History.

The original Vereinigte Deutsche Metallwerke AG (VDM) was founded in 1930 by the takeover of "Heddernheimer Kupferwerk and Süddeutsche Kabelwerk AG" in Frankfurt by "Berg-Heckmann-Selve AG" in Altena. The merger took place on the initiative of Metallgesellschaft, which was the main shareholder of Heddernheimer Kupferwerke since 1893 and also took over the majority of the new corporate group. The global economic crisis had forced a consolidation of previously competing companies.  The new company had a share capital of 30 million Reichsmark and had branches and manufacturing facilities in Heddernheim, Gustavsburg, Mannheim, Nuremberg, Cologne and in Altena, Werdohl and Duisburg. The group's companies remained independent under their previous name (e. g. Heddernheimer Kupferwerk GmbH), but the production program was redistributed by material group to the individual plants. In March 1934, VDM moved its headquarters to Frankfurt am Main. The incipient rearmament of the Wehrmacht skyrocketed the demand for light metal products. By 1939, the number of employees at VDM rose to 21,000, mainly due to the production of variable pitch propellers for aircraft of the Luftwaffe.

After 1945.

Because of the great importance of the VDM for the war economy, almost all buildings and factories were heavily destroyed in the air raids on Frankfurt am Main during the Second World War. At the end of the war, the production collapsed completely, all works were shut down at the direction of the Allies and partly dismantled. It was not until 1946, under the leadership of Wilhelm Kirmser, that the gradual reconstruction and transition to civilian production began.  In the early 1950s, VDM became the world's largest manufacturer and distributor of raw, semi-finished and finished non-ferrous metals and alloys. The upswing reached its peak in the financial year 1960/61. Thereafter, the company continuously lost market share.

The crisis years after 1966.

Already for 1966/67 no dividend could be paid to shareholders. A major cause of the difficulties was the fragmented corporate structure of six separate companies, which did not allow a consistent strategy and investment.  In 1969, the plant in Cologne was shut down and the remaining works were combined into seven business units:  Despite the restructuring and some acquisitions in the 1970s, sales continued to decline. The company reacted with rationalization measures, a reorientation of the production strategy, the sale of individual company shares and the closure of unprofitable production units and plants. This reduced the number of employees from 14,200 (1970) to 6,700 in 1979. After a dramatic deterioration of the results in the financial year 1980/81, the parent plant in Frankfurt-Heddernheim was closed after 129 years on 31 March 1982.  At this point in time, only the plants of the business area nickel (Altena, Unna and Werdohl) were still productive. In the following years, VDM gradually separated from all remaining production facilities and changed its name to MG Vermögensverwaltung AG in 1988.

Spin-off of the nickel division 1988.

In 1988 the German steelmaker Krupp took over one third, one year later 100 percent of the shares in the "VDM Nickel Technologie AG". This division was formed from the merger of the Werdohl and Altena plants into the business area nickel in 1974. In the following years Krupp VDM - as the company was called - initially took over "Precision Rolled Products (PRP)" with production sites in New Jersey and Nevada and, on 1 October 2009, the activities of the sister company ThyssenKrupp Titanium. From then on, VDM became part of the ThyssenKrupp stainless steel division and operated under the name "ThyssenKrupp VDM" until 2012.  Following the sale of the stainless steel division of ThyssenKrupp to Outokumpu in December 2012, VDM temporarily traded under the name Outokumpu VDM. At the end of November 2013 it was announced that VDM would be re-integrated into the ThyssenKrupp Group. Since 1 March 2014, VDM had once again been part of the ThyssenKrupp Group and has since been trading under the independent name of VDM Metals.  In April 2015, ThyssenKrupp announced the sale of the VDM Group to the financial investor Lindsay Goldberg. On 1 August 2015, the sale was completed. In November 2019, the Spanish stainless steel producer Acerinox announced the signing of a share-purchase-agreement to acquire VDM Metals.

Inventions and material developments.

Alloy C-264.

Alloy C-264 is a superalloy developed by VDM Metals and launched in 2018. In addition to the alloying element nickel, the alloy contains 25 percent chromium, 20 percent cobalt, about 5.5 percent molybdenum and 1.1 percent aluminum and 1.7 percent titanium. Various tests have shown that the material in the solution-annealed and hardened condition achieves higher hardness values and lower creep rates than, for example, Alloy C-263 (material number 2.4650, UNS N07263). The application temperature is up to 900 degrees Celsius.

Alloy 699 XA.

In June 2018, a nickel base alloy with 29 percent chromium and 2 percent aluminum was introduced, which is characterized in particular by its metal dusting resistance. The material has the material number 2.4842 or UNS N06699.

VDM Metals Group (formerly Vereinigte Deutsche Metallwerke) based in Werdohl, Germany, is a manufacturer of corrosion-resistant, heat-resistant and high-temperature nickel alloys, cobalt and zirconium alloys as well as high-alloyed special stainless steels. These materials are used in the chemical process industry, the oil and gas industry, aerospace, automotive and electronics / electrical engineering. VDM Metals operates production sites in Germany (Altena, Siegen, Unna and Werdohl) and the United States (Florham Park, NJ, and Reno, NV). The company employs about 2,000 people worldwide.

Die zum spanischen Acerinox-Konzern gehörende VDM Metals Group (vormals Vereinigte Deutsche Metallwerke) mit Sitz in Werdohl ist ein Hersteller korrosionsbeständiger, hitzebeständiger und hochwarmfester Nickellegierungen, Kobalt- und Zirkoniumlegierungen sowie hochlegierter Sonderedelstähle. Das Unternehmen ist Weltmarktführer für Nickelbleche und -bänder, die Anwendung in der chemischen Prozessindustrie, der Öl- und Gasindustrie, in der Luftfahrt, im Automobilbau und der Elektronik/Elektrotechnik finden. VDM Metals unterhält Produktionsstätten in Unna (Schmelzwerk, Schmiede und Stangenadjustage), Altena (Blech/ Stangenfertigung) und Werdohl (Verwaltung/ Draht/ Bandfertigung) und Siegen. Das Unternehmen beschäftigt etwa 2.000 Mitarbeiter weltweit.


Rise to power.

Chen graduated from the People's Liberation Army Institute of Logistics Engineering, majoring in architecture. He had two years of experience working in the military between 1968 and 1970 as part of the PLA 6716 Squadron. From September 1970 to March 1983, Chen worked at the Shanghai Pengpu Machinery Factory as a worker and estimator. He was eventually promoted to capital construction branch vice-section chief. He also went on a year-long sabbatical to Tongji University. In March 1983 he was promoted to become deputy plant manager of the Shanghai Pengpu machine factory, as well as the party committee deputy secretary of the Shanghai Metallurgy Mining Machinery Company. He joined the Communist Party of China (CPC) in April 1980. By March 1984, Chen gained further promotion, becoming the CPC Secretary for Shanghai's Electronic Appliances Bureau. Between January 1985 and February 1987 he became bureau chief and assistant commissioner of the Shanghai Municipal Party Committee – Old cadre bureau. In February 1987, Chen gained a posting as the new magistrate for Huangpu District in Shanghai. He went on sabbatical studying public administration at the University of Birmingham from January to September 1992 through a UK government funded Chevening Scholarship.  Chen was promoted to be Deputy Mayor of Shanghai in 1996, concurrently holding the CPC Vice-Secretary position. As then Party general secretary Jiang Zemin made his political manoeuvers before the 16th Party Congress in 2002 to strengthen the Shanghai power base with his loyalties, Chen became the beneficiary, replacing then Mayor Xu Kuangdi, becoming Mayor of Shanghai in late 2002, and Secretary of the CPC Shanghai Municipal Committee in February 2003. He was therefore granted membership in the Politburo of the CPC Central Committee. As an ally of former general secretary Jiang Zemin, Chen was to keep Jiang's Shanghai base of power while Hu Jintao was given all official positions of power. Chen is believed to be linked to real estate magnate and banker Zhou Zhengyi in the Shanghai Real Estate scandals, where residents were forced to relocate for new housing developments where old style apartments were being demolished to build modern-style condominiums.

Mayor and party chief of Shanghai.

Chen Liangyu became the CPC Committee Secretary for Shanghai in November 2002, the city's top office. As is customary for the occupants of this office, he was also given a seat on the Politburo of the 16th CPC Central Committee. During Chen's term in office, Shanghai's economy grew rapidly, which contributed to significant improvements in the living standards of the city's residents.

Economic growth.

During Chen's term in office, Shanghai's average annual economic growth rate stood at about 13%, at the forefront of the country, the average annual revenue growth of over 20%, and over the years turned over to the proportion of the central finance more than 15% The annual import and export volume of the Port of Shanghai exceeded 400 billion U.S. dollars, at an average annual increase of over 30%. The cargo throughput of the port exceeded 500 million tons, ranking first in the world. Municipal infrastructure and large-scale industrial production construction projects proceeded at a rapid pace; prominent examples include the Yangshan Deepwater Port (Figure), the Shanghai World Financial Center, the Shanghai Metro, and Jiangnan Shipyard Changxing Island base, and the Shanghai Chemical Industrial Zone. These large scale projects cemented Shanghai's position as the economic heart of the country.

Improving the livelihood of the people and helping the poor.

Urban traffic congestion and poor public transit had been a long-standing problem in Shanghai. Chen Liangyu was personally invested in the issue, and during his term in office Shanghai saw significant improvements to its transit system and transport infrastructure. As a result of the urban rail construction during Chen's term, the Metro had overtaken buses as the main transport tool for most Shanghai residents. Additionally Mr. Chen oversaw the construction of bridges and tunnels on the Huangpu River, such as the Lupu Bridge. Opening several new arterial bridges relieved pressure from existing bridges and tunnels, thus easing traffic jams.  Due to historical reasons, the Shanghai area had large areas of shanty towns and old-fashioned neighborhoods, a large number of residents faced a housing shortage and poor living conditions. Chen Liangyu led the Shanghai municipal government in a vigorous urban transformation, in conjunction with the municipal engineering reasonable relocation and resettlement. This not only beautified the urban environment and improved the living conditions of the people, it is especially important due to the relocation and resettlement of the household population based on a per capita metric, which solved the housing problems of a large number of people, especially the impoverished, and reduced the burden of rising housing prices.  Under Chen Liangyu's leadership, pollution in the Suzhou River, which had long plagued Shanghai, came under management. The Suzhou River water pollution problem was greatly reduced. Additionally the landscape around the Suzhou River underwent massive changes.  Chen Liangyu as party secretary of Shanghai repeatedly stressed the need to protect low-income and vulnerable members of society. Mr. Chen started at the grassroots and personally visited people who were less well-off; he additionally supervised the implementation of policy measures combating poverty. Chen Liangyu also used a variety of tools to ensure the welfare of the people of Shanghai, including: improve pensions and health insurance and other social security programs, develop measures to increase active employees and retirees income, and increased employment opportunities. Chen Liangyu's attention and efforts on the issue of people's livelihood helped Shanghai society maintain harmony and stability, the average life expectancy exceeded 80 years of age, and members of the public felt a greater sense of belonging and pride with regard to being residents of Shanghai.

Reform, innovation, and opening wider to world.

One of the landmarks of the Shanghai World Expo China Pavilion Night Scene With Shanghai's economic development, the traditional model of development that rely on cheap labor and high energy consumption has become increasingly constrained further development. To this end, Chen Liangyu, Shanghai should improve the capability of independent innovation, economic growth by a "resource-dependent" to "innovation-driven". Meanwhile, Chen Liangyu to implement the "technological innovation" and the city through science and education strategy, to increase investment in education, the proportion of Shanghai education and research funding has increased year by year, gradually improve the system of lifelong education, new The labor force average years of education for 14 years. In addition, Chen Liangyu, pioneering the development of recycling economy in order to reduce the consumption of resources and strengthening environmental protection. These measures, so that the industrial structure of Shanghai's overall progress, and the formation and the gradual consolidation of the core competitiveness during Shanghai's economy has maintained double-digit growth, while energy consumption annual growth of only about 5%.  In opening up, Chen Liangyu presided over planning the 2010 Shanghai World Expo – the bid, construction and preparation work, to develop a number of measures to support the Shanghai bid to host the World Expo and then to attract countries to the stadium stationed in Shanghai World Expo of Governments, and during, exhibitors Affairs made significant progress, confirmed exhibitors for the number of countries and international organizations to create a historical record. Meanwhile, Chen Liangyu vigorously the introduction of foreign capital, and other means to expand the level of opening up in Shanghai, to improve Shanghai's international transparency, speed up Shanghai as an international metropolis, the pace of reconstruction.

Cultural heritage and dialect protection.

Shanghai primary school in Professor Shanghai dialect Shanghai was known as the "lost culture Highland has a rich historical and cultural heritage, Chen Liangyu, that culture is the essence of a city, soul and lifeblood of focus on carrying forward the revival of Shanghai's specialty boutique culture and emphasis on the protection of historic buildings in Shanghai. In addition, from the beginning of the 1990s, Shanghai vigorously promote Mandarin, Shanghai dialect as the core of local culture (Shanghai culture) has become increasingly subject to compression, an increasingly grim situation. As the leadership of Shanghai, Chen Liangyu, on this issue to take a more flexible method is relatively effective protection of the local culture and the Shanghai dialect, the Shanghai public affirmation.

Counterpart support and regional cooperation.

As the officials in charge of China's economic center Shanghai, Chen Liangyu advocate services nationwide, to support the economic construction of the other provinces and municipalities should be in the development of its own premise, in its term of office, the scale of foreign aid and economic cooperation expand personnel exchanges and mutual learning exchanges are becoming increasingly active.

Controversy.

Along with Mayor Han Zheng, Chen continued the CPC's reformation, and during his leadership Shanghai was selected as the host city for Expo 2010. Chen was officially credited with dramatically increasing the size and efficiency of Shanghai's public transportation. Shanghai's rising real estate prices have plagued the city since 2002, and rose over 200% during Chen's term in office as the city's Party Chief, as ordinary Shanghai citizens found it increasingly difficult to find a place to live. The real estate network had a history of being monopolized. The government had attempted to assert control, but because of the inevitable link between the government and private businesses, many deals were cut in which Chen was implicated. Chen also held major interests in the Shanghai Shenhua football squad, attending all of their home matches and even supervising some practices.  His image in the city during his tenure as mayor was divisive. He initiated a series of gigantic projects to be finished in time for Shanghai's hosting of the 2010 World Exposition, including shipping 128,000 tons of sand to create a beach in Shanghai's suburbs, building a $209 million world-class tennis complex and a $300 million Formula One circuit racetrack. His most controversial project was the proposed Shanghai-Hangzhou mag-lev train. Opponents of Chen painted him as corrupt, short tempered, and despotic during Municipal Committee meetings which he chaired. Supporters of Chen credited him with openness, and saw him as a progressive leader crucial to Shanghai's economic and social development on the international scene. Other observers saw Chen as an effective local administrator in Shanghai, but an impediment to nationwide equalization and macroeconomic controls (otherwise known as 宏观调控 "Hongguan Tiaokong").  During his term, Chen sold massive amounts of land to his brother who resold the land for more than tenfold, becoming Shanghai's real estate magnate.  Chen's son, Chen Weili, was made an executive of the Shanghai Shenhua football club shortly after graduating from university.

Pension scandal.

In August 2006, Qin Yu, one of Chen's top aides, was abruptly dismissed from his position as Baoshan District governor, and arrested. Qin was charged with the misappropriation of $400 million of the city's pension funds. The city's social security coffers managed more than 10 billion yuan (US$1.25 billion) in assets. Instead of investing the money in low-risk government bonds and bank deposits, it was invested in expensive real estate and toll road projects around the city. It was suspected that the city's top leadership figures, including Chen, could be implicated in the scandal.  During Chen's term as party chief, he routinely pursued policies that drew friction from the party's central leadership and the policies of general secretary Hu Jintao. Hu's government favoured balanced regional economic development and feared social divisions resulting from a widening wealth gap, and thus attempted to rein in regional leaders who wanted to pursue rapid economic development which they viewed as overtly favoring regional economic interests. Chen reportedly clashed with Premier Wen Jiabao openly at a Politburo meeting in Beijing over the issue of economic development, indicating that Chen believed the Premier was standing in the way of China's economic development. Chen's statements at municipal meetings also charted a new independent course; Chen opposed the Communist Party's long-held convention that "Marxism serves as the guiding scientific principle." Rather, Chen claimed to rely upon "all forms of science" – signaling he was at odds with the Communist Party's orthodoxy.  On September 25, citing alleged involvement in the pension scandal, Chen was dismissed as Shanghai party chief and suspended from his membership in the party's Central Committee and its Politburo. A team composed of some one hundred investigators from central authorities in Beijing was sent to Shanghai to investigate. Two days before his dismissal, Chen and mayor Han Zheng went to Beijing to meet with Hu Jintao. There Chen was detained, and only Han returned to Shanghai. The authorities carefully managed the transfer of authority in Shanghai. On the day of Chen's dismissal, Han Zheng returned to Shanghai at 3 am and called an official meeting to deliver Beijing's decision that Chen was suspended because of the scandal and that Han himself was assuming the post of acting party chief. Chen was charged with "helping further the economic interests of illegal business people", "protecting staff who severely violated laws and discipline" and "furthering the interests of family members by taking advantage of his official posts."  There was also speculation that Chen's sacking occurred for political reasons. Chen was a protégé of former general secretary Jiang Zemin and considered a core member of the Shanghai Clique. In carving out a local fiefdom for himself and willing to boldly deviate from the party's official economic policies, Chen was seen as a serious rival to general secretary Hu Jintao, and his dismissal was interpreted as a political victory for Hu. Chen was the highest-ranking Chinese official to be sacked since former Beijing party secretary Chen Xitong (no relation) was removed from office in 1994 on charges of corruption. The Shanghai pension scandal also led to the dismissal of the chief of the Municipal Labour and Social Security Bureau Zhu Junyi, and the downfall of several prominent businessmen, the executives of Shanghai's biggest industrial conglomerate, and other city officials. For a period of time, it was also believed that the scandal would implicate the family and associates of then Vice-Premier and Politburo Standing Committee Huang Ju. However, Huang died in 2007, and no case against him was ever pursued.  After Han Zheng served a few months as acting party chief, Zhejiang party chief Xi Jinping was transferred to Shanghai take over the position of party secretary. Xi would go on to become General Secretary of the Communist Party of China in 2012.

Expulsion and trial.

In July 2007, Chen was expelled from the Communist Party, and his case was transferred to judicial authorities. In comparison to the judicial action against Chen Xitong, Chen's case proceeded at a much faster pace. During the investigation, Chen was placed under house arrest in Qinhuangdao, where he lived in a mansion, and spent most of his time playing cards and reading, ordering his meals from menus. Thereafter, Chen was transferred to Qincheng Prison in the Changping District of Beijing.  Chen's trial began in late March 2008. He was represented by Beijing lawyers Gao Zicheng and Liu Limu. He faced three charges: embezzlement, abuse of power, and dereliction of duty. Chen acknowledged that he was "partially responsible" for the pension fund scandal, but pleaded 'not guilty' to the charges. However, he was found guilty by the court. Chen was largely cooperative during the court proceedings. At the end of the trial on March 25, Chen stated "I am sorry to the party, the people of Shanghai, and my family". On April 11, 2008, Chen, 61, was sentenced to 18 years in prison for accepting 2.39 million yuan (~$340,000) in bribes and abusing power, specifically, for stock manipulation, financial fraud and his role in the city pension fund scandal, at the No. 2 Intermediate People's Court, Tianjin. Chen Liangyu’s sentence will be end on July 25, 2025.

Chen Liangyu (; born October 24, 1946 in Shanghai) is a Chinese politician best known for his tenure as the Communist Party Secretary of Shanghai, the city's top office, from 2002 to 2006, and a member of the Politburo of the Communist Party of China.

Chen Liangyu (; * 1946 in Ningbo) ist ein chinesischer Politiker. Er war Bürgermeister von Shanghai und von 2002 bis 2006 Mitglied des Politbüro der Kommunistischen Partei Chinas (KPCh). Wegen Korruption wurde er 2007 aus der KPCh ausgeschlossen und 2008 zu einer 18-jährigen Freiheitsstrafe verurteilt.


History.

In 1936, Fenikss was reorganised into Joint Stock Company Vairogs, which later manufactured Ford-Vairogs automobiles under licence.

Products.

Trains.

Currently under development is a family of new diesel trains under the name DR1B which will have a capacity of between 2 and 12 cars, and will be fitted with Euro3 standard engines and new power equipment. RVR currently oversees the refurbishment of older ER2 and ER9 trainsets, as well as the development of new products labelled ER22/29/35. The trains will be fitted out with newly designed interiors, built from layered plastic, aluminium panels and fibreglass. Customers will have the option of either a leather or fabric finish on passenger seats.

Trams.

Starting from 1923 to 1930, after postwar reconstruction the factory has produced some 40 tram cars for Riga city tramway. After World War II, in 1949 the factory started producing tram cars MTV-82. In 2002, RVR signed an agreement with the Mayor of Riga which will see the company replace the trams in Latvia's capital city once their period of operation ends in 2010. The new trams are set to offer enhanced comfort and safety, as well as being far quieter than the city's current fleet of elderly ČKD Tatra units. According to RVR they will feature bright and spacious interiors and will be 20-30% more power efficient than their predecessors. The new units are expected to be produced at a rate of 15-20 per year and will result in a gradual phasing out of the ČKD Tatra tramcars. Until the early 2010s RVR built trams still operated in Daugavpils, Latvia's second largest city.

Current operators.

Many RVR trains built during the Soviet period are still in active service across the former USSR. Current operators are shown below. Very few, if any, RVR tramcars are still in operation, with most cities of the former USSR favouring tramcars built by ČKD Tatra.

Rīgas Vagonbūves Rūpnīca (RVR) is one of the largest machine-building plants in Latvia, founded in 1895 by the businessman Oscar Freywirth under the name Phoenix. RVR is based in Riga and was for many years the largest producer of electric and diesel trains and also tramcars in the former Soviet Union. Its best known products are the ER1, ER2, ER7 and ER9 electric trains, many of which are still in service today. Between 1973 and 1988 it built the high-speed ER200 train, and has more recently been involved in the refurbishment of units operated by the Latvian railway company Pasažieru Vilciens.

Rīgas Vagonbūves Rūpnīca (deutsch: "Rigaer Waggonbaufabrik"; kurz: "RVR"; russischer Name: "Рижский вагоностроительный завод/Rischski wagonostroitelny sawod"; kurz: "РВЗ/RWS") ist ein lettisches Waggonbauunternehmen.


History.

Once part of the municipality of Guaratinguetá, it was emancipated in 1928.

Geography.

Aparecida is located 168 km northeast of São Paulo and 240 km west of Rio de Janeiro.  With an average altitude of 544 meters, and elevations varying from 525 to 620 meters, Aparecida has a hot climate with dry winters. Recorded temperatures are a maximum of 35 °C, a minimum of -1 °C and an average of 22 °C.

Main sights.

It is home to and named after the Basilica of the National Shrine of Our Lady of Aparecida, the patron saint of Brazil, declared so by Pope Pius XI in 1929. Pope Benedict XVI delivered a speech here in May, 2007.  It now depends exclusively on tourism generated by the devotees surrounding the statue of the Virgin. Aparecida receives more than 7 million tourists a year making it the most popular religious pilgrimage site in Latin America.  These pilgrims come to visit the Basilica containing the statue of Our Lady of Aparecida. This statue, thought to have been found in the Paraíba River in October 1717, is made of clay and measures 40 centimeters in height. The dark colour was produced by the years of exposure to candles and lamps around the altar. In 1978 it was attacked and reduced to hundreds of fragments which were meticulously put back together by specialists from the São Paulo Museum of Art.  Aparecida was the source of a proposal endorsed by Pope Francis in 2020 to establish a collaborative ministry among the local churches of the various South American countries in the Amazon basin, with differentiated priorities.  The city has other attractions besides religious buildings, such as a theme park, aquarium, and museums. Among local events are a Festa de Nossa Senhora Aparecida, on 12 October, which attracts more than 100,000 faithful, and a Festa de São Benedito with performances by several traditional groups.

Aparecida is a Brazilian municipality in the state of São Paulo. It is located in the fertile valley of the River Paraíba do Sul on the southern (right) bank. It is part of the Metropolitan Region of Vale do Paraíba e Litoral Norte. The population is 49,217 (2015 est.) in an area of 121.08 km2. The municipality is sometimes referred as Aparecida do Norte.

Aparecida (deutsch „die Erschienene“ für „Unsere Liebe Erschienene Frau“, amtlich ) ist eine Gemeinde im Südosten des Bundesstaates São Paulo und zählt 35.000 Einwohner (Volkszählung 2010). Seit einer Marienerscheinung im Jahre 1717 und mit zurzeit jährlich fast 8 Millionen Pilgern, ist die Stadt der bedeutendste Wallfahrtsort Brasiliens.


Movements.

The work is only slightly shorter than the composer's monumental Seventh Symphony, and consists of five movements:  The first movement, which runs roughly half an hour, is by far the longest. It opens with a dramatic motif played fortissimo in octaves, characterised by David Haas in his study as a "fate" motif:  \version "2.14.2" \relative c { \clef bass \time 4/4 \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 8 = 100 c4\ff( ~ c8.. bes32-.) c2( ~ c8.. a32-.) c8..( aes'32-.) g2( ~ g4 ~ g8.. ges32-.) f2 ~ f4 ~ f8. ees32 d ees2 ~ ees4 </score>  However, the motif is immediately replaced by the two subjects of this sonata form movement, both lyrical in character. In the development section, the second subject is brutalised before militaristic marches come to dominate. The recapitulation sees a dissonant version of the fate motif displaced by a cor anglais solo which meanders towards a restatement of the second subject.  The composer described the short second movement allegretto as "a march with elements of a scherzo"; the third movement (conventionally described as a toccata) is again short, driven onwards by pitiless motor rhythms:  \version "2.14.2" \relative c { \clef alto \time 2/2 \key e \minor \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t \tempo 2 = 150 \once \override DynamicText #'extra-offset = #'(-2. 0) \once \override TextScript #'extra-offset = #'(0. 2.5) e4\f_\markup{\italic{marcatissimo}} g b g e g b g a b a b g a g a fis g a g fis g a g fis g a b c d c d b </score>  This movement has been interpreted as a depiction of battle, or (by Kurt Sanderling) as "the crushing of the individual" by the Soviet system. It finally erupts into a "massive climax of self-destruction", leading to the penultimate movement, a subdued (or perhaps exhausted) passacaglia. This in turn (as in Beethoven's fifth) leads directly into the C major finale, around 15 minutes in length. However, in contrast to Beethoven's exuberant conclusion, Shostakovich provides a pastoral rondo in which solo woodwinds again dominate. The movement begins with a passage for solo bassoon, and ends quietly with both pizzicato and sustaining strings; for some additional color, a solo flute joins in for the last note of the motive, at the very bottom of its range. The pizzicato material is an inverted version of the symphony's opening fate motif, and is connected by Haas to a similar passage for soprano voice in the fifth movement of Mahler's Second. Here, however, there is no resurrection: "The hero who announced himself using the voices of cor anglais and bassoon has not clearly triumphed, merely survived".  The weight of the first and final movements of the symphony is centered on simultaneous crescendos of the snare and bass drums, while trumpets call to the pinnacle which is overlaid by woodwind trills.  A second interval is used as a motif throughout the symphony: C–B–C in the opening motif of the first movement, D–C–D in the theme of the second movement, E–F–E in the third movement (here separated by an octave), and C–D–C in the last movement.

Orchestration.

The symphony is scored for a large orchestra which consists of 4 flutes (3rd and 4th doubling piccolos), 2 oboes, cor anglais, 2 B-flat clarinets, E-flat clarinet, bass clarinet, 3 bassoons (3rd doubling contrabassoon), 4 horns, 3 trumpets, 3 trombones, tuba, timpani, bass drum, tambourine, cymbals, snare drum, triangle, xylophone, tamtam, and strings.

Reception.

In a letter to Glikman, the composer parodied the response he expected from the government:  I am sure that it will give rise to valuable critical observations which will both inspire me to future creative work and provide insights enabling me to review that which I have created in the past. Rather than take a step backward I shall thus succeed in taking one forward." It was indeed not well received, although reviews were tepid rather than scathing. The bleak tone, and in particular the lack of an optimistic conclusion, made it unsuitable as propaganda at home or abroad. Shostakovich's friend Ivan Sollertinsky noted that, "the music is significantly tougher and more astringent than the Fifth or the Seventh and for that reason is unlikely to become popular". The government responded by giving it the subtitle the "Stalingrad Symphony" and portraying it as a memorial to those killed in that battle. The symphony was criticised by Prokofiev and others at a Composers' Plenum in March 1944, and after the Zhdanov decree of 1948 it was effectively banned until eight years later. The symphony was rehabilitated in October 1956, in a performance by the Moscow Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by Samuil Samosud.  It was introduced to the western hemisphere during World War II by CBS correspondent Bill Downs, who returned from the Moscow bureau to the United States with the score.

The Symphony No. 8 in C minor, Op. 65, by Dmitri Shostakovich was written in the summer of 1943, and first performed on November 4 of that year by the USSR Symphony Orchestra under Yevgeny Mravinsky, to whom the work is dedicated. It was named the 'Stalingrad Symphony' by the USSR.

Die Sinfonie Nr. 8 in c-Moll op. 65 von Dmitri Schostakowitsch entstand im Sommer 1943 und wurde am 4. November desselben Jahres vom Staatlichen Sinfonieorchester der UdSSR in Moskau unter der Leitung von Jewgeni Mrawinski, dem sie auch gewidmet war, uraufgeführt.


Biography.

Known for its Afrocentrism and militant activism as member of the Blackwatch movement, X Clan soon gained fame for the controversy its music aroused, though commercial success was sporadic. X Clan's debut was "To the East, Blackwards" (1990), followed by "Xodus" (1992) and a temporary break-up. Both albums peaked at #11 on Billboard's Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart in the United States.  Other artists who were affiliated with X Clan and Blackwatch include Isis, Queen Mother Rage, and YZ. X Clan's affiliates released a string of titles throughout the early 1990s: Professor X released a solo album titled "Years of the 9, on the Blackhand Side" in 1991 and a second solo album titled "Puss N' Boots: The Struggle Continues" in 1993; Queen Mother Rage released "Vanglorious Law" in 1991 ("vanglorious" is a word that the group made up—not to be confused with “vainglorious”); Isis released "Rebel Soul" in 1990; and YZ released his debut "Sons of The Father" (noted for the song "Thinking of a Master Plan"), in 1989, followed by "The Ghetto's Been Good to Me" (which included his modest hit "Return of the Holy One") in 1993. YZ became affiliated with the group after releasing his first album, and that Isis is also the MC known as Linque Ayoung, who at one point was a member of the Wu-Tang Clan-affiliated group Deadly Venoms.

Later projects.

In 1994 Brother J formed a new group, Dark Sun Riders, that released the full-length "Seeds of Evolution" in 1996. In 1995, long-time group member Sugar Shaft died from complications of AIDS. Brother J was an early and valued member of the worldwide Hip Hop organization called Ill Crew Universal. X Clan reunited in the late 1990s but did not release any new material. Brother J assembled a new crew that he calls X Clan Millennium Cipher and released a vinyl single for "The One/Blackwards Row" in 2004. Professor X died from complications of spinal meningitis on March 17, 2006.  A new X Clan album, titled "Return from Mecca" (originally titled "The Trinity"), was released in 2007, featuring Damian "Jr Gong" Marley, Chali 2na of Jurassic 5, RBX, KRS-One, Daddy X of Kottonmouth Kings, and Jacoby Shaddix, lead vocalist of the rock band Papa Roach. Also, Tech N9ne is featured on a hidden bonus track titled "Respect."  X Clan opened for Insane Clown Posse's Tempest Tour and, in January 2009, released an album titled "Mainstream Outlawz".

X Clan (formerly stylized as XCLAN and often incorrectly spelled X-Clan) is a hip hop group from Brooklyn, New York, originally consisting of Grand Verbalizer Funkin' Lesson Brother J, Professor X the Overseer, Paradise the Architect, and Sugar Shaft the Rhythm Provider. The current incarnation of the group features leader Brother J, Master China, Kumu, "Ultraman" Ra Hanna, ACL, Lord Cza, DJ Fat Jack and Zulu.

Der X-Clan ist eine in traditionellen, afrikanischen Gewändern auftretenden Musikgruppe. Die Musik kann als politische Rapmusik, die sich mit den Themen Rassismus, Weltpolitik und Ungerechtigkeit auseinandersetzt, beschrieben werden. X-Clan wurde von Sugar Shaft, der als DJ für die Gruppe fungierte, Paradise The Architect, der die Aufgaben des Managers erfüllte, Brother J, der als MC arbeitete und Professor X, der die Rolle des Frontmann übernahm, gegründet. Sie waren während ihrer Karriere unter anderem mit Public Enemy auf Tournee.


Background.

The first attempts to create a reformed poor relief system in Elberfeld began in 1800, when, dissatisfied with existing conditions, the city appointed six visitors to investigate applications for relief. The visitors were increased to 12 the following year. In 1802 there was a great increase. The city was divided into eight districts and these districts into four sections, and a board of supervisors chosen.  At the time (the first half of the 19th century), the textile-manufacturing cities of Barmen and Elberfeld were pioneering the industrialization of Germany. Immigration swelled the population of Elberfeld from 16,000 to 19,000 in 1810 to 31,000 to 40,000 in 1840, and the two cities were among the most densely populated municipalities in Germany.  The 1802 system was further extended in 1841. In 1850, dissatisfaction having arisen in several quarters, the Lutheran church attempted to do the work. Matters were not improved. The population of poor people was disproportionately high. And the centrally managed system of urban poor relief that the two cities had inherited proved to be too expensive and inefficient to cope with the new scale of the problem.  The Elberfeld system was a new structure of care that attempted to adapt to the new conditions.

The system.

In 1852, a plan proposed by a banker, Daniel von Heydt, was put in operation. The administration of poor relief was decentralized. Working under a citywide poor office, subdepartments were established in smaller precincts - their relief workers worked on behalf of the central office.There were 252 precincts, each to care for four to 10 families.  Each precinct was in the care of an unsalaried almoner whose duty was to investigate each applicant for aid and to make visits every two weeks as long as aid was given. (Although, aid was not always extended - initial assistance was limited to two weeks and further services had to be approved again.) Fourteen precincts formed a district. The almoners met every two weeks under direction of an unpaid overseer to discuss the cases and to vote on needed relief. Those proceedings were reported to the directors, being the mayor as "ex officio" chairman, four councilmen, and four citizens (also unpaid), who met the day following to review and supervise the work throughout the city. In emergency cases the almoner might furnish assistance.  Relief was granted in money according to a fixed schedule for two weeks at a time, any earning the family may have garnered being deducted. Tools were furnished when advisable. The funds distributed to the poor came either from city coffers or from existing charitable foundations.  Key to the system was that the almoners and overseers served voluntarily. They came mostly from the middle class, being minor officials, craftsmen or merchants. Women were also accepted as almoners, giving them a rare (for the time) opportunity to participate in public life. The larger number of volunteers decreased both the number of clients per almoner, and the total system costs.  The system gave great satisfaction; the expenses in proportion to the population gradually decreased, and the condition of the poor is said to have improved. The essential principles of the Elberfeld system found application in the public-relief administration of the cities of the Rhineland, notably in Cologne, Crefeld, Düsseldorf, Aix-la-Chapelle, and Remscheid. A similar system had been employed in Hamburg. The Elberfeld system influenced the reorganization of relief systems in most of the German cities. Attempts to introduce the system in non-German cities were unsuccessful.  In the last third of the 19th century, however, immigration fuelled by industrialization once again increased the numbers of the needy, and the poor relief volunteers reached the limits of their capabilities. In the larger cities particularly, there was a return to greater centralization and professionalisation of poor relief.  In 1903, sculptor Wilhelm Neumann-Torborg (who was born in Elberfeld) created a bronze sculpture, The "Elberfeld Poor Relief Monument," to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the founding of the Elberfeld system. The statue was mostly destroyed during the Second World War, when the bronze figures were melted down for metal. But in 2003, the granite pedestal of the monument was rediscovered during excavations at the Elberfeld Old Reformed Church, and placed on display in Blankstrasse, Wuppertal. In 2011, it was restored thanks to 24 private donations. The bronze figures were recast at the Kayser Art Foundry by sculptor Shwan Kamal in Düsseldorf.

The Elberfeld system was a system for aiding the poor in 19th-century Germany. It was a success when it was inaugurated in Elberfeld in 1853 and was adopted by many other German cities, but by the turn of the century an increasing population became more than the Elberfeld system (which relied on volunteer social workers) could handle, and it fell out of use.

Das Elberfelder System (auch "Elberfelder Modell") der Armenfürsorge entstand in den 1850er Jahren und war der Versuch, die kommunale Armenverwaltung an die Bedingungen der entstehenden Industriegesellschaft anzupassen. Es entstand in Elberfeld (heute Stadtteil von Wuppertal) und wurde in der zweiten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts von zahlreichen Städten übernommen.


Family.

Glabrio belonged to the gens Acilia, a plebeian family that first came to notice in the Third century BC, and could claim a number of consuls as ancestors, beginning with Manius Acilius Glabrio in 191 BC. Glabrio's own father, whose existence is alluded to by Juvenal as an old man still alive at his son's death, is inferred to have been a suffect consul during the reign of Nero.  His wife has been identified as Arria L.f. Plaria Vera Priscilla, known from a surviving inscription. They had one known son, Manius Acilius Glabrio, consul ordinarius in 124.

Possible Christianity.

According to Suetonius, Domitian ordered several senators and ex-consuls, including Glabrio, to be executed on the charge of conspiring against the empire -- "quasi molitores rerum novarum", "as contrivers of revolution". Eusebius alludes to this proscription of "well-born and notable men", but does not mention why Domitian had done this, nor provides any names. John Xiphilinus, speaking of the executions of AD 95, says that some members of the imperial family and other persons of importance were condemned for impiety. Some writers afterwards interpreted the charge of impiety against Acilius Glabrio as evidence that he belonged to the Christian religion, although others believe it more likely he might have converted to Judaism.  The legend that Glabrio was an early convert to Christianity was suggested to be true when in 1888 a tomb of the Acilii Glabriones was discovered adjacent to the Catacomb of Priscilla. Although the inscriptions from the tomb mentioning the family were inscribed in a script used generations later than this Manius Acilius Glabrio and his wife Priscilla, at the time numerous experts eagerly cited this archaeological find as certain proof of the story. It was in 1931 when P. Styger was able to show the stone inscriptions did not properly belong to the chamber, but had been part of a sepulchre that was demolished in the construction of the Basilica of San Silvester after the fourth century. Half a century later, F. Tolotti was able to confirm Styger's interpretation when he identified the funerary area the inscriptions had come from.

Manius Acilius Glabrio was a Roman Senator who served as consul ordinarius in AD 91 as the colleague of Trajan, afterwards emperor. Although one of many senators executed during the reign of Domitian on the alleged grounds of plotting against the emperor, he was remembered by his contemporaries best for his strength. Domitian summoned Glabrio during the latter's consulate to his Alban estate during the festival of the Juvenalia to kill a large lion; not only did Glabrio despatch the beast, but he escaped all injury. Following his defeat of the lion, Glabrio was banished by Domitian, then executed while in exile.

Manius Acilius Glabrio († 95) war ein römischer Politiker und Senator aus der gens Acilia. Er war Sohn des früheren Konsuls Acilius Glabrio. 91 war er neben dem späteren Kaiser Trajan Konsul. Im Jahr seines Konsulats soll er nach Berichten von Sueton ("Domitian" 10,2) auf Befehl des Kaisers hin als Gladiator in der Arena von Albano gekämpft haben. Juvenal (Sat. IV, 99–101) spricht von einem unbewaffneten Kampf gegen einen Bären, Cassius Dio (Hist. Rom., LXVI, III). von einem Kampf mit einem Löwen. 95 ließ ihn Kaiser Domitian hinrichten, offenbar soll er Beziehungen zu Christen aus der Familie der Flavier unterhalten haben.


History.

Pre-colonial history.

Chiengi and the area just to its north were ravaged by the slave trade and related ivory trade in the 18th Century. Numerous Arab and Swahili slave traders such as Tippu Tib operated around the north end of Lake Mweru, around Lake Mweru Wantipa and over to Lake Tanganyika.

Colonial history.

Chiengi boma was established during the race between Belgian King Leopold II's Congo Free State and the British South Africa Company (BSAC) of Cecil Rhodes to seize Katanga from its king, Msiri, in 1890-91. Alfred Sharpe was sent to obtain a treaty from Msiri by the BSAC from the British Commissioner's office at Zomba in Nyasaland in 1890, but he failed. On his way back to Nyasaland in early 1891 he passed the Chiengi rivulet and, since Chief Puta Chipalabwe who reigned as a Chief of the Bwile people between 1879-1909. Bwile people, five kilometres to the south, was amenable to a treaty, Sharpe decided to set up a boma there to secure the territory east of Mweru for the BSAC, and to act as a forward base for another attempt to wring a treaty out of Msiri. He left his second-in-command, Captain Crayshaw, with some African troops to build and staff the boma.  However, Leopold sent the Stairs Expedition to secure Katanga which they achieved in December 1891 after killing Msiri. On the way back to the east coast of Africa, the Stairs Expedition passed close to Chiengi and exchanged messages with Crayshaw regarding the position of the border dividing CFS and BSAC territory between Lake Mweru and Lake Tanganyika.  Chiengi Boma was probably the first colonial post in what was to be called North-Eastern Rhodesia (it was still referred to as part of 'Zambezia' at the time), and was one of the most remote outposts of the British Empire, a lonely posting which sent more than one colonial officer mad. For a number of years the boma was removed to the Kalungwishi River, and during this period the Belgian colonial authorities in Pweto, just across the border in DR Congo, controlled the northern end of the lake including the western extremity of Chiengi District, the so-called Lunchinda enclave west of the Lunchinda River. The British then re-established the boma at Chiengi but the eventual outcome of de facto Belgian control of the Lunchinda enclave led to it eventually being ceded to DR Congo by Zambia — see the article on the Luapula Province border dispute.  Chiengi Boma was finally closed in 1933 and superseded by Kawambwa and then Nchelenge bomas.  In addition to fishing in the lake, the chief trade of Chiengi in colonial times was in salt, which had been deposited in the dambo by streams running out of the hills, and there was a thriving trade.

History since.

Chiengi was restored as a sub-administrative administrative centre under Nchelenge District of independent Zambia in the 1970s and as a full administrative District in the 1990s. The area has been affected by conflict in the Congo several times, most recently in the Second Congo War, when tens of thousands of refugees arrived and were settled in UNHCR camps in Kawambwa and Mporokoso Districts. Most of these have been repatriated since the end of that war. Reports have also been made of Congolese soldiers harassing Zambians at the border and inside Zambian territory.

Roads.

Chiengi is reached by a gravel road, frequently impassable in the rainy season, from Nchelenge and Kashikishi 100 km south (the same journey can be done by boat). From Chiengi a dirt track runs along the flat northern lake shore to Pweto in DR Congo. A new gravel road has been constructed north-east to the border, around the Chipani Swamp and east to Kasongola from where (in the dry season) tracks connect to Kaputa in Zambia's Northern Province.

Chiengi or Chienghospital historic colonial boma of the British Empire in central Africa and today is a settlement in the Luapula Province of Zambia, and headquarters of Chiengi District. Chiengi is in the north-east corner of Lake Mweru, and at the foot of wooded hills dividing that lake from Lake Mweru Wantipa, and overlooking a dambo (marshy plain) stretching northwards from the lake, where the Chiengi rivulet (the origin of the name) flows down from the hills.

Chiengi ist ein Ort am Mwerusee in der Luapulaprovinz in Sambia. Er liegt 1150 Meter über dem Meeresspiegel und ist Sitz der Verwaltung des gleichnamigen Distrikts mit 83.824 Einwohnern (Volkszählung 2000).


Life.

Petr was born into the family of Otto Ginz, a manager of the export department of a textile company from Prague and notable Esperantist, and Marie Ginz (née Dolanská). Petr's father was Jewish, and his mother was not. His parents met at an Esperantist congress. His mother was from Hradec Králové where her father was a village teacher. Petr got frequent visits from his relatives during Christmas including his grandfather who owned an antique shop in Jungmann Square where he sold rare books. Petr was a very intelligent boy; between the ages of 8 and 14 he wrote 5 novels: "From Prague to China", "The Wizard from Altay Mountains", "Around the World in One Second" and "A Visit from Prehistory" — the only surviving novel today. The novels, including "Návštěva z pravěku" (), were written in the style of Jules Verne and illustrated with his own paintings. He was interested in the sciences and yearned for knowledge. Because of his parents' interest in Esperanto, this was one of the native languages of Petr (the other one being Czech).  According to the anti-Jewish laws of the Third Reich, children from mixed marriages were to be deported to a concentration camp at the age of 14. Young Petr was transported to the Theresienstadt concentration camp in October 1942. His efforts in sciences and thirst for knowledge remained and he tried to study even in the concentration camp. He often read from the library full of confiscated books to which he had access. He was placed in the "Domov č.1" (Home No. 1, building L417). He became one of the most significant individuals of the community. He established and prepared for publication the periodical magazine "Vedem" which means "We Lead." He also wrote an Esperanto–Czech dictionary as well as several other short novels that have been lost. One such piece of writing is called 'The Rambles through Theresienstadt' where he interviews and comments on people, buildings and even the crematorium.  The breadth of his interests, abilities and character are determined from his writings that remain and from the testimonials of friends who survived. He was interested in literature, history, paintings, geography, sociology and also in the technical fields. The magazine "Vedem" was published every Friday for two years.  Petr was assigned to one of the last transports to Auschwitz concentration camp from Terezín, where he died in the gas chambers in 1944. His diary has been published in English under the name: "The Diary of Petr Ginz 1941–1942".

"Vedem".

The magazine was founded shortly after his arrival at Terezín in 1942. Besides Ginz, several other boys from the "Domov č.1." also contributed. Petr Ginz became a chief editor and he contributed under the code name "nz" or "Akademie" (Academy). One of his closest collaborators was Hanuš Hachenburg who wrote many poems. Ginz gave most of his writings and paintings to his sister before his transport, so a majority have survived to today. His sister was also deported to Terezín in 1944, but she survived.

Diary.

Before his transport, Ginz wrote a diary between 1941 and 1942 about his life. This diary, written in a matter-of-fact way, has been compared to Anne Frank's diary. This diary was lost for a long time but was later found and published by his sister Eva (now Chava Pressburger) as "Diary of My Brother". The diary was published in Spanish, Catalan, and Esperanto, as well as the original Czech. It was published in English in April 2007 as "The Diary of Petr Ginz 1941–1942". It was reviewed in "The New York Times" on Tuesday 10 April 2007.

Drawing.

Israeli astronaut Ilan Ramon, whose mother and grandmother were survivors of Auschwitz, was asked by S. Isaac Mekel, director of development at the American Society for Yad Vashem, to take an item from Yad Vashem onto the American Space Shuttle "Columbia". Ramon carried with him a copy of a drawing by Ginz of the planet Earth as seen from the Moon. The shuttle, while reentering Earth's atmosphere, broke apart on 1 February 2003, destroying the copy of Ginz's drawing on what would have been his 75th birthday. In 2018, 15 years after the Space Shuttle "Columbia" disaster, another copy was given by Yad Vashem to Ilan's widow, Rona, to give to astronaut Andrew Feustel. Feustel carried it to space during Expedition 56 in memory of Ginz and Ramon. Feustel's video message commemorating Holocaust Remembrance Day (Yom HaShoah) 2018/5778 featured the astronaut displaying Ginz's depiction of a view of Earth from the Moon.  Petr Ginz's drawing and its fateful history have inspired other pieces of art. One example is the painting "Variation on Petr Ginz's Moon Landscape" (2008) by Panamanian artist Roberto Perez-Franco.

Legacy.

The asteroid 50413 Petrginz was named in his honour.  In 2005 the Czech Post edited a 31 KČ stamp with the Moon drawing and a portrait in remembrance of Petr Ginz.  In Prague a Stolperstein by German artist Gunter Demnig was installed.  His life was commemorated in a 2012 documentary film, "The Last Flight of Petr Ginz", directed by Sandra Dickson and Churchill Roberts.

Petr Ginz (1 February 1928 – 28 September 1944) was a Czechoslovak boy of partial Jewish background who was deported to the Theresienstadt concentration camp (also known as Terezín, in Czech) during the Holocaust. He died at the age of sixteen when he was transferred to Auschwitz concentration camp and gassed to death upon arrival. His diary was posthumously published.

Petr Ginz (* 1. Februar 1928 in Prag, Tschechoslowakei; † 28. September 1944 im KZ Auschwitz) war ein jugendlicher tschechischer Zeichner und Autor und Opfer der Shoa.


History.

Origins.

The School of Oriental Studies was founded in 1916 at 2 Finsbury Circus, London, the then premises of the London Institution. The school received its royal charter on 5 June 1916 and admitted its first students on 18 January 1917. The school was formally inaugurated a month later on 23 February 1917 by King George V. Among those in attendance were Earl Curzon of Kedleston, formerly Viceroy of India, and other cabinet officials.  The School of Oriental Studies was founded by the British state as an instrument to strengthen Britain's political, commercial and military presence in Asia and Africa. It would do so by providing instruction to colonial administrators (Colonial Service and Imperial Civil Service), commercial managers and military officers, but also to missionaries, doctors and teachers, in the language of that part of Asia or Africa to which each was being posted, together with an authoritative introduction to the customs, religion, laws and history of the people whom they were to govern or among whom they would be working.  The school's founding mission was to advance British scholarship, science and commerce in Africa and Asia and to provide London University with a rival to the Oriental schools of Berlin, Petrograd and Paris. The school immediately became integral in training British administrators, colonial officials and spies for overseas postings across the British Empire. Africa was added to the school's name in 1938.

Second World War.

For a period in the mid-1930s, prior to moving to its current location at Thornhaugh Street, Bloomsbury, the school was located at Vandon House, Vandon Street, London SW1, with the library located at Clarence House. Its move to new premises in Bloomsbury was held up by delays in construction and the half-completed building took a hit during the Blitz in September 1940. With the onset of the Second World War, many University of London colleges were evacuated from London in 1939 and billeted on universities in the rest of the country. The School was, on the Government's advice, transferred to Christ's College, Cambridge.  In 1940, when it became apparent that a return to London was possible, the school returned to the city and was housed for some months in eleven rooms at Broadway Court, 8 Broadway, London SW1. In 1942, the War Office joined with the school's Japanese department to help alleviate the shortage in Japanese linguists. State scholarships were offered to select grammar and public school boys to train as military translators and intelligence officers. Lodged at Dulwich College in south London, the students became affectionately known as "the Dulwich boys".  Bletchley Park, the headquarters of the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS), was concerned about the slow pace of the SOAS, so they started their own Japanese-language courses at Bedford in February 1942. The courses were directed by army cryptographer Col. John Tiltman, and retired Royal Navy officer Capt. Oswald Tuck.

1945 to present.

In recognition of SOAS's role during the war, the 1946 Scarborough Commission (officially the "Commission of Enquiry into the Facilities for Oriental, Slavonic, East European and African Studies") report recommended a major expansion in provision for the study of Asia and the school benefited greatly from the subsequent largesse. The SOAS School of Law was established in 1947 with Professor Vesey-Fitzgerald as its first head. Growth however was curtailed by following years of economic austerity, and upon Sir Cyril Philips assuming the directorship in 1956, the school was in a vulnerable state. Over his 20-year stewardship, Phillips transformed the school, raising funds and broadening the school's remit.  A college of the University of London, the School's fields include Law, Social Sciences, Humanities, and Languages with special reference to Asia and Africa. The SOAS Library, located in the Philips Building, is the UK's national resource for materials relating to Asia and Africa and is the largest of its kind in the world. The school has grown considerably over the past 30 years, from fewer than 1,000 students in the 1970s to more than 6,000 students today, nearly half of them postgraduates. SOAS is partnered with the Institut National des Langues et Civilisations Orientales (INALCO) in Paris which is often considered the French equivalent of SOAS.  In 2011, the Privy Council approved changes to the school's charter allowing it to award degrees in its own name, following the trend set by fellow colleges the London School of Economics, University College London and King's College London. All new students registered from September 2013 will qualify for a SOAS, University of London, award.  In 2012, a new visual identity for SOAS was launched to be used in print, digital media and around the campus. The SOAS tree symbol, first implemented in 1989, was redrawn and recoloured in gold, with the new symbol incorporating the leaves of ten trees, including the English Oak representing England; the Bodhi, Coral Bark Maple, Teak representing Asia; the Mountain Acacia, African Pear, Lasiodiscus representing Africa; and the Date Palm, Pomegranate and Ghaf representing the Middle East.

Antisemitism accusations.

Dating back to at least 2005, SOAS has faced a handful of accusations of systemic antisemitism and anti-Israel rhetoric from pro Israel activists purveyed by its Student Union and members of its faculty, and for failing to adequately address antisemitism on campus. One such slur titled SOAS as "the School Of Anti-Semitism." In 2015, the SOAS Student Union held a referendum in which its members voted to adopt the Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions agenda and boycott Israel. In a motion for a "Jewish Equality Act" passed in 2017, the Student Union voted to remove a line stating, "Jewish students should be given the right to self-determination and be able to define what constitutes hatred against their group like all other minority groups." Jewish students at SOAS have reported being unable to express themselves in a Jewish way, and fear hate and retribution if they wear Jewish symbols or speak Hebrew on campus. In their annual "University Extreme Speakers" report, the Henry Jackson Society claims that SOAS has been responsible for hosting 70 (16%) of the 435 events that featured extremist speakers over the past three years, putting up 43 speakers who have previously made pro-jihadi or antisemitic remarks over the past year.

Campus.

The campus is located in the Bloomsbury area of central London, close to Russell Square. It includes College Buildings (the Philips Building and the Old Building), Brunei Gallery, Faber Building (23–24 Russell Square), 21–22 Russell Square and the northern Block of Senate House (since 2016). The SOAS library designed by Sir Denys Lasdun in 1973 is located in the Philips Building. The nearest Underground station is Russell Square.  The school houses the Brunei Gallery, built from an endowment from the Sultan of Brunei Darussalam, and inaugurated by the Princess Royal, as Chancellor of the University of London, on 22 November 1995. Its facilities include exhibition space on three floors, a book shop, a lecture theatre, and conference and teaching facilities. The Brunei Gallery hosts a programme of changing contemporary and historical exhibitions from Asia, Africa and the Middle East with the aim to present and promote cultures from these regions.  The Japanese-style roof garden on top of the Brunei Gallery was built during the Japan 2001 celebrations and was opened by the sponsor, Haruhisa Handa, an Honorary Fellow of the School, on 13 November 2001. The garden is dedicated to Forgiveness, which is the meaning of the kanji character engraved on the garden's granite water basin. Peter Swift, a designer with experience of adapting Japanese garden design principles to the British environment and climate, conceived the garden as a place of quiet contemplation and meditation as well as a functional space complementary to the gallery and its artistic activities.  The school hosted the Percival David Foundation of Chinese Art, one of the foremost collections of Chinese ceramics in Europe. The collection has been loaned to the British Museum, where it is now on permanent display in Room 95.  The SOAS Centenary Masterplan conceived the development of two new buildings and a substantial remodelling of existing space to realign and develop the entrance and two areas within the Old Building. The cost estimates for the Centenary Masterplan settle at around £73m for the total project. The full implementation of the School's Centenary Masterplan would deliver approximately 30% additional space, approximately 1,000 sq metres.

Organisation and administration.

Governance.

Directors.

Since its foundation, the school has had nine directors. The inaugural director was the celebrated linguist Sir Edward Denison Ross. Under the stewardship of Sir Cyril Philips, the school saw considerable growth and modernisation. Under Colin Bundy in the 2000s, the school became one of the top ranked universities both domestically and internationally. The previous director Valerie Amos will be replaced by Professor Adam Habib in January 2021.

Faculties and departments.

SOAS, University of London is divided into three faculties. These are further divided into academic departments. SOAS has many Centres and Institutes, each of which is affiliated to a particular faculty.

Faculty of Arts and Humanities.

The Faculty of Arts and Humanities houses the departments of Anthropology & Sociology, History of Art & Archaeology, History, Music, Philosophy and Religious Studies and the Centre for Media Studies. It offers courses at the undergraduate and postgraduate level, with an emphasis on Asia, Africa, and the Middle East. A gift from the Alphawood Foundation in 2013 created the Hiram W. Woodward Chair in Southeast Asian art, the David Snellgrove Senior Lectureship in Tibetan and Buddhist art, and a Senior Lectureship in Curating and Museology of Asian Art, as well as a number of scholarships for students, making the Department of Art & Archaeology a key institution at a global level in the study of Southeast Asia. The university is also a member of the Screen Studies Group, London.

Faculty of Languages and Cultures.

Department of Linguistics.

The SOAS Department of Linguistics was the first ever linguistics department in the United Kingdom, founded in 1932 as a centre for research and study in Oriental and African languages. J. R. Firth, known internationally for his work in phonology and semantics, was Senior Lecturer, Reader and Professor of General Linguistics at the school between 1938 and 1956.

Faculty of Law and Social Sciences.

The Faculty of Law and Social Sciences houses the departments of Development Studies, Economics, Financial and Management Studies, Politics and International Studies and the School of Law, as well as the Asia-Pacific Centre for Social Sciences, the Centre for Gender Studies, the Centre for International Studies and Diplomacy, the Centre of Taiwan Studies and a number of department-specific centres. It offers courses at the undergraduate and postgraduate level, many with an emphasis on Asia, Africa, and the Middle East.

SOAS School of Law.

One of the largest individual departments, the SOAS School of Law is one of Britain's leading law schools and the sole law school in the world focusing on the study of Asian, African and Middle Eastern legal systems. The School of Law has more than 400 students. It offers programmes at the LL.B., LL.M. and MPhil/PhD levels. International students have been a majority at all levels for many years.  The SOAS School of Law has an unrivaled concentration of expertise in the laws of Asian and African countries, human rights, transnational commercial law, environmental law, and comparative law. The SOAS School of Law was ranked 15th out of all 98 British law schools by "The Guardian" League Table in 2016.  Although many modules at SOAS embody a substantial element of English common law, all modules are taught (as much as possible) in a comparative or international manner with an emphasis on the way in which law functions in society. Thus, law studies at SOAS are broad and comparative in their orientation. All students study a significant amount of non-English law, start in the first year of the LL.B. course, where "Legal Systems of Asia and Africa" is compulsory. Specialised modules in the laws and legal systems of particular countries and regions are also encouraged, and faculty experts conduct modules in these subjects every year.

Academic profile.

SOAS is a centre for the study of subjects concerned with Asia, Africa and the Middle East. It trains government officials on secondment from around the world in Asian, African and Middle Eastern languages and area studies, particularly in Arabic & Islamic Studies – which combined with Hebrew formed the major bulk of classical Oriental Studies in Europe – and Mandarin Chinese. It also acts as a consultant to government departments and to companies such as Accenture and Deloitte – when they seek to gain specialist knowledge of the matters concerning Asia, Africa and the Middle East.  The school is made up of nineteen departments across three faculties: Arts and Humanities, Languages and Cultures, and Law and Social Sciences. The school focuses on small group teaching with a student-staff ratio of 11:1, one of the best in the UK.

Library.

The SOAS library is a library for Asian, African and Middle Eastern studies. It houses more than 1.2 million volumes and electronic resources for the study of Africa, Asia and the Middle East, and attracts scholars from all over the world. The library was designated by HEFCE in 2011 as one of the UK's five National Research Libraries.  The library is housed in the Philips Building on the Russell Square campus and was built in 1973. It was designed by architect Sir Denys Lasdun, who also designed some of Britain's most famous brutalist buildings such as the National Theatre and the Institute of Education.  In 2010/11 the library underwent a £12 million modernisation programme, known as "the Library Transformation Project". The work refurbished the ground floor of the library and created new reception and entrance areas, new music practice rooms, group study rooms and a gallery exhibition space.  SOAS being a constituent college of the University of London, its students also have access to Senate House Library, shared by other colleges such as London School of Economics and University College London, which is located just a short walk from the Russell Square campus.  The library was used as a filming location for some scenes in the 2016 film "Criminal".

Rankings.

The 2017 QS World University Rankings places SOAS 39th in the world for Arts & Humanities and 7th globally for Development Studies, 23rd for Anthropology and 39th for Politics & International Studies. However, as a specialist institution with a very narrow area of focus, a proper ranking is very difficult.  SOAS's Department of Financial and Management Studies (DeFiMS) is ranked in the top-ten for Business Studies in the 2013 Complete University Guide's League Table. The research strength of the department has been previously recognised by the 2008 Research Assessment Exercise (RAE) where 90 per cent was rated as internationally recognised, internationally excellent or world leading quality.  The results of the 2008 United Kingdom RAE took the form of profiles spread across four grade levels. Hence, there are different ways to present them and to rank the departments. In their published tables, the Times Higher and the Guardian Education chose to use an average of the profile or GPA (Grade Point Average); both rankings placed the SOAS Department of Anthropology equal second, ranking just behind Cambridge with LSE. According to the 2008 United Kingdom Research Assessment Exercise, SOAS is the national leader in the study of Asia.

Student life.

In, there were undergraduate students In 2012, 41% of students were over 21 and 60% were female. According to the QS World University Rankings, SOAS hosts international students from 140 countries.  SOAS is renowned for its political scene and radical socialist politics, and was voted the most politically active university in the UK in the Which?University 2012. Recent campaigns include students for social change, women's liberty and justice for cleaners. The SOAS Marxist Society holds frequent events and encourages student voter registration.  Located in the heart of Bloomsbury, students are minutes from the British Museum, British Library, University of London Union and the nightlife of the West End. Many University of London schools and institutes are close by, including Birkbeck, the Institute of Education, London Business School, the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, the Royal Veterinary College, the School of Advanced Study, Senate House Library and University College London.

Sports.

SOAS has multiple smaller sports teams competining in a variety of local and national leagues, as well as ocassional international tournaments. SOAS sports pride themselves on inclusivity, regardless of ability, background, or experience. SOAS clubs compete in inter-university fixtures in the British Universities and Colleges Sport (BUCS) competition in a range of sports, including basketball, football, hockey, netball, rugby union and tennis. SOAS also participates in an annual North London Varsity tournmanet against London Metropolitan University.

Student housing.

SOAS operates two halls of residence in central London, both owned by Sanctuary Student Housing. The primary accommodation for undergraduates is Dinwiddy House which is located on Pentonville Road. This contains 510 single en-suite rooms arranged in small cluster flats of around six rooms each. The halls are located within minutes of King's Cross St. Pancras tube station and the Vernon Square campus.  A few minutes walk from Dinwiddy House and also on the Pentonville Road is Paul Robeson House, the second halls of residence. This was opened in 1998, and is named after the African-American musician Paul Robeson who studied at SOAS. This accommodation is occupied by postgraduate students, and those attending the international SOAS Summer schools.  SOAS students are eligible to apply for places in the University of London intercollegiate halls of residence. The majority of these are based in Bloomsbury such as Canterbury Hall, Commonwealth Hall, College Hall, Connaught Hall, Hughes Parry Hall and International Hall, while further afield are Nutford House in Marble Arch and Lillian Penson Hall in Paddington. A number of SOAS postgraduate students also apply for student accommodation at Goodenough College.

Notable people.

Notable alumni.

SOAS alumni have made significant contributions in the fields of government and politics. These include Sultan Salahuddin, King of Malaysia (1999–2001), Mette-Marit, Crown Princess of Norway, Princess Ayşe Gülnev Sultan, descendant of Mehmed V Reşâd, 35th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, John Atta Mills, former President of Ghana, Luisa Diogo, former Prime Minister of Mozambique, Bülent Ecevit, former Prime Minister of Turkey.  Around the world, several world leaders and political figures are alumni: Aung San Suu Kyi, Nobel Peace Prize laureate and First and incumbent State Counsellor of Myanmar, Zairil Khir Johari, Member of the Malaysian Parliament, Amal Pepple, Minister of Lands, Housing and Urban Development in Nigeria, Aaron Mike Oquaye, Minister of Communication in Ghana, Hüseyin Çelik, Turkish Minister of Education, Femi Fani-Kayode, former Nigerian Minister of Culture and Tourism and former Minister of Aviation, Kraisak Choonhavan, Former Senator in Thailand, Samia Nkrumah, Ghanaian Member of Parliament and Mohamed Jameel Ahmed, 4th Vice President of the Maldives. In British politics, several current and former Members of Parliament are alumni: David Lammy, Catherine West, Tim Yeo, Ivor Stanbrook, Sir Ray Whitney, Enoch Powell.

SOAS University of London (; the School of Oriental and African Studies) is a public research university in London, England, and a constituent college of the federal University of London. Founded in 1916, SOAS is located in the heart of Bloomsbury, in central London.

Die SOAS University of London oder kurz SOAS ist eine britische Universität. Die Abkürzung steht für School of Oriental and African Studies und verweist auf die historischen Ursprünge in den Bereichen Orientalistik und Afrikawissenschaften. Formal handelt es sich bei der SOAS um ein eigenständiges College, das zum Hochschulverbund University of London gehört. Die SOAS wurde 1916 gegründet und gehört heute zu den Top 15 der Hochschulen in Großbritannien (beste Platzierung: Rang 4 (The Guardian, 2005)).


French version.

Background.

In the late 1980s, the "Marine Nationale" started the studies for frigates adapted to low-intensity conflicts in the post–Cold War era. The ships were to serve in the large French exclusive economic zone (EEZ), be adapted to humanitarian operations or low-intensity operations in support of land troops, and replace the aging s, which tended to prove too focused on naval operations and were ill-suited for joint operations.  Conventional warships used in low-intensity or humanitarian relief operations proved costly, with their heavy equipment and large crew. Hence came the requirement for lightly armed frigates with economical engines and small crew. In Italy, the same requirements led to the development of the and type corvettes, built according to both civilian and military standards. These ships were limited to 1,300 tonnes because the limited size and depth of the Mediterranean and the proximity of the homeland. The French Navy, on the other hand, had to be present in overseas territories, bases and EEZ. To be enduring enough, the ships had to reach 3,000 tonnes, the size of a frigate. The larger displacement allows combining strong firepower (like the "Minerva" class) and a capacity for a medium helicopter (like the "Cassiopea" class), along with a good autonomy and seaworthiness.  The first type of ships built on these principles were the s, built on civilian standards, with a limited armament, and carrying a medium helicopter. These ships are high endurance units designed to be operated in overseas possessions (the Caribbean, Polynesia, and New Caledonia) and the EEZ, where the likelihood of a naval threat is low. The speed is limited to 20 knots because of the low-power engines which emphasises autonomy and reliability. To fight pirates in fast rigid-hulled inflatable boats, the "Floréal"s rely on their onboard helicopter and marine detachment.  The niche for more hostile environments is covered by the "La Fayette" type, designed to operate in complex zones like the Indian Ocean or Djibouti. These ships were to be able to secure the EEZ, but also to operate in naval groups or intelligence gathering missions. The intended role for the ships was in fact very varied, because the experience of the C.70 class, with an intended 20 ships cut down to only nine (the seven s and two s) had taught that project downsizing and reorganisations could lead to badly balanced naval capabilities. The new ships were to benefit from breakthroughs on stealth (""furtivité"") achieved by the DCN in the 1980s.  It took several years to refine the concept, and the first ship was eventually launched in 1992, two years after the final design was completed. Weapon system testing took place in 1994, and particularly extensive trials were undertaken to prove the structure of the ship under a wide range of conditions. "La Fayette" was eventually commissioned in March 1996.

Stealth.

At the time of their commissioning, the units of the "La Fayette" class were the state of the art in stealth for warships. The shape of the hull and the superstructures is devised for the optimal reduction of the radar signature, which has been reduced by 60 percent: a 3000-tonne "La Fayette" unit has the typical radar signature of a 1200 tonne ship. Stealth is achieved with inclined flanks, as few vertical lines as possible, and very clean lines and superstructures: stairs and mooring equipment are internal, and prominent structures are covered by clear surfaces. The superstructures are built using radar-absorbent synthetic materials.  Their radar cross-section is equivalent to that of a large fishing boat, which can make camouflage among civilian ships possible; or that of a much less capable corvette, which could lead an enemy to underestimate the capabilities of the ship. In case of a direct attack, the small radar signature helps evade enemy missiles and fire control systems. The "La Fayette"s are also equipped with jammers that can generate false radar images, as well as decoy launchers. Further point missile defence will be provided when the ships are equipped with the Aster 15 antimissile missiles.  Thanks to the adoption of low-power diesel motors and a special heat dissipation system, the "La Fayette" ships have a low thermal signature. The usual funnel is replaced with a small sets of pipes, aft of the mast, which cool the exit gas before it is released. The ships usually operate in warm areas, which further decreases the thermal contrast with the environment.  The magnetic signature is reduced by the presence of a demagnetisation belt.  The acoustic signature is minimized by mounting the engines on elastomeric supports, which minimize vibration transfers to the hull, and by rubber coatings on the propellers. The "La Fayette"s are equipped with the Prairie Masker active acoustic camouflage system, which generates small bubbles from underneath the hull to confuse sonars.

Construction.

The superstructure is made of light alloy and glass-reinforced plastic, which allow a reduction in top weight. This provides adequate but sub-optimal resistance to fire. Vital zones are armoured in Kevlar, and important systems are redundant. The crew is protected against biological, chemical and nuclear environments.  The ships were built with a modular inner structure from eleven prefabricated modules which were completed at the factory, delivered to the shipyard and assembled there. This technique results in a construction time of less than two years.  The hull has a pronounced angle at the stem, with a short forecastle that integrates directly into the superstructure. The ship's sides have a negative inclination of ten degrees. The single anchor is located exactly on the stem, into which it is completely recessed. The deck where the seamanship equipment and capstans are installed is internal in order to hide it from radar.  The superstructure is built in one piece and directly integrates into the hull, with only a change in inclination. A platform is located between the main gun and the bridge. The superstructure runs continuously down to the helicopter hangar, on top of which short-range antiaircraft Crotale missiles are installed.  The ships feature two masts. The main mast has a pyramidal structure which integrates funnels and supports the antenna of the Syracuse military communications satellite system, while the second supports the main radar.  Three of the French Navy frigates (La Fayette, Courbet and Aconit) have been selected to receive mid-life upgrades pending the introduction of the FTI frigates starting in 2023. The three frigates will receive a hull-mounted sonar to incorporate an anti-submarine capability, modernized point air defence systems as well as other improvements. The upgrades will permit the three ships to operate through the 2020s and into the 2030s. The first updated vessel is scheduled for completion in 2021.

Export.

"Al Riyadh" class: Saudi Arabia.

The three "Al Riyadh"-class ships are an expanded anti-air version of the French "La Fayette" class, displacing about 4,700 tonnes and extended to in length.  The ships' combat systems are produced by Armaris (a DCN/Thales joint venture) and are armed with the Aster 15 missile. The Aster missiles use the DCN SYLVER launcher. As with the "La Fayette" class the primary offensive weapon is the anti-surface Exocet missile. The ships' main gun is the Oto Melara 76 mm/62 Super Rapid gun replacing the 100 mm TR automatic gun. There are also four aft torpedo tubes. The ship is armed with the DCNS F17 heavyweight anti-submarine torpedo.  The ships are capable of a maximum speed of with a maximum range of.

"Formidable" class: Singapore.

The Republic of Singapore Navy's six s are of comparable size to the "La Fayette" class but differs from that class and the Saudi "Al Riyadh" class in the armament carried: in place of the Exocet is the Boeing Harpoon. The main gun is a stealth cupola equipped with an Oto Melara 76 mm gun replacing the 100 mm TR automatic gun. The "Formidable" class also uses the SYLVER launcher/Aster missile combination. The first ship, RSS "Formidable", was built by DCN, while the remaining ships were constructed by Singapore Technologies Marine.  Anti-submarine capability includes S-70B Seahawk helicopters.  Maximum speed is, making it the fastest variant. The ships have a maximum range of.

"Kang Ding" class: ROC (Taiwan).

As the ROC (Taiwan)'s defensive stance is aimed towards the Taiwan Strait, the ROC Navy is constantly seeking to upgrade its anti-submarine warfare capabilities. The US$1.75 billion agreement with France in the early 1990s was an example of this procurement strategy: the six ships are configured for both ASW and surface attack. The Exocet was replaced by Taiwan-developed Hsiung Feng II anti-ship missile and the AAW weapon is the Sea Chaparral. The main gun is an Oto Melara 76 mm/62 mk 75 gun, similar to its Singaporean counterparts, the "Formidable"-class frigates. Some problems in the integration of Taiwanese and French systems had been reported. The frigate carries a single Sikorsky S-70C(M)-1/2 ASW helicopter.  The Sea Chaparral SAM system is considered inadequate for defense against aircraft and anti-ship missiles, so the ROC (Taiwan) Navy plans to upgrade its air-defense capabilities with the indigenous TC-2N in 2020. The AMRAAM-class missiles will be quad-packed in a vertical launch system for future ROCN surface combatants, but a less-risky alternative arrangement of above-deck, fixed oblique launchers is seen as more likely for upgrading these French-built frigates.  The class's maximum speed is with a maximum range of.  The six ships of the class are named "Kang Ding" (康定, PFG-1202), "Si Ning" (西寧, PFG-1203), "Kun Ming" (昆明, PFG-1205), "Di Hua" (迪化, PFG-1206), "Wu Chang" (武昌, PFG-1207), and "Chen De" (承德, PFG-1208) respectively, after provincial capitals in mainland China under ROC's pre-1949 political division.

Taiwan frigates scandal.

The Taiwan frigate deal was a large political scandal, both in Taiwan and France. A former French foreign minister claimed that up to US$500K was paid by Thomson-CSF (now Thales), the prime contractor, as a "sweetener", as the ships did not strictly meet Taiwan's requirements. Eight people involved in the contract died in unusual and possibly suspicious circumstances. Six ROC naval officers were indicted on corruption charges relating to the affair.  In 2003, the Taiwanese Navy sued Thomson-CSF (Thales) to recover alleged $590 million in kickbacks, paid to French and Taiwanese officials to grease the 1991 La Fayette deal. The kickback money was deposited in Swiss banks, and under the corruption investigation, Swiss authorities froze approx. $730 million in over 60 accounts. In June 2007 the Swiss authority returned $34 million from frozen accounts to Taiwan, with additional funds pending.

The "La Fayette" class (also known as FL-3000 for ""Frégate Légère de 3,000 tonnes"", or FLF for "Frégate Légère Furtive") is a class of general purpose frigates built by DCNS and operated by the French Navy. Derivatives of the type are in service in the navies of Saudi Arabia, Singapore and Taiwan.

Die Schiffe der La-Fayette-Klasse sind eine Klasse von leichten Mehrzweckfregatten, die von der staatlichen Marinewerft Frankreichs, DCN, gebaut wurden und von den Marinen Frankreichs, Saudi-Arabiens, der Republik China (Taiwan) und Singapurs verwendet werden.


Career.

Born in Muggia, Province of Trieste, Hübner started his career in 1987–88 at Pievigina, in Interregionale, scoring 10 goals. He later also played in Pergocrema (1988–89), Fano (1989–92) in Serie C, and Cesena (1992–97), in Serie B.  Following Cesena's relegation to Serie C in 1997, Hübner moved to newly promoted Serie A side Brescia, making his debut in the top Italian division in his thirties. On his debut, he scored his first goal in Serie A, against Inter at the San Siro Stadium, from an Andrea Pirlo assist, and on his second appearance, he scored a hat-trick against Sampdoria. Notwithstanding his impressive tally of 16 goals, Brescia were relegated to Serie B the following season, although he was later named the club's captain and main penalty taker, and helped the side to re-gain promotion to Serie A, scoring 21 goals during the 1999–2000 Serie B season. During the 2000–01 season, he played alongside attacking midfield playmaker Roberto Baggio, the team's new captain, under coach Carlo Mazzone, while he also faced competition as the starting striker from Igli Tare, who had a higher work-rate than Hübner. Alongside Baggio, Hübner was extremely prolific, as he scored 17 goals, helping the club to qualify for the 2001 UEFA Intertoto Cup. He was also famous for smoking on the bench during his time at Brescia, and was known for drinking grappa.  After joining newly promoted Serie A club Piacenza in 2001, for 6 billion Lit., Dario consistently battled for the title of top scorer in Serie A (capocannonieri), coming 1st alongside David Trezeguet in the 2001–02 season, at 35 years old, with 24 goals, and 7th in 2002–03 season with 14 goals. Along with Igor Protti, Hübner is the only player to have won the top scoring titles in Serie A, Serie B, and Serie C1 (winning the Serie B top scorer title during the 1995–96 season with Cesena, scoring 22 goals, and the Serie C1, Girone A top scorer title during the 1991–92 season with Fano, scoring 14 goals. He is currently Piacenza's all-time Serie A top scorer.  After his time with Piacenza, he later played for Ancona during the first half of the 2003–04 Serie A season, although he was unable score or help the club avoid the relegation zone, and subsequently moved to Serie A club Perugia (2004), where he was also unsuccessful in helping the club to avoid relegation. He later moved on to play for Mantova in Serie C1 (2004–05).  In September 2005 he left professional football and signed for Chiari of Serie D, which he left two months later to join Rodengo Saiano, another Serie D club (2005–06).  In 2007–08 season, he played for Orsa Corte Franca of Eccellenza (2006–09), also later playing with Castel Mella (2009–10) and Cavenago (2010–11), before retiring and working as a coach.

Personal life.

Hübner is of German heritage on his father's side; his paternal grandfather was from Frankfurt, but he later moved to Trieste. However, although his father is German, Dario Hübner does not speak the German language fluently. In 2015, he featured in a music video, "L'estate di Hubner", by the band Toromeccanica.  He was nicknamed "Bisonte (Bison)".

Honours.

Individual

Dario Hübner (born 28 April 1967) is an Italian former footballer, who played as a striker. An opportunistic forward, with an eye for goal, and an accurate finisher (with both his head and feet) and penalty taker, he was, however, questioned for his work-rate and behaviour at times. A prolific centre-forward, he scored over 300 goals throughout his career, only playing in the higher divisions towards the end of his career, becoming the oldest player to win the Serie A top scorer award, which he managed during the 2001–02 Serie A season, at the age of 35; this record was later broken by Luca Toni in 2015, who won the award at the age of 38. 38 of Hübner's career goals came from penalties, whilst he was sent off 10 times throughout his career, also receiving 36 yellow cards.

Dario Hübner (fälschlicherweise auch "Dario Hubner"; * 28. April 1967 in Muggia (TS), Italien) ist ein ehemaliger italienischer Fußballspieler, der auf der Position eines Stürmers gespielt hat.


History.

Starting in 1933, the party office had its seat in Munich under the leadership of Adolf Hitler's Deputy Führer Rudolf Hess, who held the rank of a Reich Minister in the Hitler Cabinet. Hess's department was responsible for handling party affairs; the settling of disputes within the party and acting as an intermediary between the party and the state regarding policy decisions and legislation. The organisation rivaled for influence not only with the Reich Chancellery under Hans Lammers but also with the Führer's Chancellery and the Nazi "Gau-" and "Reichsleiter". Typical of the Nazi regime in many regards, the Party Chancellery competed for spheres of interest with the other two chancelleries, creating several areas of functional duplication, additionally complicating "the relationship between party and state."  Another problem that Hitler's Chancellery faced was the administrative confusion that arose from all the competing interests of the various subordinated constituent Party organizations like the SA, the SS, the Hitler Youth, the Labor Front among others. There was a seeming lack of a centralized administrative authority for the Nazi Party, so "Gauleiters" bypassed the office of Hess as they believed themselves only responsible to Hitler alone. Even though Hess was Deputy Führer, his office was unable to manage the administrative tasks until Martin Bormann was appointed Chief of Staff to Hess's office in July 1933.  Bormann, personal secretary and chief of staff to Hess, was the man behind the scenes managing the day-to-day business of the Party Chancellery. Bormann used his position to create an extensive bureaucracy and involved himself in as much of the decision making as possible. Bormann soon became an efficient and indispensable representative of the party's interests, dis-empowering the regional leaders at the intermediate level and extending the Party Chancellery's involvement in state affairs through the enactment of laws and Führer's decrees. In 1935 Bormann began managing Hitler's "rural headquarters" at the Obersalzberg in Bavaria. Also in 1935, he was given charge over Hitler's personal finances and used his proximity to increase the office's authority over the Party's numerous organizations; despite this development, incessant jurisdictional struggles still characterized the Nazi state. Bormann set up the Adolf Hitler Fund of German Trade and Industry, which collected money from German industrialists on Hitler's behalf. Some of the funds received through this programme were disbursed to various party leaders, but Bormann retained most of it for Hitler's personal use. By 1936, Bormann was passing orders directly from Hitler to Reich ministers and Party officials.  After Hess' flight to the United Kingdom to seek peace negotiations with the British government on 10 May 1941, Hitler abolished the post of Deputy Führer on 12 May 1941. Hitler assigned Hess's former duties to Bormann, with the title of Head of the "Parteikanzlei" (Party Chancellery). In this position he was responsible for all NSDAP appointments, and was answerable only to Hitler. The Party Chancellery was also privy to the extreme violence being carried out in the eastern theater by the SS Task Forces in the summer and fall of 1941, as Gestapo chief, Heinrich Müller, distributed reports, which were signed by senior officials from throughout the Reich. Legal and administrative questions governing jurisdictional matters related to the Wannsee Conference were shared by Heydrich with Party organizations, including Bormann's Party Chancellery in late January 1942, rendering them all complicit for the orchestration of the Final Solution.  Bormann used his position to restrict access to Hitler for his own benefit and, supported by deputies like Albert Hoffmann, Gerhard Klopfer and Helmuth Friedrichs, to further party influence in areas such as armaments and manpower. Armaments Minister Albert Speer complained about Bormann's interfering with his staff in this manner. On 12 April 1943, Bormann was officially appointed the Führer's Private Secretary, reaching a unique position of power and trust with Hitler. Sometime in the autumn of 1943, Goebbels expressed misgivings with Hitler's dependence on Bormann concerning domestic affairs, his focus on military matters and his seeming neglect of politics—Goebbels recorded this moment as "a leadership crisis" in his diary. Goebbels further believed that "the Party Chancellery chief was managing Hitler." By that time, Bormann had de facto control over all domestic matters. He held the position of leader of the Nazi Party Chancellery until 30 April 1945. Late in waning months of the war, Bormann was still "working feverishly" to restructure the Nazi Party for a post-war Germany. Sharing in Hitler's delusions, Bormann was exercising his power over the Party by issuing decrees and directives on a wide variety of issues at the very end, meanwhile Hitler was moving "non-existent armies" around on a map deep inside the bunker.

The Party Chancellery (), was the name of the head office for the German Nazi Party (NSDAP), designated as such on 12 May 1941. The office existed previously as the Staff of the Deputy Führer ("Stab des Stellvertreters des Führers") but was renamed after Rudolf Hess flew to Scotland in an attempt to negotiate a peace agreement without Hitler's authorization. Hess was denounced by Hitler, his former office was dissolved, and the new Party Chancellery was formed in its place under Hess' former deputy, Martin Bormann.

Der Stab des Stellvertreters des Führers (Stab des StdF), 1941 umbenannt in Partei-Kanzlei, war als zentrales Führungsorgan der NSDAP an allen wesentlichen Entscheidungen im Partei- und im Staatsapparat beteiligt. Die Dienststelle mit Sitz in München unterstand Rudolf Heß, bis sie nach dessen Flug nach Großbritannien am 12. Mai 1941 Adolf Hitler persönlich unterstellt und mit neuer Bezeichnung als "Partei-Kanzlei" vom Reichsminister und langjährigem Stabsleiter Martin Bormann weitergeführt wurde.