated as a member of the Zeta chapter of Alpha Chi Sigma at the University of Illinois in 1952. In 1959, he moved to Harvard University, where he is currently an emeritus professor of organic chemistry with an active Corey Group research program. He chose to work in organic chemistry because of "its intrinsic beauty and its great relevance to human health". He has also been an advisor to Pfizer for more than 50 years.  Among numerous honors, Corey was awarded the National Medal of Science in 1988, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1990, and the American Chemical Society's greatest honor, the Priestley Medal, in 2004.

Major contributions.

Reagents.

E.J. Corey has developed several new synthetic reagents:  One of these advantages is that the compound is available as an air-stable yellow solid that is not very hygroscopic. Unlike other oxidizing agents, PCC can accomplish single oxidations with only about 1.5 equivalents (scheme 1). The alcohol performs nucleophilic attack to the electropositive chromium(VI) metal displacing chlorine. The chloride anion then acts as a base to afford the aldehyde product and chromium(IV). The slightly acidic character of PCC makes it useful for cyclization reactions with alcohols and alkenes (Scheme 2).  The initial oxidation yields the corresponding aldehyde, which can then undergo a Prins reaction with the neighboring alkene. After elimination and further oxidation, the product is a cyclic ketone. If this product is undesired, powdered sodium acetate can be used as a buffer to achieve only initial oxidation. The robustness of PCC as an oxidizing agent has also rendered it useful in the realm of total synthesis (Scheme 3). This example illustrates that PCC is capable of performing a "Dauben oxidative rearrangement" with tertiary alcohols through a [3,3]-sigmatropic rearrangement.  In the field of complex molecule synthesis, TBS has been widely used as one of the most versatile of the silicon-based protecting groups (scheme 4). The use of CSA provides selective removal of a primary TBS ether in the presence of tertiary TBS ether and TIPS ethers. Other means of TBS deprotection include acids (also Lewis acids), and fluorides. TIPS protecting groups were also pioneered by Corey and provide increased selectivity of primary alcohol protection over secondary and tertiary alcohol protection. TIPS ethers are more stable under acidic and basic conditions, the disadvantage of this protecting group over TBS ethers being that the group is less labile for deprotection. The most common reagents used for cleavage employ the same conditions as TBS ether, but longer reaction times are generally needed.  Usually TBS ethers are severed by TBAF, but the hindered TBS ether above survives the reaction conditions upon primary TIPS removal (scheme 5). The MEM protecting group was first described by Corey in 1976. This protecting group is similar in reactivity and stability to other alkoxy methyl ethers under acidic conditions. Cleavage of MEM protecting groups is usually accomplished under acidic conditions, but coordination with metal halides greatly enhances lability via assisted cleavage (scheme 6).  The pKa of dithianes is approximately 30, allowing deprotonation with an alkyl lithium reagent, typically n-butyllithium. The reaction with dithianes and aldehydes is now known as the Corey-Seebach reaction. The dithiane once deprotonated serves as an acyl anion used to attack incoming electrophiles. After deprotection of the dithiane, usually with HgO, a ketone product is observed from the masked acyl dithiane anion. The utility of such reactions has expanded the field of organic synthesis by allowing synthetic chemists to use Umpolung disconnections in total synthesis (scheme 8). 1,3-dithianes are also used as protecting groups for carbonyl compounds expressing the versatility and utility of this functional group.

Methodology.

Several reactions developed in Corey's lab have become commonplace in modern synthetic organic chemistry. At least 302 methods have been developed in the Corey group since 1950. Several reactions have been named after him:  Later, Corey demonstrated that substituted boranes were easier to prepare and much more stable. The reduction mechanism begins with the oxazoborolidine being only slightly basic at [nitrogen], coordinating with the stoichiometric borane of the boron amine complex(scheme 10). Lack of donation from the nitrogen to the boron increases its Lewis acidity, allowing coordination with the ketone substrate. The complexation of the substrate occurs from the most accessible lone pair of the oxygen leading to restricted rotation around the B-O bond due to the sterically neighboring phenyl group.  Migration of the hydride from borane to the electrophilic ketone center occurs via a 6-membered ring transition state, leading to a four-membered ring intermediate ultimately providing the chiral product and regeneration of the catalyst. The reaction has also been of great use to natural products chemists (scheme 11). The synthesis of dysidiolide by Corey and co-workers was achieved via an enantioselective CBS reduction using a borane-dimethylsulfide complex.  On treatment with two equivalents of "n"-buLi, lithium halogen exchange and deprotonation yields a lithium acetylide species that undergoes hydrolysis to yield the terminal alkyne product (scheme 12). More recently, a one-pot synthesis using a modified procedure has been developed. This synthetic transformation has been proven successful in the total synthesis (+)-taylorione by W.J. Kerr and co-workers (scheme 13).  The alkoxy sulfonium salt is deprotonated at the alpha position with triethylamine to afford the oxidized product. The reaction accommodates a wide array of functional groups, but allylic and benzylic alcohols are typically transformed into allylic and benzylic chlorides. Its application in synthesis is based on the mild protocol conditions and functional and protecting group compatibility. In the total synthesis of ingenol, Kuwajima and co-workers exploited the Corey-Kim oxidation by selectively oxidizing the less hindered secondary alcohol(scheme 15).  This transition state likely occurs because of favorable pi-stacking with the phenyl substituent. The enantioselectivity of the process is facilitated from the diene approaching the dienophile from the opposite face of the phenyl substituent. The Diels-Alder reaction is one of the most powerful transformations in synthetic chemistry. The synthesis of natural products using the Diels-Alder reaction as a transform has been applied especially to the formation of six-membered rings(scheme 18).  The reaction occurs in the presence of 2,2'-dipyridyl disulfide and triphenylphosphine. The reaction is generally refluxed in a nonpolar solvent such as benzene. The mechanism begins with formation of the 2-pyridinethiol ester (scheme 19). Proton-transfer provides a dipolar intermediate in which the alkoxide nucleophile attacks the electrophilic carbonyl center, providing a tetrahedral intermediate that yields the macrolactone product. One of the first examples of this protocol was applied to the total synthesis of zearalenone (scheme 20).  Based on their reactivity, another distinct advantage of these two variants is that kinetically they provide a difference in diastereoselectivity. The reaction is very well established, and enantioselective variants (catalytic and stoichiometric) have also been achieved. From a retrosynthetic analysis standpoint, this reaction provides a reasonable alternative to conventional epoxidation reactions with alkenes (scheme 22). Danishefsky utilized this methodology for the synthesis of taxol. Diastereoselectivity is established by 1,3 interactions in the transition state required for epoxide closure.

Total syntheses.

E. J. Corey and his research group have completed many total syntheses. At least 265 compounds have been synthesized in the Corey group since 1950.  His 1969 total syntheses of several prostaglandins are considered classics. Specifically the synthesis of Prostaglandin F presents several challenges. The presence of both "cis" and "trans" olefins as well as five asymmetric carbon atoms renders the molecule a desirable challenge for organic chemist. Corey's retrosynthetic analysis outlines a few key disconnections that lead to simplified precursors (scheme 23).  Molecular simplification began first by disconnecting both carbon chains with a Wittig reaction and Horner-Wadsworth Emmons modification. The Wittig reaction affords the "cis" product, while the Horner-Wadsworth Emmons produces the "trans" olefin. The published synthesis reveals a 1:1 diastereomeric mixture of the carbonyl reduction using zinc borohydride. However, years later Corey and co-workers established the CBS reduction. One of the examples that exemplified this protocol was an intermediate in the prostaglandin synthesis revealing a 9:1 mixture of the desired diastereomer (scheme 24).  The iodolactonization transform affords an allylic alcohol leading to a key Baeyer-Villiger intermediate. This oxidation regioselectively inserts an oxygen atom between the ketone and the most electron-rich site. The pivotal intermediate leads to a straightforward conversion to the Diels-Alder structural goal, which provides the carbon framework for the functionalized cyclopentane ring. Later Corey developed an asymmetric Diels-Alder reaction employing a chiral oxazoborolidine, greatly simplifying the synthetic route to the prostaglandins.  Other notable syntheses:

Publications.

E.J. Corey has more than 1100 publications. In 2002, the American Chemical Society (ACS) recognized him as the "Most Cited Author in Chemistry". In 2007, he received the first ACS Publications Division "Cycle of Excellence High Impact Contributor Award" and was ranked the number one chemist in terms of research impact by the Hirsch Index (h-index). His books include:

Altom suicide.

Among the hundreds of graduate students supervised by Corey was Jason Altom. Altom's suicide caused controversy because he explicitly blamed Corey, his research advisor, for his suicide. Corey was devastated and bewildered by Altom's death. Altom cited in his 1998 farewell note "abusive research supervisors" as one reason for taking his life. Altom's suicide note also contained explicit instructions on how to reform the relationship between students and their supervisors. Corey is quoted as stating: "That letter doesn't make sense. At the end, Jason must have been delusional or irrational in the extreme." Corey also is on record as stating that he never questioned Altom's intellectual contributions. "I did my best to guide Jason as a mountain guide would to guide someone climbing a mountain. I did my best every step of the way," Corey states. "My conscience is clear. Everything Jason did came out of our partnership. We never had the slightest disagreement."  As a result of Altom's death, the Department of Chemistry accepted a proposal allowing graduate students to ask two additional faculty members to play a small advisory role in preparing a thesis.  The American Foundation for Suicide Prevention (AFSP) cited "The New York Times" article on Altom's suicide as an example of problematic reporting, and suggested that Corey was unfairly scapegoated. According to "The Boston Globe", Altom's suicide note indicated fear that his career hopes were doomed, but "The Globe" also cited students and professors as saying that Altom actually retained Corey's support.

Corey Group members.

As of 2010, approximately 700 people have been Corey Group members. A database of 580 former members and their current affiliation was developed for Corey's 80th birthday in July, 2008.

Woodward–Hoffmann rules.

When awarded the Priestley Medal in 2004, E. J. Corey created a controversy with his claim to have inspired Robert Burns Woodward prior to the development of the Woodward–Hoffmann rules. Corey wrote:  ""On May 4, 1964, I suggested to my colleague R. B. Woodward a simple explanation involving the symmetry of the perturbed (HOMO) molecular orbitals for the stereoselective cyclobutene → 1,3-butadiene and 1,3,5-hexatriene → cyclohexadiene conversions that provided the basis for the further development of these ideas into what became known as the Woodward–Hoffmann rules.""  This was Corey's first public statement on his claim that starting on May 5, 1964 Woodward put forth Corey's explanation as his own thought with no mention of Corey and the conversation of May 4. Corey had discussed his claim privately with Hoffmann and close colleagues since 1964. Corey mentions that he made the Priestley statement ""so the historical record would be correct"".  Corey's claim and contribution were publicly rebutted by Roald Hoffmann in the journal "Angewandte Chemie". In the rebuttal, Hoffmann states that he asked Corey over the course of their long discussion of the matter why Corey did not make the issue public. Corey responded that he thought such a public disagreement would hurt Harvard and that he would not "consider doing anything against Harvard, to which I was and am so devoted." Corey also hoped that Woodward himself would correct the historical record "as he grew older, more considerate, and more sensitive to his own conscience." Woodward died suddenly of a heart attack in his sleep in 1979.

Awards and honors.

E.J. Corey has received more than 40 major awards including the Linus Pauling Award (1973), Franklin Medal (1978), Tetrahedron Prize (1983), Wolf Prize in Chemistry (1986), National Medal of Science (1988), Japan Prize (1989), Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1990), Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement (1991), Roger Adams Award (1993), and the Priestley Medal (2004). He was inducted into the Alpha Chi Sigma Hall of Fame in 1998. As of 2008, he has been awarded 19 honorary degrees from universities around the world including Oxford University (UK), Cambridge University (UK), and National Chung Cheng University. In 2013, the E.J. Corey Institute of Biomedical Research (CIBR) opened in Jiangyin, Jiangsu Province, China.  Corey was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1998.

Elias James "E.J." Corey (born July 12, 1928) is an American-Lebanese organic chemist. In 1990, he won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his development of the theory and methodology of organic synthesis", specifically retrosynthetic analysis. Regarded by many as one of the greatest living chemists, he has developed numerous synthetic reagents, methodologies and total syntheses and has advanced the science of organic synthesis considerably.

Elias James Corey (* 12. Juli 1928 in Methuen, Massachusetts) ist ein US-amerikanischer Chemiker und Nobelpreisträger. Er ist emeritierter Professor an der Harvard University. Seine Studien über fünf Jahrzehnte umfassen nahezu alle Bereiche der Organischen Chemie und hatten entscheidende Auswirkungen auf die Biochemie und die moderne medizinische Wissenschaft.


Geography.

The St. Johns River flows out of the lake at the north end at Rocky Point. To the east of this is Salt Cove, taking the flow from Salt Creek. Just south of Salt Cove is Lisk Point, named for a Dr. Lisk who built a house near the point. Steamboats coming down from Jacksonville made a counter clockwise loop around the lake with their first stop at Lisk Point.  Lake George is the second largest lake in Florida, after Lake Okeechobee. Lake George was the third largest lake behind Lake Apopka, but conversion of the littoral zone on the northern side of Lake Apopka to farm fields in the previous century reduced its surface area.

History.

The name of Lake Welaka is taken from "Welaka" (meaning "chain of lakes"), the name for the St. Johns River in the language of the Timucua, who inhabited the region prior to European settlement. The first European to visit the lake was Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, who as the Spanish governor of Florida, explored the St. Johns River in the spring of 1596.  Later, the Florida territory was sold to Britain. The royal botanist in America to King George III, John Bartram, explored the St. Johns River in 1765. It was John Bartram who gave the lake the name Lake George, in honor of his king. In more recent years, Lake George has been home to an operational U.S. Military bombing and aerial mining range. The range is affiliated with the U.S. Navy's Pinecastle Bombing Range located in the Ocala National Forest just west of Lake George. The bombing ranges date back to World War II, when the Navy built bomb targets in Lake George and nearby Crescent Lake, and stationed personnel in the area to maintain the targets and perform search and rescue operations for downed pilots. Today, the range is under the operational control of nearby Naval Air Station Jacksonville.  The lake also hosts a wide variety of wildlife ranging from migratory water birds and alligators to a number of normally marine animals. Local springs in Lake George (and throughout the St Johns River) impart enough salt to the system to make the habitat suitable to resident and migratory marine species like Atlantic stingray, various species of mullet, striped bass and blue crabs. There is a large enough blue crab population to support a local fishery, making it one of the only fresh water blue crab fisheries in the world.

Lake George or Lake Welaka is a broad and shallow brackish lake on the St. Johns River in the U.S. state of Florida.

Der Lake George im US-Bundesstaat Florida ist ein breiter und flacher See am St. Johns River, nördlich von Astor. Der größte Teil des Sees liegt in Volusia County. Ein kleiner Teil im Norden, mit den Inseln Drayton Island und Hog Island, gehört zu Putnam County. Mit seinem Westufer grenzt er noch an Marion County. Hier liegt der Ocala National Forest.


Biblical references.

The Hebrew name Lod appears in the Hebrew Bible as a town of Benjamin, founded along with Ono by Shamed or Shamer (1 Chronicles 8:12; Ezra 2:33; Nehemiah 7:37; 11:35). In, it is mentioned as one of the cities whose inhabitants returned after the Babylonian captivity. Lod is not mentioned among the towns allocated to the tribe of Benjamin in.  In the New Testament, the town appears in its Greek form, Lydda, as the site of Peter's healing of a paralytic man in.

Islamic reference.

The city also finds reference in an Islamic Hadith, as the location of the battlefield where the antichrist (Dajjal) will be slain before the Day of Judgment.

History.

Prehistory.

Pottery finds have dated the initial settlement in the area now occupied by the town to 5600–5250 BCE.

Bronze Age.

The earliest written record is in a list of Canaanite towns drawn up by the Egyptian pharaoh Thutmose III at Karnak in 1465 BCE.

Kingdom of Judah till First Jewish–Roman War.

From the fifth century BCE until the Roman conquest in 70 CE, the city was a centre of Jewish scholarship and commerce. According to Martin Gilbert, during the Hasmonean period, Jonathan Maccabee and his brother Simon Maccabaeus enlarged the area under Jewish control, which included conquering the city.

Roman period.

In 43 BC, Cassius, the Roman governor of Syria, sold the inhabitants of Lod into slavery, but they were set free two years later by Mark Antony. During the First Jewish–Roman War, the Roman "proconsul" of Syria, Cestius Gallus, razed the town on his way to Jerusalem in 66 CE. It was occupied by Emperor Vespasian in 68 CE.  In the period following the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE, Rabbi Tarfon, who appears in many Tannaitic and Jewish legal discussions, served as a rabbinic authority in Lod.  During the Kitos War, 115–117 CE, the Roman army laid siege to Lod, where the rebel Jews had gathered under the leadership of Julian and Pappos. Torah study was outlawed by the Romans and pursued mostly in the underground. The distress became so great, the patriarch Rabban Gamaliel II, who was shut up there and died soon afterwards, permitted fasting on Ḥanukkah. Other rabbis disagreed with this ruling. Lydda was next taken and many of the Jews were executed; the "slain of Lydda" are often mentioned in words of reverential praise in the Talmud.  In 200 CE, emperor Septimius Severus elevated the town to the status of a city, calling it "Colonia Lucia Septimia Severa Diospolis". The name "Diospolis" ("City of Zeus") may have been bestowed earlier, possibly by Hadrian. At that point, most of its inhabitants were Christian. The earliest known bishop is Aëtius, a friend of Arius.

Byzantine period.

In December 415, the Council of Diospolis was held here to try Pelagius; he was acquitted. In the sixth century, the city was renamed Georgiopolis after St. George, a soldier in the guard of the emperor Diocletian, who was born there between 256 and 285 CE. The Church of St George is named for him. The 6th-century Madaba map shows Lydda as an unwalled city with a cluster of buildings under a black inscription reading "Lod, also Lydea, also Diospolis". An isolated large building with a semicircular colonnaded plaza in front of it might represent the St George shrine.

Early Muslim period.

After the Muslim conquest of Palestine by Amr ibn al-'As in 636 CE, Lod which was referred to as "al-Ludd" in Arabic served as the capital of Jund Filastin ("Military District of Palaestina") before the seat of power was moved to nearby Ramla during the reign of the Umayyad Caliph Suleiman ibn Abd al-Malik in 715–716. The population of al-Ludd was relocated to Ramla, as well. With the relocation of its inhabitants and the construction of the White Mosque in Ramla, al-Ludd lost its importance and fell into decay.  The city was visited by the local Arab geographer al-Muqaddasi in 985, when it was under the Fatimid Caliphate, and was noted for its Great Mosque which served the residents of al-Ludd, Ramla, and the nearby villages. He also wrote of the city's "wonderful church (of St. George) at the gate of which Christ will slay the Antichrist."

Crusader and Ayyubid period.

The Crusaders occupied the city in 1099 and named it St. Jorge de Lidde. It was briefly conquered by Saladin, but retaken by the Crusaders in 1191. The Crusaders built a cathedral, currently changed to become the Great Mosque of Ramla—one of Israel's best-preserved Crusader churches. For the English Crusaders, it was a place of great significance as the birthplace of Saint George. The Crusaders made it the seat of a Latin rite diocese, and it remains a titular see. It owed the service of 10 knights and 20 sergeants, and it had its own burgess court during this era.  In 1226, Ayyubid Syrian geographer Yaqut al-Hamawi visited al-Ludd and stated it was part of the Jerusalem District during Ayyubid rule.

Mamluk period.

Sultan Baybars brought Lydda again under Muslim control by 1267–8. According to Qalqashandi, Lydda was an administrative centre of a wilaya during the fourteenth and fifteenth century in the Mamluk empire. Mujir al-Din described it as a pleasant village with an active Friday mosque. During this time, Lydda was a station on the postal route between Cairo and Damascus.

Ottoman period.

In 1517, Lydda was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire as part of the Damascus Eyalet, and in the 1550s, the revenues of Lydda were designated for the new waqf of Hasseki Sultan Imaret in Jerusalem, established by Hasseki Hurrem Sultan (Roxelana), the wife of Suleiman the Magnificent.  By 1596 Lydda was a part of the "nahiya" ("subdistrict") of Ramla, which was under the administration of the "liwa" ("district") of Gaza. It had a population of 241 households and 14 bachelors who were all Muslims, and 233 households who were Christians. They paid a fixed tax-rate of 33,3 % on agricultural products, including wheat, barley, summer crops, vineyards, fruit trees, sesame, special product ("dawalib" =spinning wheels), goats and beehives, in addition to occasional revenues and market toll, a total of 45,000 Akçe. All of the revenue went to the Waqf.  The village appeared as "Lydda", though misplaced, on the map of Pierre Jacotin compiled in 1799.  The missionary Dr. William M. Thomson visited Lydda in the mid-19th century, describing it as a "flourishing village of some 2,000 inhabitants, imbosomed in noble orchards of olive, fig, pomegranate, mulberry, sycamore, and other trees, surrounded every way by a very fertile neighbourhood. The inhabitants are evidently industrious and thriving, and the whole country between this and Ramleh is fast being filled up with their flourishing orchards. Rarely have I beheld a rural scene more delightful than this presented in early harvest... It must be seen, heard, and enjoyed to be appreciated."  In 1869, the population of Ludd was given as: 55 Catholics, 1,940 "Greeks", 5 Protestants and 4,850 Muslims. In 1870, the Church of Saint George was rebuilt. In 1892, the first railway station in the entire region was established in the city. In the second half of the 19th century, Jewish merchants migrated to the city, but left after the 1921 Jaffa riots.  In 1882, the Palestine Exploration Fund's "Survey of Western Palestine" described Lod as "A small town, standing among enclosure of prickly pear, and having fine olive groves around it, especially to the south. The minaret of the mosque is a very conspicuous object over the whole of the plain. The inhabitants are principally Moslim, though the place is the seat of a Greek bishop resident of Jerusalem. The Crusading church has lately been restored, and is used by the Greeks. Wells are found in the gardens..."

British Mandate.

From 1918, Lydda was under the administration of the British Mandate in Palestine, as per a League of Nations decree that followed the Great War. During the Second World War, the British set up supply posts in and around Lydda and its railway station, also building an airport that was renamed Ben Gurion Airport after the establishment of Israel.  At the time of the 1922 census of Palestine, Lydda had a population of 8,103 inhabitants; 7,166 Muslims, 11 Jews and 926 Christians, the Christians were 921 Orthodox, 4 Roman Catholics and 1 Melkite. This had increased by the 1931 census to 11,250; 10,002 Muslims, 28 Jews, 1,210 Christians and 10 Bahai, in a total of 2475 residential houses.  In 1945 Lydda had a population of 16,780; 14,910 Muslims, 1,840 Christians, 20 Jews and 10 classified as "other". Until 1948, Lydda was an Arab town with a population of around 20,000—18,500 Muslims and 1,500 Christians. In 1947, the United Nations proposed dividing Mandatory Palestine into two states, one Jewish state and one Arab; Lydda was to form part of the proposed Arab state. In the ensuing war, Israel captured Arab towns outside the area the UN had allotted it, including Lydda.

State of Israel.

1948 War.

The Israel Defense Forces entered Lydda on 11 July 1948. The following day, under the impression that it was under attack, the 3rd Battalion was ordered to shoot anyone "seen on the streets". According to Israel, 250 Arabs were killed. Other estimates are higher: Arab historian Aref al Aref estimated 400, and Nimr al Khatib 1,700. During 1948, the population rose to 50,000 people as Arab refugees fleeing other areas made their way there. All but 700 to 1,056 were expelled by order of the Israeli high command, and forced to walk to the Jordanian Arab Legion lines. Estimates of those who died from exhaustion and dehydration vary from a handful to 355. The town was subsequently sacked by the Israeli army. A disputed claim, advanced by scholars including Ilan Pappé, characterizes this as ethnic cleansing. The few hundred Arabs who remained in the city were not permitted to live in their own homes. They were soon outnumbered by the influx of Jewish refugees who moved into the town from August 1948 onwards, most of them from Arab countries. as a result of which Lydda became a predominantly Jewish town.

Resettlement of Lod.

The Jewish immigrants who settled Lod came in waves, first from Morocco and Tunisia, later from Ethiopia, and then from the former Soviet Union. As a result, the city's logo (coat of arms) is inscribed with Biblical words from : "The children will return to their country."

2000s.

Although the city has been plagued by a poor image for decades, as of 2008 dozens of projects were under way to improve life in the city. New upscale neighbourhoods are expanding the city to the east, among them Ganei Ya'ar and Ahisemah. According to the "Economist", a three-meter-high wall was erected in 2010 to separate Jewish and Arab neighbourhoods, and limits have been imposed on Arab building, whereas construction in the Jewish areas is promoted. Some municipal services, such as street lighting and rubbish collection, are only provided to Jewish areas. Violent crime in the Arab neighbourhoods of Lod is largely directed at other Arabs and revolves around family feuds over turf and honour crimes. In 2010, the Lod Community Foundation organised an event for representatives of bicultural youth movements, volunteer aid organisations, educational start-ups, businessmen, sports organizations, and conservationists who are working on programmes to better the city.  The city continues to influence the work of Israeli artists and thinkers, such as Dor Guez's 2009–2010 exhibit "Georgeopolis" at the Petach Tikva art museum.

Demographics.

According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), the population of Lod in 2010 was 69.5 thousand people.

Education.

According to CBS, 38 schools and 13,188 pupils are in the city. They are spread out as 26 elementary schools and 8,325 elementary school pupils, and 13 high schools and 4,863 high school pupils. About 52.5% of 12th-grade pupils were entitled to a matriculation certificate in 2001.

Economy.

The airport and related industries are a major source of employment for the residents of Lod. A Jewish Agency Absorption Centre (the main type of facility for handling Jewish immigrants arriving in Israel) is also located in Lod. According to CBS figures for 2000, 23,032 people were salaried workers and 1,405 were self-employed. The mean monthly wage for a salaried worker was NIS 4,754, a real change of 2.9% over the course of 2000. Salaried men had a mean monthly wage of NIS 5,821 (a real change of 1.4%) versus NIS 3,547 for women (a real change of 4.6%). The mean income for the self-employed was NIS 4,991. About 1,275 people were receiving unemployment benefits and 7,145 were receiving an income supplement.

Archaeology.

A well-preserved mosaic floor dating to the Roman period was excavated in 1996 as part of a salvage dig conducted on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority and the Municipality of Lod, prior to widening HeHalutz Street. According to Jacob Fisch, executive director of the Friends of the Israel Antiquities Authority, a worker at the construction site noticed the tail of a tiger and halted work. The mosaic was initially covered over with soil at the conclusion of the excavation for lack of funds to conserve and develop the site. The mosaic is now part of the Lod Mosaic Archaeological Center.  The Lod Community Archaeology Program, which operates in ten Lod schools, five Jewish and five Israeli Arab, combines archaeological studies with participation in digs in Lod.

Sports.

The city's major football club, Hapoel Bnei Lod, plays in Liga Leumit (the second division). Its home is at the Lod Municipal Stadium. The club was formed by a merger of Bnei Lod and Rakevet Lod in the 1980s. Two other clubs in the city play in the regional leagues: Hapoel MS Ortodoxim Lod in Liga Bet and Maccabi Lod in Liga Gimel.  Hapoel Lod played in the top division during the 1960s and 1980s, and won the State Cup in 1984. The club folded in 2002. A new club, Hapoel Maxim Lod (named after former mayor Maxim Levy) was established soon after, but folded in 2007.

Twin towns-sister cities.

Lod is twinned with:

Lod (, ; ', '; Latin: "Lydda", "Diospolis", Ancient Greek: Λύδδα / Διόσπολις – city of Zeus) is a city southeast of Tel Aviv in the Central District of Israel. In it had a population of.

Lod (;) ist der alte hebräische und heute offizielle israelische Name einer Stadt in Israel. Der arabische Name ist Al-Ludd (). Lod liegt im Zentralbezirk Israels etwa 20 Kilometer östlich von Tel Aviv am Fluss Ajalon. Bis 1948 hatte die Stadt den gräzisierten Namen "Lydda". hatte Lod Einwohner.


Etymology.

The word in Swahili means God and its title therefore translates as "God bless Africa".

History.

"Mungu ibariki Afrika" was translated and became the state anthem of Tanganyika. It was essentially assigned to Enoch Sontonga, who died in 1905. Mungu ibariki Afrika used the tune to "Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika" with a Swahili translation of the words. It is not known who composed the lyrics but it is known that it was Samuel Mqhayi and Enoch Sontonga who created the early versions used by the African National Congress. Although the tune has been assigned to Sontonga it is thought by some that the tune was originally written by Joseph Parry.

Swahili translation.

It was first performed in Swahili at a ceremony on 8 December 1961 following the independence of Tanganyika from the British Empire. "Mungu ibariki Afrika" was composed to replace the British national anthem, "God Save the Queen" as the national anthem of Tanganyika. This made Tanganyika the first African nation to adopt the tune of "Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika" as its national anthem. In 1964, Tanganyika formed a union with Zanzibar, which created the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar (later renamed to Tanzania). The newly united country adopted "Mungu ibariki Afrika" as its national anthem instead of Zanzibar's anthem. Tanzania's use of "Mungu ibariki Afrika" led the way for other African countries such as Zimbabwe, Ciskei and Transkei adopted "Nkosi Sikelel' Afrika", in parts, as their national anthems. South Africa where the song comes from use only some of the words, Zambia uses only the tune and other countries have now abandoned its use. "Mungu ibariki Afrika" was inspired by the African National Congress's use of "Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika" ("God Bless Africa") as its party song after its use at Ohlange High School. The ANC party anthem led to "Mungu ibariki Afrika" being selected as the national anthem of Tanzania. "Mungu ibariki Afrika" is also used as a hymn requesting Tanzania remain united and independent.  Tanganyika and later Tanzania had concerns about religious unrest between Christians and Muslims after independence. This was because of Christian references in government proceedings and official oaths. The wording of "Mungu ibariki Afrika" was intended to help offset this by being inclusive of the different religious views.  "Mungu ibariki Afrika" is sung daily at Tanzanian schools. A circular issued in 1998 by the nation's Commissioner of Education recommended the singing of the national anthem as a way to promote patriotism in Tanzania's youth.  In 2007, a legal issue arose over the anthem after students who were members of the Jehovah's Witnesses refused to sing the song at their primary and secondary schools in Mbozi District, Mbeya Region. Five students were expelled from school and 122 others received other forms of discipline for their refusal. They objected to singing the anthem because they believed it suggested obeisance to the flag of Tanzania before God. On 2 December 2010, the High Court of Tanzania ruled that the schools' disciplinary actions were appropriate. The Court of Appeal of Tanzania overturned that ruling on 12 July 2013, indicating that the disciplinary action taken by the school was unlawful and stating that there was no obligation to sing the national anthem in Tanzanian law.

"" () is the national anthem of Tanzania. It is a Swahili language version of Enoch Sontonga's popular hymn "".

Mungu ibariki Afrika ist die Nationalhymne von Tansania. Die Melodie ist die der 1897 von dem Südafrikaner Enoch Mankayi Sontonga komponierten Hymne "Nkosi Sikelel’ iAfrika" ("Gott, segne Afrika"), die auch die Nationalhymne Sambias sowie einen Bestandteil der südafrikanischen Nationalhymne bildet. Der Text in der Amtssprache Swahili basiert auf dem von Sontonga verfassten Original.


USA Championship Meet Record Indoors.

He returned to jumping during the 2000 indoor season and won the US Indoor Championship with his personal best jump of 2.38 m (7 ft 9 in). The meet was held in Atlanta, and Hemingway easily defeated Charles Austin and Jeremy Fischer, who could clear only 2.27. Hemingway's 2.38 was not only a personal best, it was also a new Indoor Championship Meet Record and the highest indoor jump in the world that year. At the 2000 USA Olympic Trials he had a very poor meet, finishing tenth with a jump of only 7' 1.5 (2.17m)- a height at which he would normally begin competing.  A stress fracture in his jumping foot stopped him from competing through the following year. He made a comeback in 2002 and was second at the USA Outdoors. He had a great, early start to the 2003 outdoor season, establishing a new personal (outdoor) best of 2.34 (7' 8.25") at the Modesto Relays in Modesto, California on 10 May. He repeated his 2nd-place finish at 2003 USA championships, and placed 13th at the 2003 World Championships in Athletics.

2004 Athens Olympics.

In 2004, at the (relatively advanced) age of 31, he finally earned a place on the US Olympic Team with a jump of 2.30 (7 ft 6.5 in) in the Trials. At the Olympics in Athens, he easily cleared the (automatic) qualifying height of 2.20 to reach the finals. In the finals on 22 August, Hemingway began jumping at 2.20 and was perfect (no misses) through 2.34. Four men cleared that height, including American teammate Jamie Nieto. As the bar was raised 2 centimeters to 2.36, Hemingway was in first place by virtue of being the only jumper with a perfect record. But when Sweden's Stefan Holm was the only jumper to scale 2.36, Hemingway was awarded the silver and Jaroslav Baba took the bronze (because of two misses at 2.32). For Hemingway, the 2.34 matched his personal best outdoors.

Personal life.

He is related to the famous writer Ernest Hemingway. Along with his wife, he has adopted one Ethiopian child and plan to adopt another. In the future, he and his wife plan to adopt a couple of other children. Hemingway and his wife appeared in the episode "Making Room" (season 3, episode 3) of the HGTV television show "Carter Can" with Carter Oosterhouse. The show highlights their attempt to make room for their first adopted child.  Matt also works as a guide for whitewater rafting company Noah's Ark Whitewater Rafting and Adventure in Buena Vista, CO close tow where he grew up. In the past Matt worked as manager for a cellular phone store, technical engineer for a wireless carrier (he worked full-time while training for a chance at the Olympics). As of 2006, Hemingway leads a department at the InterActive Corporation (IAC)-owned online home improvement advertiser ServiceMagic in Golden, Colorado. Currently not working at ServiceMagic

Matthew Eliot Hemingway (born October 24, 1972) is a retired American track and field athlete. He won a silver medal in the high jump at the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens by clearing a height of 2.34 meters (7 ft 8 in). Reflecting on this he said: "I'm ecstatic about winning the silver. You don't lose gold medals. People win them. I won a silver and Stefan Holm won a gold." His personal best jump came at the 2000 US Indoor Championship where he leaped 2.38 m (7 ft 9 in). He jumped off of his left leg.

Matt Hemingway (* 24. Oktober 1972 in San Pedro, Los Angeles, Kalifornien) ist ein US-amerikanischer Hochspringer. 2000 wurde er US-Hallenmeister mit übersprungenen 2,38 m. Bei den Leichtathletik-Weltmeisterschaften 2003 in Paris/Saint-Denis belegte er den zwölften Platz.


Autonomer Kreis der Chanten und Mansen/Jugra

History.

The okrug was established on December 10, 1930, as Ostyak–Vogul National Okrug (). In October 1940, it was renamed the Khanty-Mansi National Okrug. In 1977, along with other national okrugs of the Russian SFSR, it became an autonomous okrug (Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug). The administrative center is Khanty-Mansiysk. In 2003, the word "Yugra" was appended to the official name.

Geography.

The okrug occupies the central part of the West Siberian Plain.  Principal rivers include the Ob and its tributary the Irtysh.  The northeasterly line of equal latitude and longitude traverses the Khanty–Mansi Autonomous Okrug.

Demographics.

Population:  Khanty–Mansi Autonomous Okrug has an area of 523,100 km2, but the area is sparsely populated. The administrative center is Khanty-Mansiysk, but the largest cities are Surgut, Nizhnevartovsk, and Nefteyugansk.

Ethnic groups.

The indigenous population (Khanty, Mansi, and Nenets) is only 2.2% of the total population in the Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug. The exploitation of natural gas in Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug has attracted immigrants from all over the former Soviet Union. The 2010 Census counted twenty-five ethnic groups of more than two thousand persons each. The ethnic composition is as follows:  Population of Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug: Historical population figures are shown below:

Religion.

According to a 2012 survey 38.1% of the population of Yugra adheres to the Russian Orthodox Church, 5% are unaffiliated generic Christians, 1% of the population adheres to the Slavic native faith (Rodnovery) or to Khanty-Mansi native faith. Muslims (mostly Tatars) constitute 11% of the population. In addition, 23% of the population declares to be spiritual but not religious, 11% is atheist, and 10.9% follows other religions or did not give an answer to the question. According to recent reports Jehovah's Witnesses have been subjected to torture and detention in Surgut.

Transport.

In Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug, the primary transport of goods is by water and railway transport; 29% is transported by road, and 2% by aviation. The total length of railway tracks is 1,106 km. The length of roads is more than 18,000 km.

Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug – Yugra or Khanty-Mansiysk Autonomous Okrug – Yugra (, "Khanty-Mansiysky avtonomny okrug;" Khanty: Хӑнты-Мансийской Aвтономной Oкруг Ханты-Мансийский Aвтономный Oкруг is a federal subject of Russia (an autonomous okrug of Tyumen Oblast). It has a population of 1,532,243 as of the 2010 Census.

Der Autonome Kreis der Chanten und Mansen, auch als Jugra bezeichnet, (/"Chanty-Mansijski awtonomny okrug — Jugra"; ) ist eine Verwaltungseinheit (Autonomer Kreis) in Russland.


Swimming career.

2000 Olympics.

In 2000, while still in high school, Coventry became the first Zimbabwean swimmer to reach the semifinals at the Olympics and was named Zimbabwe's Sports Woman of the Year.

2004 Olympics.

At the 2004 Olympics in Athens, Coventry won three medals, including a gold medal in the 200 meter backstroke.

College career.

As a student at Auburn University, Coventry helped lead the Tigers to National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Championships in 2003 and 2004. In 2005, she was the top individual scorer at the NCAA Championships and captured three individual titles including the 200-yard and 400 y individual medley (IM), and the 200 y backstroke for the second consecutive season. She was named the College Swimming Coaches Association Swimmer of the Meet for her efforts. Other awards include 2005 Southeastern Conference (SEC) Swimmer of the Year, and the 2004–05 SEC Female Athlete of the Year. She was also the recipient of the 2004–05 Honda Sports Award for Swimming and Diving, recognizing her as the outstanding college female swimmer of the year.

2005 World Championships.

At the 2005 World Championships in Montreal, Coventry improved on her 2004 Olympic medal count by winning gold in both the 100 m and 200 m backstroke and silver in the 200 m and the 400 m IM. She bettered her Olympic gold-winning 200 m backstroke time with a performance of 2:08.52. She was one of just two swimmers from Zimbabwe along with rising junior Warren Paynter. Her performance allowed her country to rank third in the medal count by nation. In addition, she picked up the female swimmer of the meet honors.

2007 World Championships.

In Melbourne at the 2007 World Championships, Coventry won silver medals in the 200 m backstroke and 200 m IM. She was disqualified in the 400 m IM when finishing second to eventual winner Katie Hoff in her heat. Coventry finished in a disappointing 14th place in the 100 m backstroke in a time of 1:01.73, failing to qualify for the final. She continued her good form of 2007 by winning four gold medals at the International Swim Meet in Narashino, Japan. She led the way in the 200 m and 400 m IM as well as the 100 m and 200 m backstroke.

2008.

In 2008, Coventry broke her first world record in the 200 m backstroke at the Missouri Grand Prix. She bettered the mark set by Krisztina Egerszegi in August 1991, the second oldest swimming world record. Her new record was 2:06:39. Coventry continued her winning streak at the meet by winning the 100 m backstroke and the 200 m IM. Coventry is the third woman in history to break the 1:00 minute barrier in the 100 m backstroke, and the second to break the 59-second barrier.  At the 2008 Manchester Short Course World Championships, Coventry broke her second world record, setting a time, whilst winning the gold medal, of 4:26:52 in the 400 m IM. The following day saw Coventry win her second gold medal of the championships in the 100 m backstroke. Her time of 57:10 was a new championship record and the second fastest time in history in the event. Only Natalie Coughlin has swum faster (56:51). Day three of the championships saw Coventry break another championship record in qualifying fastest for the final of the 200 m backstroke. Her time of 2:03:69 was a mere four tenths of a second outside the current world record set by Reiko Nakamura in Tokyo in 2008. Coventry then bettered this time to take her second world record of the championships by winning the final in a time of 2:00:91. She then went on to shatter the short course World Record in winning the 200 m individual medley in 2:06:13. Due to her performances at the World Championships, Coventry was named as the FINA Female Swimmer of the Championships.  Coventry represented Zimbabwe at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. Coventry won the silver medal in the 400 m individual medley on 10 August 2008, becoming the second woman to swim the medley in less than 4:30, the first being Stephanie Rice who won the gold in the same event. Coventry beat the world record by just under two seconds, and was only just beaten by Rice to a new world record. Coventry, in the second semi-final of the 100 m Backstroke, set a new world record of 58.77 seconds. However, in the final of that event she was beaten to the gold medal by Natalie Coughlin. Coventry was again beaten by Stephanie Rice in the 200 m individual medley, despite swimming under the old world record. Coventry did defend her Olympic title in the 200 m backstroke, winning gold in a world record time of 2:05.24.  Awarded US$100,000 by President Mugabe for her success at the Olympics, Coventry gave that money to charity.

2009 World Championships.

At the 2009 World Championships in Rome, Coventry won a gold and a silver. She won the 200 m backstroke world title with a world record time and came second in the 400 m individual medley. She came fourth in the 200 m individual medley final and eighth in the 100 m backstroke final.

2012 and 2016 Olympics.

At the 2012 Olympics in London, Coventry finished third in her semifinal heat of the 200 m individual medley, just edging her into the final, where she placed 6th with a time of 2:11.13. In the 200 m backstroke, she finished outside the medals in sixth place with a time of 2:08.18.  Her fifth and final Olympic appearance came at the 2016 Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, where she repeated her 6th-place performance in the 200 meter backstroke from 2012, with a time of 2:08.80. She also finished 11th in the 100 meter backstroke. She retired after the 2016 Olympics.

International Olympic Committee.

In 2012, she was elected to the International Olympic Committee Athletes' Commission. She is serving as an IOC member for eight years.

Political career.

On 7 September 2018, nine days shy of her 35th birthday, she was appointed Minister of Youth, Sport, Arts and Recreation in Zimbabwe's 20-member Cabinet under President Emmerson Mnangagwa.

Personal life.

Coventry attended Dominican Convent High School, Harare in Zimbabwe until 1999.  On 10 August 2013, Coventry married Tyrone Seward who had been her manager since 2010. In May 2019, she gave birth to her first child.

Swimming results.

With seven Olympic medals, Coventry is the most decorated Olympian from Africa. Together with Krisztina Egerszegi, she also won the most individual Olympic medals in women's swimming. She competed at five Olympics, from 2000–2016. She won all but one of Zimbabwe's Olympic medals.

Kirsty Leigh Coventry Seward (born 16 September 1983) is the current Minister of Youth, Sport, Arts and Recreation in the Cabinet of Zimbabwe as of September 2018. She is a Zimbabwean politician, former Olympic swimmer and world record holder, and the most decorated Olympian from Africa. She is a member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and in early 2018, was elected the Chairperson of the IOC Athletes' Commission, the body that represents all Olympic athletes worldwide.

Kirsty Leigh Coventry (* 16. September 1983 in Harare) ist eine ehemalige Schwimmerin aus Simbabwe und seit September 2018, im Kabinett Mnangagwa, Sportministerin ihres Landes.


Model development.

Compared to Honda's 1969 dry sump CB750, both the CB500 and the CB550 were much smaller and lighter. The CB550K shared some visual similarities with the CB750, and it fitted into Honda's four-cylinder range as its mid-capacity bike.  From 1975 to 1977, a second version of the CB550 was offered, the CB550F "Super Sport". The CB550K and CB550F were sold alongside each other, sharing a similar engine, instruments, lights, wheels, brakes, and frame. The CB550F has a lighter four-into-one exhaust, slightly flatter handlebars, and a different fuel tank without chrome trim. The CB550F is part of the Honda Super Sport range, along with the CB400F, an CB750F. The F (aka F1) was succeeded by the F2, which had an additional flash decal on the fuel tank and deletion of the fork gaiters.  Both CB550F and CB550K models had a drum rear brake and a single front disc brake, although each fork slider had a bracket for a brake caliper. The CB550K went through some minor iterations, the last being the CB550K4. Closely derived from the earlier CB500, the CB550's engine was the largest factory boring of this cylinder block; and when the CB550 was replaced in 1979 by the broadly similar Honda CB650, a completely new engine design was necessary.  "Cycle Test" magazine recorded a time of 14.47 seconds at in a September 1974 test of the CB550F Super Sport. The engine output was at 8,000 rpm and torque at 7,000 rpm, with a curb weight of and average fuel consumption of.

The Honda CB550 is a standard motorcycle made by Honda from 1974 to 1978. It has a four-cylinder SOHC air-cooled wet sump engine. The first version, the CB550K, was a development of the earlier CB500, and like its predecessor, had four exhaust pipes, four silencers and wire-spoked wheels.

Die CB 550 Four war ein Mittelklasse-Motorrad der japanischen Firma Honda. Es war das Nachfolgemodell der populären Honda CB 500 Four und wurde in zwei Varianten angeboten, als Honda CB 550 F four-in-one (product code 390) von 1975–1978 mit 4-in-1-Auspuffanlage und als Honda CB 550 K (product code 374) von 1977–1979 mit 4-in-4-Auspuffanlage.


Materials.

Commonly used fibers are:

Manufacture.

There are several styles of straw hats, but all of them are woven using some form of plant fibre. Many of these hats are formed in a similar way to felt hats; they are softened by steam or by submersion in hot water, and then formed by hand or over a hat block. Finer and more expensive straw hats have a tighter and more consistent weave. Since it takes much more time to weave a larger hat than a smaller one, larger hats are more expensive.

History.

Straw hats have been worn in Europe and Asia since after the Middle Ages during the summer months, and have changed little between the medieval times and today. Many are to be seen in the famous calendar miniatures of the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry, worn by all classes, but mostly by men. The "mokorotlo", a local design of a straw hat, is the national symbol of the Basotho and Lesotho peoples, and of the nation of Lesotho. It is also displayed on the license plates of that country.  President Theodore Roosevelt helped popularize the straw Panama hat during his visit to the Panama Canal. Roosevelt used his natural ability to drum up publicity by posing for a series of photos at the Panama Canal construction site in 1906. Photos of his visit showed a strong, rugged leader dressed crisply in light-colored suits and stylish straw fedoras.

Arts.

Artwork produced during the Middle Ages shows, among the more fashionably dressed, possibly the most spectacular straw hats ever seen on men in the West, notably those worn in the Arnolfini Portrait of 1434 by Jan van Eyck (tall, stained black) and by Saint George in a painting by Pisanello of around the same date (left). In the middle of the 18th century, it was fashionable for rich ladies to dress as country girls with a low crowned and wide brimmed straw hat to complete the look.

A straw hat is a brimmed hat that is woven out of straw or straw-like materials from different plants or synthetics. The hat is designed to protect the head from the sun and against heatstroke, but straw hats are also used in fashion as a decorative element or a uniform.

Ein Strohhut ist eine Kopfbedeckung aus Stroh oder anderen als Stroh bezeichneten Materialien, die vor allem zum Sonnenschutz gebraucht wird.


Life.

Doucet was born in Paris in 1853 to a prosperous family whose lingerie and linens business, Doucet Lingerie, had flourished in the Rue de la Paix since 1816. In 1871, Doucet opened a salon selling ladies' apparel. An enthusiastic collector of eighteenth-century furniture, objets d'art, paintings, and sculptures, many of his gowns were strongly influenced by this opulent era. Beginning in 1912, the fashions of Jacques Doucet were illustrated in the fashion magazine "La Gazette du Bon Ton" with six other leading Paris designers of the day – Louise Chéruit, Georges Doeuillet, Jeanne Paquin, Paul Poiret, Redfern & Sons, and the House of Charles Worth. His most original designs were those he created for actresses of the time. Cécile Sorel, Rejane and Sarah Bernhardt (for whom he designed her famous white costume in L'Aiglon) all often wore his outfits, both on and off the stage. For the aforementioned actresses he reserved a particular style, one which consisted of frills, sinuous curving lines and lace ruffles the colors of faded flowers. Doucet was a designer of taste and discrimination who valued dignity and luxury above novelty and practicality, and gradually faded from popularity during the 1920s.  Several years after World War I, in 1927, Cubists Joseph Csaky, Jacques Lipchitz, Louis Marcoussis, Henri Laurens, the sculptor Gustave Miklos, and others collaborated in the decoration of a Studio House, rue Saint-James, Neuilly-sur-Seine. The "hôtel particulier", owned by Doucet was designed by the architect Paul Ruaud. Laurens designed the fountain, Csaky designed Doucet's staircase, Lipchitz made the fireplace mantel and Marcoussis created a Cubist rug.

Legacy.

A collector of art and literature throughout his life, by the time of his death he had a collection of Post-Impressionist and Cubist paintings, including "Les Demoiselles d'Avignon", which he bought direct from Picasso's studio, as well as two libraries' both of which he left to the French nation. Doucet donated his collection of art books and research to the University of Paris in 1917, transferred to the Institut National d'Histoire de l'Art in 2003 and, at his death in 1929, his collection of manuscripts by contemporary writers for which the University created in his honour the Bibliothèque littéraire Jacques-Doucet. Francois Chapon wrote a book titled "C'etait Jacques Doucet" about the life and work of the fashion designer.

Jacques Doucet () (1853–1929) was a French fashion designer and art collector. He is known for his elegant dresses, made with flimsy translucent materials in superimposing pastel colors.

Jacques Doucet (* 19. Februar 1853 in Paris; † 30. Oktober 1929 ebenda) war ein französischer Modeschöpfer, Kunstsammler und Mäzen.


Variations by jurisdiction.

In the United States federal Courts, a cross-examining attorney is typically not permitted to ask questions that do not pertain to the testimony offered during direct examination, but most state courts do permit a lawyer to cross-examine a witness on matters not raised during direct examination. Similarly, courts in England, South Africa, Australia, and Canada allow a cross-examiner to exceed the scope of direct examination.  Since a witness called by the opposing party is presumed to be hostile, cross-examination does permit leading questions. A witness called by a direct examiner, on the other hand, may only be treated as hostile by that examiner after being permitted to do so by the judge, at the request of that examiner and as a result of the witness being openly antagonistic and/or prejudiced against the party that called them.

Affecting the outcome of jury trials.

Cross-examination is a key component in a trial and the topic is given substantial attention during courses on Trial Advocacy. The opinions by a jury or judge are often changed during cross examination if doubt is cast on the witness. In other times a credible witness affirms the belief in their original statements or in some cases enhances the judge's or jury's belief. Though the closing argument is often considered the deciding moment of a trial, effective cross-examination wins trials.  Attorneys anticipate hostile witness' responses during pretrial planning, and often attempt to shape the witnesses' perception of the questions to draw out information helpful to the attorney's case. Typically during an attorney's closing argument he will repeat any admissions made by witnesses that favor their case. Indeed, in the United States, cross-examination is seen as a core part of the entire adversarial system of justice, in that it "is the principal means by which the believability of a witness and the truth of his testimony are tested." Another key component affecting a trial outcome is the jury selection, in which attorneys will attempt to include jurors from whom they feel they can get a favorable response or at the least unbiased fair decision. So while there are many factors affecting the outcome of a trial, the cross-examination of a witness will often influence an open-minded unbiased jury searching for the certainty of facts upon which to base their decision.

A cairn is a man-made pile (or stack) of stones. The word "cairn" comes from the (plural ). Cairns have been and are used for a broad variety of purposes, from prehistoric times to the present.

Steinmännchen, "Steinmänner", "Steinmandl" oder "Steinmanderl", auch "Steindauben", sind aufeinander gestapelte Steine in Form kleiner Hügel oder Türmchen. Sie sind eine archaische Form des Wegzeichens, werden aber bis heute weltweit errichtet. Die Markierung soll insbesondere in unwegsamem und unübersichtlichem Gelände – wie Gebirge, Hochgebirge, Steppe und Wüsten – die Orientierung erleichtern. Steinmännchen sind in allen besiedelten Gebieten der Erde verbreitet. In verschiedenen Kulturen sind mit ihnen weitere, oft religiöse Gebräuche verbunden. Diese Markierungen sind von manchmal ähnlich aussehenden Hügelgräbern und Cairns zu unterscheiden; in manchen Sprachen (etwa Englisch oder Französisch) werden Steinmänner allerdings ebenfalls als "Cairn" bezeichnet. Ebenfalls zu unterscheiden sind diese Art der Steinhaufen von der sogenannten Steinbalance, welche außer dem ästhetischen keinem weiteren Zweck dient.


Biography.

Born at Châteauneuf-sur-Isère, France, Hugh showed piety and theological facility from a young age. While still a layman, Hugh was made a canon of Valence. His piety was such that it was said of him that he only knew one woman by sight.  At the Council of Avignon in 1080, he was elected bishop of Grenoble, though he was not yet ordained. The See of Grenoble had fallen into a very poor state and Hugh was selected to be its Gregorian renovator. Conducted by a papal legate to Rome, Hugh was ordained by Pope Gregory VII himself. Upon his return, he immediately set to the task of reforming the abuses in his new diocese. When he had succeeded in countering abuse and fostering devotion after two years, he tried to resign his bishopric and enter the Benedictine monastery at Cluny. However, the Pope ordered him to continue his episcopal work.  For the rest of the 11th century, his episcopate was marked by strife with Count Guigues III of Albon over the possession of ecclesiastic lands in the Grésivaudan, a valley in the French Alps. Hugh alleged that the Count had usurped the lands from the bishopric of Grenoble with the help of Bishop Mallen of Grenoble. An accord was finally reached between Hugh and Count Guigues only in 1099. The Count agreed to cede the disputed territories while Hugh admitted to the Count's temporal authority within the vicinity of Grenoble.  Hugh was also instrumental in the foundation of the Carthusian Order. He received Bruno of Cologne, perhaps his own teacher, and six of his companions in 1084, after seeing them under a banner of seven stars in a dream. Hugh installed the seven in a snowy and rocky Alpine location called Chartreuse. They founded a monastery and devoted their lives to prayer and study, being oft visited by Hugh, who was reported to have adopted much of their way of life. Hugh also founded the nearby Monastère de Chalais, which grew into an independent order.  Hugh was canonised on 22 April 1134 by Pope Innocent II, only two years after his death. His feast day is on 1 April in the Catholic Church. During the French Wars of Religion (between Catholics and Protestants inspired by John Calvin, called "Huguenots"), the Huguenots burned his body.

References.

Notes  Citations  Sources

Saint Hugh of Châteauneuf (1053 – 1 April 1132) was the Bishop of Grenoble from 1080 to his death. He was a partisan of the Gregorian reform and opposed to the Archbishop of Vienne, later Pope Callixtus II.

Hugo von Grenoble (, ; * 1053 in Châteauneuf-sur-Isère bei Valence; † 1. April 1132 in Grenoble) war ein französischer Bischof. Er wurde im Jahr 1134 heiliggesprochen; sein Gedenktag ist der 1. April.