Life and career.

Early career and Vinegar Joe.

Brooks was born Elaine Bookbinder in Broughton, Salford, the daughter of Marjorie Violet "Vi" (née Newton) and Kalmon Charles "Charlie" Bookbinder. She was raised in Prestwich. She attended North Salford Secondary Modern School.  Her older brothers are Raymond Bookbinder (born 1938) and Anthony Bookbinder (born 28 May 1943), who went by the stage name of Tony Mansfield, and was drummer for Billy J. Kramer with the Dakotas, on their run of 1960s hit records.  According to Brooks, her unofficial debut was a gig at a club called the "Laronde" on Cheetham Hill Road, Manchester, when she was 13 years old. She first sang professionally at the age of 15, and her first record, a cover of Etta James's "Something's Got a Hold on Me", was released on Decca in 1964. Brooks spent most of the 1960s on Britain's cabaret scene, a period of her life that she did not particularly enjoy. In the mid 1960s she supported the Beatles in their Christmas show in London, then, as an established act, helped the Small Faces in their early career by introducing them at several venues. She went on to tour the United States with several bands, including the Animals. She also toured the then communist Poland with Jon Lord's Artwoods.  After she met Pete Gage, whom she would marry, she joined the short-lived blues rock fusioneers Dada before forming Vinegar Joe with Gage and Robert Palmer. Brooks gained the reputation as the wild woman of rock 'n' roll due to her wild stage performances. After three albums, they split up in 1974, and Brooks and Palmer pursued separate solo careers. After a time as backing singer with the American southern boogie band Wet Willie, she returned to England.

Solo career and chart success.

Her first solo album on A&M records was "Rich Man's Woman" (1975). It was released to critical acclaim, but Brooks was given a hard time because of the album's cover shot of a naked Brooks with a feather boa, which was considered outrageous for the time.  It came before a run of 16 albums in 20 years, starting with "Two Days Away" (1977), produced by the songwriting duo Leiber & Stoller, who had also worked with Elvis Presley and many others. Brooks also wrote some tracks with them. The hits "Pearl's a Singer" and "Sunshine After the Rain" came from this album. That same year, Brooks duetted with Cat Stevens in the song, "Remember the Days of the Old Schoolyard". The albums "Shooting Star" (1978) and "Live and Learn" (1979) also saw success along with the singles "Lilac Wine" and "Don't Cry Out Loud". Her polished, powerful cover of Gallagher and Lyle's "The Runaway", saw the Scottish singer-songwriters appear with Brooks on TOTP's to provide backing vocals.  In 1980, Brooks performed at the Knebworth Festival with the Beach Boys, Santana and Mike Oldfield. The "Pearls" album released in 1981 achieved the biggest success of her career, charting for 79 weeks and reaching No 2, the album was still in the charts one year later when "Pearls ll (1982)" reached No 5 and spent 26 weeks on the UK charts. The Gus Dudgeon produced "Fool If You Think It's Over (1981)" was a major hit single for Brooks, written by Chris Rea. Other charts singles followed with "Our Love" "Nights In White Satin" & Gasoline Alley all produced by Gus Dudgeon. "Minutes" (1984) and "Screen Gems" (1984), were both all UK album chart hits in the same year.  In 1986, she sang the title song for the BBC television series "A Very Peculiar Practice". The song, written by Dave Greenslade, was never released as a commercial recording.  In early 1987, the song "No More the Fool" reached the top five and became her biggest hit single to date with the parent album also reaching the top five. This led to her achieving another career peak, as she had two albums in the Top Ten and a single in the Top Ten all on the same week. Following chart success ensued with the albums "The Very Best of Elkie Brooks" (1986), "Bookbinder's Kid" (1988), "Inspiration" (1989), "Round Midnight" (1993), "Nothin' but the Blues" (1994), "Amazing" (1996) and "The Very Best of Elkie Brooks" (1997).  In March 2003, she participated in the ITV music talent show "Reborn in the USA", alongside musicians such as Peter Cox, Tony Hadley and Leee John. Also in 2003 she issued a CD, "Trouble in Mind", with the acclaimed Humphrey Lyttelton and his Band, which included Bad Penny Blues with added lyrics. The "Electric Lady" album (2005) produced by son Jermaine Jordan saw a return to her blues and rock roots, featuring self-penned tracks alongside re-workings of numbers by the Doors, Bob Dylan, Paul Rodgers and Tony Joe White. The following year saw the release of her first official DVD, "Elkie Brooks & Friends: Pearls", featuring an array of guest musicians.  Brooks' twentieth studio album, "Powerless" also produced by son Jermaine Jordan was released in 2010, featuring songs such as Prince's "Purple Rain" and Dylan's "Make You Feel My Love". She continues to perform live throughout the UK and Ireland. In 2012, Brooks released her autobiography "Finding My Voice", published by The Robson Press. In it she details her life and career, focusing on her love of performing live and the downsides of the recording business, which has often left her financially no better off.  In July 2017 after signing to Virgin EMI she issued a new CD "Elkie Brooks: Pearls The Very Best Of", which charted at No 14 and included two new singles: "Love Ain't Something that You Can Get for Free" and the Bryan Adams penned "Forgive and Forget" later in the year a remix of the 1979 album track "The Rising Cost of Love" was also released as a single, all 3 singles made it to the Radio 2 'A' playlist with "Forgive & Forget" being the Radio 2 "Record of the Week". Brooks promoted the CD with several appearances on Radio 2 shows and the BBC's "The One Show", "Live at the Palladium" & "Aled Jones Show". Later in the year Brooks appeared at the London Palladium, on 19 September, to mark 40 years since her first sell out week there in 1977. The show celebrated her 40 years of success since the hit single "Pearl's a Singer" was released.  In 2017 Brooks recorded the closing theme song "Running to the Future" for the British movie "Finding Your Feet", starring Imelda Staunton, Timothy Spall, Celia Imrie and Joanna Lumley. The track was released as a download only single and was included in the soundtrack CD album. Her self-penned song "Just An Excuse" has been the subject of various remixes, most notably appearing on the Bonobo album "Migration" (2017) which was a UK No 5 hit. Brooks has performed live since 1960 and continuously every year since 1977 with current concert dates set throughout 2020 billed as the 60th anniversary tour.

Personal life.

In the early to mid-1970s, Brooks was married to guitarist Pete Gage. On 1 March 1978, she married her sound engineer, Trevor Jordan. They are still married, live in Devon and have two sons, Jermaine (born 22 December 1979) and Joseph (born 31 December 1986). Between 1981 and 2002 they lived in a mansion in a secluded area of North Devon. However, in 1998, after her accountant informed her that he had not been paying her taxes, Brooks found herself in severe debt and was reduced to living in a mobile home. After four years of increasing interest bills and loans, Brooks managed to sell her home (after being threatened with repossession) and cleared all of her debts.. In 2000 Brooks' management and tour promotion was taken over by husband & wife team Jermaine & Joanna Jordan (Brooks' eldest son & his wife).

Elkie Brooks (born Elaine Bookbinder, 25 February 1945) is an English singer. She was a vocalist with the bands Dada and Vinegar Joe, and later became a solo artist. She gained her biggest success in the late 1970s and 1980s, releasing 13 UK Top 75 singles, and reached the top ten with "Pearl's a Singer", "Sunshine After the Rain" and the title track of the album "No More the Fool". She has been nominated twice for Brit Awards.

Elkie Brooks (* 25. Februar 1945 in Salford, England, eigentlich "Elaine Bookbinder") ist eine britische Sängerin und früheres Mitglied der R&B-Band Vinegar Joe, danach war sie als Solo-Künstlerin hauptsächlich in Großbritannien erfolgreich.


Description.

Parícutin is located in the Mexican municipality of Nuevo Parangaricutiro, Michoacán, west of the city of Uruapan and about 322 km west of Mexico City. It lies on the northern flank of the Cerros de Tancítaro, which itself lies on top of an old shield volcano and extends above sea level and above the Valley of Quitzocho-Cuiyusuru. These structures are wedged against old volcanic mountain chains and surrounded by small volcanic cones, with the intervening valleys occupied by small fields and orchards or small settlements, from groups of a few houses to those the size of towns.  The volcano lies on, and is a product of, the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, which runs west-to-east across central Mexico. It includes the Sierra Nevada mountain range (a set of extinct volcanoes) as well as thousands of cinder cones and volcanic vents. Volcanic activity here has created the Central Mexican Plateau and rock deposits up to deep. It has also created fertile soils by the widespread deposition of ash and thereby some of Mexico's most productive farmland. The volcanic activity here is a result of the subduction of the Rivera and Cocos plates along the Middle America Trench. More specifically, the volcano is the youngest of the approximately 1,400 volcanic vents of the Michoacán-Guanajuato volcanic field, a basalt plateau filled with scoria cones like Parícutin, along with small shield volcanoes, maars, tuff rings and lava domes. Scoria cones are the most common type of volcano in Mexico, appearing suddenly and building a cone-shaped mountain with steep slopes before becoming extinct. Parícutin's immediate predecessor was El Jorullo, also in Michoacán, which erupted in 1759.  Currently the crater of the volcano is about across and it is possible to both climb the volcano and walk around the entire perimeter. Although classified as extinct by scientists, Parícutin is still hot, and seeping rainwater reacts with this heat so that the cone still emits steam in various streams. The forces that created the volcano are still active. In 1997 there was a vigorous swarm of 230 earthquakes in the Parícutin area due to tectonic movement, with five above 3.9 on the moment magnitude scale. There were also some reports of rumbling in 1995, and of black steam and rumbling in 1998. In the summer of 2006, there was another major volcanic earthquake swarm, with over 300 located near the volcano, indicating magma movement, but with no eruption at Parícutin or elsewhere.

Formation.

Parícutin erupted from 1943 to 1952, unusually long for this type of volcano, and with several eruptive phases. For weeks prior, residents of the area reported hearing noises similar to thunder but without clouds in the sky. This sound is consistent with deep earthquakes caused by the movement of magma. A later study indicated that the eruption was preceded by 21 earthquakes over 3.2 in intensity starting five weeks before the eruption. One week prior to the eruption, newspapers reported 25–30 per day. The day before the eruption, the number was estimated at 300.  The eruption began on February 20, 1943, at about 4:00 PM local time. The center of the activity was a cornfield owned by Dionisio Pulido, near the town of Parícutin. During that day, he and his family had been working their land, clearing it to prepare for spring planting. Suddenly the ground nearby swelled upward and formed a fissure between 2 and 2.5 meters across. They reported that they heard hissing sounds, and smoke which smelled like rotten eggs, indicating the presence of hydrogen sulfide. Within hours, the fissure would develop into a small crater.  Pulido reported: He tried to find his family and oxen but they had disappeared; so he rode his horse to town where he found his family and friends, happy to see him alive. The volcano grew fast and furiously after this. Celedonio Gutierrez, who witnessed the eruption on the first night, reported: On that first day, the volcano had begun strombolian pyroclastic activity; and within 24 hours there was a scorian cone fifty meters high, created by the ejection of lapilli fragments up to the size of a walnut and larger, semi-molten volcanic bombs. By the end of the week, reports held that the cone was between 100 and 150 meters high. Soon after the start, the valley was covered in smoke and ash.

Phases.

The nine-year activity of the volcano is divided into four stages, with names that come from the Purépecha language. The first phase ("Quitzocho") extended from February 22 to October 18, 1943, with activity concentrated in the cracks that formed in the Cuiyusuro Valley, forming the initial cone. During this time, the ejected material was mostly lapilli and bombs. In March, the eruption became more powerful, with eruptive columns that extended for several kilometers. In four months, the cone reached 200 meters and in eight months 365 meters. During this time period, there was some lava flow. On June 12, lava began to advance towards the village of Parícutin, forcing evacuations the next day.  The second phase went from October 18, 1943 to January 8, 1944 and is called "Sapichi", meaning "child", referring to the formation of a lateral vent and other openings on the north side of the cone. Ash and bombs continued to be ejected but the new vent sent lava towards the town of San Juan Parangaricutiro, forcing its permanent evacuation. By August, the town was completely covered in lava and ash, with only the upper portions of the main church still visible. The evacuations of Parícutin and San Juan were able to be accomplished without loss of life due to the slow movement of the lava. These two phases lasted just over a year and account for more than 90% of the total material ejected from the cone, as well as almost four-fifths (330 meters) of the final height of 424 meters from the valley floor. It also sent ash as far as Mexico City.  The third ("Taqué-Ahuan") lasted from January 8, 1944 to January 12, 1945 and featured mainly the formation of a series of cracks on the south side of the cone, as well as an increase in activity in the center. Lava flows from this time mostly extend to the west and northwest. During this period there also formed a mesa, now called Los Hornitos, to the south.  Over the next seven years, the volcano became less active, with the ejection of ash, stone and lava coming sporadically, with periods of silence in between. Professional geologists pulled out of the area in 1948, leaving only Celedonio Gutierrez to continue observations. The last burst of activity was recorded by him between January and February 1952. Several eruptions occurred in succession and a three-kilometer smoke column was produced.

Scientific study.

The importance of the Parícutin eruption was that it was the first time that volcanologists were able to fully document the entire life cycle of a volcano. The event brought geologists from all over the world, but the principal researchers were William F. Foshag of the Smithsonian Institution and Dr. Jenaro Gonzalez Reyna from the Mexican government, who came about a month after the eruption started and stayed for several years. These two wrote detailed descriptions, drew sketches and maps, and took samples and thousands of photographs during this time. Many of these are still used today by researchers. Foshag continued to study the volcano until his death in 1956. Between 1943 and 1948, almost fifty scientific articles were published in major journals about the volcano, with even more since. The worldwide effort to study Parícutin increased understanding of volcanism in general but particularly that of scoria cone formation.

Socioeconomic consequences.

Despite the ongoing Second World War, the eruption drew attention from around the world, with reporters from newspapers and magazines including "Life" coming to cover the story. Airline pilots pointed the volcano out to passengers and one Hollywood film, "Captain from Castile", was shot in the area, using the erupting volcano as a backdrop and employing locals as extras. The eruption also inspired a generation of Mexican artists to depict or allude to it in their works, including Dr Atl, Diego Rivera, David Alfaro Siqueiros, Alfredo Zalce and Pablo O'Higgins.  The eruptions ended in 1952, leaving a final scoria cone with a height of 424 meters from the valley floor. The eruption destroyed or heavily damaged a 233 km area, and almost all of the vegetation within several kilometers of the crater was destroyed. The volcano spread lava over 26 km, with 52 km covered in volcanic sand. The town of Parícutin, which once had a population of 733, is now completely gone, and all that remains of the town of San Juan Parangaricutiro, with a former population of 1,895, are parts of its main church which stand out among the hardened lava flow.  Though no one died directly from the eruption, three people were killed when they were struck by lightning generated by pyroclastic eruptions. The damage from the eruption primarily affected five towns in two municipalities, San Juan Parangaricutiro and Los Reyes. In addition to the two towns that were obliterated, Zacan (pop. 876), Angahuan (pop. 1,098) and Zirosto (pop. 1,314) were also heavily affected. The main effect on the people of the area was the disruption of their lives and livelihood, especially during the first two years. The area most affected by the eruption had a population of 5,910, and hundreds among these were permanently evacuated. Before leaving his home for the last time, Dionisio Pulido placed a sign on the cornfield that read in Spanish: "This volcano is owned and operated by Dionisio Pulido." The populations of the two destroyed towns were initially moved to camps on either side of the city of Uruapan. The population of the other three towns mostly stayed in place, but made adaptations to survive during the eruption. People of Angahuan and Zacan mostly stayed where they were. The population of Zirosto divided into three: those that stayed in the original location, now known as Zirosto Viejo, those who moved a few miles away to a ranch which is now is officially called Zirosto Nuevo but locally called Barranca Seca, and a third group who founded a completely new settlement called Miguel Silva near Ario de Rosales.  The town of San Juan Parangaricutiro was the seat of the municipality of the same name, and its destruction prompted a political reorganization and a new seat at Parangaricutiro (today generally called San Juan Nuevo), where much of the population of the old seat had been relocated, with some going to Angahuan.  The economy of the area was then and is now mostly agricultural, with a mostly Purépecha population, rural and poor. However, the eruption did cause a number of changes both social and economic to the affected areas, both to adapt to the changed landscape but also because the fame of the eruption has brought greater contact from the rest of Mexico and beyond.  The volcano has become a tourist attraction, with the main access in Angahuan, from which the volcano is clearly visible. The town offers guides and horses, both to visit the ruins of the San Juan Parangaricutiro Church as well as to climb the volcano itself. The volcano is part of the Pico de Tancítaro National Park and is mostly accessible on horseback, with only the last few hundred, very steep, meters to be climbed on foot. The trek requires a guide even if horses are not used, as the path is not well-marked and passes through forest, agave fields and avocado groves. Many simply visit the ruins of the church, which are easier to access and still a pilgrimage site, the old altar regularly adorned with fresh candles and flowers. Nearby is a group of stands selling local food and souvenirs.  The story of the formation of Parícutin is the subject of the children's book "Hill of Fire" by Thomas P. Lewis, published in 1983. The book was featured in an episode of "Reading Rainbow" in 1985.

Parícutin (or Volcán de Parícutin, also accented Paricutín) is a cinder cone volcano located in the Mexican state of Michoacán, near the city of Uruapan and about west of Mexico City. The volcano surged suddenly from the cornfield of local farmer Dionisio Pulido in 1943, attracting both popular and scientific attention.

Der Vulkan Paricutín hat eine Höhe von 2800 Metern (wobei er seine Umgebung um 424 Meter überragt) und liegt im mexikanischen Bundesstaat Michoacán. Die Stadt Uruapan liegt etwa 20 Kilometer südöstlich des Vulkans.


Plot summary.

Ichigo Kurosaki is a teenager from Karakura Town who can see ghosts, a talent which lets him meet supernatural trespasser Rukia Kuchiki who enters Ichigo's room in search of a Hollow, a kind of monstrous lost soul who can harm both ghosts and humans. Rukia is one of the Soul Reapers, soldiers trusted with ushering the souls of the dead from the World of the Living to the —the afterlife realm from which she originates—and with fighting Hollows. When she is severely wounded defending Ichigo from a Hollow she is pursuing, Rukia transfers her powers to Ichigo so that he may fight in her stead while she recovers her strength. Rukia is thereby trapped in an ordinary human body, and must advise Ichigo as he balances the demands of his substitute Soul Reaper duties and attending high school. For aid in hunting the Hollows, the pair ally with a trio of other spiritually empowered teenagers: Ichigo's high school classmate Orihime Inoue, best friend Yasutora "Chad" Sado and the Quincy—humans who have the ability to control spirit particles—Uryū Ishida.  Eventually, Rukia is arrested by her Soul Reaper superiors and sentenced to death for the illegal act of transferring her powers into a human. Ichigo and friends enlist the help of ex-Soul Reaper scientist Kisuke Urahara, who also enables Ichigo to access his own Soul Reaper powers, to enter Soul Society and rescue Rukia. Shortly after the party's arrival in the Soul Society, conflict arises among the captains of the 13 Court Squads when the captain of the fifth company, Sōsuke Aizen, is apparently murdered, which causes the Soul Reapers to begin fighting amongst themselves. There after the Captain Commander Genriusai Yamamoto issues a wide spread search for Ichigo and his friends as being responsible for the murder of Aizen. However, as Ichigo is almost successful in rescuing Rukia, and Soul Society is on the verge of civil war, Aizen reappears and reveals his intention to obtain the —an orb of immense power—that Kisuke planted in Rukia's human vessel by faking his death and arranging Rukia's execution. Aizen is accompanied by his fellow conspirators, Gin Ichimaru and Kaname Tōsen who are the third and ninth company's captains, as they use Hollows to cover their escape into the Hollows' realm,.

Production.

"Bleach" was first conceived from Tite Kubo's desire to draw a Shinigami (Soul Reaper) in a kimono, which formed the basis for the design of the Soul Reapers in the series. At first, Kubo thought that the Soul Reapers should use guns, so the first title for the series was "Snipe" (as in "sniper"); however, this was changed with the inclusion of swords. After that, the series was meant to be named "Black" due to the color of the Soul Reapers' clothes, but Kubo thought the title was too generic. He later tried the name of "White," but came to like "Bleach" more for its association with the color white and that he did not find it too obvious. The original story concept was submitted to "Weekly Shōnen Jump" shortly after the cancellation of Kubo's previous manga, "Zombiepowder", but was at first rejected. Manga artist Akira Toriyama saw the story and wrote a letter of encouragement to Kubo. "Bleach" was accepted for publication a short time later in 2001, and was initially intended to be a shorter series, with a maximum serialization length of five years. Early plans for the story did not include the hierarchical structure of the Soul Society, but did include some characters and elements that were not introduced into the plot until the Arrancar arc, such as Ichigo's Soul Reaper parentage.  Kubo has cited influences for elements of "Bleach" ranging from other manga series to music, foreign

Themes.

"Bleach"s plot incorporates the traditional Japanese belief of spirits coexisting with humans and their nature, good or evil, depends on the circumstances. An example is Orihime's backstory: she was raised from the age of three by her brother Sora, and prayed for his soul's peace after he died in a car accident. As time went on, she prayed less and Sora became jealous and turned into a Hollow and attacked Orihime. Academic Patrick Drazen says this is a reminder to the audience to not abandon the old ways or risk the spirits taking offense

Media.

Manga.

"Bleach" is written and illustrated by Tite Kubo. The manga was published in Shueisha's "Weekly Shōnen Jump" from August 7, 2001, to August 22, 2016. The 698 individual chapters of "Bleach" Were collected in 74 "tankōbon" volumes released between January 5, 2002, and November 4, 2016. Shueisha published the first 21 volumes compiled into six omnibus collections under the name "Resurrected Souls" to celebrate the tenth anniversary of the "Bleach" series. The first collection was released on August 22, 2011; the last collection was published on January 23, 2012. On September 21, 2012, Shueisha released 45 digital volumes in Japanese e-book stores, concluding with the

Anime.

The "Bleach" anime series aired in Japan on TV Tokyo's Tuesday 6pm timeslot from October 5, 2004, to March 27, 2012, excluding holidays. The series was directed by Noriyuki Abe, and produced by TV Tokyo, Dentsu and Studio Pierrot.  Viz Media obtained the foreign television, home video and merchandising rights to the "Bleach" anime from TV Tokyo Corporation and Shueisha, on March 15, 2006. Viz Media has later licensed its individual "Bleach" merchandising rights to several different companies.  "Bleach" premiered in Canada on YTV, as part of their Bionix programming block, on September 8, 2006. Cartoon Network's Adult Swim began airing "Bleach" in the United States the following evening. Adult Swim stopped broadcasting new episodes of the English adaptation on October 13, 2007, after airing the first 52 episodes of the series. It was replaced with another Viz Media series, "Death Note", to provide Studiopolis more time to dub additional episodes of "Bleach". The series

Soundtrack CDs.

Composed and produced by Shirō Sagisu, numerous CD soundtracks have been released for the "Bleach" anime series and movies by Sony Music Entertainment Japan. "Bleach Original Soundtrack 1" was released on May 18, 2005, which contains 25 tracks, including the first opening and ending themes in their original television lengths. "Bleach Original Soundtrack 2" followed on August 2, 2006, with an additional 23 instrumental tracks. "Bleach Original Soundtrack 3" later followed on November 5, 2008, with 27 instrumental tracks. "Bleach Original Soundtrack 4" was released on December 16, 2009, with 30 instrumental tracks. For the 5th anniversary of the series, Aniplex released "Bleach 5th Anniversary Box" set which contains CD with rare and unreleased tracks. "Bleach: Memories of Nobody Original Soundtrack" was released with 25 tracks from the "" film. "Bleach: The DiamondDust Rebellion Original Soundtrack" was also released for the "" film, with 29 tracks from the movie, followed by "Bleach: Fade to Black Original Soundtrack" for the "" film, with 29 tracks, followed by "Bleach: Hell Verse Original Soundtrack" for the "" film, with 21 tracks.

Films.

There are four animated feature films based on the "Bleach" series, all of which are directed by Noriyuki Abe, director of the "Bleach" anime series. The films were released annually each December starting in 2006, though none were released in 2009. Each movie features an original plotline along with original characters designed by Tite Kubo, which is contrary to the normal practice for anime-based films, as the original author usually has little creative involvement.  The first film, "", was released in Japan on December 16, 2006, and had a limited release in American theaters in

Musicals.

Bleach has been adapted into a series of rock musicals, jointly produced by Studio Pierrot and Nelke Planning. There have been five musicals produced which covered portions of the Substitute and Soul Society arcs, as well as five additional performances known as "Live Bankai Shows" and "Rock Musical Bleach Shinsei", which did not follow the "Bleach" plotline. The initial performance run of the "Bleach" musical was from August 17–28, 2005, at the Space

Trading card game.

Two collectible card games (CCG) based on the "Bleach" series have been produced, one in the Japanese market and a different one in North America. "Bleach Soul Card Battle", produced by Bandai, was introduced in Japan in 2004. Twenty named sets were released for the series. After "Bleach Soul Card Battle", Bandai introduced three more series. "Bleach The Card Gum", which contains 14 sets, was released in early September 2007. The next series, "Bleach Clear Collection", which contains six sets, was released in July 2008. The last series, "Bleach Clear Soul Plate", which consists of three sets, was published in December 2009.  "Bleach

Video games.

A number of video games have been created featuring characters from the "Bleach" series, primarily though not exclusively fighting games. The first video game to be released from the "Bleach" series was "", which debuted on March 24, 2005, for the Sony PlayStation Portable. Currently, the majority of the games have only been released in Japan, though Sega has localized the first three

Light novels.

Tite Kubo and Makoto Matsubara have co-authored three novelizations of the "Bleach" series, which were published by Shueisha under its "Shounen Jump Books" label. The first volume, "Bleach - Letters From The Other Side: The Death and The Strawberry", was published on December 15, 2004, and re-released as "Bleach - Letters From The Other Side: The Death and The Strawberry - New Edition" on November 4, 2009. The second, "Bleach: The Honey Dish Rhapsody", was published on November 30, 2006. The third, "Bleach: The Death Save The Strawberry", was published on September 4, 2012. Two novelizations of the "Bleach" series have been co-authored by Narita Ryohgo. The first volume, "Bleach: Spirits Are Forever With You", and the second, "Bleach: Spirits Are Forever With You 2", were published on June

Other.

The first "Bleach" artbook, "All Colour But The Black", was released in Japan, the United States, and Europe. The artbook compiles a selection of color spreads from the first 19 volumes of the series, as well as some original art and author commentary. The second artbook,, was released on August 3, 2007. In addition to character guides and articles on other fictional aspects of the series, it compiles the various short comics,, that were published in "V Jump". The "omake"-style panels are similar to those included in the main series, but reveal more of the daily lives of characters. "Color Bleach+: Bleach Official Bootleg" was released in English by Viz Media on August 10, 2010. In December 2018, another artbook, titled "Bleach JET" was released, which contains a massive 700 artworks from the series' 15 years tenure.  Seven databooks have also been released about the series. The first two, "Bleach: Official Character Book SOULs." and "Bleach: Official Animation Book VIBEs.", were released on February 3, 2006. "Bleach: Official Character Book SOULs." was later

Reception.

Sales.

"Bleach" has sold over 90million "tankōbon" copies in Japan, and has over 120 million "tankōbon" copies in print worldwide as of 2018, making it the 6th best-selling series of all time from "Weekly Shōnen Jump". During 2008, volume 34 of the manga sold 874,153 copies in Japan, becoming the 12th best-seller comics from the year. Volumes 33 and 35 have also ranked 17 and 18, respectively. In total the manga has sold 3,161,825 copies in Japan during 2008, becoming the year's 5th best selling

Critical reception.

Deb Aoki from About.com considered the series as the Best Continuing Shōnen Manga of 2007, along with "Eyeshield 21", praising the "compelling stories, dazzling action sequences and great character development". She also placed the title on her list of "Top 10 Shōnen Manga Must-Reads". The artwork and the character designs received positive response by IGN's A.E. Sparrow. He also commented on the series' ability to handle multiple minor character plotlines at the same time, which he considered a point of appeal, in response to fans' claims about a "lack of a story" in "Bleach". Leroy Douresseaux from ComicBookBin agreed with Sparrow in the number of storylines, but also

Accolades.

In 2005, "Bleach" was awarded the Shogakukan Manga Award in the "shōnen" category. The English version of

"Bleach" was serialized in the Japanese manga magazine "Weekly Shōnen Jump" from August 7, 2001 to August 22, 2016, with its chapters collected into 74 "tankōbon" volumes. The series has spawned a media franchise that includes an anime television series adaptation that was produced by Tokyo-based Studio Pierrot from 2004 to 2012, two original video animation (OVA) episodes, four animated feature films, ten stage musicals, and numerous video games, as well as many types of "Bleach"-related merchandise. A Japanese live-action film adaptation produced by Warner Bros. was released in 2018.

Bleach (Originalschreibweise:, "Burīchi"; dt. „bleichen“) ist eine Manga-Serie des japanischen Zeichners Tite Kubo, die auch als Anime umgesetzt wurde.


Impact on skin health.

Moderate exposure to direct sunlight contributes to the production of melanin and vitamin D by the body, but excessive exposure to ultraviolet rays has negative health effects, including sunburn and increased risk of skin cancer, as well as depressed immune system function and accelerated aging of the skin. Some people tan or sunburn more easily than others. This may be the result of different skin types and natural skin color, and these may be a result of genetics.  The term "tanning" has a cultural origin, arising from the color tan. Its origin lies in the Western culture of Europe when it became fashionable for young women to seek a less pale complexion (see Cultural history below).

Tanning process.

Melanin is a natural pigment produced by cells called melanocytes in a process called melanogenesis. Melanocytes produce two types of melanin: pheomelanin (red) and eumelanin (very dark brown). Melanin protects the body by absorbing ultraviolet radiation. Excessive UV radiation causes sunburn along with other direct and indirect DNA damage to the skin, and the body naturally combats and seeks to repair the damage and protect the skin by creating and releasing further melanin into the skin's cells. With the production of the melanin, the skin color darkens. It is also important to note that the face tans much quicker than the rest of the body. The tanning process can be triggered by natural sunlight or by artificial UV radiation, which can be delivered in frequencies of UVA, UVB, or a combination of both. The intensity is commonly measured by the UV Index. There are two different mechanisms involved in production of a tan by UV exposure: Firstly, UVA radiation creates oxidative stress, which in turn oxidizes existing melanin and leads to rapid darkening of the melanin. UVA may also cause melanin to be redistributed (released from melanocytes where it is already stored), but its total quantity is unchanged. Skin darkening from UVA exposure does not lead to significantly increased production of melanin or protection against sunburn.  In the second process, triggered primarily by UVB, there is an increase in production of melanin (melanogenesis), which is the body's reaction to direct DNA photodamage (formation of pyrimidine dimers) from UV radiation. Melanogenesis leads to delayed tanning, and typically becomes visible two or three days after exposure. The tan that is created by increased melanogenesis typically lasts for a few weeks or months, much longer than the tan that is caused by oxidation of existing melanin, and is also actually protective against UV skin damage and sunburn, rather than simply cosmetic. Typically, it can provide a modest Sun Protection Factor (SPF) of 3, meaning that tanned skin would tolerate up to 3 times the UV exposure as pale skin. However, in order to cause true melanogenesis-tanning by means of UV exposure, some direct DNA photodamage must first be produced, and this requires UVB exposure (as present in natural sunlight, or sunlamps that produce UVB).  The ultraviolet frequencies responsible for tanning are often divided into the UVA and UVB ranges.

UVA.

Ultraviolet A (UVA) radiation is in the wavelength range 320 to 400 nm. It is present more uniformly throughout the day, and throughout the year, than UVB. Most UVA is not blocked by the atmosphere's ozone layer. UVA causes the release of existing melanin from the melanocytes to combine with oxygen (oxidize) to create the actual tan color in the skin.  UVA is blocked less than UVB by many sunscreens, but is blocked to some degree by clothing. UVA is known both to cause DNA damage and to be carcinogenic. However, it operates not by inducing direct DNA damage, but by producing reactive oxygen species which damage DNA indirectly. UVA (see above) induces a cosmetic tan but little extra melanin protection against sun damage, sun burn, or cancer.

UVB.

Ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation is in the wavelength range 280 to 320 nm. Much of this band is blocked by the Earth's ozone layer, but some penetrates. UVB:

Tanning behavior of different skin colors.

A person's natural skin color affects their reaction to exposure to the sun. An individual's natural skin color can vary from a dark brown to a nearly colorless pigmentation, which may appear white. In 1975, Harvard dermatologist Thomas B. Fitzpatrick devised the Fitzpatrick scale which described the common tanning behavior of various skin types, as follows:

Health aspects.

The most common risk of exposure to ultraviolet radiation is sunburn, the speed and severity of which vary among individuals. This can be alleviated at least to some extent by the prior application of a suitable-strength sunscreen, which will also hinder the tanning process due to the blocking of UV light.  Overexposure to ultraviolet radiation is known to cause skin cancer, make skin age and wrinkle faster, mutate DNA, and impair the immune system. Frequent tanning bed use triples the risk of developing melanoma, the deadliest form of skin cancer, according to a 2010 study. The study suggests that the melanoma risk is linked more closely to total exposure than it is to the age at which an individual first uses a tanning bed. The International Agency for Research on Cancer places the use of tanning beds in the highest cancer risk category, describing them as carcinogenic to humans even if used as recommended.  Several organizations, such as the World Health Organization (WHO), the American Cancer Society and the US Surgeon General have issued guidelines warning about sun tanning and UV radiation exposure, either from the sun or from indoor tanning.  Production of vitamin D is essential for human health. Moderate exposure (avoiding sunburn) to UV radiation provides benefits such as increased vitamin D, as well as other possible benefits that are still being studied.  Several tanning activators have used different forms of psoralen, which are known to be photocarcinogenic. Health authorities have banned psoralen since July 1996.

Cultural history.

Tanning has gone in and out of fashion. In the United States and Western Europe before about the 1920s, tanned skin was associated with the lower classes, because they worked outdoors and were exposed to the sunlight. Women went to great lengths to preserve pallid skin, as a sign of their "refinement".  Women's outdoor clothing styles were tailored to protect against sunlight exposure, with full-length sleeves, and sunbonnets and other large hats, headscarves, and parasols shielding the head. Women even went as far as to put lead-based cosmetics on their skin to artificially whiten their skin tone. However, when not strictly monitored, these cosmetics caused lead poisoning. Light-skinned appearance was achieved in other ways, including the use of arsenic to whiten skin, and lightening powders. The preference for fair skin continued until the end of the Victorian era.  By the early 20th century, the therapeutic benefits of sunlight began to be recognized. In 1903, Niels Finsen was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine for his “Finsen Light Therapy”. The therapy was a cure for diseases such as lupus vulgaris and rickets. Vitamin D deficiency was found to be a cause of rickets, and exposure to sunlight would allow vitamin D to be produced in a person. Therefore, sunlight exposure was a remedy to curing several diseases, especially rickets. In 1910 a scientific expedition went to the island of Tenerife to test the wider health benefits of "heliotherapy", and by 1913 "sunbathing" was referred to as a desirable activity for the leisured class.  Shortly thereafter, in the 1920s, fashion-designer Coco Chanel accidentally got sunburnt while visiting the French Riviera. When she arrived home, she arrived with a sun tan and her fans apparently liked the look and started to adopt darker skin tones themselves. Tanned skin became a trend partly because of Coco’s status and the longing for her lifestyle by other members of society. In addition, Parisians fell in love with Josephine Baker, a "caramel-skinned" singer in Paris, and idolized her dark skin. These two women were leading figures of the transformation that tanned skin underwent, in which it became perceived as fashionable, healthy, and luxurious. Jean Patou capitalized on the new tanning fad, launching the first sun tan oil "Huile de Chaldee" in 1927.  Just before the 1930s, sunlight therapy became a popularly subscribed cure for almost every ailment from simple fatigue to tuberculosis. In the 1940s, advertisements started appearing in women's magazines which encouraged sunbathing. At the same time, swimsuits' skin coverage began decreasing, with the bikini radically changing swimsuit style after it made its appearance in 1946. In the 1950s, many people used baby oil as a method to increase tanning. The first self-tanner came about in the same decade and was known as "Man-Tan", although it often led to undesirable orange skin. Coppertone, in 1953, marketed its sunscreen with a drawing of a little blond girl and her cocker spaniel tugging on her bathing suit bottom, revealing her bare bottom and tan line; this advertisement was modified around the turn of the 21st century and now shows a little girl wearing a one-piece bathing suit or shorts. In the latter part of the 1950s, silver metallic reflectors were common to enhance one’s tan.  In 1962, sunscreen commenced to be SPF rated, although SPF labeling in the US was not standardized by the FDA until 1978. In 1971, Mattel introduced Malibu Barbie, which had tanned skin, sunglasses, and her very own bottle of sun tanning lotion. In 1978, both sunscreen with an SPF 15 rating as well as tanning beds first appeared. In 2007, there were an estimated 50,000 outlets for indoor tanning; it was a five-billion-dollar industry in the United States, and had spawned an auxiliary industry for indoor tanning lotions including bronzers, intensifiers, and accelerators. Since then, the indoor tanning industry has become more constrained by health regulations. In China, darker skin is still considered by many to be the mark of the lower classes. As recently as 2012, in some parts of China, ski masks were becoming popular items to wear at the beach in order to protect the wearer's face from the effects of sunlight. A 1969 innovation is tan-through swimwear, which uses fabric perforated with thousands of micro holes that are nearly invisible to the naked eye, but which transmit enough sunlight to approach an all-over tan, especially if the fabric is stretched taut. Tan-through swimwear typically allows more than one-third of UV rays to pass through (equivalent to SPF 3 or less), and an application of sunscreen even to the covered area is recommended.

Sunless tanning.

To avoid exposure to UVB and UVA rays, or in seasons without strong sunshine, some people take alternative steps to appear with darkened skin. They may use sunless tanning (also known as self-tanners); stainers which are based on dihydroxyacetone (DHA); or cosmetics such as bronzers.  Many sunless tanning products are available in the form of darkening creams, gels, lotions, and sprays that are self-applied on the skin. There is also a professional spray-on tanning option or “tanning booth” that is offered by spas, salons, and tanning businesses. Spray tanning does not involve a color being sprayed on the body, instead it uses a colorless chemical which reacts with proteins in the top layer of the skin, resulting in a brown color.

Sun tanning or simply tanning is the process whereby skin color is darkened or tanned. It is most often a result of exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation from sunlight or from artificial sources, such as a tanning lamp found in indoor tanning beds. People who deliberately tan their skin by exposure to the sun engage in a passive recreational activity of sun bathing. Some people use chemical products which can produce a tanning effect without exposure to ultraviolet radiation, known as sunless tanning.

Ein Sonnenbad, auch "Sonnenlichtbestrahlung", "Lichtbad" oder "Heliotherapie" genannt, bezeichnet das bewusste Einwirkenlassen des Sonnenlichts auf den unbedeckten Körper zu therapeutischen Zwecken. Der menschliche Körper kann mittels ultravioletten Lichts (UV-B) einen Teil seines Bedarfs an Vitamin D selbst decken.


Development.

The origin of the Me 264 design came from Messerschmitt's long-range reconnaissance aircraft project, the P.1061, of the late 1930s. A variant on the P.1061 was the P.1062 of which three prototypes were built, with only two "engines" to the P.1061's four, but they were, in fact, the more powerful Daimler-Benz DB 606 "power systems", each comprising a pair of DB 601 inverted V-12 engines. These were also successfully used in the long-range Messerschmitt Me 261, itself originating as the Messerschmitt P.1064 design of 1937. The DB 606's later use in the Heinkel He 177A's airframe design resulted in derision by "Reichsmarschall" Hermann Göring as "welded-together engines" in August 1942, due to badly designed engine installations. In early 1941, six P.1061 prototypes were ordered from Messerschmitt, under the designation Me 264. This was later reduced to three prototypes.  The progress of these projects was initially slow, but after Germany had declared war on the United States, the "Reichsluftfahrtministerium" (RLM) started the more serious "Amerikabomber" programme in the spring of 1942 for a very long range bomber, with the result that a larger, six-engine aircraft with a greater bomb load was called for. Proposals were put forward for the Junkers Ju 390, the Focke-Wulf Ta 400, a redesign of the unfinalized and unbuilt Heinkel He 277 design (itself only receiving its RLM airframe number by the February 1943 timeframe in order to give Heinkel an entry in the "Amerikabomber" program later in 1943), and a design study for a six-engine Messerschmitt Me 264B. The need for six engines was prompted by the ongoing inability of Germany's aviation powerplant designers to create reliable powerplants of 1,500 kW (2,000 PS) and above power output levels, thwarting efforts to do the same with just four engines instead. As the Junkers Ju 390 could use components already in use for the Ju 290 this design was chosen. The Me 264 was not abandoned, however, as the "Kriegsmarine" (German navy) separately demanded a long-range maritime patrol and attack aircraft to replace the converted Fw 200 "Condor" in this role. This was reinforced by an opinion given by then-"Generalmajor" Eccard Freiherr von Gablenz of the "Wehrmacht Heer" (German Army) in May 1942, who had been recruited by "Generalfeldmarschall" Erhard Milch to give his opinion on the suitability of the Me 264 for the "Amerikabomber" mission; von Gablenz echoed the "Kriegsmarine's" later opinion. As a result, the two pending prototypes were ordered to be completed as development prototypes for the Me 264A ultra long-range reconnaissance aircraft.

Design.

The Me 264 was an all-metal, high-wing, four-engine heavy bomber of classic construction. The fuselage was round in cross-section and had a cabin in a glazed nose, comprising a "stepless cockpit" with no separate windscreen section for the pilots, which was common for most later German bomber designs. A strikingly similar design was used for the B-29, of slightly earlier origin. The wing had a slightly swept leading edge and a straight trailing edge. The empennage had double tail fins. The undercarriage was a retractable tricycle gear with large-diameter wheels on the wing-mounted main gear.  The planned armament consisted of guns in remotely operated turrets and in positions on the sides of the fuselage. Overall, it carried very little armour and few guns as a means of increasing fuel capacity and range. The Me 264's first prototype was originally fitted with four Junkers Jumo 211 inverted V12 engines using the then-new "Kraftei" (or "power-egg") unitized powerplant installation as standardized for the earlier Ju 88A "Schnellbomber", but inadequate power from the Jumo 211 engines led to their replacement on the Me 264 V1 first prototype with four similarly unitized 1,700 PS (1,250 kW) BMW 801G engines. In order to provide comfort on the proposed long-range missions, the Me 264 featured bunk beds and a small galley complete with hot plates.

Operational history.

The first prototype, the Me 264 V1, bearing the "Stammkennzeichen" factory code of RE+EN, was flown on 23 December 1942. It was powered at first by four Jumo 211J inline engines of 990 kW (1,340 hp) each. In late 1943, these were changed to the BMW 801G radials which delivered 1,290 kW (1,750 hp). Trials showed numerous minor faults and handling was found to be difficult. One of the drawbacks was the very high wing loading of the Me 264 in fully loaded conditions at some. Comparable aircraft, such as the Boeing B-29 Superfortress with a wing loading of, the redesigned He 277 at and the Ju 390 at had lower wing loadings. The relatively high wing loading caused poor climb performance, loss of manoeuvrability, stability and high take-off and landing speeds. The first prototype was not fitted with weapons or armour but the following two prototypes, the Me 264 V2 and V3 had armour for the engines, crew and gun positions. The Me 264 V2 was built without defensive armament and vital equipment and the Me 264 V3 was to be armed and have the same armour.  In 1943, the "Kriegsmarine" withdrew their interest in the Me 264 in favour of the Ju 290 and the planned Ju 390. The Luftwaffe indicated preferrence for the unbuilt Ta 400 and the Heinkel He 277 as "Amerikabomber" candidates in May 1943, based on their performance estimates. Further payments for development work to Messerschmitt AG for its design were stopped. Late in 1943, the second prototype, Me 264 V2, was destroyed in a bombing attack. On 18 July 1944, the first prototype, which had entered service with "Transportstaffel" 5, was damaged during an Allied bombing raid and was not repaired. The third prototype, which was unfinished, was destroyed during the same raid. In October 1943, Erhard Milch stopped further Me 264 development, to concentrate on the development and production of the Me 262 jet fighter-bomber.  Following the cancellation of the competing He 277 in April 1944, on 23 September 1944, work on the Me 264 project was officially cancelled. Messerschmitt proposed a six-engine version of the Me 264, the Me 264/6m (or alternately Me 364), but it was never built.

The Messerschmitt Me 264 was a long-range strategic bomber developed during World War II for the German "Luftwaffe" as its main strategic bomber. The design was later selected as Messerschmitt's competitor in the "Reichsluftfahrtministerium"s (the German Air Ministry) "Amerikabomber" programme, for a strategic bomber capable of attacking New York City from bases in France or the Azores.

Die Messerschmitt Me 264 „Amerikabomber“ war ein Kampfflugzeug, das während des Zweiten Weltkriegs von Willy Messerschmitt hauptsächlich zur Bekämpfung der feindlichen Seeschifffahrt entwickelt wurde.


Geography.

Manu National Park covers an area of which comprises mountainous areas (traversed by creeks and valleys) with elevations close to 4000 m above sea level and a portion of the Amazon Basin plains.  The park is divided into the following areas: the restricted use zone (with pristine forests and native communities, access is granted to researchers only); the reserved zone (for recreation and research); the recuperation zone (for the recovery of disturbed areas) and the cultural zone (for human settlement).

Climate.

Climate in the park is highly variable, rainy and depends on the elevation. The southern section (mountainous) has an annual precipitation between 1500–2000 mm; while in the middle section it is between 3000–3500 mm and in the northwestern section the annual precipitation reaches 8000 mm or more. The less rainy season is from May to September, accompanied by lower temperatures.  In the park, the mean annual temperature in the lowland rainforest is 25.6 °C, while in the Andean zone it is 8 °C.

Flora.

Vegetation types inside the park include puna grassland (in areas over 4000 m), high Andean forests, cloud forests and lowland Amazon rainforest. This variety of vegetation types is represented in 162 families, 1191 genera and 4385 identified species of plants, with as much as 250 tree species in one hectare. A study found a total of 1108 species of trees inside the park, from several plots between the mountain tree line and the lowland forest.  Plant species found in the lowland rainforest zone of the park include: "Bertholletia excelsa, Nectandra" spp"., Cedrelinga cateniformis", "Socratea exorrhiza", "Eugenia" spp."," "Cedrela odorata", "Brosimum lactescens", "Myrcia" spp., "Iriartea deltoidea", "Protium" spp., "Diospyros artanthifolia, Poulsenia armata, Cecropia" spp., "Inga" spp., "Margaritaria nobilis", "Ceiba samauma", "Solanum grandiflorum", "Casearia" spp., "Annona excellens", "Calophyllum brasiliense", "Simarouba amara", "Maxillaria" spp., "Virola calophylla," "Dictyocaryum lamarckianum", "Ficus" spp., "Sloanea" spp., "Trema micrantha", "Hevea brasiliensis", "Piper" spp., "Mauritia flexuosa", "Clusia" spp., "Euterpe precatoria", "Jacaranda copaia", etc. Plant species found in the mountain zones in the park include: "Podocarpus oleifolius", "Prunus integrifolia", "Odontoglossum aureum," "Escallonia myrtilloides", "Hesperomeles ferruginea", "Gynoxys nitida", "Otoglossum scansor", "Baccharis salicifolia", "Cinchona pubescens, Oreopanax" spp., "Polylepis pauta", "Alnus acuminata", "Retrophyllum rospigliosii, Vallea stipularis," etc.

Fauna.

About 160 species of mammals have been reported in the park. Mammals found in the lowland rainforest zone of the park include: the jaguar, the tayra, the giant armadillo, the puma (also present in mountainous areas), Goeldi's marmoset, the ocelot, the collared peccary, the giant otter, the Peruvian spider monkey, the Mexican free-tailed bat, the jaguarundi, Hoffmann's two-toed sloth, the capybara, the tufted capuchin, the giant anteater, the white-lipped peccary, the greater bulldog bat, the Southern Amazon red squirrel, the marsh deer, the water opossum, the red brocket, the nine-banded armadillo, the pygmy marmoset, the brown-throated sloth, the black-capped squirrel monkey, the South American tapir, the southern tamandua, the moustached tamarin, the pacarana, etc. Mammals reported from mountain zones in the park include: the white-tailed deer, the Andean fox, the mountain paca, the long-tailed weasel, the montane guinea pig, the spectacled bear, etc.  More than 1000 bird species have been estimated to exist in the park. Birds reported for the lowland rainforest in the park include: the great tinamou, Spix's guan, the rufescent tiger-heron, the blue-and-yellow macaw, the silvery grebe, the harpy eagle, the blue throated piping-guan, the long-billed starthroat, the snowy egret, the king vulture, the ladder-tailed nightjar, the scarlet macaw, the sapphire-spangled emerald, the roseate spoonbill, the stilt sandpiper, the blue-crowned trogon, the turquoise tanager, the Amazonian pygmy owl, the black-throated mango, the blue-headed parrot, etc. Birds present in the mountain zones in the park include: the Andean tinamou, the great horned owl, the torrent duck, the yellow-billed pintail, the amethyst-throated sunangel, the Andean guan, the puna ibis, the golden-collared tanager, the Andean condor, the collared inca, the solitary eagle, the Andean cock-of-the-rock, the masked flowerpiercer, the mountain caracara, the mitred parakeet, the sapphire-vented puffleg, the giant hummingbird, etc.  The 155 amphibian species found in the park include: "Atelopus erythropus, Bolitoglossa altamazonica, Chiasmocleis ventrimaculata, Dendropsophus acreanus, Dendropsophus koechlini, Dendropsophus rhodopeplus, Hyalinobatrachium bergeri, Leptodactylus didymus, Oreobates cruralis, Oscaecilia bassleri, Pipa pipa, Pristimantis buccinator, Pristimantis cosnipatae, Pristimantis danae, Pristimantis olivaceus, Rhinella veraguensis, Telmatobius timens," etc. There are 132 species of reptiles in the park including: the spectacled caiman, the black caiman, the northern caiman lizard, the mata mata, the boa, the shushupe, the green anaconda, the tree boa, the yellow-spotted river turtle, the lancehead, the aquatic coral snake, etc.  In addition, 210 species of fish, 300 species of ants, 650 species of beetles, 136 species of dragonflies and more than 1300 species of butterflies have been reported in the park so far.

Anthropology.

Among the native peoples living inside the park are: Yora, Mashco-Piro, Matsiguenka, Harakmbut and Yine; plus other human groups living in voluntary isolation.

Activities.

There are five areas open to tourists where local biodiversity can be watched along paths, swamps, oxbow lakes and river shores. In the lower basin of Manu river there are also: 5 camping sites, 4 viewing points (one of them an 18 m tower), 3 lodges and a canopy walkway.  Scientific research is also done at the park, with many research centers in or around the area, including the Cocha Cashu Biological Station.

Manú National Park () is a national park and biosphere reserve located in the regions of Madre de Dios and Cusco in Peru. It protects diverse ecosystems such as lowland rainforests, cloud forests and Andean grasslands. The Manú Nature Reserve was established in 1968.

Der Nationalpark Manú () ist ein Nationalpark im Amazonasgebiet im Südosten Perus in der Region Madre de Dios und zu kleinen Teilen in der Region Cusco. Er liegt östlich von Cusco am Ostabhang der Anden. Der Park wurde 1973 begründet und ist somit der dritte Nationalpark des Landes und eines der ältesten Schutzgebiete dieses Ranges im tropischen Regenwald und er umfasst eine Fläche von 18.812 km2. Sein Zweck ist die Erhaltung der typischen Tier- und Pflanzenwelt wie auch die Bewahrung der Lebensart der ursprünglichen Bewohner, der autochthonen Indianer in diesem Teil des Amazonaswaldes. Bereits mit der Gründung erklärte die UNESCO den Nationalpark zum Biosphärenreservat und 1987 zum Weltnaturerbe.


History.

The first known reference to Muiden is from 953 when Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor, granted the settlement and its toll rights to Cathedral of Saint Martin, Utrecht. It was called "Amuda", meaning "mouth of the (river) A". "A" was the old name for the Vecht river.  In 1122 Muiden was, together with Utrecht, granted some city rights by Emperor Henry V. After the lands around Muiden were given to Count Floris V, he began building Muider Castle at the mouth of the Vecht river. Muiden once again received city rights in 1296.  The first defensive works date from the first half of the 15th century. In 1590 the walls are replaced with earthen mounds with bastions after a design by Adriaen Anthonisz. Muiden was the northern end of the Dutch Water Line.  In 1673 the sea lock in the Vecht river was relocated from Fort Hinderdam to Muiden and in 1676 it was expanded with a sea wall along the Vecht mouth to prevent flooding.  Developments in warfare during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 prompted another round of upgrades and the construction of forts part of the Stelling van Amsterdam, which includes the Muizenfort, the barracks on the Vestingplein, and the casemates in the ravelins. The layout of the fortification wall was revised.  Fort Pampus Island, part of the former municipality of Muiden, was built from 1887 to 1897. Together with the lighthouse island near Durgerdam and the artillery battery at the, it was meant to protect the entrance of the IJ Bay and the harbour of Amsterdam.

Geography.

The former municipality of Muiden had two population centers: Muiden and Muiderberg.

Attractions.

Various regional walking and cycling routes pass Muiden.

Gunpowder factory.

In 1702 the hazardous production of gunpowder was removed from the city of Amsterdam. The vroedschap of Muiden granted a permit to Reinier van Cuyk of Amsterdam to build a gunpowder mill just west of Muiden that same year.  The factory flourished during the First World War, was liquidated in 1919, and was restarted in 1922. During the 20th century its production steadily increased and the town grew towards the factory. In 1972 it was renamed "Muiden Chemie". In the 1980s, it was accused of illegal shipments to Iran. In 1990 Muiden Chemie went bankrupt and was taken over by the British company Royal Ordnance, part of British Aerospace. After a fire in 2001 and ongoing concerns over safety, it was decided to close the factory permanently.  Explosions since 1883:

Local government.

Marleen de Pater-van der Meer of the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA) was the last mayor of Muiden. The municipal council of Muiden consisted of 13 seats, which were divided as follows (2015):

Muiden () is a city and former municipality in the Netherlands, in the province of North Holland. It lies at the mouth of the Vecht and is in an area called the Vechtstreek. Since 2016, Muiden has been part of the new municipality of Gooise Meren.

Muiden () ist ein Ortsteil der Gemeinde Gooise Meren in der niederländischen Provinz Nordholland. Zu ihr gehört auch die Ortschaft Muiderberg und das "Muiderslot" (), ein gut erhaltenes und sehenswertes Schloss der Niederlande.


Biography.

René was born on January 16, 1409 in the castle of Angers. He was the second son of Duke Louis II of Anjou, King of Sicily (comprising Naples and other parts of southern Italy), by Yolanda of Aragon. René was the brother of Marie of Anjou, who married the future Charles VII and became Queen of France.  Louis II died in 1417 and his sons, together with their brother-in-law Charles, were brought up under the guardianship of their mother. The elder son, Louis III, succeeded to the crown of Sicily and the Duchy of Anjou, René being known as the Count of Guise. In 1419, by his marriage treaty with Isabella, elder daughter of Charles II, Duke of Lorraine, René became heir to the Duchy of Bar, which was claimed as the inheritance of his mother Yolande, and, by right of his wife, heir to the Duchy of Lorraine.  René, then only ten, was to be brought up in Lorraine under the guardianship of Charles II and Louis, cardinal of Bar, both of whom were attached to the Burgundian party, but he retained the right to bear the arms of Anjou. He was far from sympathizing with the Burgundians. Joining the French army at Reims in 1429, he was present at the consecration of Charles VII. When Louis of Bar died in 1430, René came into sole possession of his duchy. The next year, on his father-in-law's death, he succeeded to the duchy of Lorraine. The inheritance was contested by the heir-male, Antoine de Vaudemont, who with Burgundian help defeated René at Bulgneville in July 1431. The Duchess Isabella effected a truce with Antoine, but the duke remained a prisoner of the Burgundians until April 1432, when he recovered his liberty on parole on yielding up as hostages his two sons, John and Louis.  René's title as duke of Lorraine was confirmed by his suzerain, Emperor Sigismund, at Basel in 1434. This proceeding roused the anger of the Burgundian duke, Philip the Good, who required him early in the next year to return to his prison, from which he was released two years later on payment of a heavy ransom. At the death of his brother Louis III in 1435, he succeeded to the Duchy of Anjou and County of Maine. Joanna II, queen of Naples, had adopted Louis III in 1431 and now offered to permit René to inherit her kingdom in his place. The marriage of Marie of Bourbon, niece of Philip of Burgundy, with John, Duke of Cambria, René's eldest son, cemented peace between the two princes. After appointing a regency in Bar and Lorraine, he visited his provinces of Anjou and Provence, and in 1438 set sail for Naples, which had been held for him by his wife, the Duchess Isabel.  René's captivity, and the poverty of the Angevin resources due to his ransom, enabled Alfonso V of Aragon, who had been first adopted and then repudiated by Joanna II, to make some headway in the kingdom of Naples, especially as he was already in possession of the island of Sicily. In 1441 Alfonso laid siege to Naples, which he sacked after a six-month siege. René returned to France in the same year, and though he retained the title of king of Naples his effective rule was never recovered. Later efforts to recover his rights in Italy failed. His mother Yolande, who had governed Anjou in his absence, died in 1442.  René took part in the negotiations with the English at Tours in 1444, and peace was consolidated by the marriage of his younger daughter, Margaret, with Henry VI of England at Nancy.  René now made over the government of Lorraine to his son John, who was, however, only formally installed as Duke of Lorraine on the death of Queen Isabella in 1453. René had the confidence of Charles VII, and is said to have initiated the reduction of the men-at-arms set on foot by the king, with whose military operations against the English he was closely associated. He entered Rouen with him in November 1449, and was also with him at Formigny and Caen.  After his second marriage with Jeanne de Laval, daughter of Guy of Laval and Isabella of Brittany, René took a less active part in public affairs, devoting himself to composing poetry and painting miniatures, gardening and raising animals. The fortunes of his house declined in his old age: in 1466, the rebellious Catalans offered the crown of Aragon to René. His son John, unsuccessful in Italy, was sent to take up the conquest of that kingdom but died—apparently by poison—at Barcelona on 16 December 1470. John's eldest son Nicholas perished in 1473, also under suspicion of poisoning. In 1471, René's daughter Margaret was finally defeated in the Wars of the Roses. Her husband and her son were killed and she herself became a prisoner who had to be ransomed by Louis XI in 1476.  René II, Duke of Lorraine, Rene's grandson and only surviving male descendant, was gained over to the party of Louis XI, who suspected the king of Sicily of complicity with his enemies, the Duke of Brittany and the Constable Saint-Pol.  René retired to Aix-en-Provence and in 1474 made a will by which he left Bar to his grandson René II, Duke of Lorraine; Anjou and Provence to his nephew Charles, count of Le Maine. King Louis XI seized Anjou and Bar, and two years later sought to compel René to exchange the two duchies for a pension. The offer was rejected, but further negotiations assured the lapse to the crown of the duchy of Anjou and the annexation of Provence was only postponed until the death of the Count of Le Maine. René died on 10 July 1480 at Aix, but was buried in the cathedral of Angers. In the 19th century, historians bestowed on him the epithet "the good".  He founded an order of chivalry, the "Ordre du Croissant", which preceded the royal foundation of St Michael but did not survive René.

Arts.

The King of Sicily's fame as an amateur painter formerly led to the optimistic attribution to him of many paintings in Anjou and Provence, in many cases simply because they bore his arms. These works are generally in the Early Netherlandish style, and were probably executed under his patronage and direction, so that he may be said to have formed a school of the fine arts in sculpture, painting, goldsmith's work and tapestry. He employed Barthélemy d'Eyck as both painter and "varlet de chambre" for most of his career.  Two of the most famous works formerly attributed to René are the triptych of the "Burning Bush" of Nicolas Froment of Avignon in Aix Cathedral, showing portraits of René and his second wife, Jeanne de Laval, and an illuminated Book of Hours in the French National Library. Among the men of letters attached to his court was Antoine de la Sale, whom he made tutor to his son John. He encouraged the performance of mystery plays; on the performance of a mystery of the Passion at Saumur in 1462 he remitted four years of taxes to the town, and the representations of the Passion at Angers were carried out under his auspices. He exchanged verses with his kinsman, the poet Charles of Orléans. René was also the author of two allegorical works: a devotional dialogue, "Le Mortifiement de vaine plaisance" ("The Mortification of Vain Pleasure," 1455), and a love quest, "Le Livre du Cuer d'amours espris" ("The Book of the Love-Smitten Heart," 1457). The latter fuses the conventions of Arthurian romance with an allegory of love based on the "Romance of the Rose. " Both works were exquisitely illustrated by his court painter, Barthélémy d'Eyck. "Le Mortifiement" survives in eight illuminated manuscripts. Although Barthélémy's original is lost, the extant manuscripts include copies of his miniatures by Jean le Tavernier, Jean Colombe, and others. René is sometimes credited with the pastoral poem "Regnault and Jeanneton", but this was more likely a gift to the king honoring his marriage to Jeanne de Laval.  King René's Tournament Book (' or '; ) describes rules of a tournament. The most famous and earliest of the many manuscript copies is kept in the French National Library. This is—unusually for a deluxe manuscript—on paper and painted in watercolor. It may represent drawings by Barthélemy d'Eyck, intended as preparatory only, which were later illuminated by him or another artist. There are twenty-six full and double page miniatures. The description given in the book is different from that of the pas d'armes held at Razilly and Saumur; conspicuously absent are the allegorical and chivalresque ornamentations that were in vogue at the time. René instead emphasizes he is reporting on ancient tournament customs of France, Germany and the Low Countries, combining them in a new suggestion on how to hold a tournament. The tournament described is a melee fought by two sides. Individual jousts are only briefly mentioned.

Marriages and issue.

René married:  His legitimate children by Isabelle were:  He also had three illegitimate children:

Cultural references.

He appears as "Reignier" in William Shakespeare's play "Henry VI, part 1". His alleged poverty for a king is satirised. He pretends to be the Dauphin to deceive Joan of Arc, but she sees through him. She later claims to be pregnant with his child.  René's honeymoon, devoted with his bride to the arts, is imagined in Walter Scott's novel "Anne of Geierstein" (1829). The imaginary scene of his honeymoon was later depicted by the Pre-Raphaelite painters Ford Madox Brown, Edward Burne-Jones and Dante Gabriel Rossetti.  In 1845 the Danish poet Henrik Hertz wrote the play "King René's Daughter" about René and his daughter Yolande de Bar; this was later adapted into the opera "Iolanta" by Tchaikovsky.  René and his Order of the Crescent were adopted as "historical founders" by the Lambda Chi Alpha fraternity in 1912, as exemplars of Christian chivalry and charity. Ceremonies of the Order of the Crescent were referenced in formulating ceremonies for the fraternity.  In conspiracy theories, such as the one promoted in "The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail", René has been alleged to be the ninth Grand Master of the Priory of Sion.  "La Cheminée du roi René" ("The Fireplace of King René"), op. 205, is a suite for wind quintet, composed in 1941 by Darius Milhaud.  "Chant du Roi René" ("Song of King René") is a piece for organ (or harmonium) by "Alexandre Guilmant" (1837–1911) from his collection of "Noels (Op.60)". The theme used throughout this piece was alleged to have been written by René (Guilmant's source was Alphonse Pellet, organist at Nîmes Cathedral).

Arms.

René frequently changed his coat of arms, which represented his numerous and fluctuating claims to titles, both actual and nominal. The Coat of arms of René in 1420; Composing the arms of the House of Valois-Anjou (top left and bottom right), Duchy of Bar (top right and bottom left), and of the Duchy of Lorraine (superimposed shield). In 1434 were added Hungary, Kingdom of Naples and Jerusalem. The arms of the Crown of Aragon were shown from 1443 to 1470. In 1453 the arms of Lorraine were removed and in 1470 Valois-Anjou were substituted for the modern arms of the duchy (superimposed shield).

Sources.

Attribution:

René of Anjou (; ; 1409–1480), also known as René I of Naples () and Good King René (; ), was count of Piedmont, Duke of Bar (1430–80), Duke of Lorraine (1431–53), Duke of Anjou, Count of Provence (1434–80), briefly King of Naples (1435–42; titular 1442–80), titular King of Jerusalem (1438–80) and Aragon including Sicily, Majorca and Corsica (1466–70).

René I. d’Anjou oder Renatus von Anjou (* 16. Januar 1409 im Schloss von Angers; † 10. Juli 1480 in Aix-en-Provence), auch "René von Sizilien, René von Neapel, René der Gute" oder "Le bon Roi René" genannt, war Reichsfürst des Heiligen Römischen Reiches sowie unter anderem:


Organisation.

The armed wing of the party is named the Liberation Army of the Workers and Peasants of Turkey ("Türkiye İşci ve Köylü Kurtuluş Ordusu" in Turkish, abbreviated as TİKKO).  Marxist-Leninist Youth Union of Turkey ("Türkiye Marksist Leninist Gençlik Birliği" in Turkish, abbreviated as "TMLGB") is the youth organization of TKP/ML. TMLGB, founded in 1972 as an organisation for youth workers, peasants, students and other youths from different production sectors under Istanbul Province Committee. In the first Mehmet Zeki Şerit (died in 1977 under torture) was the first Chair of it until his designation for another position in the same year. TMLGB did not work actively until its first congress in 1987.

History.

Following the military memorandum of 1971 the Turkish government cracked down on the communist movement in Turkey. Kaypakkaya and several of his colleagues were arrested. The party machinery was destroyed, while Kaypakkaya died in prison in 1973, because of torture.  The Communist Party of Turkey (Marxist–Leninist) re-organized between 1973 and 1978. The first party congress took place in 1978 ("TKP (M-L) I. Kongresi" in Turkish). In 1981 the second congress was organized ("TKP (M-L) II. Kongresi"). The party split following the second congress, the splinter group taking up the name TKP/ML (Bolşevik), later Bolshevik Party (North Kurdistan-Turkey).  This was neither the first nor the last split in the party. The Communist Party of Turkey/Marxist–Leninist – Hareketi had already split in (1976) during the re-organisation period. Other splits followed the second congress: Communist Party of Turkey/Marxist-Leninist (Revolutionary Partisan) (1987), Communist Party of Turkey/Marxist-Leninist (Maoist Party Centre) (1987) and Communist Party of Turkey (Marxist-Leninist) (1994).

Activities.

On 17 May 1985, TKP/ML broadcast a propaganda message to millions of television viewers in Istanbul, replacing the soundtrack for the evening news.  On 29 June 2010, two guerillas of the TIKKO were killed in the mountains of Tunceli by the Turkish state forces.  On 2 February 2011, five guerillas of TIKKO in Tunceli died as a result of an avalanche.  On 26 July 2013, the control building of a hydroelectric power plant regulator was bombed in the countryside of Tunceli Province by TIKKO militants.  On 14 March 2014, TİKKO guerrillas attacked a police station in Tunceli. TKP/ML declared that the attack was revenge for death of Berkin Elvan.  In 2016, the organization allegedly kidnapped Erkan Doğan, a civilian, who was later found executed.

The fight against ISIS.

In 2014, the organization sent a group of fighters to support the Kurds and other minorities in the fight against ISIS in Kobanî. Since then, the group has actively trained and supported the minorities in the fight against the extremist groups.  On 25 March 2016, the organization's headquarters in Serêkaniyê were targeted by a motorcycle bomb causing slight injuries to two members and damage to the headquarters.  On 14 August 2017, one of the commanders of TİKKO, Fermun Çırak (alias Nubar Ozanyan) died in the fight against ISIS. Ozanyan had trained Kurdish, Turkish, Armenian, Arab, Palestinian, Greek, Canadian, Sardinian, Belgian and French internationalist fighters against ISIS and other Islamist groups.  In 2018, ISIS tried to assassinate the members of the organization by mining the roads that were leading to the organization's headquarter. No casualties were reported.

Designation as a terrorist organisation.

The organisation is listed among the 12 active terrorist organisations in Turkey as of 2007, according to the Counter-Terrorism and Operations Department of the Directorate General for Security of the Turkish police.

The Communist Party of Turkey/Marxist–Leninist ("Türkiye Komünist Partisi/Marksist-Leninist" in Turkish, abbreviated as TKP/ML) is a Maoist insurgent organization in Turkey carrying out People's War against the Turkish Government. It was founded in 1972 by a group of splinters from the RWPPT headed by İbrahim Kaypakkaya as TKP (M-L). The founders of the TKP (M-L) were the former members of the Revolutionary Workers and Peasants Party of Turkey that desired to carry out armed struggle.

Die Türkiye Komünist Partisi/Marksist-Leninist (TKP/ML, ) ist eine marxistisch-leninistisch-maoistische Partei, die 1972 von İbrahim Kaypakkaya in der Türkei gegründet wurde.


Background.

Lobi is a blanket term that refers to several closely related ethnic groups that comprise roughly 7% of the Burkinabe population, including the main Lobi proper, Birifor, Dagara, Dorossy, Dyan (aka Jãa), Gan and Tenbo/Loron (aka Lorhon, Teese, Teguessie and Thuuna). It is important to recognize that among them, only the Gan belong to a politically centralized, and royal, society. Other groups are commonly referred to as "acephalous," which is misleading, but is meant to signal the absence of centralized political authority. Traditions vary among the groups, but some share a common sense of identity through participation in an initiation ceremony called "joro" (or "dyoro"), which takes place every seven years. In terms of kinship, decsent is bilineal. Many Lobi houses also share an architectural style, which consists of an earthen compound with walls made from horizontal courses. Most are single-story, and rarely include more than a few small, strategically placed holes to allow light in and to allow inhabitants to view the exterior surrounds. Historically, Lobi warriors used poisoned arrows to fend off attackers (including French colonists). Largely through the use of village and personal shrines, they also share animist beliefs in order to maintain a productive relationship with the spiritual world. They achieve this specifically through regular interaction with spirits called "thila," which inhabit a wide range of natural areas and man-made objects, such as "bateba", or anthropomorphic shrine figures that are now also well recognized in the art world. "Thila" are ambivalent beings that require regular offerings—via sacrifice—in exchange for a wide range of protective and benevolent actions. They are intermediaries with Thangba Yu, the remote Creator God.  The name Lobi originates from two Lobiri words: "lou" (forest) and "bi" (children), meaning literally, "children of the forest" who settled initially on the left bank of the Mouhoun River or the Black Volta dividing Burkina Faso and Ghana. The Mouhoun River is important to Lobi peoples for many reasons. In terms of migration history, it marks an escape from slave raiders in present-day Ghana. In myth, it symbolizes a dividing line between this world and the next, similar to the River Styx of Roman mythology. The Lobi crossed the Mounhoun centuries ago from east to west and settled in the lands and brought with them deep animist beliefs and superstition. According to Lobi legend, the spirits of the deceased must return across the river to rejoin their honorable ancestors in the ancient world. The banks of the Mounhoun are used in initiation rites and fish and animals in the river are considered sacred.

Lobi country.

The Lobi inhabit parts of southern Burkina Faso. According to the director of the museum in Gaoua which is considered to be the capital of the Lobi, "The Lobi is a farmer, a hunter and a herder, but above all he is a warrior". Victims of slave raids, rival clans and civil disputes, they are among the fiercest and proudest inhabitants of Burkina Faso and were constantly under attack from the Guiriko and Kenedougou empires during the 19th century. Bakary Ouattara, brother of the founder of the Guiriko empire led an offensive against the Lobi in 1815, and despite setting fire to several villages he was eventually killed by a poisoned arrow. He was succeeded by Karakara who continued with the raids leading up to the devastating attack in 1850 where they suffered heavily and lost a great deal but were never completely defeated.  In June 1898, the French and the British made an agreement that the Lobi country would go under French jurisdiction. Attempts at controlling the peoples was difficult and the Lobi became known for their resistance using poisoned arrows in attempting to thwart the French colonial invasion. In 1914, during the outbreak of World War I, the French colonial administration based in Gaoua began a merciless repression to the extent that the local were forbidden in copying any traits of the white man in the area. During the twentieth century some migrated into Côte d'Ivoire.

Animism.

The Lobi are well documented for their animist beliefs, which involves regular interaction with ancestral and other types of spirits such as "thila" and "kontuoursi". Interaction with these spirits commonly takes place in a "thilduu" (domestic shrine room), "dithil" (village shrine), and at other places in nature inhabited by spirits. Christian missionaries working in southern Burkina Faso have reported that an elderly man in a Lobi village once renounced the spirits in favor of Christianity by discarding his fetishes in a nearby lake. As he turned his back on the traditions, the fetishes leapt out of the lake onto his back again to reclaim him. Lobi people who convert to Christianity or Islam now usually burn their fetishes. Or, they may sell them on the market.  In Lobi animism, Thangba Yu is the creator of all living things. Lobi peoples have no direct contact with Him, but are dependent on nature spirits known as "thila", invisible intermediaries that can harness their supernatural powers towards good or evil. They set rules "soser," which dictate how a Lobi should behave in important aspects of life. Similar to Greek or Roman gods, "thila" themselves are subject to mortal virtues and vices. In Lobi society, there is often a "thildaar" (village diviner) that may also act as a "dithildaar" (village priest; each village has only one) that interprets "soser" for the local community. A particularly intuitive and receptive "thildaar" is capable of interpreting as many as fifty or more spirits at a time.

Architecture.

Lobi dwellings are characterized as large rectangular or polygonal compounds known as "maison soukala". They are spaced well from each other and are composed of a single vast mud banco wall and a small entrance. An entrance to a Lobi house is a relatively recent development. At many houses, there is a ladder made from a large, Y-shaped tree trunk with notched steps, which lead up to the roof where inhabitants may access an interior granary and their own rooms below. Access to individual sleeping quarters is also available inside. Only the "tyuordaarkuun" (or head of the household; there is no "chief" in Lobi society) can give permission to enter the house. The roof is broad and flat and forms a terrace which provides a lookout point but can also be used for sleeping in the dry season. Domestic animals have their own space, and water is gathered from a well or the river. The rooms inside a Lobi house are very dark, and the size varies in relation to function. Each wife has a room for herself and her children where meals are prepared. Large earthenware jars used to hold water or other personal belongings are often stacked up against the kitchen walls and are a testament to the owner's economic status.

Lobi Art and Marriage Poles.

The art of the Lobi people in Burkina Faso comes in various forms and consist of a lot of sculpture work but these works have gained little attention by the art historic world. The material used by the Lobi are consider simple by most art historians. Shrines also tend to be made simple and have figures that have little actual sculpting to the wood. Like other African cultures Lobi art has a function that is more important than the aesthetic. Some of these art objects include the marriage poles, woodcarvings and small sculptures.  Lobi woodcarvers do not crave for making money and it has a ritual practice view of the art. Wood carvers see making craving as needing to have a purpose. These leads from the idea that wood carving viewed as a dangerous act and need to have a ritual to protect against hostile spirits that can be angered during the cutting of the trees. Some of the variations in Lobi sculpture is sculptures that are only a few centimeters tall. While the wood craving is better known of the works created by the Lobi bronze has also been used. Some of the uses of bronze include pendants of animals and figures, bells, and some bracelets and anklets.  Another type of creation by the Lobi is marriage poles. Marriage poles are made from Shea trees, which have significance in the Lobi every day. These poles also have black bands made from a dye that is then connected by a vertical strip. These bands are dyed into the poles and the bark of the tree is striped leaving contrasting bands down the length of the pole. Marriage poles are made by friends of the soon to be husband and are about three meters in height. The top of the marriage pole has a fork that a piece of cloth will be tied to after the new bride has arrived. The color of the cloth be white or red show the status of the bride and her attachment. These poles are placed along the pathways to a compound ("soukhala") about ten meters apart. Some poles about halfway down have a tied bundle of leaves made from Shea like the pole itself and this is called "kha". The dye and the leaves are gifts from the bridegroom's father. The dye is to encourage the bride to stay put and the leaves are a medicine to bring rain therefore it brings prosperity. However, when these leaves dry it can bring harm to others who touch it spiritually. The poles are placed in red clay and small clay figures can be found at the base of some marriage poles that are half buried in a small mound and huddled together. These are just one of the various types of “art” that exist in the Lobi culture.

The Lobi belong to an ethnic group that originated in what is today Ghana. Starting around 1770, many Lobi peoples migrated into southern Burkina Faso and later into Côte d'Ivoire. The group consists of around 180,000 people. Lobiri is the name of the language spoken by the Lobi people.

Die Lobi (auch Lobi-Dagara genannt) sind eine im Süden Burkina Fasos und im Norden Ghanas und der Elfenbeinküste lebende Ethnie. Ihre gleichnamige Sprache gehört zur Gruppe der Gur- oder Volta-Sprachen.


Biography.

Einem was born in the Swiss capital Bern into an Austrian diplomat family. According to Einem's publisher, his father was William von Einem, military attaché of the Austro-Hungarian embassy. According to another source, however, he was adopted by Einem, his natural father being the Hungarian aristocrat Count László von Hunyadi. His mother, Baroness Gerta Louise née Rieß von Scheurnschloss, an officer's daughter from Kassel, led a lavish lifestyle between Berlin and Paris. The family moved to Malente in the Prussian Schleswig-Holstein Province, when Gottfried was four years old.  After his school days in Plön and Ratzeburg, Gottfried von Einem went to Berlin in 1937, to study at the State School of Music with Paul Hindemith who nevertheless resigned his post in October that year in protest against his modernist music being banned from public performances by Joseph Goebbels. By the agency of the tenor Max Lorenz, he started an employment as a répétiteur at the Berlin State Opera, where in 1939 Herbert von Karajan became "Staatskapellmeister". From 1938 onwards, Einem also worked as an assistant of director Heinz Tietjen at the Bayreuth Festival. In 1941 he began to take counterpoint lessons with Boris Blacher; at that time he wrote his first work, "Prinzessin Turandot", at the suggestion of Werner Egk. The ballet was first performed at the Dresden Semperoper conducted by Karl Elmendorff in early 1944 and became a success. Previously in March 1943, Leo Borchard had first performed Einem's composition "Capriccio" (Op. 2) with the Berlin Philharmonic orchestra.  During World War II, in Berlin, Einem helped to both save the life and continue the professional development of young Jewish musician by employing him as an rehearsal assistant for "Prinzessin Turandot" and later helping him obtain other employment. Einem obtained a ration book and membership card of the Reich Musicians' Chamber for Latte, and lent him his own pass to the State Opera as well as introducing him to friends who could help his underground existence.  Through Blacher, Einem met his first wife, Lianne von Bismarck, whom he married after the war in 1946. They had a son, Caspar Einem (born 1948), who is now a former Austrian cabinet minister who still sits in the National Council on the Social Democratic bench. In 1953, the family moved back to Vienna. Lianne von Bismarck died in 1962. In 1966 Einem married his librettist, the renowned Austrian playwright and author Lotte Ingrisch. Apart from Vienna, the couple spent much of their time in the Waldviertel of Lower Austria (specifically, at Oberdürnbach and Rindlberg/Großpertholz), a virtually pristine region that clearly inspired not only his own work, but also the literature of Ingrisch.  The composer died in Oberdürnbach in 1996.

Works.

Gottfried von Einem composed mainly operas based on dramas. He was internationally recognized after the premiere of his opera "Dantons Tod" at the Salzburg Festival of 1947, conducted by Ferenc Fricsay. His last operas, starting with "Jesu Hochzeit", are based on libretti by his wife.  In 1973 he wrote as a commission of the UN to commemorate the 30th anniversary of its foundation the cantata "An die Nachgeborenen" for mezzo-soprano, baritone, chorus and orchestra, based on diverse texts. The title is taken of Bertolt Brecht, translated as "To Those Who Follow in Our Wake". The premiere in 1975 in New York with Julia Hamari, Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, the Chorus of Temple University and the Wiener Symphoniker was conducted by Carlo Maria Giulini.  In England von Einem had two of his operas premiered within days of each other. In May 1973 "The Trial" ("Der Prozeß") received its premiere at the Bloomsbury Theatre, London, conducted by Leon Lovett, directed by Fuad Kavur. The following week, at Glyndebourne "The Visit of the Old Lady" ("Der Besuch der alten Dame") received its British premiere, conducted by John Pritchard and directed by John Cox.  In May 1996, the chamber chorus Cantori New York, directed by Mark Shapiro, gave the U.S. premiere of von Einem's cantata "Die träumenden Knaben", for chorus, clarinet and bassoon, on a work by the painter Oskar Kokoschka.

Gottfried von Einem (24 January 1918 – 12 July 1996) was an Austrian composer. He is known chiefly for his operas influenced by the music of Stravinsky and Prokofiev, as well as by jazz. He also composed pieces for piano, violin and organ.

Gottfried von Einem (* 24. Jänner 1918 in Bern; † 12. Juli 1996 in Oberdürnbach, Niederösterreich) war ein österreichischer „Componist“ (gemäß eigener Bezeichnung). Er wurde postum im Yad Vashem als Gerechter unter den Völkern ausgezeichnet.