History.

The Long Island Rail Road Company was chartered in 1834 to provide a daily service between New York and Boston via a ferry connection between its Greenport, New York, terminal on Long Island's North Fork and Stonington, Connecticut. This service was superseded in 1849 by the land route through Connecticut that became part of the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad. The LIRR refocused its attentions towards serving Long Island, in competition with other railroads on the island. In the 1870s, railroad president Conrad Poppenhusen and his successor Austin Corbin acquired all the railroads and consolidated them into the LIRR.  The LIRR was unprofitable for much of its history. In 1900, the Pennsylvania Railroad (PRR) bought a controlling interest as part of its plan for direct access to Manhattan which began on September 8, 1910. The wealthy PRR subsidized the LIRR during the first half of the new century, allowing expansion and modernization. Electric operation began in 1905.  After the Second World War, the railroad industry's downturn and dwindling profits caused the PRR to stop subsidizing the LIRR, and the LIRR went into receivership in 1949. The State of New York, realizing how important the railroad was to Long Island's future, began to subsidize the railroad in the 1950s and 1960s. In June 1965, the state finalized an agreement to buy the LIRR from the PRR for $65 million. The LIRR was placed under the control of a new Metropolitan Commuter Transit Authority. The MCTA was rebranded the Metropolitan Transportation Authority in 1968 when it incorporated several other New York City-area transit agencies. With MTA subsidies the LIRR modernized further, continuing to be the busiest commuter railroad in the United States.  The LIRR is one of the few railroads that has survived as an intact company from its original charter to the present.

Major stations.

The LIRR operates out of three western terminals in New York City, with a fourth expected by the early 2020s. Major terminals include:  In addition, the Jamaica station is a major hub station and transfer point in Jamaica, Queens. It has ten tracks and six platforms, plus yard and bypass tracks. Passengers can transfer between trains on all LIRR lines except the Port Washington Branch. The sixth platform opened February 2020, and exclusively serves Atlantic Branch shuttle trains to Brooklyn. Transfer is also made to separate facilities for three subway services at the Sutphin Boulevard–Archer Avenue–JFK Airport station (), a number of bus routes, and the AirTrain automated people mover to JFK Airport. The railroad's headquarters are next to the station.

Passenger lines and services.

The Long Island Rail Road system has eleven passenger branches. Three of them are considered main trunk lines; however the trunk lines are in general not used in public:  They spin off eight minor branches. For scheduling and advertising purposes some of these branches are divided into sections such as the case with the Montauk Branch, which is known as the Babylon Branch service in the electrified portion of the line between Jamaica and Babylon, while the diesel service beyond Babylon to Montauk is referred to as the Montauk Branch service. All branches except the Port Washington Branch pass through Jamaica; the trackage west of Jamaica (except the Port Washington Branch) is known as the City Terminal Zone. The City Terminal Zone includes portions of the Main Line, Atlantic, and Montauk Branches, as well as the Amtrak-owned East River Tunnels (Northeast Corridor) to Penn Station.

Former branches.

The railroad has dropped a number of branches due to lack of ridership over the years. Part of the Rockaway Beach Branch became part of the IND Rockaway Line of the New York City Subway, while others were downgraded to freight branches, and the rest abandoned entirely. Additionally, the Long Island Rail Road operated trains over portions of the Brooklyn Rapid Transit (BRT) elevated and subway lines until 1917.

Additional services.

In addition to its daily commuter patronage, the LIRR also offers the following services:

Intermodal connections.

Penn Station offers connections with Amtrak intercity trains and NJ Transit commuter trains, as well as the PATH, New York City Subway, and New York City Bus systems. Additionally, almost all stations in Brooklyn and Queens offer connections with the New York City Bus system, and several stations also have transfers to New York City Subway stations. Transfers to Nassau Inter-County Express and Suffolk County Transit buses are available at many stations in Nassau and Suffolk counties, respectively.

Fare structure.

Like Metro-North Railroad and NJ Transit, the Long Island Rail Road fare system is based on the distance a passenger travels, as opposed to the New York City Subway and the area's bus systems, which charge a flat rate. The railroad is broken up into eight non-consecutively numbered fare zones. Zone 1, the City Terminal Zone, includes Penn Station, all stations in Brooklyn, and all stations in Queens west of Jamaica or Mets–Willets Point. Zone 3 includes Jamaica and Mets–Willets Point, as well as all other stations in eastern Queens except Far Rockaway. Zones 4 and 7 include all stations in Nassau County, plus Far Rockaway in Queens. Zones 9, 10, 12 and 14 include all stations in Suffolk County. Each zone contains many stations, and the same fare applies for travel between any station in the origin zone and any station in the destination zone.

Peak and off-peak fares.

Peak fares are charged during the week on trains that arrive at western terminals between 6 AM and 10 AM, and for trains that depart from western terminals between 4 PM and 8 PM. Any passenger holding an off-peak ticket on a peak train is required to pay a step up fee. Passengers can buy tickets from ticket agents or ticket vending machines (TVMs) or on the train from conductors, but will incur an on-board penalty fee for doing so. This fee is waived for customers boarding at a station without a ticket office or ticket machine, senior citizens, people with disabilities or Medicare customers.  There are several types of tickets: one way, round trip, peak, off-peak, AM peak or off-peak senior/citizen disabled, peak child, and off-peak child. On off-peak trains, passengers can buy a family ticket for children who are accompanied by an 18-year-old for $0.75 if bought from the station agent or TVM, $1.00 on the train. Senior citizen/disabled passengers traveling during the morning peak hours are required to pay the AM peak senior citizen/disabled rate. This rate is not charged during PM peak hours.  Commuters can also buy a peak or off-peak ten trip ride, a weekly unlimited or an unlimited monthly pass. Monthly passes are good on any train regardless of the time of day, within the fare zones specified on the pass.

Special fares.

During the summer the railroad offers special summer package ticket deals to places such as Long Beach, Jones Beach, the Hamptons, Montauk, and Greenport. Passengers traveling to the Hamptons and Montauk on the "Cannonball" can reserve a seat in the all-reserved Parlor Cars.  Passengers going to Belmont Park must buy a special ticket to go from Jamaica to Belmont Park (or vice versa). Weekly and monthly passes are not accepted at Belmont Park.

CityTicket.

In 2003, the LIRR and Metro-North started a pilot program in which passengers traveling within the city limits were allowed to buy one-way tickets for $2.50. The special reduced-fare CityTicket, proposed by the New York City Transit Riders Council, was formally introduced in 2004. On weekends, the railroad offers the CityTicket for passengers who travel within Zones 1 and 3 (i.e. within New York City). CityTickets can only be bought from ticket agents or machines and used on the day of purchase. They are not valid for travel to Far Rockaway because it is in Zone 4 and the Far Rockaway Branch passes through Nassau County. It is also not valid for travel to the Belmont Park station, which is only open for special events.

Freedom Ticket.

In fall 2017, the MTA was slated to launch a pilot that will allow LIRR, bus and subway service to use one ticket. The proposal for the ticket, called the "Freedom Ticket," was initially put forth by the New York City Transit Riders Council (NYCTRC) in 2007. The NYCTRC wrote a proof of concept report in 2015. At the time of the report, express bus riders from Southeast Queens had some of the longest commutes in the city, with their commutes being 96 minutes long, yet they paid a premium fare of $6.50. Riders who take the dollar van to the subway paid $4.75 to get to Manhattan in 65 minutes; riders who only took the bus and subway paid $2.75 to get to Manhattan in 86 minutes; and riders who took the LIRR paid $10 to get to Manhattan in 35 minutes. Unlike the CityTicket, the Freedom Ticket would be valid for off-peak and multidirectional travel; have free transfers to the subway and bus system; and be capped at $215 per month. At the time, monthly CityTickets cost $330 per month.  The Freedom Ticket will initially be available for sale at the Atlantic Terminal, Nostrand Avenue, and East New York stations in Brooklyn and at the Laurelton, Locust Manor, Rosedale, and St. Albans stations in Queens. Riders, under the pilot, would be able to purchase one-way, weekly, or monthly passes that will be valid on the LIRR, on buses, and the subway. The fare will be higher than the price of a ride on the MetroCard, but it will be lower than the combined price of an LIRR ticket and a MetroCard, and it will allow unlimited free transfers between the LIRR, buses, and subway. The former head of the MTA, Thomas Prendergast, announced at the January 2017 board meeting that the plan would be explored in a field study to determine fares and the impact on existing service. The plan is intended to fill approximately 20,000 unused seats of existing trains to Atlantic Terminal and Penn Station (or about 50% to 60% of peak trains in each direction), while at the same time providing affordable service to people with long commutes. The details were to be announced in spring 2017, and the pilot would last six months.  The MTA Board voted to approve a six-month pilot for a similar concept, the Atlantic Ticket, in May 2018. The Atlantic Ticket is similar in that it would allow LIRR riders in southeast Queens to purchase a one-way ticket to or from Atlantic Terminal for $5. The Atlantic Ticket would start in June 2018. The success of the pilot program has led the MTA to extend the program up to the summer of 2020 and renewed calls for the program to be implemented within New York City, where the fare for the Freedom Ticket—if approved—would cost US$2.75 and include free transfers between the LIRR & Metro-North, bus, and subway.

OMNY.

In 2017, it was announced that the MetroCard fare payment system, used on New York City-area rapid transit and bus systems, would be phased out and replaced by OMNY, a contactless fare payment system. Fare payment would be made using Apple Pay, Google Pay, debit/credit cards with near-field communication enabled, or radio-frequency identification cards. As part of the implementation of OMNY, the MTA also plans to use the system in the Long Island Rail Road and Metro-North Railroad.

Accidents and incidents.

On August 26, 1893, two trains collided in Maspeth, Queens, killing 16 people and injuring over 40.  On February 17, 1950, two trains collided head-on after an engineer on train 192 ignored an approach signal and the following red signals at Rockville Centre station, 32 died and more than 100 injured. At the time, it was the worst rail disaster in LIRR history.  On November 22, 1950, two trains collided after one of the trains passed a red signal in Kew Gardens, 78 died, 363 injured making it the worst rail disaster in LIRR history.  On March 14, 1982, a train hit a van at a level crossing on Herricks Road in Mineola after the driver of the van went around the gate. Nine people were killed and one was injured.  On May 17, 2011 a commuter train in Deer Park obliterated a baked goods truck that attempted to drive around the crossing gate. The driver was killed and two passengers were injured.  On October 8, 2016, a commuter LIRR train side-swiped a maintenance train east of New Hyde Park station. The commuter train cars suffered damage, 33 passengers were injured with 4 seriously.  On January 4, 2017, a Long Island Rail Road commuter train derailed at Atlantic Terminal in Brooklyn, New York. At least 103 people are injured.  On February 26, 2019, two separate Long Island Rail Road trains hit a pickup truck at the School Street railroad crossing in Westbury, New York on the LIRR Main Line, causing the driver and two passengers to be ejected from the vehicle resulting in their deaths, numerous injuries, and damage to the nearby LIRR station platform.

Train operations.

The LIRR is relatively isolated from the rest of the national rail system despite operating out of Penn Station, the nation's busiest rail terminal. It connects with other railroads in just two locations:  All LIRR trains have an engineer who operates the train, and a conductor who is responsible for the safe movement of the train, fare collection and on-board customer service. In addition, trains may have one or more assistant conductors to assist with fare collection and other duties. The LIRR is one of the last railroads in the United States to use mechanical interlocking control towers to regulate rail traffic. , the LIRR has 8 active control towers. All movements on the LIRR are under the control of the Movement Bureau in Jamaica, which gives orders to the towers that control a specific portion of the railroad. Movements in Amtrak territory are controlled by Penn Station Control Center or PSCC, run jointly by the LIRR and Amtrak. The PSCC controls as far east as Harold Interlocking, in Sunnyside, Queens. The PSCC replaced several towers. The Jamaica Control Center, operational since the third quarter of 2010, controls the area around Jamaica terminal by direct control of interlockings. This replaced several towers in Jamaica including Jay and Hall towers at the west and east ends of Jamaica station respectively. At additional locations, line side towers control the various switches and signals in accordance with the timetable and under the direction of the Movement Bureau in Jamaica.

Signal and safety systems.

Today's LIRR signal system has evolved from its legacy Pennsylvania Railroad-based system. The railroad utilizes a variety of wayside railroad signals including position light, color light and dwarf signals. In addition, much of the LIRR is equipped with a bi-directional Pulse code cab signaling called automatic speed control (ASC), though portions of the railway still retain single direction wayside only signalling. Unlike other railroads which began using color light signals in the 20th century, the LIRR did not begin using signals with color lights on its above ground sections until 2006. Some portions of the railway lack automatic signals and cab signals completely, instead train and track car movements are governed only by timetable and verbal/written train orders.  On portions of the railroad equipped with ASC, Engineers consult the speed display unit, which is capable of displaying 7 speed indications. They are 80,70,60,40,30,15 on electric trains while some diesel locomotives have slightly lower speed-steps when compared to the electrics. As a result of a December 1, 2013, train derailment in the Bronx on the Metro-North Railroad, railroads with similar cab signal systems to Metro-North, such as the LIRR, were ordered to modify the systems to enforce certain speed limit changes, which has resulted in lower average speeds and actual speed limits across the LIRR.

Power transmission.

The LIRR's electrified lines are powered via a third rail at 750 volts DC with the contact shoe running along the top of the rail, similar to on the New York City Subway and PATH systems. This system is incompatible with Metro-North's third rail, which is under-running, though the M8 and M9 fleets can use both types of third rails.

Equipment.

The LIRR's electric fleet consists of 836 M7 and 170 M3 electric multiple unit cars in married pairs, meaning each car needs the other one to operate, with each car containing its own engineer's cab. The trainsets typically range up to 12 cars long.  In September 2013, MTA announced that the LIRR would procure new M9 railcars from Kawasaki. A 2014 MTA forecast indicated that the LIRR would need 416 M9 railcars; 180 to replace the outdated M3 railcars and an additional 236 railcars for the additional passengers expected once the East Side Access project is complete. The first M9s entered revenue service on September 11, 2019. The LIRR also uses 134 C3 Bilevel coaches powered by 24 DE30AC diesel-electric locomotives and 19 DM30AC dual-mode locomotives. They are used mostly on non-electrified territories, including the Port Jefferson, Oyster Bay, Montauk, and Greenport Branches.

Named trains.

For most of its history LIRR has served commuters, but it had many named trains, some with all-first class seating, parlor cars, and full bar service. Few of them lasted past World War II, but some names were revived during the 1950s and 1960s as the railroad expanded its east end parlor car service with luxury coaches and Pullman cars from railroads that were discontinuing their passenger trains.

Freight service.

The LIRR and other railroads that became part of the system have always had freight service, though this has diminished. The process of shedding freight service accelerated with the acquisition of the railroad by New York State. In the 21st century, there has been some appreciation of the need for better railroad freight service in New York City and on Long Island. Both areas are primarily served by trucking for freight haulage, an irony in a region with the most extensive rail transit service in the Americas as well as the worst traffic conditions. Proposals for a Cross-Harbor Rail Tunnel for freight have languished more than a century.  In May 1997, freight service was franchised on a 20-year term to the New York and Atlantic Railway (NYAR), a short line railroad owned by the Anacostia and Pacific Company. It has its own equipment and crews, but uses the rail facilities of the LIRR. To the east, freight service operates to the end of the West Hempstead Branch, to Huntington on the Port Jefferson Branch, to Bridgehampton on the Montauk Branch, and to Riverhead on the Main Line. On the western end it provides service on the surviving freight-only tracks of the LIRR: the Bay Ridge and Bushwick branches; the "Lower Montauk" between Jamaica and Long Island City; and to an interchange connection at Fresh Pond Junction in Queens with the CSX, Canadian Pacific, and Providence and Worcester railroads.

Freight branches.

Some non-electrified lines are used only for freight:

Planned service expansions.

The East Side Access project is building a LIRR spur to Grand Central Terminal that will run in part via the existing 63rd Street Tunnel. The project will add a new eight-track terminal underneath the existing Grand Central Terminal. The project was first proposed in the 1968 Program for Action, but due to various funding shortfalls, construction did not start until 2007., the project was expected to cost $11.1 billion and was tentatively scheduled to start service in December 2022.  In 2012, the LIRR started adding a second track along the formerly single-tracked section of the Main Line between Farmingdale and Ronkonkoma stations to increase track capacity. The project was completed in September 2018. As part of the preparations for East Side Access's opening, the LIRR is also widening the two-track sections of the Main Line between Floral Park and Hicksville stations to three tracks. Work on the third-track project started in September 2018. The project's completion was estimated for 2022, in time for the opening of East Side Access.  Five "readiness projects" are also under construction to increase peak-hour capacity across the LIRR system in preparation for expanded peak-hour service after the completion of East Side Access. The LIRR is constructing a new platform for Atlantic Terminal-bound trains at Jamaica station, in preparation for the conversion of the Atlantic Branch between these two stations into a high-frequency shuttle. The LIRR is also installing storage tracks at the Massapequa and Great Neck stations, as well as expanding train yards at Port Washington and Ronkonkoma stations.

Law enforcement.

The Long Island Rail Road Police Department, founded in 1868, was absorbed along with the Metro-North Railroad Police Department to form the Metropolitan Transportation Authority Police Department (MTA Police) in 1998.

Criticism and controversy.

Passenger issues.

The LIRR has a long history of tense relations with its passengers. Daily commuters have long had complaints about the LIRR's service. According to a 1999 article in "The New York Times," the LIRR's service woes were long considered part of the "unholy trinity of life on Long Island," along with the Long Island Lighting Company's high rates and the Long Island Expressway's traffic snarls. Various commuter advocacy groups have been formed to try to represent those interests, in addition to the state mandated LIRR Commuters Council.  The LIRR has been criticized for not providing additional service to the East End of Long Island as the twin forks continue to grow in popularity as a year-round tourist and residential destination. Demand is evidenced by flourishing for-profit bus services such as the Hampton Jitney and the Hampton Luxury Liner and the early formative stages of a new East End Transportation Authority. Local politicians have joined the public outcry for the LIRR to either improve the frequency of east end services, or turn the operation over to a local transportation authority.  Critics claim that the on-time performance (OTP) calculated by the LIRR is manipulated to be artificially high. Because the LIRR does not release any raw timing data nor does it have independent (non-MTA) audits it is impossible to verify this claim, or the accuracy of the current On Time Performance measurement. The percentage measure is used by many other US passenger railroads but the criticism over accuracy is specific to the LIRR. As defined by the LIRR, a train is "on time" if it arrives at a station within 5 minutes and 59 seconds of the scheduled time. The criterion was 4 minutes and 59 seconds until the LIRR changed it because of a bug in their computer systems. Critics believe the OTP measure does not reflect what commuters experience on a daily basis. The LIRR publishes the current OTP in a monthly booklet called TrainTalk. TrainTalk was previously known as "Keeping Track." A more accurate way to measure delays and OTP has been proposed. Called the "Passenger Hours Delayed" index it can measure total person-hours of a specific delay. This would be useful in comparing performance of specific days or incidents, day-to-day (or week-to-week) periods, but has not been adopted.  Ridership has increased from 81 million passengers in 2011 to 89.3 million passengers in 2016, which is the railroad's highest ridership since 1949. The all-time highest ridership was in 1929, when 119 million passengers rode 1.89 billion passenger miles. This increase in ridership has been attributed to the increased usage of the LIRR by millennials, and the increase of reverse-peak travel.

Pension and disability fraud scandal.

A "New York Times" investigation in 2008 showed that 25% of LIRR employees who had retired since 2000 filed for disability payments from the federal Railroad Retirement Board and 97% of them were approved to receive disability pension. The total collected was more than $250,000,000 over eight years. As a result, Railroad Retirement agents from Chicago inspected the Long Island office of the Railroad Retirement Board on September 23, 2008. New York Governor David Paterson issued a statement calling for Congress to conduct a full review of the board's mission and daily activities. Officials at the board's headquarters responded to the investigation stating that all occupational disability annuities were issued in accordance with applicable laws.  On November 17, 2008, a former LIRR pension manager was arrested and charged with official misconduct for performing outside work without permission. However, these charges were all dismissed for "no merit" by Supreme Court Judge Kase on December 11, 2009 on the grounds that the prosecution had misled the grand jury in the indictment.  A report produced in September 2009 by the Government Accountability Office stated that the rate at which retirees were rewarded disability claims was above the norm for the industry in general and indicated "troubling" practices that may indicate fraud, such as the use of a very small group of physicians in making diagnoses.  Another series of arrests on October 27, 2011 included two doctors and a former union official.  According to court documents, from 1998 through 2011, 79% of LIRR retirees obtained federal disability when they retired. On August 6, 2013, a doctor and two consultants were found guilty in connection with the accusations and sentenced to prison.

The Long Island Rail Road, often abbreviated as the L.I.R.R., is a commuter rail system in the southeastern part of the U.S. state of New York, stretching from Manhattan to the eastern tip of Suffolk County on Long Island. With an average weekday ridership of 354,800 passengers in 2016, it is the busiest commuter railroad in North America. It is also one of the world's few commuter systems that runs 24 hours a day, seven days a week, year-round. It is publicly owned by the Metropolitan Transportation Authority, which refers to it as MTA Long Island Rail Road.

Die MTA Long Island Rail Road, auch abgekürzt LIRR ("gesprochen „L-I-double-R“"), ist eine Eisenbahngesellschaft in den Vereinigten Staaten. Sie betreibt auf der Insel Long Island zwischen New York und seinen östlichen Vororten ein Streckennetz, das hauptsächlich von LIRR-Vorortzügen für Pendler von und nach New York befahren wird.


Description.

"Diphasiastrum tristachyum" is a perennial species of clubmoss. It grows from creeping underground stems which are often deeply buried at 5–12 cm deep; at nodes from this stem the above ground stems emerge. The upright stems can be tall or higher. From the main stem, several fan shaped "leaves" emerge, these are not true leaves but rather branched stems which appear to almost look like leaves, each branches 4-6 times. The stems all grow to a similar height at the top of the plant, giving it a flat topped appearance which is a diagnostic character for this species. The peduncle is ~9 cm long and often branches twice near the top to form four strobili; the strobili are ~6 cm long and 3-4mm in diameter with a rounded tip. The strobili contain the sporophyll which are 2.2-3.5 X 1.6-3mm in size, light yellow, deltoid shaped, with a long sharp pointed tip, the edges are rough and chaffy; the spore case is almost round and the spores themselves are convex on their sides.  The branches are 1-2.2mm wide and square with rounded angles when viewed in cross-section. The blue-green leaves are scale like, four-ranked and lanceolate to subulate. It can be distinguished from similar species by annual constrictions along these branches.  Ground cedar prefers dry and sandy areas with poor soils, this allows it to grow in barrens and other xeric sites. It can tolerate sterile acidic soils which are often found within coniferous forests. Ground cedar also prefers to grow in open areas where other plants are not growing densely. Plants growing in the shade are more diffusely branched than those which grow in bright sun, but branchlets are always more rounded than those of either "D. complanatum" or "D. digitatum".

Hybrids.

"D. tristachyum" forms many hybrids with other species in the genus "Diphasiastrum"

Diphasiastrum tristachyum, commonly known as blue clubmoss, blue ground-cedar, ground pine, deep-rooted running-pine or ground cedar, is a North American and Eurasian species of clubmoss. In North America, it has been found from Newfoundland west to Manitoba, and south as far as Georgia and Alabama. In Eurasia, it ranges from southern Norway and Sweden south to France and Italy and it also occurs in the Caucasus.

Der Zypressen-Flachbärlapp ("Diphasiastrum tristachyum" ; Syn.: "Lycopodium tristachyum", "Lycopodium chamaecyparissus" ; "Diphasium tristachyum" ) gehört zu der Gattung der Flachbärlappe ("Diphasiastrum").


Medical use.

Ceftriaxone and other third-generation antibiotics are used to treat organisms that tend to be resistant to many other antibiotics. Due to emergent resistance, ceftriaxone should not be used for the treatment of "Enterobacter" infections. Before using ceftriaxone, it is important to determine the susceptibility of the bacteria. If sepsis is being considered, empiric therapy may be initiated prior to susceptibility testing.  Medical uses include:  Ceftriaxone is also a choice drug for treatment of bacterial meningitis caused by pneumococci, meningococci, "Haemophilus influenzae", and "susceptible enteric Gram-negative rods, but not "Listeria monocytogenes"."  In combination with doxycycline or azithromycin, ceftriaxone is recommended by the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) for the treatment of gonorrhea. By itself, it is not recommended due to the potential for resistance development.

Spectrum of activity.

Like other third-generation cephalosporins, ceftriaxone is active against "Citrobacter" spp., "Serratia marcescens", and beta-lactamase-producing strains of "Haemophilus" and "Neisseria". However, unlike ceftazidime and cefoperazone, ceftriaxone does not have useful activity against "Pseudomonas aeruginosa". It is generally not active against "Enterobacter" species, and its use should be avoided in the treatment of "Enterobacter" infections, even if the isolate appears susceptible, because of the emergence of resistance. Some organisms, such as "Citrobacter, Providencia", and "Serratia", have the ability to become resistant through the development of cephalosporinases (these enzymes hydrolyze cephalosporins and render them inactive).

Available forms.

Ceftriaxone is available for administration via the intramuscular or the intravenous routes. Diluents containing calcium should not be used to reconstitute ceftriaxone and it must not be administered in intravenous lines containing other calcium-containing solutions, as a ceftriaxone-calcium precipitate could form.

Specific populations.

Pregnancy.

Ceftriaxone is pregnancy category B. It has not been observed to cause birth defects in animal studies, but a lack of well-controlled studies done in pregnant women exists.

Breastfeeding.

Low concentrations of ceftriaxone are excreted in breast milk that are "not expected to cause adverse effects in breastfed infants." The manufacturer recommends that caution be exercised when administering ceftriaxone to women who breastfeed.

Newborns.

Hyperbilirubinemic neonates are contraindicated for the use of ceftriaxone. It can compete with bilirubin and displace it from binding to albumin, increasing the risk of bilirubin encephalopathy.

Elderly.

According to the package insert, clinical studies did not show differences in efficacy and safety of ceftriaxone in geriatrics compared to younger patients but "greater sensitivity of some older individuals cannot be ruled out."

Adverse effects.

Although generally well tolerated, the most common adverse reactions associated with ceftriaxone are changes in white blood cell counts, local reactions at site of administration, rash, and diarrhea.  Incidence of adverse effects greater than 1%:  Some less frequently reported adverse events (incidence < 1%) include phlebitis, itchiness, fever, chills, nausea, vomiting, elevations of bilirubin, elevations in creatinine, headache and dizziness.  Ceftriaxone may precipitate in bile, causing biliary sludge, biliary pseudolithiasis, and gallstones, especially in children. Hypoprothrombinaemia and bleeding are specific side effects. Haemolysis is reported. It has also been reported to cause post kidney failure in children. Like other antibiotics, ceftriaxone use can result in "Clostridium difficile"-associated diarrhea ranging from mild diarrhea to fatal colitis.

Contraindications.

Ceftriaxone should not be used in those with an allergy to ceftriaxone or any component of the formulation. Although there is negligible cross-reactivity between penicillins and third-generation cephalosporins, caution should still be used when using ceftriaxone in penicillin-sensitive patients. Caution should be used in people who have had previous severe penicillin allergies. It should not be used in hyperbilirubinemic neonates, particularly those who are premature because ceftriaxone is reported to displace bilirubin from albumin binding sites, potentially causing bilirubin encephalopathy. Concomitant use with intravenous calcium-containing solutions/products in neonates (≤28 days) is contraindicated even if administered through different infusion lines due to rare fatal cases of calcium-ceftriaxone precipitations in neonatal lungs and kidneys.

Mechanism of action.

Ceftriaxone is a third-generation antibiotic from the cephalosporin family of antibiotics. It is within the β-lactam family of antibiotics. Ceftriaxone selectively and irreversibly inhibits bacterial cell wall synthesis by binding to transpeptidases, also called transamidases, which are penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) that catalyze the cross-linking of the peptidoglycan polymers forming the bacterial cell wall. The peptidoglycan cell wall is made up of pentapeptide units attached to a polysaccharide backbone with alternating units of N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetylmuramic acid. PBPs act on a terminal D-alanyl-D-alanine moiety on a pentapeptide unit and catalyze the formation of a peptide bond between the penultimate D-alanine and a glycine unit on an adjacent peptidoglycan strand, releasing the terminal D-alanine unit in the process. The structure of ceftriaxone mimics the D-alanyl-D-alanine moiety, and the PBP attacks the beta-lactam ring in ceftriaxone as if it were its normal D-alanyl-D-alanine substrate. The peptidoglycan cross-linking activity of PBPs is a construction and repair mechanism that normally helps to maintain bacterial cell wall integrity, so the inhibition of PBPs leads to damage and destruction of the cell wall and eventually to cell lysis.

Pharmacokinetics.

Absorption: Ceftriaxone can be administered intravenously and intramuscularly, and the drug is completely absorbed. It is not available orally.  Distribution: Ceftriaxone penetrates tissues and body fluids well, including cerebrospinal fluid to treat central nervous system infections. The average volume of distribution in adults is 5.8–13.5 liters.  Metabolism: 33–67% of ceftriaxone is renally excreted as unchanged drug, but no dose adjustments are required in renal impairment with dosages up to 2 grams per day. The rest is excreted in the bile as inactive compounds from hepatic and gut flora metabolism.  Elimination: The average elimination half-life in healthy adults is 5.8–8.7 hours. In people with renal impairment, the average elimination half-life increases to 11.4–15.7 hours.

Chemistry.

Ceftriaxone is commercially available as a white to yellowish-orange crystalline powder for reconstitution. Reconstituted ceftriaxone injection solutions are light yellow- to amber-colored depending on how long the solution had been reconstituted, the concentration of ceftriaxone in the solution, and the diluent used. To reduce pain with intramuscular injections, ceftriaxone may be reconstituted with lidocaine.  The "syn"-configuration of the methoxyoxime moiety confers resistance to beta-lactamase enzymes produced by many Gram-negative bacteria. The stability of this configuration results in increased activity of ceftriaxone against otherwise resistant Gram-negative bacteria. In place of the easily hydrolyzed acetyl group of cefotaxime, ceftriaxone has a metabolically stable thiotriazinedione moiety.

Research.

Ceftriaxone has also been investigated for efficacy in preventing relapse to cocaine addiction.  Ceftriaxone seems to increase excitatory amino acid transporter-2 pump expression and activity in the central nervous system, so has a potential to reduce glutamatergic toxicity.  Ceftriaxone has been shown to have neuroprotective properties in a number of neurological disorders, including spinal muscular atrophy and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Despite earlier negative results in the 1990s, a large clinical trial was undertaken in 2006 to test ceftriaxone in ALS patients, but was stopped early after it became clear that the results would not meet the predetermined criteria for efficacy.

Ceftriaxone, sold under the brand name Rocephin, is an antibiotic used for the treatment of a number of bacterial infections. These include middle ear infections, endocarditis, meningitis, pneumonia, bone and joint infections, intra-abdominal infections, skin infections, urinary tract infections, gonorrhea, and pelvic inflammatory disease. It is also sometimes used before surgery and following a bite wound to try to prevent infection. Ceftriaxone can be given by injection into a vein or into a muscle. Common side effects include pain at the site of injection and allergic reactions. Other possible side effects include "C. difficile" associated diarrhea, hemolytic anemia, gall bladder disease, and seizures. It is not recommended in those who have had anaphylaxis to penicillin but may be used in those who have had milder reactions. The intravenous form should not be given with intravenous calcium. There is tentative evidence that ceftriaxone is relatively safe during pregnancy and breastfeeding. It is a third-generation cephalosporin that works by preventing bacteria from making a cell wall. Ceftriaxone was patented in 1978, and approved for medical use in 1982. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the safest and most effective medicines needed in a health system. It is available as a generic medication.

Ceftriaxon ist ein Antibiotikum aus der Gruppe der Cephalosporine der 3. Generation. Die bakterizide Wirkung erfolgt, wie bei anderen β-Lactam-Antibiotika, durch Hemmung der bakteriellen Zellwandsynthese. Ceftriaxon wurde 1982 von Hoffmann-La Roche eingeführt.


Life and career.

Education and active years as a musician.

Niehaus was born in St. Louis, Missouri on June 1, 1929 to Aaron "Père"and Clariss (Weissman) Niehaus. His mother was a homemaker. His father, a Russian immigrant, was a violinist who played in an orchestra that accompanied silent films in theaters. In the mid-1930s, after talking pictures had taken hold, he moved the family to Los Angeles, where he played in Hollywood studio orchestras. His sister was a concert pianist. His father started him on violin at age seven, then he switched to bassoon. At thirteen, Niehaus began alto saxophone and clarinet, about this time he began composing. In 1946, after graduation from Roosevelt High School, Niehaus started to study music at Los Angeles City College later earning a music education degree from Los Angeles State College in 1951 as part of the school's first full graduating class. Niehaus began his professional career arranging for and playing alto saxophone with Phil Carreón and His Orchestra in the Los Angeles area. Members of the band included saxophonists Herb Geller, trombonist Ray Vasquez, Herbie Steward, and saxophonist Teddy Edwards.

Stan Kenton Orchestra.

After completing college in 1951, Niehaus got his start with the Stan Kenton Orchestra and toured with the band for six months out on the road. His association with Kenton would be interrupted as he was drafted into the Army in 1952 and served at Fort Ord in California. After being discharged in 1954, he rejoined Kenton for five years as the lead alto saxophonist. He composed and arranged extensively for the Kenton band being a feature soloist and having numerous arrangements featured on Kenton's Capitol Records releases. He had the longest and most recorded tenure of any of the lead alto players with the group to include such names as Charlie Mariano, Lee Konitz, Gabe Baltazar, or Tony Campise. Niehaus left the Kenton orchestra as an instrumentalist in 1959 to pursue music composition in the studios, “I put my horn away and started writing instead.” He continued to serve as a staff arranger for Kenton into the 1960's. He would go on during that time to write and arrange music for entertainers acts such as the King Sisters, Mel Tormé, Dean Martin, and Carol Burnett.

Orchestrating and composing for television and film.

By the age of 33, in 1962, he began orchestrating for television and film composer Jerry Fielding. Niehaus worked with Fielding on approximately seventy TV shows and films like "Hogan's Heroes", "Charlie’s Angels" and "McMillan & Wife." Films on this list include "Straw Dogs" (1971), "Bring Me the Head of Alfredo Garcia" (1974) by Sam Peckinpah, the comedy "The Bad News Bears" (1976), and the horror film "Demon Seed" (1977). After Fielding’s death Niehaus came into his own as a leading film composer; he always did his own orchestrating for his scores not using any ghost writers.  In his film scores, Niehaus never forgot his jazz roots. The story of the film "City Heat" (1984) was set in the 1930s, so he wrote jazz of that period hiring people like altoist Marshal Royal. Bill Perkins came in and played like Lester Young; a jazz violinist sounded like Stephane Grappelli. There was also a boogie woogie sequence with three pianists Pete Jolly, Mike Land and co-star Clint Eastwood.

Work with Clint Eastwood.

With Clint Eastwood, Niehaus had probably his most significant professional relationship. The two men had first met when serving together in the U.S. Army at Fort Ord during 1952 - 1954. Both found they had a passion for jazz music. Niehaus had already orchestrated scores for films starring Eastwood like "Tightrope" (1984), also produced by Eastwood. But it was not until Eastwood's eleventh film as director, "Pale Rider" (1985), that Niehaus actually wrote the first entire score for one of his films. Niehaus then wrote the musical scores for the following twelve films up to "Blood Work" (2002), and orchestrated the music for the next six features that Eastwood completed, from "Mystic River" (2003) to "Gran Torino" (2008). Niehaus won the BMI Film & TV Awards for "Heartbreak Ridge" (1986), "Unforgiven" (1992), "The Bridges of Madison County" (1995), and "Space Cowboys" (2000).  The most substantial collaboration between Niehaus and Eastwood related directly to jazz, was the 1988 biographical film on Charlie Parker, "Bird". Besides a Golden Globe for Eastwood as best director, an Academy Award for best sound and many others, the score by Niehaus was nominated for a BAFTA Award, and won 2nd place at the Los Angeles Film Critics Association Awards, shared between Niehaus and Charlie Parker, due to a production process that had managed to electronically isolate Parker's saxophone solos from the original recordings and backed them with modern stereo recordings.

Other awarded film scores.

Lennie Niehaus wrote the music for another jazz related feature, the 1993 TV movie "Lush Life," in which Forest Whitaker, who played Charlie Parker in "Bird," also starred as a jazz saxophonist. Niehaus won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Music Composition for a Miniseries, Movie, or a Special. In 2008 he was nominated again for "."

Further works and educational publishing.

His work includes "Spiritual Jazz Suite," four pieces arranged for brass quartet, three sets of Christmas Jazz suites (4 pieces in each) and a Christmas Jazz Medley arranged for saxophone quartet. His educational publishing includes a book of classical saxophone duets, a beginning/intermediate/advanced method books for the understanding of jazz technique, and a book of jazz saxophone duets exemplifying jazz styles. After many years of not playing his alto saxophone at all, Niehaus returned to performing, reportedly in top form. He played saxophone as leader of his octet on his album, "Sunday Afternoons At The Lighthouse Cafe" (2004).

Selected discography.

With Stan Kenton

Leonard Niehaus (June 11, 1929 – May 28, 2020) was an American alto saxophonist, composer and arranger on the West Coast jazz scene. He played with the Stan Kenton Orchestra and served as one of Kenton's primary staff arrangers. He also played with Ray Vasquez and trombonist and Vocalist, Phil Carreon and other jazz bands on the U.S. West Coast. Niehaus had a close association as composer and arranging to motion pictures produced by Clint Eastwood.

Leonard Niehaus (* 11. Juni 1929 in St. Louis, Missouri; † 28. Mai 2020 in Redlands) war ein US-amerikanischer Jazzmusiker (Altsaxophon) und Komponist.


Characteristics.

Figure 8 puffers grow to about long. They are colourful fish, with greenish yellow patterns on their backs. These patterns vary greatly from fish to fish, but the markings either side of the caudal fin resemble the number eight, or eye-spots (earning the species another common name as 'Eye-spot puffer'). Figure 8 puffers are relatively peaceful among Tetraodontidae, and have been kept successfully with other fish such as bumblebee gobies and mollies, but as with all pufferfish there is a risk that tankmates will not be tolerated.  Like all members of its family, the figure 8 puffer is capable of inflating itself with water or air when stressed or otherwise frightened.

In freshwater.

Like the closely related green puffer fish, the figure 8 exhibits euryhalinity, and undergoes epithelial remodeling and changes in the kidneys and gills when exposed to changes in salinity. Accordingly, the figure 8 puffer is often mistakenly regarded as an entirely freshwater fish, and has considerable resistance to freshwater exposure. In a marine environment, it exhibits typical saltwater fish morphological features in its gills, allowing it to secrete sodium chloride across the gill epithelium like a typical saltwater fish. However, acclimated to freshwater, the figure 8 puffer will exhibit specialized cells that do not match any gill ion-regulating cell of a freshwater fish. The other fish known to have these types of cells is the Mozambique tilapia ("O. mossambicus"), but this is a saltwater fish.

In the aquarium.

In captivity, figure 8 puffers require a 15 US gallon tank with temperatures between 24 °C and 28 °C. They are sensitive to nitrites and nitrates and must be introduced into a fully cycled aquarium. Over-filtration is recommended as well as frequent partial water changes. Water pH will reflect the brackish environment to which these fish are best suited; the addition of marine salt will buffer the pH to a range between 7.8 and 8.3. With a salinity of between 1.005 and 1.008 specific gravity (S.G.), the lifespan of this species has been as long as 15 years. As with all puffer fish, they require a complex aquarium set up consisting of many nooks and crannies. This helps figure 8 puffers to behave as they would in nature, and reduce boredom.

Diet.

Pufferfish are classed as molluscivores and feed mainly on benthic organisms which may include mussels, cockles, oysters and krill, though some puffers will take other foods, such as flake, it is not recommended that their primary food is flake. Their teeth, a beak formed from two plates, are capable of crushing shells in order to feed on prey. In captivity many fishkeepers feed snails as a substitute for the aforementioned foods as snails help keep the beak trim; it would otherwise be susceptible to overgrowth.

Bibliography.

Ebert, K. (2001), "The Puffers of Fresh and Brackish Water", p 19. Aqualog,.

Dichotomyctere ocellatus (syn. "Tetraodon biocellatus"), commonly the figure 8 puffer or eyespot puffer, is a pufferfish found in freshwater in Southeast Asia. It is known from the lower reaches of the Mekong (Cambodia), the Peninsular Malaysia as well as Borneo (Sarawak, Kalimantan).

Der Palembang-Kugelfisch ("Dichotomyctere ocellatus", Syn.: "Tetraodon biocellatus", "T. steindachneri") ist in Südostasien (Thailand, Malaysia, Sumatra und Kalimantan) in Süßgewässern beheimatet. Die sechs bis acht Zentimeter groß werdenden Fische ernähren sich von Schnecken und anderen bodenbewohnenden wirbellosen Tieren.


Background.

In June 2002, No Angels released their second album, "Now... Us!", which received critical acclaim from many critics who believed the band would not last past their first album. Another major commercial success for the group, it debuted at number one on the German Album Chart. Following an exclusive swing concert at the Berlin Tränenpalast in October, No Angels soon followed with a swing album, titled "When the Angels Swing", featuring their biggest hits and selected songs from their first two albums, re-arranged by Grammy Award-nominated jazz musician Till Brönner. Critically acclaimed by critics, the album reached number nine of the German Albums Chart, eventually going gold. In November, the girls embarked on their second national concert tour, the "Four Seasons Tour", playing sell-out shows in theatres across German-speaking Europe.  After Jessica Wahls' pregnancy break from the group and the end of the tour, the remaining four members of the No Angels began intensifying work on their then-untitled third studio album. Encouraged to exercise more self-control on the longplayer, the band took over responsibility in composing, recording and selecting songs to guarantee a more personal theme on the album — a step that challenged criticism and growing scepticism among the band's label Cheyenne Records and recording company Polydor. "We selected song for us, which are best pop music, sort absolutely well with us, and represent at best what we want to talk about," band member Sandy Mölling said in an interview during the album's release. Impressed by the intensity of the musical output, the group settled on the album title "Pure". "The music is very, very pure, [...] there's nothing we had to dissemble for, the album shows who we really are [musically]."

Recording and production.

Recording of all vocals on "Pure" took place at the Department-2-Studios in Frankfurt am Main. Unlike with previous sessions, the remaining four band members did not record together. Instead, each member would record on her own in the studio, while vocal mixing was provided by engineers. Vocal production was supervised by frequent collaborator Nik Hafemann, with Nadja Benaissa and Vanessa Petruo contributing to the arrangement of the vocal harmonies. Petruo als penned opening track "Sister", another collaboration with songwriter Alex Geringas and producer Thorsten Brötzmann, both of who had co-written their number-one hit "Something About Us" (2001). The strings-led mid-tempo song chronicles Petruo's fallout with her father, actor Thomas Petruo, and their subsequent reconciliation. Kids voices were provided by Brötzmann's daughters Sina and Lisa-Maria.  Brötzmann produced another five songs on "Pure", including the uplifting latin-flavored mid tempo song "Someday" and the melancholic latin ballad "Angel of Mine" both of which were compared to their 2002 single "Still in Love with You". He also contributed to the up tempo song "So What" and Petruo's solo song "Ten Degrees" as well as an acoustic version of Dutch musician Robbie van Leeuwen's 1969 song "Venus". The band reportedly disliked their Bananarama-influenced original rendition of the song which they had recorded as testimonials for Gillette's "Venus" division of razors for women in early 2003. Production on "Eleven Out of Ten", a cover version of the same-titled 2003 song by Swedish girl group Play, was helmed by Tobias Lundgren, while its songwriters, Swedish production duo Twin, provided production on the beat-driven "Feelgood Lies".  Further six tracks were produced by Peter Ries, another longtime contributor of the band, including the electronic ballad "New Beginning" and the warm acoustic ballad "Washes Over Me". His production on "You Lied" was compared to the synth sounds of British electronic musician William Orbit with whom Cheyenne Records had been in negotiations for a possible collaboration on the song, but plans fell through. "Forever Yours" incorporates slight elements of Arabic music, while "Takes a Woman to Know" combines strings and keyboard arrangements with Italian folk music. Ries also produced, "Soft Place to Fall", Benaissa's solo song, who rejected a self-written but "dramatic and melancholic" composition in favor of his track, as well as Diakovka's solo song, the rock pop-heavy "Confession". Production on another rock pop song, lead single "No Angel (It's All in Your Mind)", was overseen by Perky Park and Hafemann.

Critical reception.

"Pure" was released to generally mixed reviews from music critics, many of whom praised the slower songs on the album but found the rest of the material too generic. "Musikwoche" remarked that the strength of the album was its ballads and cited songs such as "New Beginnig", "Washes Over Me" as well as the band's rendition of "Venus" as the "quiet, rousing highlights" of the album. The Media magazine concluded: "The third studio album of the No Angels is not as 'pure' as the title might suggest. But it is a successful proof of their heavenly vocal power." Marie-Louise Leinhos from Berlin women's magazine "Aviva" felt that "the album is an imaginative work with varied songs [that] is also experimental and open to new influences." She called "Pure" “another solid continuation” to their discography as well as a "classically crafted pop album with danceable parts."  Matthias Reichel from online magazine CDStarts criticized the album for its "overbalancing status of filling material" and rated the album three stars ouf of ten. He commented: "In principle, everything on "Pure" is unchanged: A few 'highlights' are flanked by soulless mass products that are on b-side level at best." However, Reichel felt that single releases such as "Someday", "No Angel (It’s All in Your Mind)" and "Feelgood Lies" as well as "Forever Yours" and "New Beginning" confirmed the songwriters' skills for catchy, radio-friendly tunes. Similarly, laut.de editor Vicky Butscher found that "Pure" was less of a personal album instead of a collection of "typical boy or girl group repertoire". She rated the album two out of five stars and remarked that the album was drawing inspiration from Madonna's 1998 studio album "Ray of Light", particularly on "You Lied", as well as British female groups such as All Saints and the Sugababes. Satisfied with later half of the album though, she concluded: "The best thing would be for the No Angels to focus on ballads in the future. Anyone who listens to "New Beginning" or "Washes Over Me" knows why. Also, the re-arranged "Venus" is much more beautiful, than the pop jingle."

Chart performance.

Released on August 25, 2003, "Pure" debuted at number one in the German Albums Chart in the week of September 8, 2003. It marked the band's third consecutive studio album to reach the top position on this particular chart. Due to the announcement of their disbandment two weeks after its release, promotional efforts for No Angels soon shifted to their first compilation "The Best of No Angels" (2003) after the release of "Pure"s third single "Feelgood Lies" in late September 2003. "Pure", however, fell out of the top ten in its sixth week of release but remained on the chart until late December 2003. While not as commercially successful as its predecessors "Elle'ments" (2001) and "Now... Us!" (2002), both of which had been promoted significantly longer and spawned several reissues and special editions, it was eventually awarded a gold certification by the Bundesverband Musikindustrie (BVMI) for selling more than 100,000 copies. In Germany, "Pure" ranked fifty-second on the national year-end chart.  In Austria, "Pure" became No Angels's third consecutive studio album to reach the top two of the Australian Albums Chart. Upon its debut week, it was blocked from the top spot by "Dead Letters" (2003), the fifth album by Finnish rock band The Rasmus. While "Pure" failed to place on the national year end chart and was left uncertified, it spent twelve weeks on the chart. In Switzerland, the album became the group's third top ten album. The second highest new entry of the week after American R&B singer Mary J. Blige's album "Love & Life" (2003), it debuted at number nine on the Swiss Albums Chart. While none of "Pure"s singles managed to reach the top twenty of the Swiss Singles Chart, the album would spend one week within the top ten and remain another eight weeks on the chart.  Since the album's promotion ended in September 2003, "Pure" produced three singles only. Lead single "No Angel (It's All in Your Mind)", the No Angels's first release without Wahls, became the band's fourth number-one hit on the German Singles Chart. It also placed tenth in Austria, where it would become the band's seventh and final top entry on the Austrian Singles Chart. Follow-up "Someday" became the band the band's seventh top ten hit in Germany and while it peaked at number five, it would become the album's lowest-charting single. While "Eleven out of Ten" was originally announced as the album's third single, it was eventually replaced by "Feelgood Lies". A top three hit in Germany and the album's only top thirty entry in Switzerland, it became the album's highest-charting single.

Pure is the third studio album by all-female German pop group No Angels. It was released by Polydor and Cheyenne Records on August 25, 2003 in German-speaking Europe. Conceived after the departure of original member Jessica Wahls, the project marked the No Angels's first studio release as a quartet and their final album before their temporary disbandment in fall 2003. The remaining four members reteamed with frequent collaborators Thorsten Brötzmann and Peter Ries to work on the majority of the album, with additional songwriting and production contribution from Tobias Lundgren, Perky Park, Nigel Rush, Stephan Ullman, and duo Twin.

Pure (englisch für "Rein") ist das dritte Studioalbum der deutschen Popband No Angels. Es erschien im August 2003 unter den Labels Cheyenne Records und Polydor und beinhaltet unter anderem Produktionen von Thorsten Brötzmann, Peter Ries und Lucy Diakovska. Die Platte erreichte Platz 1 der deutschen Media-Control-Albumcharts und wurde für über 150.000 verkaufte Exemplare mit einer Goldenen Schallplatte ausgezeichnet.


Discovery and naming.

During the 19th century, in England many fragmentary pterosaur fossils were found in the Cambridge Greensand, a layer from the early Cretaceous, that had originated as a sandy seabed. Decomposing pterosaur cadavers, floating on the sea surface, had gradually lost individual bones that sank to the bottom of the sea. Water currents then moved the bones around, eroding and polishing them, until they were at last covered by more sand and fossilised. Even the largest of these remains were damaged and difficult to interpret. They had been assigned to the genus "Pterodactylus", as was common for any pterosaur species described in the early and middle 19th century.  Young researcher Harry Govier Seeley was commissioned to bring order to the pterosaur collection of the Sedgwick Museum in Cambridge. He soon concluded that it was best to create a new genus for the Cambridge Greensand material that he named "Ornithocheirus" (meaning "bird hand"), as he in this period still considered pterosaurs to be the direct ancestors of birds, and assumed the hand of the genus to represent a transitional stage in the evolution towards the bird hand. To distinguish the best pieces in the collection, and partly because they had already been described as species by other scientists. Between the years 1869 and 1870, Seeley each gave them a separate species name: "O. simus", "O. woodwardi", "O. oxyrhinus", "O. carteri", "O. platyrhinus", "O. sedgwickii", "O. crassidens", "O. capito", "O. eurygnathus", "O. reedi", "O. cuvieri", "O. scaphorhynchus", "O. brachyrhinus", "O. colorhinus", "O. dentatus", "O. denticulatus", "O. enchorhynchus", "O. xyphorhynchus", "O. fittoni", "O. nasutus", "O. polyodon", "O. tenuirostris", "O. machaerorhynchus", "O. platystomus", "O. microdon", "O. oweni" and "O. huxleyi", thus 27 in total. As yet Seeley did not designate a type species.  When Seeley published his conclusions in his 1870 book "The Ornithosauria", this provoked a reaction by the leading British paleontologist of his day, Sir Richard Owen. Owen was not an evolutionist and he therefore considered the name "Ornithocheirus" to be inappropriate; he also thought it was possible to distinguish two main types within the material, based on differences in snout form and tooth position — the best fossils consisted of jaw fragments. In 1874, he created two new genera: "Coloborhynchus" and "Criorhynchus". "Coloborhynchus" (meaning "maimed beak") which comprised a new type species called "Coloborhynchus clavirostris", as well as two other species reassigned from "Ornithocheirus": "C. sedgwickii" and "C. cuvieri". "Criorhynchus" (meaning "ram beak") consisted entirely of former "Ornithocheirus" species: the type species, "Criorhynchus simus", and furthermore such as "C. eurygnathus", "C. capito", "C. platystomus", "C. crassidens" and "C. reedi". Seeley did not accept Owen's position. In 1881 he designated "O. simus" the type species of "Ornithocheirus" and named a new separate species called "O. bunzeli". In 1888, Edwin Tulley Newton reassigned several existing species names into "Ornithocheirus", which created new combinations: "O. clavirostris", "O. daviesii", "O. sagittirostris", "O. validus", "O. giganteus", "O. clifti", "O. diomedeus", "O. nobilis", "O. curtus", "O. macrorhinus" and "O. hlavaci". He also reassigned the species "O. umbrosus" and "O. harpyia" into "Ornithocheirus", which were formerly species given to the genus "Pteranodon" by Edward Drinker Cope back in 1872.  In 1914 Reginald Walter Hooley made a new attempt to structure the large number of species. Hooley synonymized Owen's "Criorhynchus" to "Ornithocheirus", in which he also sunk "Coloborhynchus" into that genus, meaning that the only generic name he kept was "Ornithocheirus". To allow for a greater differentiation, Hooley created two new genera, again based on jaw form: "Lonchodectes" and "Amblydectes". The genus "Lonchodectes" (meaning "lance biter") consisted of the former species "Pterodactylus compressirostris", and "Pterodactylus giganteus", which were reassigned as "Lonchodectes compressirostris", the type species, and "Lonchodectes giganteus", in addition, Hooley also named a new separate species called "L. daviesii". The genus "Amblydectes" (meaning "blunt biter") also consisted of three species: "A. platystomus", "A. crassidens" and "A. eurygnathus". Hooley's classification however, was rarely applied later in the century, and therefore paleontologists weren't aware of it, and kept subsuming all the poorly preserved and confusing material under the name "Ornithocheirus". In 1964, a Russian-language overview of Pterosauria designated the species "Lonchodectes compressirostris", which was identified as "Pterodactylus compressirostris" in the overview, as the type species of "Ornithocheirus", which was then followed by Kuhn in 1967, and Wellnhofer in 1978, yet those authors weren't aware that back in 1881, Seeley made already made the species "P. simus" as the type species of "Ornithocheirus", in which defined the new combination of "O. simus". From the seventies onwards many new pterosaur fossils were found in Brazil in deposits slightly older than the Cambridge Greensand, 110 million years old. Unlike the English material, these new finds included some of the best preserved large pterosaur skeletons and several new genera names were given to them, such as "Anhanguera". This situation caused a renewed interest in the "Ornithocheirus" material and the validity of the several names based on it, for it might be possible that it could by more detailed studies be established that the Brazilian pterosaurs were actually junior synonyms of the European types. Several European researchers concluded that this was indeed the case. Unwin revived "Coloborhynchus" and Michael Fastnacht "Criorhynchus", each author ascribing Brazilian species to these genera. However, in 2000 Unwin stated that "Criorhynchus" could not be valid. Referring to Seeley's designation of 1881 he considered "Ornithocheirus simus", holotype CAMSM B.54428, to be the type species. This also made it possible to revive "Lonchodectes", using as type the former "O. compressirostris", which then became "L. compressirostris".  As a result, though over forty species have been named in the genus "Ornithocheirus" over the years, only "O. simus" is currently considered valid by all pterosaur researchers. The species "Tropeognathus mesembrinus", which was named by Peter Wellnhofer in 1987, was assigned to "Ornithocheirus" by David Unwin in 2003, making "Tropeognathus" a junior synonym. In 1989 however, Alexander Kellner considered it as an "Anhanguera mesembrinus", then as a "Coloborhynchus mesembrinus" by André Veldmeijer in 1998 and as a "Criorhynchus mesembrinus" by Michael Fastnacht in 2001. Even earlier, in 2001, Unwin had referred the "Tropeognathus" material to "O. simus" in which was followed by Veldmeijer; however, Veldmeijer rejected "O. simus" as the type species in favor of "O. compressirostris" (alternately "Lonchodectes"), and he used the names "Criorhynchus simus" and "Criorhynchus mesembrinus" instead.

Formerly assigned species.

In 2013, Rodrigues and Kellner found "Ornithocheirus" to be monotypic, containing only "O. simus", and placed most other species in other genera, or declared them "nomina dubia". They also considered "O. platyrhinus" a junior synonym of "O. simus".  Misassigned species:  "Cimoliornis diomedeus", "Cretornis hlavatschi", and "Palaeornis clifti", originally misidentified as birds, were once referred to "Ornithocheirus" in the past, but recent papers have found them to be distinct; "Cimoliornis" may be closer to azhdarchoidea, "Cretornis" is a valid genus of azhdarchid, and "Palaeornis" was shown to be a lonchodectid in 2009. "O. buenzeli" (Bunzel 1871, often misspelled and incorrectly attributed as "O. bunzeli", Seeley 1881), cited in the past as evidence of Late Cretaceous ornithocheirids, has since been re-identified as a likely azhdarchid as well.

Description.

The type species, "Ornithocheirus simus", is only known from fragmentary jaw tips. It bore a distinctive convex "keeled" crest on its snout similar to its relatives. "Ornithocheirus" had relatively narrow jaw tips compared to the related "Coloborhynchus" and "Tropeognathus", which had prominently-expanded rosettes of teeth, as well as a more developed "keeled" crest compared to "Ornithocheirus". Another feature that made "Ornithocheirus" unique and unlike its relatives, was that its teeth of were mostly vertical, rather than set at an outward-pointing angle.  It was believed in the past that "Ornithocheirus" was one of the largest pterosaurs to have existed, with a wingspan possibly measuring 40 feet (12.2 m) wide. However, this is a highly exaggerated number, as the animal's wingspan likely measured 15 to 20 feet (4.5 to 6.1 m) wide, which would make it a medium-sized pterosaur. A related species called "Tropeognathus" had a wingspan measuring about wide, making it the largest toothed pterosaur known.

Classification.

A topology made by Andres and Myers in 2013 placed "Ornithocheirus" within the family Ornithocheiridae in a more derived position than "Tropeognathus", but in a more basal position than "Coloborhynchus", and the family itself is placed within the more inclusive clade Ornithocheirae. In 2019, the description of the new ornithocheirid "Ferrodraco" by Pentland "et al." had made paleontologists reclassify the family Ornithocheiridae. In the analysis, a topology placed "Ornithocheirus" within the subfamily Ornithocheirinae in a more derived position than "Coloborhynchus", which contradicts the anterior topology by Andres & Myers in 2013.  Topology 1: Andres & Myers (2013). Topology 2: Pentland "et al." (2019).

Ornithocheirus (from Ancient Greek "ὄρνις", meaning "bird", and "χεῖρ", meaning "hand") is a pterosaur genus known from fragmentary fossil remains uncovered from sediments in the UK.

Die ersten Fossilien wurden 1827 in der Wealden-Formation in Sussex, England gefunden. Es handelte sich vor allem um Kieferbruchstücke, Gelenkenden und einzelne Wirbel. Vollständige Skelette und Schädel fehlten.


History.

Demyansk was first mentioned in a chronicle in 1406 as Demon. The area was a part of Derevskaya Pyatina of Novgorod. Demon was a fortress protecting a waterway from Lake Ilmen upstream the Pola and the Yavon to Lake Seliger. The fortress was located close to the boundary between the Novgorod Republic and the Grand Duchy of Moscow, and it was at least twice sieged by Muscovite troops. In 1441, the Muscovites did not manage to conquer Demon, but in the 1470s they conquered and destroyed the fortress. After the subsequent fall of Novgorod, Demon was transferred to the Grand Duchy of Moscow. In the 17th century, Demon went into decline, and a new settlement was founded nearby, which was known as Demyansky Pogost, and later as Demyansk. In the course of the administrative reform carried out in 1708 by Peter the Great, the area was included into Ingermanland Governorate (known since 1710 as Saint Petersburg Governorate). In 1727, separate Novgorod Governorate was split off. Between 1772 and 1824, Demyansk was a part of Starorussky Uyezd of Novgorod Viceroyalty (since 1796 of Novgorod Governorate). In 1824, it was chartered and became the center of Demyansky Uyezd, which was split off Starorussky Uyezd.  On August 1, 1927, the uyezds were abolished, and Demyansky District was established, with the center in Demyansk. Demyansk belonged to Novgorod Okrug of Leningrad Oblast. Effective October 1, 1927 the town of Demyansk was made a "selo". On July 23, 1930 the okrugs were abolished, and the districts became directly subordinate to the oblast. Between September, 1941, and February, 1943 parts of Demyansk District were occupied by German troops. The settlement was a place for the Battle of Demyansk during World War II in 1942. On July 5, 1944, Demyansky District was transferred to newly established Novgorod Oblast and remained there ever since. On December 28, 1960 Demyansk was granted the urban-type settlement status.

Economy.

Industry.

The existing enterprises in Demyansk serve timber and food industries.

Transportation.

Demyansk is located on the road connecting Yazhelbitsy and Staraya Russa. There are also local roads. There is bus traffic originating from Demyansk.

Culture and recreation.

Demyansk contains thirteen objects classified as cultural and historical heritage of local significance. These include a number of pre-1917 buildings of the former uyezd center, including a prison, an archaeological monument, and a number of graves of soldiers fallen in World War II.  Demyansk hosts the Demyansky District Museum.

Demyansk () is an urban locality (a work settlement) and the administrative center of Demyansky District of Novgorod Oblast, Russia, located along the Yavon River. Municipally, it is incorporated as Demyanskoye Urban Settlement, the only urban settlement in the district. Population:

Demjansk () ist eine Siedlung städtischen Typs und ehemalige Stadt mit Einwohnern (Stand ) in Russland. Sie liegt 100 km südöstlich von Weliki Nowgorod bzw. 53 km nordwestlich von Ostaschkow am Flüsschen Jawon in der nordwestrussischen Oblast Nowgorod. Der Ort am Nordrand der Waldaihöhen ist das Zentrum des Rajons Demjansk.


History.

Formation.

The Montreal Maroons hockey team was created to appeal to the anglophone neighbourhoods of Montreal. On January 2, 1918, the Montreal Arena, shared by the Montreal Canadiens and the Montreal Wanderers, burnt down. The Canadiens, who drew primarily Montreal's francophones, moved to the Jubilee Arena which, in 1919, also burnt down, before settling in the Mount Royal Arena, which had natural ice and seating for 3,250. The Wanderers, team of Montreal's anglophone community, folded. By 1922, work began to build a team to appeal to the anglophones and return to the NHL. In July 1924, construction began on a new arena, on the site of a former roller-skating rink known as the Forum. By fall, at a cost of $1.5 million, the Montreal Forum was complete. The Montreal Forum was the first large arena in the NHL. The Maroons joined the NHL in 1924, along with the Boston Bruins. The Canadiens initially objected to a second team in Montreal, but relented when compensated by the expansion fee. The expansion fees for each team was $15,000. $11,000 of the Maroons' fee went to their local rivals, the Canadiens. While the Canadiens owner initially lodged a formal objection to ensure he would get adequate compensation for sharing his franchise's territory, he was actually quite enthusiastic about having a second franchise in the same city; rather, he would later state, he "saw in them an important and lucrative local rivalry."  At the time of their founding, the Maroons had no nickname. The Maroons' president James Strachan had been the owner of the Wanderers in the 1900s. He attempted to secure the Wanderers name, but negotiations failed, so the club was known by its official name, the Montreal Professional Hockey Club. The Maroons nickname was eventually picked up by the media, after the colour of their jerseys. The club never officially changed the organizational name to incorporate the Maroons name. The Vancouver Millionaires of the Pacific Coast Hockey Association had changed their name to the Vancouver Maroons, but that club had folded before Montreal began.

Success at the gate and on the ice.

In the Maroons' first season of operation they finished second last in the league. However, the new Forum was selling out and, with the addition of players Nelson Stewart, Babe Siebert and Bill Phillips, success came quickly. In a single year, the Maroons went from having their worst record in franchise history to their best. In only their second season of operation, Montreal won their first Stanley Cup. The NHL playoffs that year were a two-game total-goals format. Montreal won the opening series over the Pittsburgh Pirates 6–4, then upset the favored Ottawa Senators 2–1. In the NHL playoff final, Montreal defeated Ottawa to advance to the Stanley Cup final, against the Victoria Cougars of the Western Hockey League. In the last Stanley Cup final involving two different leagues, Montreal defeated Victoria three games to one. Contributing to the victory was rookie, and future Hall of Fame member, Nels Stewart, who scored six of the Maroons' ten goals in the series. Stewart won the Hart Trophy for most valuable player. While not a smooth skater, Stewart compensated with size (at six foot one and 195 pounds, he was a giant compared to other players of that era), toughness (amassing 119 penalty minutes), and shooting (scoring 34 of Montreal's 91 goals during the season). Stewart's 34 goals remained an NHL record for rookies until the 1970–71 season. During this era, a team's best players often played the entire game with substitutions only made for injuries.  For the 1926–27 season, the NHL expanded to ten teams and was divided into American and Canadian divisions. The Maroons finished third in the Canadian division, behind their rivals the Canadiens, with whom they now shared the Forum. The two teams met in the playoffs for a two-game total-goals series. The Forum was packed with 11,000 fans, in a building whose capacity was listed at 10,000, to watch the Canadiens defeat the defending Stanley Cup champions. The Maroons also participated in another moment of hockey history when, on November 26, 1926, they were the competition in the New York Rangers' NHL debut game.  The Maroons got revenge on the Canadiens in the 1927–28 season, by eliminating them in the semi-finals of the playoffs. The Maroons then met the New York Rangers for the Stanley Cup, but lost the series three games to two. Because the circus occupied Madison Square Garden, all five games were played at the Forum.  The 1928–29 season was an oddly bad season for the Maroons, as they finished last in the Canadian division. However, they rebounded in the 1929–30 season, by finishing first. During these years, the Maroons were led by one of the most feared forward lines in the early NHL years, the "S Line", consisting of Hooley Smith, Babe Siebert and Nels Stewart, which was also one of the most penalized.  In the 1929–30 season, Dunc Munro was signed as player-coach of the team. It was during this season, that Clint Benedict of the Maroons became the first goaltender in NHL history to wear a mask, when he donned one to protect a broken nose. Although the Maroons finished first in the Canadian Division, they were eliminated in the first round of the playoffs by the Boston Bruins.  For the 1930–31 season, Stewart again led his team in goals and points, but the Maroons only finished third in the Canadian division, and were eliminated easily in the first round of the playoffs by the New York Rangers.  The Maroons made it into the playoffs of the 1931–32 season, by finishing five points ahead of the New York Americans. Montreal defeated Detroit in the opening round, but lost the semi-final match against the Toronto Maple Leafs.  The Maroons finished the 1932–33 season in second place in the Canadian division and even had three of the top six players in league points. However, Montreal was eliminated in the first round of the playoffs by Detroit.  In the playoffs of the 1933–34 season, the Chicago Black Hawks eliminated both Montreal teams, first defeating the Canadiens, then upsetting the Maroons in the semi-finals.  In 1935, Leo Dandurand, owner of the Montreal Canadiens, sold that team to Canadian Arena Company, (Ernest Savard, Louis Gelinas and Maurice Forget), which also owned the Montreal Maroons, for $165,000.

Great Depression.

In Montreal, financial strains from the Great Depression hurt the attendances of both the Canadiens and Maroons. However, there were far more francophone supporters for the Canadiens than anglophone supporters for the Maroons. As a result, the Maroons finished with the worst attendance in the league, three seasons in a row. Also, by 1935, both teams were owned by Canadian Arena Company. (Ernest Savard and Maurice Forget, who owned the Canadiens, were part of the Canadian Arena Company, as were Maroons owners James Strachan and Donat Raymond). It became obvious that only one team could represent Montreal. The Maroons' dire financial straits caused them to sell off several players, including star winger Hooley Smith. Despite the Maroons' financial troubles, they continued to play competitive hockey well into the 1930s.  For the 1934–35 season, the Maroons hired Tommy Gorman as coach, who had coached the Chicago Black Hawks to the Championship the previous year. The Maroons finished the season in second place behind Ottawa. In the playoffs, the Montreal Maroons defeated Chicago with defensive hockey, defeated the New York Rangers at wide-open (offensive) hockey, and then defeated the Toronto Maple Leafs, who Gorman considered as one of the best hockey teams of all time, in three straight games. The Maroons won their second Stanley Cup; Gorman remains the only coach in history to win back-to-back Cups with two different teams. The Maroons team were the last team to win the Cup without a loss in the playoffs for 17 years. Gorman called this Maroon team "the greatest team that ever stepped on the ice."  The playoffs of the 1935-36 season are famous for the longest NHL playoff game of all time. On March 24–25, the Maroons lost 1–0 to the Detroit Red Wings in 176:30 of play (16:30 of the sixth overtime period). The game was especially significant for Detroit goaltender Normie Smith, who began his career with the Maroons. He shut out the Maroons again in the second game, and allowed Detroit to complete a three-game sweep by allowing only one goal. Detroit proceeded to win the first Stanley Cup in their history.  In December 1936, Maroons captain Hooley Smith was traded to the Boston Bruins, a move which would mark the beginning of the end for the franchise. The 1936-37 season saw Nels Stewart break Howie Morenz's record for career goals with 271. Stewart would hold the all-time career record for goals until it was broken by Maurice Richard in 1952.  By the start of the 1937–38 season, rumours were rampant that the Maroon franchise would be moved to another city. In September 1937, Maroons president Donat Raymond said the team would be staying in Montreal. The team's bleak financial situation finally caught up with them as they finished 12–30–6, the club's worst season since winning only nine games in 1924–25. Lionel Conacher retired prior to the season to enter politics, winning a seat in the 1937 Ontario general election as a member of the Liberal Party. Tommy Gorman had tried to convince Conacher to stay with the Maroons and take over as coach, his retirement led Gorman to hire King Clancy. Clancy did not help improve the team's record, and on December 29 he was fired after 18 games and Gorman was re-instated as coach. Their last game for the Maroons franchise, was a 6-3 loss on March 17 against the Canadiens. They finished the season with a record of 12 wins, 30 losses and 6 ties for 30 points in 48 games, placing the team last in the Canadian Division and last overall in the league.  At the annual league meeting on June 22, the Maroons formally asked the league to suspend the franchise for a year; this was refused, and the league asked the Maroons to confirm by August 1 if they were to participate in the upcoming season or not.  The league allowed the Maroons to suspend operations for the 1938–39 season. Although it was not formally considered to be a merger unlike the much later fusion of the Minnesota North Stars and Cleveland Barons organizations, from a hockey operations perspective the transaction had the outward appearance of being a merger of the two Montreal teams since there was no dispersal draft and the Montreal owners were allowed to keep the NHL rights to the Maroons roster. However, the owners had long regarded the Maroons as Montreal's second team and had already transferred many of its best players, such as future Hall of Famer Toe Blake, to the Canadiens. As a result, only a small number of Maroons took to the ice for the 1938-39 season in a Canadiens uniform. Most of the Maroons players were either sold to the remaining NHL teams for cash or washed out of the league altogether.  The Maroons' owners tried to sell their dormant franchise to interests in St. Louis, Missouri, but doubts regarding the previous failure of the St. Louis Eagles led to the league refusing permission. At the 1945 annual league meeting, held on September 7, it was noted that the backers of the Maroons franchise were in discussion to sell to a group from Philadelphia fronted by Canadiens board member Len Peto. The league governors were prepared to approve the transfer, provided the Philadelphia group could prove they had the necessary funds for a hockey team. They also made sure to clarify that the Maroons franchise rights would expire in April 1947 unless something was done with them.  Peto was able to get the necessary funding, and persuaded the league to transfer the Maroons to Philadelphia. However, despite being larger than all but two NHL cities, Philadelphia did not have an arena that could accommodate an NHL team. The city's largest arena, the Palestra at the University of Pennsylvania, did not have an ice plant, and both Penn and Madison Square Garden (which managed the Palestra) balked at the expense of installing one. The only arena in the city with an ice plant, Philadelphia Arena, was ruled out because its sight lines and capacity (5,500) were deemed inadequate even for temporary use. The league gave Peto until the end of the 1946–47 season to find a suitable arena. In February, 1946 Peto announced plans to build a 20,000-seat arena on the site of the old Baker Bowl at a cost of $2.5 million. However, when his group was unable to get funding for the project by the league-imposed deadline, the NHL cancelled the Maroons franchise.  The last active Maroons player was Herb Cain, who remained in the NHL until 1946.

Season-by-season record.

"Note: GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, Pts = Points, GF = Goals for, GA = Goals against, PIM = Penalties in minutes"

The Montreal Maroons (officially the Montreal Professional Hockey Club) were a professional men's ice hockey team in the National Hockey League (NHL). They played in the NHL from 1924 to 1938, winning the Stanley Cup in 1926 and 1935. They were the last non-Original Six team to win the Stanley Cup until the expansion Philadelphia Flyers won in 1974.

Die Montreal Maroons waren ein professionelles Eishockeyteam aus Montreal. Sie spielten von 1924 bis 1938 in der National Hockey League. 1926 und 1935 gewannen sie den Stanley Cup.


Karl Marx and Sigmund Freud.

Both Marx and Freud were Jewish atheists who developed distinctive critiques of religion. In his 1965 book "", the French philosopher Paul Ricœur compared the two (together with Friedrich Nietzsche), characterizing their common method as the "hermeneutics of suspicion".  Certain philosophers have revised Marx's concept of commodity fetishism in the light of Freud's concept of sexual fetishism, theorizing a sexually charged relationships between a person and a manufactured object.  Freud remained prolific up until his death in 1939. "Civilization and Its Discontents", one of his most influential works (with particular relevance to socio-cultural and political issues), was published in 1930.

Emergence.

The beginnings of Freudo-Marxist theorizing took place in the 1920s in Germany and the Soviet Union. The Soviet philosopher V. Yurinets and the Freudian analyst Siegfried Bernfeld both discussed the topic. The Soviet linguist Valentin Voloshinov, a member of the Bakhtin circle, began a Marxist critique of psychoanalysis in his 1925 article "Beyond the Social", which he developed more substantially in his 1927 book "Freudianism: A Marxist Critique". In 1929, Wilhelm Reich’s "Dialectical Materialism and Psychoanalysis" was published in German and Russian in the bilingual communist theory journal "." At the end of this line of thought can be considered Otto Fenichel's 1934 article "Psychoanalysis as the Nucleus of a Future Dialectical-Materialistic Psychology" which appeared in Reich's. One member of the Berlin group of Marxist psychoanalysts around Reich was Erich Fromm, who later brought Freudo-Marxist ideas into the exiled Frankfurt School led by Max Horkheimer and Theodor W. Adorno.

Wilhelm Reich.

Wilhelm Reich was an Austrian psychoanalyst, a member of the second generation of psychoanalysts after Freud, and a radical psychiatrist. He was the author of several influential books and essays, most notably "Character Analysis" (1933), "The Mass Psychology of Fascism" (1933), and "The Sexual Revolution" (1936). His work on character contributed to the development of Anna Freud's "The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence" (1936), and his idea of muscular armour—the expression of the personality in the way the body moves—shaped innovations such as body psychotherapy, Fritz Perls's Gestalt therapy, Alexander Lowen's bioenergetic analysis, and Arthur Janov's primal therapy. His writing influenced generations of intellectuals: during the 1968 student uprisings in Paris and Berlin, students scrawled his name on walls and threw copies of "The Mass Psychology of Fascism" at the police.

Critical theory.

Frankfurt School.

The Frankfurt School, from the Institute for Social Research, took up the task of choosing what parts of Marx's thought might serve to clarify social conditions which Marx himself had never seen. They drew on other schools of thought to fill in Marx's perceived omissions. Max Weber exerted a major influence, as did Freud. In the Institute's extensive (ed. Max Horkheimer, Paris 1936), Erich Fromm authored the social-psychological part. Another new member of the institute was Herbert Marcuse, who would become famous during the 1950s in the US.

Herbert Marcuse.

"Eros and Civilization" is one of Marcuse's best known early works. Written in 1955, it is an attempted dialectical synthesis of Marx and Freud whose title alludes to Freud's "Civilization and its Discontents". Marcuse's vision of a non-repressive society (which runs rather counter to Freud's conception of society as naturally and necessarily repressive), based on Marx and Freud, anticipated the values of 1960s countercultural social movements.  In the book, Marcuse writes about the social meaning of biology – history seen not as a class struggle, but fight against repression of our instincts. He argues that capitalism (if never named as such) is preventing us from reaching the non-repressive society "based on a fundamentally different experience of being, a fundamentally different relation between man and nature, and fundamentally different existential relations".

Erich Fromm.

Erich Fromm, once a member of the Frankfurt School, left the group at the end of the 1930s. The culmination of Fromm's social and political philosophy was his book "The Sane Society", published in 1955, which argued in favor of humanist, democratic socialism. Building primarily upon the works of Marx, Fromm sought to re-emphasise the ideal of personal freedom, missing from most Soviet Marxism, and more frequently found in the writings of classic liberals. Fromm's brand of socialism rejected both Western capitalism and Soviet communism, which he saw as dehumanizing and bureaucratic social structures that resulted in a virtually universal modern phenomenon of alienation.

Frantz Fanon.

The French West Indian psychiatrist and philosopher Frantz Fanon drew on both psychoanalytic and Marxist theory in his critique of colonialism. His seminal works in this area include "Black Skin, White Masks" (1952) and "The Wretched of the Earth" (1961).

Lacanianism.

Jacques Lacan was a philosophically-minded French psychoanalyst, whose perspective gained widespread influence in French psychiatry and psychology. Lacan saw himself as loyal to and rescuing Freud's legacy. He inspired new cross-fertilisation of Freudian and Marxist ideas.

Louis Althusser.

The French Marxist philosopher Louis Althusser is widely known as a theorist of ideology, and his best-known essay is "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses: Notes Toward an Investigation". The essay establishes the concept of ideology, also based on Gramsci's theory of hegemony. Whereas hegemony is ultimately determined entirely by political forces, ideology draws on Freud's and Lacan's concepts of the unconscious and mirror-phase respectively, and describes the structures and systems that allow us to meaningfully have a concept of the self. These structures, for Althusser, are both agents of repression and inevitable – it is impossible to escape ideology, to not be subjected to it. The distinction between ideology and science or philosophy is not assured once for all by the "epistemological break" (a term borrowed from Gaston Bachelard): this "break" is not a chronologically-determined event, but a process. Instead of an assured victory, there is a continuous struggle against ideology: "Ideology has no history". His essay "Contradiction and Overdetermination" borrows the concept of overdetermination from psychoanalysis, in order to replace the idea of "contradiction" with a more complex model of multiple causality in political situations (an idea closely related to Gramsci's concept of hegemony).

Cornelius Castoriadis.

Greek-French philosopher, psychoanalyst, and social critic Cornelius Castoriadis also followed up on the work of Lacan.

Slavoj Žižek.

The Slovenian philosopher Slavoj Žižek has developed since the late 1980s a line of thought which uses Lacanian psychoanalysis, Hegelian philosophy and Marxism. Althusser is also among his references. His "The Sublime Object of Ideology" deals with the original Freudo-Marxist perspective.

Post-structuralism.

Major French philosophers associated with post-structuralism, post-modernism, and/or deconstruction, including Jean-François Lyotard, Michel Foucault, and Jacques Derrida, engaged deeply with both Marxism and psychoanalysis. Most notably, Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari collaborated on the theoretical work "Capitalism and Schizophrenia" in two volumes: "Anti-Oedipus" (1972) and "A Thousand Plateaus" (1980).

Freudo-Marxism is a loose designation for philosophical perspectives informed by both the Marxist philosophy of Karl Marx and the psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud. It has a rich history within continental philosophy, beginning in the 1920s and 1930s and running through critical theory, Lacanian psychoanalysis, and post-structuralism.

Der Freudomarxismus ist eine Gesellschaftstheorie, die aus einer Verbindung der Theorien von Sigmund Freud (Psychoanalyse) und Karl Marx (Marxismus) ab den 1920er Jahren entstanden ist. Der Freudomarxismus, der seinerzeit weder in der Psychoanalyse noch im Marxismus politischen Einfluss gewinnen konnte, bildete in den 1960er Jahren eine der theoretischen Grundlagen für die Neue Linke (68er-Bewegung): Der kapitalistische Staat unterdrücke zum Zweck einer höheren Arbeitsleistung die Sexualität seiner Produktivkräfte (was laut Wilhelm Reich zu Massenneurosen führe) und zur Befreiung beziehungsweise zur Autonomie des „neuen Menschen“ sei Sexualität unabhängig von gesellschaftlichen Konventionen frei auszuleben.