History.

In 1904–1906 the Army Balloon Factory, which was part of the Army School of Ballooning, under the command of Colonel James Templer, relocated from Aldershot to the edge of Farnborough Common in order to have enough space to inflate the new "dirigible balloon" or airship which was then under construction. Templer's place was taken by Colonel John Capper and Templer himself retired in 1908. Besides balloons and airships, the factory also experimented with Samuel Franklin Cody's war kites and aeroplanes designed both by Cody and J. W. Dunne. In October 1908 Cody made the first aeroplane flight in Britain at Farnborough.  In 1909 Army work on aeroplanes ceased and the Factory was brought under civilian control. Capper was replaced as Superintendent by Mervyn O'Gorman. In 1912 the Balloon Factory was renamed the Royal Aircraft Factory (RAF). Its first new designer was Geoffrey de Havilland who later founded his own company. Later colleagues included John Kenworthy who became chief engineer and designer at the Austin Motor Company in 1918 and who went on to found the Redwing Aircraft Co in 1930 (Flight International) and Henry Folland – later chief designer at Gloster Aircraft Company, and founder of his own company Folland Aircraft. One of the designers in the engine department was Samuel Heron, who later went on to invent the sodium-filled poppet valve, instrumental in achieving greater power levels from piston engines. While at the RAF, Heron designed a radial engine that he was not able to build during his time there, however upon leaving the RAF he then went to Siddeley-Deasy where the design, the RAF.8, was developed as the Jaguar. Heron later moved to the United States where he worked on the design of the Wright Whirlwind. Other engineers included Major F.M. Green, G.S. Wilkinson, James E. "Jimmy" Ellor, Prof. A.H. Gibson, and A.A. Griffith. Both Ellor and Griffith would later go on to work for Rolls-Royce Limited.  In 1918 the Royal Aircraft Factory was once more renamed, becoming the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) to avoid confusion with the Royal Air Force, which was formed on 1 April 1918, and because it had relinquished its manufacturing role to concentrate on research.  During WWII the Marine Aircraft Experimental Establishment, then based at Helensburgh in Scotland, was under the control of the RAE.  In 1946 work began to convert RAF Thurleigh into RAE Bedford.  Engineers at the Royal Aircraft Establishment invented high strength carbon fibre in 1963.  In 1961, the world's first grooved runway for reduced aquaplaning was constructed. In 1965, a US delegation visited to view the new surfacing practice and initiated a study by the FAA and NASA.  On 1 May 1988 the RAE was renamed the Royal Aerospace Establishment.  On 1 April 1991 the RAE was merged into the Defence Research Agency (DRA), the MOD's new research organisation. Then, on 1 April 1995 the DRA and other MOD organisations merged to form the Defence Evaluation and Research Agency (DERA).  The Bedford site was largely shut down in 1994.  In 2001 DERA was part-privatised by the MOD, resulting in two separate organisations, the state-owned Defence Science and Technology Laboratory (DSTL), and the privatised company QinetiQ.

Royal Aircraft Factory.

Aircraft Factory designs.

Between 1911 and 1918 the Royal Aircraft Factory produced a number of aircraft designs. Most of these were essentially research aircraft, but a few actually went into mass production, especially during the war period. Some orders were met by the factory itself, but the bulk of production was by private British companies, some of which had not previously built aircraft.  Up to about 1913 the designation letters referred to the general layout of the aircraft, derived from a French manufacturer or designer famous for that type:  From 1913/4 onwards this was changed to a designation based on the role for which the aircraft was designed:  The B.S.1 of 1913 was a one-off anomaly, combining both systems: Blériot (tractor) Scout (fighter).  R.T. & T.E. were also used for strictly one off prototypes.

Designs produced.

Several aircraft were produced during the days as the Army Balloon Factory. These include the airships as well as the Cody and Dunne designs.  Subsequent Royal Aircraft Factory type designations are inconsistent and confusing. For instance the "F.E.2" designation refers to three quite distinct types, with only the same broad layout in common, the F.E.2 (1911), the F.E.2 (1913), and finally the famous wartime two-seat fighter and general purpose design, the F.E.2 (1914). This last aircraft was the one that went into production, and had three main variants, the F.E.2a, F.E.2b, and the F.E.2d. As if this wasn't enough, there is the F.E.2c; this was a generic description rather than a subtype proper, and refers to several one-off conversions of F.E.2b's that experimentally reversed the seating positions of the pilot and the observer.  The B.E.1 was basically the prototype for the early B.E.2 but the B.E.2c was almost a completely new aeroplane, with very little common with the earlier B.E.2 types apart from engine and fuselage. On the other hand, the B.E.3 to the B.E.7 were all effectively working prototypes for the B.E.8 and were all very similar in design, with progressive minor modifications of the kind that many aircraft undergo during a production run. The B.E.8a was at least as different from the B.E.8 as the B.E.7 was.  The S.E.4a had nothing in common at all with the S.E.4, while the S.E.5a was simply a late production S.E.5 with a more powerful engine.  Several early RAF designs were officially "reconstructions" of existing aircraft, because the Factory did not initially have official authority to build aircraft to their own design. In most cases the type in question used no parts whatever from the wreck, in some cases not even the engine.

Controversy.

At the time of the "Fokker Scourge" in 1915, there was a press campaign against the standardisation of Royal Aircraft Factory types in the Royal Flying Corps, allegedly in favour of superior designs available from the design departments of private British firms. This slowly gained currency, especially because of the undeniable fact that the B.E.2c and B.E.2e were kept in production and in service long after they were obsolete and that the B.E.12 and B.E.12a were indisputable failures. Some of this criticism was prejudiced and ill-informed.  Some aviation historians continue to perpetuate the resulting belittling of the important experimental work of the Factory during this period, and the exaggeration of the failings of Factory production types, several of which were described in sensationally derogatory terms.  A modern, rather more "pro-factory" point of view, can be found in several of the volumes of "War Planes of the First World War", by J.M. Bruce—MacDonald, London, 1965.

Changes.

After the end of the First World War, design and development of aircraft types ended – although work continued on general research, and the development of missiles. Research included wind tunnel testing and other aeronautical research, areas which offered rare opportunities for women in STEM fields at this time with examples including Frances Bradfield who worked at the RAE for her entire career from 1919 to her retirement; Johanna Weber, a German mathematician who joined the RAE after World War II as part of Operation Surgeon to exploit German aeronautical researchers and technicians and bring them to the UK; and Beatrice Shilling who went on to invent Miss Shilling's orifice, to improve the engine performance of RAF Hurricane and Spitfire fighters during the Battle of Britain as part of wider work at the RAE on aircraft engine problems during World War II.  In 1930 the RAE developed the Robot Air Pilot, an autopilot that used a gyro and flight controls that functioned by compressed air.  Aircraft that were developed or tested at the RAE included the Hawker Siddeley Harrier and Concorde.

Rockets.

In the late fifties and through the sixties work proceeded at the RAE on several rocket projects – all of which were eventually abandoned

Current use of the Farnborough site.

The former RAE Farnborough site is (as of 2011) occupied by:  The National Aerospace Library (NAL), located in the former Weapon Aerodynamics building (Q134 Building) has a collection of over 2,500 technical reports produced by the RAE.  The historic Farnborough factory site houses three major wind tunnels, the 24' low speed wind tunnel (Q121 Building), constructed during the early 1930s, the No. 2 11.5' low speed wind tunnel (R136 Building) and the 8' x 6' transonic wind tunnel within R133 Building, which was originally commissioned in the early 1940s as a 10' x 7' high subsonic speed tunnel, but converted during the mid-1950s. A smaller 2' x 1.5' transonic tunnel is housed in R133 Building, while R52 Building contains the remaining 4' x 3' low turbulence wind tunnel. R52 Building had previously housed two early 10' x 7' low speed tunnels in separate bays, which were replaced by the No. 1 11.5' and 4' x 3' tunnels respectively. The former remains in operation at the University of Southampton. R52 building also previously contained a 5' open jet low speed tunnel, originally built as a sub-scale prototype for the larger 24' tunnel, but subsequently modified for use as a noise measurement facility. Both Q121 and R133 are now Grade I listed buildings.  To the west of the Farnborough site is the 5 metre pressurised low speed wind tunnel, which was commissioned in the late 1970s. This facility remains in operation by QinetiQ, primarily for the development and testing of aircraft high lift systems.

Fictional appearance.

The hero of Nevil Shute's 1948 novel "No Highway" is an eccentric "boffin" at Farnborough who predicts metal fatigue in Britain's new airliner, the fictional "Rutland Reindeer". The Comets failed for just this reason in 1954, although in the case of the Comet I the problem was in the metal structure around the squared windows, while the point of failure in the Reindeer aircraft was in the structure of the rear empennage/fuselage joints. A film version of the novel, "No Highway in the Sky", appeared in 1951, starring James Stewart as the protagonist. Stewart prepared for the role by shadowing Fred Jones OBE, a co-founder of the RAE Accident Section. Jones later was head of Structures Section (formerly Airworthiness Section) from 1957 to 1980.

The Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) was a British research establishment, known by several different names during its history, that eventually came under the aegis of the UK Ministry of Defence (MoD), before finally losing its identity in mergers with other institutions.

Das Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) war eine britische Forschungs- und Entwicklungsinstitution, die 1991 in neuen, vom Verteidigungsministerium gegründeten Organisationen aufging. Von 1988 bis 1991 trug die Einrichtung den Namen Royal Aerospace Establishment.


Description.

Modern street name signs are mounted on either utility poles or smaller purpose-made sign poles posted on a streetcorner, or hung over intersections from overhead supports like wires or pylons. When attached to poles, they may be stacked onto each other in alternating directions or mounted perpendicular to each other, with each sign facing the street it represents. Up until around 1900 in the USA, however, street name signs were often mounted on the corners of buildings, or even chiseled into the masonry, and many of those signs still exist in older neighborhoods. They are commonly used in France and the United Kingdom.  A street name sign may optionally indicate the range of house numbers found nearby. Some street name signs also indicate an alternative name for the street, such as "Fashion Avenue" for Seventh Avenue in New York City, or "Avenue of the Arts" for Huntington Avenue in Boston, Massachusetts. Multilingual signs are common and may be required by law in some areas, such as French-speaking regions of Canada.  Most streets have a traffic sign at each intersection to indicate the name of the road. The design and style of the sign is usually common to the district in which it appears. The sign has the street name and sometimes other information, such as the block number or the name of the London borough in which the street is located. Such signs are often the target of simple vandalism, and signs on unusually or famously named streets are especially liable to street sign theft.  In recent years, many US and Canadian cities have adopted the mast arm for traffic signal equipment; major intersections are marked with large signs mounted on the mast arms. This was started in the 1960s by the California Department of Transportation. Los Angeles and San Francisco started in the 1970s and recently New York City has introduced the bigger signs at its intersections. In 2013, New York City began to change street signs that have been previously used Highway Gothic font for a new one, Clearview, that include both upper and lower case letters, which is considered more readable.

Color coding and typography.

Usually, the color scheme used on the sign just reflects the local standard (for example, white letters on a green background are common throughout the US). However, in some cases, the color of a sign can provide information, as well. One example can be found in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Within its city limits, all roads designated as a snow emergency route use a blue sign, these are typically major arterial routes. Other roads have green signs. Other places sometimes use blue or white signs to indicate private roads. , the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) approved color schemes for street name signs including a green, blue, or brown background with white text, or a white background with black text. Despite the MUTCD restriction only to the aforementioned color schemes, other color schemes are used in some cities; for example, the city of Mesa, Arizona uses ruby red colored street name signs at signalized intersections in the Fiesta District in the western part of the city. The city of Houston, Texas allows for street name signs in several of its neighborhoods (usually part of a management district, where property owners assess additional fees to themselves to pay for extra services) to be of significantly different color schemes and fonts than the citywide standard. Since the MUTCD guideline was adopted, some cities have begun transitioning from noncompliant colors, such as white on black in San Jose, California.  In 1952 in the UK, David Kindersley submitted a design, "MoT Serif", to the British Ministry of Transport, which required new lettering to use on United Kingdom road signs. Although the Road Research Laboratory found Kindersley's design more legible, the all-capitals design with serifs was passed over in favour of that of Jock Kinneir and Margaret Calvert. Many of the street signs in Britain use Kindersley fonts.

A street name sign is a type of traffic sign used to identify named roads, generally those that do not qualify as expressways or highways. Street name signs are most often found posted at intersections, and are usually in perpendicularly oriented pairs identifying each of the crossing streets.

Ein Straßenschild (in Deutschland nach Abs. 3 Satz 1 StVO: „Straßennamensschild“) zeigt den Straßennamen einer Straße an. Straßenschilder werden an Straßenkreuzungen oder Einmündungen an Hauswänden oder frei stehenden Pfosten angebracht.


The Mediterranean Neolithic.

This pottery style gives its name to the main culture of the Mediterranean Neolithic: Cardium pottery culture or Cardial culture, or impressed ware culture, which eventually extended from the Adriatic sea to the Atlantic coasts of Portugal and south to Morocco.  The earliest impressed ware sites, dating to 6400–6200 BC, are in Epirus and Corfu. Settlements then appear in Albania and Dalmatia on the eastern Adriatic coast dating to between 6100 and 5900 BC. The earliest date in Italy comes from Coppa Nevigata on the Adriatic coast of southern Italy, perhaps as early as 6000 cal B.C. Also during Su Carroppu culture in Sardinia, already in its early stages (low strata into Su Coloru cave, c. 6000 BC) early examples of cardial pottery appear. Northward and westward all secure radiocarbon dates are identical to those for Iberia c. 5500 cal BC, which indicates a rapid spread of Cardial and related cultures: 2,000 km from the gulf of Genoa to the estuary of the Mondego in probably no more than 100–200 years. This suggests a seafaring expansion by planting colonies along the coast.  Older Neolithic cultures existed already at this time in eastern Greece and Crete, apparently having arrived from the Levant, but they appear distinct from the Cardial or impressed ware culture. The ceramic tradition in the central Balkans also remained distinct from that along the Adriatic coastline in both style and manufacturing techniques for almost 1,000 years from the 6th millennium BC. Early Neolithic impressed pottery is found in the Levant, and certain parts of Anatolia, including Mezraa-Teleilat, and in North Africa at Tunus-Redeyef, Tunisia. So the first Cardial settlers in the Adriatic may have come directly from the Levant. Of course it might equally well have come directly from North Africa, and impressed pottery also appears in Egypt. Along the East Mediterranean coast impressed ware has been found in North Syria, Palestine and Lebanon.  Cardial and Epicardial fossils that were analysed for ancient DNA were found to carry the rare mtDNA (maternal) basal haplogroup N*, supporting an early Neolithic maritime colonization of Mainland Europe through Cyprus and the Aegean Islands by Near-Eastern farmers.

Cardium pottery or Cardial ware is a Neolithic decorative style that gets its name from the imprinting of the clay with the shell of the cockle, an edible marine mollusk formerly known as "Cardium edulis" (now "Cerastoderma edule"). These forms of pottery are in turn used to define the Neolithic culture which produced and spread them, mostly commonly called the "Cardial culture".

Die Cardial- oder Impressokultur oder (Abdruck-)Keramik ist eine Gruppe verwandter Kulturen der frühen Jungsteinzeit, die sich im 7. Jahrtausend v. Chr. an der östlichen Adriaküste und rund um das westliche Mittelmeer (inkl. Nordafrika) und auf den Inseln Korsika, Sardinien, Sizilien und Malta (aber nicht auf den Balearen) ausbreitete. Die Keramikverzierung wurde mit dem Rand der Muschelschalen der Herzmuscheln ("Cardium spec.") erzeugt. Im Lauf der Zeit kommen weitere Verzierungstechniken hinzu, Kammabdrücke, wie Leisten- und Riefenverzierungen. Daher hieß die Kultur zunächst "Cardial-Kultur" (in Frankreich weiterhin "Culture de la céramique cardiale"). Da in der Folge aber immer mehr Keramik auftauchte, die mit anderen Gegenständen ausgeführte Eindrücke besaß, wurde der Ausdruck "Abdruck-Keramik" (oft italienisch "Impresso-Kultur") eingeführt.


Design and development.

The development of the aircraft began at the end of 1937 at the request of the Japanese military high command. Kawasaki received an order to develop a "high-speed bomber" capable of 480 km/h (300 mph) at 3,000 m (9,840 ft), and able to reach 5,000 m (16,400 ft) within 10 minutes. It was inspired by the Soviet Tupolev SB.  Kawasaki had the advantage of the experience of designing the Ki-45 twin-engined heavy fighter. Most technical problems were solved; however the aircraft had a number of shortcomings. It carried only an 800 kg (1,760 lb) bombload. This was actually "more" than contemporary light bombers such as the Bristol Blenheim or Tupolev SB, and only slightly less than light bombers designed several years later, such as the A-20 Havoc, and the strikingly similar-appearing Martin Maryland and Baltimore. Speed was intended to be its primary defense, much like the later, unarmed, De Havilland Mosquito. So it had only three machine guns (again, an equivalent armament to contemporary light bombers). This made it very vulnerable to enemy fighters later in the war, once they became fast enough to actually catch it. The flight characteristics of the Ki-48 also left much to be desired. Newer generations of Allied fighters caught up in speed, and eventually, the Ki-48 was too slow to outrun them, while superior modern Japanese aircraft, such as the Yokosuka P1Y and the Mitsubishi Ki-67, could only be produced in small numbers. The first versions were lightly armoured, so the Ki-48 was quite aerobatic, and could loop and turn with an experienced pilot at the controls. The aircraft was often used as a dive bomber in Burma. The aircraft was not necessarily a failure, and was considered an acceptable light bomber for the first few years of the war by many historians. Much like the Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighter, it was satisfactory for the period when it was designed and produced, but had to be used against much newer and faster competition, due to Japan's inability to produce enough newer aircraft.

Operational history.

The aircraft served in China from late 1940, replacing the Kawasaki Ki-32, and were widely used in the Philippines, Malaya, Burma, New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and the Dutch East Indies, where the Ki-48 Ia and Ib models, slow and badly armed, were supplemented by the marginally improved Ki-48 IIa and IIc, which were maintained in service along with the older types until the end of the war.  All models continued in service until the Battle of Okinawa during April 1945, when many were converted into "kamikaze" aircraft (Ki-48-II KAI "Tai-Atari") armed with an 800 kg (1,760 lb) bomb. Some aircraft were modified to act as testbeds; one carried the Kawasaki Ki-148 guided missile intended for use on the Kawasaki Ki-102 in late 1944, and one was modified to test a Ne-0 pulsejet engine in late 1944-early 1945.  The fact that all models continued in service until 1945 reflects that many Ki-48s survived more often than not. This was due to the use of small ship formations (3–10 aircraft) escorted by large numbers of fighters (25–75), typically Nakajima Ki-43s. Although not as fast as more modern fighters, after 1942, the aircraft was still fast enough to enable it to often avoid interception unless it ran into a standing patrol of fighters. The 90th Air Regiment of the 5th Air Army (based in Hopei, north China) equipped with Ki-48s was the only Japanese air unit in China proper to engage the Soviets, although others were advanced in preparation. It flew 20 sorties against the Soviets during 14 August 1945.

Ki-48 Special Attack Unit.

The British Pacific Fleet departed from Ceylon on 16 January 1945 en route to Australia, and struck Japanese-held oil wells and refineries at Palembang, Sumatra on 24–29 January 1945 in Operation Meridian.  On 29 January, seven Kawasaki Ki-48 of the Army's "Shichisi Mitate Tokubetsu Kōgeki Tai" counter-attacked the Allied fleet at low level as the British aircraft were returning from Palembang. The British radar picture was confused by the presence of over 100 friendly aircraft and the first two or three Supermarine Seafire CAP interceptions did not occur until just before the Ki-48 formation entered the air defence zone. The last pair of Seafires chased the five remaining Ki-48s inside the screen, and with the support of returning Vought F4U Corsairs and Grumman F6F Hellcats which had just been scrambled, shot down all of them, amongst intense AA fire. One Seafire was slightly damaged and one Hellcat was written off by friendly fire, but the only ship to be damaged was the carrier, hit by heavy AA shells.  Such success, minor by Pacific fighting standards at the time, gave the British Pacific Fleet useful expertise and confidence in its ability to deal with "kamikaze" attacks.

Survivors.

There is a Ki-48 on display at the Museum of the Great Patriotic War, Moscow. The China Aviation Museum in Datangshan has a Kawasaki Ki-48 in Chinese Liberation Army Air Force colours. Some of the parts of the airplane are reproduced. The Indonesian Air Force Museum is also known to have a Ki-48 in its collection.

The Kawasaki Ki-48, 九九式雙發輕爆擊機(shiki-souhatu-keibaku,) shortened to 'Sokei', Army Type 99 Twin-engined Light Bomber, was a Japanese twin-engine light bomber that was used during World War II. Its Allied reporting name was "Lily".

Die Kawasaki Ki-48 war das wichtigste leichte Bombenflugzeug Japans zu Beginn des Zweiten Weltkrieges. Es wurde während des Zweiten Japanisch-Chinesischen Krieges 1940 zum ersten Mal eingesetzt.


History.

Sub-surface station.

The station was opened on 30 May 1870 by the DR (now the District line) when the railway extended its line from Westminster to Blackfriars. The construction of the new section of the DR was planned in conjunction with the building of the Victoria Embankment and was achieved by the cut and cover method of roofing over a trench. Due to its proximity to the South Eastern Railway's Charing Cross station, the station was originally called "Charing Cross".  The DR connected to the MR (now the Metropolitan line) at South Kensington and, although the two companies were rivals, each company operated its trains over the other's tracks in a joint service known as the "Inner Circle". On 1 February 1872, the DR opened a northbound branch from its station at Earl's Court to connect to the West London Extension Joint Railway (WLEJR, now the West London Line) at Addison Road (now Kensington (Olympia)). From that date the "Outer Circle" service began running over the DR's tracks. The service was run by the North London Railway (NLR) from its terminus at Broad Street (now demolished) in the City of London via the North London Line to Willesden Junction, then the West London Line to Addison Road and the DR to Mansion House – at that time the eastern terminus of the DR.  From 1 August 1872, the "Middle Circle" service also began operations through South Kensington, running from Moorgate along the MR's tracks on the north side of the Inner Circle to Paddington, then over the Hammersmith & City Railway (H&CR) track to Latimer Road, then, via a now demolished link, on the WLEJR to Addison Road and the DR to Mansion House. The service was operated jointly by the H&CR and the DR.  On 30 June 1900, the Middle Circle service was shortened to terminate at Earl's Court, and, on 31 December 1908, the Outer Circle service was withdrawn from the DR tracks. In 1949, the Metropolitan line-operated Inner Circle route was given its own identity on the tube map as the Circle line.

Deep-level station.

In 1897 the DR obtained parliamentary permission to construct a deep-level tube railway running between Gloucester Road and Mansion House beneath the sub-surface line. The new line was to be an express route using electric trains to relieve congestion on the sub-surface tracks. Only one intermediate station was planned, at Charing Cross, below the sub-surface platforms. No immediate work was carried out on the deep-level line, and the subsequent take over of the DR by the Underground Electric Railways Company of London (UERL) and the resignalling and electrification of the DR's routes between 1903 and 1905 meant that congestion was relieved without needing to construct the deep-level line. The plan was dropped in 1908.  On 10 March 1906, the BS&WR (now the Bakerloo line) opened with its deep-level platforms beneath and at ninety degrees to the platforms of the DR. Although an interchange was provided between the two separate railways, the BS&WR named its station differently as "Embankment".  On 6 April 1914, the CCE&HR (now a part of the Northern line) opened a one stop extension south from its terminus at Charing Cross. The extension was constructed to facilitate a better interchange between the BS&WR and CCE&HR. Both lines were owned by the UERL which operated two separate and unconnected stations at the northern end of main line station – "Trafalgar Square" on the BS&WR and "Charing Cross" on the CCE&HR (both now part of a combined Charing Cross station). The CCE&HR extension was constructed as a single track tunnel running south from Charing Cross as a loop under the River Thames and back. A single platform was constructed on the northbound return section of the loop, and escalators were installed between both sets of deep-level platforms and the sub-surface station. The interchange time was reduced from three minutes fifteen seconds to one minute and forty-five seconds.  A new station building was constructed that Sir John Betjeman described as "the most charming of all the Edwardian and neo-Georgian Renaissance stations." For the opening of the CCE&HR extension, the deep-level parts of the station were named "Charing Cross (Embankment)" although the sub-surface platforms remained as "Charing Cross". In 1915, this was rectified by changing the name of the whole station to "Charing Cross". The CCE&HR station to the north was renamed "Strand" at the same time (causing a nearby station of the GNP&BR to change its name from "Strand" to "Aldwych").  In the 1920s, as part of the construction of what is now the Northern line, the CCE&HR was extended south to Waterloo and Kennington where it was connected to the City & South London Railway. The loop tunnel under the river was abandoned (although the present northbound Northern line platform follows its course) and two new tunnels were bored south. To this day the southbound Northern line platform is the only one of the four deep level platforms that is not connected to any of the others by deep level walkways. The new extension was opened on 13 September 1926.  The loop itself still exists, although it was penetrated by a bomb and flooded during the Blitz in the Second World War. The loop had been sealed off years before. In September 1938, during the Sudeten Crisis, when war appeared imminent, the Bakerloo and Northern line tunnels at Embankment were temporarily sealed with concrete to protect against flooding through bombing. The blockage was removed after little more than a week once the crisis had passed. At the outbreak of World War II in September 1939, the tunnels were blocked again until electrically powered emergency doors could be installed in the tunnel mouths. The tunnels reopened in December 1939.  On 4 August 1974, the station was once again renamed "Charing Cross Embankment". Then, on 12 September 1976, it became "Embankment", so that the merged "Strand" and "Trafalgar Square" stations could be named Charing Cross.  In 1984–5 the station was upgraded, and public art in the form of coloured lines, by the artist Robyn Denny, were installed on the platforms and passageways of the station.  Embankment's northbound Northern line platform remains the only place on the network where one of the earliest 'Mind the gap' announcements can be heard, recorded by actor Oswald Laurence.

Fatal accident.

At about 09:55 on 17 May 1938, an eastbound Inner Circle train collided with an eastbound Ealing Broadway–Barking District line train to the east of the station. The Barking train had been stopped at an automatic signal on its way to Temple station. Six passengers were killed and 43 injured. The cause of the accident was a faulty signal, which showed a green "proceed" aspect to the second train even though the line ahead was not clear. This was a result of a wrong connection made during the previous night when some minor alterations to wiring were made.

Services.

The station is in London fare zone 1. On the District and Circle lines, the station is between Westminster and Temple, and, on the Northern and Bakerloo lines, it is between Charing Cross and Waterloo. The Circle and District lines serve the same platforms at Embankment, but the Bakerloo and Northern lines each have their own platforms. Train frequencies vary throughout the day, but generally District line trains operate every 2–6 minutes from approximately 05:27 to 00:40 eastbound and 05:47 to 00:35 westbound; they are supplemented by Circle line trains every 8–12 minutes from approximately 05:39 to 00:18 clockwise and 05:51 to 00:23 anticlockwise. Northern line trains operate every 2–5 minutes from approximately 05:57 to 00:35 southbound and 05:42 to 00:37 northbound. Bakerloo line trains operate every 2–5 minutes from approximately 05:58 to 00:35 southbound and 05:42 to 00:28 northbound.

Embankment is a London Underground station in the City of Westminster, known by various names during its history. It is served by the Circle, District, Northern and Bakerloo lines. On the Bakerloo line and the Charing Cross branch of the Northern line, the station is between Waterloo and Charing Cross stations; on the Circle and District lines, it is between Westminster and Temple and is in Travelcard Zone 1. The station has two entrances, one on Victoria Embankment and the other on Villiers Street. The station is adjacent to Victoria Embankment Gardens and is close to Charing Cross station, Embankment Pier, Hungerford Bridge, Cleopatra's Needle, the Royal Air Force Memorial, the Savoy Chapel and Savoy Hotel and the Playhouse and New Players Theatres.

Embankment ist eine unterirdische Station der London Underground im Stadtteil Charing Cross in der City of Westminster, die im Verlaufe ihrer Geschichte mehrere unterschiedliche Namen hatte. Sie liegt am südlichen Ende des Bahnhofs Charing Cross, in der Travelcard-Tarifzone 1. Bedient wird sie durch die Circle Line, die District Line, die Northern Line und die Bakerloo Line. Sie besitzt zwei Eingänge, einen in der Villiers Street und einen am Victoria Embankment. Letzterer befindet sich unter der Hungerford Bridge, über die man zu Fuß zum Südufer der Themse gelangt. Es gibt zwei Stationsteile, einen oberen für Unterpflasterbahnen und einen unteren für Röhrenbahnen. Im Jahr 2014 nutzten 19,66 Millionen Fahrgäste die Station.


History.

Chitral shares much of its history and culture with the neighboring Hindu-Kush territories of Gilgit-Baltistan, a region sometimes called "Peristan" because of the common belief in fairies ("peri") inhabiting the high mountains.  The entire region that now forms the Chitral District was an independent monarchical state until 1895, when the British negotiated a treaty with its hereditary ruler, the Mehtar, under which Chitral became a semi-autonomous princely state within the Indian Empire. Chitral retained this status even after its accession to Pakistan in 1947, finally being made an administrative district of Pakistan in 1969, disestablishing the Princely state.

Topography and access.

Chitral is counted amongst the highest regions of the world, sweeping from 1,094 meters at Arandu to 7,726 meters at Tirichmir, and packing over 40 peaks more than 6,100 meters in height. The terrain of Chitral is very mountainous and Tirich Mir (25,289 feet) the highest peak of the Hindu Kush, rises in the north of the district. Around 4.8 per cent of the land is covered by forest and 76 per cent is mountains and glaciers. Chitral is connected to the rest of Pakistan by two major road routes, the Lowari Pass (el. 10,230 ft.) from Dir and Shandur Top (elevation 12,200 ft.) from Gilgit. Both routes used to be closed in winter, but circa 2017 the highway Lowari Tunnel under the Lowari Pass opened to vehicular traffic for at least ten hours per day. A number of other high passes, including Darkot Pass, Thoi Pass and Zagaran Pass, provide access on foot to Chitral from Gilgit-Baltistan in Ghizer District.

Demographics.

The district has a population of about 414,000. The general population is mainly of the Kho people, who speak the Khowar, which is also spoken in parts of Yasin, Gilgit, Dir and Swat. Chitral is also home to the Kalash tribe, who live in Bumburet and two other remote valleys southwest of Chitral town.

Chitral Town.

The town of Chitral is the main town in the district and serves as its capital. It is situated on the west bank of the Chitral River (also known as the Kunar River) at the foot of Tirich Mir which at 7,708 m (25,289 ft) is the highest peak of the Hindu Kush. Until 1969, it served as the capital of the princely state of Chitral.

Administration.

The district of Chitral is divided into twenty-four union councils and two tehsils:

National Assembly.

This district is represented by one elected MNA (Member of National Assembly) in Pakistan National Assembly. Its constituency is NA-32.

Provincial Assembly.

The district is represented by two elected MPAs in the provincial assembly who represent the following constituencies:

Chitral District () is the largest district in the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan, covering an area of 14,850 km2. Part of the Malakand Division, it is the northernmost district of Pakistan. It shares a border with Gilgit-Baltistan to the east, with Kunar, Badakshan and Nuristan provinces of Afghanistan to the north and west, and with the Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa districts of Swat and Dir to the south. A narrow strip of Wakhan Corridor separates Chitral from Tajikistan in the north.

Chitral (; ) ist heute ein Distrikt in der pakistanischen Provinz Khyber Pakhtunkhwa mit der Hauptstadt Chitral. Er grenzt an das Sonderterritorium Gilgit-Baltistan mit der Hauptstadt Gilgit. Chitral war einst ein unabhängiger Staat im Hindukusch-Gebirge im Norden Indiens.


Background.

"Slate" features regular and semi-regular columns such as "Explainer, Moneybox, Spectator, Transport", and "Dear Prudence". Many of the articles are short (less than 2,000 words) and argument-driven. Around 2010, the magazine also began running long-form journalism. Many of the longer stories are an outgrowth of the "Fresca Fellowships", so-called because former editor Plotz liked the soft drink Fresca. "The idea is that every writer and editor on staff has to spend a month or six weeks a year not doing their regular job, but instead working on a long, ambitious project of some sort," Plotz said in an interview.  "Slate" introduced a paywall-based business model in 1998 that attracted up 20,000 subscribers but was later abandoned. A similar subscription model was implemented in April 2001 by "Slate"s independently owned competitor, Salon.com.  "Slate" started a daily feature, "Today's Pictures", on November 30, 2005, which featured 15–20 photographs from the archive at Magnum Photos that share a common theme. The column also features two Flash animated "Interactive Essays" a month.  On its 10th anniversary, "Slate" unveiled a redesigned website. It introduced "Slate V" in 2007, an online video magazine with content that relates to or expands upon their written articles. In 2013, the magazine was redesigned under the guidance of Design Director Vivian Selbo.  "Slate" was nominated for four digital National Magazine Awards in 2011 and won the NMA for General Excellence. In the same year, the magazine laid off several high-profile journalists, including co-founder Jack Shafer and Timothy Noah (author of the "Chatterbox" column). At the time, it had around 40 full-time editorial staff. The following year, a dedicated ad sales team was created.  "Slate" launched the "Slate Book Review" in 2012, a monthly books section edited by Dan Kois.  The next year, "Slate" became profitable after preceding years had seen layoffs and falling ad revenues.  In 2014, "Slate" introduced a paywall system called "Slate Plus", offering ad-free podcasts and bonus materials. A year later, it had attracted 9,000 subscribers generating about $500,000 in annual revenue.  "Slate" moved all content behind a metered paywall for international readers in June 2015, explaining "our U.S.-based sales team sells primarily to domestic advertisers, many of whom only want to reach a domestic audience....The end result is that, outside the United States, we are not covering our costs." At the same time, it was stated that there were no plans for a domestic paywall.  Slate's articles have presented news and opinions from a liberal perspective, eventually evolving into a self-proclaimed liberal news site.

Reputation for counterintuitive arguments ("Slate pitches").

Since 2006, "Slate" has been known for publishing contrarian pieces arguing against commonly held views about a subject, giving rise to the #slatepitches Twitter hashtag in 2009. The "Columbia Journalism Review" has defined "Slate" pitches as "an idea that sounds wrong or counterintuitive proposed as though it were the tightest logic ever," and in explaining its success wrote "Readers want to click on Slate Pitches because they want to know what a writer could possibly say that would support their logic".  In 2014, "Slate"s then editor-in-chief Julia Turner acknowledged a reputation for counterintuitive arguments forms part of "Slate"'s "distinctive" brand, but argued that the hashtag misrepresents the site's journalism. "We are not looking to argue that up is down and black is white for the sake of being contrarian against all logic or intellectual rigor. But journalism is more interesting when it surprises you either with the conclusions that it reaches or the ways that it reaches them."  In a 2019 article for the site, "Slate" contributor Daniel Engber reflected on the changes that had occurred on the site since he started writing for it 15 years previously. He suggested that its original worldview, influenced by its founder Kinsley and described by Engber as "feisty, surprising, debate-club centrist-by-default" and "liberal contrarianism", had shifted towards "a more reliable, left-wing slant", whilst still giving space for heterodox opinions, albeit "tempered by other, graver duties". He argued that this was necessary within the context of a "Manichean age of flagrant cruelty and corruption", although he also acknowledged that it could be "a troubling limitation".

Podcasts.

According to NiemanLab, "Slate" has been involved in podcasts "almost from the very beginning" of the medium. Its first podcast offering, released on July 15, 2005, featured selected stories from the site read by Andy Bowers, who had joined "Slate" after leaving NPR in 2003. By June 2012, "Slate" had expanded their lineup to 19 podcasts, with "Political Gabfest" and "Culture Gabfest" being the most popular. This count had shrunk to 14 by February 2015, with all receiving six million downloads per month. The podcasts are "a profitable part of ["Slate"'s] business"; the magazine charges more for advertising in its podcasts than in any of its other content. "Slate" podcasts have gotten longer over the years. The original "Gabfest" ran 15 minutes; by 2012, most ran about 45 minutes.

Staff.

Jacob Weisberg was "Slate's" editor from 2002 until his designation as the chairman and editor-in-chief of The Slate Group in 2008. Weisberg's deputy editor David Plotz then became editor until July 2014, when he was replaced by Julia Turner.  Turner resigned as editor of "Slate" in October 2018.  Jared Hohlt became editor-in-chief on April 1, 2019.  The Washington Post Company's John Alderman is "Slate"s publisher.

Slate is an online magazine that covers current affairs, politics, and culture in the United States. It is known, and sometimes criticized, for adopting contrarian views, giving rise to the term "Slate Pitches". It has a generally liberal editorial stance.

Slate ist ein Online-Magazin, das ursprünglich 1996 von Microsoft als Teil von MSN aufgebaut wurde. Am 21. Dezember 2004 wurde es von The Washington Post Company gekauft.


Plot.

New York City in the 1920s is where gambler "Honey Talk" Nelson (Dean Martin) crosses paths with bookie "Jumbo" Schneider (Sheldon Leonard). Nelson has two choices, cement shoes or "fixing" a horse race in Maryland. Naturally, Nelson heads to Maryland with his cousin Virgil Yokum (Jerry Lewis) tagging along.  Once in Maryland, Nelson falls for the owner (Marjie Millar) of the horse that has been chosen for the "fix". Virgil has also fallen in love, with the horse's veterinarian (Pat Crowley).  Nelson decides that love should prevail and refuses to go along with the plan. Meanwhile, an English jockey (Richard Haydn), who is to ride the horse, is prevented from performing his job by Schneider's mobsters and Yokum winds up riding the horse to victory.

Production.

The team's eleventh feature, "Money from Home" was the first Martin and Lewis film made in color, although they did make a color, cameo appearance in the 1952 Bob Hope and Bing Crosby film, "Road to Bali". It was filmed from March 9 to May 1, 1953.  "Money From Home" is also the only Martin and Lewis film made in 3-D, having been shot with Technicolor's 3-D camera rig, which exposed six strips of film in synchronization. It was the second and final time the rig was used. The film was also the third and last time one of the team's features was available with a Western Electric, 3-track stereophonic soundtrack. This soundtrack is now lost.  The film was premiered on New Year's Eve, 1953 as a special preview in 322 theaters. Because of a technical issue at Technicolor, pairs of prints necessary for 3-D were not available, so the film was previewed in 2-D. The film went into general release in February, 1954.  Lewis received an additional on-screen credit: "Special Material in Song Numbers Staged by Jerry Lewis." It was the only time during the team's productions that Lewis received creative credit, despite co-writing and co-directing several of the pictures.

Home media.

After being excluded from both Paramount Pictures Martin and Lewis DVD collections, released in 2006 and 2007, "Money from Home" saw a single-disc DVD release on July 1, 2008 and a blu-ray release on June 27, 2017.

Money From Home is a 1953 American comedy film starring Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis. The comedy was the first for the Martin and Lewis team to be shot in color and was their only film in 3-D. The picture was premiered as a special preview screening across the U.S. on New Year's Eve, 1953.

Der tollkühne Jockey (engl.: "Money from Home") ist der einzige 3D-Film des Komiker-Gespanns Dean Martin und Jerry Lewis und zugleich ihr erster Farbfilm. Das Drehbuch entstand nach einer Vorlage des amerikanischen Autors Damon Runyon.


History.

In early medieval times, the site was occupied by a Visigoth fortress. When the Visigoths fell to the Umayyad conquest of Hispania, the emirs of the Umayyad Caliphate in Damascus rebuilt the structure. The Umayyads fell to the Abbasid Caliphate and the surviving member of the Umayyad Dynasty, Abd ar-Rahman I, fled to Córdoba. Abd ar-Rahman I's successors established the independent Caliphate of Córdoba and used the Alcázar as their palace. The city subsequently flourished as a key political and cultural center, and the Alcázar was expanded into a very large and widely used area with baths, gardens, and the largest library in the West. Watermills on the nearby Guadalquivir powered water lifting to irrigate the extensive gardens.  In 1236, Christian forces took Córdoba during the Reconquista. In 1328, Alfonso XI of Castile began building the present day structure on part of the site for the old fortress. Other parts of the Moorish Alcázar had been given as spoils to the bishop, nobles, and the Order of Calatrava. Alfonso's structure retained only part of the Moorish ruins but the structure appears Islamic due to Alfonso's use of the Mudéjar style.  The Alcázar was involved in the civil war where Henry IV of Castile faced a rebellion that backed his teenage half-brother Alfonso. During the war, the Alcázar's defenses were upgraded to deal with the advent of gunpowder. At the same time, the Alcázar's main tower, now known as the "Tower of the Inquisition" was constructed.  Henry's successor, Isabella and her husband, Ferdinand, used the Alcázar for one of the first permanent tribunals of the Spanish Inquisition and as a headquarters for their campaign against the Nasrid dynasty in Granada, the last remaining Moorish kingdom in the Iberian Peninsula. The Inquisition began using the Alcázar as one of its headquarters in 1482, converting much of it, including the Arab baths, into torture and interrogation chambers. The Inquisition maintained a tribunal here for three centuries. Boabdil was held prisoner here in 1483 until he promised to make Granada a tributary state. When Boabdil refused to surrender his kingdom in 1489, the Christians launched an attack. Isabella and Ferdinand's campaign against Granada succeeded in 1492. The same year, the monarchs met Christopher Columbus in the Alcázar as he prepared to take his first voyage to the Americas.  The Alcázar served as a garrison for Napoleon Bonaparte's troops in 1810. In 1821, the Alcázar became a prison. Finally, the Spanish government made the Alcázar a tourist attraction and national monument in the 1950s.

Exterior.

Towers.

The outdoor area of the Alcázar is situated within the walls of the four towers (Paloma, Leones, Homenaje and Inquisición), this creating an almost square shape to the building.

Interior.

Hall of Mosaics "(Salón de los Mosaicos) ".

The main hall of the building, constructed in the 18th century, is referred to as the “Hall of Mosaics”, given the impressive Mosaics that can be found within the hall. The mosaics on show were discovered at the Corredera Square (Plaza de la Corredera) towards the end of the 1950s and formed part of the Roman Circus, as well as a sarcophagus from the 3rd Century. The hall is currently a highly sought after civil marriage location by many Cordoban citizens.  Beneath the current floor of the hall, it is still possible to discover the remains of which are believed to be from the Royal Baths which were used by high dignitaries during the Muslim era.

Courtyard of the Moriscos "(Patio Morisco)".

The courtyard of the Moriscos, also known as the Mudejar Courtyard, is situated to the western side of the Alcázar. Taking on a square floor plan, it is surrounded by arched verandas with the exception of its western face. The western face of the patio is where the wall that connects the Tower of the Lions and the Tower of the Inquisition is found, and also through which the Gardens of the Alcázar (Jardines del Alcázar) can be accessed. The patio is centred by a water fountain which sits in-between two ponds.

Courtyard of the Women "(Patio de las mujeres)".

The courtyard of the Women, also known as the eastern courtyard, is situated to the eastern side of the Alcázar. It owes its name to the era during which the Alcázar was used as a prison, with this courtyard being the location where the feminine section of the prison was located. Many archaeological remains from the different constructive phases of the Alcázar are found in this courtyard, as well as remains of former buildings, the Roman castellum and the Andalusian Alcázar.

Reception Hall "(Sala de recepciones)".

The reception hall, also known as the Ocean Hall, is a room of square plan which is situated beside the Hall of Mosaics. Incrusted in one of the walls is a Roman mosaic, dedicated to the God Oceanus. Also within the hall are found some seats of honor of the ancient chapter choir which date back to the 17th Century.

Royal Baths of Doña Leonor ("Baños reales de Doña Leonor").

The Royal Baths were constructed in 1328 by King Alfonso the 11th. They were structured into four rooms: the changing room, the cold room, the temperate room and the hot room. They owe their name to Leonor de Guzmán, the King's mistress, in whose honour the Royal Baths were constructed.

Gardens of the Alcázar "(Jardines del Alcázar)".

The old Alcázar orchard has been transformed into an impressive area of approximately 55,000m2 of magnificent gardens with forest species including palm, cypress, orange and lemon trees, which surround a number of elegant fountains and ponds. The gardens are structured on three levels: the upper garden, the middle garden and the lower garden.  The King's walk ("El paseo de los reyes") is a walk bordered by a line of cylindrical cypress trees and is also divided into two paths by two narrow ponds. On this walk, there are several sculptures of the Kings who built the Alcázar, which are located on pedestals aligned between the hedges.

Description.

The Alcázar centers on the "Patio Morisco" ("Courtyard of the Moriscos"), another popular feature. There are two towers: the "Torre de los Leones" ("Tower of the Lions) and the "Torre de Homenaje" ("Tower of Homage"). The latter has Gothic features including an ogival ceiling.  A series of Roman mosaics and a Roman sarcophagus are displayed in the Inquisition Tower.

The Alcázar de los Reyes Cristianos (Spanish for "Castle of the Christian Monarchs"), also known as the Alcázar of Córdoba, is a medieval "alcázar" () located in the historic centre of Córdoba (in Andalusia, Spain), next to the Guadalquivir River and near the Grand Mosque. The fortress served as one of the primary residences of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon.

Der Alcázar de los Reyes Cristianos (spanisch für „Palast der christlichen Könige“) in Córdoba (Spanien), gebaut ab 1328 unter Alfonso XI. an Stelle eines älteren arabischen Schlosses, diente den Katholischen Königen bis zur Rückeroberung Granadas als Residenz. Hier wurde auch der maurische Kalif Boabdil gefangengehalten. Im Inneren des Palastes befinden sich sehr schöne arabische Bäder sowie römische Mosaike und ein Marmorsarkophag aus dem 3. Jahrhundert. Ursprünglich befanden sich Türme an den vier Ecken des Gebäudes, von denen drei noch erhalten sind: der älteste, Torre de Los Leones, zugleich der Eingang des Alcázars, der achteckige Torre del Homenaje und der runde Torre del Rio. Der vierte Turm, Torre de la Vela, wurde im 19. Jahrhundert zerstört.


Development.

MARPAT was designed by Timothy O'Neill, Anabela Dugas, Kenneth G. Henley, John Joseph Heisterman, Jr., Luisa DeMorais Santos, Gabriel R. Patricio, and Deirdre E. Townes.  The concept of using miniature swatches of color as opposed to large splotches is not new. In World War II, German troops used various patterns similar to the current German "Flecktarn", which involved similar small dabs of color on a uniform to provide camouflage.  The Canadian Forces originally developed the pattern called CADPAT, on which MARPAT was based. Timothy O'Neill's USMC design team in charge of this process, initially with the assistance of Kenneth G. Henley and then John Joseph Heisterman, Jr. (both active duty U.S. Marine Scout Snipers), went through over 150 different camo patterns before selecting three samples that met their initial objectives. These were two versions of tigerstripe and an older design of Rhodesian Brushstroke. The influence of tigerstripe can still be seen in the final MARPAT. These three samples were then reconstructed using new shapes and unique color blends that would allow a more effective uniform in a great range of environments.  The new patterns were then field tested in different environments, day and night, with night vision and various optics. MARPAT did exceptionally well in their wet uniform test when viewed with night vision while illuminated with IR, where normally patterns appear as a solid. The MARPAT patent lists U.S. Army research into fractal pattern camouflage as the basis for MARPAT.  The MARPAT pattern was chosen in a run-off against seven other patterns at the USMC Scout Sniper Instructor School.  Preliminary development of MARPAT began in April 2000, with field testing of the pattern and the MCCUU beginning in 2001. The patent for the MARPAT pattern was filed on 19 June 2001, whereas the patent for the MCCUU uniform was filed on 7 November 2001. Early prototypes of the MARPAT desert pattern from 2001 featured grey, whereas the finished product did not.  The uniform made its official debut at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina on 17 January 2002. In February 2003, MARPAT-patterned helmet covers began to be produced. The replacement of the BDU and DCU by the MCCUU was completed on 1 October 2004, a year ahead of the original requirement date set in 2001 of 1 October 2005. The MARPAT uniform was officially fielded as standard issue to the recruits of 3rd BN Mike Company in late 2002 at MCRD San Diego; it continues to be the USMC's standard issue uniform pattern to date. In all, the MARPAT development process from concept to completion took 18 months, the fastest time for a U.S. military-developed camouflage pattern to be produced.

Design and colors.

Different ratios and variations of colors were tested before final candidate patterns were actually printed to textile for field trials. A modified version of Vietnam War–era tiger stripe also made it to final trials but was eliminated due to MARPAT being superior in all environments. The purpose of the digitized pattern is to create visual "noise" and prevent the eye from identifying any visual templates. Thus, the pattern is intended to not register as any particular shape or pattern that could be distinguished.  There were initially three MARPAT patterns tested: Woodland, Desert, and Urban. While keeping the rights for Urban, only the Woodland and Desert patterns were adopted by the Marine Corps for general issue, replacing the U.S. Woodland pattern and the U.S. Three-Color Desert pattern. Webbing and equipment worn with MARPAT Woodland and MARPAT Desert is produced in Coyote Brown, a mid-tone color common to both the woodland and desert patterns. Although a digital snow pattern has also been adopted on cold-weather training over-garments, this uses a different pattern from the Canadian company Hyperstealth.  Authentic MARPAT material is distinguishable by a miniature "Eagle, Globe, and Anchor" emblem incorporated into the pattern above the letters "USMC", in both the woodland and desert patterns.

Similar designs.

MARPAT is aesthetically similar to Canadian Forces CADPAT, which was first developed in the 1990s.  The United States Army used the same shapes in designing its Universal Camouflage Pattern, which uses a much paler three-color scheme of sage green, grey and sand for use on the Army Combat Uniform. After major questions about its effectiveness arose, the Army adopted the "Scorpion W2" Operational Camouflage Pattern in 2015, to be fully phased in by 2019.  The United States Air Force has designed its own Airman Battle Uniform (ABU) using a standard tiger stripe pattern and slight variation on the color scheme of ACU, also designed to be phased out by the OCP uniform by 2021.  The United States Navy announced approval for a digital "BDU-style" work uniform in late 2008. The Navy Working Uniform (NWU) was chosen by surveyed sailors for consistency and longer life, while the blue-grey-black Type I pattern was designed for aesthetic purposes rather than camouflage to disguise them at sea. In January 2010, the Navy began considering new Navy Working Uniform patterns modified from MARPAT, named Type II and Type III, desert and woodland respectively. The Woodland pattern was actually an earlier coloration of the MARPAT scheme, not adopted following USMC trials. These patterns are overall darker than their respective MARPAT progenitors, modified with different color shades, and addressed the fact that the blue and grey Type I pattern was not meant for a tactical environment (the Battle Dress Uniform in M81 woodland and Desert Camouflage Uniform were still used for this purpose until the Type II and III patterns were introduced). Backlash from Marines, including an objection from former Commandant Conway, led to restrictions when NAVADMIN 374/09 was released: Type II pattern to Naval Special Warfare personnel, while the NWU Type III is the standard shore working uniform for all Naval personnel effective 1 October 2019..

MARPAT (short for Marine pattern) is a multi-scale camouflage pattern in use with the United States Marine Corps, designed in 2001 and introduced from late 2002 to early 2005 with the Marine Corps Combat Utility Uniform (MCCUU), which replaced the Camouflage Utility Uniform. Its design and concept are based on the Canadian CADPAT pattern. The pattern is formed of small rectangular pixels of color. In theory, it is a far more effective camouflage than standard uniform patterns because it mimics the dappled textures and rough boundaries found in natural settings. It is also known as the "digital pattern" or "digi-cammies" because of its micropattern (pixels) rather than the old macropattern (big blobs).

MARPAT (Abkürzung für MARine PATtern), oder Marpat, war nach dem kanadischen CADPAT das weltweit zweite computerunterstützt entwickelte Digitaltarnmuster, das seit 2004 vom United States Marine Corps verwendet wird.


Location.

Cannon Street is a terminal station, approached across the River Thames by the Cannon Street Railway Bridge. Its approach by rail is through a triangular connection to both and. It is one of eighteen stations in the country that are managed by Network Rail.  There were originally eight platforms; a refurbishment in the late 1990s removed the original platform 1. It has entrances on Cannon Street itself and Dowgate Hill. It is located near London Stone (to the north of the station).  London Buses routes 15, 17, 21, 35, 43, 47, 133, 141, 149, 344, 388, 521 and night routes N8, N11, N15, N21, N25, N26, N133, N199, N242, N550 and N551 serve the station.

History.

Original structure.

Cannon Street station was built on a site where the Hanseatic merchants' steelyard had been based from the 10th century until 1598. The site was proposed in 1860 by the South Eastern Railway (SER) in response to its rival, the London, Chatham & Dover Railway (LC&DR), extending a line into the City of London as far north as Ludgate Hill. The SER had already made plans to extend its line towards, but decided that it should complement this with a terminus in the City.  In 1861, the company obtained an act for a station in Cannon Street, a short distance from Mansion House and the Bank of England. In addition to taking traffic from the LC&DR, the new station would provide a direct railway link between the City and the West End, over which a journey could be made in a fraction of the time taken travelling by road. The approach was a branch of the line to Charing Cross, west of London Bridge. Work started on the station and its approach in July 1863.  The station was opened on 1 September 1866 at a cost of £4 million (now £ million). The original building was designed by Sir John Hawkshaw and John Wolfe-Barry and was characterised by its two Christopher Wren-style towers, square and high, which faced on to the River Thames. The towers supported an iron train shed, long and crowned by a high single arch, almost semicircular, of glass and iron. The station is carried over Upper Thames Street on a brick viaduct, long and containing 27 million bricks. Below this viaduct exist the remains of a number of Roman buildings, which form a scheduled ancient monument. The bridge was open to pedestrians between 1872 and 1877; they paid a toll of 1⁄2d. The five-storey City Terminus Hotel, which fronted the station, was opened in May 1867. It was an Italianate style hotel and forecourt, designed by E. M. Barry, and it provided many of the station's passenger facilities, as well as an appropriate architectural frontispiece to the street. This arrangement was very similar to that put in place at Charing Cross. The hotel was not profitable, and was over £47,000 (now £) in debt by 1870. The City Terminus Hotel was renamed the Cannon Street Hotel in 1879. In July 1920, the hotel was the first meeting point of the Communist Party of Great Britain. Most of the hotel was closed in 1931, but the public rooms were kept open for meetings. The rest were converted into offices and renamed Southern House. The hotel is referred to in The Fire Sermon section of T. S. Eliot's "The Waste Land".  Upon its opening Cannon Street station was a stopping point for all services to and from Charing Cross, including boat trains to Continental Europe. A shuttle service between the two stations ran every 20 minutes and became a popular way of travelling between the City and the West End. However, the opening of the District Railway as far as Blackfriars caused traffic to decline, and its extension to Mansion House the following year reduced it further. The SER's route could not compete with the Underground, which was more direct and reliable, but suburban traffic to Cannon Street remained popular, and the bridge was widened to in the late 1880s, allowing ten tracks with sidings. The rebuilt bridge was opened on 13 February 1892. The signal boxes outside the station were upgraded the following year.  The London and Southwestern Railway (LSWR) became interested in using Cannon Street as a terminus, as it would allow a connection between Waterloo and the City.

War years.

Work on strengthening the bridge, by the addition of six new girders in between the existing ones, was completed in 1913.  Most Cannon Street train services ceased during World War I. Continental boat trains were stopped on 15 November 1914 and rerouted to Victoria. The station stopped being served by through services from Charing Cross on 31 December 1916, and was closed on Sundays. Services were reduced further on 1 May 1918, when it was closed after 3 p.m. on Saturdays and between 11 a.m. and 4 p.m. Mondays to Fridays. This allowed Cannon Street to be used as a goods depot for war supplies.  Between 5 and 28 June 1926, the station was closed to allow the Southern Railway to carry out various works, including the rebuilding of the platforms, relaying of the tracks and installation of a new system of electrical signalling – the four-aspect colour light scheme. The station was also renovated and the glass roof cleaned. The number of platforms was reduced from nine to eight, with five set aside for the new electric trains. The signal box spanning the width of the railway bridge was removed. In July 1939, Cannon Street was closed for a week following a fire in Borough Market which prevented any trains accessing it.  The station, which had been subject to structural neglect prior to World War II, suffered extensive bomb damage and was hit by several incendiary devices which damaged the roof. A high explosive also hit platform 8. The original glass roof had been removed before the war, in an attempt to save it; however, the factory in which the roof was stored was itself badly bombed, destroying the roof.

Redevelopment.

Following in 1948, the station was managed by the Southern Region of British Railways. The station's prime location coupled with the property boom of the 1950s and the need for British Rail to seek alternative revenue streams made war-damaged Cannon Street a key target for property developers. Steam trains stopped running from Cannon Street in 1959.  Various plans were mooted for the reconstruction of the station, from the installation of a new ticket hall and concourse under Southern House in 1955 as part of British Rail's Modernisation Plan to the construction of a car park estimated to cost £125,000 (now £) and even a helipad. In 1962, the British Transport Commission entered into an agreement with Town & Country Properties for the construction of a multi-storey office building above the station with of floor space. The cost of the development was £2.35 million (now £ million) and it was scheduled for completion by June 1965.  In preparation for redevelopment, the remains of the train shed roof had been demolished in 1958, and Barry's hotel (which had been used as offices since 1931) soon followed in 1960. The architect selected to design the new building was John Poulson who was good friends with Graham Tunbridge, a British Rail surveyor whom he had met during the war. Poulson took advantage of this friendship to win contracts for the redevelopment of various British Rail termini. He paid Tunbridge a weekly income of £25 and received in return building contracts, including the rebuilding of Waterloo and East Croydon stations. At his trial in 1974, Poulson admitted that, shortly before receiving the Cannon Street building contract, he had given Tunbridge a cheque for £200 and a suit worth £80. Poulson was later found guilty of corruption charges and given a seven-year concurrent sentence; Tunbridge received a 15-month suspended sentence and a £4,000 fine for his role in the affair.  All that now remains of the original station architecture are the twin yellow brick towers at the country-end and parts of the low flanking walls.

Modern era.

The station's twin brick towers were listed Grade II in 1972. In 1974, the station was closed for five weeks from 2 August to 9 September to enable alterations to be made to the track and the approaches to London Bridge to be resignalled. Traffic was diverted to London Bridge, Charing Cross and. On 4 March 1976, a Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) bomb of about 10 lb (4.5 kg) exploded on an empty commuter train leaving Cannon Street, injuring eight people on another train travelling alongside.  On 15 February 1984, it was reported in "The Times" that Cannon Street was to close. At the time, the station had been closed for weekends and evenings, and the publication of British Rail's new timetable for 1984–1985 revealed that it would lose all its direct off-peak services to the south-east. Services from Sevenoaks,,,,,,, Lewisham and Greenwich would instead terminate at except during peak hours. This was denied by British Rail (Southern)'s manager David Kirby, who pointed out that it had invested £10 million in redecking the railway bridge, and that passengers travelling from the south-east during off-peak hours would most likely be visiting the West End and not the City.  In 1986, the twin towers were restored in a project costing £242,000 (now £). The works revealed that the east tower still contained a large water tank which was used during the days of steam traction to replenish locomotives and to power the station's hydraulic systems. The brickwork was repaired, cleaned and repointed, and the weather vanes gilded to complement the dome of nearby St Paul's Cathedral. This work was one of the Railway Heritage Trust's first projects and coincided with an exhibition held in the station in August of the same year to mark its 150th anniversary. In the 1980s, there was another property boom and British Rail again began looking into further commercial uses of the Cannon Street landspace, including of office space. The air rights over the platforms to the rear of Poulson's office were sold to Speyhawk which appointed Bovis Construction to build a free-standing structure comprising two office blocks on a 6,000 tonne steel deck constructed over the station's eight platforms. The Cannons Club, a sports club, was founded beneath the station's arches around this time, and quickly became one of the most prestigious squash clubs in the country. InterCity, the high-speed arm of British Rail, subsequently sponsored the National Squash Championships and National Squash Challenge.  The larger office block, the "Atrium building", provides of office space on six floors and is linked to the smaller building, the "River building", via a glazed link raised through a central glazed atrium. The River building, which has two storeys, is built on the steel deck and contained within the station's two flank walls, which were rebuilt, providing of office space. This building projects slightly beyond the restored twin towers which form the riverside boundary to the development. The Atrium building was later let to the London International Financial Futures and Options Exchange (Liffe). The River building has a roof garden. The project cost around £500,000 and was laid to comply with planning restrictions which required the building to be low and flat to maintain the sight lines from St Paul's to Tower Bridge.  Planning permission was granted in March 2007 to replace the Poulson building, with a new air rights building designed by Foggo Associates. Hines, the US developer, led a £360 million project involving the demolition of Poulson's office block, replacing it with a mixed-use development containing more than of office space alongside of station retail space. The redevelopment was part of a larger regeneration programme undertaken by Network Rail to modernise and "unlock the commercial potential" of the main London termini; and were also redeveloped. Network Rail's director of commercial property said that the finished station would be "less congested and more accessible for passengers." Cannon Street won the award for "Major Station of the Year" at the 2013 National Rail Awards.  In January 2015, the station's opening hours were extended to 0500–0100 Monday to Sunday (prior to this, the station had been closed on Sundays and during the evenings), and several services which previously terminated at Charing Cross were diverted to Cannon Street as a result of Thameslink Programme works. Some of these services will revert to terminating at Charing Cross following the completion of the works, while services from the Greenwich line and from New Cross and St Johns will permanently run to Cannon Street due to the removal of the Spa Road Junction.

National Rail.

The station connects the south side of the City to south and south-east London via station. Some services run directly into Cannon Street from Kent and East Sussex, but only during rush hours. Occasionally during the weekends when track maintenance is in progress, the station serves as an intermediate station between London Bridge and. Either trains reverse at the station or rail passengers change trains here. From 1918 to 2015, the station was closed on Sundays; this changed with Southeastern's introduction of a new timetable from January 2015 which resulted in the station's opening hours being extended over the entire week, except when engineering works require its closure and services are diverted to Charing Cross.

Services.

The typical off-peak service from the station is:  During peak hours, there are also services to Hastings, Tunbridge Wells, Ore and to Ramsgate or Broadstairs via Chatham.

London Underground.

The London Underground station is sub-surface, situated immediately below the main line station. It is served by the District and Circle lines. Entrances are located on Cannon Street, Dowgate Hill, and on the main line concourse upstairs at the National Rail station, providing an interconnection for commuters. An out of station interchange with Bank station has been running since 2018.

History.

By 1876, the Metropolitan Railway (MR) and District Railway (DR) had constructed the majority of the Inner Circle (now the Circle line), reaching and respectively. The companies were in dispute over the completion of the route as the DR was struggling financially and the MR was concerned that completion would affect its revenues through increased competition from the DR in the City area. In 1874, city financiers who were keen to see the line completed established the Metropolitan Inner Circle Completion Railway (MICCR) to link Mansion House to Aldgate. Forced into action, the MR bought out the company, and it and the DR began construction of the final section of the Inner Circle in 1879.  On 6 October 1884, the final section of the Inner Circle was opened, along with Cannon Street station. Initially, the station was served by trains of both companies as part of the circular Inner Circle service, but various operational patterns have been used during the station's life. The Inner Circle service achieved a separate identity as the Circle line in 1949, although its trains were still provided by the District or Metropolitan lines.  A station here was part of the abandoned phase two expansion of the Fleet line (now Jubilee line). It had originally been planned in 1943, and was revived as a major transport plan in 1965. London Transport spent £10m (now £m) in 1972 safeguarding the route underneath Cannon Street and building reinforcements for laying a tube in the water-bearing ground around the station. The plan was abandoned in the early 1980s in favour of the current extension further south.  The Underground station underwent major reconstruction at the same time as the main line station, with the work being completed in 2012. From 14 December 2014, the station's opening hours changed significantly, with the station opening on Sundays and no longer closing early in the evenings. The station previously had restricted opening hours because it primarily served the local financial services sector, so there was low demand for services outside office hours. However, with the main line station's opening hours being extended due to the Thameslink Programme, the Underground station's opening hours were changed to accommodate the additional passengers.

References.

Notes Citations Sources

Cannon Street station, also known as London Cannon Street, is a central London railway terminus and connected London Underground station in Travelcard zone 1 located on Cannon Street in the City of London and managed by Network Rail. It is one of two London termini of the South Eastern main line, the other being, while the Underground station is on the Circle and District lines, between Monument and Mansion House. The station runs services by Southeastern, mostly catering for commuters in southeast London and Kent, with occasional services further into the latter.

Cannon Street ist ein Bahnhof in der City of London, dem Finanzdistrikt von London. Die Anlage, die auch eine unterirdische Station der London Underground umfasst, befindet sich in der Travelcard-Tarifzone 1, zwischen dem Nordufer der Themse und der Cannon Street. Im Jahr 2014 nutzten 20,689 Millionen Fahrgäste der Eisenbahn den Bahnhof, hinzu kommen 5,30 Millionen U-Bahn-Fahrgäste.


Design and development.

The primary differences between the 605 and 601 were greater displacement, higher revolutions, higher compression ratio and a more powerful supercharger. Through careful study the engineers determined that the cylinders could be bored out to a larger diameter without seriously affecting the strength of the existing block. The difference was minimal, increasing from the 601's 150 mm cylinder bore to the 605's 154 mm, but this increased the overall displacement from 33.9 litres to 35.7. Altered valve timing increased the inlet period and improved the scavenging to give greater volumetric efficiency at higher speeds, which improved the maximum allowable RPM from 2,600 in the 601 to 2,800 in the 605. The combination of these changes raised power output from 1,350 PS (1,332 hp) to 1,475 PS (1455 hp). Engine weight increased from 700 to 756 kg. In other ways the engine was essentially identical to the 601, being a 12-cylinder, inverted-V (with the crankshaft above the cylinders) design. Both used dual Bosch magnetos firing twin spark plugs for ignition. Fuel injection was powered by a pump supplying up to 90 bar and the oil system used three pumps with a separate 35-litre oil tank. The supercharger was fairly advanced for the era in that it used a barometrically controlled hydraulic clutch (fluid coupling) which allowed the system to automatically compensate for changes in altitude. One major design difference was the switch from ball bearings to plain bearings which, when combined with increasingly poor grades of lubricants, led to serious problems in service, including engine fires; initially, for example, the use of emergency power was forbidden. Although Daimler-Benz redesigned the bearings and added oil slingers and their associated coolers, the RLM considered the DB 605 to be a "sick engine" and the problems had not been fully resolved by the end of the war.  Like the 601, the 605 was designed to run on "B4" fuel with an octane rating of 87. In 1944 a series of newer engines was introduced, allowing the engine to run on the 100 octane "C3" fuel and optionally including fittings for various optional power-boosting agent dispensing systems, such as the MW50 methanol-water injection system, and GM-1 nitrous oxide injection system. The DB 605AM, running initially on C3 and MW-50, saw power improved to 1,800 PS (1775 hp) for takeoff. In mid-1944, the requirement for C3 was dropped and standard B4 fuel with MW-50 was used. The DB 605AS(M) improved the maximum rated altitude by using a larger supercharger taken from the DB 603 but was otherwise similar to the A(M). The DB 605ASB's takeoff power was also rated at 1,800 PS (1,775 hp), while maintaining the high-altitude performance of the ASM. The final version of the A-series was the DB 605ASC of 1945, which improved takeoff power to 2,000 PS (1,973 hp).  As early as 1942 Daimler had also been working on an upgraded D-series engine that could run on either C2 or C3 fuel. The first of these, which appeared in late 1944, were a small series of DB 605DM, followed by the main production series, the DB 605DB/DC. These engines were fitted with an adjustable screw stop which allowed the use of either B4 fuel with MW-50, or C-3 fuel without MW-50, in which case the engine was designated DB 605DB, or the use of C-3 fuel with MW-50, in which case the engine was given the -DC suffix instead. In its DB-suffix form the engine generated 1,800 PS (1,775 hp) for take-off at 1.8 ata, while the DC was capable of 2,000 PS (1,973 hp) at 1.98 ata. If MW-50 was not available for use with the B4 fuel the throttle was limited to 1.45 ata for the entire flight. Thus, this series was ideally suited to catering for the chaotic fuel supply situation prevalent during the last months of the Third Reich. These engines were mainly used in the Bf 109G-10 and K-4 series.  One unusual application of the DB 605 came in the form of a captured Supermarine Spitfire; in November 1942, Spitfire VB "EN830" "NX-X" of 131 Squadron was captured after making a forced landing in a turnip field in Jersey; the plane was repaired by German forces and re-engined with a DB 605A Vee 12, amongst other modifications. The aircraft was operated by the Luftwaffe until 14 August 1944, when it was destroyed during a USAAF bombing raid.

Variants.

Note: All power ratings in PS (metric horsepower). Unless otherwise noted takeoff/emergency power at sea level.

Survivors.

A Hispano Aviación HA-1112 a license-built Messerschmitt Bf 109 G-2 has been rebuilt by EADS/Messerschmitt Foundation in Germany with a Daimler-Benz DB 605 engine.

Applications.

DB 605 DB 610

Engines on display.

Preserved DB 605 engines are on display at the Royal Air Force Museum, London and the National Air and Space Museum, Washington D.C.

The Daimler-Benz DB 605 is a German aircraft engine, built during World War II. Developed from the DB 601, the DB 605 was used from 1942 to 1945 in the Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighter, and the Bf 110 and Me 210C heavy fighters. The DB 610, a coupled "power system" powerplant comprising a pair of side-by-side configured examples of the DB 605, geared together in the front to turn a single output shaft — and which, like the similar DB 606 that it replaced, weighed 1,515 kg — was used in the A-3 and all A-5 variants of Germany's only operational heavy bomber, the Heinkel He 177A.

Der Daimler-Benz DB 605 war ein flüssigkeitsgekühlter Zwölfzylinder-Flugmotor mit 35,7 Litern Hubraum und Benzindirekteinspritzung von Daimler-Benz. Mit über 42.000 Exemplaren war er nach dem Junkers Jumo 211 (68.248 Stück) einer der meistgebauten deutschen Kolben-Flugmotoren des Zweiten Weltkriegs. Die überwiegende Zahl der Jagdflugzeuge Messerschmitt Bf 109 war mit diesem Motor ausgerüstet.


Geography.

The national park lies approximately 100 km south of La Serena on the Pacific Ocean, as well as approximately 30 km to the west of Ovalle. It lies close to the Atacama Desert, in the Cordillera de Talinay, which is part of the Chilean Coastal Range. On the south, the park is bordered by the Limarí River.  The park covers an area of 100 km2, but the forests cover only 4% of its surface. The national park is known for having the northernmost Valdivian temperate rain forests. The coastal fog (Spanish: "Camanchaca") hangs on the mountain-slopes and moistens subtropical vegetation, allowing the hydrophilic forests to survive despite being surrounded by semiarid scrublands, with average annual rainfall of approximately 113 mm. The forest is a vestigial survival of the last glacial period. However, recent genetic research based on metazoans, suggests that the Fray Jorge Forest is a relic of the forests that occupied this landscape during the Paleogene / Neogene, which retracted due to the aridification of the region, with an approximate age of divergence with the southern forests of over 20 million years old.  Typical plants of the national park include:  The park also includes a large number of smaller animals, as common degu, chinchilla and foxes. Many different kinds of birds live in the park, such as the Chilean tinamou ("Nothoprocta perdicaria") and the long-tailed meadowlark ("Sturnella loyca").

History.

The place where today the Fray Jorge National Park is located was discovered in 1627 by a priest of the Franciscan order, who, due to a lack of timber in the area, set out to search for it with the help of some mules. After "miraculously" finding it at this location, he brought back some timber and used it to build part of the bell tower of the Church of San Francisco in La Serena. The "Bosque de Fray Jorge" national park was created in 1941 and is administered by the Chilean forest authority CONAF. UNESCO incorporated the national park as a biosphere reservation in 1977.

References.

3. Phylogeography of Plectostylus Beck, 1837 (Gastropoda: Stylommatophora: Orthalicoidea): Origin and isolation of the Fray Jorge forest relicts in northern Chile Article in Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research 57(1) DOI: 10.1111/jzs.12242

Bosque de Fray Jorge national park or Bosque Fray Jorge national park (Spanish "Parque Nacional Bosque Fray Jorge") lies in the Limarí Province, Coquimbo Region, Chile. It is a UNESCO Biosphere reserve. Management of this and other national parks in Chile is entrusted to Corporacion Nacional Forestal, CONAF.

Der Nationalpark Bosque de Fray Jorge (span. "Parque Nacional Bosque de Fray Jorge") liegt in Chile in der Región de Coquimbo. Er ist Teil eines Biosphärenreservats der UNESCO.


Geography.

Sewanee lies on the western edge of the Cumberland Plateau in the southeastern part of Middle Tennessee. It is located at (35.201232, -85.921524). It is at elevation.  The primary road in Sewanee is a merged section of U.S. Route 41A and Tennessee State Route 56, which connects the community with Monteagle to the east. In the western part of Sewanee, the two highways diverge, with US 41A descending the Plateau to the west and continuing toward Cowan and Winchester, and SR 56 descending the Plateau to the south and continuing toward Sherwood and Alabama.  The University of the South campus occupies most of the northern portion of Sewanee, with several small neighborhoods scattered around it. A small commercial district is concentrated around the intersection of US 41A and University Avenue, the latter being a wide road that connects the highway with the university campus.  According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of, of which is land and (0.49%) is water.

Climate.

The climate is characterized by relatively high temperatures and evenly distributed precipitation throughout the year. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Cfa" (Humid Subtropical Climate).

Demographics.

As of the census of 2000, there were 2,361 people, 494 households, and 302 families living in the CDP. The population density was 510.2 people per square mile (196.9/km2). There were 554 housing units at an average density of 119.7/sq mi (46.2/km2). The racial makeup of the CDP was 93.10% White, 5.42% African American, 0.04% Native American, 0.72% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 0.08% from other races, and 0.59% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.65% of the population.  There were 494 households out of which 24.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.8% were married couples living together, 7.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38.7% were non-families. 34.6% of all households were made up of individuals and 13.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.15 and the average family size was 2.76.  In the CDP, the population was spread out with 9.5% under the age of 18, 56.9% from 18 to 24, 11.3% from 25 to 44, 12.1% from 45 to 64, and 10.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 21 years. For every 100 females, there were 84.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.5 males.  The median income for a household in the CDP was $55,625, and the median income for a family was $75,681. Males had a median income of $51,125 versus $41,518 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $16,484. About 3.3% of families and 7.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 5.2% of those under age 18 and 4.9% of those age 65 or over.

Healthcare.

Sewanee has one hospital, Southern Tennessee Regional Health Care - Sewanee (formerly known as Emerald-Hodgson Hospital)

Education and culture.

Sewanee is the home of The University of the South, founded and owned by the southern dioceses of the Episcopal Church, and generally known as "Sewanee."  Sewanee Elementary School serves Sewanee and nearby communities.  The university hosts the Sewanee Writers' Conference each summer. The Sewanee Summer Music Festival is an annual, month-long music camp for young orchestral musicians under the tutelage of accomplished teachers and conductors.  Nearby St. Andrew's-Sewanee School, one of the oldest boarding-day schools in the South, is a private school for grades 6 through 12 with a student population of 100 boarding and 150 day students.  The "Sewanee Review", a literary magazine, has been published in Sewanee continuously since 1892.  The Templeton Library, which was to be the repository of the papers of financier Sir John Templeton, a native of the area, sits prominently on a bluff of the plateau, overlooking the valley below. No longer a library, it now houses several private apartments.

Sewanee is a census-designated place (CDP) in Franklin County, Tennessee, United States. The population was 2,311 at the 2010 census. It is part of the Tullahoma, Tennessee Micropolitan Statistical Area.

Sewanee liegt im südlichen Teil des US-Bundesstaates Tennessee und gehört zu Franklin County. Der Ort ist v. a. wegen seiner Universität (University of the South) bekannt, an der gegenwärtig rund 1.500 Studenten eingeschrieben sind.


Early Life.

He was born 7 April 1832.Resterhafe, East Frisia Freeland, off the northeastern coast of Germany. It is located in the province of Hanover. The father Gottfried Christian Kittel was Gaz Freit, a priest. Mother Tudov Helen Hubert. Kittel is the eldest of his 5 children. His education was praised by the headmaster as "Never Less Than Good." Join the Basel Mission as the desire of his father.

In India.

He learned Hebrew, Greek, Latin, French and English.He arrived in India in 1853. As a missionary, he endeavoured to follow Paul's first Epistle to the Corinthians and "become as an Indian unto the Indians". He has a great desire to learn Kannada.  He undertook exhaustive studies learning the Kannada language, customs and local music. This earned rebuke from the Basel Mission, where he was already an outsider on account of his North German origin and academic education (the other missionaries were chiefly from southwest Germany and the lower/middle classes, though Gottfried Weigle had studied at Tübingen). This marginalised him by pushing him to a remote station in the Nilgiris and later confining him to the mission's press in Mangalore. He returned to Germany, but visited India again in his fifties to complete his dictionary, which by then had become for him an end in itself, and not merely an instrument secondary to missionary work.

Contribute to Kannada.

worked in Mangalore, Madikeri and Dharwad in Karnataka and inspired and attracted towards Kannada Literature.  He is most famous for his studies of the Kannada language and for producing a Kannada-English dictionary of about 70,000 words in 1894. Many Kannada dictionaries existed at least since poet Ranna's 'Ranna Khanda' in 10th century. He also composed numerous Kannada poems.  In 1862, Rev. Kittel, published his poetical Kannada work `Kathamale' which presented the life of Jesus Christ in the form of Indian musical metre style. He produced the first Kannada-English dictionary in 1894, with about 70,000 words. Reverend Ferdinand Kittel also wrote a book on Kannada grammar called "A Grammar of the Kannada Language: Comprising the Three Dialects of the language". He translated Nagavarma's work on Kannada prosody.

Today Recognition.

He arrived in India in 1853. As a missionary, he endeavoured to follow Paul's first Epistle to the Corinthians and "become as an Indian unto the Indians", and He is today almost forgotten in Germany, but widely recognised in Karnataka. Many educational institutions have been named after him. A statue at the end of Mahatma Gandhi road in the city of Bangalore commemorates him. Austin Town in Bangalore was renamed "Kittel Nagar".

Legacy.

The book "An Indian to the Indians? On the Initial Failure and the Posthumous Success of the Missionary Ferdinand Kittel (1832–1903)", edited by Reinhard Wendt, describes various aspects of his work.

Reverend Ferdinand Kittel was a priest and indologist with the Basel Mission in south India and worked in Mangalore, Madikeri and Dharwad in Karnataka. He is most famous for his studies of the Kannada language and for producing a Kannada-English dictionary of about 70,000 words in 1894. Many Kannada dictionaries existed at least since poet Ranna's 'Ranna Khanda' in 10th century. He also composed numerous Kannada poems.

Ferdinand Kittel (* 7. April 1832 in Resterhafe, Ostfriesland; † 18. Dezember 1903 in Tübingen) war ein Missionar der Basler Mission, welcher sich durch sprachwissenschaftliche Arbeiten zur südindischen Sprache Kannada große Verdienste erworben hat. Sein Denkmal steht auf der „Mahatma Gandhi Road“ in Bangalore.