Early life.

Udall was born in 1922 in St. Johns, Arizona, one of six children ("New York Times" says three sons, two daughters) of Louisa (née Lee) and Levi Stewart Udall. His father was a lawyer who served as Chief Justice of the Arizona Supreme Court from 1946 to 1960. His mother was a writer keenly interested in Indian life and culture. His father preached the importance of responsible people entering public service. Udall and his siblings attended local schools in St. Johns.  He lost his right eye to a friend's pocket knife at the age of six, while the two were attempting to cut some string. Because his family lacked the money to get him prompt adequate treatment, he lost that eye. Udall wore a glass eye for the rest of his life. The loss influenced his personality and politics.  He described his early rural/small-town life in the desert as harsh and primitive, in a town where "everybody worked." Noting they had "no tractors," he added, "we had horses and plows."

Education and athletics.

While in high school, despite the lost eye, Udall was a star athlete in basketball, and in football as quarterback leading an undefeated team. He also marched in the school band, wrote a political column for the school paper, and took the lead in the school play.

Military service.

Udall attempted to enlist in the Army Air Forces during World War II, and almost succeeded, by covering his glass eye each time he was told to alternate during the eye exam. After he was medically cleared, another potential enlistee complained that he had been medically rejected for flat feet, while Udall had passed with one eye. The examiners retested Udall under closer scrutiny, and he was rejected. Later, medical standards changed and Udall served in the Army, in a non-combat role in the U.S., until the end of the war.  An official biography at the University of Arizona, his alma mater, where his personal papers are archived, says that "He entered the Army Air Forces as a private in 1942 and was discharged as a captain in 1946, having served in the Asiatic-Pacific Theater."  The "New York Times" reports that he commanded an all-black squadron for two years, in Louisiana. Udall later said, "That really shaped my life," claiming that he had "fought their fights with them... over local discrimination." The "Times" adds that he served in the South Pacific and achieved the rank of captain in the Army Air Corps.

Completing education.

After the war, Udall completed his degree at the University of Arizona, where he was a star basketball player (team co-captain), President of the Associated Student Government, and a member of Sigma Chi fraternity.  For one year following graduation, Udall played professional basketball with the Denver Nuggets during the 1948–49 National Basketball League season. However, neither Udall nor his team performed notably.  At the same time, he attended the University of Denver school of law. He returned to the University of Arizona for law school, where he graduated in 1949 with a Juris Doctor (J.D.) law degree.

Personality and philosophy.

Udall was a tall (6'5"), Lincolnesque figure with a self-deprecating wit and easy manner. Because of his wit, columnist James J. Kilpatrick deemed him "too funny to be president", which also ended up being the title of his autobiography in the 1980s.  He once said that his physical stature and one eye kept him from ever having a date in high school, and led to his use of self-deprecating humor to survive.  Known for his humor, his irreverent and casual style (particularly his colorful western wear and cowboy boots), and his ethics, Udall was summarized by leading political journalist James M. Perry as "funny, smart, down-to-earth, honest, sassy, patient."  Raised Mormon, his spiritual views began to change. He ceased being active in church by the time he returned from military service. While in college, as he read philosophy and history, Udall abandoned his Mormon faith. In particular, he rejected the cultural view among some Church members of the time that black people were "cursed."

Early career.

In 1949 Udall, with his brother, Stewart, started the law firm of Udall & Udall in Tucson, Arizona, practicing law in Tucson until 1961.  Udall was elected as the Pima County chief deputy attorney (1950-1952) and county attorney (1953-1954). In 1954, he failed in a bid to be nominated for a Superior Court judgeship.  He taught labor law at the University of Arizona law school (1955, 1956). In 1961 he became vice-president of the Arizona Bar Association. Udall co-founded the Bank of Tucson, and the Catalina Savings and Loan Association, and in 1960 became president of Tucson's YMCA.

Political career.

Throughout his early life, Udall dreamed of public office, but—under pressure from his wife—deferred a Congressional race opportunity to his older brother, Stewart Udall. The latter won seat in 1954. The younger Udall's hopes for a seat on the Arizona Supreme Court (where their father had served) were dashed when the seat went to his ultra-conservative uncle, instead.

Congressman.

In 1961, his brother was appointed as Secretary of the Interior in the John F. Kennedy administration. Mo then won a special election for his brother's vacant seat by 2,000 votes, with 51% of the vote. He won the seat in his own right in 1962, and was reelected 13 more times. He faced only one other close race, in 1978, when he received 52 percent of the vote. He held the post until his resignation May 4, 1991.  For his first term, Udall represented the entire state outside of Maricopa County. After the 1960s round of redistricting, his district was reduced to the southern portion of the state, centered on Tucson. After a mid-decade redistricting ordered as a result of "Wesberry v. Sanders," his district absorbed some outer portions of the Phoenix area.  From 1977 until his retirement in 1991, Udall chaired the House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs (one which he'd served since 1963). He also served as ranking member of the Committee of the Post Office and Civil Service, chairman of the Office of Technology Assessment and was a member of the Committee on Foreign Affairs

Vietnam War.

Udall first gained national political notice for a speech October 23, 1967, in Tucson at a major regional civic meeting, with an audience of 2,800—largely civic leaders, mostly supportive of President Johnson's policy on the Vietnam War. Despite their leanings, Udall gave a firm and direct speech calling the nation's involvement in Vietnam "a mistaken and dangerous road." He called for reversing American escalation of the war, and eventual U.S. withdrawal—the first major figure in the U.S. Democratic Party to openly oppose the Democratic President on the war. The speech drew a standing ovation, and reverberated nationwide, drawing national media and political attention, and initiating the Democratic Party's gradual split over the war.

Labor legislation.

On labor legislation, however, Udall was less liberal. Though he opposed right-to-work laws that undermined labor unions, his constituents very strongly supported it, so Udall did, too—particularly in a 1965 Congressional vote that labor leaders held against him for years.

Conservation & the Environment.

On conservation and environmental protection, Udall's record was mixed—and extreme in both directions—though he is largely credited with being generally a defender of those causes (he first joined the House Interior committee in 1961), particularly as chairman of the House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs. He fought for environmental protection, and expansion of the National Park System, ushered legislation through Congress absorbing 8 million acres into the federal wilderness system across 20 states, and attempted to restructure the energy industry.  An important exception was his defense of planned dam-and-reservoir projects in Arizona that threatened to inundate key wilderness areas, including a hydroelectric dam that threatened to flood some of the Grand Canyon. Hostile campaigning by the nation's leading conservation organization, the Sierra Club, led to Udall's bitter fight with them, and the eventual loss of their tax-exempt status, which some have blamed on Udall's complaints about them to the Internal Revenue Service. The projects were eventually abandoned, replaced with coal-fired powerplants that Udall thought more polluting than the dams would have been.  However, in the opposite extreme, Udall's "proudest achievement" was passage of an Alaska lands bill, permanently preserving 104.3 million acres of extraordinary scenic wilderness, over the furious opposition of many in Alaska and in the natural resource industries.  In 1973, Udall was named "Legislator of the Year" by the National Wildlife Federation.  However, in 1974, his Land Use Bill was defeated—some environmentalists blaming Udall's inability to work the bill effectively on the floor of the House.  From the beginning of his work on the Interior committee in 1961, Udall had been interested in limiting the controversial practice of strip mining, blamed for massive destruction of wilderness and extensive environmental damage, particularly across the American West. However, it took several years of wrangling with industry, Congress and administrations (Republican President Gerald R. Ford vetoed the legislation twice), before he was able to pass a limited bill, into law (signed by Democratic President Jimmy Carter), which constrained the strip-mining of coal, and forced the reclamation of millions of acres of strip-mined areas.  Udall helped write and pass the Alaska Lands Act of 1980, and landmark 1982 legislation addressing nuclear waste management.

Government legislative reform.

Udall challenged the arcane and Byzantine rules and protocols of the House of Representatives, demanding a reduction in the ability of powerful leaders to covertly control legislation and dominate committees. Udall's efforts eventually led to substantial reform of Congressional rules and operations.  Udall gained early national political notoriety for being the first Congressman in the 20th Century to challenge a sitting Speaker of the House for his seat. He challenged Rep. John McCormack, in 1968. Though defeated, Udall tried again two years later, against House Majority Leader, Hale Boggs; he lost again but shook the foundations of the House seniority system. This was eventually reformed, largely as a result of the revolt begun by Udall.  Like any freshman Congressman, Udall struggled to adapt to the office during his first term; but in his second term, he responded to the experience by organizing a school for other incoming freshmen Congressman, to teach them the complex and subtle ways of the House of Representatives, and how to navigate the Washington bureaucracy. To aid this effort, Udall wrote a 1966 guidebook, "The Job of a Congressman."

Government campaign reform.

Udall co-sponsored the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971 and was a key factor in its success. The first major campaign-finance reform legislation since 1925, it required candidates to file campaign finance reports. (President Richard Nixon ran afoul of these requirements in actions related to the Watergate scandal). Udall also co-sponsored the 1974 Campaign Reform Act, which was signed by President Ford. He fought for financial disclosure legislation, and disclosed his own finances and tax returns.

Government administrative reform.

Reforming Civil service and the U.S. Post Office were a major focus of Udall's efforts in Congress. On the Committee of the Post Office and Civil Service since 1961, he eventually became the ranking member. He attempted to revise pay scales for federal employees and establish merit pay.  Ultimately, Udall was one of the principal leaders effecting the first substantial reform of the U.S. civil service system since the 1883 creation of that merit-based government-employment system. The bill created performance incentives for workers in the bureaucracy, and made firing federal workers easier. Although the bill was a favorite project of President Carter, whom Udall disliked, the Congressman pushed the bill through Congress, against numerous roadblocks thrown up by federal employees (and by Congressmen representing districts that employed many of them). Udall compromised until getting a consensus bill before the whole House, fighting through additional opposition to success.  Udall sought to change the Post Office Department from a purely governmental agency into a semiprivate organization (today, it is: the U.S. Postal Service). He was a key force in passage of the Postal Reorganization Act of 1970.

Other issues.

Because of having lost his eye as a child due to inadequate family finances, he strongly believed that people should have access to competent medical care regardless of their financial condition.  In 1963, Udall attempted to get cigarettes (and other tobacco) regulated by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). It took years before the scale of tobacco damage due to smoking was known.  On the House Foreign Affairs Committee, Udall opposed Reagan administration policies toward Central America.

Presidential campaign.

In 1976, Udall ran for the Democratic nomination for President as a liberal alternative to Jimmy Carter, the former Governor of Georgia. Carter had gone from obscure maverick to front runner after a string of early caucus and primary victories, beginning in Iowa and New Hampshire. At the time of the Wisconsin primary in April, most of the original 10 candidates had dropped out, leaving Udall, Senator Henry "Scoop" Jackson of Washington, Governor George Wallace of Alabama, and Carter. It appeared that Udall would win the primary, which might have slowed Carter's momentum. Udall was projected the winner, exclaiming "Oh, how sweet it is". But Carter eventually won in Wisconsin. Some newspapers proclaimed Udall the winner because of his lead late the night before. They had been wrong before, in the 1948 presidential election, in which the headlines of the "Chicago Tribune" erroneously proclaimed "Dewey Defeats Truman."  Carter won in Wisconsin by 1%, no more than 7,500 votes. He won 37% to Udall's 36%, gaining one more convention delegate than Udall. Despite the small margins, Carter got the headlines and a further boost to his momentum, and pulled away from Udall and the other candidates. Udall finished second in the New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Wisconsin, New York, Michigan, South Dakota, and Ohio primaries, and won the caucuses in his home state of Arizona, while running even with Carter in the New Mexico caucuses. Udall finished a distant second to Carter at the Democratic National Convention, where his name was placed in nomination by Archibald Cox, and Udall's speech received great applause from his supporters.  During the Michigan primary, the Carter campaign had Coleman Young, the mayor of Detroit, accuse Udall of racism for belonging to the LDS church. At the time, it still prohibited blacks from serving in the church's priesthood (this was changed in 1978 by LDS Church President Spencer W. Kimball). Udall had been a longtime critic of that church policy, and had ceased being an active member because of it. Carter's subsequent sweeping of the black vote in the Michigan primary was key to his crucial and narrow victory in Michigan.  Udall supported Senator Edward Kennedy's challenge to President Carter in 1980, and Kennedy won the Arizona caucuses, one of only three wins for Kennedy in the West. Udall delivered the keynote speech at the 1980 Democratic National Convention, which was a typically witty Udall speech. He considered running for president again in 1984, but he had been diagnosed with Parkinson's disease in 1980 and his illness kept him on the sidelines. At the convention that summer, Udall introduced his former opponent, President Carter.

Legacy.

In 1992, the US Congress founded the Morris K. Udall Scholarship and Excellence in National Environmental Policy Foundation. It is an agency of the executive branch of the federal government, and among other functions, gives scholarships to students of environmental policy. In 2009, Congress added Mo's brother, Stewart Udall, as an honoree of the foundation by renaming it as the Morris K. Udall and Stewart L. Udall Foundation.  Federal funds for Parkinson's research are designated through the Morris K. Udall Parkinson's Disease Research Act of 1997. The legislation funded a national network of "Centers of Excellence" to diagnose and treat Parkinson disease patients and to refer patients into research protocols.  In 1996 Morris received the Presidential Medal of Freedom from President Clinton.  Point Udall on Guam, considered the westernmost point of the United States, was named for him in 1987. The easternmost spot, Point Udall, U.S. Virgin Islands, was named for his brother Stewart in 1968. This means that "America's day... begin(s) and end(s) at a Point Udall."  In Tucson, Arizona, the main post office and a city park are named in his honor.

Family life.

Udall was married three times. In 1949, he married Patricia Emery, with whom he had six children. Patricia, who hated politics, suffered from arthritis and spent much time in a wheelchair. She and Udall rarely saw each other due to his hectic political schedule. By Mo Udall's own account, Pat had become unsatisfied with her life caused by her illnesses and uninterest in politics. She was also a high-spirited person who had a tendency to frequently start arguments.  Pat Udall suffered emotionally due to the strain of raising six children while struggling with arthritis. Unwilling to undergo psychological counseling due to social stigma, she finally acquiesced and filed for divorce in 1966. Mo Udall, who was opposed to the divorce, did not object to the dissolution of the marriage, mainly because he was more focused on politics than on his family.  Both the Udalls later regretted the divorce, explaining that the marriage ended because Pat had failed to get counseling or help and had simply acquiesced to pressure and made a poor impulse decision. Pat Udall herself stated that she was "ashamed" by her decision to end the marriage. Pat went on to marry and divorce three more times in the seven years following her split from Udall, all of which were brief marriages that she later regretted. Mo and Pat eventually reconciled, and they remained close friends for the rest of his life.  Two years after the divorce, Mo Udall married Ella Lee Royston, a marriage that would last until Royston's suicide in 1988. In 1989, he married his third wife, Norma Gilbert, and they remained together until his death in 1998. His years in retirement were plagued by Parkinson's disease.  Udall's son Mark Udall was elected to the U.S. Congress from Colorado's 2nd district in 1998, and to the U.S. Senate in 2008. His nephew Tom Udall of New Mexico was also elected to the U.S. Senate in 2008. Mo Udall's second cousin, Republican Senator Gordon Smith of Oregon, was defeated for re-election the same year.

Books and Archives.

With the exception of Udall's first book, his books have been described as "humorous and informative works."  Udall's archives of his professional career and personal life are located the University of Arizona Libraries, Special Collections in Tucson, Arizona.  UAL Special Collections is also home to the Morris K. Udall Oral History Project, MS 396 that includes interviews from former Presidents, former and current Congressmen, Senators, journalists, key staff members, campaign aides, family and friends of Mo Udall and the Udall family.

Morris King "Mo" Udall (June 15, 1922 – December 12, 1998) was an American attorney and Democratic politician who served as a U.S. Representative from Arizona from May 2, 1961 to May 4, 1991. He was a leading contender for the 1976 Democratic presidential nomination. He was noted by many for his independent and liberal views.

Morris King „Mo“ Udall (* 15. Juni 1922 in St. Johns, Arizona; † 12. Dezember 1998 in Washington, D.C.) war ein US-amerikanischer Politiker (Demokratische Partei), der für den Bundesstaat Arizona von 1961 bis 1991 im US-Repräsentantenhaus saß. Der großgewachsene Mann war vor seiner politischen Karriere Profibasketballer bei den Denver Nuggets. Bekannt war der überzeugte Umweltpolitiker für seine liberalen Ansichten und seinen Humor.


Terminology.

The term 'head cheese' is used in North America, 'potted heid' in Scotland, 'brawn' elsewhere in Britain and Australia. The term'souse' for the pickled variety is North American and West Indian.

By country.

Europe.

Austria: In Austria, head cheese is known as "Presswurst", "Sulz" or "Schwartamaga" in the most western regions. Depending on the region, it's often served with a light dressing (vinegar, sunflower seed oil or pumpkin seed oil, sliced onions).  Bulgaria: In Bulgaria, the meal пача ("pacha") is prepared from pig's heads (primarily the ears), legs, and often tongue. The broth is heavily seasoned with garlic before cooling.  Croatia: This cut is generally known as "hladetina", and is commonly produced after the traditional slaughter of pigs. A strongly seasoned version of this cut is called "tlačenica". The name "švargl" is used for a variant where the chopped parts are stuffed inside the pig's stomach, similar to Scottish haggis.  Czech Republic: The "huspenina" or "sulc" (from German "Sülze") is made from pig's heads or legs boiled together, chopped, mixed into their own broth, poured into a pan, and left in the cold to solidify. Other ingredients include onion, pepper, allspice, bayleaf, vinegar, salt, carrot, parsley, root celery, and sometimes eggs. A similar product, "tlačenka", is basically "huspenina" with some more meat, chopped liver, and various offal, poured into a prepared pig stomach and left to solidify under the weight. "Tlačenka" is generally thicker than "huspenina," and it is commonly eaten with chopped onions and sprinkled with vinegar.  Denmark, Norway and Sweden: "Sylte", "sylta" or "aladåb", was originally made from head of pig, but is now commonly made from the forequarters or shanks of pork or veal and seasoned with allspice, bay leaves, and thyme, and forms part of the traditional Christmas "smörgåsbord", served on "rugbrød" or "lefse" with strong mustard and pickled beetroots. A rolled version (Danish/Norwegian: "rullepølse", Swedish: "rullsylta") made in an otherwise similar way also exists, however this contains only very little aspic.  Estonia: "Sült" is similar to the German or Croatian dish (the name is a loan, as well), but is usually less seasoned and is made from higher quality meat. Sometimes carrots or greens are added. It is a traditional Christmas dish, but is sold in stores year round. The traditional "sült" is made from pork using its gelatinous parts. Beef, poultry, and fish variants also are available.  Finland: Head cheese is known as "syltty", "tytinä" or "aladobi".  France and Belgium: In French, it is referred to as "fromage de tête", "tête pressée", "tête fromagée" (which translates as "cheesed head") or "pâté de tête". Germany: Head cheese is known as "Sülze", "Schwartenmagen", or "Presskopf". In Bavaria, "Presssack" comes in three varieties (deep red, pinkish, and grey) in the form of a large (15-cm-diameter) sausage. "Sülze" can have a tangy flavour due to the addition of pickles or vinegar. It usually takes the form of a rectangular loaf, which is then sliced into portions. There is a white coloured variety and two different red ones, using blood, one made with beef tongue (as in "Zungenwurst") and aspic, the other without. In Franconia, "Saurer Presssack" is served in a salad with a vinaigrette and vegetables.  Greece: In Greece and among Greeks of the diaspora, it is known as "pichti" "πηχτή".  Hungary: A variant of head cheese, "disznósajt", or "disznófősajt" (pork cheese or pork head cheese), is made of mixed meat slices (especially from the head of the pig,) spices, paprika, and pieces of bacon cooked in spicy stock. The chopped meat is stuffed into the pig's stomach, similarly to Scottish haggis, pricked with needles, then pressed down with weights to remove excess fat and make it tight and compact. Often it is smoked like sausages or ham.  Iceland: "Sviðasulta" a form of head cheese, is made from "svið", singed sheep's head, sometimes cured in lactic acid.  Ireland: "brawn" is considered a rare delicacy and is made from pig's head. It dates from at least the early 19th century CE.  Italy: In Genoa, a similar cold cut goes by the name of "testa in cassetta", literally "head in a box", but it is possible to find it throughout the entire central and northern Italy, where it is called "coppa di testa", or simply "coppa", "soppressata" in Tuscany, or – in some northern regions – "formaggio di testa" (head cheese). In central Italy (Lazio, Umbria), it is common to put orange peel pieces in it, or to serve it in a salad together with oranges and black olives. In the region of Campania, the head and foot, called "o' pere e o' musso", is boiled, left whole and sliced, served with lupini beans and fresh lemon. A version in aspic from Sicily known as "liatina" includes the head, feet, skin and ears, flavored with bay leaf, pepper, vinegar and lemon.  Latvia:"Galerts" is similar Latvian food consisting from meat in gelatin, often with vegetables, such as carrots, and celery added to the resulting colloidal suspension. Horseradish or vinegar can be poured over the "galerts" when serving it.  Lithuania: "Košeliena" (deriving from "košė" (pulp or squash) or "šaltiena" (deriving from "šalta", "cold", and refers to way of serving the dish), is usually made from pig's feet; sometimes part of head is added.  Luxembourg: "Jelli" is basically the same as in the neighboring Germany and France, made from pork, and commonly eaten on buttered bread (optionally with mustard). A specialty are the varying kinds of pastries filled with Jelli that are made with aspic containing Riesling wine, like most famously the Rieslingspaschtéit.  Netherlands and Belgium: Headcheese is known under several regional names and variations. In Brabant, it is called "zult" and is made with blood. Pig's foot provides the gelatin and a little vinegar is added to it. In Limburg, it is called "hoofdkaas", meaning head cheese, and is eaten on bread or with Limburgisch sausage as a starter. A red, sweet variety and a slightly sour, grey variety are available. The red one can be compared to Brabantine "zult". Both "zult" and "preskop" are also found in Limburg, though "zult" is less sour, whereas "preskop" often contains black pepper and is eaten on wholewheat bread. In Belgium, head cheese is also called "kop" or "kopvlees", which translates as "meat from the head". Poland: head cheese is referred to as "salceson", a name possibly derived from "saucisson", the French word for a type of sausage. The several varieties of "salceson" depend on the ingredients; black "salceson" contains blood, white "salceson" is made with a mixture of seasoned meats without blood, and "ozorkowy" (tongue) "salceson" uses tongue as the major meat component.  Portugal: known as "cabeça de xara", it is mainly prepared in the Alentejo region.  Romania: The two versions of it are "tobă" (drum) or, especially in Transylvania, "caş de cap de porc" (pig head cheese, akin to the Hungarian "disznófősajt"), which looks like a wide sausage, 4-in-diameter, and the marginally similar "piftie". This is the same dish as Serbian and Macedonian "pihtije"), in which the contents are poured into a bowl and refrigerated. "Piftie" is not necessarily head meat, but can be different kinds of meat, boiled with garlic and bay leaves. It is prepared by boiling pig's feet to make a soup, because they contain more gelatin than any other part of the pig. The mixture is then cooled to make a jelly. Usually, garlic is added.  Russia: head cheese is a popular food for festive occasions. Beef or lamb head cheese is also popular in the Jewish community. It is more popularly called "saltisón" (салтисон), "zelts" (зельц), or "kholodets" (холодец).  Slovakia: A special variety of head cheese, called "tlačenka" (pressed one), is very popular in Slovakia. It is made of pork stomach stuffed with offal and leftover parts of pig's heads and legs. It is seasoned with garlic, paprika, black pepper, and other ingredients and usually smoked. It is traditionally served with sliced onion, vinegar, and bread.  Slovenia: it is known as "tlačenka", "pressed-one", or informally as "žolca".  Spain: This cold cut is known as "cabeza de jabalí", "boar's head".  Sweden: Known as "sylta", a few variations are available with different meats, spices, and preparation methods, the most popular being "kalvsylta" (veal brawn), "pressylta" (pressed pork and veal brawn), and "rullsylta" (rolled and pressed side of pork). Common seasonings are onions, white pepper, allspice, cloves, salt and bay leaves, and occasionally carrots and herbs are added to the ingredients. "Sylta" is often regarded as a seasonal food eaten at the "julbord" at Christmas.  Ukraine: known as "kovbyk", "kendiukh" or "saltseson", head cheese is usually a combination of a variety of pork meats made into a pressed loaf.  United Kingdom: In England and Wales, head cheese is referred to as brawn or (in Yorkshire and Norfolk) pork cheese. In Scotland, it is known as potted heid (potted head of beef, pork, or sheep); the similar potted "haugh" or "hough" is made from the shank of the animal.

Africa.

South Africa: Known as "sult" in Afrikaans and "brawn" in South African English. It is often flavoured with curry.

Asia.

China: In certain parts of Northern China, such as Beijing, 'pig head meat' is cooked and thinly sliced and served at room temperature. In the Northern parts of South East China (near Shanghai. Contrary to popular belief the regions near Shanghai are also considered "the South"), "Xiao Rou" (肴肉) is made by boning and pickling pig trotters with brine and alum. The meat is then rolled, pressed and eaten cold. In northeastern China, a jellied pork skin dish is often made and served with a spicy soy sauce and vinegar mixture with crushed garlic and red chili powder.  Cyprus: made with pork and known as "zalatina", a word probably derived from the English word gelatin. It is often seasoned with lemon juice.  Korea: In Korean cuisine, a similar dish, "pyeonyuk" (편육), is made by pressing meat, usually from the head of the pig. It is eaten as "anju" (dishes associated with alcoholic beverages) or used for "janchi" (잔치, for feast or banquet).  Vietnam: In Vietnam around "Tết", "giò thủ" is made in celebration for the New Year. It is a traditional snack made of fresh pork belly, pig’s ears, garlic, scallions, onions, black fungus, fish sauce, and cracked black pepper. Traditionally, "giò thủ" (pork head meat pie) is wrapped in banana leaves and compressed in a wooden mold until the gelatin in the pig’s ears causes it to stick together.

Australia.

In Australia, it is known as "brawn" or "Presswurst". It is usually seen as something of an old-fashioned dish, although various large firms, such as D'Orsogna, Don Smallgoods and KR Castlemaine produce it.

Caribbean.

Souse is pickled meat and trimmings usually made from pig's feet, chicken feet or cow's tongue, to name a few. The cooked meat or trimmings are cut into bite-sized pieces and soaked in a brine made of water, lime juice, cucumbers, hot pepper, salt and specially prepared seasonings. It is usually eaten on Saturday mornings, especially in St. Vincent and Barbados. In Trinidad and Tobago, it is served or sold at most social gatherings, such as parties, all-inclusive fetes and sporting competitions.

Latin America.

Head cheese is very popular and is usually referred to as "queso de cabeza" in Chile and Colombia. In Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Costa Rica, it is also known as "queso de chancho". It is known as "queso de Cerdo" in Uruguay and Argentina. In Panama, it is known as "sous" (from Caribbean English souse), made with pig's feet and prepared the same way as in the Caribbean; it is a dish from the Caribbean coast, where most of Panama's West Indian community lives.  Brazil: In Brazil, head cheese is very popular among the "gaucho" population and is commonly known as "queijo de porco" (pig cheese). In the German-colonized cities, such as Pomerode and Blumenau, it follows the German recipe and is known as "Sülze".  Mexico: In Mexico, it is known as "queso de puerco" and is usually spiced with oregano, vinegar, garlic, and black pepper.

North America.

Alberta, Canada: the typical jellied meat available in stores is labelled "head cheese", whether or not it is actually made from the head. The large Eastern European community in the province also has a (declining) tradition of making jellied meat at home, usually from pigs' feet, and this is called "studenetz" in the local dialect of the Ukrainian language.  Pennsylvania, United States: In the Pennsylvania Dutch dialect, head cheese is called souse. Pennsylvania Germans usually prepare it from the meat of pig's feet or tongue and it is pickled with sausage.  Wisconsin, Illinois, Michigan, and other portions of the Upper Midwest, United States: Head cheese and sulze are both made from pork snouts and tongues, but head cheese often uses larger chunks of smoked meat, while sulze generally uses unsmoked, chopped meat and has added vinegar and pickles.  Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and other portions of the Deep South, United States: The highly seasoned hog's head cheese is very popular as a cold cut or appetizer. A pig's foot provides the gelatin that sets the cheese, and vinegar is typically added to give a sour taste. It is a popular Cajun food and is often encountered seasoned with green onions. It is called in Louisiana French; "fromage de cochon". In Mississippi, Alabama, and other Southern states, it is encountered in a spicy form known as souse or less spicy hog's head cheese.  Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada: Throughout Newfoundland, brawn is typically made from wild game such as moose and caribou.  Ontario, Canada: Commercial, processed versions made with pork are sold in the deli section in some grocery stores in Ontario, such as in the German 'heimat' of Waterloo Region.  Quebec, Canada: Called "tête fromagée", it is commonly available in grocery stores and butcher shops along with "cretons" and "terrines".  Prince Edward Island, Canada: Now uncommon and seen as old fashioned. It was common before 1970 and often referred to as Potted head or Potted meat.  New Brunswick, Canada: A spread similar to cretons made from pork head and Boston Butt and seasoned primarily with onion, salt, and summer savory, is often referred to as head cheese.

Head cheese or brawn is a cold cut that originated in Europe. A version pickled with vinegar is known as souse. Head cheese is not a dairy cheese, but a terrine or meat jelly often made with flesh from the head of a calf or pig, or less commonly a sheep or cow, and often set in aspic. The parts of the head used vary, but the brain, eyes, and ears are usually removed. The tongue, and sometimes the feet and heart, may be included. It can also be made from trimmings from pork and veal, adding gelatin to the stock as a binder. Sometimes, it is made with nothing from the head.

Presswurst ist eine Brühwurst- oder Kochwurstsorte bzw. Blutwurstsorte aus Schweinefleisch. Je nach Ursprungsregion werden für dasselbe Grundrezept auch die Namen "Presskopf", "Presssack", "Schwartenmagen" oder "Sausack" verwendet. Der Name leitet sich von einem Produktionsschritt ab, bei dem nach dem Kochen die Wurstmasse durch Pressen verdichtet wird. Wenn kein Blut verwendet wird, bezeichnet man die Wurst oft nach ihrer helleren Farbe als "Weiße" oder "Graue", mit Blut als "Rote" oder "Schwarze".


Early life and career.

Schroeder was born in Newark, NJ but moved to Glendale in his childhood where he learned to play tennis. He was discovered by Perry T. Jones who was based at the Los Angeles Tennis Club and mentored several world-class players including Ellsworth Vines, Bobby Riggs and Jack Kramer. Schroeder was an almost exact contemporary of Kramer, having been born only 10 days earlier in 1921, and they began to play against each other as top boy players in the mid-1930s. Schroeder's career is similar to Kramer's in that they both became top players whose careers were then interrupted by World War II. They were also lifelong friends and at least once Schroeder mortgaged his house on short notice in order to be able to lend an unsolicited $25,000 to Kramer. Schroeder, however, attended college for four years, the first two at the University of Southern California (USC), and the last two at Stanford University. After the war Kramer proved himself to be slightly better than Schroeder in the amateur ranks and subsequently turned professional.

'Lucky Ted'.

When Riggs semi-retired he became the promoter of the professional tour. He and Kramer decided that the only player who could oppose Kramer for a financially successful tour would be Schroeder. The youthful Pancho Gonzales was the reigning American amateur champion, due to his upset win at the U.S. Open Championships in 1948, but during his brief career had been beaten by Schroeder eight matches out of nine. Schroeder, playing during vacation time from his job, won Wimbledon in June 1949, winning some tough matches along the way. Schroeder was two sets down against Gardnar Mulloy in round one and then had five set wins against Frank Sedgman, Eric Sturgess and Jaroslav Drobny in the quarters, semis and final. According to his obituary in the New York Times, he...

Professional hope.

Following his Wimbledon victory, Riggs and Kramer offered Schroeder $25,000 to turn pro after he won the up-coming 1949 U.S. Championships and Schroeder accepted. But Gonzales upset their plans by beating the heavily favored Schroeder in a five-set final — it has been called the 11th greatest match of all time. Gonzales lost the 1-hour and 15-minute first set 16–18 but finally managed to prevail in the fifth set. Kramer writes that in spite of his friendship with Schroeder, he has always felt that Schroeder subconsciously "tanked" the match, in order to avoid the rigors of the professional tour. In any event, Gonzales was now the two-time American champion and Kramer and Riggs were obliged to sign him, instead of Schroeder, to a professional contract.

Post-war.

Schroeder was never much more than a part-time player after the War, being preoccupied with his family and his career as vice president of a commercial refrigeration equipment company, and had never really intended to turn professional. Schroeder said he took his tennis far too emotionally to allow him to treat it as a profession. He remained a successful amateur player for a few more years and then faded from view. He died in La Jolla, California at the age of 84. His son, John, is a professional golfer who has won on the PGA Tour.

Abilities.

In his 1979 autobiography, the long-time tennis promoter and great player Jack Kramer included Schroeder in his list of the 21 greatest players of all time. Schroeder, says Kramer, "won with heart and stamina, but lacked in the simple mechanics."  Kramer writes,  Schroeder was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in Newport, Rhode Island, in 1966, two years before his old friend Jack Kramer.

Frederick Rudolph "Ted" Schroeder (July 20, 1921 – May 26, 2006) was an American tennis player who won the two most prestigious amateur tennis titles, Wimbledon and the U.S. National. He was the No. 1-ranked American player in 1942; the No. 2 for 4 consecutive years, 1946 through 1949, and the latter year saw Schroeder ranked World No. 1 by Pierre Gillou (president of the Fédération Française de Tennis). He was born in Newark, New Jersey, but developed as a tennis player in Southern California under the guidance of Perry T. Jones.

Fredrick Rudolph „Ted“ Schroeder junior (* 21. Juli 1921 in Newark, New Jersey; † 26. Mai 2006 in La Jolla, San Diego, Kalifornien) war ein US-amerikanischer Tennisspieler.


Categories.

Medieval dance.

Very little evidence survives about medieval dance except what can be gleaned from paintings and works of literature from this time period. Some names of the dances which we know existed during the Middle Ages include Carole, Ductia, Estampie (Istampitta), Saltarello, and the Trotto. The farandole is also frequently presented as a medieval dance, based on surviving iconography.

Renaissance dance.

The earliest surviving dance manuals come from the Renaissance period, including examples by Italian dance master and composer Fabritio Caroso and French cleric Thoinot Arbeau. Thus we are able to reconstruct the dances with a greater degree of certainty. The large number of dances with Spanish origin reflect the cultural influence of the dominating power of the age.  Dance types:

Baroque dance.

It was during the baroque era that Londoner John Playford published "The Dancing Master", which, along with similar publications, provides us with a large repertoire of baroque English country dances.  Apart from country dances, the most well-documented baroque dance style was that which was developed at the French court during the 17th century. The term "baroque dance" is often used to refer specifically to this style, reflecting the dominating power of the era.  Dance types include: The French style was also danced in England where they introduced their own dance type:

Dance during the English Regency.

An era of uncertainty in England, with the Napoleonic Wars, periodic riots, and the French Revolution across the Channel. Clothing tended to be light and unrestrictive, encouraging dances with lots of skipping and jumping, such as the English Country Dance, Polonaise, Quadrille, and Scotch Reel.

Dance in the mid-19th century.

Starting with the great international polka craze of 1844 anyone who was anyone was dancing. Women were in hoop skirts, and turning dances helped to keep them out of the way. Dances popular during this period included the polka, schottische, two-step, and the waltz.

Dance in the late 19th century to about 1910.

The dances popular in mid-century were still being done at the end of the century, but by fewer people. Dance masters, in vain attempts to maintain their place in society and in the economy, invented dances of greater and greater complexity that people followed with less and less enthusiasm. During this period, the bustle replaced the hoop, which necessitated a few changes in dancing. At the same time, ragtime music began to gain mainstream respectability. Some examples of dances popular during this period include the cakewalk, Krakowiak, mazurka, racket, redowa, and the waltz.

Dance in the Ragtime era.

Vernon and Irene Castle brought an air of respectability to couples dancing, and sparked what was arguably the largest U.S. dance craze ever. But by the end of World War I, these were considered old fashioned, and included the foxtrot, maxixe, one-step, tango, and waltz.

Dance in the 1920s.

During the roaring twenties, for the first time, there was a class of children who did not have to work to help support the family. This was an era of highly energetic dances done by the younger generation, represented by the Black Bottom, Charleston, foxtrot, shag, and waltz.

Dance in the 1930s and 1940s.

In the peak of the Swing era, more exotic dance styles became ever more popular among younger generations in America. Dances popular during this period were the Big Apple (dance), foxtrot, swing, waltz, tap, and the jitterbug.

Historical dance (or early dance) is a term covering a wide variety of Western European-based dance types from the past as they are danced in the present. Today historical dances are danced as performance, for pleasure at themed balls or dance clubs, as historical reenactment, or for musicological or historical research.

Der Begriff Historischer Tanz ist parallel zu dem der Alten Musik entstanden. Wie man am Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts begonnen hat, Alte Musik auf nachgebauten Instrumenten wieder aufzuführen, so hat man fast zeitgleich auch begonnen, alte Tänze nach den schriftlich überlieferten Zeugnissen nachzutanzen. Ein Großteil der überlieferten Tänze sind die Tänze der höheren Gesellschaftsschichten. Aus diesem Grund wird "Historischer Tanz" oft mit "Höfischem Tanz" gleichgesetzt. Es existieren jedoch auch zahlreiche Quellen, in denen die Tänze des Bürgertums aufgezeichnet sind (Branles, Kontratänze, Ecossaise, Quadrille etc.). Der Begriff "Historischer Tanz" hat sich in Abgrenzung zum Volkstanz, dem Zeitgenössischen Tanz und dem klassischen Ballett als Oberbegriff für die europäische Tanzkunst des 15. bis 19. Jahrhunderts inzwischen fest etabliert.


Range and habitat.

The swamp rabbit is found in much of the south-central United States and along the Gulf coast. It is most abundant in Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, but also inhabits South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Missouri, Kansas, Kentucky, Illinois, Indiana, and Georgia.  Swamp rabbits mainly live close to lowland water, often in cypress swamps, marshland, floodplain, and river tributaries. Swamp rabbits spend much of their time in depressions which they dig in tall grass or leaves, providing cover while they wait until the nighttime to forage.  There is concern that swamp rabbits are increasingly becoming exposed to predation, especially during snowy/wintry seasons. Snow cover has shown to increase swamp rabbit mortality by almost two times in the northern extent of their range. This is due mostly to the fact that snow cover constrains hiding ability and availability of food resources.

Physical description.

"S. aquaticus" is the largest of the cottontail species, although its ears are smaller than of other cottontails. Males are slightly larger than females. The head and back are typically dark or rusty brown or black, while the throat, ventral surface, and tail are white, and there is a cinnamon-colored ring around the eye. Their sides, rump, tail and feet are much more brownish, along with a pinkish-cinnamon eye-ring, as opposed to the whitish eye-ring in eastern cottontails.  "S. aquaticus" males vary in weight from approximately to, with an average of about ; females vary from approx. to, averaging about. "S. aquaticus" ranges in length from approx. to, with an average length of about.

Predation.

Known predators of "Sylvilagus aquaticus" are domestic dogs ("Canis lupus familiaris"), American alligators ("Alligator mississippiensis"), and humans ("Homo sapiens"). Even though their swimming abilities lack the speed to escape a pack of hunting dogs, swamp rabbits elude pursuers by lying still in the water surrounded by brush or plant debris with only their nose visible. The species is hunted for fur, meat, and sport, and is the second-most commonly hunted rabbit in the United States. Swamp rabbits have several adaptations to avoid predators: cryptic coloration, "freezing", and rapid, irregular jumping patterns.

Ontogeny and reproduction.

"S. aquaticus" are synchronous breeders. Females give birth to altricial young. Young are born with well-developed fur but their eyes are closed and they are immobile. Their eyes have opened by day 3 and the young have begun walking. They are weaned and leave the nest after about 15 days. Young are sexually mature at 7 months and reach adult weight at 10 months. The nests in which the young are born consist of a slight depression in the earth that is filled with grasses mixed with rabbit hair.  Breeding season varies widely across the range of "S. aquaticus", usually occurring anywhere between February and August, but can occur year-round in Texas. Spermatogenesis has been noted to occur in "S. aquaticus" in Missouri in October and November. In a Mississippi study, groups of males harvested in December and February had higher percentages of individuals with descended testes than those harvested in any other months (Class 2006). "S. aquaticus" exhibit induced ovulation and have an hour-long estrus. The gestation period lasts 35 to 40 days. Females can have 1 to 3 litters a year with each litter consisting of 4 to 6 young. The occurrence of embryo resorption has been seen in "S. aquaticus"; this loss of in-utero litters is attributed to some type of habitat disturbance such as flooding, which may cause overcrowding to occur.

Diet.

Swamp rabbits are herbivorous; they eat a variety of foraged plants, including grasses, sedges, shrubs, tree bark seedlings, and twigs. They feed mainly at night but rain showers will often cause them to feed during daytime as well. A study has found that the preferred foods of "S. aquaticus" are savannah panicgrass ("Phanopyrum gymnocarpon"), false nettle ("Boehmeria cylindrica"), dewberry ("Rubus trivialis") and greenbrier ("Smilax bona-nox").  Like other lagomorphs, they have a double digestion. Food passes through their gut twice, first producing soft, green feces (cecotropes) which still contain nutrients. These are eaten by the animal (coprophagy), and after further digestion the remains form drier, dark brown or black hard pellets, which are not eaten.

Species competition.

Rival males will often engage in aggressive encounters that sometimes become violent enough to kill one of the combatants. When fighting, males will stand on their hind legs and use their teeth and claws to inflict wounds on their opponent. They will also jump from the ground and strike with the sharp claws of the hind feet.

The swamp rabbit ("Sylvilagus aquaticus"), or swamp hare, is a large cottontail rabbit found in the swamps and wetlands of the southern United States. Other common names for the swamp rabbit include marsh rabbit and cane-cutter. The species has a strong preference for wet areas, and it will take to the water and swim.

Das Sumpfkaninchen ("Sylvilagus aquaticus") ist die größte Art der Baumwollschwanzkaninchen ("Sylvilagus") und ist in den Sümpfen und Feuchtgebieten der südlichen Vereinigten Staaten, vom östlichen Texas und Kansas bis South Carolina, verbreitet. Es ist ein guter Schwimmer.


Early life.

Spader was born in Boston, Massachusetts, and is the youngest of three children. His parents, Jean (née Fraser) and Stoddard ("Todd") Greenwood Spader, were both teachers. Spader grew up in a liberal and progressive home surrounded by "dominant and influential women...that left a great impression". During his early education, he attended multiple private schools, including The Pike School, where his mother taught art, and the Brooks School in North Andover, Massachusetts, where his father taught. He later transferred to Phillips Academy, where he befriended former President's son John F. Kennedy, Jr., before dropping out at the age of seventeen and moving to New York City to pursue his acting career. On his way to becoming a full-time actor, Spader undertook jobs such as bartending, teaching yoga, driving a meat truck, loading railroad cars, and being a stable boy.

Career.

Spader's first major film role was in the film "Endless Love" (1981), and his first starring role was in "Tuff Turf" (1985). He rose to stardom in 1986, when he played the rich, arrogant playboy Steff in "Pretty in Pink". He co-starred in "Mannequin" (1987) and the film adaptation of "Less Than Zero" (1987), in which he played a drug dealer named Rip. Supporting roles in films such as "Baby Boom" (1987) and "Wall Street" (1987) followed until his breakthrough in "Sex, Lies, and Videotape" (1989), in which he played a sexual voyeur who complicates the lives of three Baton Rouge, Louisiana residents. For this performance, he received the Best Actor Award at the Cannes Film Festival.  Spader's roles in the early 1990s included a young, affluent widower opposite Susan Sarandon in the romantic drama "White Palace" (1990), a yuppie who meets the mysterious Rob Lowe in the Noir drama "Bad Influence" (1990), John Cusack's best friend in the drama "True Colors" (1991), and a poker-playing drifter in "The Music of Chance" (1993). In 1994 he starred as Egyptologist Daniel Jackson in the sci-fi film "Stargate". In 1996 he played car accident fetishist James Ballard in the controversial Canadian film "Crash" and assassin Lee Woods in "2 Days in the Valley". In 1997 Spader guest starred in the "Seinfeld" episode "The Apology", as an angry recovering alcoholic who refuses to apologize to George for making fun of him. In 2000 he played a drug-addicted detective tracking down a serial killer in "The Watcher". In 2002 he starred as a sadomasochistic boss in "Secretary".  From 2004 to 2008 Spader starred as Alan Shore in the series "Boston Legal", in which he reprised his role from the television series "The Practice" (2002). Longtime writer-producer David E. Kelley said of the resistance when he first tried to cast Spader in the role, "I was told that no one would ever welcome James Spader into their living room." Kelley said at a TV Game Changers interview, "People will watch him in the movies, but they will never let him in their own home."  He won the Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series in 2004 for his portrayal on "The Practice" and won it again in 2005 and 2007 for "Boston Legal". With the 2005 win, he became one of only a few actors to win an Emmy award while playing the same character in two different series. Even rarer, he won a second consecutive Emmy while playing the same character in two different series. He also won the Satellite Award for Best Actor in a Series, Comedy or Musical for "Boston Legal" in 2006.  In October 2006 Spader narrated "", the first episode of Discovery Channel's documentary series "Discovery Atlas". He has also done the voice-over in several television commercials for Acura. He starred in "Race", a play written and directed by David Mamet, which opened on December 6, 2009 at the Ethel Barrymore Theatre on Broadway. The show closed on August 21, 2010 after 297 performances. In March 2011, he was named to star in the film "By Virtue Fall", written and to be directed by Sheldon Turner., the movie was in pre-production.  Spader guest starred as Robert California in "Search Committee", the season 7 finale of "The Office". On June 27, 2011, it was announced that he would join the cast on a permanent basis. He planned to stay only through the eighth season, and while the original plan was just to do the guest appearance," executive producer Paul Lieberstein said: "those two scenes became a season".  Spader stars in the NBC series "The Blacklist", which premiered on NBC September 23, 2013. He portrays Raymond "Red" Reddington, one of the FBI's most wanted fugitives. He also played villainous robot Ultron in "" (2015).

Personal life.

Spader met his first wife, decorator Victoria Kheel, while working in a yoga studio after he moved to New York City in the 1980s. They married in 1987 and had two sons. Spader filed for divorce from Kheel in 2004. He began dating his former "Alien Hunter" (2003) co-star, Leslie Stefanson, in 2002; they have one son.  Spader has said he has strong obsessive-compulsive issues.

James Todd Spader (born February 7, 1960) is an American actor. He portrays eccentric characters in films such as the drama "Sex, Lies, and Videotape" (1989), the action science fiction film "Stargate" (1994), the controversial psychological thriller "Crash" (1996), the erotic romance "Secretary" (2002) and Steven Spielberg's "Lincoln" (2012). In the Marvel Cinematic Universe, he played the titular character of Ultron in "" (2015), which he portrayed through voice and motion capture.

James Todd Spader (* 7. Februar 1960 in Boston, Massachusetts) ist ein US-amerikanischer Schauspieler aus der Brat-Pack-Szene, der vor allem durch Rollen in Filmen wie "Pretty in Pink" und "Stargate" sowie den Serien "Practice – Die Anwälte", "Boston Legal" und "The Blacklist" bekannt geworden ist. Seinen Durchbruch als Charakterdarsteller hatte er 1989 mit "Sex, Lügen und Video" von Steven Soderbergh.


Structure.

In humans and other mammals (excluding monotremes), the chorion is one of the fetal membranes that exist during pregnancy between the developing fetus and mother. The chorion and the amnion together form the amniotic sac. It is formed by extraembryonic mesoderm and the two layers of trophoblast that surround the embryo and other membranes. The chorionic villi emerge from the chorion, invade the endometrium, and allow the transfer of nutrients from maternal blood to fetal blood.

Layers.

The chorion consists of two layers: an outer formed by the trophoblast, and an inner formed by the somatic mesoderm; the amnion is in contact with the latter.  The trophoblast is made up of an internal layer of cubical or prismatic cells, the cytotrophoblast or layer of Langhans, and an external layer of richly nucleated protoplasm devoid of cell boundaries, the syncytiotrophoblast.

Growth.

The chorion undergoes rapid proliferation and forms numerous processes, the "chorionic villi", which invade and destroy the uterine decidua, while simultaneously absorbing nutritive materials from it for the growth of the embryo.  The chorionic villi are at first small and non-vascular, and consist of the trophoblast only, but they increase in size and ramify, whereas the mesoderm, carrying branches of the umbilical vessels, grows into them, and they are vascularized.  Blood is carried to the villi by the paired umbilical arteries, which branch into chorionic arteries and enter the chorionic villi as cotyledon arteries. After circulating through the capillaries of the villi, the blood is returned to the embryo by the umbilical vein. Until about the end of the second month of pregnancy, the villi cover the entire chorion, and are almost uniform in size; but, after this, they develop unequally.

Parts.

The part of the chorion that is in contact with the decidua capsularis undergoes atrophy, so that by the fourth month scarcely a trace of the villi is left. This part of the chorion becomes smooth, and is named the chorion laeve (from the Latin word "levis", meaning smooth). As it takes no share in the formation of the placenta, this is also named the non-placental part of the chorion. As the chorion grows, the chorion laeve comes in contact with the decidua parietalis and these layers fuse.  The villi at the embryonic pole, which is in contact with the decidua basalis, increase greatly in size and complexity, and hence this part is named the chorion frondosum.  Thus the placenta develops from the chorion frondosum and the decidua basalis.

Monochorionic twins.

"Monochorionic twins" are twins that share the same placenta. This occurs in 0.3% of all pregnancies, and in 75% of monozygotic (identical) twins, when the split takes place on or after the third day after fertilization. The remaining 25% of monozygous twins become "dichorionic diamniotic". The condition may affect any type of multiple birth, resulting in "monochorionic multiples".

Infections.

Recent studies indicate that the Chorion may be susceptible to pathogenic infections, including viral infections. Recents findings indicate that ureaplasma parvum can infect the Chorion tissue, thereby impacting pregnancy outcome. In addition, footprints of JC polyomavirus and Merkel cell polyomavirus have been detected in chorionic villi from females affected by spontaneous abortion as well as pregnant women. Another virus, BK polyomavirus has been detected in the same tissues, but with lesser extent.

Other animals.

In reptiles, birds, and monotremes, the chorion is one of the four extraembryonic membranes that make up the amniotic egg that provide for the nutrients and protection needed for the embryo's survival. It is located inside the albumen, which is the white of the egg. It encloses the embryo and the rest of the embryonic system. The chorion is also present in insects. During growth and development of the embryo, there is an increased need for oxygen. To compensate for this, the chorion and the allantois fuse together to form the chorioallantoic membrane. Together these form a double membrane, which functions to remove carbon dioxide and to replenish oxygen through the porous shell. At the time of hatching, the fetus becomes detached from the chorion as it emerges from the shell.

The chorion is the outermost fetal membrane around the embryo in mammals, birds and reptiles (amniotes). It develops from an outer fold on the surface of the yolk sac, which lies outside the zona pellucida (in mammals), known as the vitelline membrane in other animals. In insects it is developed by the follicle cells while the egg is in the ovary.

Das Chorion (von altgriechisch χόριον ‚Haut, Leder, Nachgeburt‘; auch Serosa genannt) ist die äußere der beiden Fruchthüllen des Embryos bzw. Fetus der „höheren“ Landwirbeltiere (Amniota). Der vom Chorion umschlossene Raum wird auch als Chorion- oder Fruchthöhle bezeichnet.


Description.

V. ammodytes grows to a maximum total length (body + tail) of, although individuals usually measure less than. Maximum length also depends on race, with northern forms distinctly larger than southern ones. According to Strugariu (2006), the average total length is with reports of specimens over in total length. Females are usually larger and more heavily built, although the largest specimens on record are males.  The head is covered in small, irregular scales that are either smooth or only weakly keeled, except for a pair of large supraocular scales that extend beyond the posterior margin of the eye. 10–13 small scales border the eye, and two rows separate the eye from the supralabials. The nasal scale is large, single (rarely divided), and separated from the rostral by a single nasorostral scale. The rostral scale is wider than it is long.  The most distinctive characteristic is a single "horn" on the snout, just above the rostral scale. It consists of 9–17 scales arranged in 2 (rarely 2 or 4) transverse rows. It grows to a length of about and is actually soft and flexible. In southern subspecies, the horn sits vertically upright, while in "V. a. Ammodytes" it points diagonally forward.  The body is covered with strongly keeled dorsal scales in 21 or 23 rows (rarely 25) at mid-body. The scales bordering the ventrals are smooth or weakly keeled. Males have 133–161 ventral scales and 27–46 paired subcaudals. Females have 135–164 and 24–38 respectively. The anal scale is single.  The color pattern is different for males and females. In males, the head has irregular dark brown, dark gray, or black markings. A thick, black stripe runs from behind the eye to behind the angle of the jaw. The tongue is usually black, and the iris has a golden or coppery color. Males have a characteristic dark blotch or V marking on the back of the head that often connects to the dorsal zigzag pattern. The ground color for males varies and includes many different shades of gray, sometimes yellowish or pinkish gray, or yellowish brown. The dorsal zigzag is dark gray or black, the edge of which is sometimes darker. A row of indistinct, dark (occasionally yellowish) spots runs along each side, sometimes joined in a wavy band.  Females have a similar color pattern, except that it is less distinct and contrasting. They usually lack the dark blotch or V marking on the back of the head that the males have. Ground color is variable and tends more towards browns and bronzes, such as grayish brown, reddish brown, copper, "dirty cream", or brick red. The dorsal zigzag is a shade of brown.  Both sexes have a zigzag dorsal stripe set against a lighter background. This pattern is often fragmented. The belly color varies and can be grayish, yellowish brown, or pinkish, "heavily clouded" with dark spots. Sometimes the ventral color is black or bluish gray with white flecks and inclusions edged in white. The chin is lighter in color than the belly. Underneath, the tip of the tail may be yellow, orange, orange-red, red, or green. Melanism does occur, but is rare. Juvenile color patterns are about the same as the adults.

Common names.

Horned viper, long-nosed viper, nose-horned viper, sand viper, sand adder, common sand adder, common sand viper, sand natter.

Geographic range.

Southern Austria, north-eastern Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Albania, Kosovo, North Macedonia, Greece (including Cyclades), Romania, Bulgaria, Turkey, Georgia and Syria.  The type locality is listed as "Oriente". Schwarz (1936) proposed that the type locality be restricted to "Zara" (Zadar, Croatia).

Conservation status.

This species is listed as strictly protected (Appendix II) under the Berne Convention.

Habitat.

The common name "sand viper" is misleading, as this species does not occur in mostly sandy areas. "V. ammodytes" primarily inhabits dry, rocky hillsides with sparse vegetation. Not usually associated with woodlands, but if so it will be found there around the edges and in clearings. Sometimes found in areas of human habitation, such as railway embankments, farmland, and especially vineyards if rubble piles and stone walls are present. May be found above 2000 m at lower latitudes.

Behaviour.

This species has no particular preference for its daily activity period. At higher altitudes, it is more active during the day. At lower altitudes, it may be found at any time of the day, becoming increasingly nocturnal as daytime temperatures rise.  Despite its reputation, this species is generally lethargic, not at all aggressive, and tends not to bite without considerable provocation. If surprised, wild specimens may react in a number of different ways. Some remain motionless and hiss loudly, some hiss and then flee, while still others will attempt to bite immediately.  "Vipera ammodytes" hibernates in the winter for a period of 2 to 6 months depending on environmental conditions.

Feeding.

Primarily feeds on small mammals and birds. Juveniles apparently prefer lizards. Feeding behavior is influenced by prey size. Larger prey are struck, released, tracked, and swallowed, while smaller prey is swallowed without using the venom apparatus. Occasionally, other snakes are eaten. There are also reports of cannibalism.

Reproduction.

Before mating, the males of this species will engage in a combat dance, similar to adders. Mating takes place in the spring (April–May), and one to twenty live young are born in late summer or fall (August–October). At birth, juveniles are in total length. This species is ovoviviparous.

Captivity.

This species has often been kept in captivity and bred successfully. It tolerates captivity much better than other European vipers, thriving in most surroundings and usually taking food easily from the start. However, as far as handling is concerned, despite its relatively placid reputation, pinning and necking this snake can be risky, as they are relatively strong and can unexpectedly jerk free from a keeper's grasp. For close examinations, it is therefore advisable to use a clear plastic restraining tube instead.

Venom.

This is likely the most dangerous snake to be found in Europe. In some areas it is at least a significant medical risk.  The venom can be quite toxic [based on tests conducted solely on mice], but varies over time and among different populations. Brown (1973) gives an for mice of 1.2 mg/kg IV, 1.5 mg/kg IP and 2.0 mg/kg SC. Novak "et al." (1973) give ranges of 0.44–0.82 mg/kg and IV and 0.19–0.64 mg/kg IP. Minton (1974) states 6.6 mg/kg SC.  The venom has both proteolytic and neurotoxic components and contains hemotoxins with blood coagulant properties, similar to and as powerful as in crotaline venom. Other properties include anticoagulant effects, hemoconcentration and hemorrhage. Bites promote symptoms typical of viperid envenomation, such as pain, swelling and discoloration, all of which may be immediate. There are also reports of dizziness and tingling.  Humans respond rapidly to this venom, as do mice and birds. Lizards are less affected, while amphibians may even survive a bite. European snakes, such as "Coronella" and "Natrix", are possibly immune.  "Vipera ammodytes" venom is used in the production of antivenin for the bite of other European vipers and the snake is farmed for this purpose.

Taxonomy.

This species was originally described by Carl Linnaeus in "Systema Naturae" in 1758. Subsequently, George Albert Boulenger described a number of subspecies in the early 20th century that are still mostly recognized today. However, there are many alternative taxonomies. One additional subspecies that may be encountered in literature is "V. a. ruffoi" (Bruno, 1968), found in the Alpine region of Italy. However, many consider both "V. a. ruffoi" and "V. a. gregorwalineri" to be synonymous with "V. a. ammodytes", and consider "V. a. transcaucasiana" to be a separate species.

Vipera ammodytes (other common names include horned viper, long-nosed viper, nose-horned viper, sand viper) is a viper species found in southern Europe, mainly the Balkans, and parts of the Middle East. It is reputed to be the most dangerous of the European vipers due to its large size, long fangs (up to 13 mm) and high venom toxicity. The specific name, "ammodytes", is derived from the Greek words "ammos", meaning "sand", and "dutes", meaning "burrower" or "diver", despite its preference for rocky habitats. Five subspecies are currently recognized, including the nominate subspecies described here.

Die Europäische Hornotter ("Vipera ammodytes"), auch Sandviper, Hornviper, Sandotter oder Europäische Sandotter genannt, ist eine Art aus der Familie der Vipern.


History.

Undercover work has been used in a variety of ways throughout the course of history, but the first organized, but informal, undercover program was first employed in France by Eugène François Vidocq in the early 19th century, from the late First Empire through most of the Bourbon Restoration. At the end of 1811, Vidocq set up an informal plainclothes unit, the "Brigade de la Sûreté" ("Security Brigade"), which was later converted to a security police unit under the Prefecture of Police. The Sûreté initially had eight, then twelve, and, in 1823, twenty employees. One year later, it expanded again, to 28 secret agents. In addition, there were eight people who worked secretly for the Sûreté, but instead of a salary, they received licences for gambling halls. A major portion of Vidocq's subordinates were ex-criminals like himself.  Vidocq personally trained his agents, for example, in selecting the correct disguise based on the kind of job. He himself still went out hunting for criminals too. His memoirs are full of stories about how he outsmarted crooks by pretending to be a beggar or an old cuckold. At one point, he even simulated his own death.  In England, the first modern police force was established in 1829 by Sir Robert Peel as the Metropolitan Police of London. From the start, the force occasionally employed plainclothes undercover detectives, but there was much public anxiety that these powers were being used for the purpose of political repression. In part due to these concerns, the 1845 official "Police Orders" required all undercover operations to be specifically authorized by the superintendent. It was only in 1869 that Police commissioner Edmund Henderson established a formal plainclothes detective division. The first Special Branch of police was the Special Irish Branch, formed as a section of the Criminal Investigation Department of the MPS in London in 1883, initially to combat the bombing campaign that the Irish Republican Brotherhood had begun a few years earlier. This pioneering branch was the first to be trained in counter terrorism techniques.  Its name was changed to Special Branch as it had its remit gradually expanded to incorporate a general role in counter terrorism, combating foreign subversion and infiltrating organized crime. Law enforcement agencies elsewhere established similar Branches.  In the United States, a similar route was taken with the establishment of the Italian Squad in 1906 by the New York City Police Department under police commissioner William McAdoo to combat rampant crime and intimidation in the poor Italian neighborhoods. Various federal agencies began their own undercover programs shortly afterwards – the Federal Bureau of Investigation was founded in 1908.

Risks.

There are two principal problems that can affect agents working in undercover roles. The first is the maintenance of identity and the second is the reintegration back into normal duty.  Living a double life in a new environment presents many problems. Undercover work is one of the most stressful jobs a special agent can undertake. The largest cause of stress identified is the separation of an agent from friends, family and his normal environment. This simple isolation can lead to depression and anxiety. There is no data on the divorce rates of agents, but strain on relationships does occur. This can be a result of a need for secrecy and an inability to share work problems, and the unpredictable work schedule, personality and lifestyle changes and the length of separation can all result in problems for relationships.  Stress can also result from an apparent lack of direction of the investigation or not knowing when it will end. The amount of elaborate planning, risk, and expenditure can pressure an agent to succeed, which can cause considerable stress. The stress that an undercover agent faces is considerably different from his counterparts on regular duties, whose main source of stress is the administration and the bureaucracy. As the undercover agents are removed from the bureaucracy, it may result in another problem. The lack of the usual controls of a uniform, badge, constant supervision, a fixed place of work, or (often) a set assignment could, combined with their continual contact with the organized crime, increase the likelihood for corruption.  This stress may be instrumental in the development of drug or alcohol abuse in some agents. They are more prone to the development of an addiction as they suffer greater stress than other police, they are isolated, and drugs are often very accessible. Police, in general, have very high alcoholism rates compared to most occupational groups, and stress is cited as a likely factor. The environment that agents work in often involves a very liberal exposure to the consumption of alcohol, which in conjunction with the stress and isolation could result in alcoholism.  There can be some guilt associated with going undercover due to betraying those who have come to trust the officer. This can cause anxiety or even, in very rare cases, sympathy with those being targeted. This is especially true with the infiltration of political groups, as often the agent will share similar characteristics with those they are infiltrating like class, age, ethnicity or religion. This could even result in the conversion of some agents.  The lifestyle led by undercover agents is very different compared to other areas in law enforcement, and it can be quite difficult to reintegrate back into normal duties. Agents work their own hours, they are removed from direct supervisory monitoring, and they can ignore the dress and etiquette rules. So resettling back into the normal police role requires the shedding of old habits, language and dress. After working such free lifestyles, agents may have discipline problems or exhibit neurotic responses. They may feel uncomfortable, and take a cynical, suspicious or even paranoid world view and feel continually on guard. Other risks include capture, death and torture.

Plainclothes law enforcement.

Undercover agents should not be confused with law enforcement officers who wear plainclothes. This method is used by law enforcement and intelligence agencies. To wear plainclothes is to wear civilian clothes, instead of wearing a uniform, to avoid detection or identification as a law enforcement officer. However, plainclothes police officers typically carry normal police equipment and normal identification. Police detectives are assigned to wear plainclothes by wearing suits or formal clothes instead of the uniform typically worn by their peers. Police officers in plainclothes must identify themselves when using their police powers; however, they are not required to identify themselves on demand and may lie about their status as a police officer in some situations (see sting operation).  Sometimes, police might drive an unmarked vehicle or a vehicle which looks like a taxi.

To go "undercover" is to avoid detection by the entity one is observing, and especially to disguise one's own identity or use an assumed identity for the purposes of gaining the trust of an individual or organization to learn or confirm confidential information or to gain the trust of targeted individuals in order to gather information or evidence. Traditionally, it is a technique employed by law enforcement agencies or private investigators, and a person who works in such a role is commonly referred to as an undercover agent.

Ein Verdeckter Ermittler (auch Verdeckter Mitarbeiter) ist ein eigener Mitarbeiter einer Polizei- oder Zollbehörde oder eines Nachrichtendienstes, der unter einer ihm verliehenen und auf Dauer angelegten Legende eingesetzt wird. Zu unterscheiden ist er von einer V-Person oder einem Informanten, die Privatpersonen sind, sowie von einem nicht offen ermittelnden Polizeibeamten ohne Legendierung, der nur gelegentlich verdeckt auftritt.


Career.

Núñez was born in Jerez de la Frontera (province of Cádiz) in 1961. His first teacher was Rafael [d]el Águila. At the age of fourteen he accompanied important cantaores and bailaores like Tío Gregorio el Borrico, Terremoto de Jerez, La Paquera and Mario Maya, among others. He has recorded as a concert guitarist and accompanying the voices of Turronero, Pansequito, Indio Gitano. In his triple roles of composer, concert guitarist and accompanist, he has performed in diverse theater shows, the most notable being Mario Maya's ¡Ay Jondo! and Lorca's Yerma. He has also performed at numerous music festivals around the world. Afterwards, as a solo artist, Gerardo Nuñez has received excellent reviews, and he is considered one of the best prepared guitarists. He has also performed on several flamenco stages, gatherings and festivals, both at a national level and abroad: Paris, New York, Cologne, Havana, Munich. He has also been part of a guitar quartet, with which he has travelled all over the world, and has played alongside guitarists of international renown like Erico Raba, Alex de Grassi and Briam Gare. Additionally he has collaborated with bassist Eberhard Weber and accordionist Richard Galliano.  As a composer, his music is complex and rich, which allows him to demonstrate his playing ability. He has composed a large number of pieces for one of his best artistic partners, Carmen Cortés. He also made a version of El Amor Brujo, for four guitars, and he has attempted fusion with other kinds of music, especially jazz, but without ever leaving out flamenco as its foundation.  In August 2012 his album "Travesia" reached number 12 on the World Music Charts Europe.

Gerardo Núñez Díaz (born 29 June 1961) is a Spanish guitarist and composer. His roots are in flamenco but he has played fusion and jazz.

Gerardo Núñez Díaz (* 1961 in Jerez de la Frontera) ist ein spanischer Flamenco-Gitarrist. Er ist verheiratet mit der Flamenco-Tänzerin Carmen Cortés.


Early life.

Born in Ascot, Berkshire, Adams attended Westminster Under School, where he became head chorister of the school choir. He later attended Bedales School, leaving aged 16 after completing his GCSEs to join Charterhouse School.

Career.

A1 (1998-2002 and 2009-present).

Adams was a member of four-piece boyband a1, who won a BRIT Award in 2001 for Best Newcomer and had two number one singles, "Take On Me" (the chart-topping song that was originally made famous by and written by the Norwegian band a-ha) and "Same Old Brand New You", before separating in 2002. Whilst in the boyband, Adams also scooped a "Smash Hits" Poll Winners Party Award for Most Fanciable Male in 2001.  It was announced in 2009 that a1 were to reform to compete to represent Norway in the 2010 Eurovision Song Contest. a1 then resigned with Universal Music Group and recorded another two studio albums "Waiting For Daylight" and "Rediscovered", which Adams co-wrote and produced. In 2013, a1 participated in The Big Reunion. In 2018, the band celebrated their 20th anniversary with an international tour.

Solo career (2004-present).

After a couple of years writing, Adams made a comeback with a new solo recording contract with BMG Records. His first solo single, "Sorry", reached No. 18 on the UK Singles Chart in June 2005. As well as writing for himself, Adams began writing and producing for the likes of Robin Thicke, Craig David, JLS, Sam Bailey, Amelia Lily, Markus Feehily, Union J and Alexandra Burke to name but a few. Adams also co-wrote the Lisa Scott-Lee single "Electric" with Guy Chambers, as well as a song called "Get Off My Girl" with Har Mar Superstar.  Adams has his own recording studio situated in London called Archer Studios previously known as Parkbench Studios. Having been the creative director behind the bands Kissing Freddie, What Jane Did Next (which Adams is a part of) and MEOW. When he entered the "Celebrity Big Brother" house in 2009, it was revealed that Adams had worked on songs for "X Factor" winner, Alexandra Burke.  In 2017 Ben announced plans to release second recorded album "1981" and has continued to release a steady stream of singles presumably from the album. No release date has been announced as of June 2020.

"Celebrity Big Brother" (2009).

In 2009, Adams was a participant on the sixth series of the reality TV series "Celebrity Big Brother", and reached the finale finishing in fifth place after the public vote, behind Coolio, Verne Troyer, Terry Christian and eventual winner Ulrika Jonsson.

Pantomime.

Adams performed as 'Prince Charming' in Milton Keynes' 2009/2010 pantomime production of "Cinderella". He performed as Aladdin in Woking 2014/2015, also starring as Aladdin in Manchester 2016/2017.

"Skal Vi Danse".

In 2012, Adams took part in "Skal Vi Danse", the Norwegian version of "Strictly Come Dancing"/"Dancing with the Stars" on TV2 Norway. His dance partner was Tone Jacobsen. He placed second.

"Flashdance".

In October 2017 Ben took a leading role in the touring version of Flashdance the Musical, starring as Nick Hurley alongside Joanne Clifton.

"Eugenius!".

Adams co-wrote with Chris Wilkins a new original musical called "Eugenius!" which premiered as a concert performance on 29 July 2016 at the London Palladium, which was produced by Warwick Davis (who also starred in the concert). The musical received its fully staged premiere at The Other Palace from 22 January to 3 March 2018 and returning from 1 September to 7 October 2018.

Benjamin Edward Stephen Adams (born 22 November 1981) is an English singer and songwriter, best known as a member of the boy band, A1 (band).

Ben Adams (* 22. November 1981; eigentlich "Benjamin Anthony Edward Stevens Adams") ist ein britischer Sänger. Er ist das jüngste der verbliebenen drei Mitglieder der Boygroup A1.


The isolation of Japan.

Since the beginning of the seventeenth century, the Tokugawa shogunate pursued a policy of isolating the country from outside influences. Foreign trade was maintained only with the Dutch and the Chinese and was conducted exclusively at Nagasaki under a strict government monopoly. This policy had two main objectives. One was the fear that trade with western powers and the spread of Christianity would serve as a pretext for the invasion of Japan by imperialist forces, as had been the case with most of the nations of Asia. The second objective was fear that foreign trade and the wealth developed would lead to the rise of a daimyō powerful enough to overthrow the ruling Tokugawa clan. The first contacts between Japan and Russia were made with the Matsumae clan in Hokkaido by the merchant Pavel Lebedev-Lastochkin in 1778 and by official envoy Adam Laxman in 1792. The Russian expedition around the world led by Adam Johann von Krusenstern stayed six months in the port of Nagasaki in 1804–1805, failing to establish diplomatic and trade relations with Japan.  By the early nineteenth century, this policy of isolation was increasingly under challenge. In 1844, King William II of the Netherlands sent a letter urging Japan to end the isolation policy on its own before change would be forced from the outside. In 1846, an official American expedition led by Commodore James Biddle arrived in Japan asking for ports to be opened for trade, but was sent away.

The Putiatin mission.

A few years later, Russia learned that the United States was preparing an expedition to be led by Commodore Matthew Perry, to open Japan by gunboat diplomacy if necessary. If successful, it was feared that this would provide more American influence in the Pacific region and Asia, and to give America the most advantage position in Japan. Russia immediately recommenced plans to send a mission to the Far East. Russian minister of Foreign Affairs Karl Nesselrode assigned Vice-Admiral Euphimy Vasil'evich Putiatin to head the Russian mission. The expedition included several notable Sinologists and a number of scientists and engineers, as well as the noted author Ivan Goncharov, and the "Pallada" under the command of Ivan Unkovsky was selected as the flagship. Goncharov would use the experience in his "Fregat Pallada" (1858), in which he described the details of the voyage and the negotiations. It is a valuable description of how the Japanese received and processed foreign trade vessels and the perception of the experience of the Russians.  "Pallada" departed Kronstadt on October 7, 1852 under orders to return only with a treaty at least as good as the one the Americans had obtained. Also on the Russian agenda was a delimitation of the borders between Japan and Russia in Sakhalin and the Kurile islands.  However it became clear during the long voyage that the vessel was unsuited for the expedition, and the newer 52-gun frigate "Diana" was subsequently dispatched, but Perry and his fleet of Black Ships reached Japan while Putiatin was still between Hong Kong and the Bonin Islands. Despite years of debate on the isolation policy, Perry's visit created great controversy within the highest levels of the Tokugawa shogunate.  Eventually, Putiatin arrived in Japan with his four vessels on August 21, 1853, but at Nagasaki rather than attempting to force his way into Edo Bay as Perry had done. Putiatin and Perry had a somewhat differing approach to negotiating with the Japanese. Perry stressed the firepower of his warships and the possible consequences for Japan. Putiatin chose a more diplomatic and strategic approach in the hopes of undermining the American efforts, advising that he had chosen Nagasaki despite his orders to go to Edo out of respect for Japanese laws and the ardent desire of the Russian Emperor for good relations. Officials sent word to Edo, and while waiting for a response, Putiatin sailed to Shanghai for supplies and for news from home. On his return to Nagasaki, there was still no reply, so he renewed his threat to go directly to Edo. The alarmed "Nagasaki bugyō" urged Edo to accept Putiatin's terms, as the Russians seemed more accommodating that the Americans, and their huge empire might be used to offset threat posed by Perry. Again, there was no response, partly because Shōgun himself, Tokugawa Ieyoshi died days after Perry's departure, and was succeeded by his sickly young son, Tokugawa Iesada, leaving effective administration in the hands of the Council of Elders ("rōjū") led by Hotta Masayoshi, which was paralyzed with indecision. Putiatin grew increasingly impatient and renewed his threat to sail to Edo, when a response came in the form of the officials Kawaji Toshiakira and Tsutsui Masanori, asking for a delay of three to five years for a counter-proposal. Disappointed, Putiatin left Japan in November 1853 promising to return in the spring. Putiatin was not able to return until November 7, 1854. In the meantime, he had surveyed the coast of Korea and the Russian Maritime Province and had learned of the outbreak of the Crimean War, and that the British Royal Navy was hunting for his squadron in the Sea of Okhotsk and the seas around Japan, including Nagasaki. Problems with "Pallada" caused him to change his flag to the "Diana". By the time Putiatin returned, the Americans had already succeeded in opening Japan with the Treaty of Kanagawa in early 1854. To prevent a Russian treaty limit Russian influence the British approached Japan to ask for Japanese neutrality in the war. Because of a bad translation, the British obtained an unintended Anglo-Japanese Friendship Treaty in 1854. Instead of Nagasaki, Putiatin chose Osaka Bay, which caused immediate consternation among the Japanese for its proximity to Kyoto. After remaining in Osaka Bay for two weeks, Putiatin set sail for Shimoda. Putiatin was met in Shimoda by Kawaji and Tsutsui, and negotiations began on December 22, 1854 with Putiatin offering to cede the island of Etorofu to Japan in exchange for trade rights, whereas the Japanese countered that since Kamchatka belonged to Japan, it followed that all of the Kurile islands were also Japanese as well.  On December 23, 1854, the Ansei Tokai earthquake, with an estimated magnitude of 8.4 on the Richter magnitude scale, shook Japan and surroundings. A 7-meter-high tsunami destroyed most of Shimoda including Putiatin's ships, with the exception of "Diana", which was badly damaged and which soon sank as she attempted to sail to Heda for repairs.  The Russian delegation now found itself stranded in Japan, and while the diplomats renegotiated, Russian sailors and technicians worked with Japanese carpenters to build a new vessel at Heda to enable the delegation to return to Russia.  On February 7, 1855, the long-awaited Russo-Japanese treaty of friendship was signed at the Chōraku-ji Temple in Shimoda by Putiatin as Russian Imperial Ambassador and Japanese representative Controller Moriyama Einosuke signing the Dutch-language version (the official version), Iosif Antonovich and signing the Chinese-language version, and Toshiakira Kawaji and Tsutsui Masanori signing the Japanese-language version.  Patterned after Perry's Kanagawa Treaty and the Anglo-Japanese Friendship Treaty, the Shimoda Treaty contained many of the same provisions; however, perhaps out of sympathy or out of a favorable impression of Putiatin, the terms agreed upon by Japan were slightly more generous than that granted to the Americans and the British.  The Japanese found Putiatin to be a civilized and righteous man. Putiatin remarked to his Japanese colleague Tsutsui:  The schooner "Heda" was launched on April 14 and Putiatin was able to sail back to Russia, on May 8, 1855. The Japanese government ordered later six more ships to be built on the model of the "Heda", thereby contributing to the development of western-style shipbuilding in Japan.

Treaty of Commerce and Navigation between Japan and Russia (1855).

The "Shimoda Treaty" has nine articles: The treaty opened Nagasaki, Shimoda and Hakodate to Russian ships for supplies and repairs, for a consul to be stationed at one of these ports, and for most favored nation status. The official border between Japan and Russia was set as in between Etorofu and Urup, with the status of Sakhalin left undetermined. An unequal treaty, it also provided for the extraterritoriality of Russians in Japan.

Consequences of the treaty.

Although Putiatin was lionized after his return to St Petersburg, and was elevated to the title of Count, he was also criticized for the lack of a commercial agreement with Japan, and was forced to return in 1857 and again in 1858 to negotiate new treaties, which expanded on Russian commercial rights and extraterritoriality. One of the most important features of the 1855 Treaty of Shimoda was the agreement that the Kurile Islands were to be divided between Russia and Japan at a line running in between Etorofu and Urup, and the treaty is still frequently cited to this date by the Japanese government was one of its justifications in the current Kurile Islands dispute.

Monument to the treaty.

A memorial sign in honor of the 150th anniversary of the establishment of the Russian-Japanese relations was opened in Kronstadt in 2005. The monument is a black stone where on the Russian and Japanese languages described a brief history of the Putiatin mission. The monument was opened by the Consul General of Japan in St. Petersburg and St. Petersburg Governor.

The Treaty of Shimoda (下田条約, "Shimoda Jouyaku") (formally Treaty of Commerce and Navigation between Japan and Russia 日露和親条約, "Nichi-Ro Washin Jouyaku") of February 7, 1855, was the first treaty between the Russian Empire, and the Empire of Japan, then under the administration of the Tokugawa shogunate. Following shortly after the Convention of Kanagawa signed between Japan and the United States, it effectively meant the end of Japan's 220-year-old policy of national seclusion ("sakoku"), by opening the ports of Nagasaki, Shimoda and Hakodate to Russian vessels and established the position of Russian consuls in Japan and defined the borders between Japan and Russia.

Der Vertrag von Shimoda (russisch: Симодский договор ("Simodski dogowor") oder Симодский трактат ("Simodski traktat"); jap. 日露和親条約 "nichiro washin jōyaku") ist ein Handels-, Schifffahrts- und Grenzziehungsvertrag zwischen Japan und Russland. Er wurde am 7. Februar 1855 in der japanischen Stadt Shimoda geschlossen. Unterzeichner waren für Japan Kawaji Toshiakira und für Russland Admiral Jewfimi Putjatin.


History.

The name Oostkamp comes from the Medieval name "Orscamp", meaning place of the horses. The old word "ors" is a cognate of the English word "horse".

Oostkamp during World War II.

The Canadian 4th Armoured Division liberated the village on 8 September 1944 (World War II) during the Battle of Moerbrugge. A monument was erected by the Ghent-Bruges Canal to honour the 53 Canadian casualties.

Fusion of 1977.

With the Belgian Unity Law the four villages of Oostkamp proper, Hertsberge, Ruddervoorde and Waardamme became the municipality of Greater Oostkamp.

Landmarks and Monuments.

OostCampus.

In 2012, all the different municipal services which had been accommodated over the years in a scattered collection of facilities, moved to a new complex: 'OostCampus'. On March 9, 2017, the mayor and the chairman of the Social Services (OCMW) also moved from their former site in 'Beukenpark' to OostCampus, which is now effectively the City Hall and Civic Centre of Oostkamp.  The building, designed by Spanish architect Carlos Arroyo, has received important awards, such as:

"Kastelen": Castles, Châteaux and Mansions.

Oostkamp has about twenty outstanding examples of "Kasteel" (plural "kastelen"), meaning castles, châteaux and mansions. These were erected as 'countryside retreats' of 'leisure houses' by the nobles and merchants of the area, many of them with permanent abodes in nearby Bruges. Most "kastelen" are private property and therefore not to be visited. Many are visible from the public road.

Oostkamp (; ) is a municipality located in the Belgian province of West Flanders. The municipality comprises the villages of Hertsberge, Oostkamp proper, Ruddervoorde and Waardamme. On January 1, 2019, Oostkamp had a total population of 23,698. The total area is 79.65 km2 which gives a population density of 289 inhabitants per km2.

Oostkamp ist eine Gemeinde in der Provinz Westflandern, Belgien. Die Gemeinde hat Einwohner (Stand ). Oostkamp ist in der Vergangenheit immer durch seinen grünen Charakter mit vielen Wäldern, offenen Landschaften und dem angenehmen Dorfkern gekennzeichnet gewesen. In den letzten Jahren ging durch Industriebauten ein Teil davon verloren.