Location.

The Grand Bazaar is located inside the Walled city of Istanbul, in the district of Fatih and in the neighbourhood () bearing the same name (). It stretches roughly from west to east between the mosques of Beyazit and of Nuruosmaniye. The Bazaar can easily be reached from Sultanahmet and Sirkeci by trams (Beyazıt-Kapalıçarşı stop).

History.

The construction of the future Grand Bazaar's core started during the winter of 1455/56, shortly after the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople and was part of a broader initiative to stimulate economic prosperity in Istanbul. Sultan Mehmed II had an edifice erected devoted to the trading of textiles and jewels near his palace in Constantinople. It was named ("Bedesten of Gems") and was also known as ("New Bedesten") in Ottoman Turkish. The word is adapted from the Persian word "bezestan", derived from "bez" ("cloth"), and means "bazaar of the cloth sellers". The building – named alternately in Turkish ("Internal"), ("Ancient"), or ("Old") Bedesten – lies on the slope of the third hill of Istanbul, between the ancient Fora of Constantine and of Theodosius. It was also near the first sultan's palace, the Old Palace (), which was also in construction in those same years, and not far from the Artopoleia (in Greek) (), the city's bakers' quarter in Byzantine times.  The construction of the Bedesten ended in the winter of 1460/61, and the building was endowed to the "waqf" of the Hagia Sophia Mosque. Analysis of the brickwork shows that most of the structure originates from the second half of the 15th century, although a Byzantine relief representing a Comnenian eagle, still enclosed on the top of the East Gate () of the Bedesten has been used by several scholars as proof that the edifice was a Byzantine structure.  In a market near the Bedesten, named in Turkish, the slave trade was active, a use also carried over from Byzantine times. Other important markets in the vicinity were the second-hand market (), the "Long Market" (), corresponding to the Greek "Makros Embolos" (, "Long Portico"), a long porticoed mall stretching downhill from the Forum of Constantine to the Golden Horn, which was one of the main market areas of the city, while the old book market () was moved from the Bazaar to the present picturesque location near the Beyazid Mosque only after the 1894 Istanbul earthquake.  Some years later—according to other sources, this occurred in 1545 under Sultan Suleiman I—Mehmed II had another covered market built, the "Sandal Bedesten" (the name comes from a kind of thread woven in Bursa, which had the colour of sandalwood), also named ("Little"), or (both words meaning "New") Bedesten, which lay north of the first.  After the erection of the Sandal Bedesten the trade in textiles moved there, while the was reserved for the trade in luxury goods. At the beginning the two buildings were isolated. According to the 16th-century French traveller Pierre Gilles, between them and the Mosque of Beyazid stood the ruins of churches and a large cistern. However, soon many sellers opened their shops between and around them, so that a whole quarter was born, devoted exclusively to commerce.  At the beginning of the 17th century the Grand Bazaar had already achieved its final shape. The enormous extent of the Ottoman Empire in three continents, and the total control of road communications between Asia and Europe, rendered the Bazaar and the surrounding "han"s or caravanserais the hub of the Mediterranean trade. According to several European travelers, at that time, and until the first half of the 19th century, the market was unrivaled in Europe with regards to the abundance, variety and quality of the goods on sale. At that time we know from European travelers that the Grand Bazaar had a square plan, with two perpendicular main roads crossing in the middle and a third road running along the outer perimeter. In the Bazaar there were 67 roads (each bearing the name of the sellers of a particular good), several squares used for the daily prayers, 5 mosques, 7 fountains, 18 gates which were opened each day in the morning and closed in the evening (from these comes the modern name of the Market, "Closed Market" (). Around 1638 the Turkish traveller Evliya Çelebi gave us the most important historical description of the Bazaar and of its customs. The number of shops amounted to 3,000, plus 300 located in the surrounding "han"s, large caravanserais with two or three stories round a porticoed inner courtyard, where goods could be stored and merchants could be lodged. In that period one tenth of the shops of the city were concentrated in the market and around it. For all that, at that time the market was not yet covered.  Recurrent calamities, fires and earthquakes hit the Grand Bazaar. The first fire occurred in 1515; another in 1548. Other fires ravaged the complex in 1588, 1618 (when the was destroyed), 1645, 1652, 1658, 1660 (on that occasion the whole city was devastated), 1687, 1688 (great damage occurred to the ) 1695, and 1701. The fire of 1701 was particularly fierce, forcing Grand Vizier Nevşehirli Damad Ibrahim Pasha to rebuild several parts of the complex in 1730–1731. In 1738 the Kızlar Ağası Beşir Ağa endowed the Fountain (still existing) near Mercan Kapı.  In this period, because of the new law against fires issued in 1696, several parts of the market which lay between the two Bedesten were covered with vaults. Despite that, other fires ravaged the complex in 1750 and 1791. The quake of 1766 caused more damages, which were repaired by the Court Chief Architect () Ahmet a year later.  The 19th-century growth of the textile industry in western Europe, introduction of mass production methods, the capitulations signed between the Empire and many European countries, and the forestalling – always by European merchants – of the raw materials needed to produce goods in the Empire's closed economy, were factors which caused the Market's decline. By 1850, rents in Bedesten were ten times lower than two to three decades before. Moreover, the birth of a West-oriented bourgeoisie and the commercial success of Western products pushed the merchants belonging to the minorities (Greek, Armenian, Jewish) into moving out of the Bazaar, perceived as antiquated, and into opening new shops in quarters frequented by Europeans, such as Pera and Galata.  According to an 1890 survey, in the Bazaar there were 4,399 active shops, 2 "bedesten", 2195 rooms, 1 "hamam", one mosque, 10 medrese, 19 fountains (among them two "şadırvan" and one "sebil"), one mausoleum and 24 "han". In the 30.7 hectares of the complex, protected by 18 gates, there are 3,000 shops along 61 streets, the 2 "bedesten", 13 "han" (plus several more outside).  The last major catastrophe happened in 1894: a strong earthquake that rocked Istanbul. The Minister of Public Works, Mahmud Celaleddin Pasha, supervised the repair of the damaged Bazaar until 1898, and on this occasion the complex was reduced in area. To the west, the Bit Pazarı was left outside the new perimeter and became an open-sky road, named "Çadırcılar Caddesi" ("Tentmaker Road"), while the old gate and the "Kütkculer Kapi" were demolished. Among all the "han"s which belonged to the Market, many were left outside, and only nine remained enclosed in the structure.  In 1914 the Sandal Bedesten, whose handlers of textile goods had been ruined by the European competition, was acquired by the city of Istanbul and, starting one year later, was used as an auction house, mainly for carpets. In 1927 the individual parts of the bazaar and the streets got official names. The last fires of bazaar happened in 1943 and 1954, and the related restorations were finished on 28 July 1959.  The last restoration of the complex took place in 1980. On that occasion, advertising posters around the market were also removed.

Architecture.

The Iç Bedesten has a rectangular plan (43.30 m x 29.50 m). Two rows of stone piers, four in each row, sustain three rows of bays, five in each row. Each bay is surmounted by a brick dome with blind drum. In the inner and in the outer walls have been built 44 cellars (), vaulted rooms without external openings. The sunlight in Bedesten comes from rectangular windows placed right under the roof: they can be accessed through a wooden ambulatory. Due to the scarce illumination, the edifice was kept open only some hours each day, and was devoted to the trade of luxury goods, above all textiles. Moreover, the Bedesten's Mahzen were also used as safes. The building can be accessed through four gates:  The Sandal Bedesten has also a rectangular plan (40.20 m × 42.20 m), with 12 stone piers bearing 20 bays surmounted by brick domes with blind drum. In this case shops are carved only in the outer walls. In both edifices, each bay is tied to the others through brick arches tied by juniper beams, and masonry is made with rubble. Both buildings were closed by iron gates.  Aside the Bedesten, originally the Grand Bazaar structures were built with wood, and only after the 1700 fire, they were rebuilt in stone and brickwork, and covered. All the bazaar edifices, except the fur dealers market (), a later addition which is two-story, are one story. The roofs are mainly covered with tiles, while the part burnt in 1954 uses now tarmac. In the bazaar no artificial light was foreseen, also to prevent fires, and smoking was strictly prohibited. The roads outside the inner Bedesten are roughly parallel to it. The damages caused by the many fires and quakes along the centuries, together with the repairs done without a general plan, gave to the market – especially in its western part – a picturesque appearance, with its maze of roads and lanes crossing each other at various angles.

Social history of the Grand Bazaar.

Until the restoration following the quake of 1894, the Grand Bazaar had no shops as found in the western world: along both sides of the roads merchants sat on wooden divans in front of their shelves. Each of them occupied a space in width, and in depth. This was named in Turkish, meaning'stall'. The most precious merchandise was not on display, but kept in cabinets. Only clothes were hung in long rows, with a picturesque effect. A prospective client could sit in front of the dealer, talk with him and drink a tea or a Turkish coffee, in a relaxed way. At the end of the day, each stall was closed with drapes. Another peculiarity was the complete lack of advertising. Moreover, as everywhere in the East, traders of the same type of goods were forcibly concentrated along one road, which got its name from their profession. The Inner Bedesten hosted the most precious wares: jewelers, armourers, crystal dealers had their shops there. The Sandal Bedesten was mainly the center of the silk trade, but also other goods were on sale there. The most picturesque parts of the market were – apart from the two Bedestens – the shoe market (), where thousands of shoes of different colors (Ottoman sumptuary laws prescribed yellow shoes for Muslims, blue for Greek Orthodox, black for Jews and red for Armenians) were on display on high shelves; the spice and herbs market (later concentrated in the Egyptian Bazaar), which stood near the jewelers; the armour and weapon market; the old book market; and the flea market.  This kind of organization disappeared gradually, although nowadays a concentration of the same business along certain roads can be observed again:  Actually, the main reason of concentrating the trade in one place was to provide the highest security against theft, fire and uprising. The goods in the Bedesten were guaranteed against everything except turmoil. Gates were always closed at night, and the bazaar was patrolled by guards paid by the merchants' guilds. In order to access the complex during night hours, an imperial edict was required. The only official night opening in the history of the Bazaar occurred in 1867 during the feast organized for the return of Sultan Abdülaziz from Egypt, when the sovereign crossed the illuminated market riding a horse among the rejoicing populace. Despite the immense wealth present in the Bazaar over the centuries—as an English traveller recorded as late as c. 1870, a tour of the inner Bedesten could easily ruin a few Rothschild families—theft occurred extremely rarely. The most important such incident happened in 1591, when 30,000 gold coins () were stolen in the old Bedesten. The theft shocked the whole of Istanbul, the Bazaar remained closed for two weeks and people were tortured, until the money was found hidden under a floor matting. The culprit was a young Persian musk seller. Thanks to the intercession of the Sultan Murad III he was executed by hanging and not by torture.  The ethics of trade in the Market until the Tanzimat age (i.e. until the mid-19th century) were quite different from the modern ones: indifference to profit, absence of envy in the successes of other traders, and a single and correct price were peculiar traits of the Ottoman bazaar during its golden age. The reason for such behavior lies partly in the ethics of Islam, and partly in the guild system which provided a strong social security net to the merchants. Afterwards, the westernization of the Ottoman society and the influence of the national minorities caused the introduction of mercantile ethics in Ottoman society. Right during the westernization of Ottoman society, the Grand Bazaar became an obligatory topos of the romantic literature. We owe descriptions of the Bazaar in the middle of the 19th century to writers such as Edmondo De Amicis and Théophile Gautier.  Another peculiarity of the market during the Ottoman age was the total lack of restaurants. The absence of women in the social life and the nomadic conventions in the Turkish society made the concept of restaurant alien. Merchants brought their lunch in a food box called "sefertas", and the only food on sale was simple dishes such as doner kebab, tavuk göğsü (a dessert prepared with chicken breast, milk sugar and rose water sprinkled on it) and Turkish coffee. These simple dishes were prepared and served in small two-story kiosks placed in the middle of a road. The most famous among these kiosks is the one—still extant but not functioning any more—placed at the crossing of "Halıcılar Caddesi" and "Acı Çesme Caddesi". It is alleged that Sultan Mahmud II came there often in disguise to eat his pudding. The Bazaar was in the Ottoman Age the place where the "Istanbullu" (the inhabitants of the city) could see each other. Not only was the market the only place in town where the ladies could go relatively easily (and this circumstance made the place especially interesting for the Europeans who visited the city), but—especially from the Tanzimat age on—it was also the only public place where the average citizen had a chance to meet the members of the Imperial Harem and of the Court casually.  The Bazaar's merchants were organized in guilds. In order to establish a new one, it was only necessary to have enough traders of the same good. Afterwards, a monopoly was formed and the number of traders and shops was frozen. One could only be accepted in the guild through co-optation, either as son of a deceased member, or after paying a suitable sum to a member who wanted to retire.  The guild's chief was a public officer called "Kethüda". He was paid by the guild but appointed by the "Kadı" of Istanbul. Fixation of prices and taxes were matter of the "Kethüda". He was joined by a representative of the guild's member, called "Yiğitbaşı" ('chief of the brave young fellows'). These two officers were flanked by the assembly of the elders, non necessarily old in age, but comprising the most experienced traders. Parallel to the guilds, there were purely religious organizations, called "fütüvvet tariks". Their members met in Dervish shrines and performed religious functions. These organizations became less and less important with time due to the increased weight of the Greek, Armenian and Jews merchants in the bazaar's trade. Each guild had a financial department which collected a moderate monthly fee (some silver coins; ) from the members and administered it taking care of the needs of each associated person. The guilds lost increasingly their importance during the Tanzimat period, and were abolished in 1913, being replaced by an association of Bazaar merchants. Nowadays, there are several merchant associations in the Bazaar, but none is representative of the whole seller community.

The Grand Bazaar today.

Today the Grand Bazaar is a thriving complex, employing 26,000 people visited by between 250,000 and 400,000 visitors daily, and one of the major landmarks of Istanbul. It must compete with modern shopping malls common in Istanbul, but its beauty and fascination represent a formidable advantage for it. The head of the Grand Bazaar Artisans Association claimed that the complex was in 2011 – the year of its 550th birthday – the most visited monument in the world. A restoration project starting in 2012 should renew its infrastructure, heating and lighting systems. Moreover, the "han"s inside the Market will be renovated and later additions will be demolished. This project should finally solve the big problems of the market: for example, in the whole Bazaar there is no proper toilet facility. Moreover, the lack of controls in the past years allowed many dealers to remove columns and skive walls in their shops to gain space; this, together with the substitution of lead (stolen in the last years) with concrete on the market's roof, has created a great hazard when the earthquake expected in Istanbul in the next years will occur.  The Grand Bazaar is opened each day except Sundays and bank holidays from 9:00 until 19:00.

The Grand Bazaar (, meaning ‘Covered Market’; also, meaning ‘Grand Market’) in Istanbul is one of the largest and oldest covered markets in the world, with 61 covered streets and over 4,000 shops on a total area of 30,700 m, attracting between 250,000 and 400,000 visitors daily. In 2014, it was listed No.1 among the world's most-visited tourist attractions with 91,250,000 annual visitors. The Grand Bazaar at Istanbul is often regarded as one of the first shopping malls of the world.

Der Kapalı Çarşı (), im Deutschen „Großer Basar“ oder „Großer gedeckter Basar“ genannt, ist ein Geschäftsviertel im alten Istanbuler Stadtteil Eminönü im Stadtviertel Beyazıt. Heute gehört es zum Stadtteil Fatih.


Early life.

Jeter was born Robert Michael Jeter in Lawrenceburg, Tennessee on August 26, 1952. His mother, Virginia (née Raines; May 6, 1927 - May 21, 2019), was a housewife. His father, William Claud Jeter (March 10, 1922 – March 1, 2010), was a dentist. Jeter had one brother, William, and four sisters, Virginia, Amanda, Emily, and Larie. Jeter was a student at Memphis State University (now the University of Memphis) when his interests changed from medicine to acting. He performed in several plays and musicals at the Circuit Theatre and its sister theatre, the Playhouse on the Square, in midtown Memphis. He left Memphis to further pursue his stage career in Baltimore, Maryland.

Career.

Jeter's woebegone look, extreme flexibility, and high energy led Tommy Tune to cast him in the off-Broadway play "Cloud 9" in 1981. Much of his work specialized in playing eccentric, pretentious, or wimpy characters, as in "The Fisher King", "Waterworld", "Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas", "The Green Mile" and "Drop Zone". Occasionally, Jeter was able to stray away from these types of roles for more diverse characters like those he portrayed in "Jurassic Park III", "Air Bud", and "Open Range". Jeter is perhaps most known for his role as convicted felon Eduard Delacroix in "The Green Mile", a role for which he was nominated along with the rest of the cast for a Screen Actors Guild Award. He played Rudy in Patch Adams as well.  He also played Mr. Noodle's brother, Mister Noodle, on "Sesame Street" from 2000 to 2003. He appeared in an episode of "Touched by an Angel" in 1999 as Gus, an insurance salesman who arrives in Las Vegas in the episode "The Man Upstairs". His last two appearances were in the films "Open Range" and "The Polar Express". Both films were in post-production at the time of his death and, when released, contained a dedication to his memory.

Awards.

In 1990, Jeter won a Tony Award for his performance in the Broadway musical "Grand Hotel". He won an Emmy Award in 1992 for his role in the television sitcom "Evening Shade" as math teacher and assistant football coach Herman Stiles. Also, Outer Critics Circle Award, Drama Desk Award, and the Clarence Derwent Prize.

Personal life.

Jeter was openly gay and met his partner, Sean Blue, in 1995; they were together from 1995 until Jeter's death in 2003.

Death.

On March 30, 2003, Jeter was found dead in his Hollywood home at the age of 50. Although he was HIV positive, he had been in good health for many years. His partner said Jeter died of complications after an epileptic seizure.

Michael Jeter (August 26, 1952 – March 30, 2003) was an American actor of film, stage, and television. His television roles included Herman Stiles on the sitcom "Evening Shade" from 1990 until 1994 and Mr. Noodle's brother, Mister Noodle on the "Elmo's World" segments of "Sesame Street" from 2000 until 2003. Jeter's film roles include "Zelig", "Tango & Cash", "The Fisher King", "", "Waterworld", "Air Bud", "Patch Adams", "The Green Mile", "Jurassic Park III", "Welcome to Collinwood", "Open Range", and "The Polar Express".

Michael Jeter (* 26. August 1952 in Lawrenceburg, Tennessee; † 30. März 2003 in Los Angeles, Kalifornien) war ein US-amerikanischer Schauspieler.


History.

From 1952 the company got involved in helicopter manufacturing, first building Bell helicopters under licence, but later Sikorsky, Boeing and McDonnell Douglas products as well. The company also had ambitions to design and build its own helicopters. The Agusta A.101 and the Agusta A.106 can be considered the best of its earlier attempts. Others included the AB.102, A.103, A.104, and A.115. It also produced a small line of aero engines such as the GA.70 and GA.140.  Developed in the 1970s, the Agusta A109 has undoubtedly been the company's biggest success. The A109 is a commercial and military twin turbine helicopter, of which the latest variants are still in production, hundreds having already been sold.  In 1983 the Agusta A129 Mangusta anti-tank helicopter partook in its first official flight engagement. It was the first attack helicopter to be designed and produced in Western Europe. However, this helicopter has been a limited commercial success so far, seeing service with the Italian Army, and only now has a modernized variant being developed for the Turkish Army.  The 1980s saw the start of several collaborative projects for Agusta. In 1981 Agusta and Westland of Britain started the EH101 medium-lift naval helicopter project in order to satisfy the requirements of the Royal Navy and the Italian Navy. In 1985 the company started a collaborative programme with the aeronautic industries of France, Germany and the Netherlands in order to develop and produce the NHIndustries NH90, a nine-ton twin engine multi-role medium helicopter in order to satisfy the requirements of their respective countries’ armed forces.  1990s projects include the Agusta A109 Power, an improved version of the A109 (1994) and the Agusta A119 Koala (1997), a single-engine design based on the A109.  Agusta became involved in a notorious Belgian bribery scandal when it was revealed that the company had paid the two Belgian socialist parties who were then (1988/1989) in the government to assist the company in getting the contract for attack helicopters for the Belgian Army.  In 1998 Agusta formed a joint venture with Bell Helicopter Textron called the Bell/Agusta Aerospace Company. Its aim was to develop the Bell/Agusta AB139 helicopter and the Bell/Agusta BA609 tiltrotor aircraft. Bell later withdrew from the BA609 project, which is now known as the AgustaWestland AW609.  In July 2000 Finmeccanica and GKN plc agreed to merge their respective helicopter subsidiaries (Agusta and GKN-Westland Helicopters), forming AgustaWestland.  It was reported on 12 February 2013 that the chief executive, Giuseppe Orsi, was arrested on corruption charges. Prosecutors allege he paid bribes to ensure the sale of 12 helicopters to the Indian government, when he was head of the group's AgustaWestland unit.  On 13 February 2013 Finmeccanica's Board of Directors named Mr Alessandro Pansa chief executive officer and resolves to confer the role of vice chairman to Admiral Guido Venturoni.  Shortly after Pansa's appointment, Italian investigators discovered a case of bribery by Finmeccanica in its deal with India following which the government of India issued a show cause notice to the company.  A complaint has been filed seeking an investigation into the sale of 21 civil helicopters worth over Rs 7,000 crore (US$1.6 billion) by AgustaWestland between 2005-2013 in India. As per the complaint Agusta Westland has been selling civil helicopters in India through. Tax authorities in India have been asked to probe the possibility of tax evasion by Sharp Ocean on the commission received for the sale of helicopters and foreign exchange deprivation to the country by off-shoring payments for the sale of helicopters in India.  Separately, the comptroller and auditor general, in its latest report, has indicted the Chhattisgarh government for overpaying Rs.65 lakh (US$120,000) for the purchase of a VVIP chopper -an Agusta A-109 Power helicopter. Both companies are promoted by twin brothers Nayan Jagjivan and Nakul Jagjivan.

Agusta was an Italian helicopter manufacturer. It was based in Samarate, Northern Italy. The company was founded by Count Giovanni Agusta in 1923, who flew his first airplane in 1907. The MV Agusta motorcycle manufacturer began as an offshoot of the Agusta aviation company at the end of the Second World War as a means to save the jobs of employees of the Agusta firm.

Agusta war die Kurzbezeichnung für die im Jahr 1907 als Societa Costruzioni Aeronautiche Giovanni Agusta im italienischen Cascina Costa (VA) vom Flugzeugpionier Giovanni Agusta gegründete Unternehmen; später konzentrierte sich dass Unternehmen auf die Herstellung von Hubschraubern, ab 2000 unter der Marke AgustaWestland. Heute unter Leonardo firmierend, war es bis zu seiner Übernahme die älteste italienische Flugzeugfabrik.


Etymology.

The word "Syrmia" is derived from the ancient city of Sirmium (now Sremska Mitrovica). Sirmium was a Celtic or Illyrian town founded in the third century BC.  "Srem" () and "Srijem" are used to designate the region in Serbia and Croatia respectively. Other names for the region include:

History.

Prehistory.

Between 3000 BC and 2400 BC, Syrmia was at the centre of Indo-European Vučedol culture.

Roman era.

Sirmium was conquered by Romans in the first century BC and became the economic and political capital of Pannonia. In 6 AD, there was an uprising of the indigenous peoples against Roman rule. However, ten later Roman Emperors were born in Sirmium or nearby. They included Herennius Etruscus (227-251), Hostilian (230?-251), Decius Traian (249-251), Claudius II (268-270), Quintillus (270), Aurelian (270-275), Probus (276-282), Maximianus Herculius (285-310), Constantius II (337-361) and Gratian (367-383). These emperors were mostly Romanised Illyrians.

Early Middle Ages.

In the 6th century, Pannonia, was a province of the Byzantine Empire, and included the region of Syrmia. During that time, Byzantine rule was challenged by Ostrogoths and Gepids. In 567, Byzantine rule was fully restored, but finally collapsed during the Siege of Sirmium by Avars and Slavs (582). It remained under the Avarian rule up to the c. 800, when it same under the control of the Frankish Empire. In 827, Bulgars invade Syrmia and continued to rule after a peace treaty in 845 AD. The region was later incorporated into the Principality of Lower Pannonia, but during the 10th century it became a battleground between Hungarians, Bulgarians, and Serbs.  At the beginning of the 11th century, the ruler of Syrmia was Duke Sermon, vassal of the Bulgarian emperor Samuil. There had been Bulgar resistance to Byzantine rule. This collapsed and Sermon, who refused to capitulate was captured and killed by Constantine Diogenes. A new but ultimately short lived area of governance named the Thema of Sirmium was established. It included the region of Syrmia and what is now Mačva. In 1071, Hungarians took over the region of Syrmia, but Byzantine Empire reconquered the province after the victory over Hungarians in the Battle of Syrmia (1167). Byzantine rule ended in 1180, when Syrmia was taken again by the Hungarians.

Late Middle Ages.

In the 13th century, the region was controlled by the Kingdom of Hungary. On 3 March 1229, the acquisition of Syrmia was confirmed by Papal bull. Pope Gregory IX wrote, "[Margaretha] soror...regis Ungarie [acquired] terram...ulterior Sirmia". In 1231, The Duke of Syrmia was Giletus. In the 1200s, the territory around Syrmia was divided into two counties: Syrmia in the east and Valkó (Vukovar) in the west.  In the 13th century, between 1282 and 1316, Syrmia was ruled by Stefan Dragutin of Serbia. Initially, Dragutin was a vassal of Hungary but later ruled independently. Dragutin died in 1316, and was succeeded by his son, Stefan Vladislav II (1316–1325). In 1324, Vladislav II was defeated by Stefan Uroš III Dečanski of Rascia. Lower Syrmia became the subject of dispute between the Kingdoms of Rascia and Hungary.  In 1404, Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor ceded part of Syrmia to Stefan Lazarević of Serbia and then to Đurađ Branković.  From 1459, the Hungarian kings endorsed the House of Branković and later, the Berislavići Grabarski family as the titular heads of the Serbian Despotate of which Syrmia was a part. They resided in Kupinik (modern Kupinovo). The local rulers included Vuk Grgurević (1471 to 1485); Đorđe Branković (1486 to 1496), Jovan Branković (1496 to 1502), Ivaniš Berislavić (1504 to 1514), and Stjepan Berislavić (1520 to 1535). In 1522, the last of the titular Serbian despots in Syrmia, Stjepan Berislavić, moved to Slavonia, ahead of invading Ottoman forces. Another important local governor was Laurence of Ilok, Duke of Syrmia (1477 to 1524), who reigned over large parts of the region from Ilok.

Early modern period.

In 1521, parts of Syrmia fell to the Ottomans and by 1538, the entire region was under Ottoman control. Between 1527 and 1530, Radoslav Čelnik ruled Syrmia as an Ottoman vassal. The area of Ottoman administration in Syrmia was known as the Sanjak of Syrmia.  In 1699, the Habsburg Monarchy took western Syrmia from the Ottomans as part of the Treaty of Karlowitz. Until the Treaty of Passarowitz at the end of the Austro-Turkish War of 1716-18, remainder of Syrmia was part of the Habsburg Military Frontier.  At the end of the Austro-Russian-Turkish War of 1735–1739, there was a migration of Albanians from the Kelmendi tribe to Srem, who were recorded as speaking Albanian as late as 1921. <ref

Syrmia (/Срем or Srijem/Сријем) is a region of the southern Pannonian Plain, which lies between the Danube and Sava rivers. It is divided between Serbia and Croatia. Most of the region is flat, with the exception of the low Fruška gora mountain stretching along the Danube in its northern part.

Syrmien (,, ) ist eine Landschaft zwischen den Flüssen Donau und Save. Sie beginnt westlich von Novi Beograd und endet ungefähr auf der Länge der Draumündung in die Donau. Es ist heute politisch zwischen Serbien und Kroatien geteilt, wobei der größere Teil zu Serbien gehört. In Serbien ist Syrmien neben dem Banat und der Batschka eine der drei Regionen in der Vojvodina und bildet einen der 30 Okruzi. Der kroatische Teil bildet die Gespanschaft Vukovar-Syrmien, mit der Posavina westlich angrenzend. In Syrmien befindet sich auch das einzige nordserbische Gebirge, die Fruška Gora mit dem Nationalpark Fruška Gora mit ihren zahlreichen serbisch-orthodoxen Klöstern.


Definitions.

The term "black ice" in the United States is often incorrectly used to describe any type of ice that forms on roadways, even when standing water on roads turns to ice as the temperature falls below freezing. Correctly defined, black ice is formed on relatively dry roads, rendering it invisible to drivers. It occurs when the textures present in all pavements very slightly below the top of the road surface contain water or moisture, thereby presenting a dry surface to tires until that water or moisture freezes and expands; drivers then find they are riding above the road surface on a honeycombed invisible sheet of ice.  Three other definitions of black ice by the World Meteorological Organization are:

Formation.

On roads and pavements.

The American Meteorological Society Glossary of Meteorology includes the definition of black ice as "a thin sheet of ice, relatively dark in appearance, [that] may form when light rain or drizzle falls on a road surface that is at a temperature below." Because it represents only a thin accumulation, black ice is highly transparent and thus difficult to see as compared with snow, frozen slush, or thicker ice layers. In addition, it often is interleaved with wet pavement, which is nearly identical in appearance. This condition makes driving, cycling or walking on affected surfaces extremely dangerous. Deicing with salt (sodium chloride) is effective down to temperatures of about. Other compounds such as magnesium chloride or calcium chloride have been used for very cold temperatures since the freezing-point depression of their solutions is lower.  At low temperatures (below ), black ice can form on roadways when the moisture from automobile exhaust condenses on the road surface. Such conditions caused multiple accidents in Minnesota when the temperatures dipped below for a prolonged period of time in mid-December 2008. Salt's ineffectiveness at melting ice at these temperatures compounds the problem. Black ice may form even when the ambient temperature is several degrees above the freezing point of water, if the air warms suddenly after a prolonged cold spell that has left the surface of the roadway well below the freezing point temperature.  On December 1, 2013, heavy post-Thanksgiving weekend traffic encountered black ice on the westbound I-290 expressway in Worcester, Massachusetts. A chain reaction series of crashes resulted, involving three tractor-trailers and over 60 other vehicles. The ice formed suddenly on a long downward slope, surprising drivers coming over the crest of a hill, who could not see crashed vehicles ahead until it was too late to stop on the slick pavement.

On bridges.

Bridges and overpasses can be especially dangerous. Black ice forms first on bridges and overpasses because air can circulate both above and below the surface of the elevated roadway when the ambient temperature drops, causing the bridge pavement temperature to fall more rapidly. In the United States, road warning signs with the advisory "Bridge May Be Icy" indicate potentially dangerous roadways above bridge structures.  Similar road signs exists throughout Canada, but warnings sometimes appear without words to comply to bilingual requirements. The Canadian sign features a vehicle with skid marks and snow flakes. The same sign's official and undisclosed description is defined as "Pavement is slippery when wet".  Additional signs may be attached with various different wording in Canadian provinces that do not have bilingual requirements:

Case study in Minnesota.

The I-35W Mississippi River bridge in Minneapolis, Minnesota, was well known for its black ice before it collapsed in 2007 into the Mississippi River. It had caused several pileups during its 40-year life. On December 19, 1985, the temperature reached. Cars crossing the bridge experienced black ice and there was a massive pile up of crashed vehicles on the bridge on the northbound side. In February and in December 1996, the bridge was identified as the single most treacherous cold-weather spot in the local freeway system, because of the almost frictionless thin layer of black ice that regularly formed when temperatures dropped below freezing. The bridge's proximity to Saint Anthony Falls contributed significantly to the icing problem and the site was noted for frequent spinouts and collisions.  By January 1999, Mn/DOT began testing magnesium chloride solutions and a mixture of magnesium chloride and a corn-processing byproduct to see whether either would reduce the black ice that appeared on the bridge during the winter months. In October 1999, the state embedded temperature-activated nozzles in the bridge deck to spray the bridge with potassium acetate solution to keep the area free of winter black ice. The system came into operation in 2000.

On water.

When the temperature is below freezing and the wind is calm, such as under a high atmospheric pressure at night in the fall, a thin layer of ice will form over open water of a lake. If the depth of the body of water is large enough, its color is black and can be seen through the ice, thus the name black ice.  Ice can also be formed by seawater spray and water vapour freezing upon contact with a vessel's superstructure when temperature is low enough. Ice formed in this manner is known as "rime". As the formation progress, the aboveboard weight of the vessel increases and may ultimately cause capsizing. Furthermore, rime ice may impede the correct functioning of important navigational instruments on board, such as radar or radio installations. Different strategies for the removal of such ice are employed: chipping away the ice or even using fire hoses in an attempt to remove the ice.

In mountains.

Black ice is a great hazard for climbers and scramblers. Cold weather is common at high altitudes, and black ice quickly forms on rock surfaces. Loss of traction is as sudden and unexpected as on a pavement or road, but can be fatal if the rock is in an exposed position with a drop below. An ice-axe and crampons are essential use in such circumstances as they will help to prevent a fall, and a belay rope will help to arrest a fall.

Black ice, sometimes called clear ice, is a thin coating of glaze ice on a surface, especially on roads. The ice itself is not black, but visually transparent, allowing the often black road below to be seen through it. The typically low levels of noticeable ice pellets, snow, or sleet surrounding black ice means that areas of the ice are often practically invisible to drivers or people stepping on it. There is, thus, a risk of slippage and subsequent accident due to the unexpected loss of traction.

Winterglätte (umgangssprachlich im Verkehr auch "Straßenglätte") respektive Glatteis entsteht, wenn sich auf dem Boden eine Eisschicht oder eine andere Gleitschicht bildet. Besonders auf der Fahrbahnoberfläche und anderen Gehanlagen ist das ein großes Verkehrs- und Unfallrisiko.


Life.

Ludwig Hirschfeld Mack was born in Frankfurt am Main where he grew up. He attended the Musterschule, a progressive Frankfurt high school for musically gifted children, which still exists today. He was later taught by Hermann Obrist and Wilhelm von Debschitz in Munich, taking art history with Heinrich Woelfflin and Fritz Burger. During the First World War, Ludwig Hirschfeld Mack was an infantry officer.

Bauhaus.

Hirschfeld Mack completed a craftsman apprenticeship at his father's leather factory before studying at the Teaching and Experimental Studios for Applied and Free Art under Hermann Obrist and Wilhelm von Debschitz in Munich in 1912. He then enrolled at the University of Munich and attended lectures in art history by Heinrich Wölfflin and Fritz Burger. In 1919 he went to study at the Art Academy in Stuttgart under Adolf Hölzel (colour theory) and Ida Kerkovius, but later the same year enrolled at the Bauhaus, where he studied under Johannes Itten, Paul Klee and Wassily Kandinsky, and was apprenticed to Lyonel Feininger in the print workshop, obtaining a Bauhaus graduate diploma in lithography in 1924. Itten planned to offer a course devoted to colour at the Bauhaus, but as he was sacked before it could be taught Hirschfeld Mack delivered the first dedicated course on colour (as an unofficial course) in the winter semester of 1922-23.  He remained at the Bauhaus until 1926 and conducted experiments in light projection, following German sculptor Kurt Schwerdtfeger (1897–1966) in developing the "Farbenlichtspiele" (colour-light play), producing an apparatus that combined moving projections of coloured light through mechanically operable geometric stencils displayed to music created by Ludwig himself. Its first performance was at the Bauhaus Lantern Festival June 21, 1922. Ludwig described the kinetic projection as “fugue-like, strictly structured plays of colour, always derived from a definite colour-form theme.”  In 1963, while visiting Europe, Hirschfeld was invited by the Bauhaus-Archiv, then in Darmstadt, to reconstruct the instrument which was filmed for the archive. The black-and-white film was subsequently lost, but a further recreation was made under the direction and assistance of Hirschfeld-Mack's grandson Kaj Delugan and performances filmed in colour by Corinne Schweizer and Peter Böhm with a musical sound-track

Further teaching.

In 1926, Hirschfeld Mack began teaching art in the Free School in Wickersdorf. In 1929 he was as a teacher of colour and general morphology at the University of Craft and Architecture in Weimar, the school which was established in Weimar after the Bauhaus left in 1925, and reopen in Dessau in 1926. He then became professor at the Pedagogical Academy in Frankfurt (Oder). He taught at the University of Kiel from 1932 until the university was closed by the Nazis in 1933. He moved in 1935 to the Jöde-Schule/Güntherschule in Berlin and taught the construction of simple musical instruments. Hirschfeld Mack had married Elenor Wirth in 1917 and entered the Society of Friends (better-known as Quakers), but because of his part-Jewish heritage fled the Nazis and emigrated to England in 1936.

United Kingdom.

Upon arrival Hirschfeld Mack taught art for the Subsistence Production Society, a Depression-era sustenance program of the Quakers in the Eastern Valley of Monmouthshire in South Wales. Elenor (d.1953) remained in Germany with the two youngest daughters, while his eldest, Margarita, followed him into English exile. His second daughter Ursel (17) committed suicide in Germany in 1937. The Museum of Modern Art, New York, included his work in its Bauhaus retrospective of 1938

Australia.

In 1940 Hirschfeld Mack was deported to Australia as an enemy alien on the ship HMT Dunera, spending time in internment camps in Hay, Orange and Tatura, before being granted Australian citizenship. Imprisonment and the longing for freedom were the theme of his small, stark, poignant relief prints of this period, including the woodcut "Desolation, Internment Camp, Hay" 1941. He was mentor to other internees including Erwin Fabian. His release from detention was secured in April 1942 through the intercession of Dr J.R. Darling, principal of Geelong Church of England Grammar School in Victoria, who appointed Hirschfeld Mack as the Art master. "Dr Hirschfeld", as he was known, and as recorded by one of his pupils the prominent curator David Thomas, was held in high regard students and staff alike, and proved to be an inspirational teacher, consistently propounding the Bauhaus principles of self-knowledge, economy of material and form, and reform of society through art. Hirschfeld introduced the boys to such things as colour-coded guitars and colour 'organs' and in 1965 some of the instruments were donated to the 'Occupational Centre for Mental Handicapped Children' in Geelong.

Recognition.

Hirschfeld was amongst a number of European wartime refugees who contributed to the renewal of Australian Art. As Professor Joseph Burke then Professor of Fine Arts, Melbourne University, notes in 1954: "Among the leaders of this "New Australian" contribution may be mentioned Desiderius Orban (b. 1884), a distinguished painter whose teaching has made a profound mark in Sydney in the post-war years; Dr. Ludwig Hirschfeld-Mack, an original member of the Bauhaus staff, a close colleague and friend of Paul Klee, whose work has influenced his own highly original abstract paintings; Sali Herman (b. 1898), and the recent winner of the Blake Prize for religious art, Michael Kmit, from the Ukraine.  Hirschfeld was also a guest lecturer at the University of Melbourne, where he had his first exhibition in Australia in the Rowden White Library in 1946, possibly organised by fellow "Dunera" passenger Franz Philipp, and in the same year his work was included in group exhibitions of the Contemporary Art Society (CAS) in both Sydney and Melbourne during its most radical period under John Reed (art patron). He showed also at the Peter Bray Gallery in Melbourne, in 1953.  In 1949-1950, 1958 and 1964 he visited Europe. When Walter Gropius came to lecture at the Royal Australian Institute of Architects convention in Sydney in 1954 he made a special trip to Geelong Grammar School to visit his former colleague.  In 1955 Hirschfeld married Miss Olive Russell, a leading Quaker whom he had met at Tatura, and teacher of social studies at the Melbourne Church of England Girls Grammar School. In 1957 he retired from Geelong Grammar School and they moved to Ferny Creek, Victoria.  In 1960, Clement Meadmore selected works from Hirschfeld Mack's own collection to curate the first significant exhibition of Bauhaus ideas and work in Australia, "The Bauhaus - Aspects and Influences", at Gallery A in Melbourne (July–August 1961). Included were Hirschfeld Mack's own works and colour-coded musical instruments and proof prints he had made for other Bauhaus artists as well as numbers of works given to him during his period at the Bauhaus. After Hirschfeld Mack's death, Gallery A held a commemorative exhibition of his watercolours.  Ludwig Hirschfeld Mack died on 7 January 1965 at Allambie Heights, a suburb of Sydney.

Publications.

He produced an explanatory text of the Farbenlichtspiele in 1923, also an article, "Reflected-Light Compositions..." (1925) In retirement in 1963 he published "The Bauhaus: An Introductory Survey".

The Ludwig Hirschfeld Mack Collection.

The Ludwig Hirschfeld Mack Collection was presented Melbourne University in 1971 and 1980 by Hirschfeld Mack's widow, Olive Hirschfeld. The collection contains over six hundred works by Hirschfeld Mack, including almost three hundred drawings, over two hundred prints, ninety-one watercolours and sixty-nine paintings. In addition the University of Melbourne Archives houses material including correspondence, teaching aids, drawings, photographs and slides.  Olive Hirschfeld also donated a collection of her late husband's paintings, prints and drawings to the [National Gallery of Australia], and a number of his works, many from his internment at nearby Tatura, can be found at the Geelong and Shepparton Regional Art Galleries.

The Hirschfeld-Mack Professorship in Germany and Australia.

In 2008, the Institute of English Philology at the Free University of Berlin (Institut für Englische Philologie der Freien Universität Berlin (FU)) set up a Ludwig Hirschfeld-Mack Visiting Chair of Australian Studies The professorship is named after Hirschfeld-Mack, "to stress the interdisciplinary nature of its teachers, their commitment to the role of culture in the public sphere, and the central transcultural German-Australian aspect of the project." The chair is funded by the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) and the Australian Embassy in Berlin.  Hirschfeld-Mack professors in Berlin included: Dr. Stephen Muecke, Professor of Cultural Studies at the University of Technology Sydney; Dr. Philip Mead, Professor of Australian Literature at the University of Western Australia; Dr. Devleena Ghosh, Associate Professor in Arts and Sciences at the University of Technology Sydney; Dr. Lynn McCredden, Professor of Literary Studies at Deakin University; Dr. Simon During, Australian Professorial Fellow at the University of Queensland; Dr. Anna Haebich, Distinguished Professor of Human Rights Education at Curtin University; Dr. Peter Otto, Professor of English and Theatre at the University of Melbourne;Dr. Chandani Lokuge, Associate Professor in Creative Writing at Monash University; Dr. Verity Burgmann, Professor of Political Science at the University of Melbourne; and Dr. Andrew Milner, Professor of English and Comparative Literature at Monash University.  In 2010 DAAD established, in the reverse direction, a Hirschfeld-Mack Visiting Chair for German Studies at the German Department at the University of Western Australia. Through this reciprocal visiting professor program the exchange between the Australian and German higher education system is intensified. The first Hirschfeld-Mack professors in Perth were the Germanists Dr. Matthias N. Lorenz, University of Bielefeld (2010), and Prof. Dr. Sven Kramer, University of Lüneburg (2011).

Ludwig Hirschfeld Mack (11 July 1893, in Frankfurt-am-Main – 7 January 1965, in Allambie Heights, in Sydney) was a German/Australian artist.

Ludwig Hirschfeld-Mack (* 11. Juli 1893 in Frankfurt am Main; † 7. Januar 1965 in Sydney, Australien) war ein deutscher Maler und „Farblicht-Musiker“.


Origins and development.

The Kadam school was a monastic tradition in Tibet, founded by Atisa’s chief disciple Dromtön in 1056 C.E. with the establishment of Reting Monastery. The school itself was based upon the Lamrim or "Graded Path", approach synthesized by Atisa. While it had died out as an independent tradition by the 14th century, this lineage became the inspiration for the foundation of the Gelug-pa.

Tsongkhapa.

The Gelug school was founded by Je Tsongkhapa, an eclectic Buddhist monk who traveled Tibet studying under Sakya, Kagyu and Nyingma teachers, such as the Sakya Master Rendawa (1349–1412) and the Dzogchen master Drupchen Lekyi Dorje.  A great admirer of the Kadam school, Tsongkhapa merged the Kadam teachings of Lojong (mind training) and Lamrim (stages of the path) with the Sakya Tantric teachings. He also emphasized monasticism and a strict adherence to vinaya (monastic discipline). He combined this with extensive and unique writings on Madhyamaka, the Svatantrika-Prasaṅgika distinction, and Nagarjuna's philosophy of Śūnyatā (emptiness) that, in many ways, marked a turning point in the history of philosophy in Tibet. Tsongkhapa's Great Exposition of the Stages of the Path (Tib. Lam Rim Chenmo), is an exposition of his synthesis and one of the great works of the Gelug school.  Tsongkhapa and his disciples founded Ganden monastery in 1409, which was followed by Drepung (1416) and Sera (1419), which became the "great three" Gelug monasteries. After the death of Tsongkhapa the order grew quickly, as it developed a reputation for strict adherence to monastic discipline and scholarship as well as tantric practice.  Tsongkhapa had two principal disciples, Gyaltsab Je (1364—1432) and Khedrup Gelek Pelzang, 1st Panchen Lama (1385—1438).

Establishment of the Dalai Lamas.

In 1577 Sonam Gyatso, who was considered to be the third incarnation of Gyalwa Gendün Drup, formed an alliance with the then most powerful Mongol leader, Altan Khan. As a result, Sonam Gyatso was designated as the 3rd Dalai Lama; "dalai" is a translation into Mongolian of the name "Gyatso" ocean, and Gyalwa Gendün Drup and Gendun Gyatso were posthumously recognized as the 1st and 2nd Dalai Lamas.  Sonam Gyatso was very active in proselytizing among the Mongols, and the Gelug tradition was to become the main spiritual orientations of the Mongols in the ensuing centuries. This brought the Gelugpas powerful patrons who were to propel them to pre-eminence in Tibet. The Gelug-Mongol alliance was further strengthened as after Sonam Gyatso's death, his incarnation was found to be Altan Khan's great-grandson, the 4th Dalai Lama.

Emergence as dominant school.

Following violent strife among the sects of Tibetan Buddhism, the Gelug school emerged as the dominant one, with the military help of the Mongol Güshri Khan in 1642. According to Tibetan historian Samten Karmay, Sonam Chophel (1595–1657), treasurer of the Ganden Palace, was the prime architect of the Gelug's rise to political power. Later he received the title "Desi" [Wylie: sde-sris], meaning "Regent", which he would earn through his efforts to establish Gelugpa power.  The fifth Dalai Lama was the first in his line to hold full political and spiritual power in Tibet. He established diplomatic relations with Qing Dynasty China, built the Potala Palace in Lhasa, institutionalized the Tibetan state Nechung oracle and welcomed Western missionaries. From the period of the 5th Dalai Lama in the 17th century, the Dalai Lamas held political control over central Tibet. The core leadership of this government was also referred to as the Ganden Phodrang.  Scottish botanist George Forrest, who witnessed the 1905 Tibetan Rebellion led by the Gelug Lamas, wrote that the majority of the people in the Mekong valley in Yunnan were Tibetan. According to his accounts, the Gelugpas were the dominant power in the region, with their Lamas effectively governing the area. Forrest said they used "force and fraud" to "terrorise the... peasantry".  After the Incorporation of Tibet into the People's Republic of China, thousands of Tibetan monasteries were destroyed or damaged, and many Gelug monks, including the 14th Dalai Lama fled the country to India. The three major Gelug monastic colleges (Sera, Drepung and Ganden) were recreated in India. The Dalai Lama's current seat is Namgyal Monastery at Dharamshala, this monastery also maintains a branch monastery in Ithaca, New York.

Teachings.

Lamrim and Sunyata.

The central teachings of the Gelug School are the Lamrim teachings of Tsongkhapa's "Great Exposition of the Stages of the Path" ("Lamrim chenmo"), which is based on the teachings of the Indian master Atiśa (c. 11th century) in "A Lamp for the Path to Awakening". As the name indicates, this is a hierarchical model in which the practitioner accomplishes varying stages based on the classical Indian Mahayana model of the Bodhisattva "five paths and ten levels". One initially begins with the desire to seek a good rebirth, and then moves to seeking liberation for oneself (Sravaka motivation), and then to seeking Buddhahood so as to aid the liberation of others (Mahāyāna motivation), further adding Vajrayana methods to aid in the speedy attainment of Buddhahood. Higher motivations build on, but do not subvert the lower ones.  Tsongkhapa outlines the three major features of the path thus:  The correct view of emptiness is initially established through study and reasoning in order to ascertain if phenomena are the way they appear. Gelug texts contain many explanations to help one obtain a conceptual understanding of emptiness and to practice insight meditation ("vipasyana"). Gelug meditation includes an analytical kind of insight practice which is "the point-by-point contemplation of the logical arguments of the teachings, culminating in those for the voidness of self and all phenomena." The presentation of samatha and vipaśyanā in Tsongkhapa's Lamrim is also based on eighth-century Indian teacher Kamalaśīla's Bhāvanākrama, or ‘Stages of Meditation’. The highest view of emptiness is considered to be the Prāsangika Mādhyamika of Candrakirti, as interpreted by Tsongkhapa. Another important text of Gelug teachings is the "Book of Kadam" also known as the "Kadam Emanation Scripture" which includes teachings from Kadam masters like Atisha and Dromton.

Vajrayāna Practice.

The tantric practices of the Gelug are also integrated into the stages of the path model by Tsongkhapa's "The Great Exposition of Secret Mantra". This is combined with the yogas of Anuttarayoga Tantra iṣṭadevatā such as the Guhyasamāja, Cakrasaṃvara, Yamāntaka and Kālacakra tantras, where the key focus is the direct experience of the indivisible union of bliss and emptiness.  The Guhyasamāja tantra is the principal one. As the Dalai Lama remarks, Tsongkhapa also incorporated the tantric practice of the Six Yogas of Naropa, and Mahamudra, from the Dagpo Kagyu lineages. This tradition was continued by the first Panchen Lama, who composed "A Root Text for the Precious Gelug/Kagyü Tradition of Mahamudra". The Gelug tradition also maintains Dzogchen teachings; Lozang Gyatso, 5th Dalai Lama (1617-1682), Thubten Gyatso, 13th Dalai Lama ( 1876-1933), and Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama are some Gelug-pa Dzogchen masters. Likewise the practice of Chöd was taught by Gelug-pas such as Kyabje Zong Rinpoche.

Vinaya.

The Gelug school focuses on ethics and monastic discipline of the "vinaya" as the central plank of spiritual practice. In particular, the need to pursue spiritual practice in a graded, sequential manner is emphasized. Arguably, Gelug is the only school of vajrayāna Buddhism that prescribes monastic ordination as a necessary qualification and basis in its teachers (lamas / gurus). Lay people are usually not permitted to give initiations if there are teachers with monastic vows within close proximity.

Study.

The Gelug school developed a highly structured system of scholastic study which was based on the memorization and study of key texts as well as formal debate. The primary topics and texts used in study are:  Six commentaries by Tsongkhapa are also a prime source for the studies of the Gelug tradition, as follows:  According to Georges Dreyfus,  For each topic studied, the procedure is similar. The process starts with the heuristic memorization of the root text and sometimes of its commentaries. It continues with the interpretation of the root text through commentaries, and culminates in dialectical debate.  After the study of the exoteric texts, a monk may then enter the esoteric study and practice of tantric texts, particularly the Guhyasamāja, Yamāntaka, and Cakrasamvara tantras.  A monk who completes all his study may then attempt for a geshe degree, a rare and difficult title to obtain which can take 15 to 25 years to complete.  Each Gelug monastery uses its own set of commentarial texts by different authors, known as monastic manuals (Tib. "yigcha"). The teachings of Tsongkhapa are seen as a protection against developing misconceptions in understanding and practice of Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna Buddhism. It is said that his true followers take "The Great Exposition of the Stages of the Path" as their heart teaching.  "The Great Exposition of the Stages of the Path" was completely translated into English in a three volume set in 2004, under the title "The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment". The translation took 13 years to complete, and was undertaken by scholars at the Tibetan Buddhist Learning Center, a non-sectarian Tibetan Buddhist educational center in Washington, New Jersey. A translation is also available in Vietnamese. In 2008, the 14th Dalai Lama Tenzin Gyatso gave a historical five day teaching on the text at Lehigh University.

Monasteries and lineage holders.

Monasteries.

Tsongkhapa founded the monastery of Ganden in 1409 as his main seat.  Drepung Monastery was founded by Jamyang Choje, Sera Monastery was founded by Chöje Shakya Yeshe and the Gyalwa Gendün Drup founded Tashi Lhunpo Monastery. Before the Chinese occupation Ganden and Sera each had about 5,000 monks, while Drepung housed over 7,000.  Labrang Monastery, in Xiahe County in Gansu province (and in the traditional Tibetan province of Amdo), was founded in 1709 by the first Jamyang Zhaypa, Ngawang Tsondru. Many Gelug monasteries were built throughout Tibet as well as in China and Mongolia.

Lineage holders.

Tsongkhapa had many students, his two main disciples being Gyaltsab Je (1364–1431) and Khedrup Gelek Pelzang, 1st Panchen Lama (1385–1438). Other outstanding disciples were Togden Jampal Gyatso, Jamyang Choje, Jamchenpa Sherap Senge and Gendün Drup, 1st Dalai Lama (1391–1474).  After Tsongkhapa's passing, his teachings were held and spread by Gyaltsab Je and Khedrup Gelek Pelzang, who were his successors as abbots of Ganden Monastery. The lineage is still held by the Ganden Tripas – the throne-holders of Ganden Monastery – among whom the present holder is Thubten Nyima Lungtok Tenzin Norbu, the 102nd Ganden Tripa (and not, as often misunderstood, by the Dalai Lama).  Among the main lineage holders of the Gelug are:

The Gelug (Wylie: dGe-Lugs-Pa) is the newest of the schools of Tibetan Buddhism. It was founded by Je Tsongkhapa (1357–1419), a philosopher and Tibetan religious leader. The first monastery he established was named Ganden (which gives an alternative name to the Gelug school, the Ganden-Pa), and to this day the Ganden Tripa is the nominal head of the school, though its most influential figure is the Dalai Lama. Allying themselves with the Mongols as a powerful patron, the Gelug emerged as the pre-eminent Buddhist school in Tibet and Mongolia since the end of the 16th century.

Die Gelug-Schule (auch: Ganden-Tradition) ist die jüngste der vier Hauptschulen (Nyingma, Sakya, Kagyü und Gelug) des tibetischen Buddhismus (Vajrayana). Die Anhänger dieser Schule werden als „Gelugpa“ (tib.: "dge lugs pa") bezeichnet. Die Gelug-Schule war in ihren Anfängen eher dem reinen Mahayana nahestehend. Das nominelle Oberhaupt der Gelug-Schule ist der „Ganden Thripa“ (tib.: "dga' ldan khri pa").


Biography.

Legien was born in Marienburg, Province of Prussia, (now Malbork, Poland), to Rudolf, a tax official, and Maria Legien. His parents died in his childhood and Legien grew up in an orphanage in Thorn, Province of Prussia (now Toruń) from 1867 to 1875. He became a wood turner and served in the Prussian Army from 1881 to 1884. He joined the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) in 1885, a wood turners’ union in 1886 and worked as a turner in several cities in Germany until 1891, since 1886 in Hamburg.  In 1887 Legien became the first chairman of the German Association of Turners and of the General Commission of the German Trade Unions (Generalkommission der Gewerkschaften Deutschlands) in 1891, a position he would hold until its dissolution in 1919. He was elected a member of the German Parliament in 1893 (until 1898) and again in 1903 (until his death in 1920). He became the leader of the SPD's right wing and opposed its more leftist factions.  He took part in the International Workers Congresses of Paris, 1889.  Legien became Chairman of the International Secretariat of National Trade Union Centres in 1903 and first President of the International Federation of Trade Unions in 1913 until its dissolution in 1919.  In 1912, Legien gave a keynote address at the convention of the Socialist Party of America in Indianapolis which was credited with persuading the convention to reject the anarcho-syndicalist program of Bill Haywood.  At the outbreak of World War I he supported the war with "patriotic fervor" and the SPD-majority’s "Burgfriedenspolitik", a "civil truce", which assured the German government not to "obstruct the German war effort". Legien and other leading Social Democrats expected this policy to end the animosity and discrimination of socialist workers in Germany, while the German Empire's government (particularly the War Ministry) evaluated organised labour as an important factor in war industries. As a result, workers became a mobilized, disciplined loyal force in the war effort in return for concessions, and the German labour movement became an obstacle against opposition to war. In the context of the separation of the opposing Social Democratic minority, which led to the foundation of the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (USPD), Legien and Gustav Bauer declared that the "Jewish gang" must be dealt with, in attempt to drive them out of their faction. Robert S. Wistrich classifies Carl Legien as belonging to a group of whom some had antisemitic tendencies. During the war he worked in variety of ways to help German war effort. He threw down calls from socialists in USA to mediate an end of the war with the German government, while defending the resumption of submarine warfare by German Kriegsmarine as response to the rejection of "Germany's sincere offer of immediate peace negotiations"  On 15 November 1918 he signed the Stinnes-Legien-Agreement with industrialist Hugo Stinnes, an agreement in which the German employers for the first time accepted nationwide unions as legitimate workers-organisations and which introduced an eight-hour day, workers councils in plants with more than 50 employees and parity employment offices. The employers agreed to stop discrimination of union members and their support of "house unions" (yellow unions) while the unions rejected radical socialists’ demands. Most of the agreement's regulations became part of the Weimar German constitution.  In 1919 he became the first Chairman of the Allgemeiner Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund. To Legien the expected loss of Upper Silesia to Poland after World War I would intensify the 'psychological' impact of the "draconian peace" on the German working class.  He countered the right-wing Kapp Putsch of March 1920 by organizing a massive general strike in Germany with about 12 million employees following the joint call of the legal government and the unions. The strike immediately halted all production, transportation, mining and public services, it was "the strongest mass movement the German proletariat ever created" and "gave the Kapp régime its death blow".  At that time he declined Friedrich Ebert’s offer to become Chancellor of Germany.  Legien died after a short illness in Berlin and was buried at Zentralfriedhof Friedrichsfelde.

Honours.

In 1922 the Stinnes-line named "MS Carl Legien" in his honour.  Bruno Taut's "Wohnstadt Carl Legien", a social housing project of the 1920s and part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Berlin Modernism Housing Estates, bears his name as well as several streets all over Germany. A memorial was erected in Berlin-Kreuzberg.

Carl Legien (1 December 1861 – 26 December 1920) was a German unionist, moderate Social Democratic politician and first President of the International Federation of Trade Unions.

Carl Rudolf Legien (* 1. Dezember 1861 in Marienburg (Westpreußen); † 26. Dezember 1920 in Berlin) war ein deutscher Gewerkschaftsfunktionär.


History.

In return for a promise to pay off debts owed to the United States by the Bauan chieftain, Seru Epenisa Cakobau, the Australian-based Polynesia Company was granted of land, of it near what was then the village of Suva, in 1868. The original intention was to develop a cotton farming industry, but the land and climate proved unsuitable.  Following the cession of the Fiji Islands to the United Kingdom in 1874, the colonial authorities decided to move the capital to Suva from Levuka, Ovalau, Lomaiviti in 1877, as Levuka's location, between a steep mountain and the sea, made any expansion of the town impractical. The transfer was made official in 1882. Colonel F.E. Pratt of the Royal Engineers was appointed Surveyor-General in 1875 and designed the new capital, assisted by W. Stephens and Colonel R.W. Stewart.  Following the promulgation of the Municipal Constitution Ordinance of 1909, Suva acquired municipal status in 1910. The town initially comprised one square mile; these boundaries remained intact until 1952 when the Muanikau and Samabula wards were annexed, expanding its territory to. In October that year, Suva was proclaimed a city – Fiji's first. Tamavua was subsequently annexed; the most recent extension of the city boundaries has been to incorporate the Cunningham area to the north of the city. Urban sprawl has resulted in a number of suburbs that remain outside of the city limits; together with the city itself, they form a metropolitan area known as the Greater Suva Area.  The city hosted the 2003 South Pacific Games, being the third time in the event's 40-year history that they had been held in Suva. As part of the hosting of the event, a new gymnasium and indoor sports centre, swimming pool, and stadium; field hockey pitch; and stands were built in the area around Suva, funded by the government and a $16 million People's Republic of China aid package.

Geography and physical characteristics.

Suva is the capital of Fiji and is a harbour city built on a peninsula reaching out into the sea. It has a mix of modern buildings and traditional colonial architecture.  The city is perched on a hilly peninsula between Laucala Bay and Suva Harbour in the southeast corner of Viti Levu. The mountains north and west catch the southeast trade winds, producing moist conditions year round.  Suva is the commercial and political centre of Fiji, though not necessarily the cultural centre. It is Fiji's main port city.  Although Suva is on a peninsula, and almost surrounded by sea, the nearest beach is 40 kilometres (25 mi) away at Pacific Harbour and the nearby coast is lined by mangroves. A significant part of the city centre, including the old Parliament buildings, is built on reclaimed mangrove swamp.

Central.

The Central Business District encompasses an area known as the Central Ward; one of Suva's six wards, Central occupies close to the whole south-western side of the Suva Peninsula.

City wards.

The city's six wards beginning from the city centre, then north, then clockwise rotation.

Suva–Nausori Corridor.

Suva sits in the middle of an urban conurbation that stretches from Lami, to the immediate west of the city, along the Queens Highway and Nasinu town, on its eastern border all the way to the Rewa River, along the Kings Highway. This conurbation, sometimes known as the Suva Urban Complex, continues till Nausori, over the Rewa River. The north of the city to its northeast contains the rainforest park areas of Colo-i-Suva and Sawani, along the Princes Road, connecting at the Rewa River Bridge. This entire conurbation, is generally referred to by locals as Suva, although it contains four local government areas. In formal reference, this complex has come to be known as the Suva–Nausori Corridor (where Lami is generally excluded) and is the most populous area in Fiji, with over 330,000 people.

Climate.

Suva features a tropical rainforest climate under the Köppen climate classification. However, as a trade-wind climate which besides knows occasional cyclones, it is not equatorial. The city sees a copious amount of precipitation during the course of the year, with no true dry season due to no month having an average rainfall below. Suva averages of precipitation annually with its driest month, July averaging. In fact, during all 12 months of the year, Suva receives substantial precipitation, such that the term "fine weather" in a weather report simply means "not actually raining". Like many other cities with a tropical rainforest climate, temperatures are relatively constant throughout the year, with an average high of about and an average low of about.  Suva has a markedly higher rainfall than Nadi and the western side of Viti Levu, which is known to Suva citizens as "the burning west". The second Governor of Fiji, Sir Arthur Gordon, allegedly remarked that it rained in Suva like he had seen nowhere else before and that there was hardly a day without rain. The most copious rainfall is observed from November to May, while the slightly cooler months from June to October are considerably drier.

Demographics.

Suva is a multiracial and multicultural city. Indigenous Fijians and Indo-Fijians, the two principal ethnic groups of Fiji, comprise the bulk of Suva's population, and the city is home to the majority of Fiji's ethnic minority populations, which include Rotumans, Lauans, Rambians, Caucasians (Europeans or "Kaivalagi"), part-Europeans (of European and Fijian descent), or Kailoma" and Chinese, amongst others. The most widely spoken language is English, but Fijian, Hindustani, and other languages are also spoken by their respective communities.  Suva boasts having representation of all major indigenous Pacific groups, and is sometimes referred to as the “New York of the Pacific". The city's reputation as a major economic centre in the region, and also its hosting of the University of the South Pacific's main campus has led to an influx of Pacific migrants who study, work and live in the city and its boroughs.

Municipal government.

Suva has municipal status and is supposed to be governed by a Lord Mayor and a 20-member city council. The Suva City Council is the municipal law-making body of the city of Suva, Fiji's capital. It consists of 20 Councillors, elected for three-year terms from four multi-member constituencies called wards. Councillors, who are elected by residents, landowners, and representatives of corporations owning or occupying rateable property in Suva, elect a Lord Mayor and Deputy Lord Mayor from among their own members; they serve one-year terms and are eligible for re-election.  In 2009, the Military-backed interim government dismissed all municipal governments throughout Fiji and appointed special administrators to run the urban areas., elected municipal government has not been restored. The special administrator of Suva, along with nearby Nasinu, is Chandu Umaria, a former Lord Mayor of Suva.

Landmarks.

A well-known landmark is the Suva City Carnegie Library, built in 1909 as well as many other colonial buildings.  The government buildings complex sits on what was once the flowing waters of a creek. It was drained in 1935 and over five kilometres of reinforced concrete pilings were driven into the creek bed to support the massive buildings to be erected. After the foundation stone was laid in 1937, the building was completed in 1939; a new wing was completed in 1967. Parliament, however, was moved to a new complex on Ratu Sukuna Road in 1992.  Government House was formerly the residence of Fiji's colonial Governors and, following independence in 1970, Governors-General. It is now the official residence of Fiji's President. Originally erected in 1882, it had to be rebuilt in 1928, following its destruction by lightning in 1921.  The Suva campus of the University of the South Pacific (USP) occupies what was once a New Zealand military base. It is the largest of the many USP campuses dotted throughout the South Pacific and the largest university in the Pacific Islands outside Hawaii. It offers courses which are internationally recognised and endorsed.  The Fiji Museum, in Thurston Gardens, was founded in 1904 and originally occupied the old town hall, but moved to its present location in 1954. The museum houses the most extensive collection of Fijian artefacts in the world, and is also a research and educational institution, specialising in archaeology, the preservation of Fiji's oral tradition, and the publication of material on Fiji's language and culture.  Suva has around 78 parks, these include the new Takashi Suzuki Garden, Apted Park at Suva Point which is a popular spot for viewing sunrise and sunset, Thurston Gardens which was opened in 1913 and has flora from throughout the South Pacific.  Suva has many shopping and retail areas, notably Cumming street, which has since colonial times been a vibrant and colourful shopping area. Features of these streets include the original colonial buildings and narrow roads. More modern shopping malls, such as the Suva Central Shopping Mall, Mid-City Mall as well as MHCC are all part of the developments to give the city a modern and sophisticated look.  In December 2009, there was an addition to Suva's skyline with the opening of TappooCity valued at US$25.7 million (FJD50 million) a joint venture six-storey low-rise building project by FNPF & Tappoo Group of Companies as Fiji's (and South Pacific's) largest department mall at present outside Australia & New Zealand.  Construction work began in January 2011 for a FJD30 million mini-mall complex at Grantham Road behind the Sports-City Complex and close proximity to University of the South Pacific, which will house restaurants, retail outlets and cinemas. Although construction was scheduled for end 2011, this complex will now be ready mid-2012.

Economy.

Unlike most cities and towns in Fiji and indeed many around the world, Suva did not grow around one industry but has gradually developed as a hub and the largest and most sophisticated city in the Pacific Islands. Fijians of Indian descent have largely shaped the economy of Fiji, contributing immensely to the growth of Suva and its status as the economic and political capital of Fiji. Suva is the commercial center of Fiji with most banks having their Pacific headquarters here, including ANZ and the Westpac Bank. Most national financial institutions, non-governmental organisations and government ministries and departments are headquartered here. At one point both Air Pacific (now called Fiji Airways and Air Fiji) were headquartered in Suva.  A large part of Fiji's international shipping is conducted at Suva's Kings Wharf as well as docking of international cruise ships, which has led to a growth in Suva's tourism industry. Many services are provided in Suva and is the basis of Suva's industrial and commercial activity.  There are large industrial areas, the largest being at Walu Bay, where there is a saturation of factories and warehouses and import and export companies. This area contains many shipyards for ship building and repairs as well as container yards. There is a brewery and many printeries. Other notable industrial zones are located in Vatuwaqa, Raiwaqa and Laucala Beach.  There is a large commercial and shopping scene in Suva with streets such as Cumming Street and Victoria Parade being popular. There are many shopping complexes to visit and many markets.

Institutions.

Suva is host to more international and regional intergovernmental agencies and NGOs than any other Pacific Island capital. Some of the bodies with a presence in Suva are:

Entertainment and culture.

Suva is the cultural and entertainment capital of Oceania, and is host to many regional, national and local events. The city has very developed and advanced entertainment and event infrastructure, and hosts a busy calendar of events every year.

Venues.

Suva has many multipurpose venues, the main ones being:

Parks and gardens.

Suva has a number of parks and a few gardens. Albert Park, in the City centre, is famous as the stage for many national-historical events such as the Independence of Fiji, the landing by Kingsford Smith on the Southern Cross and many parades and carnivals. Sukuna Park, also in the CBD is a popular recreational park and has many performances and events on a weekly basis. Thurston Gardens (named for Governor of Fiji John Bates Thurston) is the city's main botanical garden and the location of the Fiji Museum. Queen Elizabeth Drive is popular as a scenic walk along Suva's foreshore. Many city residents go to the Colo-i-Suva Forest Reserve, a short drive from the city centre, to swim under the waterfalls.

Music.

Many concerts are held in Suva, some coming from other countries to enjoy world-class performances. Concerts and shows are usually staged at one of the above-mentioned venues on a monthly basis. Some of the famous music artists to hold shows in Suva include UB40, Lucky Dube, O'Yaba, Sean Kingston and many others. Due to a favoured interests in Bollywood by all, some prominent singers and actors have held shows in the capital which includes singers like Shaan, Sonu Nigam, Sunidhi Chauhan and movie artists like Shah Rukh Khan, Priyanka Chopra, Johnny Lever, Dino Morea, Rajpal Yadav, Sunny Leone and the like.

Food.

Suva offers a varied and interesting culinary experience where almost every if not all major cuisines are represented. Particularly popular cuisines are Fijian, Indian, Chinese, American and foods from other cultural and ethnic backgrounds. Fijians of Indian descent have influenced Fiji's cuisine, in the process creating the uniquely Fiji Indian curry. Indentured labourers brought with them spices, chilies and other herbs and vegetables which now are part of the Fijian culinary experience.

Festivals.

During the course of the year, arts, music and trade festivals are held in Suva, albeit on a small scale. There are a few large and notable festivals that occur annually and these include the Hibiscus Festival (largest carnival in the South Pacific islands), the New Years Street Party, and the Fiji Show Case tradeshow that includes carnival rides, food as well as magic and circus performances.

Night life.

Suva has a vibrant nightlife where most nightclubs and bars open in the late afternoon and remain open till 5 am. Suva's nightlife caters to all tastes, moods and likes. Food stalls are open throughout the night and the city is well policed at night. Apart from nightclubs, there are lounges and bars that cater to those seeking low-key entertainment.  The seedier side of Suva is Victoria Parade where night clubs such as Signals Night Club, East Court Restaurant, and Angel Night Club are located in the same stretch.

Cinema.

Downtown Suva has one main cinema complex, Village Six, owned by the Damodar Brothers. The Regal and Phoenix theatres, once prominent cinema/theatre haunts before the new millennium owned by the Sharan Brothers, have since closed down. A second cinema complex is the Damodar city complex (also owned by the Damodar brothers), in the shopping area of Laucala Bay, which has a further six screens, along with shopping and eating outlets and cafes.  Another interesting feature of Suva is the increasing number of Bollywood films being shot in the capital.

Sports.

Suva plays host to many regional and national sporting events, most notably at the ANZ National Stadium. A special highlight is the Coca-Cola Games, the largest secondary school athletics meet in the world. The Capital City is represented in major sporting events by its respective rugby, netball and soccer teams.  Suva was the host of the first Pacific Games, in 1963. Forty years later in 2003 the Games returned to Fiji's capital, with a full program of 32 sports introduced for the first time. Suva held the games for the second time in 1979. Having hosted the event three times, Suva has held the Pacific Games more often than any other city.

Mass media.

Headquartered in Suva are the three main national television stations, Fiji One, FBC TV and MAI TV along with the Fiji Ministry of Information, which produces government programs as well as national news and current affairs bulletins. Fiji One produces and airs its evening 'National News' bulletin from its studios in Gladstone Road in Central; FBC TV airs its 'FBC News' bulletin from its studios, also on Gladstone Road. Sky Pacific and Pacific Broadcasting Services Fiji are the two pay satellite television company headquartered here.  Suva is home to the national radio broadcasters Fiji Broadcasting Corporation (FBC) and Communications Fiji Limited (CFL), between them providing 12 of the national radio stations.  The two dailies, "The Fiji Times" and "The Fiji Sun" are printed here (and, formerly, the "Fiji Post"). Many other weekly newspapers are headquartered and published in Suva, including "Inside Fiji", "Nai Lalakai" (iTaukei language weekly), "Shanti Dut" (Fiji Hindi weekly), national magazines such as "Repúblika" and "Mai Life" as well as regional magazines such as "Islands Business".

Shopping and fashion.

Suva is one of the most shopper friendly cities in the Pacific. The city offers its shops in a cluster that is referred to as Suva Central. Areas like Cumming Street and Marks Street are for clothing, jewellery, food, electronics, pharmaceuticals and more. Terry Walk and the Flea Market offer handicrafts and local ware. Close by, huge, new shopping complexes dominate the canal area, such as MHCC (Morris Hedstrom City Center), Tappoo City and Suva Central. There are telecommunication and electronic stores, as well as sporting gear stores in the outer areas of this radius.  Suva also hosts the headquarters of the Fashion Council of Fiji, the regions most significant fashion organisation. The Fijian Fashion Festival, the regions largest trade and consumer fashion platform, occurs annually at the Grand Pacific Hotel in Suva.

Transportation.

Nausori International Airport caters mainly to the domestic market, connecting Suva with Fiji's other international airport, Nadi International Airport, and serves smaller international aircraft, at one time servicing Brisbane and Sydney routes. As of August 2010, Fiji Airways will operate a twice weekly flight from Nausori International Airport to Auckland, New Zealand to complement its 13 weekly flights from Nadi to Auckland, furthermore, the Nausori – Sydney route has resumed. The airport provides services to its immediate Pacific neighbours Tonga, Tuvalu and Vanuatu as well as the dependency of Rotuma.  Suva has a public transport system consisting of buses (Central Transport Co.) and taxis servicing the metropolitan area as well as the cities of Nasinu, Nausori and Lami town. There are bus services connecting Suva with other towns and cities on Viti levu by way of either the Kings, Queens or Princes highways, all originating within Suva, although the latter terminates at Rewa Bridge in Nausori.  There is a domestic ferry services from the Princess Wharf to the outer islands of Fiji as well as Vanua Levu. International ships and cruise liners dock at Suva's Kings Wharf.

Notable residents.

This is a list of famous people who are either currently living in, or are originally from Suva.

Suva () is the capital and largest metropolitan city in Fiji. It is located on the southeast coast of the island of Viti Levu, in the Rewa Province, Central Division.

Suva (auch Suwa) ist die Hauptstadt Fidschis. Sie liegt an der südöstlichen Küste der Hauptinsel Viti Levu in der Provinz Rewa der Verwaltungsregion Central Division, deren Hauptstadt sie ebenfalls ist. Bei der Volkszählung von 2017 hatte die Stadt knapp 94.100 Einwohner.


Description.

The White Park is a medium-large, long-bodied bovine. A program of linear assessment, including 200 bulls and 300 cows, has been carried out in the UK since 1994 to define its size and conformation. The weight of a mature bull varies from, depending on the quality of grazing, while adult cows are typically. Their coloration is a distinctive porcelain white with coloured (black or red) points. The horns of the cows can vary in shape, but the majority grow forwards and upwards in a graceful curve. The horns of the bulls are thicker and shorter. In their native environment in Britain, White Park cattle are known for their distinctive appearance and their grazing preference for coarse terrain. White Park cattle are well-suited to non-intensive production. Some herds are kept outside throughout the year on rough upland grazing without shelter or supplementary feed. They are docile, easy-calving, and have a long productive life. Some traits may vary depending on their location. Until recently, White Park cattle were a triple-purpose breed used for meat, milk and draught. The 3rd Lord Dynevor (1765–1852) kept a team of draught oxen, and the practice continued up to 1914. They were used as dairy cattle even more recently. Some cows were being milked in the Dynevor herd in 1951, but yields were moderate. Beef became the main product during the twentieth century, and gained a reputation as a textured meat, with excellent flavor and marbling, which commanded a significant premium in specialty markets.  Several blood typing and DNA studies have revealed the genetic distinctness of White Park cattle. The colour-pointed coat pattern also appears in other cattle breeds such as the Irish Moiled, the, the Berrenda, the Nguni and the Texas Longhorn. The breeds most closely related seem to be the Highland cattle and Galloway cattle of Scotland, but the White Park "is genetically far distant from all British breeds".  The Chillingham breed has diverged from the main White Park population and various stories have grown up around them.

History.

Two thousand years ago a type of cattle, similar to the White Park breed, were found through much of Britain and Ireland, particularly in Ireland, Wales, northern England and Scotland. At about that time in Ireland, there are references in the Cúchulain cycle to the sacrifice at Magh Aí of three hundred white cows with colored ears. Either it was a common colour at that time or, more likely, it was a colour specially prized and maintained for ritual and ceremony. The first issue of the Royal Dublin Society Historical Studies in Irish Agriculture is a book on ancient Irish cattle breeds which states that white cattle were known in Ireland until at least the 1820s, although they became extinct in Ireland in that century. Similar references are found in Welsh history at a slightly later period. Pembroke in western Wales remained a main centre of the breed until the nineteenth century and they were driven in large numbers to the pastures of the Severn and the neighboring markets in England.  In 1225, as a result of legislation passed by Henry III, several parks were enclosed and several herds, including those at Chartley and Chillingham in England, and Cadzow in Scotland, were "emparked". There were more than a dozen white Park Cattle herds in Britain in the early 19th century, but most of these were exterminated by the turn of the next century.  The Park Cattle registration program in Britain was started in the early 1900s, but by 1946 only the Dynevor, Woburn, Whipsnade, and Cadzow herds survived as domesticated herds; the ancient herds at Vaynol (Faenol) and Chillingham having become semi-feral. Registration of White Park Cattle lapsed in the 1940s due to the outbreak of World War II. Later in 1973, the Rare Breeds Survival Trust was formed in Britain, and the following year the registration program was revived for the remaining British herds in the "White Park" herd book. Numbers have increased and now exceed 1,000 breeding cows in the UK. White Park cattle have been exported to several countries. In 1921, animals were exported to Denmark, and from there to Latvia in 1935 and thence to Germany in 1972. In 1987, cattle were exported to Australia. In 1940, one or two pairs of White Park cattle from the Callow herd were exported to Canada. The Canadian-born offspring of those cattle were transferred to the Bronx Zoo but moved to the King Ranch in Texas where they remained for almost the next forty years. In USA the breed is known as Ancient White Park to avoid confusion with the hornless American White Park.  Most national populations of White Park cattle have been DNA tested to verify parentage, to confirm the provenance of products, and to enable assignment of applicant animals to breed and determine the optimum breeding program to ensure their effective conservation survival. The breeding program in the UK aims to increase the desirable characteristics of the breed while maintaining genetic diversity, as heterogeneity is low due to inbreeding through much of the twentieth century. Faygate Brace (born 1906) contributed of the ancestry of the breed by the 1940s, and Whipsnade 281 (born 1956) repeated this pattern in the second half of the twentieth century. His grandson, Dynevor Torpedo is now the dominant influence in the breed. Two herds, Dynevor and Chartley/Woburn, have been the dominant influences throughout this time. The global population now is almost 2,000 purebred females, plus bulls and young stock.

The White Park is a rare breed of ancient horned cattle primarily residing in Great Britain. Two similar semi-feral populations, the Chillingham Wild Cattle in Northumbria and the Vaynol cattle from Gwynedd in North Wales, have a separate breed status. There are relatively small numbers of the White Park cattle in the United States, where they are commonly known as the Ancient White Park in order to distinguish them from the American White Park, which is a population of the British White breed.

Das White Park (englisch auch "White Park Cattle") oder Weißes Parkrind bzw. Englisches Parkrind genannte Rind aus England ist eine auf keine bestimmte Nutzungsart gezüchtete Rinderrasse.