Gameplay.

"Pokémon Black" and "White" are role-playing video games with adventure elements, presented in a third-person, overhead perspective. There are three basic screens: an overworld, in which the player navigates the main character; a battle screen; and the menu, in which the player configures their party, items, or gameplay settings. The player controls a Pokémon Trainer who begins the game with a single Pokémon and is able to capture more using Poké Balls. Like all other Trainers, the player can carry up to six Pokémon at one time. However, the game also includes a network of PCs to store hundreds of Pokémon. PCs are found in certain buildings—named, "Pokémon Centers", where the player can heal their Pokémon when they have low health or has fainted.  Pokémon can learn up to four moves, including attacking moves, healing moves, and moves that inflict status conditions on the opponent. They have six stats that affect battle performance: maximum hit points (HP), Attack, Defense, Special Attack, Special Defense, and Speed. Attack and Special Attack are distinguished from Defense and Special Defense by the types of moves being considered: generally, moves involving physical exertion are physical, while moves involving supernatural or elemental powers are special. Moves are classed as one of seventeen types: Normal, Water, Grass, Fire, Electric, Ghost, Bug, Fighting, Ice, Steel, Rock, Poison, Psychic, Dark, Dragon, Ground, and Flying; Pokémon can have one or two types. Generally, most of a Pokémon's moves correspond to its typing. A Pokémon's type makes it vulnerable or resistant to others; for example, Fire-type Pokémon are weak to Water-type moves, while Grass-type moves do little damage to them and Electric-type moves do normal damage.  When the player encounters a wild Pokémon or is challenged by another Trainer to a battle, the screen switches to a turn-based battle screen where the Pokémon fight. During battle, the player may use a move, use an item, switch the active Pokémon, or flee. However, the player cannot flee a battle against another Trainer or against certain wild Pokémon that are stronger than the player's. When a Pokémon's HP is reduced to zero, it faints until it is revived. If an opposing Pokémon faints, all of the player's Pokémon who participated in defeating it receive experience points. After accumulating enough experience points, a Pokémon may level up, increasing its stats. Many Pokémon evolve into other forms after certain conditions are met, usually after reaching a certain level threshold or by having a certain item used on them. At the "Day Care" location, the player can breed two of their Pokémon—usually, a male and a female—to create Eggs that hatch into baby Pokémon at level 1.  "Pokémon Black" and "White" takes place in the Unova region, based on New York City. As with all regions, Unova consists of a number of cities and towns connected by "Routes". Random encounters may take place in tall grass along routes or in bodies of water. The player occasionally battles Trainers in cities and towns, as well as along routes. In addition, eight of the game's cities and towns are homes to "Gym Leaders", powerful Trainers specializing in certain types of Pokémon; beating a Gym Leader gives the player a "Badge". All eight Badges are needed to unlock the Pokémon League, where the player faces off against the "Elite Four" and, finally, the Champion. Across Unova, items can be found on the ground or purchased from "Poké Marts". For example, Hyper Potions restore HP, Antidotes cure poisoning, and Revives revitalize fainted Pokémon. TMs (Technical Machines) teach moves to Pokémon, and HMs (Hidden Machines) are a special class of TMs for important moves that allow the player to traverse the environment. The "Surf" HM move, for example, is used to cross bodies of water.

New features.

The graphics have been improved from "Diamond" and "Pearl". The dialog boxes of previous games have been changed to speech balloons that appear over other characters' heads, allowing more than one character to speak at once. Japanese players can have kanji appear on screen, rather than only hiragana and katakana. During battles, the sprites of the Pokémon are fully animated and the camera changes position to highlight specific parts of the battle. In addition to continuing the day and night cycle introduced in "Gold" and "Silver", "Black" and "White" introduces a seasonal cycle, with the seasons advancing every month rather than being linked to the calendar. Outside areas appear differently depending on the season, such as changing of leaves in autumn or snow on the ground in winter. Certain areas are only accessible during certain seasons, and different Pokémon can be found in the wild in winter where others are encountered in the other seasons. The Pokémon Deerling and Sawsbuck change their physical appearance to match the seasons.  There are two new battle mechanics: Triple Battles and Rotation Battles. In Triple Battles, both teams must send out three Pokémon in a row at once; Some moves only allow Pokémon on the left or right side to attack the opponent's Pokémon on the same side or in the center. Changing position takes up one turn. In Rotation Battles, each side sends out three Pokémon at once, but they are arranged in a circle that can be rotated at will. "Black" has more Rotation Battles than Triple Battles, and the opposite is true in "White". Another introduction is Combination Moves: a starter Pokémon can be taught one of three moves, and using them together in Double or Triple battles produces more powerful attacks. In the wild, walking through darker-colored tall grass can trigger Double Battles against wild Pokémon rather than only Single Battles with lighter-colored grass.  Occasionally, the player can find rustling patches of grass and rippling water, where they can encounter either a rare Pokémon, a Pokémon more common in the opposite game version, or the highest evolutionary form of a Pokémon whose lower forms can normally be found in the area. This is the only way to capture Pokémon such as Audino, Emolga, and Alomomola. Also, dust clouds in caves and the shadows of flying Pokémon on certain bridges can be entered to either find a rare item or encounter Drilbur, Excadrill, Ducklett, or Swanna, none of which can be found in the wild otherwise. Occasionally, when throwing a Poké Ball, the capture rate is highly increased, triggered by a random event. There are also new side-games and sidequests: the player can compete in Pokémon Musicals, a side-game similar to the Pokémon Contests of previous games; the Battle Subway, similar to the Battle Towers and Battle Frontiers of previous games; and on the "Royal Unova", a cruise ship that the player can ride and fight Trainers aboard to win otherwise rare items.

Connectivity to other devices.

The C-Gear replaces the Pokétech from "Diamond" and "Pearl" on the Nintendo DS's bottom screen. It controls the game's wireless capabilities, including infrared (IR) communication for battling and trading, wireless communications in the Xtranceiver video chat access to the Entralink to transfer content from the Pokémon Dream World, using the Wi-Fi to sync with the Pokémon Global Link servers, and the new "Pass By mode" which allows the game to communicate with other copies through infrared while the DS is asleep. The Feeling Check function tests the compatibility between two players and awards them items accordingly. In the "Pass By" feature, the player answers various survey questions and receives one of several items depending on how many other players they have connected with. In the "Random Matchup" feature, the player can battle others randomly. When playing against others online or in IR battles, a new mechanic called the Wonder Launcher allows healing items to be used in battle.  Two features were added to transfer Pokémon from older DS "Pokémon" games to "Black" and "White". For normal transfer, the Poké Transfer feature is available after completion of the main storyline. Unlike the "Pal Park" feature from previous games, the Poké Transfer is a mini-game in which after six Pokémon are transferred, the player uses the touch screen to launch Poké Balls at the transferred Pokémon to catch them within a time limit. Another feature called the Relocator is used to transfer the Pokémon given away in promotions for the film "" so the player can obtain the rare Pokémon Zorua and Zoroark. Unlike the Poké Transfer, this is available before the main game is completed.  Unique to "Black" and "White" is the Pokémon Dream World, which is dependent on the official Pokémon Global Link website. Here, the player can befriend Pokémon that are not normally obtainable in-game and that have unique abilities. This occurs after syncing the game back with the Dream World, similarly to the Pokéwalker from "HeartGold" and "SoulSilver". The player can maintain a house in the Dream World that other players can visit as well as grow berries. In addition to allowing access to Pokémon acquired in the Dream World, the Entralink also enables players to interact with each other and play side-games. These side-games award points that can be traded for temporary powers such as increasing experience, improving capture rate, or lowering prices of items in Poké Marts.

Plot.

Setting.

"Black" and "White" are set in the Unova region, a continental mass located far away from the previous regions, Kanto, Johto, Hoenn and Sinnoh. Unlike the previous regions which were based on real locations in Japan, Unova is modeled after New York City, an idea developed by game director Junichi Masuda when he visited the city for the launch of "Diamond" and "Pearl". One particular example of this is Castelia City, which serves as the region's central metropolis and had such inspirations as its "Brooklyn Bridge-style suspension bridge" and its "huge skyscrapers". Masuda also wanted to convey a "feeling of communities" in Castelia's streets. Unova is host to large urban areas, a harbor, an airport, an amusement park, several bridges, and several mountain ranges. In addition to a diversity of new landscapes, the Unova region is also home to a diversity of people who vary in skin tone and occupation. The region's Japanese name is derived from the Japanese words and ; the many kinds of people and Pokémon seen up close look like only one kind of life from afar.

Story.

Like previous "Pokémon" games, "Black" and "White" both follow a linear storyline; the main events occur in a fixed order. The protagonist of "Pokémon Black" and "White" is a teenager who sets out on a journey through Unova to become the Pokémon master. At the beginning of the games, the player chooses either Snivy, Tepig or Oshawott as their starter Pokémon as a gift from Professor Juniper. The protagonist's friends, Cheren and Bianca, are also rival Pokémon Trainers who occasionally battle the player; Cheren will choose the Pokémon with a type advantage against the player's, while Bianca will choose the Pokémon with a type disadvantage. The player's primary goal is to obtain the eight Gym Badges of Unova and ultimately challenge the Elite Four of the Pokémon League, and its Champion, to complete the main story. In addition to the standard gameplay, the player will also have to defeat the games' main antagonist force, Team Plasma, a Knights Templar-esque group who claim that Pokémon are oppressed by humanity and seek to liberate them from their trainers.<ref name="What You Need To Know About Pokemon Black/White"></ref> Team Plasma is led by N, a young man who was brought up alongside Pokémon and sees them as friends rather than tools for sport. Throughout the game, the player has some encounters with N, who claims that by capturing one of the legendary Pokémon (Reshiram and Zekrom) of Unova and defeating the Pokémon Champion Alder, he will be recognized as Unova's hero and will be able to convince the humans to part with their Pokémon. Depending on the game version, N will capture Zekrom in "Black" or Reshiram in "White".  After the player defeats the Elite Four and enters the Champion's chamber, he or she finds that N has defeated Alder and become the newest Pokémon Champion. Soon after, he summons a large castle that surrounds the Pokémon League, challenging the player to find him to take part in one final battle. When the player finally reaches him, Reshiram in "Black" or Zekrom in "White" appears before the player, and the player must capture the legendary Pokémon before challenging N. After his defeat, N laments the possibility that his ideals are mistaken, Ghetsis intrudes and angrily reveals that his true intentions were to use N to ensure that he would be the only human left with control over Pokémon and use them to rule the world. In his rage, Ghetsis challenges the player to battle. After Ghetsis's defeat, he is arrested, allowing Alder to resume his position as the Pokémon Champion of the Unova region. N then thanks the player for helping realize his mistake about the nature of the relationship between people and their Pokémon before leaving the castle on his captured Pokémon to a far-off land.  After Team Plasma's defeat, Looker arrives in Unova and tasks the player with finding the remaining Sages of Team Plasma, so they can be brought to justice. The player can also challenge the Elite Four once again, and challenge Alder, ultimately becoming the Unova region's new Pokémon Champion. The player also gains access to the eastern portion of Unova, which contains Pokémon from the previous games in the series, as well as access to an area unique to each game version: the ultra-metropolitan Black City, home to powerful Pokémon trainers; and the White Forest, home to humans and Pokémon living in harmony. Cynthia, a former Champion of the Sinnoh region, is also found in this area of the game and can be challenged. A non-player character named after Shigeki Morimoto, a Game Freak programmer, creature designer, and the director of the "Pokémon HeartGold" and "SoulSilver" games, can also be found and battled in the game.

Development.

On January 29, 2010, The Pokémon Company announced that a new game was in development for the Nintendo DS to be released later that year. Director Junichi Masuda stated that several aspects of the series were being revamped for the new generation. On April 9, 2010, the Japanese website updated with the titles of the versions as "Pokémon Black" and "White" and announced a Q3 2010 release date. The games feature an improved visual style from other Pokémon games, with an increased use of 3D computer graphics than any other of the handheld series. It also has a special feature that allows the user to upload their saved game to the Internet, allowing them to do certain things on an official website.  On August 3, 2010, Masuda announced on his blog that the "Black" and "White" game versions will initially only contain brand-new Pokémon to evoke a feeling of it being a brand-new game, like when the original "Pokémon" games were first released. In all of the games following the first generation, there were a series of new Pokémon introduced interspersed with Pokémon from the previous generations. For example, Pikachu was introduced in "Red" and "Green" and was obtainable in "Blue", "Yellow" and all subsequent main series games; however, Pikachu will not be obtainable in "Black" and "White" from the start of the game. It was later confirmed that "Black" and "White" are region locked on the Nintendo DSi and 3DS.  Game director and composer Junichi Masuda stated that to keep the games fresh, he looks at every previous element to decide what to adapt to the new game, stating "people may not like what they like in the past, trend wise". He explained the new battle styles, stating that while triple battles take more strategy, rotation battles take more luck to win. Masuda stated that their goal when making the games was to make it fun for new players, but they also wanted to get players who have not played the series in a while to come back. He said that it was hard to find that balance to satisfy both kinds of players. For the new players, there is good explanation in how to play, while for old players, they incorporated the C-Gear, which makes the ability to trade and battle easier. When asked about the decision to introduce over 150 new species of Pokémon, Masuda stated that they did this so old players would not be able to know what is a good Pokémon to use, and it would level the playing ground for new players.

Music.

is a four-disc soundtrack featuring the games' music scored by Masuda, Go Ichinose, Shota Kageyama, Hitomi Sato, Morikazu Aoki, Minako Adachi, and Satoshi Nohara. The soundtrack was released on October 20, 2010, in Japan. Ichinose was in charge of directing all Pokémon voices for the game while Adachi produced all sound effects.

Promotion and release.

"Pokémon Black" and "White" were released in Japan on September 18, 2010. They were later released in Europe on March 4, 2011, in North America on March 6, 2011, and in Australia on March 10, 2011.

Japanese release.

A silhouette of a new Pokémon was shown by Junichi Masuda on the February 7, 2010 episode of "Pokémon Sunday", stated to be in the film for the summer and to be identified in a future episode on February 21. This new Pokémon was also featured in the March 2010 issue of "CoroCoro Comic" available on February 15. Since then, the Pokémon has been named "Zoroark", and it evolves from a Pokémon named "Zorua". Both were featured in the film "". For pre-order ticket holders, an alternate-colored Raikou, Entei, or Suicune was available for transfer to their "Diamond", "Pearl", "Platinum", "HeartGold", or "SoulSilver" games. At the theater, players would be able to download a Celebi to the same games. These Pokémon would activate special events in "Black" and "White" involving Zoroark and Zorua, respectively.  On April 18, 2010, the episode of "Pokémon Sunday" showed game footage of a player character walking around in a 3D environment and a single screenshot depicting a battle between the player's Zoroark and an enemy Zorua. Host Shoko Nakagawa made note of how the player's Zoroark's sprite was a full body sprite as viewed from behind, when in the past all such sprites only showed a smaller portion of the player's Pokémon's body. On May 9, 2010, the episode of "Pokémon Sunday" revealed silhouettes of the three Pokémon available to choose from at the beginning of the games, which were later revealed to be the Grass Snake Pokémon Tsutarja, the Fire Pig Pokémon Pokabu, and the Sea Otter Pokémon Mijumaru. Other information revealed is that the game takes place in the Isshu Region which includes the Hiun City metropolis. On May 16, 2010, the episode of "Pokémon Sunday" showed game battle footage, illustrating the new in-battle animations and dynamic camera positioning; also described were Zoroark's Illusion ability and the special Zoroark acquired by the movie ticket pre-order gift Pokémon.  On May 28, 2010, both the official Japanese and English "Pokémon" websites revealed names and designs of the two major legendary Pokémon of these games, who also serve as the game version mascots: the White Yang Pokémon Reshiram for "Pokémon Black" and the Black Yin Pokémon Zekrom for "Pokémon White". The July 2010 issue of "CoroCoro Comic" revealed the C-Gear wireless interactivity features, the ability to upload game data to the internet and the player's computer, several brand-new Pokémon, new Pokémon moves, Reshiram and Zekrom's Pokémon types, details on the Celebi / Zorua event, and a new character: Professor Araragi, the first female Pokémon professor to appear in the video games. The June 27, 2010, episode of "Pokémon Sunday", made the announcement of the release date as September 18, 2010, and a yet-to-be named character. The June 28 episode of "Oha Suta", showed a trailer, which included its release date, new gameplay footage, several new characters, more new Pokémon, and a three-on-three battle system. The August 2010 issue of "CoroCoro Comic" elaborated upon many new game mechanics: the three-on-three system, the online Global Link system, an online Dream World that can allow for access to other Pokémon, access to an area that uses the Wi-Fi called the Hilink (similar to the Underground), a special feature called the Live Caster for video chat on the Nintendo DSi and Nintendo 3DS, kanji support, aesthetic differences between the two versions of the game, areas exclusive to the game versions, new characters, new moves, new abilities, and new Pokémon.  The July 25, 2010, episode of "Pokémon Sunday" introduced the new phantom Pokémon Victini, which initially appeared in a trailer for the 2011 "Pokémon" film that was shown with screenings of "Phantom Ruler: Zoroark". It is noted to be Pokémon No. 000 in Isshu's regional Pokédex, and is only accessible by downloading a special item from Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection,, and (such as those found in Japanese McDonald's restaurants) to a game save. This was initially available for a month following the games' release date. Another promotional Pokémon given out after the games' release is a Kumasyun, a Pokémon that is difficult to find in the games unless it is during the games' winter season.  On the day of the Japanese release, Nintendo of America sent cease and desist letters to two English language "Pokémon" fansites, "PokéBeach" and "Serebii", after they published screenshots and various other media from the newly released games. Nintendo claimed the posting of the media was infringing copyright and noted their intention to shut down the websites under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act unless the media was removed. The screenshots were subsequently taken down from both websites. Luke Plunkett of video game blog "Kotaku" initially speculated that Nintendo of America issued the cease and desist letters over the belief that the images were illegally obtained via a ROM image; however, Jon Sahagian of "PokéBeach" stated the images in question had been obtained from the Japanese forum 2channel. Charlie Scibetta, Nintendo of America's senior director of corporate communications, later stated that it was the choice of images that were of concern to the company. In a statement to "Kotaku", he said, "Nintendo supports and appreciates the efforts that Pokémon fans go through to create fan sites. In most cases there is no issue with the content that is posted, but on this occasion we had to contact a select few websites to ask them to take down confidential images".

International release.

The foreign promotion for the games began on November 22, 2010, when the official website for the North American, European, and Australian markets was updated, which included the localized names of the starter Pokémon (Snivy, Tepig and Oshawott) in English, Dutch, Italian, Brazilian Portuguese, and Spanish markets and the games' setting in the Unova region. Floats of version mascots Reshiram and Zekrom accompanied the Pikachu balloon during the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade on November 25, 2010, the following Thursday.  On December 27, 2010, the official websites for the international releases updated once more, revealing the English names for many of the first Pokémon revealed during the promotion for the Japanese release. In addition, the English names for the game location Hiun City and the character Professor Araragi were revealed to be Castelia City and Professor Juniper, respectively.  Starting on January 3 and lasting until January 9, 2011, in the United States, players of "Diamond", "Pearl", "Platinum", "HeartGold", and "SoulSilver" were able to visit GameStop stores to download the special shiny Raikou that was previously given out for "Phantom Ruler: Zoroark" pre-order ticket holders in Japan. Similar downloads would be available for the shiny Entei from January 17 to 23, and shiny Suicune from January 31 to February 6. All three of these Pokémon still enabled the event for Zoroark in the North American "Black" and "White" versions. These three Pokémon were later distributed via the Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection for European, Australian, and North American markets (for a second time) starting February 7 to 13 with Raikou, again, with subsequent staggered releases for Entei and Suicune throughout February.  The Celebi event was run in North America and distributed through GameStop stores from February 21 to March 6, 2011, or it could be acquired from the tour promoting the "Black" and "White" games that began on February 5, 2011. In France and Spain, this same Celebi was available through various retailers from February 1 through March 3, 2011. Italian players could get this Celebi from specific video game retailers from January 21 through March 3.  The event to distribute the item to allow players to capture Victini was also run following the games' release internationally. North American players were able to download the item from Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection from March 6 to April 10, 2011. European players were able to get the item from March 4 to April 22. Australian players were able to download it from March 10 to April 28, 2011.

Reception.

Critical response.

"Pokémon Black" and "White" have received largely positive reviews by critics, having an aggregate score of 87% on Metacritic, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Japanese magazine "Famitsu Weekly" awarded the game a perfect 40/40 score, becoming the 15th game to receive such a distinction, as well as obtaining the highest score ever given to a "Pokémon" video game by the publication. "Game Informer"s Annette Gonzalez remarked that ""Pokémon Black" and "White" do a great job building upon already solid features and taking them to the next level." "VideoGamer.com"s Jamin Smith criticized the games for not innovating as much as some people would have liked, but stated that "rest assured in the knowledge that "Black" and "White" are damn fine games; the best the series has to offer." "Official Nintendo Magazine" referred to them as "A beautiful refinement of a great series [...] the best "Pokémon" ever." "Nintendo Power" expressed that "the "Pokémon" series's latest pair of adventures is as addictive as ever." "Edge" acknowledged that "where next for "Pokémon", "Black" and "White" don't suggest any answers, but they do remind us why we'd care in the first place."  "IGN" gave the games a 9/10, a higher rating than any of the other Nintendo DS "Pokémon" games. The review praised the games for renewing interest in the series, though criticized some of the new Pokémon designs, explaining that "aside from a weaker lineup of monsters (largely an aesthetic complaint), this is the best "Pokémon" has to offer on every level, renewing my waning interest in monster battling". Jeremy Parish of "Retronauts" criticized "Black" and "White", commenting that he grew tired of it shortly after starting and feeling like it was too similar to all previous "Pokémon" games. He further went on to say that EVs and IVs, invisible mechanics in the game, are not necessarily beneficial. By contrast, he noted that it would be great to new players. He also compared it to the "Pokémon Mystery Dungeon" games and "Final Fantasy XIII", arguing that they all share the common element of being bad before they get good. Fellow "Retronauts" contributor Justin Haywald criticized the games' release on the DS, which had received two main "Pokémon" series games published before them. "GamesRadar" editor Carolyn Gudmundson stated "It may not break the "Pokemon" mold, but "Black" and "White" offers enough new content coupled with the series' classic, deep battle mechanics to make it endlessly playable. If you could only play one game for the rest of your life, this would be a wise choice."  Some people criticized the designs of the Generation V Pokémon, saying that some of them were good, but many were uninspired.

Commercial performance.

In August 2010, one month before the games' release in Japan, "Pokémon Black" and "White" gained a total of 1.08 million pre-orders, becoming the fastest game on the Nintendo DS to break the one million mark. In the first two days on sale, it sold more than 2.6 million copies, becoming the biggest launch in the series history in Japan. By November 3, the games had sold over 4.3 million copies in Japan. As of January 9, 2011, the games became the fastest DS titles to sell five million copies.  Upon its release in the UK, "White" and "Black" took the #1 and #2 spots respectively in the UK overall sales charts, with "White" becoming the second fastest-selling DS game ever in the UK after "Professor Layton and Pandora's Box", selling 13,000 more copies than "Black". Combined, their sales became Nintendo's third biggest ever launch in the UK, behind "Wii Fit" and "Mario Kart Wii", and the biggest opening weekend ever for a pair of "Pokémon" titles.  In the US, "Black" and "White" sold more than 1.08 million copies on day one, breaking the previous day-one record held by predecessors "Diamond" and "Pearl" of 780,000 copies. According to the NPD Group, Nintendo sold 1.3 million units of "White" and 1.1 million units of "Black" in March 2011, making them the #1 and #2 top selling games in the US for the month. In April 2011, Nintendo's financial earnings report confirmed that "Pokémon Black" and "White" had sold 11.5 million copies worldwide, making them the highest selling DS games for Nintendo in the 2010–11 financial year, and third overall, behind only the Wii games, "Wii Sports" and "Wii Sports Resort". As of September 2017, the games' combined sales have reached 15.64 million.

Similar to previous installments of the series, the two games follow the journey of a young Pokémon trainer through the region of Unova, as they train Pokémon used to compete against other trainers, while thwarting the schemes of the criminal organization Team Plasma. "Black" and "White" introduced 156 new Pokémon to the franchise, 5 more than the previous record holder "Pokémon Red" and "Blue", as well as many new features, including a seasonal cycle, rotation battles, fully animated Pokémon sprites and triple battles. Both titles are independent of each other, but feature largely the same plot, and while both can be played separately, trading Pokémon between both of the games is necessary in order to complete the games' Pokédex.

Pokémon Schwarze Edition und Pokémon Weiße Edition (in Japan bekannt als Pocket Monsters Black () und Pocket Monsters White ()) sind Spiele der fünften Generation der Pokémon-Rollenspiel-Serie, die von Game Freak entwickelt und von Nintendo veröffentlicht wurden. Die beiden Editionen unterscheiden sich nur geringfügig voneinander.


Meetings and membership.

Marc J. Ambinder of ABC News said about the council: "The group wants to be the conservative version of the Council on Foreign Relations." The CNP was founded in 1981. Among its founding members were: Tim LaHaye, then the head of the Moral Majority, Nelson Bunker Hunt, T. Cullen Davis, William Cies, Howard Phillips, and Paul Weyrich.  Members of the CNP have included: General John Singlaub, shipping magnate J. Peter Grace, Edwin J. Feulner Jr of the Heritage Foundation, Rev. Pat Robertson of the Christian Broadcasting Network, Jerry Falwell, U.S. Senator Trent Lott, Southern Baptist Convention activists and retired Texas Court of Appeals Judge Paul Pressler, lawyer and paleoconservative activist Michael Peroutka, Reverend Paige Patterson, Senator Don Nickles, former United States Attorneys General Edwin Meese and John Ashcroft, gun-rights activist Larry Pratt, Col. Oliver North, Steve Bannon, Kellyanne Conway, philanthropist Elsa Prince (mother of Blackwater founder and former CEO Erik Prince and Trump Administration Secretary of Education Betsy Devos), and former California State Assemblyman Steve Baldwin.  Membership is by invitation only. The organization's membership list is considered "strictly confidential". Guests may attend "only with the unanimous approval of the executive committee." Members are instructed not to refer to the organization by name to protect against leaks. "The New York Times" political writer David D. Kirkpatrick suggested that the organization's secrecy since its founding was intended to insulate it "from what its members considered the liberal bias of the news media."  CNP's meetings are closed to the general public, reportedly to allow for a free-flowing exchange of ideas. The group meets three times per year. This policy is said to be similar to the long-held policy of the Council on Foreign Relations, to which the CNP has at times been compared. CNP's 501(c)(3) tax-exempt status was revoked by the IRS in 1992 on grounds that it was not an organization run for the public benefit. The group successfully challenged this ruling in federal court. A quarterly journal aimed at educating the public, promised in the wake of this incident, has not substantially materialized. The organization has a website that contains many policy speeches from past gatherings (covering the years from 2013 up to the present).  While those involved in the organization are almost entirely from the United States, their organizations and influence cover the globe, both religiously and politically. Members include corporate executives, legislators former high ranking government officers, leaders of 'think tanks' dedicated to molding society and those whom many view as "Christian leadership".  In May 2016, the Southern Poverty Law Center released a leaked copy of the membership directory for 2014.

Conferences and political plans.

Leading members of the CNP voted in a meeting at the Grand America Hotel in Salt Lake City, on September 29, 2007, to consider launching a third party candidate if the 2008 Republican nominee were pro-choice. (The candidacy of former New York City Mayor Rudy Giuliani, who held liberal opinions on social issues such as abortion, gay rights and gun ownership, had disturbed the Christian right.) The CNP's statement read, "If the Republican Party nominates a pro-abortion candidate, we will consider running a third-party candidate." Attending the meeting were notable social conservatives, including James Dobson, Richard Viguerie, Tony Perkins and Morton Blackwell.  CNP has membership links to the Committee for the Free World, whose many other members included, among others, some members of the Unification Church of the United States, some Republican Party leaders, and counter-revolutionaries in Latin America, particularly during the 1980s. Midge Decter served as Executive Director of its committee. Other members included Jeane Kirkpatrick, Leszek Kołakowski, Irving Kristol, Melvin J. Lasky, Seymour M. Lipset, Donald Rumsfeld, Tom Stoppard and George Will. Eugene V. Rostow, then serving as Director of the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency under President Ronald Reagan, was a speaker at a CFW event on Poland.  CNP's membership also overlaps significantly with that of the Arlington Group, a coalition of conservative Christian organizations which spearheaded ballot initiatives banning gay marriage in thirty-two states in the 2000s; and with the second, third and fourth iterations of the Committee on the Present Danger.  In 1999, a speech given to the CNP by Republican candidate George W. Bush is credited with helping him gain the support of conservatives in his successful bid for the United States Presidency in 2000. The content of the speech has never been released by the CNP or by Bush.  In February 2007, the organization planned to be involved in the 2008 presidential election campaign and actively sought candidate that would represent their views. U.S. Vice President Dick Cheney and former Massachusetts governor Mitt Romney spoke at a four-day conference that the Council held in Salt Lake City, Utah during the last week of September 2007. The Council for National Policy scheduled a conference in late October 2007; other than Giuliani, most Republican presidential candidates pledged to appear.  On May 18, 2018 House Majority Leader Kevin McCarthy, R-CA, gave a speech to the Council for National Policy in which he asserted that the American political climate was "increasingly belittling Christian conservatives for their beliefs" and forcing Christians "'out of the public square'".

Leadership.

CNP was founded in 1981 by Southern Baptist pastor Tim LaHaye, author of "The Battle for the Mind" (1980) and the "Left Behind" series of books. Other early participants have included W. Cleon Skousen, a theologian within The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints and founder of the Freemen Institute; Paul Weyrich; Phyllis Schlafly; Robert Grant; Howard Phillips, a former Republican affiliated with the Constitution Party; Richard Viguerie, the direct-mail specialist; and Morton Blackwell, a Louisiana and Virginia activist who is considered a specialist on the rules of the Republican Party.  The council's first executive director was Woody Jenkins; later, Morton Blackwell and Bob Reccord served in this role. Organization presidents have included Nelson Bunker Hunt of Dallas, Amway co-founder Richard DeVos of Michigan, Pat Robertson of Virginia Beach, retired Judge Paul Pressler of Houston, former Reagan Cabinet secretaries Edwin Meese and Donald Hodel, former Reagan advisor and President of the Intercollegiate Studies Institute Kenneth Cribb, Family Research Council president Tony Perkins, and current President (as of 2014) Stuart Epperson, founder of the Salem Media Group.

The Council for National Policy (CNP) is an umbrella organization and networking group for conservative activists in the United States. It has been described by "The New York Times" as "a little-known club of a few hundred of the most powerful conservatives in the country," who meet three times yearly behind closed doors at undisclosed locations for a confidential conference. "The Nation" has called it a secretive organization that "networks wealthy right-wing donors together with top conservative operatives to plan long-term movement strategy". It was founded in 1981 by Tim LaHaye as a forum for conservative Christians seeking to strengthen the political right in the United States. The organization has been described as a "pluto-theocracy".

Das Council for National Policy ("CNP") ist eine 1981 von dem Evangelikalen Tim LaHaye gegründetes konservatives Forum zur Förderung der politischen und christlichen Rechten, dessen mehr als 450 Mitglieder US-amerikanische Führungspersonen aus den Bereichen der Regierung, der Geschäftswelt, den Medien, den religiösen Organisationen und dem akademischen Bereich umfassen. Nach eigenen Angaben teilen die Mitglieder den Glauben an freies Unternehmertum, eine starke nationale Verteidigung und die Unterstützung für traditionelle westliche Werte.


Vehicles.

Not to be confused with the Minirail monorail which ran within the perimeters of the Expo Site, the Expo Express used standard railway technology, with two running rails and a third electrified rail identical to those of the Toronto subway. In fact, the trains used were a modified version of the Hawker Siddeley H-series used by the Toronto Transit Commission with one fewer door on each side, and streamlined ends. Consequently, unlike the Montreal Metro with rubber tires, the Expo Express used traditional steel-wheeled trains. The Expo Express also featured fully air-conditioned passenger cars, whereas the Metro does not have any air-conditioned trains on its first four lines due in part to the small sizes of the tunnels and the possibility of heating them to a temperature that is unsuitable for operation. The Réseau express métropolitain (which will operate steel-wheeled trains) will be the first metro line in Montreal to have air-conditioned trains once it opens in 2022.  In 1968, the New York City Transit Authority looked into the feasibility of modifying the cars for use on the Staten Island Railway, but this plan never came to fruition.

Background.

The Expo Express was the first fully-automated rapid transit system in North America, utilizing an Automatic Train Operation (ATO) system based on audio frequency track circuits furnished by the Union Switch & Signal division of Westinghouse Air Brake Company. This fact, however, was not widely publicized during the fair, as it was felt the public would not readily board a train controlled entirely by a computer. Operators from Montreal's transit union were placed in cabs at the front and given mundane tasks such as opening and closing the doors of the train to reduce boredom.  This resulted in a minor incident during the fair, at La Ronde station. The conductor had pressed the button to close the doors and proceed, but his train had already sensed an oncoming express from Notre Dame Island and automatically delayed the go command to let it roll in. In the meantime, the driver realized he had forgotten his lunch. However, he could not exit through the passenger doors because his train was in a "wait" state and would not allow the doors to open. Instead, he crawled through the small cab window. By the time he had fetched his lunch, however, the oncoming train had pulled in and his train had taken off on its own. It crossed the bridge over the Le Moyne Channel, proceeded along the seaway, and came to a smooth stop at Notre Dame Island station where an Expo official was waiting. This person crawled back through the cab window and pressed the button to open the doors and let the passengers disembark.

Route.

The line was double-track throughout, except for a single-track section at Cité du Havre, where people exited on one side of the train and boarded on the other. Maintenance facilities were located northwest of La Ronde station.  When the Cite du Havre line closed in late 1968, and the terminus was cut back to Saint Helen's Island, it was single-tracked as well. The following year the former Habitat station (outbound only; closed in early 1967 due to low use) was physically relocated to Notre Dame Island, near the Man and Agriculture pavilion, and renamed Notre-Dame East station (inbound only). In 1972 all stations on Notre Dame Island closed, making the route direct from Saint Helen's to La Ronde with no stops in between.  The line was dismantled north of Notre Dame Island in 1974 for the construction of the ; rolling stock was moved to the Concorde bridge between Notre Dame and Saint Helen's Island and stored there until 1979.

History.

The Expo Express ran from April 1967 to October 1972 (one year after the section of Man and his World on Notre Dame Island section closed to the public). After Expo, when service continued during the early days of Man and His World, the Express only ran for two months each year. After service was discontinued, in 1973 the trains were put in storage on the Concorde Bridge between Saint Helen's and Notre Dame Islands. The north end of the line was demolished in 1974. In the summer of 1979 the trains were moved again, to the Port of Montreal via a temporary track, and stored at the nearby CN Point St-Charles Shops.  After several unrealized schemes including a reported sale to the New Jersey Sports and Exposition Authority, the cars were moved from Point St-Charles to an outdoor field storage facility in Les Cèdres in the mid/late 1980s, and were scrapped in 1995.  Virtually nothing remains of the Expo Express. The only evidence is at La Ronde, where a train bridge deteriorates in the river and remnants of the La Ronde station have been converted into the main park entrance. The area where Place d'Accueil stood is now a parking lot, and part of the track route is a paved bicycle path.

The Expo Express was a rapid transit system consisting of five stations and a route, running from Cité du Havre to La Ronde in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Built for the 1967 World's Fair Expo 67 at a cost of around CAD$18 million, the trains carried 1,000 passengers each and ran approximately every five minutes.

Der Expo Express (franz.: ) war eine oberirdisch verlaufende Schnellbahn, die zur Weltausstellung "Expo 67" in Montreal errichtet worden war.


Club career.

Real Madrid.

Born in Madrid, Sanz was a product of Real Madrid's youth system and, after a quick loan stint with Unión Española in Chile, first appeared with the main squad on 2 March 1996, playing nine minutes of a 5–0 home win against UD Salamanca (José García Calvo, another centre back from the academy, also played his first La Liga game that day). He finished the season with 13 appearances, playing a further six matches in the following as the team were crowned league champions.  Sanz was also part of their UEFA Champions League victory in 1997–98. However, despite being the son of Lorenzo Sanz, the president of the club at the time, he never really managed to hold up a regular first team spot at Real.

Málaga.

For the start of 1999–2000, Sanz signed with Málaga CF. On 8 September 2001 he scored his first goal as a professional, in a 1–1 draw at his former employers. That season, the Andalusia side finished tenth and he helped it win the subsequent Intertoto Cup, which eventually led to a UEFA Cup quarter-final run, with the player appearing in eight complete games.  Sanz retired from football in 2006 after Málaga's relegation, with 240 matches and five goals in the top level to his credit, immediately becoming its president after his father bought 97% of the shares. After four years, he resigned on 27 July 2010 as the club was sold earlier in the summer to a Qatari investor.

Personal life.

Sanz was the brother-in-law of another Real Madrid player, Míchel Salgado – the two were never teammates, as Salgado arrived the year Sanz left the club – who married his sister Malula.  His older brother, Francisco, was also a footballer.

Honours.

Real Madrid  Málaga

Fernando Sanz Durán (born 4 January 1974) is a Spanish former footballer who played as a central defender. He spent seven years of his professional career with Málaga – after starting out at Real Madrid – appearing in 228 official games. Subsequently, he worked for four years as the club's president.

Fernando Sanz Durán (* 4. Januar 1974 in Madrid) ist ein ehemaliger spanischer Fußballspieler und Vorsitzender des spanischen Fußballclubs FC Málaga.


Taxonomy and phylogeny.

Dutch ichthyologist Marinus Boeseman described the sharpsnout stingray in a 1948 issue of the scientific journal "Zoologische Mededelingen", based on a juvenile male caught off Suriname with a disc length of. The whereabouts of this type specimen is unknown. In a 2001 phylogenetic analysis based on morphological characters, Lisa Rosenberger found that the longnose stingray ("D. guttata") is the sister species of the sharpsnout stingray, and that the two form a clade with the pale-edged stingray ("D. zugei"), the pearl stingray ("D. margaritella"), the sharpnose stingray ("Himantura gerrardi"), and the smooth butterfly ray ("Gymnura micrura", included in the study as an outgroup). These results support the growing consensus that neither "Dasyatis" nor "Himantura" are monophyletic.

Distribution and habitat.

One of the less common stingrays within its range, the sharpsnout stingray is found in nearshore, brackish waters along the northeastern coast of South America, from Venezuela and Trinidad and Tobago to northern Brazil; many occur in the estuarine area affected by the freshwater discharge of the Amazon River. It favors muddy habitats deep, with low visibility. However, Uyeno "et al." (1983) gave a depth of for this species. The sharpsnout stingray conducts annual movements that are affected by salinity, entering coastal bays such as Marajó Bay during the rainy season and shifting to offshore waters during the rainy season.

Description.

The pectoral fin disc of the sharpsnout stingray is about as wide as long, with strongly concave leading margins and rounded corners. The snout is long and projecting, measuring 39–54% as long as the disc is wide. The eyes are minute and followed by much larger spiracles. There is a flap of skin between the nares, with a finely fringed posterior margin. The line of the mouth is slightly indented at the center. The upper and lower jaws both contain 56–68 tooth rows; the teeth are blunt and arranged with a quincunx pattern. A transverse row of 5 papillae are present on the floor of the mouth.  The pelvic fins are distinctive, being over twice as long as wide with a gently sinuous trailing margin, and tapering to an acute tip that sometimes extends past the disc. The whip-like tail measures over twice the length of the disc and bears 1–2 serrated spines on top. Posterior to the spines are a subtle dorsal keel and a ventral fin fold about half as long as the disc. A band of small tubercles runs along the dorsal midline from behind the eyes to the base of the tail (excluding a posterior portion of the disc), with larger tubercles in a central row and on each "shoulder". More conical tubercles are scattered over the upper surface of the tail past the spines. The coloration is a uniform brown above, and white below darkening towards the disc margin. This species typically attains a disc width of, but individuals up to across have been recorded.

Biology and ecology.

The sharpsnout stingray feeds on small burrowing invertebrates such as worms, crustaceans, and molluscs, excavating them from the substrate and grinding them apart with its pavement-like teeth. Like other stingrays, this species is aplacental viviparous, with females giving birth to 1–3 young every year. Similarly to the Colares stingray ("D. colarensis"), the annual movements of this ray may relate to reproduction as most females found near the coast are newly impregnated. Younger individuals have proportionately longer tails (measuring up to three times the disc width) than adults.

Human interactions.

The sharp, venomous tail spines of the sharpsnout stingray are potentially hazardous to humans. This species is caught by hook-and-line or in nets; it is used for food by subsistence fishers, but is not favored because its flesh is a dark reddish color. Sharpsnout stingrays also form part of the bycatch of artisanal and commercial fisheries targeting large catfish in the Amazon estuary, while increasing interest in using stingrays for minced fish products may intensify fishing pressure on this species in the future. Because of these threats and the slow reproductive rate of this ray, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has assessed it as Near Threatened.

The sharpsnout stingray or wingfin stingray ("Dasyatis geijskesi") is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae, found from off Venezuela to northern Brazil. It inhabits shallow, brackish water, shifting towards the coast in the dry season and away from it in the rainy season. Typically measuring across, this dark brown ray is easily identifiable by its long, projecting snout and elongated, acutely pointed pelvic fins. Its diet consists of bottom-dwelling invertebrates. Reproduction is aplacental viviparous, with females bearing one to three pups annually. Naturally uncommon and slow-reproducing, the sharpnose stingray is under pressure by both artisanal and commercial fisheries, leading the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) to assess it as Near Threatened.

Fontitrygon geijskesi ist eine Stechrochenart und lebt im äquatorialen Westatlantik zwischen den Küsten Venezuelas und des nördlichen Brasilien (Bundesstaat Amapá). Möglicherweise ist die Art auch in der Karibik verbreitet.


Powers and duties.

The constitutional powers of the president of the Confederate States were similar to those of the president of the United States. The permanent Confederate States Constitution made him commander-in-chief of the Army and Navy, and of the militia of the confederated states when called into service of the Confederate States. He was also empowered to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the Confederate States. He was authorized to make treaties; to nominate and appoint diplomatic representatives, judges, and other officers of the Confederate States (including the heads of the executive departments) by and with the consent of the Confederate States Senate; and to remove such representatives and officers. He could fill vacancies during a recess of the Senate, but he could not reappoint, during a recess, persons previously rejected by it. He was to supply Congress with information, recommend legislation, receive ambassadors and other public ministers, see that the federal laws were faithfully executed, and commission all officers of the military and naval forces of the Confederate States.

Election and oath.

On February 9, 1861, the provisional congress at Montgomery unanimously elected Jefferson Davis president and Alexander H. Stephens vice president. Stephens, who was a delegate to Congress from Georgia, was inaugurated on February 11. Davis was inaugurated on February 18 upon his arrival from Mississippi, where he had gone upon his resignation from the U.S. Senate. Davis and Stephens were elected on Wednesday November 6, 1861, for six-years terms, as provided by the permanent constitution. The Capital had been moved in June 1861, to Richmond, and the inauguration took place at the statue of Washington, on the capitol square, on February 22, 1862.  Before Davis entered on the execution of his office as President of the Confederate States, he was constitutionally required to take the following oath or affirmation:

Compensation.

In 1861, the president of the Confederate States earned a CS$25,000 annual salary, along with an expense account, and a nontaxable travel account. The President's Office was located on the second floor of the Custom House on Main Street, a structure which also housed the Cabinet Room and the State and Treasury Department. The City of Richmond purchased the Brockenbrough house for presentation to the Confederate government for use as an executive mansion. Davis declined to accept the gift, but the mansion was leased for his use. Referred to as the "White House of the Confederacy" or the "Grey House," the mansion was used by President Davis throughout the existence of his presidency. Later it became a repository for documents, relics, and pictures, and in 1896 it was redesignated the Confederate Museum.

Post-presidency.

Late on the evening of April 2, 1865, President Davis, his aides, and members of the presidential Cabinet, except C.S. Secretary of War John C. Breckinridge, departed from the burning capital city of Richmond going southwest on the Richmond and Danville Railroad shortly before Union troops occupied it. The Confederate president Davis and his Cabinet stayed at Danville, southwest of Richmond, until April 10, when, hearing of General Lee's surrender at Appomattox Court House further northeast, it continued its flight farther south.  At Greensboro, North Carolina, on April 12 the Cabinet met with Generals Joseph E. Johnston and Pierre G. T. Beauregard and discussed surrender of Johnston's Army of Tennessee to Union General William Tecumseh Sherman then in nearby North Carolina moving north from Savannah through the Carolinas destroying, pillaging and burning everything in its path including Columbia the South Carolina state capital city.  As the railroad leading south out of Greensboro had already been destroyed, the flight from that location was changed to on horseback and in a train of additional wagons, ambulances, and carriages, also carrying some Confederate archives papers and the C.S.A. Treasury banknotes and remnants of gold/silver bullion. The last official Cabinet meetings of the presidential Cabinet of the Confederate States took place at Charlotte, on April 24, and 26, then later on May 4; when President Davis left Washington, Georgia, the party consisted only of his aides and Postmaster General Reagan. Elements of the United States Cavalry / Union Army captured Davis and his companions at an encampment near Irwinville, Georgia on May 10, 1865.  Jefferson Davis was imprisoned at Fort Monroe, by the Hampton Roads harbor of tidewater Virginia, until his release on bail on May 13, 1867. During his confinement, the United States federal government prepared to bring him to trial for treason and for complicity in the assassination of United States president Abraham Lincoln. He could not be tried in the Commonwealth of Virginia until the federal court was reestablished there, but by the time the U.S. Circuit Court judges were prepared in May 1867, the U.S. federal government decided the outcome of a trial before a local jury of citizens was far too uncertain and dropped the prosecution proceedings. In November 1868, Davis was brought to trial under a new indictment, but the federal lower court judges disagreed and the case was referred up to the Supreme Court. 17th president Andrew Johnson issued a general amnesty in December 1868 and the Supreme Court entered a nolle prosequi, thus freeing Davis.

The president of the Confederate States was the elected head of state and government of the Confederate States, a short-lived secessionist state that attempted to operate in autonomy of the United States of America. The president also headed the executive branch of government and was commander-in-chief of the Army and Navy, and of the militia of the several states when called into Confederate service.

Der Präsident der Konföderierten Staaten (engl. "President of the Confederate States of America") war sowohl Staatsoberhaupt als auch Regierungschef der Konföderierten Staaten, einem Staatenbund, der seine Sezession von den Vereinigten Staaten erklärte. Jefferson Davis bekleidete als einzige Person das Amt und zwar vom 18. Februar 1861 bis zum 5. Mai 1865. Sein Vizepräsident war Alexander Stephens. Vor der Wahl von Davis war Howell Cobb als Präsident des Provisorischen Konföderiertenkongresses der höchste konföderierte Beamte.


Biography.

Born in Chios, Greece, Trypanis received his education at The Classical Gymnasium, Chios and the Universities of Athens, Berlin and Munich. He received a doctorate from the University of Athens in 1937. From 1939-1945 he taught at the University of Athens and, in 1947, moved to Britain where he began teaching at Exeter College in Oxford as the Bywater and Sotheby professor of Byzantine and Modern Greek. It was also in England that Trypanis' met and befriended the poet Ian Fletcher, whom Trypanis afterwards referred to as "the master," with Trypanis himself "as the pupil". In 1968 Trypanis relocated to Chicago, after acting as a visiting professor at various other American universities, where he taught Classical Literature until 1974. In 1974 he returned to his native Greece, serving as Minister for Culture and Sciences until 1977. He remained in Greece until his death. He died in Athens in 1993.  Though his poetry has since fallen into obscurity, his writings received some critical acclaim in his time, with two of his collections, "The Stones of Troy" and "The Cocks of Hades" receiving, respectively, the choice of the Poetry Book Society and the Heinemann Award of the Royal Society of Literature. His poetry was also acclaimed by the likes of Theodore Roethke, W. H. Auden and John Wain. His poetry was first published while he was living in England, and it was also while in England that he began to develop a poetic circle of his own; he wrote his poetry (at least that portion which was published) in English, his second language, which perhaps opens the door to comparisons to the likes of Joseph Conrad and Vladimir Nabokov, both of whom wrote in English, despite being native speakers of Polish and Russian, respectively. Much of Trypanis' poetic writings were centered on the artifacts, history and mythology of antiquity, especially that of Classical Greece and Rome, though others of his poems centered on aspects and events of his contemporary world.

Constantine Athanasius Trypanis (; 22 January 1909 – 18 January 1993) was a Greek classicist, literary critic, translator and poet.

Constantine Athanasius Trypanis oder Konstantinos Athanasios Trypanis, (* 22. Januar 1909 in Chios; † 18. Januar 1993 in Athen) war ein griechischer Byzantinist, Klassischer Philologe, Neogräzist und Dichter griechischer wie englischer Sprache sowie griechischer Minister für Kultur und Wissenschaft.


Background.

The Leyland Lynx (B60) was designed in 1984 as a replacement for the ageing Leyland National, being unveiled at the 1985 International Bus & Coach Exhibition at the Earls Court Exhibition Centre. Although the B60 was the first bus to carry the Lynx brand, Leyland had previously used it on truck chassis between 1936 and 1940, and again between 1968 and 1979. The Lynx name has since been revived by Ashok Leyland for use on a midibus.

History.

Production vehicles began to enter service in 1986, the majority were bodied by Leyland at its Workington factory where the underframe was produced. All have a step entrance, Leyland offered the option of a floor with a step in the middle or one that gently ramped from aft of the front platform to the rear. A plan for offering this bus with a single-piece flat windscreen was considered, but was not carried out. A common feature, therefore, is that the Lynx has two separate windscreens and has the driver's windscreen raked back, resembling 1950s single-decker buses and the Wright Handybus.  Engines offered were the Leyland TL11, Gardner 6HLXCT and Cummins L10, while the Lynx II was also available with the Volvo THD102KF.  In 1990, the updated Lynx Mark II version was introduced. It could be recognised easily by its protruding front dash/grille panel, whilst the original design was flat. Additionally, a select few of the 140 vehicles produced featured Volvo engines, which drastically reduced performance in pursuit of more environmentally friendly engines.  The Mark II was also available as a bus underframe for other coachbuilders to body. Although the large majority of Lynxes carried the Leyland body, seven chassis were bodied by Alexander with N-type bodywork for Citybus (Belfast), including the first prototype. Northern Counties also catalogued bodies for the Lynx but none were built.  The type saw service all over the United Kingdom, with the largest fleet owned by West Midlands Travel. A total of 256 were purchased, including six demonstrators, delivered early in 1986 equipped with Gardner engines and semi-automatic Leyland Hydracyclic gearboxes (which were later converted to ZF automatic). They were gradually withdrawn from 2000 onwards, with the last three withdrawn from passenger service in March 2009, although 10 remained in the driver training fleet until March 2010.  The last two Lynxes to roll off the production line entered service with Halton Transport in August 1992. The Lynx was the core of Halton Transport's fleet for over 10 years. In later life at Halton, they were used on a number of school contracts and the occasional regular service. In October 2010, all of Halton's remaining Lynxes were sold, the last Lynx produced going into preservation, with the penultimate Lynx used to donate spares.  Following the takeover of Leyland by Volvo in March 1988, the Lynx was superseded by the Volvo B10B in 1992. Total production of Lynxes was approximately 1,060 vehicles, including six prototypes (one of which was not bodied) and several development vehicles. About 140 of the total were Lynx Mark IIs.

Exports.

A small number of Lynxes were exported as demonstrators, but no sales ever resulted.  In 1984, a framed chassis was sent to Australia. After being completed by JW Bolton in Perth, it operated for Transperth, ACTION and Hornibrook Bus Lines before being sold to Lever Coachlines in 1987. In 1989, two were bodied by Pressed Metal Corporation as demonstrators for the State Transit Authority, but the trial never occurred and they were sold to John J Hill, Wollongong.  In 1988, Singapore Bus Service took delivery of an Walter Alexander bodied Leyland Lynx. Originally serving feeder bus routes in Ang Mo Kio, it eventually ended up on employee bus services between Ang Mo Kio Bus Depot and Yishun. It was involved in an accident in August 2001 and had its original Lynx-style front replaced with an Alexander PS type style. It was eventually withdrawn and scrapped in 2005. Conversely one Leyland Tiger received a Lynx-style Leyland body for export to New Zealand, initially being operated by Newmans Coach Lines and later Go Bus Transport.  In 1990, three of the order being built for West Midlands Travel were sent to Australia as demonstrators. Two operated with ACTION, while the third was demonstrated to the State Transport Authority and State Transit Authority, before all three were sold to Southtrans.

Preservation.

Several Lynxes have now entered preservation, with some requiring extensive rebuilding to bring them back to original condition, due to body corrosion, as well as reversing modifications made by operators during their history. One such example is the removal of all of the patterned body skirts, combined with the replacement of the square wheel arches with non-patterned round ones. Both of these modifications were made to make it easier to replace such parts in the event of an accident.  In Australia, the JW Bolton bodied demonstrator has been preserved by the Sydney Bus Museum.

The Leyland Lynx was a stepped-entrance single-decker bus manufactured by Leyland in Workington, England between 1986 and 1992. After the takeover by Volvo, it was succeeded by the Volvo B10B.

Der Leyland Lynx ist ein Omnibus des britischen Nutzfahrzeugherstellers Leyland Motors. Der Typ wurde von 1984 bis 1992 gebaut. Er sollte den seit 1972 gebauten "Leyland National" ersetzen.


Background.

"Circus" was written by Dr. Luke, Benny Blanco and Claude Kelly, while produced by Luke and Blanco. Luke and Kelly were initially commissioned to work on a new track for Spears, and entered the studio with no concept prepared, as Kelly explained, "just knowing her style and knowing what she does." After Luke came up with the music, they based the song on the public's perception of her life at the time. Spears explained that after listening to "Circus" for the first time, she felt inspired and imagined a story behind it. She also stated, "['Circus'] put the whole album together as far as what I wanted my show to be like. You can play with a circus in so many different ways". "Circus" was recorded at Conway Recording Studios and Chalice Recording Studios in Los Angeles, California, and at Glenwood Place Studio in Burbank, California. Background vocals were provided by Cathy Dennis, Kelly and Myah Marie. Main instrumentation was done by Luke and Blanco. The song was mixed by Serban Ghenea at MixStar Studios in Virginia. "Circus" was announced on October 31, 2008, as the second single from the album, and was officially serviced to American radio stations on December 2, 2008.

Music and lyrics.

"Circus" is an uptempo electropop and dance-pop song, with a stomp box beat and elements of pop rock. The song opens with the sound of a drum and builds until Spears starts singing, "There's only two types of people in the world/The ones that entertain and the ones that observe". Spears delivers confident and "half-rapped" vocals, with the verses having usage of synthesizers. Lyrically, the song talks about being an entertainer and putting on shows. She explains her emotions while performing in lines such as: "I feel the adrenaline moving through my veins / Spotlight on me and I'm ready to break". The chorus begins with an electronic sound, while she compares herself, as well as performing to being on the center of a circus ring. According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Alfred Publishing, "Circus" is composed in the key of F# minor with 120 beats per minute, however on the album the song is 115 beats per minute. Spears's vocal range spans from G# to D#. Kelly commented that "Circus" was "a cool way to get people dancing and having fun", but also have a slight message.

Critical reception.

Nick Levine of Digital Spy described it as "a rampaging monster of a song whose chorus kicks off with a Max Martin-style and Timbaland thump". Popjustice praised the production of the song, compared it to "Break the Ice" and added, "there's a lot of stopping and starting, including a built-in MTV-style dance breakdown segment." Chris Williams of "Billboard" in its single review appreciated the song for surrounding Spears with "an electronic cyberpop landscape". In the album review, Ann Donahue of "Billboard" criticized the lyrics for rehashing the theme of fame and compared it to "Lucky" (2000) and "Piece of Me" (2007). Dave De Sylvia of Sputnikmusic said that while "Womanizer" sounded like a "Blackout" track, "Circus" is more reflective of the album's general mood. Dan Cairns of "The Sunday Times" named it one of the standout tracks of the album, along with "If U Seek Amy" and "Mannequin". "Entertainment Weekly" writer Chris Willman noted that, despite the album being titled "Circus", the title track is "not about the madhouse her life has become but just a brag about her prowess as a whip-cracking sexual ringmaster."  BBC Music's Talia Kraines thought that the singer "loves the attention being shone directly on her as the 'ringleader' as she sings of adrenaline flowing through her veins when it's time to put on a show." Ben Norman of About.com considered the song a "true and triumphant Britney Spears pop song with a pensive underbelly (the first verse in particular) and a supremely executed hook." Jonny Mugwump of "The Quietus" said, "a paean to her performance adrenalin, ["Circus" is] a medium-paced, big power-popper topped with an orbit-esque guitar," and commented that the song's lyrics highlight Spears' uniqueness – "the fuck you attitude. Despite everything, regardless of the personal destruction and undoubted hell she might still be haunted by, within the fictional space of the music, this woman couldn't give a damn. She rightly taunts the world around her, sounding utterly defiant. There is no place for apology or humble platitudes." John Murphy of musicOMH also praised its lyrics, describing them as "a confident, and encouraging, return to form." "Circus" was nominated at the 2009 Teen Choice Awards in the category of Choice Music: Single, but lost to Miley Cyrus's "The Climb".

Commercial performance.

On December 20, 2008, "Circus" debuted at number three on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 due to digital sales of over 212,000 units. It was her first top-ten debut on the chart. On the week of March 7, 2009, the song reached number one on the Pop Songs chart and number three on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart. As of March 2015, "Circus" has sold 3.2 million digital downloads in the United States according to Nielsen Soundscan. It is her second best-selling digital single in the country.  In Canada, the track debuted at number two based solely on digital downloads, being blocked from ascending to the top spot by Lady Gaga's "Poker Face". On December 8, 2008, "Circus" entered the Australian Singles Chart at number fifteen, becoming the "Highest Debut" of the week. On December 22, 2008, the song peaked at number six. It was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for sales over 70,000 units. In New Zealand, "Circus" peaked at number four, and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand (RIANZ) for selling over 7,500 copies. The song was also successful in Europe, peaking at number twelve on the European Hot 100 Singles on March 21, 2009. "Circus" also reached the top ten in Sweden and the top twenty in Austria, Czech Republic, Finland, Norway, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. According to The Official Charts Company, the song has sold 223,000 copies in the United Kingdom and is her thirteenth best selling single in the country. It became the tenth best selling digital single of 2009, selling 6 million copies worldwide. As of May 2020, "Circus" has generated over 212 million streams in the US.

Music video.

Development and synopsis.

The music video for "Circus" was filmed from October 28 to November 2, 2008 in Los Angeles, California. It was directed by Francis Lawrence, who previously worked with Spears on the music video for her 2001 single "I'm a Slave 4 U". Spears chose Lawrence, since he was the "only person who could capture it, make it really twisted, eccentric and different". On November 17, 2008, an exclusive three-second clip premiered during a promo for her documentary "". The video was set to be released on December 5, 2008 on "Entertainment Tonight", but it was moved at the last minute to December 4, 2008.  The video begins with Spears at a vanity, putting Curious on and earrings by Bulgari. She is then seen holding a top hat in front of her face, while doves fly out of another hat. Spears starts singing in the vanity but stands up and puts on a ringmaster jacket. She walks through an aisle while dancing suggestively with several circus dancers. Throughout the video, there are interspersed scenes of different circus performers, including ribbon dancers, contortionists, clowns and a mime on stilts. There are also scenes of Spears singing with the top hat, wearing a nude body stocking in front of a red curtain, with a spotlight on her. This is followed by a group dance scene in the middle of a circus ring, where Spears wears the ringmaster jacket, sequined hot pants and a feathered top hat. In the second verse, she dances with a chair and a whip wearing a nude bra covered in leaves. The video continues with a series of intercut scenes, such as Spears in slow motion in front of a shower of sparks, her surrounded by a pair of lions and in front of an elephant. During the bridge, Spears and her dancers perform a routine in front of flames. In the last chorus, Spears returns to the circus ring, surrounded by two elephants, many more circus performers, dancers and fire breathers. The video ends with Spears in the spotlight, laughing with the top hat over her head.

Reception.

Davil Balls of Digital Spy described the music video as being "cheeky, seductive and more than a little bit ridiculous" and said that Spears "delivers some killer dance routines". Tim Stack of "Entertainment Weekly" compared the dance in the chair with the music video of "Stronger" and added that "best of all, she actually looks animated in this video and appears to be having fun". James Montgomery of MTV said that after watching the video "you are overcome with the sudden urge to go to the Big Apple Circus. Or pick up some Curious perfume. Or you know, possibly both". The music video won the category of Best Moves at the MTV Australia Awards 2009. It was also nominated for four VMAs at the 2009 awards in the categories of Best Art Direction, Best Choreography, Best Cinematography and Best Editing. It was also nominated for Best Video in the MTV Europe Music Awards 2009, but lost to Beyoncé's "Single Ladies". The video won Best Video of 2009 in Fuse TV, making Spears the only artist to win two years in a row.  On December 9, 2008, animal rights organization People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) issued a press release condemning Spears for using "cruelly trained lions and elephants" and demanding her to "stop using exotic animals in her videos and concerts once and for all". Spears had previously received criticism from the organization when she used an albino python and a caged tiger during a performance of "I'm a Slave 4 U" at the 2001 MTV Video Music Awards. Kari Johnson from Have Trunk Will Travel responded, saying, "[the company] has never issued a written endorsement, nor does it condone using electrical devices to discipline and control elephants except in situations where elephant or human safety is at risk. [...] The American Humane Association monitors animal action in film and television. A representative was on the set of the Britney Spears 'Circus' video with our elephants, Tai and Kitty, to ensure their safety and welfare [...] Britney, the director, producers and the entire crew were respectful of the elephants' needs and comfort and a pleasure to work with." Circus got a certified in the digital platform VEVO after reach 100 million views on YouTube.

Live performances.

"Circus" was performed on December 2, 2008 at American morning talk show "Good Morning America", along with "Womanizer". She wore a midriff-baring shirt, leather pants, a ringmaster jacket and a top hat. "Circus" was a major part on The Circus Starring Britney Spears (2009), as the opening number of the show. The costumes of the performance were selected to show a metamorphosis. The show began with a video introduction featuring Perez Hilton as Queen Elizabeth I, welcoming the audience to the circus. In the middle of the video, the cylinder screen surrounding the stage started to rise, while Spears appeared on the video and shot Hilton with a crossbow, causing him to fall backwards onto the floor. As the video ended, Spears started to descend from the ceiling on a suspended platform, wearing a cheetah headdress, a ringmaster jacket, black shorts, high-heeled boots and carrying a whip. The headdress represented an animal. When she reached the stage, she took it off to represent both a ringmaster and a lion tamer and "Circus" started. It featured acrobats taking the stage and spinning on giant rings in the air. The performance ended with Spears taking off her ringleader jacket to reveal a Swarovski-crystal corset, representing a slave. She then ran into the center of the main stage, surrounded by jets of smoke, to enter a golden cage and perform "Piece of Me". "People" writer Chuck Arnold wrote that Spears, "descending from above in a red ringmaster-meets-dominatrix outfit" to sing the song, "showed that her body was tight, even if her dancing always wasn't." James Montgomery of MTV considered both "Circus" and "Radar" performances "great". Spears included the song on her current residency show in Las Vegas,. For the performance, Spears appears from the back of the stage, in the center of a fiery ring, resembling a circus showgirl.

"Circus" is the second single from American singer Britney Spears' sixth studio album of the same name (2008). It was released on December 2, 2008 (Spears' 27th birthday), by Jive Records. Written by Dr. Luke, Claude Kelly and Benny Blanco, "Circus" is a metaphor for the public's perception of Spears' life. After she listened to the track for the first time, she felt inspired to create an album and a tour with a circus theme. "Circus" is an uptempo electropop and dance-pop song with elements of pop rock and "half-rapped" vocals. The song's lyrics talk about being an entertainer and putting on shows.

Circus (engl. für: „"Zirkus"“) ist ein Lied der US-amerikanischen Pop-Sängerin Britney Spears aus ihrem sechsten Studioalbum "Circus", das von Dr. Luke und Benny Blanco produziert wurde.


Distribution.

"Synodontis" is a freshwater catfish that is most commonly found throughout Africa, occurring mostly in Central and West Africa. "Synodontis" is the most widely distributed mochokidae genus, occurring throughout most of the freshwaters of sub-Saharan Africa and the Nile River system. They can live in freshwaters which can be creeks, ponds, streams, lakes, and rivers. Their distribution is similar to that of cichlid fishes, however, unlike cichlids the majority of their diversity occurs in rivers not lakes.

Evolutionary history.

"Synodontis" catfish form a small endemic radiation in Lake Tanganyika, which includes the non-endemic species "S. victoriae". This radiation is thought to have evolved relatively recently (~5.5. Million years ago), having diversified within full lacustrine conditions. This is also the case for other endemic Lake Tanganyika lineages such as mastacembelid eels and platythelphusid crabs for example. Lake Tanganyikan "Synodontis" have also been shown to be Müllerian mimics, and that at least one species ("Synodontis multipunctatus") is a brood parasite.

Fossil record.

The earliest fossils of "Synodontis" in East African are from the Early Miocene. Many "Synodontis" fossils are the spines because they are very sturdy and so they are preserved better. The fossils of spines that are found are used to determine the family or genera of the fish but it cannot determine the species. "Synodontis" species that have survived and are still living can be identified by the shape of their whisker like organs on their heads called barbels, which relate to touch. The can also be identified by the color of their skin, the skull bones, and the number and length of the teeth.

Ecology.

"Synodontis" species are omnivorous generalists, feeding on a wide spectrum of different foods and are largely unspecialized. Insects, crustaceans, mollusks, annelids, seeds, and algae have been found in the stomachs of different species of "Synodontis". They are bottom-feeders and may be detritivores, some species may also be able to adapt to filter feeding. This allows them to cope with seasonal and habitat changes and gives them a better ability to colonize different habitats. Different "Synodontis" species have somewhat different growth rates but most of them are fairly similar. Females of a species are generally larger than the males. There is a great increase in growth the first year in both male and female and then the growth slows down as they become older. The form and structure of these fish are very different compared to other fish. The size and shape of the mouth are distinct because of its ventral mouth and these fish usually are triangular or cylindrical when looking at it from the side. Not much is known about the reproduction in these fish. It has been determined that July to October is when they spawn and that they swim in pairs during this spawning time. Species of "Synodontis" have been noted to reproduce with the flooding period of the rainy season.

Relationship to humans.

Many "Synodontis" species are prized ornamental fish in the fishkeeping hobby. While some of the "Synodontis" species are prized because of their color or behavior, other species are wanted for food. Some of the bigger species in the genus are important food sources for the people in Africa.

Species.

There are currently 131 recognized species in this genus: "Synodontis" accounts for about one-quarter of African catfish species. This genus has more members than any other African teleost genus other than "Barbus" and "Haplochromis".  Newer species are listed with references.

Synodontis is the largest genus of mochokid catfishes. It is the biggest genus within the 10 genera and 190 different species in the family Mochokidae. "Synodontis" has over 131 different species within the genera. "Synodontis" are also known as squeakers, due to their ability to make stridulatory sounds through their pectoral fin spines when handled or disturbed. "Synodontis" make a sound that sounds like squeaking by rubbing their spines together. They do this when they have been frightened or when they become angry. "Synodontis" may also squeak when they are taken out of the water. These catfish are small- to medium-sized fish with many species exhibiting attractive spotted markings. Some species are also known for naturally swimming belly-up, earning the name upside-down catfish. Some of these species are "Synodontis contractus" and "Synodontis nigriventris". While some of these species are known to swim upside down, another species, "Synodontis multipunctatus", is a brood parasitic cuckoo catfish.

Synodontis ist eine Gattung der Fiederbartwelse (Mochokidae), einer ausschließlich in Afrika verbreiteten Welsfamilie. Der Name "Synodontis" leitet sich von einem Namen für einen Fisch her, der bereits bei Plinius erstmals erwähnt wurde. Cuvier, der den Namen zunächst für eine Untergattung aufgegriffen hatte, glaubte, dass er für einen Fisch aus dem Nil im Altertum verwendet wurde. Vom Nil stammen auch die meisten der zunächst beschriebenen Arten. Die älteste bekannte davon, "Synodontis clarias", ist auch die Typusart der Gattung. Sie wurde bereits 1758 von Linnaeus beschrieben.


Fabrication and construction.

The handle can be made of any material, from wood to ivory, depending on the wealth and opulence of the owner. Contemporary bullhooks which are used for animal handling generally have handles made of fibreglass, metal, plastic, or wood.  The elephant goad is found in armouries and temples all across India, where elephants march in religious processions and perform in various civil capacities. They are often quite ornate, being decorated with gemstones and engravings to be appropriate for the ceremonies in which they are used.

Iconography.

The elephant goad is a polysemic iconographic ritual tool in Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism, in the inclusive rubric of Dharmic Traditions.  The elephant has appeared in cultures across the world. They are a symbol of wisdom in Asian cultures and are famed for their memory and intelligence, where they are thought to be on par with cetaceans and hominids. Aristotle once said the elephant was "the beast which passeth all others in wit and mind". The word "elephant" has its origins in the Greek, meaning "ivory" or "elephant".  In iconography and ceremonial ritual tools, the elephant goad is often included in a hybridized tool, for example one that includes elements of Vajrakila, 'hooked knife' or'skin flail' (Tibetan: gri-gug, Sanskrit: kartika), Vajra and Axe, as well as the goad functionality for example. Ritual Ankusha were often finely wrought of precious metals and even fabricated from ivory, often encrusted with jewels. In Dharmic Traditions the goad/ankusha and rope 'noose/snare/lasso' (Sanskrit: Pāśa) are traditionally paired as tools of subjugation.

Hinduism.

In the Hinduism, an elephant goad is one of the eight auspicious objects known as Ashtamangala and certain other religions of the Indian subcontinent. A goad is also an attribute of many Hindu gods, especially Tripura Sundari & Ganesha.

Buddhism.

Wallace and Goleman (2006: p. 79) discuss 'śamatha' (Sanskrit), mindfulness and introspection which they tie to metacognition:  Throughout Buddhist literature, the training in shamatha is often likened to training a wild elephant, and the two primary instruments for this are the tether of mindfulness and the goad of introspection.  Rowlands (2001: p. 124) in discussing consciousness and its self-conscious, self-reflexive quality of apperception states that: The most significant aspect of consciousness, I shall try to show, is its structure, its "hybrid" character. Consciousness can be both act and object of experience. Using the somewhat metaphorical notion of "directing", we might say that consciousness is not only the directing of awareness but "can" be that upon which awareness is directed. Consciousness is not only the act of conscious experience, it can be experience's object. "[italics preserved from original]" In the above quotation the metaphor of 'directing' is employed. In 'directing' consciousness or the mind to introspectively apperceive the directive forded by the goad is key.

Tattvasamgraha Tantra.

In the "Tattvasamgraha tantra" (c 7th century), one of the most important tantras of the Buddhist Yoga Tantra Class, the ankusha figures in the visualization of one of the retinue. This tantra explains the process of the visualization of the Vajradhatu Mandala, which is one of the most visually stylized of Buddhist mandalas. The Ankusha is the symbolic attribute for the visualization of the Bodhisattva Vajraraja, an emanation within the retinue of Vajradhatu. This visualization is treated in Tachikawa (c2000: p. 237).

Literature.

In Rudyard Kipling's "Second Jungle Book" story, Mowgli finds the magnificently-jeweled elephant goad of the title in a hidden treasure chamber. Not realizing the value men place on jewels, he later casually discards it in the jungle, unwittingly leading to a chain of greed and murder amongst those who find it after him.

The elephant goad, bullhook, or ankus (from Sanskrit "" or "ankusha") is a tool employed by mahout in the handling and training of elephants. It consists of a hook (usually bronze or steel) which is attached to a handle, ending in a tapered end.

Der Ankus (Sanskrit:, Aṅkuśa), auch "Ancus", "Fursi", "Gusbar", "Hendoo", "Elephant Goad", ist eine Waffe und ein Werkzeug aus Indien. Er dient als Kommandohilfe bei Elefanten. Aṅkuśadhāra () ist auch eine Bezeichnung für den Mahut.


Early life.

He was the second son of Amadeus, Count of Montbéliard. He took the cross after the Fourth Crusade was announced in 1199. Two years later he joined his cousin, Walter III, Count of Brienne, who had laid claim to the Principality of Taranto and other domains in the Kingdom of Sicily and invaded Southern Italy. Before long, Walter left Southern Italy for the Holy Land.

Cyprus.

Aimery, King of Cyprus and Jerusalem, gave his eldest daughter, Burgundia, in marriage to Walter and also made him constable of Jerusalem. Aimery died on 1 April 1205 and was succeeded in Cyprus by his ten-year-old son, Hugh I. The High Court elected Walter both guardian of the minor king and regent, violating the custom that prescribed that the two offices were to be separated.  The Seljuks laid siege to Satalia (now Antalya in Turkey), an important port in Asia Minor, in 1207. Satalia was held by an Italian adventurer, Aldobrandino. On Aldobrandino's demand, Walter intervened in the conflict and forced the Seljuks to lift the siege. However, the Greek citizens turned against him and expelled the Cypriot troops from the town with Seljuk assistance.  He arranged the marriage of Hugh I with Alice of Champagne, who was the eldest daughter of Henry, King of Jerusalem and Count of Champagne.  Hugh I reached the age of majority in 1210. Walter surrendered his regency, but refused to render an account of his administration of the royal treasury. Instead, he and his family left Cyprus and settled in the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Before long, Walter accused Hugh I of confiscating his estates in Cyprus and expelling him from the island without a fair judgement. In his letter to Pope Innocent III, Walter also referred to an uncanonical election of a bishop in Cyprus, which brought Hugh I into a conflict with the Holy See.

Holy Land.

He married Burgundia, daughter of King Aimery of Cyprus, they had:

Walter of Montbéliard (died in 1212) was regent of the Kingdom of Cyprus from 1205 to 1210, and Constable of Jerusalem from around 1204 to his death.

Walter von Montbéliard, auch "Walter von Mömpelgard" (franz.: "Gautier de Montbéliard"; † 1212), war ein Kreuzritter, Beamter im Königreich Jerusalem und zeitweise Regent des Königreichs Zypern. Er war ein jüngerer Sohn des Amadeus II./I. († 1195), Herr von Montfaucon, Graf von Montbéliard.


History.

Following several years in the Japanese noise rock scene that included collaborations with Merzbow and Hanatarashi, experimental noise rock guitarist and electronic programmer KK Null formed Zeni Geva in 1987 with guitarist Fumiyoshi Suzuki (also known as "NP"), vocalist Elle, and drummer Ikuo Taketani of the Japanese experimental groups The Boredoms and Hanatarashi. The group released its debut record, "How to Kill", on Null's own NUX Organization label later that year. With bassist Bunsho Nishikawa replacing Elle, they released the "Vast Impotenz" cassette early in 1988.  Following the departure of Suzuki and Nishikawa, Null and Taketani were ultimately joined by permanent guitarist Mitsuru Tabata (also of The Boredoms) in 1988, and the group released the album "Maximum Love and Fuck". Tatsuya Yoshida of the progressive rock band Ruins also joined later this year, replacing Taketani. They released the "Maximum Money Monster" album in 1990, packaging "Maximum Love and Fuck" with additional tracks featuring Yoshida on drums.  Yoshida left in 1990 and continued his prolific and lauded career with Ruins and in other projects. He was briefly replaced by drummer Yasuko, but Zeni Geva found a longer standing replacement in Eito Noro. This lineup began extensive world tours, catching the eye of such noteworthy rock figures as Steve Albini, who produced their 1991 album "Total Castration", and Jello Biafra, who signed them to his Alternative Tentacles record label. They next released 1992's "Live in Amerika" and the collaborative "All Right You Little Bastards" live album with Albini performing with the band. The Albini-produced "Desire for Agony" marked Zeni Geva's Alternative Tentacles debut, and was followed by 1995's "Freedom Bondage".  Noro left the band in 1996, and the band toured with temporary replacement Blake Fleming, an American musician. Masataka Fujikake joined as drummer shortly thereafter, and the group embarked upon further extensive touring. Despite this activity, the band did not release another studio album until 2001, six years after "Freedom Bondage". Their next record, "10,000 Light Years", was released on the Neurot Recordings label, and marked their most experimental effort. Null had been making increasing use of electronic instruments of his own design, and his "nulltron" device featured prominently on "10,000 Light Years." A live album, "Last Nanosecond - Live in Geneva 2002", followed in 2004.  Fujikake departed, and the band was inactive for the next several years. Null remained prolific via solo and collaborative releases, while Tabata worked with several projects, including Acid Mothers Temple. "Maximum Money Monster" was remastered and re-released with bonus tracks in 2007.  In 2009, Yoshida rejoined Zeni Geva, and they returned to touring. The live album "Alive and Rising", recorded in September 2009 and released in February 2010, captured a live performance from this incarnation of Zeni Geva. "Total Castration", remastered by Null, followed on the Nux Organization label in 2012. A European tour followed in October with a two-piece lineup of Null and Yoshida, marking Tabata's departure after more than two decades with the group.  <div class="left"

Zeni Geva is a Japanese noise rock band featuring singer and guitarist KK. Null and drummer Tatsuya Yoshida. Formed in Tokyo in 1987, the group's name translates roughly as "money violence" ("Zeni" is an old Japanese term for money, and "Geva" comes from the German "Gewalt," meaning "violence").

Zeni Geva ist eine japanische Noise-Rock-Band. Sie wurde vom Sänger, Gitarristen und späteren Musikproduzenten "KK Null" (eigentlich "Kazuyuki Kishino") im Jahr 1987 in Tokio als "progressive hardcore trio" gegründet. Die Musik der Band enthält daher neben Elementen verschiedener Metal-Genres auch Anleihen aus Noise-Rock, Progressive Rock und Hardcore Punk.


Deregulation and Elimination of Barriers.

Proposal.

In 1984 a proposal to deregulate local bus services was published in the white paper "Buses" and in more detailed consultation papers. The Transport Act of 1985 (part I) brought these proposals into effect.  Deregulation, elimination of barriers, and the transfer to the private sector were some of the major changes the Transport Act of 1985 established. Privatization and bus deregulation came into effect on 26 October 1986. Local authorities were required to transfer their municipally-owned bus services to separate companies. Although most of these companies have since been privatized, with the exception of Lothian Buses in Edinburgh; a few other municipal bus companies remain today. The Transport Act of 1985 also mandated that local governments publish statements of their own policies for bus services deemed socially vital that were not operated by commercial companies.

London.

London faced a different type of deregulation. The standard deregulation that applied to other cities in the United Kingdom was not applied to bus services in Greater London; instead, the Act brought about a system of franchised routes operated by private companies but managed by London Buses Ltd. Meaning that although the bus companies in London were privatized London's government still retained the ability to regulate the companies. At the time the Transport Act of 1985 was put into place London Bus companies were governed by the London Regional Transport Act of 1984.

Transport Act 1985: Deregulation (Part I).

Part I of the Transport Act of 1985 eradicated, excluding London, the need for the required road service licence throughout the United Kingdom. Part I replaced service licensing with a system of registration. This caused licensing authorities losing many of their powers and made it possible for operators to register new routes. For an operator to register a new route the licensed operator had to supply the traffic commissioner with information of the proposed route, the timeline for the trip, stopping arrangements, the vehicles to be used, and the terminal points. In accordance with the Act the traffic commissioner had to received the registration at least 42 days prior to when the route is to be run. It was mandatory for the notice to go through the traffic commissioner for a licence bus operator to operate. After approval the operator was required to run the route according to the specifications provided in the registration.  Deregulation also led to firms being able to charge any fares they wish, run routes, and freely enter and leave the market. This was accomplished by reducing the amount of subsidies local governments could provide for services.

Transport Act 1985: Privatization (Part II).

Privatization proposals were put forth to change the structure of the bus industry. The bus industry was managed mainly by public sector companies in the years prior to 1985. Privatization was introduced by the Conservative government as a way to achieve better access to private capital and more committed management. In order to achieve this goal the Conservative government made it so local governments could only provide subsidies for services and prohibited subsidies that would promote low fares.

Aftermath.

The Transport Act of 1985 changed how bus services were run in the United Kingdom. The Act introduced the largest change in the framework of bus services in over five decades and it replaced the prior publicly owned and highly regulated bus service with a largely competitive commercial system. Additionally, the removal of subsidies made it so different firms had to bid on the right to operate with subsidized services.

The Transport Act of 1985 was an Act of Parliament in the United Kingdom. It introduced privatised and deregulated bus services throughout Great Britain and came into effect in October of 1986.

Der Transport Act 1985 war ein vom Parlament des Vereinigten Königreichs verabschiedetes Gesetz. Er führte die Deregulierung des innerörtlichen Busverkehrs im Vereinigten Königreich ein und erlaubte den Aufsichtsbehörden den Busverkehr probeweise zu deregulieren. Es wurde auf Initiative der konservativen Regierung von Margaret Thatcher verabschiedet. Durch den Transport Act 1980 wurde bereits der überörtliche Busverkehr dereguliert.