Geography.

According to the United States Census Bureau, Oradell borough had a total area of 2.577 square miles (6.673 km), including 2.424 square miles (6.278 km) of land and 0.153 square miles (0.395 km) of water (5.92%).  Unincorporated communities, localities and place names located partially or completely within the borough include Delford.  The borough borders the Bergen County municipalities of Dumont, Emerson, Haworth, New Milford, Paramus and River Edge.  Oradell Reservoir was formed by the Oradell Reservoir Dam placed on the Hackensack River, which was started in 1921 and finished in 1923. The reservoir is fed by the Pascack Brook and Dwars Kill in addition to the Hackensack River. The Dam has greatly reduced the amount of flooding in the eastern part of Oradell caused by the Hackensack River, though it also resulted in the loss of flora and fauna that depended on the fresh water that flowed down the river. Fed by rain from Hurricane Irene in August 2011, the water level in the reservoir was two feet above the top of the dam, allowing billions of gallons of water to flow over the dam and exacerbating flooding conditions in Oradell and New Milford.

Climate.

The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Oradell has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated "Cfa" on climate maps.

Demographics.

2010 Census.

The Census Bureau's 2006-2010 American Community Survey showed that (in 2010 inflation-adjusted dollars) median household income was $123,750 (with a margin of error of +/- $23,641) and the median family income was $147,139 (+/- $14,419). Males had a median income of $91,332 (+/- $10,621) versus $68,208 (+/- $17,195) for females. The per capita income for the borough was $39,520. About 1.4% of families and 1.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including none of those under age 18 and 4.2% of those age 65 or over.  Same-sex couples headed 14 households in 2010, an increase from the 13 counted in 2000.

2000 Census.

As of the 2000 United States Census, there were 8,047 people, 2,789 households and 2,300 families residing in the borough. The population density was 3,319.0 per square mile (1,283.9/km). There were 2,833 housing units at an average density of 1,168.5 per square mile (452.0/km). The racial makeup of the borough was 90.07% White, 0.48% African American, 0.04% Native American, 8.09% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.32% from other races, and 0.98% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.09% of the population.  3.1% of Oradell's residents identified themselves as being of Armenian American ancestry. This was the 11th highest percentage of Armenian American people in any place in the United States with 1,000 or more residents identifying their ancestry.  There were 2,789 households of which 38.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 73.9% were married couples living together, 6.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 17.5% were non-families. 15.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 8.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.83 and the average family size was 3.17.  Age distribution was 25.2% under the age of 18, 5.0% from 18 to 24, 26.3% from 25 to 44, 26.9% from 45 to 64, and 16.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.1 males.  The 2000 Census showed that median household income was $91,014 and the median family income was $102,842. Males had a median income of $76,683 versus $42,318 for females. The per capita income for the borough was $39,520. About 1.7% of families and 2.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2.8% of those under age 18 and 2.1% of those age 65 or over.

Economy.

Oradell is the headquarters for Huntington Learning Center, a learning center chain founded in 1977 that provides tutoring services for students in primary and secondary schools and is specialized in standardized test preparation.

Government.

Local government.

Oradell is governed under the Borough form of New Jersey municipal government, which is used in 218 of 565 municipalities statewide, making it the most common form of government in New Jersey. The governing body is comprised of a Mayor and a Borough Council, with all positions elected at-large on a partisan basis as part of the November general election. A Mayor is elected directly by the voters to a four-year term of office. The Borough Council is comprised of six members elected to serve three-year terms on a staggered basis, with two seats coming up for election each year in a three-year cycle. The Borough form of government used by Oradell is a "weak mayor / strong council" government in which council members act as the legislative body with the mayor presiding at meetings and voting only in the event of a tie. The mayor can veto ordinances subject to an override by a two-thirds majority vote of the council. The mayor makes committee and liaison assignments for council members, and most appointments are made by the mayor with the advice and consent of the council. , the Mayor of Oradell is Democrat Diane Carmelo Didio, whose term of office ends on December 31, 2023. Members of the Borough Council are Council President Tracy Schoenberg (D, 2021), Steven G. Carnevale (R, 2022), Robert Jannicelli (D, 2020), Thomas Kelly (R, 2020), Roger Tashjian (D, 2021) and Miriam Yu (D, 2022).  In May 2018, Miriam Yu was selected to fill the seat expiring in December 2019 that became vacant following the resignation of Andrew Rudman. In the November 2018 general election, Yu was elected to serve the balance of the term of office.</ref>  In the November 2017 general election, the Democratic and Republican candidates each took one seat. In the November 2016 general election, the Democratic and Republican candidates each took one seat. In the November 2015 general election, the Democratic and independent candidates who ran together as Put Oradell First won election to the mayoral and council seats up for vote, winning by a 2-1 margin over the Republican incumbents, who had not faced an election challenge since 2011. Although still a Republican-leaning borough, since November 2015 Oradell has been steadily tilting Democratic in its voting.

Federal, state and county representation.

Oradell is located in the 5th Congressional District and is part of New Jersey's 38th state legislative district. Prior to the 2011 reapportionment following the 2010 Census, Oradell had been in the 39th state legislative district.

Politics.

As of November, 2017, there were a total of 5,750 registered voters in Oradell, of which 1,535 were registered as Democrats, 1,750 were registered as Republicans and 2451 were registered as Unaffiliated. There were 14 voters registered to other parties. Among the borough's 2010 Census population, 70.0% (vs. 57.1% in Bergen County) were registered to vote, including 94.8% of those ages 18 and over (vs. 73.7% countywide).  In the 2016 presidential election, Democrat Hillary Clinton received 2,345 votes (49.6% vs. 54.2% countywide), ahead of Republican Donald Trump with 2,209 votes (46.7% vs. 41.1%) and other candidates with 173 votes (3.7% vs. 4.6%), among the 4,796 ballots cast by the borough's 6,130 registered voters, for a turnout of 78.2% (vs. 72.5% in Bergen County).. In the 2012 presidential election, Republican Mitt Romney received 2,354 votes (53.7% vs. 43.5% countywide), ahead of Democrat Barack Obama with 1,973 votes (45.0% vs. 54.8%) and other candidates with 40 votes (0.9% vs. 0.9%), among the 4,386 ballots cast by the borough's 5,856 registered voters, for a turnout of 74.9% (vs. 70.4% in Bergen County). In the 2008 presidential election, Republican John McCain received 2,491 votes (51.9% vs. 44.5% countywide), ahead of Democrat Barack Obama with 2,245 votes (46.8% vs. 53.9%) and other candidates with 29 votes (0.6% vs. 0.8%), among the 4,798 ballots cast by the borough's 5,826 registered voters, for a turnout of 82.4% (vs. 76.8% in Bergen County). In the 2004 presidential election, Republican George W. Bush received 2,592 votes (55.5% vs. 47.2% countywide), ahead of Democrat John Kerry with 2,034 votes (43.5% vs. 51.7%) and other candidates with 32 votes (0.7% vs. 0.7%), among the 4,672 ballots cast by the borough's 5,696 registered voters, for a turnout of 82.0% (vs. 76.9% in the whole county).  In the 2017 gubernatorial election, Democrat Phil Murphy received 1,396 votes ahead of Kim Guadagno with 1,358 votes. In the 2013 gubernatorial election, Republican Chris Christie received 66.4% of the vote (1,797 cast), ahead of Democrat Barbara Buono with 32.4% (878 votes), and other candidates with 1.2% (32 votes), among the 2,753 ballots cast by the borough's 5,717 registered voters (46 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 48.2%. In the 2009 gubernatorial election, Republican Chris Christie received 1,775 votes (53.8% vs. 45.8% countywide), ahead of Democrat Jon Corzine with 1,320 votes (40.0% vs. 48.0%), Independent Chris Daggett with 158 votes (4.8% vs. 4.7%) and other candidates with 14 votes (0.4% vs. 0.5%), among the 3,302 ballots cast by the borough's 5,745 registered voters, yielding a 57.5% turnout (vs. 50.0% in the county).

Education.

The Oradell Public School District serves students in pre-kindergarten through sixth grade at Oradell Public School. As of the 2017–18 school year, the district, comprised of one school, had an enrollment of 764 students and 62.5 classroom teachers (on an FTE basis), for a student–teacher ratio of 12.2:1.  Oradell and neighboring River Edge share a combined school district for seventh through twelfth grades, River Dell Regional School District which was established in 1958. Schools in the district (with 2017-18 enrollment data from the National Center for Education Statistics) are River Dell Regional Middle School in River Edge (with 571 students in grades 7-8) and River Dell Regional High School in Oradell (with 1,064 students in grades 9-12).  Public school students from the borough, and all of Bergen County, are eligible to attend the secondary education programs offered by the Bergen County Technical Schools, which include the Bergen County Academies in Hackensack, and the Bergen Tech campus in Teterboro or Paramus. The district offers programs on a shared-time or full-time basis, with admission based on a selective application process and tuition covered by the student's home school district.  Oradell is home to Bergen Catholic High School, a private Roman Catholic college preparatory school that was founded in 1955 and is run by the Christian Brothers of Ireland, under the auspices of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Newark. Bergen Catholic serves students in ninth through twelfth grade, and had an enrollment of 667 students in the 2017–18 school year. It offers 17 sports at the varsity level, and attracts students from all over the Northern Jersey region. Oradell is also home to St. Joseph Elementary School, a Catholic school that serves children from Pre-K through grade 8, as part of the Newark Archdiocese.

Emergency services.

Oradell has a volunteer fire department that was first established in 1894, located on Kinderkamack Road. It is home to Tower 21, Squad 22, Engine 23, Engine 24, and Scuba 26.  Oradell has a police department, also located on Kinderkamack Road near the fire station.

Organizations.

Oradell has two Boy Scout troops - Troop 36 and Troop 142 - as well as two Cub Scout packs; Pack 136 and Pack 142.  Troop 36 was established on February 11, 1911. Originally known as Troop 1, it was one of the first Boy Scout troops chartered in the United States and the second troop chartered in New Jersey. Sponsored by American Legion Post 41 since 1919, Troop 36 is currently the oldest Boy Scout troop in the state of New Jersey and has the distinction of being the second-oldest continually operating troop in the United States. It is one of the largest and most decorated troops in New Jersey. Troop 36 has more than 170 Eagle Scouts.  Troop 142 was re-established in 1999, and has over 40 members and more than 30 Eagle Scouts.

Transportation.

Roads and highways.

, the borough had a total of of roadways, of which were maintained by the municipality and by Bergen County.  County Route 503 is the only significant road serving Oradell. It follows Kinderkamack Road south to north through the middle of the borough.

Public transportation.

Oradell is served by NJ Transit at the Oradell train station, located at Oradell and Maple Avenues. on the Pascack Valley Line.  NJ Transit bus service is available to and from the Port Authority Bus Terminal in Midtown Manhattan on the 165 route, while local service is offered on the 762 and 772 bus linse.  Rockland Coaches offers service on the 11T/11AT route from Stony Point, New York to the Port Authority Bus Terminal. Saddle River Tours / Ameribus provides service to the George Washington Bridge Bus Station on route 11C.

Media appearances.

Rockapella, the a cappella group best known for performing on the children's game show "Where in The World Is Carmen Sandiego?", had their first gig at a private party in Oradell on April 5, 1986.  In the 2004 movie "Taxi", a map read by Detective Washburn (Jimmy Fallon) shows a fictional uncompleted highway off the Garden State Parkway in Oradell. The approximate location of the uncompleted highway is the location of the Bergen Regional Medical Center.

Notable people.

People who were born in, residents of, or otherwise closely associated with Oradell include:

Oradell is a borough in Bergen County, New Jersey, United States. At the 2010 United States Census, the borough's population was 7,978, reflecting a decline of 69 (-0.9%) from the 8,047 counted in the 2000 Census, which had in turn increased by 23 (+0.3%) from the 8,024 counted in the 1990 Census. The borough includes a dam on the Hackensack River that forms the Oradell Reservoir. Oradell is a suburb of New York City, located approximately northwest of Midtown Manhattan.

Oradell ist eine Stadt im Bergen County, New Jersey, USA. Bei der Volkszählung von 2000 wurde eine Bevölkerungszahl von 8.047 registriert.


Biography.

Rogers was born in Savannah, Georgia and grew up on a farm in Dover, Florida.  Rogers and his wife, Rebecca Lewis, reside in Westlake, Texas, with their two children. He enjoys golf, fishing and building houses for Habitat for Humanity.

Baseball career.

Rogers graduated from Plant City High School in Florida in 1982, where he played baseball only during his senior season, hitting.375 as a right fielder (he played shortstop in his senior league). He was selected by the Texas Rangers in the 39th round of the 1982 Major League Baseball draft, and signed for $1,000. He was converted into a pitcher on the strength of his throwing arm and left-handedness. Rogers spent seven years in the minor leagues before making it to the Rangers in 1989 as a reliever. He became a starting pitcher for the club in 1993.  During his career, he played for the Texas Rangers (1989–95, 2000–02, 2004–05), the New York Yankees (1996–97), Oakland Athletics (1998–99), the New York Mets (1999), the Minnesota Twins (2003), and the Detroit Tigers (2006–08).  With the Detroit Tigers in 2006, Rogers won 17 regular season games, and excelled in the post-season with 23 straight scoreless innings over his three starts.  He is one of only three pitchers in Rangers history through 2009 to win at least 17 games in 31 starts or fewer (17 wins in 31 starts in 1995), along with Scott Feldman (17 wins in 31 starts in 2009) and Ferguson Jenkins (18 wins in 30 starts in 1978).

Oakland Athletics.

Rogers was acquired by the Oakland Athletics from the Yankees for third baseman Scott Brosius in Billy Beane's first trade as general manager. Rogers led the Oakland pitching staff in his first season in innings (238.7) and wins (16). The next season, he started 19 games, winning only 5 with a 4.30 ERA. He was traded at the deadline to the New York Mets for Terrence Long and a minor league player.

New York Mets.

During his short tenure with the New York Mets, Rogers was the pitcher who walked in the series winning run against the Atlanta Braves in Game 6 of the 1999 NLCS, costing the New York Mets the game and the series.  On June 29, 2005, after walking out onto Ameriquest Field for a pre-game warmup against the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, Rogers shoved two cameramen, knocking a camera to the ground. One of the reporters then resumed filming and Rogers shoved him again, this time kicking the camera after it had been knocked to the ground a second time. He had to be restrained and was sent home. Larry Rodriguez of Dallas/Fort Worth Metroplex' Fox Network affiliate KDFW was taken to a local hospital, complaining of shoulder, arm and leg pain. While in the hospital, Rodriguez made an official complaint of assault against Rogers. Two days after the incident, Commissioner Bud Selig suspended Rogers for 20 games and fined him $50,000. While an appeal of his suspension was pending, Rogers appeared at the 2005 All-Star Game in Detroit. The suspension was subsequently upheld by Selig. The commissioner was later overruled by independent arbitor Shyam Das, allowing Rogers to return to play after sitting out 13 games. On July 18, 2005, Rogers was charged with a Class A misdemeanor assault charge with regard to Rodriguez and a Class C misdemeanor assault charge with regard to FSN Southwest cameraman David Mammeli. Rogers was cited and released on $1,500 bond. The Class A charge was later reduced to Class C following Rogers' completion of an anger management course.  On August 11, 2005, Rogers returned to the mound against the Boston Red Sox in Fenway Park. Rogers allowed five runs and seven hits in five innings, on the way to a 16–5 Boston victory. He finished 2005 with a 3.46 ERA in 195 innings. Shortly after the regular season ended, the Rangers announced Rogers would not return to the team.  On October 5, 2005, Rodriguez filed a civil suit against Rogers and the Rangers, seeking an unspecified amount of monetary damages.

Signing with Detroit.

On December 8, 2005, Rogers signed a two-year, $16 million contract with the Detroit Tigers. Rogers ended the 2006 regular season with a record of 17–8 and a 3.84 ERA. "We've needed a guy like that for a long time. I'm glad we went out and got him.... He means a lot to our team and to guys like me", said Tigers starter Jeremy Bonderman on Rogers.  Rogers, on his first year in Detroit: "There's a lot of benefits here, by far, that you wouldn't know as a visiting player, and for me, I've been around quite a while, but I appreciate the town, the city, the people. The travel for a baseball player is very hard, but here it's not that difficult. It lends itself to being able to relax on certain days that you could get off. There's just more benefits, especially when you have the quality of people here like Dombrowski and like we have in Mr. Ilitch, those things that you can't take for granted. You add in Jim Leyland and the coaching staff here, and I just got lucky to choose this place... Right when I went in the door and met them, I knew. I knew where I was going to end up."  On March 30, 2007, ESPN reported that Rogers would miss three months after undergoing surgery for a blood clot in his pitching shoulder. He made his return on June 22 against the Atlanta Braves, pitching 6 scoreless innings and allowing two hits while earning his first win of the season.

2006 postseason.

On October 6, 2006, Rogers won his first postseason game, pitching 7 scoreless innings with eight strikeouts in a 6–0 Tigers victory against the Yankees in Game 3 of the American League Division Series. At 41 years and 330 days old, he became the oldest starting pitcher to earn his first career postseason win.  A week later on October 13, Rogers retired nine batters in a row, in Game 3 of the American League Championship Series against the Oakland Athletics, allowing only two hits and two walks in 7 scoreless innings, while striking out six and pacing the Tigers to a 3–0 victory, leaving the Tigers one win away from their first World Series appearance since 1984.  Rogers started Game 2 of the 2006 World Series on October 22, 2006. "We wanted Kenny to pitch two games at home", Leyland said. He left the game with the Tigers in the lead 3–0, pitching 8 shutout innings, retiring 10 straight batters, striking out five, allowing only two hits, with three walks, making him the oldest starting pitcher to win a World Series game, and one of only two pitchers over the age of 40 to do so (Curt Schilling would become the second in 2007).  During the first inning, Fox cameras caught a smudge on Rogers' pitching hand. Rogers said it was dirt mixed with rosin from the rosin bag and wiped it off. Major League Baseball spokesperson Rich Levin said the incident was investigated, and the substance was described as dirt. Since it was not ruled a foreign substance, per Rule 8.02, Rogers remained in the game. In the process, Rogers extended his streak to 23 shutout innings. Examination of images from previous games revealed similar smudges in two other games.

Retirement.

After injuries shortened his 2007 and 2008 seasons, Rogers ceased playing at the end of 2008. With 219 career victories, he became the seventh 200-game winner who never won 20 games in any one season, joining Milt Pappas, Jerry Reuss, Frank Tanana, Charlie Hough, Dennis Martínez and Chuck Finley. Tim Wakefield joined the group with his 200th win in 2011. Mike Mussina reached 200 wins without having a 20-win season, but recorded a 20-win season afterward. On August 6, 2011, Rogers was enshrined into the Texas Rangers Hall of Fame.  In 2010, Rogers served as a pitching coach for the Detroit Tigers during spring training. According to remarks by Justin Verlander and Jim Leyland, his ability to coach pitchers on fielding would be particularly of interest to the team.  In 2011, Rogers threw out the ceremonial first pitch at Comerica Park in game three of the ALDS.  Rogers reportedly never formally retired from Major League Baseball.

Accomplishments.

Perfect game.

Rogers pitched the 14th perfect game in baseball history on July 28, 1994 with the Rangers against the California Angels (the last no-hitter in Rangers history to date, and the only perfect game in franchise history). Soon after his feat, he appeared on ABC's "Good Morning America" on July 29, 1994, and on CBS's "Late Show with David Letterman" on August 1, 1994. He also met and appeared with musician Kenny Rogers at a function in Arlington, Texas on August 13, 1994. Rogers' 1994 perfect game was caught by Iván Rodríguez, who in June 2007 caught the no-hitter of Detroit Tiger Justin Verlander, both of whom were teammates of Rogers at the time. The game took place exactly three years to the day of the last perfect game, pitched by Dennis Martínez of the Montreal Expos on July 28, 1991.

Gold Gloves.

Known as one of the finest fielding pitchers in baseball, Rogers won five Gold Glove Awards at pitcher, including four with the Rangers and one with the Tigers. He was honored with a Fielding Bible Award in 2008 as the top fielding pitcher in MLB. Oakland Athletics general manager Billy Beane stated that Rogers "was the best fielding pitcher" he ever saw. "It's like having an extra infielder".

200 career wins.

On June 18, 2006 Rogers won his 200th game (against the Chicago Cubs at Wrigley Field), during which Detroit set a club record with eight home runs.

Pickoffs.

Rogers is second all-time in pickoffs with 93 in his career. On May 9, 2008 against the New York Yankees, Rogers picked off Wilson Betemit in the second inning for his 92nd pick-off, passing Mark Langston.

Kenneth Scott Rogers (born November 10, 1964) is an American former Major League Baseball (MLB) pitcher. During a 20-year baseball career, he pitched from 1989 to 2008 for six different teams. He won the 1996 World Series with the New York Yankees against his hometown Atlanta Braves and played in the 2006 World Series with the Detroit Tigers. In addition to being known for his fielding (winning five Gold Glove Awards), he pitched the fourteenth perfect game in major league baseball history. In 2008, he was the oldest baseball player in the American League.

Kenneth Scott „Kenny“ Rogers (* 10. November 1964 in Savannah, Georgia) ist ein ehemaliger US-amerikanischer Pitcher in der Major League Baseball.


Life and career.

1981–1996: Early life.

Beyoncé Giselle Knowles was born in Houston, Texas, to Celestine "Tina" Knowles ("née" Beyoncé), a hairdresser and salon owner, and Mathew Knowles, a Xerox sales manager. Beyoncé's name is a tribute to her mother's maiden name. Beyoncé's younger sister Solange is also a singer and a former backup dancer for Destiny's Child. Solange and Beyoncé are the first sisters to have both had No. 1 albums. Mathew is African American, and Tina is of Louisiana Creole descent (French, Native American, and African), Jewish American, Spanish, Chinese and Indonesian ancestry. Through her mother, Beyoncé is a descendant of Acadian leader Joseph Broussard. Beyoncé attended St. Mary's Montessori School in Houston, where she enrolled in dance classes. Her singing talent was discovered when dance instructor Darlette Johnson began humming a song and she finished it, able to hit the high-pitched notes. Beyoncé's interest in music and performing continued after winning a school talent show at age seven, singing John Lennon's "Imagine" to beat 15/16-year-olds. In the fall of 1990, Beyoncé enrolled in Parker Elementary School, a music magnet school in Houston, where she would

1997–2002: Destiny's Child.

The group changed their name to Destiny's Child in 1996, based upon a passage in the Book of Isaiah. In 1997, Destiny's Child released their major label debut song "Killing Time" on the soundtrack to the 1997 film "Men in Black". In November, the group released their debut single and first major hit, "No, No, No". They released their self-titled debut album in February 1998, which established the group as a viable act in the music industry, with moderate sales and winning the group three Soul Train Lady of Soul Awards for Best R&B/Soul Album of the Year, Best R&B/Soul or Rap New Artist, and Best R&B/Soul Single for "No, No, No".

2003–2005: "Dangerously in Love" and "Destiny Fulfilled".

Beyoncé's first solo recording was a feature on Jay-Z's song “'03 Bonnie & Clyde" that was released in October 2002, peaking at number four on the U.S. "Billboard" Hot 100 chart. On June 14, 2003, Beyoncé premiered songs from her first solo album "Dangerously in Love" during her first solo concert and the pay-per-view television special, “Ford Presents Beyoncé Knowles, Friends & Family, Live From Ford's 100th Anniversary Celebration in Dearborn, Michigan.” The album was released on June 24, 2003, after Michelle Williams and Kelly Rowland had released their solo efforts. The album sold 317,000 copies in its first week, debuted atop the "Billboard" 200, and has since sold 11 million copies worldwide. The album's lead single, "Crazy in Love", featuring Jay-Z, became Beyoncé's first number-one single as a solo artist in the US. The single "Baby Boy" also reached number one, and singles, "Me, Myself and I" and "Naughty Girl", both reached the top-five. The album earned Beyoncé a then record-tying five awards at the 46th Annual Grammy Awards; Best Contemporary R&B Album, Best Female R&B Vocal Performance for "Dangerously in Love 2", Best R&B Song and Best Rap/Sung Collaboration for "Crazy

2006–2007: "B'Day".

Beyoncé's second solo album "B'Day" was released on September 4, 2006, in the US, to coincide with her twenty-fifth birthday. It sold 541,000 copies in its first week and debuted atop the "Billboard" 200, becoming Beyoncé's second consecutive number-one album in the United States. The album's lead single "Déjà Vu", featuring Jay-Z, reached the top five on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart. The second international single "Irreplaceable" was a commercial success worldwide, reaching number one in Australia, Hungary, Ireland, New Zealand and the United States. "B'Day" also produced three other singles; "Ring the Alarm", "Get Me Bodied", and "Green Light" (released in the United Kingdom only).  At the 49th Annual Grammy Awards (2007), "B'Day" was nominated for five Grammy Awards, including Best Contemporary R&B Album, Best Female R&B Vocal Performance for "Ring the Alarm" and Best R&B Song and Best Rap/Sung Collaboration"for "Déjà Vu"; the Freemasons club mix

2008–2010: "I Am... Sasha Fierce" and marriage.

On April 4, 2008, Beyoncé married Jay-Z. She publicly revealed their marriage in a video montage at the listening party for her third studio album, "I Am... Sasha Fierce", in Manhattan's Sony Club on October 22, 2008. "I Am... Sasha Fierce" was released on November 18, 2008, in the United States. The album formally introduces Beyoncé's alter ego Sasha Fierce, conceived during the making of her 2003 single "Crazy in Love". It was met with generally mediocre reviews from critics, but sold 482,000 copies in its first week, debuting atop the "Billboard" 200, and giving Beyoncé her third consecutive number-one album in the US. The album featured the number-one song "Single Ladies (Put a Ring

2011–2013: "4" and motherhood.

On June 26, 2011, she became the first solo female artist to headline the main Pyramid stage at the 2011 Glastonbury Festival in over twenty years. Her fourth studio album "4" was released two days later in the US. "4" sold 310,000 copies in its first week and debuted atop the "Billboard" 200 chart, giving Beyoncé her fourth consecutive number-one album in the US. The album was preceded by two of its singles "Run the World (Girls)" and "Best Thing I Never Had". The fourth single "Love on Top" spent seven consecutive weeks at number one on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, while peaking at number 20 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, the highest peak from the album. "4" also produced four other singles; "Party", "Countdown", "I Care" and "End of Time". "Eat, Play, Love", a cover story written by Beyoncé for "Essence" that detailed her 2010 career break, won her a writing award from the New York Association of Black Journalists. In late 2011, she took the stage at New York's Roseland Ballroom for four

2013–2015: "Beyoncé".

Beyoncé embarked on The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour on April 15 in Belgrade, Serbia; the tour included 132 dates that ran through to March 2014. It became the most successful tour of her career and one of the most successful tours of all time. In May, Beyoncé's cover of Amy Winehouse's "Back to Black" with André 3000 on "The Great Gatsby" soundtrack was released. Beyoncé voiced Queen Tara in the 3D CGI animated film, "Epic", released by 20th Century Fox on 24 May, and recorded an original song for the film, "Rise Up", co-written with Sia.  On December 13, 2013, Beyoncé unexpectedly released her eponymous fifth studio album on the iTunes Store without any prior announcement or promotion. The album debuted atop the "Billboard" 200 chart, giving Beyoncé her fifth consecutive number-one album in the US. This made her the first woman in the chart's history to have her first five studio albums debut at number one. "Beyoncé" received critical acclaim and commercial success, selling one million digital copies worldwide in six days; Musically an electro-R&B album, it concerns darker themes previously unexplored in

2016–2017: "Lemonade" and collaborations.

On February 6, 2016, Beyoncé released "Formation" and its accompanying music video exclusively on the music streaming platform Tidal; the song was made available to download for free. She performed "Formation" live for the first time during the NFL Super Bowl 50 halftime show. The appearance was considered controversial as it appeared to reference the 50th anniversary of the Black Panther Party and the NFL forbids political statements in its performances. Immediately following the performance, Beyoncé announced The Formation World Tour, which highlighted stops in both North America, and Europe. It ended on October 7, with Beyoncé bringing out her husband Jay-Z, Kendrick Lamar, and Serena Williams for the last show. The tour went on to

2018–present: "Everything Is Love" and "The Lion King".

On January 4, 2018, the music video of Beyoncé and Jay-Z's "" collaboration, "Family Feud" was released. It was directed by Ava DuVernay. On March 1, 2018, DJ Khaled released "Top Off" as the first single from his forthcoming album "Father of Asahd" featuring Beyoncé, husband Jay-Z, and Future. On March 5, 2018, a joint tour with Knowles' husband Jay-Z, was leaked on Facebook. Information about the tour was later taken down. The couple announced the joint tour officially as On the Run II Tour on March 12 and simultaneously released a trailer for the tour on YouTube. On March 20, 2018, the couple traveled to Jamaica to film a music video

Artistry.

Voice and songwriting.

Jody Rosen highlights her tone and timbre as particularly distinctive, describing her voice as "one of the most compelling instruments in popular music". Her vocal abilities mean she is identified as the centerpiece of Destiny's Child. Jon Pareles of "The New York Times" commented that her voice is "velvety yet tart, with an insistent flutter and reserves of soul belting". Rosen notes that the hip hop era highly influenced Beyoncé's unique rhythmic vocal style, but also finds her quite traditionalist in her use of balladry, gospel and falsetto. Other critics praise her range and power, with Chris Richards of "The Washington Post" saying she was "capable of punctuating any beat with goose-bump-inducing whispers or full-bore diva-roars."  Beyoncé's music is generally R&B, pop and hip hop but she also incorporates soul and funk into her songs. "4" demonstrated Beyoncé's exploration of 1990s-style R&B, as well as further use of soul and hip hop than compared to previous releases. While she almost exclusively releases English songs, Beyoncé recorded several Spanish songs for "Irreemplazable" (re-recordings of songs from "B'Day"

Influences.

Beyoncé names Michael Jackson as her major musical influence. Aged five, Beyoncé attended her first ever concert where Jackson performed and she claims to have realized her purpose. When she presented him with a tribute award at the World Music Awards in 2006, Beyoncé said, "if it wasn't for Michael Jackson, I would never ever have performed." She admires Diana Ross as an "all-around entertainer". Beyoncé was heavily influenced by Tina Turner, who she said "Tina Turner is someone that I admire, because she made her strength feminine and sexy". and Whitney Houston, who she said "inspired me to get up there and do what she did." She credits Mariah Carey's singing and her song "Vision of Love" as influencing her to begin practicing vocal runs as a child. Her other musical influences include Prince, Lauryn Hill, Sade Adu, Donna Summer, Mary J. Blige, Anita Baker and Rachelle Ferrell.  The feminism and female empowerment themes on Beyoncé's second solo album "B'Day" were inspired by her role

Music videos and stage.

In 2006, Beyoncé introduced her all-female tour band Suga Mama (also the name of a song on "B'Day") which includes bassists, drummers, guitarists, horn players, keyboardists and percussionists. Her background singers, The Mamas, consist of Montina Cooper-Donnell, Crystal Collins and Tiffany Moniqué Riddick. They made their debut appearance at the 2006 BET Awards and re-appeared in the music videos for "Irreplaceable" and "Green Light". The band have supported Beyoncé in most subsequent live performances, including her 2007 concert tour The Beyoncé Experience, I Am... World Tour (2009–2010), The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour (2013–2014) and The Formation World Tour (2016).  Beyoncé has received praise for her stage presence and voice during live performances. Jarett Wieselman of the "New York Post" placed her at number one

Alter ego.

Described as being "sexy, seductive and provocative" when performing on stage, Beyoncé has said that she originally created the alter ego "Sasha Fierce" to keep that stage persona separate from who she really is. She described Sasha as being "too aggressive, too strong, too sassy [and] too sexy", stating, "I'm not like

Public image.

Beyoncé has been described as having a wide-ranging sex appeal, with music journalist Touré writing that since the release of "Dangerously in Love", she has "become a crossover sex symbol". Offstage Beyoncé says that while she likes to dress sexily, her onstage dress "is absolutely for the stage." Due to her curves and the term's catchiness, in the 2000s (decade), the media often used the term "Bootylicious" (a portmanteau of the words booty and delicious) to describe Beyoncé, the term popularized by Destiny's Child's single of the same name. In 2006, it was added to the "Oxford English Dictionary".  In September 2010, Beyoncé made her runway modelling debut at Tom Ford's Spring/Summer 2011 fashion show. She was named "World's Most Beautiful Woman" by "People" and the "Hottest Female Singer of All Time" by "Complex" in 2012. In January 2013, "GQ" placed her on its cover, featuring her atop its "100 Sexiest Women of the 21st Century" list. VH1 listed her at number 1 on its 100 Sexiest Artists list. Several wax figures of Beyoncé are found at Madame Tussauds Wax Museums in major cities around the world, including New York, Washington, D.C., Amsterdam, Bangkok, Hollywood and Sydney.  According to Italian fashion designer Roberto Cavalli, Beyoncé uses different fashion styles to work with her music while performing. Her mother co-wrote a book, published in 2002, titled "Destiny's Style" an account of how fashion

Personal life.

Marriage and children.

Beyoncé started a relationship with Jay-Z after their collaboration on "'03 Bonnie & Clyde", which appeared on his seventh album "" (2002). Beyoncé appeared as Jay-Z's girlfriend in the music video for the song, fuelling speculation about their relationship. On April 4, 2008, Beyoncé and Jay-Z married without publicity., the couple had sold a combined 300 million records together. They are known for their private relationship, although they have appeared to become more relaxed in recent years. Both have acknowledged difficulty that arose in their marriage after Jay-Z had an affair.  Beyoncé suffered a miscarriage around 2010 or 2011, describing it as "the saddest thing" she had ever endured. She returned to the studio and wrote music to cope with the loss. In April 2011, Beyoncé and Jay-Z traveled to Paris to shoot the album cover for "4", and she unexpectedly became pregnant in Paris. In August, the couple attended the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards, at which Beyoncé performed "Love on Top" and ended the performance by revealing she was pregnant. Her appearance helped that year's MTV Video Music Awards become the most-watched

Activism.

Beyoncé performed "America the Beautiful" at President Obama's 2009 presidential inauguration, as well as "At Last" during the first inaugural dance at the Neighborhood Ball two days later. The couple held a fundraiser at Jay-Z's 40/40 Club in Manhattan for President Obama's 2012 presidential campaign which raised $4 million. In the 2012 presidential election, the singer voted for President Obama. She performed the American national anthem at his second inauguration in January 2013.  "The Washington Post" reported in May 2015, that Beyoncé attended a major celebrity fundraiser for 2016 presidential nominee Hillary Clinton. She also headlined for Clinton in a concert held the weekend before Election Day the next year. In this performance, Beyoncé and her entourage of backup dancers wore pantsuits; a clear allusion to Clinton's frequent dress-of-choice. The backup dancers also wore "I'm with her" tee shirts, the

Wealth.

"Forbes" magazine began reporting on Beyoncé's earnings in 2008, calculating that the $80 million earned between June 2007 to June 2008, for her music, tour, films and clothing line made her the world's best-paid music personality at the time, above Madonna and Celine Dion. It placed her fourth on the Celebrity 100 list in 2009 and ninth on the "Most Powerful Women in the World" list in 2010. The following year, the magazine placed her eighth on the "Best-Paid Celebrities Under 30" list, having earned $35 million in the past year for her clothing line and endorsement deals. In 2012, "Forbes" placed Beyoncé at number 16 on the Celebrity 100 list, twelve places lower than three years ago yet still having earned $40 million in the past year for her album "4", clothing line and endorsement deals. In the same year, Beyoncé and Jay-Z placed at number one on the "World's Highest-Paid Celebrity Couples", for collectively earning $78 million. The couple made it into the previous year's "Guinness World Records" as the "highest-earning power

Legacy.

Beyoncé’s success has led to her becoming a cultural icon and earning her the nickname "Queen Bey". In "The New Yorker", music critic Jody Rosen described Beyoncé as "the most important and compelling popular musician of the twenty-first century... the result, the logical end point, of a century-plus of pop." When "The Observer" named her Artist of the Decade in 2009, Llewyn-Smith wrote:  Writing for "Entertainment Weekly", Alex Suskind noticed how Beyoncé was the decade’s (2010s) defining pop star, stating that "no one dominated music in the 2010s like Queen Bey", explaining that her "songs, album rollouts, stage presence, social justice initiatives, and disruptive public relations strategy have influenced the way we’ve viewed music since 2010." British publication "NME" also shared similar thoughts on her impact in the 2010s, including Beyoncé on their list of the "10 Artists Who Defined The Decade", explaning: "So much more than a popstar, Beyonce has become an outspoken advocate for civil rights, feminism and self-expression, proving that it’s possible to be politically engaged and still hold down an extremely successful career in mainstream entertainment."  In 2013, Beyoncé made the "Time" 100 list, with Baz Luhrmann writing:  In 2014, Beyoncé was listed again on the "Time" 100 and also featured on the cover of the issue. In 2018, "Rolling Stone" included her on its Millennial 100 list and Brittany Spanos wrote: "For 20 years, she’s been a stately pop and R&B presence: Destiny's Child countered the glaringly white bubblegum of the time with unmatchable vocals and choreography, and their success made her solo career fail-proof. It's one reason Beyoncé may be the most universally beloved artist of the Gen Y. A figure of talent, beauty and grace, Queen Bey has developed into the most exciting artist of the millennium as well as a political figure, setting the tone for how other major stars speak about feminism and the Black Lives Matter movement with the release of her landmark "Lemonade" album in 2016."  Beyoncé's work has influenced numerous artists including Adele, Alexis Jordan, Ariana Grande, Azealia Banks. Paul McCartney, Bebe Rexha, Bridgit Mendler, Camila Cabello, Lizzo, Britney Spears, Cheryl, Demi Lovato, Dua Lipa, Ellie Goulding, Ed Sheeran, Fifth Harmony, Florence Welch, Grimes, Hwasa, Iggy Azalea, Jessica Sanchez, Jessie J, JoJo, Kelly Rowland, Kendrick Lamar, Lady Gaga, Little Mix, Meghan Trainor, Nicole Scherzinger, Normani, Millie Bobby Brown, Rihanna, Rita Ora, Ryan Destiny SZA, Sam Smith, Tinashe, and Zendaya.  American indie rock band White Rabbits also cited her an inspiration for their third album "Milk Famous" (2012), and Irish singer Sinéad O'Connor cited her as the inspiration for

Achievements.

Beyoncé has received numerous awards. As a solo artist she has sold over 17 million albums in the US, and over 75 million worldwide (as of February 2013). Having sold over 100 million records worldwide (a further 60 million additionally with Destiny's Child), Beyoncé is one of the best-selling music artists of all time. The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) listed Beyoncé as the top certified artist of the 2000s decade, with a total of 64 certifications. Her songs "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)", "Halo", and "Irreplaceable" are some of the best-selling singles of all time worldwide. In 2009, "The Observer" named her the Artist of the Decade and "Billboard" named her the Top Female Artist and Top Radio Songs Artist of the Decade. In 2010, "Billboard" named her in their Top 50 R&B/Hip-Hop Artists of the Past 25 Years list at number 15. In 2012 VH1 ranked her third on their list of the "100 Greatest Women in Music", behind Mariah Carey and Madonna. In 2002, she received Songwriter of the Year from American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers becoming the First African American woman to win the award. In 2004 and 2019, she received NAACP Image Award for Entertainer of the Year and the Soul Train Music Award for Sammy Davis Jr. – Entertainer of the Year. In 2005, she also received APEX Award at the Trumpet Award honoring achievements of Black African Americans. In 2007, Beyoncé received the International Artist of Excellence award by the American Music Awards. She also received Honorary Otto at the Bravo Otto. The following year, she received the Legend Award for Outstanding Contribution to the Arts at the World Music Awards and Career Achievement Award at the LOS40 Music Awards. In 2010, she received Award of Honor for Artist of the Decade at the NRJ Music Award and at the 2011 Billboard Music Awards, Beyoncé received the inaugural Billboard Millennium Award. Beyoncé received the Michael Jackson Video Vanguard Award at the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards and was honored as Honorary Mother of the Year at the Australian Mother of the Year Award in Barnardo's Australia for her Humanitarian Effort in the

Business and ventures.

In 2010, Beyoncé founded her own entertainment company Parkwood Entertainment which formed as an imprint based from Columbia Records, the company began as a production unit for videos and films in 2008. Parkwood Entertainment is named after a street in Houston, Texas where Beyoncé once lived. With headquarters in New York City, the company serves as an umbrella for the entertainer's various brands in music, movies, videos, and fashion. The staff of Parkwood Entertainment have experiences in arts and entertainment, from filmmaking and video production to web and fashion design. In addition to departments in marketing, digital, creative, publicity, fashion design and merchandising, the company houses a state-of-the-art editing suite, where Beyoncé works on content for her worldwide tours, music videos, and television specials. Parkwood Entertainment's first production was the musical biopic "Cadillac Records" (2008), in which Beyoncé starred and co-produced. The company has also distributed Beyoncé's albums such as her self-titled fifth studio album (2013), "Lemonade" (2016) and The Carters, "Everything is Love" (2018). Beyoncé has also signed other artists to Parkwood such as Chloe x Halle, who performed at Super Bowl LIII in February 2019.

Endorsements.

Beyoncé has worked with Pepsi since 2002, and in 2004 appeared in a Gladiator-themed commercial with Britney Spears, Pink, and Enrique Iglesias. In 2012, Beyoncé signed a $50 million deal to endorse Pepsi. The Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPINET) wrote Beyoncé an open letter asking her to reconsider the deal because of the unhealthiness of the product and to donate the proceeds to a medical organisation. Nevertheless, NetBase found that Beyoncé's campaign was the most talked about endorsement in April 2013, with a 70 percent positive audience response to the commercial and print ads.  Beyoncé has worked with Tommy Hilfiger for the fragrances True Star (singing a cover version of "Wishing on a Star") and True Star Gold; she also promoted Emporio Armani's Diamonds fragrance in 2007. Beyoncé launched her first official fragrance, Heat, in 2010. The commercial, which featured the 1956 song "Fever", was shown after the water shed in the United Kingdom as it begins

Fashion lines.

Beyoncé and her mother introduced House of Deréon, a contemporary women's fashion line, in 2005. The concept is inspired by three generations of women in their family, with the name paying tribute to Beyoncé's grandmother, Agnèz Deréon, a respected seamstress. According to Tina, the overall style of the line best reflects her and Beyoncé's taste and style. Beyoncé and her mother founded their family's company Beyond Productions, which provides the licensing and brand management for House of Deréon, and its junior collection, Deréon. House of Deréon pieces were exhibited in Destiny's Child's shows and tours, during their "Destiny Fulfilled" era. The collection features sportswear, denim offerings with fur, outerwear and accessories that include handbags and footwear, and are available at department and specialty stores across the US and Canada.  In 2005, Beyoncé teamed up with House of Brands, a shoe company, to produce a range of footwear for House of Deréon. In January 2008, Starwave Mobile launched Beyoncé Fashion Diva, a "high-style" mobile game with a social networking component, featuring the House of Deréon collection. In July 2009, Beyoncé and her mother launched

Philanthropy.

After Hurricane Katrina in 2005, Beyoncé and Rowland founded the Survivor Foundation to provide transitional housing for victims in the Houston area, to which Beyoncé contributed an initial $250,000. The foundation has since expanded to work with other charities in the city, and also provided relief following Hurricane Ike three years later.  Beyoncé participated in George Clooney and Wyclef Jean's telethon and was named the official face of the limited edition CFDA "Fashion For Haiti" T-shirt, made by Theory

Tours and residencies.

Headlining tours  Co-headlining tours  Concert residencies

Beyoncé Giselle Knowles-Carter ( ; born September 4, 1981) is an American singer, songwriter, record producer, dancer, and actress. Born and raised in Houston, Texas, Beyoncé performed in various singing and dancing competitions as a child. She rose to fame in the late 1990s as the lead singer of Destiny's Child, one of the best-selling girl groups of all time.

Beyoncé Giselle Knowles-Carter [] (* 4. September 1981 in Houston, Texas) ist eine US-amerikanische R&B- und Pop-Sängerin, Schauspielerin und Songwriterin. Bis 2005 war sie Mitglied der R&B-Girlgroup Destiny’s Child. Seit 2003 ist sie als Solokünstlerin tätig; ihre sechs Alben erreichten alle Platz eins der amerikanischen Billboard-Charts.


Background and early life.

Ptolemy XII was the oldest son of Ptolemy IX Soter. The identity of his mother is uncertain. Ptolemy IX was married twice, to his sister Cleopatra IV from around 119 BC until he was forced to divorce her in 115 BC, and secondly to another sister Cleopatra Selene from 115 BC, until he abandoned her during his flight from Alexandria in 107 BC. However, Cicero and other ancient sources refer to Ptolemy XII as an illegitimate son; Pompeius Trogus called him a "nothos" (bastard), while Pausanias wrote that Ptolemy IX had no legitimate sons at all. Some scholars have therefore proposed that his mother was a concubine – probably an Alexandrian Greek, but possibly a member of the Egyptian elite. However, Chris Bennett argues that Ptolemy XII's mother was Cleopatra IV and that he was considered illegitimate simply because she had never been co-regent. This theory is endorsed by the historian Adrian Goldsworthy.  The date of Ptolemy XII's birth is thus uncertain. If he was the son of Cleopatra IV, he was probably born around 117 BC and followed around a year later by a brother, known as Ptolemy of Cyprus. In 117 BC, Ptolemy IX was governor of Cyprus, but in 116 BC his father Ptolemy VIII died and he returned to Alexandria, becoming the junior co-regent of his grandmother Cleopatra II and his mother Cleopatra III. Cleopatra II died in 115 BC and shortly afterwards Cleopatra III forced Ptolemy IX to divorce his sister-wife Cleopatra IV, who was sent off to marry the Seleucid king Antiochus IX Cyzicenus. She was murdered by his rival in 114 BC. Ptolemy IX meanwhile had been remarried to Cleopatra Selene, with whom he had a daughter, Berenice III. By 109 BC, Ptolemy IX had begun the process of introducing Ptolemy XII to public life. In that year, Ptolemy XII served as the Priest of Alexander and Ptolemaic kings (an office which Ptolemy IX otherwise held himself throughout his reign) and had a festival established in his honour in Cyrene. Relations between Ptolemy IX and his mother deteriorated. In 107 BC she forced him to flee Alexandria for Cyprus and replaced him as co-regent with his younger brother Ptolemy X Alexander. Justin mentions that Ptolemy IX left two sons behind when he fled Alexandria. Chris Bennett argues that these sons should be identified as Ptolemy XII and Ptolemy of Cyprus.  Ptolemy IX made an attempt to reclaim the Ptolemaic throne in 103 BC, by invading Judaea. At the start of this war, Cleopatra III sent her grandsons to the island of Kos along with her treasure in order to protect them. There, Ptolemy XII and Ptolemy of Cyprus seem to have been captured by Mithridates VI of Pontus in 88 BC, at the outbreak of the First Mithridatic War. Ironically, their father had reclaimed the Egyptian throne around the same time. They were held by Mithridates as hostages until 80 BC. At some point during this period, probably in 81 or 80 BC, they were engaged to two of Mithridates' daughters, Mithridatis and Nyssa. Meanwhile, Ptolemy IX died in December 81 BC and was succeeded by Berenice III. In April 80 BC, Ptolemy XI Alexander II, the son of Ptolemy X, was installed as her co-regent, promptly murdered her, and was himself killed by an angry Alexandrian mob. The Alexandrians then summoned Ptolemy XII to return to Egypt and assume the kingship; his brother became king of Cyprus, where he would reign until 58 BC.

First reign (80–58 BC).

On his arrival in Alexandria, in April 80 BC, Ptolemy XII was proclaimed king. His reign was officially dated as having begun on the death of his father in 81 BC, thereby eliding the reigns of Berenice III and Ptolemy X. Shortly after his accession, Ptolemy married Cleopatra Tryphaena. Her parentage is uncertain - modern scholarship often interprets her as a sister, but Christopher Bennett argues that she was a daughter of Ptolemy X. The couple became co-regents and were encorporated into the Ptolemaic dynastic cult together as the "Theoi Philopatores kai Philadelphoi" (Father-loving and Sibling-loving Gods). This title was probably meant to reinforce Ptolemy XII's claim to the throne in the face of claims that his parentage meant that he was an illegitimate son of Ptolemy IX and therefore not entitled to rule.  In 76 BC, the High Priest of Ptah in Memphis died and Ptolemy XII travelled to Memphis to appoint his fourteen-year-old son, Pasherienptah III, as the new High Priest. In turn, Pasherienptah III crowned Ptolemy as Pharaoh and then went to Alexandria, where he was appointed as Ptolemy XII's 'prophet'. These encounters are described in detail on Pasherienptah's funerary stela, "Stele BM 866", and they demonstrate the extremely close and mutually reinforcing relationship that had developed between the Ptolemaic kings and the Memphite priesthood by this date.  In August 69 BC, Cleopatra V ceases to be mentioned as co-regent. The images of her that had been carved on the main pylon of the Temple of Horus at Edfu were covered over at this time. The reason for this sudden shift is unknown, but presumably she was divorced at this time. Ptolemy adopted a new royal epithet "Neos Dionysos" (New Dionysus) at some time after this; Chris Bennett proposes that the epithet was linked to the break with Cleopatra.

Relations with Rome.

When Ptolemy X had died in 88 BC, his will had left Egypt to Rome in the event that he had no surviving heirs. Although the Romans had not acted on this, the possibility that they might forced the following Ptolemies to adopt a careful and respectful policy towards Rome. Ptolemy XII continued this pro-Roman policy in order to protect himself and secure his dynasty's fate. However, Egypt came under increasing Roman pressure nevertheless. In 65 BC, the Roman censor, Marcus Licinius Crassus proposed that the Romans annex of Egypt. This proposal failed in the face of opposition from Quintus Lutatius Catulus and Cicero. In light of this crisis, however, Ptolemy XII began to expend significant resources on bribing Roman politicians to support his interests. In 63 BC, when Pompey was reorganising Syria and Anatolia following his victory in the Third Mithridatic War, Ptolemy sought to form a relationship with Pompey by sending him a golden crown. Ptolemy also provided pay and maintenance for 8,000 cavalry to Pompey for his war with Judaea. He also asked Pompey to come to Alexandria and help to put down a revolt which had apparently broken out in Egypt; Pompey refused.  The money required for these bribes was enormous. Initially, Ptolemy XII funded them by raising taxes. A strike by farmers of royal land in Herakleopolis which is attested in a papyrus document from 61/60 BC has been interpreted as a sign of widespread discontent with this taxation. Increasingly, Ptolemy XII also had recourse to loans from Roman bankers, such as Gaius Rabirius Postumus. This gave the Romans even more leverage over his regime and meant that the fate of Egypt became an increasingly immediate issue in Roman politics.  Finally, in 60 BC, Ptolemy XII travelled to Rome, where the First Triumvirate, composed of Pompey, Crassus, and Julius Caesar, had just taken power, in order to negotiate official recognition of his kingship. Ptolemy paid Pompey and Caesar six thousand talents - an enormous sum, equivalent to the total annual revenue of Egypt. In return, a formal alliance or "foedus" was formed. The Roman Senate recognised Ptolemy as king and Caesar passed a law that added Ptolemy to the list of friends and allies of the people of Rome ("amici et socii populi Romani") in 59 BC. In 58 BC, the Romans took control of Cyprus, causing its ruler, Ptolemy XII's brother, to commit suicide. Ptolemy XII took no action in response to his brother's death and Cyprus remained a Roman province until returned to Ptolemaic control by Julius Caesar in 48 BC.

Exile in Rome (58-55 BC).

The bribery policy had been unpopular in Egypt for a long time, both because of its obsequiousness and because of the heavy tax burden that it entailed, but the annexation of Cyprus demonstrated its failure and enraged the people of Alexandria. The courtiers in Alexandria forced Ptolemy to step down from the thone and leave Egypt. He was replaced by his daughter Berenice IV, who ruled jointly with Cleopatra Tryphaena, who is probably Ptolemy XII's former wife but may be an otherwise unattested daughter. Following Cleopatra Tryphaena's death a year later, Berenice ruled alone from 57 to 56 BC. Taking his daughter Cleopatra with him, Ptolemy fled for the safety of Rome. On the way, he stopped in Rhodes where the exiled Cato the Younger offered him advice on how to approach the Roman aristocracy, but no tangible support. In Rome, Ptolemy XII prosecuted his restitution but met opposition from certain members of the Senate. His old ally Pompey housed the exiled king and his daughter and argued on behalf of Ptolemy's restoration in the Senate. During this time, Roman creditors realized that they would not get the return on their loans to the king without his restoration. In 57 BC, pressure from the Roman public forced the Senate's decision to restore Ptolemy. However, Rome did not wish to invade Egypt to restore the king, since the Sibylline books stated that if an Egyptian king asked for help and Rome proceeded with military intervention, great dangers and difficulties would occur.  Egyptians heard rumours of Rome's possible intervention and disliked the idea of their exiled king's return. The Roman historian Cassius Dio wrote that a group of one hundred men were sent as envoys from Egypt to make their case to the Romans against Ptolemy XII's restoration. Ptolemy seemingly had their leader Dio of Alexandria poisoned and most of the other protesters killed before they reached Rome.

Restoration and Second Reign (55–51 BC).

In 55 BC, Ptolemy paid Aulus Gabinius 10,000 talents to invade Egypt and so recovered his throne. Gabinius defeated the Egyptian frontier forces, marched to Alexandria, and attacked the palace, where the palace guards surrendered without fighting. The exact date of Ptolemy XII's restoration is unknown; the earliest possible date of restoration was 4 January 55 BC and the latest possible date was 24 June the same year. Upon regaining power, Ptolemy acted against Berenice, and along with her supporters, she was executed. Ptolemy XII maintained his grip on power in Alexandria with the assistance of around two thousand Roman soldiers and mercenaries, known as the Gabiniani. This arrangement enabled Rome to exert power over Ptolemy, who ruled until he fell ill in 51 BC. On 31 May 52 BC his daughter Cleopatra VII was named as his coregent.  At the moment of Ptolemy XII's restoration, Roman creditors demanded the repayment of their loans, but the Alexandrian treasury could not repay the king's debt. Learning from previous mistakes, Ptolemy XII shifted popular resentment of tax increases from himself to a Roman, his main creditor Gaius Rabirius Postumus, whom he appointed "dioiketes" (minister of finance), and so in charge of debt repayment. Perhaps Gabinius had also put pressure on Ptolemy XII to appoint Rabirius, who now had direct access to the financial resources of Egypt but exploited the land too much. The king had to imprison Rabirius to protect his life from the angry people, then allowed him to escape. Rabirius immediately left Egypt and went back to Rome at the end of 54 BC. There he was accused "de repetundis", but defended by Cicero and probably acquitted. Ptolemy also permitted a debasing of the coinage as an attempt to repay the loans. Near the end of Ptolemy's reign, the value of Egyptian coinage dropped to about fifty per cent of its value at the beginning of his first reign.  Ptolemy XII died sometime before 22 March 51 BC. His will stipulated that Cleopatra VII and her brother Ptolemy XIII should rule Egypt together. To safeguard his interests, he made the people of Rome executors of his will. Since the Senate was busy with its own affairs, his ally Pompey approved the will. According to the author Mary Siani-Davies:

Regime.

Generally, descriptions of Ptolemy XII portray him as weak and self-indulgent, drunk, or a lover of music. According to Strabo, his practice of playing the flute earned him the ridiculing sobriquet "Auletes" ('flute player'):

Marriage and issue.

Ptolemy married his sister Cleopatra V Tryphaena who was with certainty the mother of his eldest known child, Berenice IV. Cleopatra V disappears from court records a few months after the birth of Ptolemy's second known child, and probably hers, Cleopatra VII in 69 BC. The identity of the mother of the last three of Ptolemy's children, in birth order Arsinoe IV, Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator, and Ptolemy XIV, is also uncertain. One hypothesis contends that possibly they (and perhaps Cleopatra VII) were Ptolemy XII's children with a theoretical half Macedonian Greek, half Egyptian woman belonging to a priestly family from Memphis in northern Egypt, but this is only speculation.  The philosopher Porphyry (c. 234 – c. 305 AD) wrote of Ptolemy XII's daughter Cleopatra VI Tryphaena, who reigned alongside her sister Berenice. The Greek historian Strabo (c. 63 BC – c. AD 24) stated that the king had only three daughters of whom the eldest has been referred to as Berenice IV. This suggests that the Cleopatra Tryphaena mentioned by Porphyry may not have been Ptolemy's daughter, but his wife. Many experts now identify Cleopatra VI with Cleopatra V.

Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos Philopator Philadelphos (, "Ptolemaios Néos Diónysos Philopátōr Philádelphos" "Ptolemy New Dionysus, Father-lover, Sibling-lover"; – before 22 March 51 BC) was a king of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Ancient Egypt. He was commonly known as Auletes (, "Aulētḗs" "the Flautist"), referring to the king's love of playing the flute in Dionysian festivals. As a member of the Ptolemaic dynasty, he was a descendant of its founder, Ptolemy I.

Ptolemaios XII. (auch Theos Philopator Philadelphos Neos Dionysos; Spottname: Auletes ("Flötenspieler"); * zwischen 115 und 107 v. Chr.; † Februar/März (?) 51 v. Chr.) war ein König von Ägypten. Er war ein Sohn des Ptolemaios IX. Soter II., bestieg 80 v. Chr. den Thron (Krönung in Alexandria erst 76 v. Chr.), wurde 58 v. Chr. vertrieben und ging nach Rom. 55 v. Chr. konnte er seine Wiedereinsetzung mit römischer Hilfe erreichen und war daraufhin erneut bis zu seinem Tod (51 v. Chr.) ägyptischer König. Den Beinamen "Neos Dionysos" wählte er aufgrund des vorherrschenden Kultes des Gottes Dionysos, der dem ägyptischen Osiris entspricht. Er ist der Vater der berühmten Kleopatra VII.


Definitions of value and labor.

When speaking in terms of a labor theory of value, "value," without any qualifying adjective should theoretically refer to the amount of labor necessary to produce a marketable commodity, including the labor necessary to develop any real capital used in the production. Both David Ricardo and Karl Marx tried to quantify and embody all labor components in order to develop a theory of the real price, or natural price of a commodity. The labor theory of value as presented by Adam Smith did not require the quantification of past labor, nor did it deal with the labor needed to create the tools (capital) that might be used in producing a commodity. Smith's theory of value was very similar to the later utility theories in that Smith proclaimed that a commodity was worth whatever labor it would command in others (value in trade) or whatever labor it would "save" the self (value in use), or both. However, this "value" is subject to supply and demand at a particular time: The real price of every thing, what every thing really costs to the man who wants to acquire it, is the toil and trouble of acquiring it. What every thing is really worth to the man who has acquired it, and who wants to dispose of it or exchange it for something else, is the toil and trouble which it can save to himself, and which it can impose upon other people. ("Wealth of Nations" Book 1, chapter V)  Smith's theory of price (which for many is the same as value) has nothing to do with the past labor spent in producing a commodity. It speaks only of the labor that can be "commanded" or "saved" at present. If there is no use for a buggy whip, then the item is economically worthless in trade or in use, regardless of all the labor spent in creating it.

Distinctions of economically pertinent labor.

Value "in use" is the usefulness of this commodity, its utility. A classical paradox often comes up when considering this type of value. In the words of Adam Smith: The word value, it is to be observed, has two different meanings, and sometimes expresses the utility of some particular object, and sometimes the power of purchasing other goods which the possession of that object conveys. The one may be called "value in use"; the other, "value in exchange." The things which have the greatest value in use have frequently little or no value in exchange; and, on the contrary, those which have the greatest value in exchange have frequently little or no value in use. Nothing is more useful than water: but it will purchase scarce anything; scarce anything can be had in exchange for it. A diamond, on the contrary, has scarce any value in use; but a very great quantity of other goods may frequently be had in exchange for

LTV and the labor process.

Since the term "value" is understood in the LTV as denoting something created by labor, and its "magnitude" as something proportional to the quantity of labor performed, it is important to explain how the labor process both preserves value and adds new value in the commodities it creates.  The value of a commodity increases in proportion to the duration and intensity of labor performed on average for its production. Part of what the LTV means by "socially necessary" is that the value only increases in proportion to this labor as it is performed with average skill and average productivity. So though workers may labor with greater skill or more productivity than others, these more skillful and more productive workers thus produce more value through the production of greater quantities of the finished commodity. Each unit still bears the same value as all the others of the same class of commodity. By working sloppily, unskilled workers may drag down the average skill of labor, thus increasing the average labor time necessary for the production of each unit commodity. But these unskillful workers cannot hope to sell the result of their labor process at a higher price (as opposed to value) simply because they have spent more time than other workers producing the same kind of commodities.  However, production not only involves labor, but also certain means of labor: tools, materials, power plants and so on. These means of labor—also known as means of production—are often the product of another labor process as well. So the labor process inevitably involves these means of production that already enter the process with a certain amount of value. Labor also requires other means of production that are not produced with labor and therefore bear no value: such as sunlight, air, uncultivated land, unextracted minerals, etc. While useful, even crucial to the production process, these bring no value to that process. In terms of means of production resulting from another labor process, LTV treats the magnitude of value of these produced means of production as

Relation between values and prices.

One issue facing the LTV is the relationship between value quantities on one hand and prices on the other. If a commodity's value is not the same as its price, and therefore the magnitudes of each likely differ, then what is the relation between the two, if any? Various LTV schools of thought provide different answers to this question. For example, some argue that value in the sense of the amount of labor embodied in a good acts as a center of gravity for price.  However, most economists would say that cases where pricing is given as approximately equal to the value of the labour embodied, are in fact only special cases. In General Theory pricing most usually fluctuates. The standard formulation is that prices normally include a level of income for "capital" and "land". These incomes are known as "profit" and "rent" respectively. Yet Marx made the point that value cannot be placed upon labour as a commodity, because capital is a constant, whereas profit is a variable, not an income; thus explaining the importance of profit in relation to pricing variables.  In Book 1, chapter VI, Adam Smith writes: The real value of all the different component parts of price, it must be observed, is measured by the quantity of labour which they can, each of them, purchase or command. Labour measures the value not only of that part of price which resolves itself into labour, but of that which resolves itself into rent, and of that which resolves itself

History.

Origins.

The labor theory of value has developed over many centuries. It had no single originator, but rather many different thinkers arrived at the same conclusion independently. Aristotle is claimed to hold to this view. Some writers trace its origin to Thomas Aquinas. In his "Summa Theologiae" (1265–1274) he expresses the view that "... value can, does and should increase in relation to the amount of labor which has been expended in the improvement of commodities." Scholars such as Joseph Schumpeter have cited

Adam Smith and David Ricardo.

Adam Smith held that, in a primitive society, the amount of labor put into producing a good determined its exchange value, with exchange value meaning in this case the amount of labor a good can purchase. However, according to Smith, in a more advanced society the market price is no longer proportional to labor cost since the value of the good now includes compensation for the owner of the means of production: "The whole produce of labour does not always belong to the labourer. He must in most cases share it with the owner of the stock which employs him." "Nevertheless, the

Anarchism.

Pierre Joseph Proudhon's mutualism and American individualist anarchists such as Josiah Warren, Lysander Spooner and Benjamin Tucker adopted the liberal Labor Theory of Value of classical economics and used it to criticize capitalism while favoring a non-capitalist market system.  Warren is widely regarded as the first American anarchist, and the four-page weekly paper he edited during 1833, "The Peaceful Revolutionist", was the first anarchist periodical published. Cost the limit of price was a maxim coined by Warren, indicating a (prescriptive) version of the labor theory of value. Warren maintained that the just compensation for labor (or for its product) could only be an equivalent amount of labor (or a product embodying an equivalent amount). Thus, profit, rent, and interest were considered unjust economic arrangements. In keeping with the tradition of Adam Smith's "The Wealth of Nations", the "cost" of labor is considered to be the subjective cost; i.e., the amount of suffering involved in it. He put his theories to the test by establishing an experimental "labor for labor store" called the Cincinnati Time Store at the corner of 5th and Elm

Karl Marx.

Contrary to popular belief Marx never used the term "Labor theory of value" in any of his works but used the term Law of value, Marx opposed "ascribing a supernatural creative power to labor", arguing as such:  Here, Marx was distinguishing between exchange value (the subject of the LTV) and use value. Marx used the concept of "socially necessary labor time" to introduce a social perspective distinct from his predecessors and neoclassical economics. Whereas most economists start with the individual's perspective, Marx started with the perspective of society "as a whole". "Social production" involves a complicated and interconnected division of labor of a wide variety of people who

Criticisms.

The Marxist labor theory of value has been criticised on several counts. Some argue that it predicts that profits will be higher in labor-intensive industries than in capital-intensive industries, which would be contradicted by measured empirical data inherent in quantitative analysis. This is sometimes referred to as the "Great Contradiction". In volume 3 of Capital, Marx explains why profits are not distributed according to which industries are the most labor-intensive and why this is consistent with his theory. Whether or not this is consistent with the labor theory of value as presented in volume 1 has been a topic of debate. According to Marx, surplus value is extracted by the capitalist class as a whole and then distributed according to the amount of total capital, not just the variable component. In the example given earlier, of making a cup of coffee, the constant capital involved in production is the coffee beans themselves, and the variable capital is the value added by the coffee maker. The value added by the coffee maker is dependent on its technological capabilities, and the coffee maker can only add so much total value to cups of coffee over its lifespan. The amount of value added to the product is thus the amortization of the value of the coffeemaker. We can also note that not all products have equal proportions of value added by amortized capital. Capital intensive industries such as finance may have a large contribution of capital, while labor-intensive industries like traditional agriculture would have a relatively small one. Critics argue that this turns the LTV into a macroeconomic theory, when it was supposed to explain the exchange ratios of individual commodities (making it a microeconomic theory), yet Marx was now maintaining that these ratios must diverge from their labour ratios. Critics thus held that Marx's proposed solution to the "great contradiction" was not so much a solution as it was sidestepping the issue.  Steve Keen argues that Marx's idea that only labor can produce value rests on the idea that as capital depreciates over its use, then this is transferring its exchange-value to the product. Keen argues that it is not clear why the value of the machine should depreciate at the same rate it is lost. Keen uses an analogy with labor: If workers receive a subsistence wage and the working day exhausts the capacity to labor, it could be argued that the worker has "depreciated" by the amount equivalent to the subsistence wage. However this depreciation is not the limit of value a worker can add in a day (indeed this is critical to Marx's idea that labor is fundamentally exploited). If it were, then the production of a surplus would be impossible. According to Keen, a machine could have a use-value greater than its exchange-value, meaning it could, along with labor, be a source of surplus. Keen claims that Marx almost reached such a conclusion in the Grundrisse but never developed it any further. Keen further observes that while Marx insisted that the contribution of machines to production is solely their use-value and not their exchange-value, he routinely treated the use-value and exchange-value of a machine as identical, despite the fact that this would contradict his claim that the two were unrelated. Marxists respond by arguing that use-value and exchange-value are incommensurable magnitudes; to claim that a machine can add "more use-value" than it is worth in value-terms is a category error. According to Marx, a machine by definition cannot be a source of "human" labor. Keen responds by arguing that the labor theory of value only works if the use-value and exchange-value of a machine are identical, as Marx argued that machines cannot create surplus value since as their use-value depreciates along with their exchange-value - they simply transfer it to the new product but create no new value in the process. Keen's machinery argument can also be applied to slavery based modes of production, which also profit from extracting more use value from the laborers than they return to laborers.  In their work "Capital as Power", Shimshon Bichler and Jonathan Nitzan argue that while Marxists have claimed to produce empirical evidence of the labor theory of value via numerous studies which show

A generalization.

Some authors proposed to reconsider the role of production equipment (constant capital) in production of value, following hints in "Das Kapital", where Marx described the functional role of machinery in production processes in Chapter XV (Machinery and Modern Industry).

The labor theory of value (LTV) is a theory of value that argues that the economic value of a good or service is determined by the total amount of "socially necessary labor" required to produce it.

Die Arbeitswerttheorie (Kurzform AWT, auch "Arbeitswertlehre") ist ein Ansatz aus der klassischen Nationalökonomie. Danach wird der Wert einer Ware durch die Arbeitszeit bestimmt, die zu deren Produktion gesellschaftlich notwendig ist. Außerdem muss die Ware einen Gebrauchswert aufweisen. Ausgehend von diesen Voraussetzungen werden in einer arbeitsteiligen Warenwirtschaft sowohl die Austauschverhältnisse (Tauschwert) bestimmt als auch das Wirtschaftswachstum und die Verteilung des Einkommens, und zwar je nach dessen Entstehungsart auf die unterschiedlichen Klassen von Einkommensbeziehern. Die Arbeitswerttheorie gilt als wirtschaftspolitisch links und insofern als Gegensatz zur Grenznutzentheorie. Die AWT wird von Ökonomen unterschiedlich bewertet. Auf der einen Seite wird sie für „falsch“ oder „tot“ erklärt. Dahingegen verteidigen fast alle Marxisten die AWT in der marxschen Form, wenn doch ihre präzise Explikation auch hier äußerst umstritten ist. Einige Nicht-Marxisten leiten die Arbeitswertlehre in Wachstumsmodellen unter bestimmten Annahmen her, ohne dies als Bestätigung Marxscher Theorie anzusehen.


Family.

Harry Kessler's parents were the Hamburg banker Adolf Wilhelm Graf von Kessler (24 November 1838 – 22 January 1895) and Alice Harriet Blosse-Lynch (born 17 July 1844 in Bombay; died 19 September 1919 in Normandy), the daughter of Anglo-Irish Henry Blosse Lynch, C.B., of Partry House, County Mayo. Kessler's parents married in Paris on 10 August 1867; Kessler was born, also in Paris, in 1868. Kessler's younger sister was born in 1877, and was named Wilhelmina after Kaiser Wilhelm I, who became the child's godfather. After marriage, her name would become Wilma de Brion.  There were many rumours about a supposed affair between Kaiser Wilhelm I and Countess Kessler. The swift rise of the Kessler family led to a legend that either Harry or his sister were the illegitimate offspring of the emperor and Alice Kessler, but Harry was born two years before his mother met the emperor, and the emperor was eighty years old when his sister Wilhelmina was born. Curiously, Alice Blosse-Lynch is recorded as having died unmarried in 1919 in Burke's Irish Family Records (1976).  Adolf Wilhelm Kessler was ennobled in 1879 and again in 1881, Harry inheriting the titles on his father's death.

Life and work.

Kessler grew up in France, England and Germany. Kessler was educated first in Paris and then, from 1880, in St. George's School, Ascot, an English boarding school. Following his father's wishes he enrolled in 1882 at the Gelehrtenschule des Johanneums in Hamburg, where he completed his "Abitur" (high-school education). Afterwards he joined the 3rd Garde-Ulanen regiment in Potsdam and earned the rank of an army officer. He studied law and art history in Bonn and Leipzig respectively. Kessler was familiar with many cultures, travelled widely, was active as a German diplomat, and came to be known as a man of the world and patron of the arts. He considered himself part of European society. His homosexuality, which inevitably made him a psychological outsider, undoubtedly influenced his insight and critique of Wilhelmian culture.  After moving to Berlin in 1893, he worked on the Art Nouveau journal PAN, which published literary work by, among others, Richard Dehmel, Theodor Fontane, Friedrich Nietzsche, Detlev von Liliencron, Julius Hart, Novalis, Paul Verlaine and Alfred Lichtwark. The short-lived journal also published graphic works by numerous artists including Henry van de Velde, Max Liebermann, Otto Eckmann and Ludwig von Hofmann.  On 24 March 1903 Kessler assumed control of the "Museum für Kunst und Kunstgewerbe" in Weimar. There he worked with new exhibition concepts and the establishment of a permanent arts and crafts exhibit.  In 1904, during his work in Weimar, Kessler began to publish a group of bibliophilic books containing artistic compositions of typography and illustrations. In the beginning he cooperated with the German. In 1913 he founded his own company, the Cranach Press, of which he became the director.  Around 1909, Kessler developed a concept for a comic opera together with Hugo von Hofmannsthal and together they wrote the scenario. Richard Strauss provided the music, and in 1911 "Der Rosenkavalier" premiered in Dresden under the baton of Ernst von Schuch.  Around 1913 Kessler commissioned Edward Gordon Craig, an English theatrical designer and theoretician, to make woodcut illustrations for a sumptuous edition of Shakespeare's "Hamlet" for the Cranach Press. A German translation by Gerhart Hauptmann, with illustrations by Craig, was finally published in Weimar in 1928. The English version, edited by J. Dover Wilson, came out in 1930. This book, printed on fine paper, using different type-faces, with marginal notes with source quotations, and featuring Craig's woodcuts, is regarded by many as one of the finest examples of the printer's art to have been published in the 20th century. It is still sought by collectors worldwide.  Kessler's ideas of reforming culture went beyond the visual arts. He developed a reformation concept for the theatre which was supported by Edward Gordon Craig, Max Reinhardt and Karl Vollmöller. Kessler asserted that a so-called "Mustertheater" should be established. The Belgian architect Henry van de Velde sought to design the corresponding building. On the initiative of Kessler many prominent writers were invited to introduce a literary modernity to Weimar, but the hegemonic opinions were considered too conservative and nationalistic, and the plans for the Mustertheater failed.  During his Weimar period Kessler became close friends with Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche (1846–1935), the sister of late Friedrich Nietzsche. At the suggestion of Kessler, she chose Weimar as domicile for the Nietzsche-Archiv.  In 1903 Kessler launched the Deutscher Künstlerbund and became its vice-president. The consortium supported less acknowledged artists including Edvard Munch, Johannes R. Becher, Detlev von Liliencron and the painters of Die Brücke. In 1906, an exhibition commotion gave reason to depose Kessler from his office. An exhibition of drawings at the Grand Ducal Museum by Rodin and dedicated, in error, to the Grand Duke of Sax Thuringia, was considered as a risk to the wives and daughters of Weimar. This was followed by a smear campaign that Kessler considered to be an intrigue by Aimé Charles Vincent von Palezieux, retired Prussian General and court Marshall in Weimar, but which led to Kessler's resignation. Palezieux died less than a year later on 10 February 1907 just before receipt of a challenge to a duel from Kessler.

Later years.

Kessler saw active service on the Western Front during World War I. In 1918 he returned to his estate in Weimar, recording that although the house seemed unchanged from 1913 and his old servants and pets greeted him with affection, his collections of paintings, statues, books and mementos reflected a European intellectual and cultural community which was now "dead, missing, scattered.. or become enemies".  During World War I Kessler and Karl Gustav Vollmoeller worked together at the German Embassy in Bern for the cultural department of the Foreign Office. They developed activities aimed at peace plans with France and England. In November 1918, Kessler was German Ambassador to Warsaw in the newly independent Poland (Second Polish Republic). In 1919 he wrote a "plan for a League of Nations on the basis of an organization of organizations (World Organisation)", which contains the constitution of such an international confederation of states. The purpose of this covenant was above all to prevent new wars, securing human rights and the regulation of world trade. Main body of this covenant would be the "World Council", which also elected an executive committee. Under his plan a "Weltjustizhof", a World Court of Arbitration and administrative authorities would be built. This ordered by paragraphs plan had the form of a state constitution. Another plan for a supranational organisation he developed in 1920 as "Guidelines for a true League of Nations" in the form of a resolution. In 1922 he served for a short time as the President of the German Peace Society, of which he was a member from 1919 to 1929.  In the 1920s, Kessler as a journalist tried to influence the political debates of the Weimar Republic. He wrote essays on different social and foreign policy issues, such as socialism, or the League of Nations. He belonged to the left-liberal German Democratic Party (DDP) and wrote a biography of his 1922 murdered friend Walther Rathenau (then Foreign minister). In 1924, he was a DDP candidate for the Reichstag. When this attempt failed, he withdrew from politics. In the twenties, Kessler was frequently a guest at the Berlin SeSiSo Club. In 1932/33, material co-edited by him appeared in the magazine "Das Freie Wort" ("The Free Word"). After the Nazis' seizure of power in 1933 Kessler resigned and emigrated to Paris, then to Mallorca and finally to the southern French provinces. He died in 1937 in Lyon.  It was presumed that Kessler's earlier diaries had been lost but they were found in 1983 in a safe in Mallorca. In 2004, the first definitive nine volume edition was published in Germany and the first English edition of the 1880–1918 years was published in 2011.

Harry Clemens Ulrich Graf von Kessler (23 May 1868 – 30 November 1937) was an Anglo-German count, diplomat, writer, and patron of modern art. English translations of his diaries "Journey to the Abyss" (2011) and "Berlin in Lights" (1971) reveal anecdotes and details of artistic, theatrical, and political life in Europe, mostly in Germany, from the late 19th century through the collapse of Germany at the end of World War I until his death in Lyon in 1937.

Harry Clemens Ulrich Kessler, ab 1879 von Kessler, ab 1881 Graf von Kessler, allgemein bekannt als "Harry Graf Kessler" (* 23. Mai 1868 in Paris; † 30. November 1937 in Lyon) war ein in Frankreich und England aufgewachsener deutscher Kunstsammler, Mäzen, Schriftsteller, Publizist, Pazifist und Diplomat. Seine vom Kaiserreich bis zur Zeit des Nationalsozialismus über 57 Jahre sich erstreckenden Tagebücher (von 1880 bis 1937) sind bedeutende Zeitzeugnisse.


Production and properties.

Commercial non-nuclear grade zirconium typically contains 1–5% of hafnium, whose neutron absorption cross-section is 600 times that of zirconium. Hafnium must therefore be almost entirely removed (reduced to < 0.02% of the alloy) for reactor applications.  Nuclear-grade zirconium alloys contain more than 95% Zr, and therefore most of their properties are similar to those of pure zirconium. The absorption cross section for thermal neutrons is 0.18 barn for zirconium, which is much lower than that for such common metals as iron (2.4 barn) and nickel (4.5 barn). The composition and the main applications of common reactor-grade alloys are summarized below. These alloys contain less than 0.3% of iron and chromium and 0.1–0.14% oxygen.  ZIRLO stands for zirconium low oxidation.

Microstructure.

At temperatures below 1100 K, zirconium alloys belong to the hexagonal crystal family (HCP). Its microstructure, revealed by chemical attack, shows needle-like grains typical of a Widmanstätten pattern. Upon annealing below the phase transition temperature (α-Zr to β-Zr) the grains are equiaxed with sizes varying from 3 to 5 μm.

Development.

Zircaloy 1 was developed as a replacement for existing tube bundles in submarine reactors in the 1950s, owing to a combination of strength, low neutron cross section and corrosion resistance. Zircaloy-2 was inadvertently developed, by melting Zircaloy-1 in a crucible previously used for stainless steel. Newer alloys are Ni-free, including Zircaloy-4, ZIRLO and M5.

Oxidation of zirconium alloy.

Zirconium alloys readily react with oxygen, forming a nanometer-thin passivation layer. The corrosion resistance of the alloys may degrade significantly when some impurities (e.g. more than 40 ppm of carbon or more than 300 ppm of nitrogen) are present. Corrosion resistance of zirconium alloys is enhanced by intentional development of thicker passivation layer of black lustrous zirconium oxide. Nitride coatings might also be used.  Whereas there is no consensus on whether zirconium and zirconium alloy have the same oxidation rate, Zircaloys 2 and 4 do behave very similarly in this respect. Oxidation occurs at the same rate in air or in water and proceeds in ambient condition or in high vacuum. A sub-micrometer thin layer of zirconium dioxide is rapidly formed in the surface and stops the further diffusion of oxygen to the bulk and the subsequent oxidation. The dependence of oxidation rate R on temperature and pressure can be expressed as  The oxidation rate R is here expressed in gram/(cm·second); P is the pressure in atmosphere, that is the factor P = 1 at ambient pressure; the activation energy is 1.47 eV; k is the Boltzmann constant (8.617 eV/K) and T is the absolute temperature in kelvins.  Thus the oxidation rate R is 10 g per 1 m area per second at 0 °C, 6 g m s at 300 °C, 5.4 mg m s at 700 °C and 300 mg m s at 1000 °C. Whereas there is no clear threshold of oxidation, it becomes noticeable at macroscopic scales at temperatures of several hundred °C.

Oxidation of zirconium by steam.

One disadvantage of metallic zirconium is that in the case of a loss-of-coolant accident in a nuclear reactor, zirconium cladding rapidly reacts with water steam at high temperature. Oxidation of zirconium by water is accompanied by release of hydrogen gas. This oxidation is accelerated at high temperatures, e.g. inside a reactor core if the fuel assemblies are no longer completely covered by liquid water and insufficiently cooled. Metallic zirconium is then oxidized by the protons of water to form hydrogen gas according to the following redox reaction:  Zirconium cladding in the presence of DO deuterium oxide frequently used as the moderator and coolant in next gen pressurized heavy water reactors that CANDU designed nuclear reactors use would express the same oxidation on exposure to deuterium oxide steam as follows:  This exothermic reaction, although only occurring at high temperature, is similar to that of alkali metals (such as sodium or potassium) with water. It also closely resembles the anaerobic oxidation of iron by water (reaction used at high temperature by Antoine Lavoisier to produce hydrogen for his experiments).  This reaction was responsible for a small hydrogen explosion accident first observed inside the reactor building of Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station in 1979 that did not damage the containment building. This same reaction occurred in boiling water reactors 1, 2 and 3 of the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant (Japan) after reactor cooling was interrupted by related earthquake and tsunami events during the disaster of March 11, 2011, leading to the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. Hydrogen gas was vented into the reactor maintenance halls and the resulting explosive mixture of hydrogen with air oxygen detonated. The explosions severely damaged external buildings and at least one containment building. The reaction also occurred during the Chernobyl Accident, when the steam from the reactor began to escape. Many water cooled reactor containment buildings have catalyst-based recombinator units installed to rapidly convert hydrogen and oxygen into water at room temperature before the explosive limit is reached.

Formation of hydrides and hydrogen embrittlement.

Also, 5–20 % of hydrogen diffuses into the zirconium alloy cladding forming zirconium hydrides. The hydrogen production process also mechanically weakens the rods cladding because the hydrides have lower ductility and density than zirconium or its alloys, and thus blisters and cracks form upon hydrogen accumulation. This process is also known as hydrogen embrittlement. It has been reported that the concentration of hydrogen within hydrides is also dependent on the nucleation site of the precipitates.  In case of loss-of-coolant accident (LOCA) in a damaged nuclear reactor, hydrogen embrittlement accelerates the degradation of the zirconium alloy cladding of the fuel rods exposed to high temperature steam.

Applications.

Zirconium alloys are corrosion resistant and biocompatible, and therefore can be used for body implants. In one particular application, a Zr-2.5Nb alloy is formed into a knee or hip implant and then oxidized to produce a hard ceramic surface for use in bearing against a polyethylene component. This oxidized zirconium alloy material provides the beneficial surface properties of a ceramic (reduced friction and increased abrasion resistance), while retaining the beneficial bulk properties of the underlying metal (manufacturability, fracture toughness, and ductility), providing a good solution for these medical implant applications.  Reduction of zirconium demand in Russia due to nuclear demilitarization after the end of the cold war resulted in the exotic production of household zirconium items such as the vodka shot glass shown in the picture.

Zirconium alloys are solid solutions of zirconium or other metals, a common subgroup having the trade mark Zircaloy. Zirconium has very low absorption cross-section of thermal neutrons, high hardness, ductility and corrosion resistance. One of the main uses of zirconium alloys is in nuclear technology, as cladding of fuel rods in nuclear reactors, especially water reactors. A typical composition of nuclear-grade zirconium alloys is more than 95 weight percent zirconium and less than 2% of tin, niobium, iron, chromium, nickel and other metals, which are added to improve mechanical properties and corrosion resistance.

Mit Zirkalloy, auch Zirkaloy, Zircalloy oder Zircaloy werden Metall-Legierungen, die zu mehr als 90 % aus Zirconium bestehen, bezeichnet. Zirconium hat wegen seiner Korrosionsbeständigkeit große Bedeutung im chemischen Apparatebau (Düsen, Pumpenteile, Rohre oder Ventile). Weiterhin enthält die Legierung geringe Mengen von Zinn (ca. 1,5 %) und meist weiteren Metallen wie Eisen, Chrom, Nickel oder Niob.