Early career.

Johan Ericsson was born at Långban in Värmland, Sweden. He was the younger brother of Nils Ericson (1802–1870), a distinguished canal and railway builder in Sweden. Their father Olaf Ericsson (1778–1818) had worked as the supervisor for a mine in Värmland. He had lost money in speculation and had to move his family to Forsvik in 1810. There he worked as a director of blastings during the excavation of the Swedish Göta Canal.  The extraordinary skills of the two Ericsson brothers were discovered by Baltzar von Platen (1766–1829), the architect of Göta Canal. They were dubbed 'cadets of mechanics' of the Swedish Royal Navy, and engaged as trainees at the canal enterprise. At the age of fourteen, John was already working independently as a surveyor. His assistant had to carry a footstool for him to reach the instruments during surveying work. At the age of seventeen he joined the Swedish army in Jämtland, serving in the Jämtland Ranger Regiment, as a Second Lieutenant, but was soon promoted to Lieutenant. He was sent to northern Sweden to do surveying, and in his spare time he constructed a heat engine which used the fumes from the fire instead of steam as a propellant. His skill and interest in mechanics made him resign from the army and move to England in 1826. However his heat engine was not a success, as his prototype was designed to burn birchwood and would not work well with coal (the main fuel used in England).  Notwithstanding the disappointment, he invented several other mechanisms instead based on steam, improving the heating process by incorporating bellows to increase oxygen supply to the fire bed. In 1829 he and English engineer John Braithwaite (1797–1870) built "Novelty" for the Rainhill Trials arranged by the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. It was widely praised but suffered recurring boiler problems, and the competition was won by English engineers George and Robert Stephenson with "Rocket".  Two further engines were built by Braithwaite and Ericsson, named "William IV" and "Queen Adelaide" after the new king and queen. These were generally larger and more robust than "Novelty" and differed in several details (for example it is thought that a different design of blower was used which was an 'Induced Draught' type, sucking the gases from the fire). The pair ran trials on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway but the railway declined to purchase the new designs.  Their innovative steam fire engine proved an outstanding technical success by helping to quell the memorable Argyll Rooms fire on February 5, 1830 (where it worked for five hours when the other engines were frozen up), but was met with resistance from London's established 'Fire Laddies' and municipal authorities. An engine Braithwaite and Ericsson constructed for Sir John Ross's 1829 Arctic expedition failed and was dumped on the shores of Prince Regent Inlet. At this stage of Ericsson's career the most successful and enduring of his inventions was the surface condenser, which allowed a steamer to recover fresh water for its boilers while at sea. His 'deep sea lead,' a pressure-activated fathometer was another minor, but enduring success.  The commercial failure and development costs of some of the machines devised and built by Ericsson during this period put him into debtors' prison for an interval. At this time he also married 19-year-old Amelia Byam, a disastrous match that ended in the couple's separation until Amelia's death.

Education.

His only formal education was a basic officer's education and training during his time in the Swedish Army. On March 27, 1822, John passed a surveyor's examination in Stockholm. As a child he was taught to be a miner and surveyor by his father.

Propeller design.

He then improved ship design with two screw-propellers moving in different directions (as opposed to earlier tests with this technology, which used a single screw). However, the Admiralty disapproved of the invention, which led to the fortunate contact with the encouraging American captain Robert Stockton who had Ericsson design a propeller steamer for him and invited him to bring his invention to the United States of America, as it would supposedly be more welcomed in that place. As a result, Ericsson moved to New York in 1839. Stockton's plan was for Ericsson to oversee the development of a new class of frigate with Stockton using his considerable political connections to grease the wheels. Finally, after the succession to the Presidency by John Tyler, funds were allocated for a new design. However, they only received funding for a 700-ton sloop instead of a frigate. The sloop eventually became, named after Stockton's hometown.  The ship took about three years to complete and was perhaps the most advanced warship of its time. In addition to twin screw propellers, it was originally designed to mount a 12-inch muzzle-loading gun on a revolving pedestal. The gun had also been designed by Ericsson and used hoop construction to pre-tension the breech, adding to its strength and allowing safe use of a larger charge. Other innovations on the ship design included a collapsible funnel and an improved recoil system.  The relations between Ericsson and Stockton had grown tense over time and, approaching the completion of the ship, Stockton began working to force Ericsson out of the project. Stockton carefully avoided letting outsiders know that Ericsson was the primary inventor. Stockton attempted to claim as much credit for himself as possible, even designing a second gun to be mounted in "Princeton". Unfortunately, because Stockton did not understand the design of the first gun (originally named "The Orator", renamed "The Oregon" by Stockton), the second gun was fatally flawed.  When launched, "Princeton" was an enormous success. On October 20, 1843, she won a speed trial against the paddle steamer, until then considered the fastest steamer afloat. Unfortunately, during a firing demonstration of Stockton's gun, the breech ruptured, killing Secretary of State Abel P. Upshur and Secretary of the Navy Thomas Walker Gilmer, as well as six others. Stockton attempted to deflect the blame onto Ericsson, with moderate success, despite the fact Ericsson's gun was sound and it was Stockton's gun that had failed. Stockton also refused to pay Ericsson, and by using his political connections, Stockton blocked the Navy from paying him.

Friendship with Cornelius H. DeLamater.

When Ericsson arrived from England and settled in New York City, he was persuaded by Samuel Risley of Greenwich Village to give his work to the Phoenix Foundry. There he met industrialist Cornelius H. DeLamater (1821–1889) and soon a mutual attachment developed between the two. Rarely thereafter did Ericsson or DeLamater enter upon a business venture without first consulting the other." Personally, their friendship never faltered, though strained by the pressures of business and Ericsson's quick temper, DeLamater called Ericsson "John" and Ericsson called DeLamater by his middle nickname "Harry", intimacies almost unknown in Ericsson's other relationships. In time, the DeLamater Iron Works became known as the Asylum where Capt Ericsson had free rein to experiment and attempt new feats. The Iron Witch was next constructed, the first iron steamboat. The first hot-air invention of Capt Ericsson was first introduced in the ship "Ericsson", built entirely by DeLamater. The DeLamater Iron Works also launched the first submarine boat, first self-propelled torpedo, and first torpedo boat. When DeLamater died on February 2, 1889, Ericsson could not be consoled. Ericsson's death one month later was not surprising to his close friends and acquaintances."

Hot air engine.

Ericsson then proceeded to invent independently the caloric, or hot air, engine in the 1820s which used hot air, caloric in the scientific parlance of the day, instead of steam as a propellant. A similar device had been patented in 1816 by the Reverend Robert Stirling, whose technical priority of invention provides the usual term 'Stirling Engine' for the device. Ericsson's engine was not initially successful due to the differences in combustion temperatures between Swedish wood and British coal. In spite of his setbacks, Ericsson was awarded the Rumford Prize of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1862 for his invention.  In 1830 Ericsson patents his second engine, that can work either with steam, air or water. This rotative engine objective is to reduce the engine within more convenient limits without any corresponding loss of power.  In 1833 Ericsson built his third engine, a hot air engine (or caloric engine) that is exhibited in London: "the engine will prove the most important mechanical invention ever conceived by the human mind, and one that will confer greater benefits on civilized life than any that has ever preceded it" (John O. Sargent). This engine included a regenerator that would inspire many other hot air engine inventors. The caloric ship, powered by the 4th Ericsson engine was built in 1852.  A group of New York merchants and financiers headed by John B Kitching, Edward Dunham, President of the Corn Exchange Bank, and G.B. Lamar, president of the Bank of the Republic, backed the project and in April, 1852, the keel of the ship was laid at the yard of Perine, Patterson, and Stack in Williamsburgh. At about the same time the construction of the engine was commenced by Messrs Hogg and Delamater. Hull and machinery were built in the greatest possible secrecy, both Ericsson and his financial backers being convinced that their ship would revolutionize ocean transport by its economy and safety, and that competitors would if possible copy the design of at least the engine. On September 15, 1852, the ship was launched and in November the engine was turned over at the dock under its own power. It will be a failure. Smaller experimental engines based on the same patent design and built before the caloric ship will prove to be working efficiently.  In his later years, the caloric engine would render Ericsson comfortably wealthy, as its boilerless design made it a much safer and more practical means of power for small industry than steam engines. Ericsson's incorporation of a'regenerator' heat sink for his engine made it tremendously fuel-efficient. Apparently in the post Civil War era some time before or around 1882, from the publishing date, a ship was purchased by a Captain Charles L. Dingley called the "Ericsson" with a weight of 1,645 tons that was built by John Ericsson (Although the above section on John Ericsson's Friendship with Cornelius H. DeLamater says that the ship known as the "Ericsson" was built by the DeLamater Iron Works) to try out the hot air engine as a motive power in open ocean navigation.  In 1883 John Ericsson built a solar air engine of 1 HP. The leading feature of the sun motor is that of concentrating the radiant heat by means of a rectangular trough having a curved bottom lined on the inside with polished plates, so arranged that they reflect the sun's rays toward a cylindrical heater placed longitudinally above the trough. This heater, it is scarcely necessary to state, contains the acting medium, steam or air, employed to transfer the solar energy to the motor; the transfer being effected by means of cylinders provided' with pistons and valves resembling those of motive engines of the ordinary type. Practical engineers, as well as scientists, have demonstrated that solar energy cannot be rendered available for producing motive power, in consequence of the feebleness of solar radiation.

Ship design.

On September 26, 1854, Ericsson presented Napoleon III of France with drawings of iron-clad armored battle ships with a dome-shaped gun tower, and even though the French emperor praised this particular plan of an invention, he did nothing to bring it to practical application. In 1851 he designed the Caloric ship Ericsson.

USS "Monitor".

Shortly after the American Civil War broke out in 1861, the Confederacy began constructing an ironclad ram upon the hull of which had been partially burned and then sunk by Federal troops before it was captured by forces loyal to the Commonwealth of Virginia. Nearly concurrently, the United States Congress had recommended in August 1861 that armored ships be built for the American Navy. Ericsson still had a dislike for the U.S. Navy, but he was nevertheless convinced by Lincoln's hard-working Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles, and Cornelius Scranton Bushnell to submit an ironclad ship design to them. Ericsson later presented drawings of, a novel design of armored ship which included a rotating turret housing a pair of large cannons. Despite controversy over the unique design, based on Swedish lumber rafts, the keel was eventually laid down and the ironclad was launched on March 6, 1862. The ship went from plans to launch in approximately 100 days, an amazing achievement.  On March 8, the former USS "Merrimack", rechristened, was wreaking havoc on the wooden Union Blockading Squadron in Virginia, sinking and. "Monitor" appeared the next day, initiating the first battle between ironclad warships on March 9, 1862, at Hampton Roads, Virginia. The battle ended in a tactical stalemate between the two ironclad warships, neither of which appeared capable of sinking the other, but strategically saved the remaining Union fleet from defeat. After this, numerous monitors were built for the Union, including twin turret versions, and contributed greatly to the naval victory of the Union over the rebellious states. Despite their low draft and subsequent problems in navigating in high seas, many basic design elements of the "Monitor" class were copied in future warships by other designers and navies. The rotating turret in particular is considered one of the greatest technological advances in naval history, still found on warships today.

Later designs.

Later Ericsson designed other naval vessels and weapons, including a type of torpedo and a destroyer, a torpedo boat that could fire a cannon from an underwater port. He also provided some technical support for John Philip Holland in his early submarine experiments. In the book "Contributions to the Centennial Exhibition" (1877, reprinted 1976) he presented his "sun engines", which collected solar heat for a hot air engine. One of these designs earned Ericsson additional income after being converted to work as a methane gas engine.

Death and ensuing controversy.

Ericsson died on March 8, 1889, the anniversary of the Battle of Hampton Roads, in which his "Monitor" famously played a central role.  His wish to be buried in his native land sparked a series of articles in the "New York Times" alleging that, by selecting the third-rate to transport his remains, the US Navy was not paying proper respect to Ericsson. The Navy responded and sent the remains on the, escorted by other ships such as. On August 23, 1890, the fleet departed with a twenty-one gun salute and the Swedish flag hoisted on every ship of the squadron. Captain Joseph Henderson was allotted the task to take the cruiser Baltimore safely out to sea. Around 100,000 people turned out for the funeral procession and departure ceremonies, including several veterans of the USS "Monitor".  His final resting place is at Filipstad in Värmland, Sweden.

Monuments and memorials.

The stamp commemorating John Ericsson on April 20, 1926, coincided with the unveiling of the Ericsson Memorial in West Potomac Park, Washington, DC directly south of the Lincoln Memorial. The stamp pictures the memorial design by J. H. Frazer. The seated figure of Ericsson has the figures above and behind him of Vision, Labor and Adventure.  Monuments in honor of John Ericsson have been erected at:  Ships named in his honor:  Organizations:

In popular culture.

Ericsson is a major character in Harry Harrison's novels of alternate history, the "Stars and Stripes trilogy".

John Ericsson (born Johan) (July 31, 1803 – March 8, 1889) was a Swedish-American inventor. He was active in England and the United States.

John Ericsson (* 31. Juli 1803 in Långbanshyttan; † 8. März 1889 in New York), eigentlich "Johan Ericsson", war ein schwedischer Ingenieur und Erfinder.


Early life and political career.

Naumann was born in Guhrau in Silesia, Prussia, Germany. After finishing school, he studied political economics. Naumann joined the NSDAP in 1928. Naumann became a member of the SA where he rose to the rank of "Brigadeführer" by 1933. Thereafter, Naumann joined the SS. In 1937 he was Chief of the Propaganda Office in Breslau.  A year later he was made the personal aide of Joseph Goebbels and in 1942 became his assistant secretary. His official title was "Undersecretary and Chief of the Minister's Office in the Propaganda Ministry". In April 1944 Naumann was named State Secretary in the Propaganda Ministry. He was a member of the "Freundeskreis Reichsführer SS" around Heinrich Himmler and served in the Waffen-SS during World War II.  In the final days of the Third Reich as Soviet forces took Berlin, he was appointed Propaganda Minister in the Flensburg government of Karl Dönitz by Hitler's Testament of 29 April 1945. On 1 May 1945, he was the leader of break-out group number 3 from the "Führerbunker" in Berlin. The group included Martin Bormann, Hans Baur, Ludwig Stumpfegger and Artur Axmann. Erich Kempka testified at Nuremberg that he had last seen Naumann walking a metre in front of Bormann when a Soviet rocket exploded by Bormann while crossing the Weidendammer Bridge under heavy fire in Berlin. According to Axmann, the group followed a Tiger tank that spearheaded the first attempt to storm across the bridge, but it was destroyed. Bormann, Stumpfegger and himself were "knocked over" when the tank was hit. Axmann crawled to a shellhole where he met up again with Naumann, Bormann, Baur, and Stumpfegger; they all made it across the bridge. From that group, only Naumann and Axmann escaped from the Soviet Red Army encirclement of Berlin and made it to western Germany.

Later life.

Following Germany's defeat, Naumann lived under an assumed name for five years. He reemerged after the 1950 amnesty and resumed his contacts within the far right, including Hans-Ulrich Rudel, Ernst Achenbach, Arthur Axmann, Otto Skorzeny and many others. They infiltrated the Free Democrats Party for a period of about two years. Naumann was arrested by the British Army on 16 January 1953 for being the leader of a Neo-Nazi group that attempted to infiltrate West German political parties; for which he was banned for life from standing for election as an "offender" under a new clause added to the constitution by Adenauer's government. One survivor, Bernt Engelmann observed the "Zwangsdemokrat" ("forced democrat") was only pretending. He was released after seven months in custody. Later on, he became director at a metal firm in Lüdenscheid owned by Goebbels' stepson Harald Quandt. Naumann's own book "Nau Nau gefährdet das Empire?" was published by Dürer Haus in 1953. Dürer became a banned agency, but maintained operations in Argentina.  He died in 1982 in Lüdenscheid in North Rhine-Westphalia, West Germany, aged 73.

Werner Naumann (16 June 1909 – 25 October 1982) was State Secretary in Joseph Goebbels' Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda during the Nazi Germany era. He was appointed head of the Propaganda Ministry by Führer Adolf Hitler in his last will and testament after Goebbels was promoted to "Reichskanzler". Naumann was present in the "Führerbunker" in Berlin in late April 1945.

Werner Naumann (* 16. Juni 1909 in Guhrau, Schlesien; † 25. Oktober 1982 in Lüdenscheid) war ein deutscher Volkswirt sowie Nationalsozialist, SS-Brigadeführer, Staatssekretär im Reichsministerium für Volksaufklärung und Propaganda und zuvor persönlicher Referent von Joseph Goebbels. Naumann war 1953 maßgeblich an einer Verschwörung beteiligt, bei der eine Gruppe ehemaliger NS-Funktionäre den nordrhein-westfälischen Landesverband der FDP zu unterwandern versuchte.


Life and career.

Mommsen was born in Marburg, the child of the historian Wilhelm Mommsen and great-grandson of the historian of Rome Theodor Mommsen. He was the twin brother of historian Wolfgang Mommsen. He studied German, history and philosophy at the University of Heidelberg, the University of Tübingen and the University of Marburg. Mommsen served as professor at Tübingen (1960–1961), Heidelberg (1963–1968) and at the University of Bochum (since 1968). He married Margaretha Reindel in 1966. He was a member of the Social Democratic Party of Germany from 1960 until his death. He died on 5 November 2015.

Early work.

Much of Mommsen's early work concerned the history of the German working class, both as an object of study itself and as a factor in the larger German society. Mommsen's 1979 book, "Arbeiterbewegung und nationale Frage" (The Labour Movement and the National Question), a collection of his essays written in the 1960s–70s was the conclusion of his studies in German working class history.

Functionalism and the "weak dictator" thesis.

Mommsen was a leading expert on Nazi Germany and the Holocaust. He was a functionalist in regard to the origins of the Holocaust, seeing the Final Solution as a result of the "cumulative radicalization" of the German state as opposed to a long-term plan on the part of Adolf Hitler.  Mommsen is best known for arguing that Hitler was a "weak dictator" who rather than acting decisively, reacted to various social pressures. Mommsen believed that Nazi Germany was not a totalitarian state. Together with his friend Martin Broszat, Mommsen developed the structuralist interpretation of the Third Reich, that saw the Nazi state as a chaotic collection of rival bureaucracies engaged in endless power struggles.  In regards to the debate about foreign policy, Mommsen has argued that German foreign policy did not follow a "programme" during the Nazi era, but was instead "expansion without object" as the foreign policy of the "Reich" driven by powerful internal forces sought expansion in all directions.  Mommsen has faced criticism in the following areas:

The "Historikerstreit".

In the "Historikerstreit" debate, Mommsen argued that the Holocaust and fascist crimes could not be equated with Soviet crimes. Mommsen argued that the growth in pacifist feeling in the Federal Republic as reflected in widespread public opposition to the American raid on Libya in April 1986 made it imperative for the Americans and the West German government to promote a more nationalistic version of German history, and that was what was behind the "Historikerstreit".

Other historical work.

Mommsen has written highly regarded books and essays on the fall of the Weimar Republic, blaming the downfall of the Republic on German conservatives. Like his brother Wolfgang, Mommsen was a champion of the "Sonderweg" (Special Path) interpretation of German history that sees the ways German society, culture and politics developed in the 19th century as having made the emergence of Nazi Germany in the 20th century virtually inevitable.  Another area of interest for Mommsen is dissent, opposition and resistance in the Third Reich. Much of Mommsen's work in this area concerns the problems of "resistance without the people". Mommsen has drawn unfavorable comparisons between what he sees as conservative opposition and Social Democratic and Communist resistance to the Nazis. Mommsen was an expert on social history and often writes about working-class life in the Weimar and Nazi eras.  Starting in the 1960s, Mommsen was one of a younger generation of West German historians who provide a more critical assessment of "Widerstand" within German elites, and came to decry the "monumentalization" typical of German historical writing about "Widerstand" in the 1950s. In two articles published in 1966, Mommsen proved the claim often advanced in the 1950s that the ideas behind "men of July 20" were the inspiration for the 1949 Basic Law of the Federal Republic was false.

The "Goldhagen Controversy".

During the "Goldhagen Controversy" of 1996, Mommsen emerged as one of Daniel Goldhagen's leading opponents, and often debated Goldhagen on German TV. Mommsen's friend, the British historian Sir Ian Kershaw wrote he thought that Mommsen had "destroyed" Goldhagen during their debates over Goldhagen's book "Hitler's Willing Executioners".

Later work.

In an August 2000 book review, Mommsen called Norman Finkelstein's book "The Holocaust Industry" "a most trivial book, which appeals to easily aroused anti-Semitic prejudices."  A major figure in Germany, Mommsen often took stands on the great issues of the day, believing that the responsibility for ensuring the mistakes of the past are never repeated rests upon an engaged and historically-conscious citizenry. Mommsen saw it as the duty of the historian to constantly critique contemporary society.

Hans Mommsen (5 November 1930 – 5 November 2015) was a German historian, known for his studies in German social history, and for his functionalist interpretation of the Third Reich, especially for arguing that Adolf Hitler was a weak dictator. He was a member of the Social Democratic Party of Germany.

Hans Mommsen (* 5. November 1930 in Marburg; † 5. November 2015 in Tutzing) war ein deutscher Historiker. Er gilt als einer der bedeutendsten deutschen Zeithistoriker nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg.


Discussion.

Bush's use of the English language in formal and public speeches has spawned several books that document the statements. A poem entitled "Make the Pie Higher", composed entirely of Bushisms, was compiled by cartoonist Richard Thompson. Various public figures and humorists, such as Jon Stewart of "The Daily Show" and Garry Trudeau, creator of the comic strip "Doonesbury", have popularized some more famous Bushisms.  Linguist Mark Liberman of Language Log has suggested that Bush is not unusually error-prone in his speech, saying: "You can make any public figure sound like a boob, if you record everything he says and set hundreds of hostile observers to combing the transcripts for disfluencies, malapropisms, word formation errors and examples of non-standard pronunciation or usage... Which of us could stand up to a similar level of linguistic scrutiny?" Nearly a decade after George W. Bush said "misunderestimated" in a speech, Philip Hensher called the term one of his "most memorable additions to the language, and an incidentally expressive one: it may be that we rather needed a word for 'to underestimate by mistake'."  Journalist and pundit Christopher Hitchens published an essay in "The Nation" titled "Why Dubya Can't Read", writing:  Stanford Graduate School lecturer and former Bush economic policy advisor Keith Hennessey has argued that the number of Bush's verbal gaffes is not unusual given the significant amount of time that he has spoken in public, and that Barack Obama's miscues are not as scrutinized. In Hennessey's view, Bush "intentionally aimed his public image at average Americans rather than at Cambridge or Upper East Side elites".  Bush's statements were also notorious for their ability to state the opposite of what he intended, with notable examples including his remarks on the estate tax, "I'm not sure 80% of people get the death tax. I know this: 100% will get it if I'm the president."

"Bushisms" are unconventional statements, phrases, pronunciations, malapropisms, and semantic or linguistic errors in the public speaking of the 43rd President of the United States George W. Bush. The term has become part of popular folklore and is the basis of a number of websites and published books. It is often used to caricature the former president. Common characteristics include malapropisms, the creation of neologisms, spoonerisms, stunt words and grammatically incorrect subject–verb agreement.

Bushism (zu Deutsch etwa "„Bushismus“") ist ein umgangssprachlicher Ausdruck aus dem amerikanischen Englisch und bezeichnet satirischerweise Wörter oder Phrasen, die den Stil der öffentlichen Reden des ehemaligen US-Präsidenten George W. Bush kennzeichnen, insbesondere wenn es sich dabei um improvisierte Reden handelt. Der Begriff wurde ursprünglich auf Reden von Bushs Vater George H. W. Bush angewendet, der während seiner Präsidentschaft ebenfalls, jedoch im geringeren Umfang, für seine ungewöhnliche Ausdrucksweise bekannt geworden war, wird heute jedoch fast ausschließlich auf den Sohn George W. Bush bezogen.


Overview.

With this system, the outermost of several sets of successive driving wheel sets are not connected by coupling rods to crankshaft journals on the outside of the wheels, but by cogwheels located in the centre of the axles. The axles are housed in the locomotive frame such that they are able to move at right angles to the axis of the rails to a certain degree, likewise the cogwheels are able to slide relative to one another. In this way curves can be negotiated with less friction being generated.

Use.

Germany.

For the Hamburg Harbour railway with its tight curves, the ten-coupled steam locomotives of Class 87 were built with Luttermöller axles, front and rear. The 16 locomotives of this class were however retired as early as 1954, because they tended to overheat at higher speeds and could therefore only be used for shunting duties.  A five-axled, metre gauge, steam engine with the Luttermöller system was procured by the private South Harz Railway ("Südharz-Eisenbahn"; Braunlage - Walkenried - Tanne) in 1928 from Orenstein & Koppel with operating number 61. It proved itself so well on the winding route, that in 1930 two Mallet locomotives, built in 1925, were converted to the Luttermöller system by Henschel (operating numbers 56 and 57). Henschel had to obtain a licence from Orenstein & Koppel to use Luttermöller axles.

Indonesia.

Luttermöller axles found further use on narrow gauge lines, e.g. in Java (Indonesia).

Argentina.

Several 2' gauge Luttermöller locomotives built by Orenstein & Koppel were exported for use in Argentina at the Ingenio San Martin del Tabacal sugar cane refinery in the Salta Province near the town of Hipólito Yrigoyen, Salta. Four of these engines were bought by Preston Services and moved to Kent in the UK where three are currently stored with the fourth sold to new owners.

A Luttermöller axle is an unusual steam locomotive component. Steam locomotives with several axles or wheelsets connected to one another by coupling rods are not able to negotiate tight curves well. In order to assist such locomotives, the manager of the Orenstein & Koppel factory in Berlin, Dr. Luttermöller, built the axle system named after him.

Als Luttermöller-Achsantrieb bezeichnet man eine Konstruktion zur Verbesserung der Kurvenläufigkeit von Dampflokomotiven. Lokomotiven mit mehreren durch Kuppelstangen miteinander verbundenen Achsen bzw. Radsätzen können enge Kurven weniger gut durchfahren. Um dem abzuhelfen, konstruierte der Direktor der Orenstein & Koppel-Werke bei Berlin, Dr. Luttermöller, den nach ihm benannten Achsantrieb. Hierbei werden die äußeren von mehreren hintereinander angeordneten Treibrad-Sätzen nicht an Kurbelzapfen mit Kuppelstangen außen am Rad, sondern durch mittig auf den Achsen der Radsätze angeordnete Zahnräder verbunden. Die Achsen sind am Rahmen um ein gewisses Maß quer zur Mitte der Schiene verschiebbar gelagert, ebenso können sich die Zahnräder gegeneinander verschieben. Damit wird ein reibungsärmerer Kurvenlauf erreicht.


Etymology.

Etymologically the name Samnium is generally recognized to be a form of the name of the Sabines, who were Umbrians. From Safinim, Sabinus, Sabellus and Samnis an Indo-European root can be extracted, *-, which becomes Sab- in Latino-Faliscan and Saf- in Osco-Umbrian: Sabini and *Safineis. The eponymous god of the Sabines, Sabus, seems to support this view. The Greek terms, Saunitai and Saunitis, remain outside the group. Nothing is known of their origin.  At some point in prehistory, a population speaking a common language extended over both Samnium and Umbria. Salmon conjectures that it was common Italic and puts forward a date of 600 BC, after which the common language began to separate into dialects. This date does not necessarily correspond to any historical or archaeological evidence; developing a synthetic view of the ethnology of proto-historic Italy is an incomplete and ongoing task.  The linguist, Julius Pokorny, carries the etymology somewhat further back. Conjecturing that the -a- was altered from an -o- during some prehistoric residence in Illyria he derives the names from an o-grade extension *swo-bho- of an extended e-grade *swe-bho- of the possessive adjective, *s(e)we-, of the reflexive pronoun, *se-, "oneself" (the source of English self). The result is a set of Indo-European tribal names (if not the endonym of the Indo-Europeans): Germanic Suebi and Semnones, Suiones; Celtic Senones; Slavic Serbs and Sorbs; Italic Sabelli, Sabini, etc., as well as a large number of kinship terms. The general concept is "our own kith and kin," Pokorny's "von eigener Art," "Gesamtheit der eigenen Leute," "Liebe," "Sippegenossen," "Sippenangehörigen," and the like.

Historical geography.

Samnium mostly lay on the Apennine area; it was delimited by Latium to the north, by Lucania to the south, by Campania to the west, and by Apulia to the east. The principal cities of the region were "Bovaiamom", renamed "Bovianum" by Latins (today: Bojano or Boiano) and "Maleventum" ("Maloenton" in Oscan), which was later renamed "Beneventum" by the Romans (today: Benevento). For most of their history the Samnites were landlocked, but during a brief period they controlled parts of both coasts of the Italian peninsula.  The Samnites were composed of at least four tribes: the Pentri (capital: "Bovianum"), the Caraceni (principal cities: "Cluviae", the modern Casoli, and "Juvanum", the ruins of which are spread between Torricella Peligna and Montenerodomo), the Caudini (capital: "Caudium", today Montesarchio) and the Hirpini (main cities: "Beneventum", "Abellinum"). They may have later been joined by the Frentani (capital "Larinum", the modern Larino). The federal capital of the League they formed was "Bovianum", except for a short period between the 4th and 3rd centuries BC, when it was "Aquilonia", destroyed by the Romans in 293 BC, whose probable location today is modern Agnone, in Molise; though it has also been identified with Aquilonia, in the Province of Avellino.

History.

The earliest written record of the people is a treaty with the Romans from 354 BC, which set their border at the Liris River. Shortly thereafter the Samnite Wars broke out; they won an important battle against the Roman army in 321 BC, and their "imperium" reached its peak in 316 BC after further gains from the Romans. By 290 BC, the Romans were able to break the Samnites' power after some hard-fought battles. The Samnites were one of the Italian peoples that allied with King Pyrrhus of Epirus during the Pyrrhic War. After Pyrrhus left for Sicily, the Romans invaded Samnium and were crushed at the Battle of the Cranita hills, but after the defeat of Pyrrhus, the Samnites could not resist on their own and surrendered to Rome. Some of the Samnites joined and aided Hannibal during the Second Punic War, but most stayed loyal. The Samnites and several other Italic people rebelled against Rome and started the Social War (91–88 BC), after Romans refused to grant them Roman Citizenship. The war lasted almost three years, and resulted in a Roman victory. However, Samnites and other Italic tribes were granted Roman citizenship, to avoid another war. The Samnites supported the Populares in the civil war against Lucius Cornelius Sulla, but unfortunately for them, Sulla ended up winning the war and was declared the dictator of Rome. Sulla ordered all those who went against him to be punished. Thousands of people in Rome and all over Italy were brutally hunted down and killed. Samnites, who were one of the most prominent supporters of the Populares, were punished so severely that it was recorded "some of their cities have now dwindled into villages, some indeed being entirely deserted." Samnites did not play any prominent role in history after this, and they eventually became Latinized and assimilated into the Roman World

Samnium () is a Latin exonym for a region of Southern Italy anciently inhabited by the Samnites. Their own endonyms were "Safinim" for the country (attested in one inscription and one coin legend) and "Safineis" for the The language of these endonyms and of the population was the Oscan language. However, not all the Samnites spoke Oscan, and not all the Oscan-speakers lived in Samnium.

Samnium (oskisch Safinim) war eine Landschaft in den südlichen Apenninen, die Heimat der Samniten, einer Gruppe sabellischer Stämme, die die Region zwischen 600 und 290 v. Chr. kontrollierten.


Career.

1995–2006.

Mahesh Bhupathi is known as one of the top doubles players in the 1990s and 2000s. In 1999, Bhupathi won three doubles titles with Leander Paes, including the French Open and Wimbledon. He and Paes became the first doubles team to reach the finals of all four Grand Slams, the first time such a feat has been achieved in the open era and the first time since 1952. On 26 April of that year, they became the world no. 1 doubles team. Bhupathi also won the US Open mixed doubles with Ai Sugiyama of Japan.  In 2006, Bhupathi teamed with Martina Hingis in the Australian Open mixed doubles competition. Entering the tournament unseeded and as wildcards, the first-time pair defeated four seeded opponents along the way, while only dropping a single set throughout. Bhupathi and Hingis defeated the sixth-seeded team of Daniel Nestor and Elena Likhovtseva in straight sets, 6–3, 6–3, to capture the championship. It was the sixth mixed doubles Grand Slam for Bhupathi, and a first for Hingis. By winning the Australian Open, Bhupathi completed a career Grand Slam in mixed doubles.

2007–2008.

In 2007, Bhupathi and Radek Štěpánek reached the 2007 Australian Open men's doubles event's quarterfinals. Bhupathi teamed with Štěpánek at the 2007 French Open to make the doubles semifinals, defeating two-year defending champions Jonas Björkman and Max Mirnyi in the quarterfinals. The team lost to the eventual champions Mark Knowles and Daniel Nestor. After Wimbledon, Bhupathi teamed with Pavel Vízner to win the 2007 Canada Masters, defeating the top-ranked doubles team Bob and Mike Bryan en route. After this victory, he won a tournament in New Haven with Nenad Zimonjić. At the 2007 US Open, he and Zimonjić paired in doubles. After the US Open, the team that beat Bhupathi and Štěpánek in the French Open semifinals, Knowles and Nestor, split up. Bhupathi became Knowles' partner, while Zimonjić became Nestor's, but back surgery meant he was out until the end of the year.

2009–2012.

In 2009, Bhupathi and compatriot Sania Mirza won the mixed doubles title at the Australian Open, beating Nathalie Dechy and Andy Ram, 6–3, 6–1, in the final. The Indian pair thus made up for the disappointment of the previous year's final when they were beaten by Sun Tiantian and Nenad Zimonjić. With this win, Bhupathi's count in mixed doubles Grand Slam titles increased to seven.  Bhupathi broke up his partnership with Knowles and began playing once again with Max Mirnyi, with whom he played to win the 2002 US Open. In 2011, Bhupathi reunited with former playing partner Leander Paes for the 2011 Australian Open. The team reached the final, but lost 3–6, 4–6 to the Bryan brothers.On 7 June 2012, Bhupathi and Sania Mirza won the French Open mixed doubles. On 4 November 2012, Bhupathi and partner Rohan Bopanna won the Paris Masters cup. In spite of suffering a setback with their loss against Jonathan Marray and Frederik Nielsen in the ATP Tour Finals opener, the Indian duo reached the final round of the ATP Tour Finals, but suffered a defeat at the hands of Marcel Granollers and Marc López.

2013.

Bhupathi and Bopanna played with different partners for the first three months of 2013, Bhupathi winning the tournament in Dubai in March with Michaël Llodra, but rejoined starting with the Monte-Carlo Masters.

Playing Style.

Mahesh Bhupathi is known for his big serve. According to Nadal, his strong back hand makes him the best for an Ad Court player. Roger Federer acclaims him as one of the best players of all time. He often discusses strategies between the serves with his partner during the match and also communicates using finger-at-the-back signals.

Year-end finals.

Bhupathi appeared with Paes in six season finales. In 2011, they appeared, for the first time since 2002, after securing qualification in mid-October.  Bhupathi played at the year-end championships with Paes from 1997–2000 and in 2002, reaching three finals. In 1997, they lost the final to Rick Leach and Jonathan Stark. They lost the 1999 final to Sébastien Lareau and Alex O’Brien. In 2000, they lost the final to Donald Johnson and Pieter Norval.  Bhupathi also qualified with Max Mirnyi in 2003, 2004, and 2010, when they finished runners-up to Daniel Nestor and Nenad Zimonjić.  He appeared at the finals with Mark Knowles in 2008 and 2009.  In 2012, he and Rohan Bopanna made it to the final, where they lost to Marcel Granollers and Marc López.

Significant finals.

Grand Slam tournament finals.

Mixed doubles: 12 (8 titles, 4 runner-ups).

By winning the 2006 Australian Open title, Bhupathi completed the mixed doubles Career Grand Slam. He became the eighth male player in history to achieve this.

Davis Cup and Asian Games.

Bhupathi has donned Indian colours numerous times for the Davis Cup as well as other international tournaments, including the Asian Games.  Bhupathi has played 55 matches for India in the Davis Cup (from 1995 to 2011), winning 35 and losing 20. Out of the 35 matches that he won, 27 of his victories came in doubles matches.  In 2006, Bhupathi won the doubles championship with Leander Paes at the Asian Games in Doha.

Personal life.

In 2001, he was awarded the Padma Shri, one of India's highest civilian awards. Bhupathi is an alumnus of the University of Mississippi in the United States. He is the founder of Globosport India private Limited which he started in 2002 as a sports and entertainment agency.  He married model Shvetha Jaishankar in 2002 but the couple got divorced in 2009 after seven years of marriage. He then married Miss Universe 2000 Lara Dutta in a civil ceremony on 16 February 2011 at Bandra, Mumbai. It was followed by a Christian ceremony on 20 February 2011 at Sunset Point in Goa.  On 1 August 2011, Dutta confirmed that she was pregnant with their first child. Their daughter Saira was born on 20 January 2012. In 2010, the couple started a film production company, Big Daddy Productions.  In 2014, Mahesh Bhupathi launched an authentic Indian sports brand, ZEVEN. The company currently endorses Ravindra Jadeja, Rohan Bopanna, Shikhar Dhawan and Mary Kom, amongst others.

Partnership with Leander Paes.

Bhupathi and Leander Paes partnered in the men's doubles event at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, but lost the quarterfinals, to Roger Federer and Stanislas Wawrinka of Switzerland, who went on to win the gold medal.  Paes and Bhupathi decided to team up again at the Australian Open 2011, ending a nine-year separation on the ATP circuit. They reached the finals of the event, but lost to American twins Bob and Mike Bryan. Paes stated at the time that the best thing has been to have their friendship back.  The Indian duo has a 303–103 career record together. They have a Davis Cup record of longest winning streak in doubles, with 23 straight wins.  Leander Paes wanted to play with Mahesh Bhupathi in the men's doubles event of the London Olympics, to be held July–August 2012. On 19 June 2012, the All India Tennis association relented to the demands of Bhupathi and Bopanna of not playing along Paes. Two teams were sent for the London Olympics- 2012, with Mahesh Bhupathi and Rohan Bopanna as one team and the other team consisting of Leander Paes and Vishnu Vardhan. Bhupathi also accused AITA of using Sania Mirza as bait for Leander's participation in the Olympics. When AITA relented to the wishes of Bhupathi and Bopanna and permitted them to play together, they lost in the second round to the unseeded French pairing of Richard Gasquet and Julien Benneteau.

Davis Cup Record.

The duo of Bhupathi and Paes has the longest doubles streak in Davis Cup history.

Sports management and sports-based e-commerce.

Bhupathi has also been involved in developing tennis facilities in India and, along with his company Globosport, has played a key rôle in developing and managing the careers of many Indian athletes, including Sania Mirza.

International Premier Tennis League.

Mahesh Bhupathi announced the founding of the International Premier Tennis League on 25 May 2013, in Paris. The initial plan was to start the league with six charter franchises in Asia with the inaugural season commencing in November 2014. Bhupathi said the league would be modeled after the Indian Premier League, a cricket league in India. Justin Gimelstob said that the league would be star-driven as World Team Tennis was in the 1970s.

Mahesh Shrinivas Bhupathi (born 7 June 1974) is a retired Indian professional tennis player. In 1997, he became the first Indian to win a Grand Slam tournament (with Rika Hiraki). With his win at the Australian Open mixed doubles in 2006, he joined the elite group of eight tennis players who have achieved a career Grand Slam in mixed doubles. He is also the founder of International Premier Tennis League. In December 2016, Bhupathi was appointed as India's next non-playing Davis Cup captain and took over the reins from Anand Amritraj in February 2017. He is also a part of the Hon. Board of Advisors of IIMUN.

Mahesh Shrinivas Bhupathi (tamil: மகேஷ் பூபதி, * 7. Juni 1974 in Chennai) ist ein ehemaliger indischer Tennisspieler, der sich hauptsächlich auf das Doppel spezialisiert hatte.


Biography.

Early life.

Musgrave was born in Königstein im Taunus, Germany, into the family of a writer and translator Curt Abel Musgrave, a chemist by profession. His paternal grandfather (professor of linguistics at the Berlin Humboldt Institute Carl Abel) and maternal grandmother were Jewish but converted to Christianity. He turned from the field of literature, with an interest in becoming a stage director, to philosophy and economics at the Universities of Munich and Heidelberg (Diplom-Volkswirt, 1933), then at Harvard (Ph.D., 1937). After that, he spent four years as a research economist at the Federal Reserve and taught at several American universities, including the University of Michigan where he worked on his treatise from 1951 to 1959. He served as an advisor to the US government and returned to Harvard in 1965 as H. H. Burbank professor of Political Economy in the faculty of Arts and Sciences and the Law School. He was also editor of the "Quarterly Journal of Economics". His book "The Theory of Public Finance" (1959) remains a leading theoretical work. "Public Finance in Theory and Practice" (1973), co-authored with his wife, Peggy Brewer Musgrave, was a leading textbook for many years.

Career in economics.

Martin Feldstein is quoted in the "New York Times" obituary (Jan 20, 2007) "Richard Musgrave transformed economics in the 1950s and 1960s from a descriptive and institutional subject to one that used the tools of Microeconomics and Keynesian Macroeconomics to understand the effect of taxes." Musgrave published his seminal paper, "Voluntary Exchange Theory of Public Economy" in the "Quarterly Journal of Economics" in 1939. Paul Samuelson would later convert this from a positive theory to a normative theory.  It is from the 1939 paper "Voluntary Exchange Theory of Public Economy" that 'The Musgrave Three-Function Framework' originates. This framework is the suggestion that government activity should be separated into three functions or "branches," macroeconomic stabilization, income redistribution and resource allocation.  The stabilization branch is to assure the achievement of high employment and price stability, the distribution branch is to achieve an equitable distribution of income, and the allocation branch is to see that resources are used efficiently.  This conceptual division of the responsibilities of government allows us to narrow the scope of inquiry into tax assignment, by indicating which of the three functions are most appropriately assigned to various levels of government. The remainder of this section focuses on the implications of the three-branch framework for the assignment of revenue sources among levels of government, especially the assignment between the central government and second-tier governments.  In his paper, "A Multiple Theory of Budget Determination," published in "Finanzarchiv" 1957, Musgrave introduced the economic concept of merit good (and later, de-merit good). The concept has been extensively discussed elsewhere and been quite controversial in economic theory.  His background in the German, Austrian, Italian and Swedish schools of political economy plus the uniquely German contribution of Finanzwissenschaft, or fiscal sociology, gave him a unique position to make a contribution to postwar government finance theory.

Accolades.

Musgrave was elected a Fellow in American Academy of Arts and Sciences, honorary member of the National Tax Association, and honorary President of the Institute of Public Finance (1978). Awarded the Frank E Seidman award in Political Economy (1981), honorary doctorates from Alleghany college, University of Heidelberg, University of Milan, University of Michigan, and the University of Munich, he was a professor emeritus at Harvard until his death, and an adjunct Professor at the University of California at Santa Cruz.  Musgrave was designated a Distinguished Fellow by the American Economic Association in 1978, along with William S. Vickrey. An accompanying statement referred to him as "the undisputed father of modern Industrial Organization Economics."  The International Institute of Public Finance created an award in 2003 to commemorate the work conducted by Richard and his wife.

Personal.

He died on January 15, 2007 in Santa Cruz, California.

Richard Abel Musgrave (December 14, 1910 – January 15, 2007) was an American economist of German heritage. His most cited work is "The Theory of Public Finance" (1959), described as "the first English-language treatise in the field." and "a major contribution to public finance thought."

Richard Abel Musgrave (* 14. Dezember 1910 in Königstein; † 15. Januar 2007 in Santa Cruz), geboren als Richard Abel-Musgrave, war ein deutschamerikanischer Ökonom. Er war der Sohn des ebenfalls deutsch-amerikanischen Übersetzers, Pädagogen, Journalisten, Publizisten, Chemikers und Autors Curt Abel-Musgrave. Seine Frau war die Finanzwissenschaftlerin Peggy Musgrave, mit der zusammen er einige seiner wichtigsten Bücher veröffentlichte.


Career.

Demsetz grew up on the West Side of Chicago, the grandchild of Jewish immigrants from central and eastern Europe. He studied engineering, forestry, and philosophy at four universities before being awarded a B.A. (1953) in economics from the University of Illinois, and an MBA (1954) and a Ph.D. (1959) from Northwestern University. While a graduate student, he published an article each in "Econometrica" and the "Journal of Political Economy".  Demsetz taught at the University of Michigan (1958–60), UCLA, 1960–63, and the Graduate School of Business at the University of Chicago, 1963–71. In 1971, he returned permanently to UCLA's Economics Department, which he chaired 1978–80. He held the Arthur Andersen UCLA Alumni Chair in Business Economics, 1986–95. He has been affiliated with the Center for Naval Analyses and the Hoover Institution.  Demsetz was a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, a director of the Mont Pelerin Society, and a past (1996) president of the Western Economics Association.

Work.

Demsetz belonged to the Chicago school of economic theory, and was one of the pioneers of the approach now called New Institutional Economics. He is a founder of the field of managerial economics. He has expanded the theory of property rights now prevalent in law and economics. Even though Demsetz never employed game theory, he is a major figure in industrial organization through his writings on the theory of the firm, antitrust policy, and business regulation. His expository style is devoid of mathematical formalism to an extent unusual for someone who began his career after 1950. His principal influences include Frank Knight and a number of colleagues: Armen Alchian, Ronald Coase, Aaron Director, and George Stigler.  Demsetz coined the term "nirvana fallacy" in 1969. The 1972 Demsetz and Armen Alchian article "Production, Information Costs and Economic Organization" was selected as one of the twenty most important articles published in the first century of the "American Economic Review".

Harold Demsetz (; May 31, 1930 – January 4, 2019) was an American professor of economics at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA).

Harold Demsetz (* 31. Mai 1930 in Chicago, Illinois; † 4. Januar 2019) war ein US-amerikanischer Ökonom, der der Chicagoer Schule zugeordnet wird.


Geography.

In the July–September period, flood water from the Yangtze flows into the lake, enlarging it greatly. The lake's area, which normally is (data before 1998), may increase to in flood season, when vast amounts of water and sediment from the Chang Jiang flow into the lake. The lake is also fed by four major rivers: the Xiang, Zi, Yuan and Li rivers. Small rivers also flow in, the most famous one being Miluo River where poet Qu Yuan committed suicide. In addition, the Xiao River flows into the Xiang near Yongzhou, before the Xiang flows into the lake. Ocean-going vessels can travel through the Xiang to reach Changsha.

History.

The earliest rice paddies yet discovered in the world were in the Liyang plain, which was then on the western edge of Dongting lake. The state of Chu occupied the region in the Eastern Zhou period, and its territory there was taken over by Qin in the 3rd century BCE. During the Han Dynasty, Yunmeng Marsh ( literally "Great Marsh of Cloud Dream"), which lies to the north of Dongting Lake in Hubei Province, served as the main flood-basin of the Yangtze. The rich sediment of the marsh attracted farmers. Embankments were built, keeping the river out, and the Dongting Lake area south of the Yangtze gradually became the river's main flood-basin. The Han state was actively involved in the colonization of the region, maintaining dikes in Liyang to protect farmland from flooding.  At that time, Dongting Lake was China's largest freshwater lake. Because of its size, it gained the name "Eight-hundred-li-Dongting" (). Nowadays, it is the second-largest, after Poyang Lake, as much of the lake has been turned into farmland.

Culture and mythology.

The area is well known in Chinese history and literature. "Dongting" literally means "Grotto Court", and the lake was named for the huge hall or cavern, which was believed to exist beneath the lake, where the spirits of the Sage-King Shun's wives Ehuang and Nüying were said to be the rulers of this grotto, which was claimed to have underground passages opening to all parts of the empire. Dragon boat racing is said to have begun on the eastern shores of Dongting Lake as a search for the body of Qu Yuan, the Chu poet (340–278 BC), and a dragon-king is said to live at the bottom of the lake.  Junshan was also named after the goddess-wives of Shun, who lived there after his death by drowning, while they mourned him and sought for his body all the way from the source of the Xiang River, in which he drowned, and then on down to where it could have drifted, into the lake. Junshan Island, formerly a Daoist retreat, is a famous one-kilometer island with 72 peaks in the middle of the lake. The island is also famous for its Junshan Yinzhen tea. The basin of Dongting Lake and its surrounding area is famous for its scenic beauty, which has been encapsulated in the phrase "Hunan of the Xiao and Xiang rivers" ().  The scenery of the Jiuyi Mountains and of the Xiao and Xiang rivers below is often mentioned in Chinese poetry. The late Tang Dynasty poet Yu Wuling is supposed to have been fond of the scenery of Dongting Lake. During the Song Dynasty, it became the fashion to paint this region's scenery in a set of eight scenes, usually entitled as Eight Views of Xiaoxiang. It is also said that Han Shizhong settled in the region after retired from military service. The fashion spread to Japan, where eventually other famous places were substituted for the Xiao and Xiang rivers. One of the famous ponds based on the geography of the lake is at the Daikaku-ji in Kyoto.

Environmental issues.

The agricultural colonization of the region began in ancient times, and by the 19th century much of the lake's shallower areas had been destroyed to create farmland. After 1949 a new round of wetland drainage destroyed much of what remained, leaving only a fraction of the original wetland intact, though some of that area has subsequently been returned to wetland conditions. Nonetheless, along with Poyang Lake, it remains one of the largest lakes in China, and is an important wintering area for migratory birds. It has been designated as a protected Ramsar site since 1992.  In 2007 fears were expressed that China's finless porpoise, a native of the lake, might follow the baiji, the Yangtze river dolphin, into extinction. There have been calls for action to save the finless porpoise, of which there are about 1400 left living, with approximately 700 to 900 in the Yangtze, and approximately another 500 in Poyang and Dongting Lakes. The 2007 population levels were less than half the 1997 levels, and the population continues to drop at a rate of 7.3 per cent per year. Pressure on the finless porpoise population on Poyang Lake comes from the high numbers of ships passing through, as well as sand dredging.  After flooding of the Yangtze River in late June 2007, approximately 2 billion mice were displaced from the islands of the lake. The mice invaded surrounding communities, damaging crops and dikes and forcing the government to construct walls and ditches to control the population.  A restoration project, the Sino-Norwegian Project of Biodiversity Protection Management, began in 2005. According to a 2007 article in the China Daily, "[The Dongting Lake area] will be restored to a sustainable biodiversity environment within five to 10 years".

Dongting Lake () is a large, shallow lake in Northeastern Hunan Province, China. It is a flood basin of the Yangtze River, so its volume depends on the season. The provinces of Hubei and Hunan are named after their location relative to the lake: "Hubei" means "North of the Lake" and "Hunan", "South of the Lake".

Der Dongting-See () im Norden der Provinz Hunan ist der zweitgrößte Binnensee der Volksrepublik China. Er wird von mehreren Flüssen gespeist und entwässert in den nördlich am See vorbeifließenden Jangtsekiang. Die Provinzen Hunan („südlich des Sees“) und Hubei („nördlich des Sees“) sind nach ihrer Lage bezogen auf den See benannt worden.


Life and work.

Argelander was born in Memel in the Kingdom of Prussia (now Klaipėda in Lithuania), the son of a father of Finnish descent, Johann Gottlieb Argelander, and German (Prussian) mother, Dorothea Wilhelmina Grünlingen. He studied with Friedrich Bessel, and obtained his Ph.D. in 1822 at University of Königsberg. From 1823 until 1837, Argelander was the head of the Finnish observatory, first in Turku and then in Helsinki. He then moved to Bonn, Germany. There he designed and built a new observatory at the University of Bonn with funding approved directly by King Frederick William IV whom Argelander had become friends with in his childhood. (This lifelong friendship started when the then crown prince temporarily lived in Argelander's parents house after the Prussian royal family fled to Memel after the Battle of Jena–Auerstedt during the Napoleonic Wars.)  Argelander excelled in developing effective, simple and fast methods for measuring star positions and magnitudes, thereby making a pioneering work for modern astronomy. He also measured star distances with heliometers. His, and his collaborators', great practical works of star cataloging and variable star research were made possible by the systematic usage of then newly developed techniques.  Argelander was the first astronomer to begin a careful study of variable stars. Only a handful were known when he began, and he was responsible for introducing the modern system of identifying them. He also made a rough determination of the direction in which the Sun was moving.  In 1842, he discovered that Groombridge 1830 had a very high proper motion. For many decades its proper motion was the highest known; today it still occupies third place. For a time, it was known as "Argelander's Star".  Together with Adalbert Krüger and Eduard Schönfeld, Argelander was responsible for the star catalogue known as the "Bonner Durchmusterung", published between 1859 and 1862, which gave the positions and brightness of more than 324,000 stars, although it did not cover much of the southern half of the sky. This was the last star map to be published without the use of photography.  In 1863, Argelander helped lead in the founding of an international organization of astronomers named the "Astronomische Gesellschaft".

Friedrich Wilhelm August Argelander (22 March 1799 – 17 February 1875) was a German astronomer. He is known for his determinations of stellar brightnesses, positions, and distances.

Friedrich Wilhelm August Argelander (* 22. März 1799 in Memel; † 17. Februar 1875 in Bonn) war ein deutscher Astronom. Er leitete den Bau mehrerer Sternwarten in Europa, untersuchte Veränderliche Sterne und führte die Bonner Durchmusterung durch, deren 325.000 Sterne er in einem Sternkatalog zusammenfasste.


Venues.

Hellinikon Indoor Arena.

The Indoor arena is an arena adjacent to the Fencing Hall. It hosted the Basketball preliminary matches and the Handball finals at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece. The facility seats 15,000 spectators for basketball, although only 10,700 seats were made publicly available during the Olympics - and seats 13,500 fans for handball - though only 10,300 seats were made publicly available during the games. The facility was completed on May 31, 2004 and officially opened on July 30, 2004.  During the 2004 Summer Paralympic Games, the Indoor Arena was the venue for Wheelchair rugby. It has also been the home arena of the Greek basketball club Panionios, and it has also hosted several finals matches of the Greek Cup. The Greek basketball club Panellinios also played European cup home games at the arena.

Olympic Baseball Centre.

The Olympic Baseball Centre in Athens consists of two Baseball stadiums. It was the site of the Baseball games at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece. The larger stadium seats 8,700 fans-though only 6,700 seats were made publicly available during the Olympics; the smaller stadium seats 4,000 spectators, though only 3,300 seats were made publicly available during the Games. The facility had to be constructed with significant foreign help in the design, as there were only a handful of dusty baseball diamonds in the whole of Greece before the 2004 Olympics were awarded to Athens in 1997. Construction on the facility was completed on February 27, 2004, and it was officially opened on August 12, 2004, a day before the Opening Ceremonies. During the 2004 Summer Paralympic Games, the Olympic Baseball Centre was the venue for Archery.

Post-Olympics Development.

The table below lists the current status and usage of the Hellinikon Olympic Complex facilities:  There are plans to convert much of the former Hellinikon International Airport site to a metropolitan park, that would include the above facilities.  The site is currently being used to house refugee populations in the current Refugee crisis in Europe. The three camps are currently home to over three thousand refugees living in mostly tented accommodation.

The Hellinikon Olympic Complex is situated at Hellinikon in the south Athens, approximately 16 kilometres from the Olympic Village. It was built on the site of the former Hellinikon International Airport for the staging of the 2004 Summer Olympics and 2004 Summer Paralympics. It consists of five separate venues.

Das Elliniko Olympic Complex oder Helliniko Olympic Complex ist ein Sportzentrum, das für die Olympischen Sommerspiele 2004 in Athen errichtet wurde. Es liegt 12 km südlich des Stadtzentrums im Vorort Elliniko, 36,2 km vom Olympischen Dorf entfernt.


Early history: telegraph and coaxial cables.

First successful trials.

After William Cooke and Charles Wheatstone had introduced their working telegraph in 1839, the idea of a submarine line across the Atlantic Ocean began to be thought of as a possible triumph of the future. Samuel Morse proclaimed his faith in it as early as 1840, and in 1842, he submerged a wire, insulated with tarred hemp and India rubber, in the water of New York Harbor, and telegraphed through it. The following autumn, Wheatstone performed a similar experiment in Swansea Bay. A good insulator to cover the wire and prevent the electric current from leaking into the water was necessary for the success of a long submarine line. India rubber had been tried by Moritz von Jacobi, the

First commercial cables.

In August 1850, having earlier obtained a concession from the French government, John Watkins Brett's English Channel Submarine Telegraph Company laid the first line across the English Channel, using the converted tugboat "Goliath". It was simply a copper wire coated with gutta-percha, without any other protection, and was not successful. However, the experiment served to secure renewal of the concession, and in September 1851, a protected core, or true, cable was laid by the reconstituted Submarine Telegraph Company from a government hulk, "Blazer", which was towed across the Channel.  In 1853, more successful cables were laid, linking Great Britain with Ireland, Belgium, and the Netherlands, and crossing

Transatlantic telegraph cable.

The first attempt at laying a transatlantic telegraph cable was promoted by Cyrus West Field, who persuaded British industrialists to fund and lay one in 1858. However, the technology of the day was not capable of supporting the project; it

British dominance of early cable.

From the 1850s until 1911, British submarine cable systems dominated the most important market, the North Atlantic Ocean. The British had both supply side and demand side advantages. In terms of supply, Britain had entrepreneurs willing to put forth enormous amounts of capital necessary to build, lay and maintain these cables. In terms of demand, Britain's vast colonial empire led to business for the cable companies from news agencies, trading and shipping companies, and the British government. Many of Britain's colonies had significant populations of European settlers, making news about them of interest to the general public in the home country.  British officials believed that depending on telegraph lines that passed through non-British territory posed a security risk, as lines could be cut and messages could be interrupted during wartime. They sought the creation of a worldwide network within the empire, which became known as the All Red Line, and conversely prepared strategies to quickly interrupt enemy communications. Britain's very first action after declaring war

Cable to India, Singapore, Far East and Australia.

Throughout the 1860s and 1870s, British cable expanded eastward, into the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean. An 1863 cable to Bombay (now Mumbai), India, provided a crucial link to Saudi Arabia. In 1870, Bombay was linked to London via submarine cable in a combined operation by four cable companies, at

Submarine cables across the Pacific.

The first trans-Pacific cables providing telegraph service were completed in 1902 and 1903, linking the US mainland to Hawaii in 1902 and Guam to the Philippines in 1903. Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Fiji were also linked in 1902 with the trans-Pacific segment of the All Red Line. Japan was connected into the system in 1906. Service beyond Midway Atoll was abandoned in 1941 due to World War II, but the remainder remained in operation until 1951 when the FCC gave permission to cease operations.  The first trans-Pacific telephone cable was laid from Hawaii to Japan in

Construction.

Transatlantic cables of the 19th century consisted of an outer layer of iron and later steel wire, wrapping India rubber, wrapping gutta-percha, which surrounded a multi-stranded copper wire at the core. The portions closest to each shore landing had additional protective armour wires. Gutta-percha, a natural polymer similar to rubber, had nearly ideal properties for insulating submarine cables, with the exception of a rather high dielectric constant which made cable capacitance high. William Thomas Henley had developed a machine in 1837 for covering wires with silk or cotton thread that he developed into a wire wrapping capability for submarine cable with a factory in 1857 that became W.T. Henley's Telegraph Works Co., Ltd. The India Rubber, Gutta Percha and Telegraph Works Company, established by the Silver family and giving that name to a section of London, furnished cores to Henley's as well as eventually making and laying finished cable. In 1870 William Hooper established Hooper's Telegraph Works to manufacture his patented vulcanized rubber core, at first to furnish other makers of finished cable, that began to compete with

Bandwidth problems.

Early long-distance submarine telegraph cables exhibited formidable electrical problems. Unlike modern cables, the technology of the 19th century did not allow for in-line repeater amplifiers in the cable. Large voltages were used to attempt to overcome the electrical resistance of their tremendous length but the cables' distributed capacitance and inductance combined to distort the telegraph pulses in the line, reducing the cable's bandwidth, severely limiting the data rate for telegraph operation to 10–12 words per minute.  As early as 1816, Francis Ronalds had observed that

Transatlantic telephony.

While laying a transatlantic telephone cable was seriously considered from the 1920s, the technology required for economically feasible telecommunications was not developed until the 1940s. A first attempt to lay a pupinized telephone cable failed in the early 1930s due to the Great Depression.  TAT-1 (Transatlantic No. 1) was the first transatlantic telephone cable system. Between 1955 and 1956, cable was laid between Gallanach Bay, near Oban,

Other uses.

In 1942, Siemens Brothers of New Charlton, London, in conjunction with the United Kingdom National

Modern history.

Optical telephone cables.

In the 1980s, fibre-optic cables were developed. The first transatlantic telephone cable to use optical fibre was TAT-8, which went into operation in 1988. A fibre-optic cable comprises multiple pairs of fibres. Each pair has one fibre in each direction. TAT-8 had two operational pairs and one backup pair.  Modern optical fibre repeaters use a solid-state optical amplifier, usually an Erbium-doped fibre amplifier. Each repeater contains separate equipment for each fibre. These comprise signal reforming, error measurement and controls. A solid-state laser dispatches the signal into the next length of fibre. The solid-state laser excites a short length of doped fibre that itself acts as a laser amplifier. As the light passes through the fibre, it is amplified. This system also permits wavelength-division multiplexing, which dramatically increases the capacity of

Importance of submarine cables.

Currently 99% of the data traffic that is crossing oceans is carried by undersea cables. The reliability of submarine cables is high, especially when (as noted above) multiple paths are available in the event of a cable break. Also, the total carrying capacity of submarine cables is in the terabits per second, while satellites typically offer only 1,000 megabits per second and display higher latency. However, a typical multi-terabit, transoceanic submarine cable system costs several hundred million dollars to construct.  As a result of these cables' cost

Investment in and financing of submarine cables.

Almost all fibre-optic cables from TAT-8 in 1988 until approximately 1997 were constructed by consortia of operators. For example, TAT-8 counted 35 participants including most major international carriers at the time such as AT&T Corporation. Two privately financed, non-consortium cables were constructed in the late 1990s, which preceded a massive, speculative rush to construct privately financed cables that peaked in more than $22 billion worth of investment between 1999 and 2001. This was followed by the bankruptcy and reorganization of cable operators such as Global Crossing, 360networks, FLAG, Worldcom, and Asia Global Crossing.  There has been an increasing tendency in recent

Antarctica.

Antarctica is the only continent not yet reached by a submarine telecommunications cable. All phone, video, and e-mail traffic must be relayed to the rest of the world via satellite links that have limited availability and capacity. Bases on the continent itself are able to communicate

Cable repair.

Cables can be broken by fishing trawlers, anchors, earthquakes, turbidity currents, and even shark bites. Based on surveying breaks in the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea, it was found that between 1959 and 1996, fewer than 9% were due to natural events. In response to this threat to the communications network, the practice of cable burial has developed. The average incidence of cable faults was 3.7 per per year from 1959 to 1979. That rate was reduced to 0.44 faults per 1,000 km per year after 1985, due to widespread burial of cable starting in 1980. Still, cable breaks are by no means a thing of the past, with more than 50 repairs a year in the Atlantic alone, and significant breaks in 2006, 2008, and 2009.  The propensity for fishing trawler nets to cause cable faults may well have been exploited during the Cold War. For example, in February 1959, a series of 12 breaks occurred in five American trans-Atlantic communications cables. In response, a United States naval vessel, the USS "Roy O. Hale", detained and investigated the Soviet trawler "Novorosiysk". A review of the ship's log indicated it had been in the region of each of the cables when they broke. Broken sections of cable were also found on the deck of the "Novorosiysk". It appeared that the cables had been dragged along by the ship's nets, and then cut once they were pulled up onto the deck to release the nets. The Soviet Union's stance on the investigation was

Intelligence gathering.

Underwater cables, which cannot be kept under constant surveillance, have tempted intelligence-gathering organizations since the late 19th century. Frequently at the beginning of wars, nations have cut the cables of the other sides to redirect the information flow into cables that

Environmental impact.

The main point of interaction of cables with marine life is in the benthic zone of the oceans where the majority of cable lies. Studies in 2003 and 2006 indicated that cables pose minimal impacts on life in these environments. In sampling sediment cores around cables and in areas removed from cables, there

Security implications.

Submarine cables are problematic from the security perspective because maps of submarine cables are widely available. Publicly available maps are necessary so that

Legal issues.

Submarine cables are suffering from the inherent issue stemming from the historically established practice of cable laying. Since the cable connection is usually done by the private consortia, there is a problem with responsibility in the beginning. Firstly, deciding the responsibility inside consortium can prove tricky on itself, since there is not a one clearly leading company which could be designed as responsible it could lead to confusion when it is needed to decide who should be taking care about the cable. Secondly, it is

Influence of cable networks on modern history.

Submarine communication cables have had a wide variety of influences over society. As well as allowing effective intercontinental trading and supporting stock exchanges, they greatly influenced international diplomatic conduct. Before the existence of submarine communication connection diplomats had much more power in their hands since their direct supervisors (governments of the countries which they represented) could not immediately check on them. Getting instructions

Notable events.

The Newfoundland earthquake of 1929 broke a series of transatlantic cables by triggering a massive undersea mudslide. The sequence of breaks helped scientists chart the progress of the mudslide.  In 1986 during prototype and pre-production testing of the TAT-8 fiber-optic cable and its lay down procedures conducted by AT&T in the Canary Islands area, shark bite damage to the cable occurred. This revealed that sharks will dive to depths of, a depth which surprised marine biologists who until then thought that sharks were not active at such depths. The TAT-8 submarine cable connection was opened in 1988.  In July 2005, a portion of the SEA-ME-WE 3 submarine cable located south of Karachi that provided Pakistan's major outer communications became defective, disrupting almost all of Pakistan's communications with the rest of the world, and affecting approximately 10 million Internet users.  On 26 December 2006, the 2006 Hengchun earthquake rendered numerous cables between Taiwan and Philippines inoperable.  In March 2007, pirates stole an section of the T-V-H submarine cable that connected Thailand, Vietnam, and Hong Kong, afflicting Vietnam's Internet users with far slower speeds. The thieves attempted to sell the 100 tons of cable as scrap.  The 2008 submarine cable disruption was a series of cable outages, two of the three Suez Canal cables, two disruptions in the Persian Gulf, and one in Malaysia. It caused massive communications disruptions to India and the Middle East.  In April 2010, the undersea cable SEA-ME-WE 4 was under an outage. The Southeast Asia – Middle East – Western Europe 4 (SEA-ME-WE 4) submarine communications cable system, which connects Southeast Asia and Europe, was reportedly cut in three places, off Palermo, Italy.  The 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami damaged a number of undersea cables that make landings in Japan, including:  In February 2012, breaks in the EASSy and TEAMS cables disconnected about half of the networks in Kenya and Uganda from the global Internet.  In March 2013, the SEA-ME-WE-4 connection from France to Singapore was cut by divers near Egypt.  In November 2014 the SEA-ME-WE 3 stopped all traffic from Perth, Australia, to Singapore due to an unknown cable fault.  In August 2017, a fault in IMEWE (India-Middle East-Western Europe) undersea cable near Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, disrupted the internet in Pakistan. The IMEWE submarine cable is an ultra-high capacity fibre optic undersea cable system which links India and Europe via the Middle East. The 12,091 km long cable has nine terminal stations, operated by leading telecom carriers from eight countries.  AAE-1, spanning over, connects Southeast Asia to Europe via Egypt. Construction was finished in 2017.

A submarine communications cable is a cable laid on the sea bed between land-based stations to carry telecommunication signals across stretches of ocean and sea. The first submarine communications cables laid beginning in the 1850s carried telegraphy traffic, establishing the first instant telecommunications links between continents, such as the first transatlantic telegraph cable which became operational on 16 August 1858. Subsequent generations of cables carried telephone traffic, then data communications traffic. Modern cables use optical fibre technology to carry digital data, which includes telephone, Internet and private data traffic.

Ein Seekabel (gelegentlich auch Unterwasserkabel genannt) ist ein in einem Gewässer verlegtes Kabel zur Datenübertragung oder auch für die Übertragung elektrischer Energie. Seekabel zur Energieübertragung sind ab etwa 70 km Länge nicht mehr für die Übertragung von üblichem Dreiphasenwechselstrom geeignet, dann muss die aufwendigere Hochspannungs-Gleichstrom-Übertragung (HGÜ) eingesetzt werden. Verlegt werden sie zumeist durch spezielle Schiffe, sogenannte Kabelleger. Seekabel müssen wegen der technisch aufwendigen Wartung außerordentlich robust gebaut sein. Monopolare Seekabel für die Hochspannungs-Gleichstrom-Übertragung müssen auf Seekarten markiert sein, da sie durch ihr Magnetfeld Kompassanlagen von Schiffen beträchtlich stören können. 2014 wurden 95 Prozent des Internetverkehrs zwischen Weltregionen durch Unterseekabel übertragen. Zwischen 2012 und 2014 wurde eine große Zahl von Unterseekabeln neu verlegt und die Zahl stieg von 150 auf weltweit 285 Kabel.


Background.

It is thought that the rapid extension of Bulgars over Slavs to the south prompted the Serbs to unite into a state. It is known that the Serbs and Bulgars lived in peace until the invasion in 839 (the last years of Theophilos). Vlastimir united several Serbian tribes, Emperor Theophilos (r. 829–842) probably granted the Serbs independence, and they acknowledged nominal overlordship of the Emperor. The annexation of western Macedonia by the Bulgars changed the political situation, Malamir or Presian may have seen a threat in the Serb consolidation, and opted to include them in their conquest of Slav lands.  "Khan" Presian I of Bulgaria (r. 836–852) invades Serbian territory between 839-842. The Bulgars may have been threatened by the Serbs, or, perhaps, the Byzantines wanted to divert Bulgarian attention so that they could cope with the Slavic uprising in the Peloponnese. The invasion led to a 3-year war, from which Vlastimir emerged victorious; the heavily defeated Khan Presian made no territorial gains, lost many of his men, and was driven out by Vlastimir's army.  The war ended with the death of Theophilos in 842, which released Vlastimir from his obligations to the Byzantine Empire, but also gave the Bulgarians the opportunity to annex the areas of Ohrid, Bitola and Devol in 842–843.  Vlastimir continued expanding to the west, taking southeast Bosnia and northeast Herzegovina ("Hum"). In the meantime, Braničevo, Morava, Timok, Vardar and Podrimlje were occupied by the Bulgars.

Life.

Vlastimir died sometime between 845 and 850 and his rule was divided among his three sons: Mutimir, Strojimir and Gojnik. Although they ruled in an oligarchy, Mutimir had the supreme rule, and the two brothers acted as vassals to him.  In 853 or 854, the Bulgar Army, led by Vladimir, the son of Boris I of Bulgaria, invaded Serbia in an attempt to exact vengeance for the previous defeat. The Serbian Army was led by Mutimir and his brothers, which defeated the Bulgars, capturing Vladimir and 12 boyars. Boris I and Mutimir agreed to cease hostilities (and perhaps an alliance), and Mutimir sent his sons Bran and Stefan to the border to escort the prisoners, where they exchanged items as a sign of peace. Boris gave them "rich gifts", while he was given "two slaves, two falcons, two dogs, and 80 furs".  An internal conflict among the brothers resulted in Mutimir banishing the two younger brothers to the Bulgarian court. He, however, kept the son of Gojnik, Petar, in his court for political reasons. Petar soon fled to Croatia. The reason for the feud is not known, although it is hypothesized that it was the result of treachery.  Mutimir sent envoys to Byzantine Emperor Basil I, asking him to baptize the lands. He put Serbia under the suzerainty of the Byzantine Empire.  The Saracens attacked Ragusa in 866. The Ragusians asked Basil I for help, which he answered, sending a large fleet with his admiral Niketas Ooryphas. The pagan Narentines sacked a ship with emissaries returning from Constantinople, which enraged Basil I, resulting in him sending a fleet and subsequently subduing them. By 878, all of Dalmatia was under Byzantine rule (Theme of Dalmatia), and most of the land was under the religious jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.  Mutimir died in 891 and was succeeded by his eldest son, Pribislav. He was most likely buried in the Church of Peter and Paul at Ras, as was Petar (r. 892–917).

Christianization.

The Serbs were baptized by Constantinopolitan missionaries sent by Basil I, after Mutimir had acknowledged Byzantine suzerainty. Basil may have also sent a bishop. The Christianization was due partly to Byzantine and subsequent Bulgarian influence. It is important to note that at least during the rule of Kotsel of Pannonia (861–874), communications between Serbia and Great Moravia must have been possible. The pope was presumably aware of this fact when planning Methodios' diocese, as well as the fact that the Dalmatian coast was in Byzantine hands as far north as Split. There is a possibility that some Cyrillomethodian pupils reached Serbia in the 870s, perhaps even sent by Methodius himself. Serbia is accounted Christian as of about 870. The lasting Christian identity is evident in the tradition of theophoric names in the next generation of Serb royalty: Petar Gojniković, Stefan Mutimirović and Pavle Branović. "Petros" and "Stephanos" are both characteristically Byzantine.  The first Serbian bishopric was founded at the political center at Ras, near modern Novi Pazar on the Ibar river. The initial affiliation is uncertain; it may have been under the subordination of either Split or Durazzo, both then Byzantine. The early church of Saint Apostles Peter and Paul at Ras, can be dated to the 9th–10th century, with the rotunda plan characteristic of first court chapels. The bishopric was established shortly after 871, during the rule of Mutimir, and was part of the general plan of establishing bishoprics in the Slav lands of the Empire, confirmed by the Council of Constantinople in 879–880. The Eparchy of Braničevo was founded in 878 (as a continuation of Viminacium and Horreum Margi).  Mutimir maintained the communion with the Eastern Orthodox Patriarchate of Constantinople when Pope John VIII invited him to recognize the jurisdiction of the bishopric of Sirmium in a letter dated to May 873. The Serbs and Bulgarians subsequently adopted the Old Slavonic liturgy instead of the Greek.

Legacy.

In the 1985 film "Boris I" (Борис Първи), about the life of Boris I of Bulgaria, the peace treaty between Mutimir and Boris I is featured.

Mutimir (, ) was prince of Serbia from ca. 850 until 891. He defeated the Bulgar army, allied himself with the Byzantine emperor and ruled the first Serbian Principality when the Christianization of the Serbs took place and the Eparchy of Ras was established.

Mutimir, der älteste Sohn des serbischen Fürsten Vlastimir, war der Groß-Župan Rasziens von ca. 860 bis 890. Mit seinen Brüdern Strojimir und Gojnik, die allesamt Mitregenten waren, schlug er bulgarische Angriffe unter Khan Boris zurück. Sie konnten dessen Sohn Wladimir gefangen nehmen. Während der Herrschaft Mutimirs und seiner Brüder wurde die Christianisierung der serbischen Stämme vollendet. Mutimir vertrieb nach dem Sieg über die Bulgaren seine Brüder, die in Bulgarien aufgenommen wurden, und wurde dadurch zum Alleinherrscher. Ihnen folgte sein Sohn Prvoslav, der Serbien von 891 bis 892 regierte. Die beiden anderen Söhne hießen Boren und Stefan. Seiner Herrschaft wird in dem Werk De Administrando Imperio des byzantinischen Kaisers Konstantin VII. erwähnt.


History.

The Connemara region in County Galway in western Ireland, where the breed first became recognised as a distinct type, is a very harsh landscape, thus giving rise to a pony breed of hardy, strong individuals. Some believe that the Connemara developed from Scandinavian ponies that the Vikings first brought to Ireland. Another source was likely the Irish Hobby, a now-extinct breed established prior to the 13th century. Legend, however, says that galleons from the Spanish Armada ran aground in 1588, and the Andalusians on board were set loose. The Spanish horses bred with the native stock, refining the local ponies.  For additional strength and stamina, Arabian blood was added in the 18th century. They were also crossed with Hackneys and Thoroughbreds. Too much crossbreeding began to dilute the pony bloodlines, so the Connemara Pony Breeders' Society, worked to preserve the breed type. The stud book was established in 1926. Today, Connemaras are bred worldwide in Ireland and Britain, as well as on the European continent, North America, Australasia, and South Africa.  The Connemara Pony Breeders Society was established in 1923 and set out to ensure the "preservation and improvement of the Connemara Pony" as the native breed of Ireland. The society runs an annual pony show and has been doing so since its founding. The annual show allows the assembly of the largest collection of Connemara Ponies worldwide and is used to buy and sell ponies from Ireland and abroad.

Characteristics.

The original breed standard is set by the Connemara Pony Breeders' Society of Ireland, and also used by the British Connemara Pony Society. The adults are usually in height, with a strong back, loins, and hindquarters, deep and broad through the ribs, and with a riding-type well laid-back shoulder and well-placed neck without undue crest, giving a good length of rein. The head should be of pony type, broad between the eyes, which should be large and appear kind, and with a deep but refined jaw and clearly defined cheekbone. The ears should be of pony type (relatively short). The legs should be relatively short from the knees and hocks to the ground, with a strong, muscular upper leg, strong and well-defined knees and hocks, and well-shaped hard feet, which are of a medium size. The action should be free, active, and easy. Permitted colours are grey, black, brown, bay, dun, roan, chestnut, palomino, and cream. Pinto colouring (piebald and skewbald) is not accepted. The Connemara Pony should be intelligent with a good temperament, suitable for adults and children; it should be hardy with good endurance; it should be sure-footed, sound, and able to jump.  If a Connemara Pony is to be passed as grade 1 on inspection by the Connemara Pony Breeder's Society, it must meet the breed standard; if it does not meet this specification, then it will be given a grade 2 or 3 on inspection. Connemaras in North America range from.  Some Connemara Ponies carry the autosomal recessive disorder hoof wall separation disease and all foals born are tested as part of the registration process.

Uses.

The Connemara is best known today as a sports pony. Ridden by both children and adults, it is considered to be a very versatile pony breed, competitive in show jumping, dressage and eventing, but also with the stamina for endurance riding. They are also shown in harness. Connemara Pony shows are held worldwide, with particular popularity in Ireland and the United Kingdom.

The Connemara Pony (Irish: "Capaillín Chonamara") is a pony breed originating in Ireland. They are known for their athleticism, versatility and good disposition. The breed makes excellent show ponies.

Connemara-Ponys sind irische Reitponys. Ihre Heimat, die Landschaft Connemara, liegt am äußersten Westzipfel Irlands. Sie ist feucht, karg und auch heute noch von Menschen nur dünn besiedelt. Aber seit vielen Jahrhunderten leben dort kleine Pferde halbwild in den torfigen Sümpfen und Geröllhängen. Diese Ponys wurden schon immer wegen ihrer Genügsamkeit, Gesundheit und Zuverlässigkeit geschätzt.