History.

Between 1551 and 1552, Diego Fernández de Proaño embarked on several explorations in the Zacatecas region, searching for a legendary hill purported to contain great mineral wealth. He discovered a hill, which despite not matching the descriptions given, bore evidence of rich mineral deposits, which he named "Cerro de Proaño" ("Proaño's Hill"). He returned to the city of Zacatecas to report his findings to the Viceroy, but apparently there was not much interest in his discovery and Proaño's Hill was forgotten over the years.  A second expedition, headed by 15-year-old Francisco de Ibarra, arrived on September 2, 1554 at a place where there was a freshwater spring, in whose border was a "Pequeño Fresno" (small ash). They decided to spend the night, and Francisco de Ibarra wrote his name for the place in his daily journal: "Ojo de Agua del Fresnillo (spring of the small ash)".  In the early years after its foundation, the town suffered incursions by Guachichil Indians who were nomadic and bellicose. Due to the heavy losses suffered by the settlers in those early years, the Viceroy, Martín Enríquez de Almanza, ordered the construction of a presidio in the town. Boner Captain Rodrigo Río de Loza was assigned to lead the garrison of eight soldiers. The military outpost was built where the current municipal palace stands today. Among the first mayors of Fresnillo were Captain Diego Núñez de Miranda, Cristóbal Caldera and Juan de Avellaneda.  Between 1682 and 1757, the mines were worked constantly. There were several mines, mostly on the foothills of Proaño's Hill. In 1757, the mine shafts had reached fifty meters in depth and flooding began to be a major problem. The mines were abandoned as it was economically unviable to mitigate the flooding and the area went into an economic crisis. The mine owners lost their mines as a result of seizure by the Spanish Crown for failure to repay loans. The Crown named a new administrator for the mines, but they continued to lie idle.  In 2013, Fresnillo became the first municipality in Mexican history to elect an openly gay mayor, with the election of Benjamín Medrano.

The Coat of Arms of Fresnillo.

In the superior part of the shield is the Latin phrase: "Orat Atque Laborat Ab Urbe Condita", which means: "Since its Founding a City that Works and Prays." The lower part reads, "Real de Minas del Fresnillo (Royal Mine of Fresnillo)." In the center the horizontal bar reads: "2 de Septiembre de 1554."  The coat of arms is divided into three boxes: first in the left superior part, there appears the Virgin of Candlemas, Pattern of Fresnillo, which is identified by the candle in her right hand. In the box on the right superior part, there is a rodela or shield and the arms used by the natives and the Spaniards during the Conquest. In the inferior part (the third box) there appears a spring, in whose margin there is an Ash tree, and a depiction of the bottom of the Proaño Hill with some clouds, symbolizing the rainy month of September. "2 of September of 1554".

Plateros.

Fresnillo, Zacatecas is often connected with Plateros, a central church which attracts many religious followers to the area. The church was built in the late 1690s in commemoration of Spanish miners finding a miraculous silver crucifix. The crucifix is said to have appeared in a wooden crate without knowledge of its creation. Spiritual devotion and respect resulted in the cross-Atlantic travel of a statue of the Our Lady of Atocha. The statue has the Virgin Mary carrying an infant Jesus in her arms. This infant statue became known as the Holy Child of Atocha.  Many claim that miracles result from the devout prayer to this Holy Child. Those who truly believe that the Holy Child worked in their favor will often bring back a gift in gratitude. In 1883, a separate building was constructed to house the various gifts followers brought back to him.  Today, many families who have religious connections to this saint will travel far in pilgrimage and attend mass as they visit the shrine. The saint itself is said to be a Zacatecas iconic piece, as well as a guardian of miners.

Agriculture.

Agriculture is of great importance. The city is a great producer of various crops, including corn, pepper, tomato, among others. The neighboring towns and villages will focus on exporting its goods to the main city, as well as others. Economic sustainability is often connected to its agricultural success, along with silver mining.

Regional Fair of Fresnillo.

In commemoration of the discovery of the city in the month of September in 1954, the city is home to a large celebration which celebrates culture and the arts. People from all over the world come to Fresnillo to celebrate, bringing along traditions native to their home countries. Many will choose to participate in the folkloric dances and athletic competitions. In 2004, Fresnillo celebrated the 450th year of its establishment.

Fresnillo /fres'nijo/ (2005 census pop. 110,892), founded in 1554 by Francisco de Ibarra, is the second largest city in Zacatecas state, north central Mexico and the seat of Fresnillo municipality. As a rail and highway junction, Fresnillo is the center of a rich mining area known especially for silver, and the location of one of the world's richest silver mines, the Mina Proaño or Fresnillo Mine, which belongs to the Peñoles mining company. It has a mining school, and agriculture (cereals, beans) and cattle raising are other important economic activities. Fresnillo is also the municipal seat of the municipality of the same name which surrounds it. The municipality had a population of 196,538 and an areal extent of.

Fresnillo (eigentlich "Fresnillo de González Echeverría") ist eine ca. 130.000 Einwohner zählende Großstadt im nordmexikanischen Bundesstaat Zacatecas. Die gleichnamige Gemeinde "(municipio)" zählt ca. 250.000 Einwohner. Das nahegelegene "Santuario de Plateros" ist eines der wichtigsten Heiligtümer Mexikos und wurde im Jahr 2010 als Teil des "Camino Real de Tierra Adentro" von der UNESCO als Weltkulturerbe anerkannt.


Why is it needed?

Foundations and their funders are increasingly working across borders. However, a number of legal and administrative barriers are hampering foundations' current work. The lack of appropriate legal tools means that new European initiatives by foundations are delayed or abandoned.  A European Foundation Statute would offer an appropriate legal tool to perform and increase foundations' work and operations across Europe, while reducing costly administrative burden.

Status.

On 8 February 2012, the European Commission presented a proposal on a European Foundation Statute. This proposal has been shared with the Council of Ministers representing the governments of the 27 Member States for review and approval, as well as to the European Parliament for its consent.  The European Parliament pledged support to European statutes for foundations, associations and mutual societies with the signatures by a majority of its members of a written declaration in February 2011.  The European Economic and Social Committee (EESC), the EU's official advisory body on social and economic matters, has given a clear and strong backing to the Statute by approving, by a large majority, the opinion drafted by EESC member Mall Hellam on 28 April 2010. The opinion urges the European Commission to present a proposal for a Regulation on a European Foundation Statute to support public-benefit activities for its adoption by the Council and the European Parliament in due course.  The campaign to implement the European Foundation Statute is led by the European Foundation Centre and the Donors and Foundations Networks in Europe (DAFNE).  In January 2015, the European Commission confirmed its withdrawal of the legislative proposal for the European Foundation Statute in its 2015 work programme.

The European Foundation Statute is a simple, proposed tool that helps foundations better channel their resources into improving the lives of people in a wide range of areas. It aims to establish the legal form of a European Foundation which would be additional - but also complementary - to existing national forms. It would be legally recognised in all Member States, and would operate under the same set of conditions across the EU.

Die Europäische Stiftung (international auf Lateinisch auch Fundatio Europaea, kurz FE) ist eine Idee zur Schaffung einer Rechtsform für grenzüberschreitend tätige, gemeinnützige Stiftungen in der Europäischen Union und im Europäischen Wirtschaftsraum. Die Rechtsform der Stiftungen soll supranational ausgestaltet sein.


Club career.

Early career.

Born in Lucca, Italy, Rugani began his footballing career with Tuscan side Empoli in 2000, at the age of 6. He remained within the club's youth academy for twelve full seasons, before being transferred to Serie A giants Juventus on loan in August 2012, for €150,000 fee. After joining Juventus, Rugani was registered with the club's "Primavera" (under-20) youth squad where he was a regular starter within the side during the 2012–13 season, winning the Coppa Italia Primavera.  After his successes during his first season with Juventus, Rugani was purchased by the club on 31 July 2013 in a co-ownership deal for €500,000 and then sent back to Empoli on a season-long loan deal ahead of their 2013–14 Serie B campaign.  At age 20, Rugani was Empoli's star defender during their successful campaign, as he finished the season having made 40 appearances and scoring 2 goals for the club. He scored his first career goal from a header off of a corner on 22 March 2014, in a 4–0 home win over Reggina. The club finished the season in 2nd place, thus achieving automatic promotion to Serie A, alongside champions Palermo.  On 18 June 2014, it was confirmed that the co-ownership agreement between the two clubs would be renewed, with the player remaining with newly promoted Empoli for the 2014–15 Serie A campaign on loan from Juventus. Rugani made his Serie A debut on 31 August 2014, at the age of 20, in a 2–0 away defeat to Udinese, later scoring his first goal in Serie A on 20 September, in a 2–2 away draw against Cesena. On 2 February 2015, Juventus bought out the remaining half of Daniele Rugani's registration rights from Empoli, for an additional €3.5 million. Rugani was a key player for Empoli that season, appearing in all 38 of Empoli's league matches that season without being substituted or booked, in addition to scoring 3 goals, as the club finished the league in 15th place.

Juventus.

In the summer of 2015, Rugani officially returned to Juventus. He made his debut with the club on 30 September 2015, coming on as a substitute in a 2–0 home win over Sevilla in the UEFA Champions League group stage, also making his European debut in the process. He made his first start with the club on 16 December, in a 4–0 win over cross-city rivals Torino in the "Derby della Mole" in the round of 16 of the Coppa Italia. His league debut with the club came four days later, as he came on for veteran defender Andrea Barzagli in the 56th minute of a 3–2 away win over Carpi. He made his first league start for the club in a 2–1 away win over Sampdoria in Serie A, on 10 January 2016. On 24 April, Rugani was booked for the first time in his entire Serie A career in his 53rd Serie A appearance. He received a yellow card in the 72nd minute of a 2–1 away win over Fiorentina; he had last been carded at club level with Empoli, on 1 March 2014, in an away Serie B fixture against Siena. Following Napoli's loss to Roma the following day, Juventus clinched the league title with three games to spare.  On 21 September 2016, Rugani made his first appearance of the season and scored his first goal for Juventus, in a 4–0 home win over Cagliari. On 25 September 2016, it was confirmed that Rugani would be sidelined for six weeks after limping off the pitch a day before away to Palermo with a sprained right knee; tests at the J-Medical centre revealed he suffered a strained collateral lateral ligament. He returned to training early on 20 October. On 7 December, Rugani scored his first ever UEFA Champions League goal on his third appearance in the competition, in a 2–0 home win over Dinamo Zagreb. On 14 December, Rugani extended his stay at Juventus, signing a new contract that will run until 2021.  Following the sale of Leonardo Bonucci to Milan in the summer of 2017, the 2017–18 season saw Rugani receive more playing time in central defence with Juventus. In total, he made 22 Serie A appearances for Juventus, and 26 in all competitions, scoring two goals, both of which came in the league, as Juventus once again finished the season by winning a domestic double of the Serie A and Coppa Italia titles.  On 30 March 2019, Rugani extended his contract with Juventus, keeping him at the club until June 2023.

International career.

Rugani has represented Italy at various youth levels since 2010. His first cap for the under-21 team came on 5 March 2014 in a European qualifier against Northern Ireland, in which he scored the first goal for the "azzurini" in a 2–0 victory.  On 9 November 2014, he was called up by Antonio Conte to the senior Italy squad ahead of a UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying match against Croatia and a friendly against Albania.  With the Italy U-21 he took part at the 2015 UEFA European Under-21 Championship under manager Luigi Di Biagio.  On 31 May 2016, Rugani was named one of three reserves for Antonio Conte's senior side for Euro 2016.  Rugani made his senior international debut on 1 September 2016, with newly appointed coach Gian Piero Ventura, coming on as a substitute in a 3–1 friendly defeat to France.  In June 2017, he was included in the Italy under-21 squad for the 2017 UEFA European Under-21 Championship by manager Di Biagio. Italy were eliminated in the semifinals following a 3–1 defeat to Spain on 27 June.

Style of play.

Rugani is a tall, tactically versatile, and physically strong centre-back, who is good in the air, both defensively and offensively. He is known in particular for his anticipation, intelligence, and marking ability, despite his lack of notable pace or mobility. He is also considered to be a correct player, who often avoids committing to challenges, preferring to restrict his opponents through his positioning. Due to his confidence in possession, he is capable of playing the ball out from the back-line. Regarded as one of the most promising young Italian players of his generation, in 2015, he was named one of the best players in the world born after 1994, by "Don Balón".

Personal life.

On 11 March 2020, it was announced that Rugani tested positive for COVID-19, while being asymptomatic, amid its pandemic in Italy.

Honours.

Juventus  Individual

Daniele Rugani (; born 29 July 1994) is an Italian professional footballer who plays as a centre back for club Juventus and the Italy national team.

Daniele Rugani (* 29. Juli 1994 in Lucca) ist ein italienischer Fußballspieler. Der Abwehrspieler steht aktuell bei Juventus Turin unter Vertrag.


Background.

Radcliffe was born on a farm at Lloyds, near Cambridge, Maryland. He attended both public and private schools in his youth and later graduated from Cambridge Seminary in 1893, from Johns Hopkins University in 1897, from the graduate school of Johns Hopkins University in 1900, and from the University of Maryland School of Law in 1903.

Career.

Following college, Radcliffe took the position of principal of the Cambridge Seminary he had attended as a youth. After a stint as a teacher in the Baltimore City College in 1901 and 1902, Radcliffe was admitted to the bar in 1903 and commenced practice in Baltimore, Maryland with an interest in banking and farming.  During the First World War, Rafcliffe joined the Liquor License Commission in Baltimore, serving from 1916–1919, and also served as a member of the Maryland State Council of Defense.

State Government.

In 1919, Radcliffe was selected as Secretary of State of Maryland and served until 1920.

Federal Government.

In 1933 and again in 1934, Radcliffe was chosen regional adviser of the Public Works Administration for Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, and the District of Columbia.

U.S. Senate.

In the election of 1934, Radcliffe was elected as a Democrat to the United States Senate, and was subsequently reelected in the 1940 election. Radcliffe failed to achieve re-nomination for his party in the election of 1946, losing to fellow Democrat Herbert R. O'Conor.

Personal and death.

Radcliffe resumed banking and farming interests following his tenure as senator and was actively involved in civic life.  He resided in Baltimore until he died on July 29, 1974. He is buried at the Cambridge Cemetery in his hometown.

Miscellaneous.

In 1935, Alger Hiss attorney and close friend, William L. Marbury, Jr. wrote to Radcliffe to secure his support for the appointment of Hiss to the U.S. Solicitor General's office. (Hiss and Radcliffe were both from Baltimore, graduates of Johns Hopkins University, and officials in FDR's New Deal government.)

George Lovic Pierce Radcliffe (August 22, 1877July 29, 1974) was a Democratic member of the United States Senate, representing the State of Maryland from 1935-1947.

George Lovic Pierce Radcliffe (* 22. August 1877 bei Cambridge, Dorchester County, Maryland; † 29. Juli 1974 in Baltimore, Maryland) war ein US-amerikanischer Politiker (Demokratische Partei), der den Bundesstaat Maryland im US-Senat vertrat.


History.

Rani ki vav was constructed during the rule of the Chaulukya dynasty. It is located on the banks of Saraswati river. "Prabandha-Chintamani", composed by the Jain monk Merutunga in 1304, mentions: "Udayamati, the daughter of Naravaraha Khengara, built this novel stepwell at Shripattana (Patan) surpassing the glory of the Sahastralinga Tank". According to it, the stepwell was commissioned in 1063 and was completed after 20 years. It is generally assumed that it was built in the memory of Bhima I () by his queen Udayamati and probably completed by Udayamati and Karna after his death but the view, whether she was a widow when she commissioned it, is disputed. Commissariat puts the date of construction to 1032 based on the architectural similarity to Vimalavasahi temple on Mount Abu built in the same year.  The stepwell was later flooded by the nearby Saraswati river and silted over. In 1890s, Henry Cousens and James Burgess visited it when it was completely buried under the earth and only well shaft and few pillars were visible. They called it huge pit measuring. In "Travels in Western India," James Tod mentioned that the material from the stepwell was reused in the other stepwell built in modern Patan, probably Trikam Barot ni Vav (Bahadur Singh stepwell). In 1940s, the excavations carried out under the Baroda State revealed the stepwell. In 1986, the major excavation and restoration was carried out by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). An image of Udayamati was also recovered during the excavation. The restoration was carried out from 1981 to 1987.  Rani ki vav is declared the Monument of National Importance and protected by the ASI. It was added to the list of UNESCO's World Heritage Sites on 22 June 2014. It was named India's "Cleanest Iconic Place" at the 2016 Indian Sanitation Conference.

Architecture.

Rani ki vav is considered as the finest and one of the largest example of stepwell architecture in Gujarat. It was built at the height of craftsmens’ ability in stepwell construction and the Maru-Gurjara architecture style, reflecting mastery of this complex technique and beauty of detail and proportions. The architecture and sculptures is similar to the Vimalavasahi temple on Mount Abu and Sun temple at Modhera.  It is classified as a "Nanda"-type stepwell. It measures approximately long, wide and deep. The fourth level is the deepest and leads into a rectangular tank by, at a depth of. The entrance is located in the east while the well is located at the westernmost end and consists of a shaft in diameter and deep. The stepwell is divided into seven levels of stairs which lead down to deep circular well. A stepped corridor is compartmentalized at regular intervals with pillared multistory pavilions. The walls, pillars, columns, brackets and beams are ornamented with carvings and scroll work. The niches in the side walls are ornamented with beautiful and delicate figures and sculptures. There are 212 pillars in the stepwell.

Sculptures.

There are more than 500 principle sculptures and over a thousand minor ones combine religious, mythological and secular imagery, often referencing literary works. The ornamentation of stepwell depicts the entire universe inhabited by gods and goddesses; celestial beings; men and women; monks, priests and laity; animals, fishes and birds including real and mythical ones; as well as plants and trees.  The stepwell is designed as an underground shrine or inverted temple. It has spiritual significance and represents the sanctity of water. The sculptures in stepwell depicts numerous Hindu deities including Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, goddesses ("Devi"), Ganesha, Kubera, Lakulisha, Bhairava, Surya, Indra and Hayagriva. The sculptures associated with Vishnu outnumbers all which include Sheshashayi Vishnu (Vishnu reclined on thousand hooded snake Shesha in the celestial ocean), Vishwarupa Vishnu (Cosmic form of Vishnu), twenty four forms as well as Dashavatara (ten incarnations) of Vishnu.  The sculptures of deities with their families such as Brahma-Savitri, Uma-Maheshwar and Lakshmi-Narayan are there. Notable among other sculptures are Ardhanarishwara as well as large number of goddesses such as Lakshmi, Parvati, Saraswati, Chamunda, Durga/Mahishasurmardini with twenty hands, Kshemankari, Suryani and Saptamatrikas. There are images of Navagraha (nine plantets) as well.  There are a large number of celestial beings ("Apsara"s). One sculpture of Apsara depicts either applying lipstick to her lips or chewing on aromatic twig while a man is tickling her feet. On the northern side of the third storey pavilion, there is a sculpture of an Apsara warding off a monkey clinging to her leg and pulling at her clothes, revealing her seductive body. At her feet, there is a nude female with a snake around her neck probably representing an erotic motif. A sculpture of Nagkanya (serpent princess) with long hair and swan as well as sculptures of celestial dancers in classical dance positions are there.  There are large number of sculptures portraying women in their everyday life and activities. One sculpture depicts a woman combing her hair, adjusting her earring and looking herself in the mirror. Another sculptures include a woman writing a letter, a young woman with scorpion climbing her right leg and her clothes sliding off unknowingly, a young woman pulling a beard of a dwarf-like man, a woman with fish plate in her hands with a snake encircling her leg and reaching out to fish. One sculpture depicts a young women coming out of bath with her wet hair and a swan catching droplets of water falling from her hairs as if they are pearls. These women sculptures are adorned with jewelry including bangles, earrings, necklaces, waist girdles, anklets and others as well as with elegant clothes and well combed hairs. The variety of expressions and emotions are depicted in them. They represent beauty as well love in its sublime and seductive form signaling eroticism. There are sculptures representing maternal love such as a woman holding her child and pointing to moon to divert his attention, a woman raising her child high to let him pick a mango from tree, a woman in a mango grove with children with her. There are gradually increasing cantilevered brackets in the well shaft which are profusely ornamented. There kalpavriksha carvings on the wall repents fertility and nature worship while kirtimukhas and makaras adorn the basements and capitals of pillars. On the northern side wall of entrance of the stepwell, there are geometric lattice patterns and designs resembling designs of local textile tradition of Patola. They may have been adapted from the wood carvings and the ceilings of the temples. Animal figures of horses, elephants and lions are used as decoration of pillars and basement moldings.

Depiction.

Since July 2018, the 100 banknote of Mahatma Gandhi New Series, features Rani ki vav on the rear side.

Rani ki Vav or Ranki vav () is a stepwell situated in the town of Patan in Gujarat state of India. It is located on the banks of Saraswati river. Its construction is attributed to Udayamati, daughter of Khengara of Saurashtra, queen of the 11th-century Chaulukya dynasty and spouse of Bhima I. Silted over, it was rediscovered in 1940s and restored in 1980s by the Archaeological Survey of India. It has been listed as one of UNESCO's World Heritage Sites since 2014.

Der Rani Ki Vav () ist ein Stufenbrunnen in Patan im indischen Bundesstaat Gujarat. Er wurde im Jahr 2014 in die Liste des UNESCO-Weltkulturerbes aufgenommen.


Etymology.

The name "Porta Palatina" literally refers to a "palazzo" (palace) placed near the gate, but it is not clear what palace is here referred to.  The most trusted theory suggests that it might be either the former "Casa del Senato" (House of the Senate), a medieval palace located very close to the Palatine Gate, inside the city walls, or perhaps the "Palazzo di Città" (City Palace), the city hall of Turin placed not far from the gate as well (though a little farther than the old House of the Senate).  A second theory hints to the presence of an alleged adjacent amphitheatre built near present-day "Borgo Dora", a historical neighbourhood developing right outside the old city walls (north of the Porta Palatina). This facility might rapidly have fallen into disrepair and, as a result, it might simply have been dubbed "palazzo" by the ancients.  Over the centuries, however, the Palatine Gate was also known by some other names, such as "Porta Comitale" (Count's Gate, allegedly referring to a count's residence), "Porta Doranea" or "Porta Doranica" (since it led to the Dora river) and later as "Porta Palazzo" (a clear synonym of "Porta Palatina").

Features.

The "Porta Principalis Dextra" served as an access to the "cardo maximus", currently identified in "Via Porta Palatina" and "Via San Tommaso". Its impressive remains are currently visible at the center of an open area, today's "Piazza Cesare Augusto".  Quite similar to the ancient "Porta Decumana", built into the medieval structure of the present-day Palazzo Madama, the Palatine Gate represents an example of a typical Roman gate facing a "cavaedium" (quadrangular courtyard on the inside of the city walls), the remains of which are placed in front of the gate. Erected on a square base, the two angular towers are more than thirty metres high and feature a sixteen-sided structure. The central body, namely the "interturrio", is about twenty metres long and is characterized by two orders of windows, the lower one composed of arch windows and the upper one made up of jack arch windows. The underlying portion features four entryways: the central ones are larger and taller and are vehicle accessible, while the two entryways to the sides are narrower and shorter and served as pedestrian passageways. The grooves along the entryways' inner walls suggest the original presence of the so-called "cateractae", an alleged system of gate gratings operated from the upper floor.  On the ground near the gate is still part of the guardhouse added in the Roman period, on which one can see the furrows on the stones caused by the transit of wagons.  The pair of bronze statues depicting Augustus Caesar and Julius Caesar are not the original statues but copies from the last, radical restoration of 1934. However, they are object of discussion as they were incorrectly placed in the internal area occupied by the "statio" and not outside the gate, where they would possibly have more relevance.

History.

From the ancient age to the 16th century.

Built in the 1st century during the Augustan Age or the Flavian Age, the "Porta Principalis Dextra" may predate the construction of the city walls and was perhaps built on the location of an earlier Republican Age gate.  This facility served as a city gate for a long time and was turned into a "castrum" in the 11th century, although it lost the internal structure of the "cavaedium" over the centuries. In 1404, after centuries of incursions and partial decay, the western tower was rebuilt and both towers got completed with battlements for defensive purposes.

The 18th century.

The Palatine Gate was supposed to be torn down in the early 18th century, pursuant to the urban renewal process started by Vittorio Amedeo II. However, the dismantling was not implemented thanks to the intervention of the architect and engineer Antonio Bertola, who convinced the duke to preserve the ancient architectural work.  In 2006 the City of Turin started a restoration of the archaeological area, with the intent to improve the park, make the towers accessible to the public and build an underground parking for the carts of the nearby "Porta Palazzo" open market.

The Palatine Gate (; Piedmontese: Tor Roman-e) is a Roman Age city gate located in Turin, Italy. The gate provided access through the city walls of "Julia Augusta Taurinorum" (modern Turin) from the North side and, as a result, it constituted the "Porta Principalis Dextra" (Right-Side Main Gate) of the old town.

Die Porta Palatina ist das einzige erhaltene Stadttor des römischen Turin ("Augusta Taurinorum"). Obwohl es sich nur um ein Stadttor handelt, wird jedoch üblicherweise der Plural Porte Palatine verwendet. Die Porta Palatina stellt das bedeutendste noch erhaltene archäologische Zeugnis des römischen Turin dar.


Terminology.

"Annular" means formed as a ring and "penannular" formed as an incomplete ring; both terms have a range of uses. "Pseudo-penannular" is a coinage restricted to brooches, and refers to those brooches where there is no opening in the ring, but the design retains features of a penannular brooch—for example, emphasizing two terminals. Some pseudo-penannular brooches are very similar in design to other penannular brooches, but have a small section joining the two terminals. Others have fully joined terminals, and emphasize in their design the central area where the gap would be—for example the Tara Brooch. Pseudo-penannular brooches may also be described as "annular", or as "ring brooches". The terms "open brooch" or "open ring brooch" are also sometimes used for penannular brooches. There is a scheme of classification originally set out, in relation to earlier types, by Elizabeth Fowler in the 1960s, which has since been extended in various versions to cover later types.  Brooches of either penannular or annular type, where the pin is very large in relation to the ring, so that the ring cannot play any part in the fastening of the brooch, may be called "ring brooches", "pin brooches", or "brooch-pins"; or, especially where the ring is small and plain, "ringed pins". In these, the design of the pin head typically shows that the pin is intended to sit underneath the ring (seen from the front), rather than on top of it as in the larger brooches.  "Celtic" is a term avoided by specialists in describing objects, and especially artistic styles, of the Early Middle Ages from the British Isles, but is firmly fixed in the popular mind. The term Insular art is used to describe the distinct style of art originating in the British Isles and combining Germanic, Celtic, Pictish and Mediterranean elements. Although some simpler and relatively early penannular brooches are found in Anglo-Saxon contexts, and some sub-types predominantly so, as far as is known the Anglo-Saxons did not use these brooch styles for prestige elite jewellery. However, there are elements in the style of Irish and Scottish brooches deriving from Anglo-Saxon art, and related to Insular work in other media, especially illuminated manuscripts.  "Fibula" is Latin for "brooch" and is used in modern languages to describe the many types of Roman and post-Roman Early Medieval brooches with pins and catches behind the main face of the brooch. The brooches discussed here are sometimes also called "fibulae", but rarely by English-speaking specialists.

Fastening the brooches.

With a penannular brooch, the pin is pushed through folds of the cloth, which are then pulled back inside the ring; the free end of the pin passes through the gap in the ring. The pin is then rotated around the ring by 90 degrees or so, so that as long as the pin is held down by slight pressure it cannot escape over the terminals, and the fastening is secure.  With pseudo-penannular brooches, things are not so simple and the manner in which they were used is still debated; the method was probably not the same for all brooches. One method may have been to pull folds of the cloth through the ring until they could be pierced by the pin, and then pull the cloth back until the pin rested on the ring. This would work best with brooches with a pin not much longer than the diameter of the ring, which some have, but others do not. The second method might have been simply to pin the cloth vertically, leaving the ring hanging unattached to the cloth; this does not seem very secure. The third method relied on a length of chain or cord attached to the ring near the "terminals" (which in pseudo-penannular brooches do not actually terminate), which was used to secure the pin by tying it down, perhaps with a small pin at the end, which was also put through the cloth. The Tara Brooch was probably fastened in this way. In some cases the pin was fitted with a bolt or rivet to make it removable. A further complication is that in some pseudo-penannular brooches the pin is fixed to lie in front of the ring, as in the Londesborough Brooch (below), but in others it crosses through the ring, starting with the head end in front of the ring, but the middle of the pin behind the ring by the point where it crosses at the other side; the Tara Brooch has been displayed set up in both ways. The latter arrangement seems more common in later brooches, of the 9th century.  It is fair to say that scholars remain slightly puzzled that the effective and simple penannular brooch developed in this direction, though it is presumed that the reuniting of the terminals of pseudo-penannular brooches was partly to strengthen the brooch. In many penannular brooches, the gap between the terminals is now too narrow for the pin to pass through; whether this was always the case is uncertain.

History.

Roman and early Insular period.

Small and simple penannular brooches in bronze, iron, and, rarely, silver were common in the Roman period as a practical fastener, but were not used for high-status objects, and any decoration was normally limited to bands around the ring or other simple patterns. Often the extra thickness at the terminal, necessary to prevent the pin just falling off, is achieved simply by turning back the ends of the ring. In the late Roman period in Britain in the 3rd and 4th centuries, a type of penannular brooch with zoomorphic decoration to the terminals appeared, with human or animal heads, still not much wider than the rest of the ring. Some examples had enamel decoration, and the pin did not extend much beyond the ring. These are found especially in southwestern Britain and Wales, and seem to have developed in these areas. This type fell from favour in southern Britain by the 5th century, but was developed in Ireland by the 6–7th centuries. These types considerably extended the size of the terminals, which now presented a flattish area often decorated with enamel or glass inlay, mostly using abstracted patterns but sometimes zoomorphic decoration. The length of the pin is now often about twice the diameter of the ring. The Irish cultural zone in this period included much of Western Scotland, and in Pictish East Scotland a similar development took place, though the forms are somewhat different here. The decoration paralleled that on other metalwork fittings such as pieces of harness-tackle, and the few remaining early Christian reliquaries and other pieces of church metalwork.

Golden Age.

By shortly after 700, highly elaborate, large brooches in precious metal and gems were being produced. These were clearly expressions of high status for the wearer, and use the full repertoire of goldsmith's techniques at a very high level of skill. They continued to be produced for about 200 years; the Pictish brooches are much more homogeneous in design than the Irish ones, which may indicate a shorter period of production, possibly from "the mid-eighth to the beginning of the ninth centuries". Each surviving design is unique, but the range of types established in the more modest earlier brooches are developed and elaborated upon. There was no previous tradition of very ornate brooches in Ireland, and this development may have come from contact with Continental elites who wore large "fibulae" as marks of status. Such contacts were certainly made, especially by travelling monks.  Archaeological, and some literary, evidence suggests that brooches in precious metal were a mark of royal status, along with wearing a purple cloak, and it is probably as such that they are worn by Christ on a high cross at Monasterboice and by the Virgin Mary on another. All surviving examples, numbering over 50 (not all complete) in the case of the Irish ones, have been recovered by excavation, or at least finding in the ground, but where the detailed circumstances of the find are known, few are from graves, and finds in hoards are much more common. When they were in graves, the burials are often much later than the date of the brooch, as in a brooch in the Irish 8th century style found in a Norse burial in Westray, Orkney, and possibly the Kilmainham Brooch. Elaborate brooches often have one or more names—presumed to be those of owners—scratched on the reverse, often in runes. Plainer brooches in bronze and similar alloys continue to be found in much larger numbers.  The most elaborate Irish brooches are pseudo-penannular, while the Scottish ones mostly retain true penannular forms. Most are silver-gilt, the gilding often partial. Some are gilded base metal, of bronze or copper-alloy; only one solid gold Irish brooch is known, a 9th-century one from Loughan, County Londonderry, which is less elaborate than most of the series, though the standard of work is very high. However, some brooches have a hidden recess which may have contained small lead weights to make the precious metal used seem more valuable than it actually was.  In Ireland, the head of the pin might be turned into a focus for decoration, sometimes using a "kite"-shaped plate, such as that on the Tara Brooch; in Scotland, the pin-heads were simple circles formed by bending the pin back on itself. Scottish terminals are more often distinct lobed or square shapes extending beyond the circle of the ring on both sides, while in Irish examples, the terminals typically extend inside the ring forming another curve, but not much outside it, or sometimes form a straight line across the interior of the ring. Irish brooches may only join the two terminals by narrow strips, or not only eliminate the gap entirely, but have a central zone of decoration where the gap between the terminals would have been; the brooches found with the Ardagh Chalice show both types. The main body was normally cast, and a number of elements of two-piece moulds have been found. Many brooches have cells for studs or bosses that are most often round hemispheres, but may be square, lozenges or other shapes; very often the studs themselves are now missing. These are in a variety of materials including glass, enamel, amber, and gemstones found locally, although not including any of the classic modern "precious stones", or even the garnets found in Anglo-Saxon jewellery. However the "millefiori" glass rods sometimes used appear to have been imported from Italy, like those used in the Anglo-Saxon jewellery from Sutton Hoo; examples of the rods have been excavated in both Ireland and England.  Like the Insular chalices and other metalwork, the very ornate Irish brooches were mostly made in many pieces which are pinned or slotted together. Filigree decoration was often made on "trays" which fitted into the main ring — on the Tara Brooch many of these are now missing (most were still in place when it was found in 1850). Techniques include chip-carving, cast "imitation chip-carving", filigree, engraving, inlays of various types including niello, glass and champlevé enamel, and various hammering and chasing techniques: "the range of materials and techniques is almost the full range known to man." Two techniques that do not appear are the "true pierced openwork "interasile", much used in Byzantine jewellery", and the cloisonné work that typified much Western European jewellery, and especially large fibulae, at the time, whether in enamel or stone inlays like the garnets used so effectively at Sutton Hoo and in the Anglo-Saxon Staffordshire Hoard. In the gilded brooches, enamel is restricted to studs that punctuate the composition like gems; the larger areas of champlevé found on the flared terminals of earlier types perhaps continue in simpler types, though dating is difficult.  On some brooches the decoration is too detailed to be appreciated when the brooch is being worn, and some of the most elaborate brooches have their backs, invisible when worn, decorated almost as elaborately as their fronts. The Tara Brooch shows both features, and in addition, shares with some others a difference in decorative styles between front and back, with "Celtic" triskeles and other spiral motifs restricted to the back, while the front has more interlace and zoomorphic elements. These features are also shared by the most ornate brooches in London and Edinburgh, respectively the Londesborough and Hunterston Brooches. This may be because decoration on the backs relies more on engraving than filigree, which would risk wires getting caught in the clothing on which the brooch was worn.  Few of the major brooches, or indeed other metalwork, have been found in contexts that can be easily dated, and much of the dating of at least the earlier ones comes from comparison with Insular illuminated manuscripts, though the dating of these is often itself far from certain. The Tara Brooch has long been recognised as having clear stylistic similarities to the Lindisfarne Gospels, thought to date to about 698–715. Many of the similarities are to the carpet pages, highly detailed ornamental pages filled with decoration, which share with the brooch a certain "horror vacui" that leaves no area unembellished, and also complex decoration that is extremely small and perfectly executed, and best appreciated when seen at a larger than actual scale, whether in the original or in photographs. Both combine elements from many stylistic origins into a style that is distinctly Insular: La Tène Celtic art, Germanic animal style, and classical and other Mediterranean styles.

Later brooches, and the Vikings.

The Vikings began to raid Ireland from 795, with catastrophic effect for the monasteries in particular. However, although the Vikings established several longphorts, initially fortified encampments for over-wintering, and later towns like Dublin, Wexford, Cork, and Waterford (the first real urban centres in Ireland), the native Irish were more successful than the English and Scots in preventing large-scale Viking takeovers of areas for settlement by farmers. By about the year 1000, the situation was relatively stable, with a mixed population of Norse-Gaels in the towns and areas close to them, while the Gaelic Irish, whose elite had often formed political alliances, trading partnerships and inter-marriages with Viking leaders, remained in control of the great majority of the island, and were able to draw tribute from the Viking towns.  The period is characterised by a greatly increased availability of silver, presumably the result of Viking raiding and trading, and most brooches are made from silver throughout, as gilding and decoration in other materials nearly disappears. The brooches are often large and relatively massive, but plainer than the most elaborate earlier ones, neither using older local decorative styles nor the Viking styles that were adopted in other media. This continues a trend that can be detected in later brooches from the preceding period, before much Viking influence can have made itself felt. The 9th century Roscrea Brooch is one of a number of transitional brooches; though its form is highly ornate, with a large flat triangular pin head, the ring is thick plain silver, the gold filigree panels occupy relatively small areas, and their workmanship is a "coarse" or "crude" imitation of that of earlier works. The Kilamery Brooch is a comparable example, with a marked emphasis on plain flat silver surfaces. There are rare exceptions in which a highly decorated brooch shows Scandinavian stylistic and technical influence, notably an Irish brooch from Rathlin Island, with areas stamped where the Irish tradition would have used casting.  The brooches appear to have been made by "native" metalworkers, but worn by both Vikings and Gaels. The very popular thistle brooches have terminals and often pin-heads that are like thistle flowers, with a ball topped by a round projection, often flared; they are called by the term regardless of whether or not the ball is "brambled"—that is, formed with a regular pattern of small tapering projections, like the two lowest brooches from the Penrith Hoard illustrated here. These, and other globular endings to terminals and pin-heads, were common, but flattened terminals continued to be made, now ornamented by round silver bosses amid simple repeated patterns, or interlace that is larger in scale than in the earlier ornate badges. In these, the ring often ends in a "gripping beast" biting the terminal plate. The mixture of types seen in the 10th century Penrith Hoard is typical. Insular brooches had been taken back to Scandinavia, and began to be produced there in the 10th century for wearing singly by men at the shoulder; Viking women wore pairs of characteristic oval brooches on the upper breast. Most were simpler than Insular examples, and several hundred examples in "tinned bronze rather than silver" are known. The 10th century Danish Møllerløkken Brooch is the most elaborate example known, with a simple overall design with ball terminals and pin-head, but with rich detailing such as interlace panels on the ring and filigree sections on the balls. Other Insular types were also produced in Viking areas of England, especially Scandinavian York. The penannular brooch fell from common use by the end of the 11th century, a time when Ireland and Scotland, and Scandinavia, were adopting general Western European styles in many areas of both art and life.  A distinctly Irish type of brooch found at the end of the Viking period is the kite brooch, whose name derives from the almond shape called a "kite" in heraldry, though the shapes of the heads are actually highly variable. They were apparently worn, like the larger brooches, singly with the pin pointing upwards. Only "about half a dozen" exist in silver, including examples that are much larger than average, with pins up to 7.9 cm long. In these, there is no ring, but the elaborate head is connected to a pin of very variable length by a short tab of metal that can move on joints at both ends; there is also usually a cord for winding round the pin to secure it. Only 14 of these brooches have been found to date in Ireland, many incomplete, and none elsewhere; five of these are from Dublin, the earliest from the 940s. They appear for about a further two centuries; by around 1200, typical medieval ring brooches that have little distinctively Irish about them are found instead.

Celtic Revival.

The brooches we have today have been discovered since the 17th century, and their odds on their survival once found have increased greatly over that period, as their value as artefacts has overtaken their scrap value. In the 19th century, as part of the Celtic Revival, many brooches copying or inspired by earlier styles were made.  Much of the responsibility for the fashion for high-quality Celtic Revival jewellery belongs to George Waterhouse, a jeweller from Sheffield, England, who moved to Dublin in 1842. Before the end of the decade, he and the long-established Dublin firm West & Son of College Green (later moving to Grafton Street) were finding it necessary to register their designs to prevent copying. Of the various types of objects made, the brooches were both the "most resonant" and those which could be sold with the least alteration to the original form and design, although the jewellers generally reduced their size and fitted them with conventional pins and catches behind, even though the Kashmir shawls that were also fashionable at the time were often loosely woven and not unsuitable for fastening in the original way. Different versions were made at different price levels, though even the most expensive struggled to recreate the full intricacy of the originals.  The National Museum of Ireland is clearly not correct in saying that the fashion began after Queen Victoria was presented with a replica of the "Cavan Brooch" on her visit to Dublin to see the Great Industrial Exhibition in 1853; the Royal Collection has two brooches that Prince Albert bought for her from West & Son in 1849 on an earlier visit to Dublin, which were already being made in editions. Albert presented them in November and at Christmas that year: "...such beautiful souvenirs, both made after those very curious old Irish ornaments we saw in the College in Dublin, one a silver shawl brooch, in smaller size than the original" was her reaction to the November gift. A later gift from Albert included a setting of a cairngorm he had picked up when walking in the Scottish Highlands, a more authentic type of gem than the brightly coloured foreign stones used in much Celtic Revival jewellery. The discovery of the Tara Brooch in 1850 could therefore not have been better timed in terms of attracting public interest. The brooch was immediately recognised as the culminating masterpiece (though early in date) of the Irish development of large and superbly worked ornate brooches, a status it has retained ever since. The brooch was soon acquired by George Waterhouse, who used it as the centre of displays of his replicas and imitations of Celtic brooches in his Dublin shop, also exhibiting it at The Great Exhibition in London in 1851 and the Paris Exposition Universelle (1855), as well as the Dublin exhibition visited by the Queen in 1853 (Victoria had already seen it; it had been specially sent to Windsor Castle for her inspection).  Waterhouse had invented the brooch's name; in fact, it has nothing to do with the Hill of Tara, but the true circumstances of its find still remain unclear (essentially to avoid a claim by the landowner), and Waterhouse chose to link it to the site associated with the High Kings of Ireland, "fully aware that this would feed the Irish middle-class fantasy of being descended from them". By the time the brooch passed to what is now the National Museum of Ireland in the 1870s, "Tara brooch" had become a generic term for Celtic Revival brooches, some of which were now being made by Indian workshops for export to Europe. Replicas, very rarely fully accurate, and imitations of Celtic brooches have continued to be made to the present day, at varying levels of quality.

Modern North Africa.

Penannular brooches are part of traditional dress to the present day among Berber women in the Maghreb, usually worn in pairs and apparently pinning straps of a dress to the bodice, with the pins pointing straight up. They are usually large, fairly plain, brooches, not unlike some Viking examples, though another style has a very elaborately decorated head to the pin, which can dwarf the ring. A heavy necklace often hangs between the two brooches, sometimes attached to a ring hanging from the head of the pin. Most of the women are identified as Berber. Local names for the brooches apparently include "melia", "melehfa", "bzima", "kitfiyya", and "khellala" in Arabic, and "tabzimt", "tizerzay", and "tazersit" in Berber. Such styles are believed to have been in use since pre-Islamic times.

The Celtic brooch, more properly called the penannular brooch, and its closely related type, the pseudo-penannular brooch, are types of brooch clothes fasteners, often rather large; penannular means formed as an incomplete ring. They are especially associated with the beginning of the Early Medieval period in the British Isles, although they are found in other times and places—for example, forming part of traditional female dress in areas in modern North Africa.

Ringfibeln (oder Schnallenfibeln) fanden eine weite Verbreitung im provinzial-römischen und germanischen Bereich und werden vom 6. Jahrhundert v. Chr. bis ins 14. Jahrhundert n. Chr. datiert. Der Begriff "Fibel" leitet sich aus dem lateinischen Wort “fibula” ab und bedeutet “Spange”. Ringfibeln fanden sich u. a. im Hort von Ardagh, als Distelfibel von Ballynolan, im Depotfund von Penrith, im Reitergrab von Hankenbostel und im Schiffsgrab von Ballateare.


Biography.

Safar al-Hawali Alghamdi received his doctorate in Islamic theology from Umm al-Qura University, Mecca in 1986. During the 1990s, he was arrested for a period of time by the Saudi authorities for his criticism of the government when he distributed sermons on cassette tapes to incite militants to overthrow the government. Along with another preacher Salman al-Ouda, al-Hawali is said to have led the "Sahwa movement" (Awakening movement) in Saudi Arabia, a form of Qutbism.  Safar al-Hawali was one of the leaders of The Committee for the Defense of Legitimate Rights (CDLR) that was a Saudi dissident group created in 1993 and was the first ever opposition organization in the Kingdom openly challenging the monarchy, accusing the government and senior ulama of not doing enough to protect the legitimate Islamic rights of the Muslims.  In September 1994, two leaders of the Committee, Salman al-Ouda and Safar al-Hawali were arrested together with a large number of their followers in the city of Burayda, Qasim region. Moreover, Sheikh Abd al-Aziz Ibn Baz issued a fatwa, that unless al-Quda and al-Hawali repented their former conduct, they would be banned from lecturing, meetings and cassette-recording. In 1999, he and two other scholars were arrested, but were then released without any charge. Hawali has since parted ways with Salman al-Ouda.

Views.

Like many Saudis, American libertarian politicians and anti war activists, and indigenous religious communities of the Middle East, former veteran of the Afghan Soviet war Osama bin Laden, and another preacher Salman al-Ouda, al-Hawali opposed the presence of US troops on the Arabian peninsula. In 1991, al-Hawali delivered a sermon stating: "What is happening in the [Persian] Gulf is part of a larger Western design to dominate the whole Arab and Muslim world." Bin Laden is said to often cite al-Hawali and al-Oada "to justify his own pronouncements against the United States."  Hawali was invited to the First Meeting of the Saudi National Meeting For Intellectual Dialogue held in June 2003 but declined to attend in protest against the inclusion of `deviants` at the meeting—namely non-Wahhabi religious leaders of the Sunni and Shia Muslim communities of Saudi Arabia. Al-Hawali did, however, condemned al-Qaeda's May 2003 attacks in Riyadh.

Written works.

Safar al-Hawali wrote a book on secularism as part of his master thesis at Umm Al-Qura. This research was supervised by Muhammad Qutb, the brother of Sayyid Qutb. Here al-Hawali traced the history of the separation between the church and state and how the idea was imported to the Muslim world. In his Ph.D. research, al-Hawali made an analysis of the separation between the claim of faith and deeds of worship.  In the year 2000, he wrote a treatise on the Second Intifada, entitled "The Day of Wrath". He argued that the Biblical prophecies used by Christian fundamentalists to support the state of Israel actually predict its destruction. The treatise was subsequently translated into Hebrew by the Anti-Zionist Neturei Karta group.  After September 11, 2001, al-Hawali wrote an open letter to President Bush.  When 60 American intellectuals issued an article justifying America's war in Iraq, al-Hawali wrote a counter-article, rebutting their claims and pointing to the history of US foreign policy.  Al-Hawali wrote an article in "Al-Bayan" magazine on unitarianism among Christians. He traced the history of those who reject the doctrine of the Trinity, and believe in One Supreme God. He claimed that monotheists had been subject to great persecution, by both Catholics and Protestants; and that five among the US presidents had been Unitarians. He has also written a book on the history and meaning of Secularism, in his Arabic book "Al Ilmaniya" meaning Secularism. In this book he has identified Church's incapability to cope with challenges of modern world as the main cause of spread of Secular ideologies in Europe.

Support and criticism.

He is mentioned in Osama bin Laden's fatwa as a sheikh unjustly arrested allegedly "by orders from the USA."  Samuel P. Huntington included al-Hawali in his famous "Clash of Civilizations" article. "'It is not the world against Iraq,' as Safar al-Hawali, dean of Islamic Studies at the Umm Al-Qura University in Mecca, put it in a widely circulated tape. 'It is the West against Islam.'"  Al-Hawali was named as a "theologian of terror" in an October 2004 petition to the UN signed by 2,500 Muslim intellectuals calling for a treaty to ban the religious incitement to violence.

Safar bin Abdul-Rahman al-Hawali al-Ghamdi () (born 1950) is a scholar who lives in Mecca. He came to prominence in 1991, as a leader of the Sahwah movement which opposed the presence of US troops on the Arabian peninsula. In 1993, al-Hawali and Salman al-Ouda were leaders in creating the Committee for the Defense of Legitimate Rights, a group that opposed the Saudi government, for which both were imprisoned from 1994 to 1999.

Safar ibn ʿAbd ar-Rahmān al-Hawālī (; geb. 1950) ist ein saudischer Islam-Gelehrter und Prediger, der zur sogenannten Sahwa-Gruppe gehört. Er kritisierte in den 1990er Jahren die politische Kooperation Saudi-Arabiens mit den Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika und setzte sich in seinen Schriften intensiv mit den apokalyptischen Prophetien des amerikanischen Dispensationalismus und christlichen Zionismus auseinander. Nach der amerikanischen Invasion des Irak im Frühjahr 2003 bemühte er sich darum, Muslime zum Widerstand gegen die Besatzungsmacht zu mobilisieren.


Etymology and common names.

Grizzled giant squirrels are named for the white flecks of hair that cover their greyish-brown bodies, giving them a grizzled look.

Description.

"R. macroura" is the smallest of the giant squirrels found in the Indian subcontinent, with a head and body length of, and tail measuring roughly the same or more, for a total length of. It has small rounded ears with pointed tufts. The home range of an individual is between.  Subspecies "dandolena" is dorsally brown grizzled with white. Ventrally light brownish cream. Tail frosted with white fur. Forehead and feet are black in color. Whereas ssp. "melamochra", upper parts are jet black which contrast brownish cream to orange yellow ventral surface. Tail frosted with black fur. Snout of both ssp. are pinkish color. Their vision is good, which aids them in detecting predators. Their sense of hearing is relatively poor. The call is staccato and loud with repeated shrill cackle. It is usually uttered in morning and evening. A low "churr" is also used to communicate with nearby groups.  Hands are normally pentadactylous, with four digits and a rudimentary thumb. Fingers have large broad soft pads, where the inner pad is expanded for gripping while moving through branches. Feet are also comprised with soft pads with both fore and hind limbs possessing long, sharp claws.

Distribution.

In India, "R. macroura" has been recorded from Grizzled Squirrel Wildlife Sanctuary, Theni Forest Division, Palni Hills, Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary, Anaimalai Tiger reserve, Sirumalai, Thiruvannamalai Forest Division of the Eastern Ghats, Hosur Forest Division and Cauvery Wildlife Sanctuary. The easternmost population of "Ratufa macroura dandolena" was discovered in the Pakkamalai Reserve Forest in eastern Tamil Nadu.  Grizzled Squirrel Wildlife Sanctuary is located in Shenbagathoppu, Srivilliputtur, Tamil Nadu, India.

Diet.

"Ratufa macroura" are known to eat fruits, nuts, insects, bird eggs, and the bark of some trees. The fruit of the climber "Combretum ovalifolium" is an especially important food source where it occurs. Young squirrels, upon first emerging from the nest, have been observed to feed exclusively on this fruit.

Behavior.

Unlike its relatives, the giant squirrel balances using its two hind feet, instead of its tail.  The species is almost entirely an arboreal, very rarely coming to the ground to escape from predators, to flee from an intruder, attack males of the territory, and connecting with females.

Subspecies.

The three subspecies are easily recognizable due to color distinctions. They are also geographically separated demes. The table below lists the three recognized subspecies of "Ratufa macroura", along with any synonyms associated with each subspecies:  According to "Mammals of Sri Lanka", the three subspecies are identified as follows:  Males are 35 cm long and females with 37 cm. Tail is 37 cm long in males and 38 cm in females. Jet black dorsal area with a sheen. Rump with white grizzling appearance. Underparts brownish creamy to pale yellow. Tail is with dark black fur with white tip. Face has pink color in naked areas. Fur moderately long with few coarse hairs. Geographically, this subspecies is restricted to central highlands up to 2000m, such as Horton Plains.  Males are 37 cm long and females 35 cm. Tail varies from 37 cm in males and 40 cm in females. Males are larger than females. Dorsal surface is brown instead of jet black in subsp. "macroura". White rump. Distinct maroon tinge between shoulders. There is a brownish cream crown patch. Underparts are light brownish cream. Tail is dark brown and there is a reddish-brown tip. Fleshy parts of face are pink. Fur moderately long and coarse. Inhabit dry zone parts of the island, as well as India.  Males are 35 cm long and females 37 cm. Tail varies from 37 cm in males and 38 cm in females. Upperparts are jet black with contrasting color variation with creamy yellowish ventral surface. Fur is shorter and coarser. Found in low country wet zone, and intermediate zones of the country.

The grizzled giant squirrel ("Ratufa macroura") is a large tree squirrel in the genus "Ratufa" found in the highlands of the Central and Uva provinces of Sri Lanka, and in patches of riparian forest along the Kaveri River and in the hill forests of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala states of southern India. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) lists the species as near threatened due to habitat loss and hunting.

Das Sri-Lanka-Riesenhörnchen ("Ratufa macroura") ist eine Hörnchenart aus der Gattung der Riesenhörnchen ("Ratufa"). Sie kommt in Südasien im südlichen Indien und auf der Insel Sri Lanka vor.


History.

The club formed in 2014 amidst the growing interest in association football on the territory of Gibraltar. Led by chairman John Gontier, the club held trials specifically aimed at bringing in youth team players that had been released by professional sides in England and Spain with the goal of getting them back into competitive football. Before their maiden season, the club also announced a partnership with Chesterfield in League One, where the English side has first option on any Europa Point player.  After a strong start to the season, including a tight promotion challenge against Gibraltar United, the club narrowly missed out on promotion, finishing third in the league despite having the strongest goalscoring record in the Gibraltar Second Division. Despite missing out on promotion on the final day of the season, the club did end the season with silverware as they beat promoted side Angels FC 5–3 in a thrilling final that went to extra time.  After missing out on promotion in 2014–15, Europa Point FC were crowned champions of the 2015–16 Gibraltar Second Division after an unbeaten league campaign (W17 D5) and completed the double by retaining the Gibraltar Second Division Cup by beating FC Brunos Magpies 3–2 A.E.T in the final. In preparation for the new season in the Premier Division they have signed many players including ex-Norwich players George Jermy and Tom Walters. Canadians Will Sykes and Uday Arora as well as Charles Mallmann and Álvaro Arias Pérez. However, the players failed to impress and despite substantial changes in playing and coaching staff throughout the season, Europa Point finished bottom of the Premier Division and were relegated.  On 1 November 2017, it was announced that an American consortium headed by Peter Grieve and Corey Woolfolk had purchased a controlling stake in Europa Point. Woolfolk took over as chairman of the club, while John Gontier moved to CEO. On 10 November, Joaquin Rodriguez was announced as the new Head of Commercial and Football Operations. As part of the takeover, Europa Point became a partner club to Bantu Rovers in Zimbabwe. Gontier negotiated to re-take control of the club in early 2019, helping the club to a second place finish in the league.  In February 2020, the club announced its intention to add a women's team that will play in the Gibraltar Women's Football League.

Europa Point F.C. is a football team from Gibraltar. The club, known for its "Stepping Stone Club" philosophy, currently plays in the Gibraltar National League the top senior tier of association football in Gibraltar. They also participate in the Rock Cup, the territory's primary cup competition.

Europa Point FC ist ein Amateur-Fußballverein aus Gibraltar. Der Verein spielt in der Gibraltar Division 2, der zweithöchsten Spielklasse Gibraltars.


Biography.

St. Petersburg 1884-1903.

Leopold van der Pals was born into an artistic and aristocratic home in St. Petersburg, Russian Empire with a Dutch father and Danish mother. His father, Hendrik van Gilse van der Pals was the Dutch general counsel in Russia and director of the “Triugolnik” rubber factory. At the age of 12, Leopold van der Pals started his musical training under his grandfather, Julius Johannsen, a Professor of counterpoint and director of the Saint Petersburg Conservatory (Johannsen was himself a student of Felix Mendelssohn and Niels W. Gade). The van der Pals home was open to artists and musicians, and here, Leopold van der Pals heard concerts with Modest Tchaikovsky, Anton Arensky, Alexander Glazunov, Alexander Siloti, Pablo Casals, and many others.

Lausanne 1903-1907.

At the age of 19 van der Pals left Russia to continue his studies in Lausanne, Switzerland, with the famous Swiss composer and music theory professor Alexander Denéréas, and the cellist Thomas Canivez. Here he formed a long lasting friendship with the conductor Ernest Ansermet.  In 1907, after four years of basic musical education in Lausanne, Van der Pals moved to Berlin and, on the recommendation of Sergei Rachmaninoff, he now received guidance and lessons by the Russian composer Reinhold Glière. Here, van der Pals formed a friendship with many musical personalities: Arthur Nikisch, Felix Weingartner, Siegmund von Hausegger, Gustav Havemann, Serge Koussevitsky and Alexander Scriabin among others. Here he also met the philosopher Rudolf Steiner, who made a great impression on him and introduced the idea of metamorphosis, derived from Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. At the time, Berlin was a melting pot of musical development in the wake of the romantic era. Van der Pals experimented with new harmonic ideas and alternative cadenzas. He shaped his personal expression, a hybrid of different styles such as romanticism, impressionism, free tonality and inspiration from Russian and Nordic folklore. It was here that he started to give his works opus numbers; all previous compositions were abandoned.

Berlin 1907-1915.

During the Berlin years, 1907–1915, van der Pals was very productive and composed his first 30 works, concentrating on large orchestral pieces and lieder. His First Symphony, Op. 4 was premiered in 1909 by the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by Heinrich Schulz. The Symphony was very well received in the press and this resulted in an extensive series of performances of his pieces throughout Europe and America.

Arlesheim 1915-1922.

In 1915, due to World War I, Van der Pals moved to Arlesheim in Switzerland with his wife Marussja and their young daughter Lea. Here he started his large series of compositions of chamber music for various ensembles. A string quartet, a piano trio, a duo for cello and violin and sonatas for piano, cello and violin.

Years of traveling 1922-1934.

In 1922 van der Pals completed his Second Symphony, Op. 51. However, the orchestration of this piece was interrupted when Leopold’s wife Marussja fell ill; in order to treat her condition, the family was forced to leave Arlesheim. For a period of 11 years the family constantly traveled between sanatoriums in order to find a place suitable for Marussja's condition. During these years the family stayed in approximately 80 locations in Europe without a fixed home. This time was troublesome for Van der Pals. His wife's treatment was expensive and Leopold experienced great difficulty to follow and continue his career. He had no chance to travel and hear performances of his compositions. In spite of his difficulties he continued his work and in this period he composed the Third Symphony, "Rhapsody", Op. 73, the "Hodler Suite", Op. 74, based on four paintings by Ferdinand Hodler, and two operas, "Der Berg des Heiligen Michael", Op. 71, and "Eisenhand", Op. 85.

Dornach 1934-1966.

Marussja died in 1934. Her death affected Leopold deeply. He withdrew himself to Ascona, Switzerland, and mourned the loss of his wife. Here Van der Pals wrote 80 poems to her love and memory; 45 of them were put to music. The work became his Op. 96, "In Memoriam" with the subtitle ”Der Geiste meiner Frau". He then finally settled down in Dornach in Switzerland, where he lived during the remaining 31 years of his life.  In the early 1930s, Van der Pals experienced the loss of many people close to him: his wife, his father, and several of his close friends. During this period, he composed his Requiem and the Third violin sonata, Op. 101, with the middle movement ”Marcia funebre”. He also now orchestrated the Second Symphony, Op. 51. The premiere of the symphony took place in Vienna in 1937, with his brother Nicolaï van Gilse van der Pals conducting. At the same concert, his Third symphony and Violin Concerto were also played.  Even though the interest in van der Pals’ music was extensive, the possibilities of performances were soon to be diminished. The climate for modern composers and artists suffered from the harsh political atmosphere and escalating international conflicts. With the start of World War II all possibilities were gone and many artists migrated to America where the conditions were better. Leopold decided to stay in Switzerland even though this meant to distance himself from the modern music environment. He never stopped creating, no matter which obstacles came his way. Apart from the 252 completed opuses, he also wrote poems, articles, reviews and librettos for all of his eight operas. At the time of Leopold’s death on 1 February 1966 aged 83, his last piece, an opera called "Isis" was left on the piano unfinished.

Family.

Van der Pals married Maria (Marussja) von Beshe in St. Petersburg in 1907. They had one daughter, Lea van Gilse van der Pals, who became a famous dancer and teacher, both in Dornach, Switzerland and internationally. Leopold's brother, Nicolaï van Gilse van der Pals, was a conductor in Helsinki and elsewhere in Europe.

List of Works.

Leopold van der Pals wrote 252 opus, 43 Jugendwerke and a number of unfinished works. His oeuvre includes songs, chamber music, symphonies and eight operas.  -Pezzo lirico op. 154/1, für Harfe und Violoncello

Chambermusic for Strings.

-Pezzo elegiaco op. 154/2, für Oboe und Bratsche -Pezzo giocoso op. 154/3, für Flöte und Violoncello

Leopold van der Pals (St. Petersburg 4 July 1884 – Dornach 7 February 1966) was a Danish/Dutch modernist composer who developed a personal and lyrical style in composing by involving elements of late romanticism, expressionism and impressionism.

Leopold van der Pals (* 4. Juli 1884 in Sankt Petersburg; † 7. Februar 1966 in Dornach) war ein Komponist. Sein Hauptwerk sind die Oberuferer Weihnachtsspiele. Er ist der Bruder von Nikolai van Gilse van der Pals.


Release.

The Nexus 6 was unveiled on October 15, 2014, with pre-order availability since October 29, 2014, and a delivery date in early November. Off-contract pricing in the United States was US$649 for the 32 GB model and US$699 for the 64 GB model. The Nexus 6 was available through Google Play Store, Motorola Mobility, Best Buy, T-Mobile, AT&T, Sprint, U.S. Cellular, and Verizon Wireless in the United States.  In November 2014, availability was announced for 12 other countries, including Australia, Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom.  The AT&T version is SIM-locked, with tethering disabled until a fee is paid to enable it, and comes with custom ringtones.  On January 26, 2015, Motorola (now a subsidiary of Chinese firm Lenovo) announced that a similar device would be released in China, named Moto X Pro; it excludes Google services and applications, but still runs a similarly stock version of Android.  On April 22, 2015, it was announced that the Nexus 6 would be the only phone then supported by Google's new Project Fi venture.  Following the September 2015 release of the Nexus 6's successor, the Nexus 6P, Google stopped selling the Nexus 6 on the Play Store in December 2015. Google has a stated policy of at least two years of software updates and three years (or 18 months after the last sale date on the Play Store, whichever is longer) of security updates. The Nexus 6 had guaranteed software updates through October 2016 and security patches through October 2017; however, Google announced that the Nexus 6 will receive the Android 7.1 update. This update was initially expected in December 2016, but it was delayed until January 5, 2017 due to a "last minute bug". In January 2017, Google announced that the Nexus 6, along with the Nexus 9 tablet, won't receive the 7.1.2 Nougat update, making 7.1.1 the last major software update from Google themselves; however, the phone will continue to receive monthly security patches while retaining the last major Android version received until October 2017.

Specifications.

Hardware.

The Nexus 6 is powered by a 2.7 GHz quad-core Snapdragon 805 processor with 3 GB of RAM, and either 32 or 64 GB of internal storage. It features a 3220 mAh battery with quick charging technology that promises to deliver six hours of operation after 15 minutes of charging. The Nexus 6 uses a 5.96-inch (marketed as six-inch) QHD AMOLED PenTile (RGBG) display with a resolution of 2560×1440 pixels (493 PPI), and includes a 13-megapixel rear-facing camera with optical image stabilization (OIS), surrounded by a dual LED flash ring, and a two-megapixel camera on front.  Like its predecessor, the Nexus 6 does not have a microSD card slot, a removable battery, or an FM radio receiver/transmitter.  The Nexus 6's hardware supports USB On-The-Go for storage devices, the functionality was originally disabled by software but was enabled in later Android updates.

Software.

The Nexus 6 was Google's first phone to launch with HDR+. HDR+ which takes a burst of shots with short exposures, selectively aligning the sharpest shots and averaging them using computational photography techniques. Short exposures avoids blur, blowing out highlights and averaging multiple shots reduces noise. HDR+ is similar to lucky imaging used in astrophotography. HDR+ is processed on the Qualcomm Hexagon DSP.  The Nexus 6 was released with Android 5.0 Lollipop.  The Nexus 6 was the first Android device to have integrated IMS WiFi calling on T-Mobile, which was issued via an OTA update. WiFi Calling on T-Mobile's network has existed since 2007, although this is the first time native WiFi calling has been integrated into the core of Android. Previously T-Mobile offered WiFi calling on select Android handsets using software from Kineto Wireless.  In September 2015, Android 5.1.1 was rolled out to the Nexus 6, containing a fix for the Stagefright bug.  In November 2015, Nexus 6 started receiving Android 6.0 Marshmallow update across the world. The following month, the Nexus 6 became one of the first devices to get the Android 6.0.1 update.  On August 22, 2016, Android 7.0 Nougat began rolling out to several supported Nexus devices; however the one for Nexus 6 was delayed. Weeks after the official roll-out, Google stated that the Nexus 6 release would come "in the coming weeks." Nougat was eventually released for the Nexus 6 on October 3, 2016, 6 weeks after the official Nougat release. There has been no official statement on what caused the delay.  On October 11, 2016, Google officially announced Android 7.1 Nougat after it had been debuted with the Google Pixel release the week before. This announcement confirmed that the Nexus 6, along with other supported devices, would receive Android 7.1 in early December. On December 5, 2016, Google announced the official release of Android 7.1.1 Nougat with most supported Google devices receiving the update; however, the Nexus 6 was not included. On December 27, 2016, Google told Android Police that a "last minute bug" was discovered and will delay the update until "early January". Google officially released Android 7.1.1 for the Nexus 6 on January 5, 2017.

Reception.

Matt Swider from TechRadar wrote: "Nexus 6 proves that Google's Nexus program is not only far from dead, it's alive and kicking with a powerful 6-inch phablet that runs its latest Android software. It's bigger than the Note 4, but not better." The Nexus 6 was given 4.5 out of 5 stars in the TechRadar review.

The Nexus 6 (codenamed Shamu) is a phablet co-developed by Google and Motorola Mobility that runs the Android operating system. The successor to the Nexus 5, the device is the sixth smartphone in the Google Nexus series, a family of Android consumer devices marketed by Google and built by an original equipment manufacturer partner. Nexus 6 along with HTC Nexus 9 served as the launch devices for Android 5.0 "Lollipop".

Das Nexus 6 ist ein Smartphone bzw. Phablet der Nexus-Serie von Google mit dem Betriebssystem Android. Es ist das sechste Gerät der Nexus-Serie und das erste, welches in Zusammenarbeit mit Motorola herausgebracht wurde, an deren Modell Moto X der zweiten Generation sich das Design stark anlehnt. Mit einer Bildschirmdiagonale von knapp 6 Zoll gehört es zu den größten Smartphones des aktuellen Marktes. Angekündigt wurde es am 15. Oktober 2014 und ist in den USA seit dem 29. Oktober 2014 verfügbar. Seit Dezember 2014 ist es auch in Deutschland erhältlich.


Company history.

Eagle Air was founded in 1970 by Hörður Guðmundsson and his family as a transportation and security link in the Westfjords, one of the most remote parts of Iceland. The airline's initial focus was on ambulance and mail services. Propeller-driven aircraft operated by Eagle Air included the Helio Courier, Britten-Norman Islander, Piper Aztec, Piper Chieftain, Cessna Titan, de Havilland Canada DHC-6-300 Twin Otter, Cessna 206 and Cessna 185. Eagle Air also had a domestic charter flight component, which moved into the international arena in the early 1980s. Eagle Air flew charters to airports in Iceland, Greenland, Scandinavia and Europe.  In the early 1990s, Eagle Air accepted key assignments from the International Red Cross to operate in Kenya, Sudan, Mozambique and Angola, delivering aid supplies to civil war stricken regions.  In 1995, Eagle Air moved is headquarters from Ísafjörður to Reykjavík after most of its airmail contracts where discontinued due to the opening of the Vestfjarðagöng tunnel. It later sold off most of its airplanes and turned in its air operator's certificate (AOC) but kept one plane along with other assets. was refounded in Reykjavík in 2003, In 2006 it reapplied for an AOC took over service to destinations where Air Iceland stopped flying. It began scheduled services to Árneshreppur, Bíldudalur, Höfn, and Sauðárkrókur, and in August 2010 to Heimaey in the Westman Islands.  On 27 February 2018, Birna Borg Gunnarsdóttir, the granddaughter of founder Hörður Guðmundsson, became the first female pilot in the airlines history.

Scheduled flight destinations.

From Reykjavík Airport to:

Air charter services.

Ambulance flights.

Eagle Air has decades of experience in ambulance flights, and flies aircraft with pressurised cabins that can fly above weather for patient comfort. Oxygen and oxygen masks are on board, and a doctor and/or medical crew can be arranged if requested.

Freight.

Eagle Air operates freight flights to any location in Iceland, overseas or at sea.

Aerial photography.

Eagle Air has aircraft which are well suited for aerial photography, livestock inventory, and other similar projects. These assignments can be undertaken in Iceland or abroad, over land or sea.

Eagle Air (Icelandic name: Flugfélagið Ernir) is an Icelandic airline. It is based at Reykjavík Airport and offers domestic flights, charter services, and adventure tours in Iceland.

Eagle Air (bis 2008 "Ernir Air"; ) ist der Markenname der Flugfélagið Ernir ehf. Sie ist eine isländische Fluggesellschaft mit Sitz in Kópavogur und Basis auf dem Flughafen Reykjavík.


History.

Budapesti Atlétikai Klub was founded in 1900 by a group of athletes who had decided to leave their previous sports club MTK Budapest because, at that time, there was no football section at MTK. It debuted in the 1906–07 season of the Hungarian League and finished fourth. The club remained in the top flight for 15 years, before being relegated in 1921. BAK eventually folded in 1947.

Reforming of the club.

The club was reformed for the first time in more than 70 years ahead of the 2018/19 season by a group of local enthusiasts inspired by the story of one of BAK's most famous former players, Ernő Egri Erbstein, who played for the original club from 1916 to 1924. Led by club president Bertalan Molnar, BAK merged with an existing team called Respect and took that club's place in BLSZ III, the sixth tier of Hungarian football. The club is commonly referred to by the acronym BAK, and as the word 'bak' means 'ram' in Hungarian, a ram's head appears on the club's new logo.

Friendships.

In November 2018, the newly re-established BAK announced the rekindling of a friendship with the English amateur club Corinthian-Casuals FC, based on shared values and a history that goes back to the days when the original Corinthian Football Club visited Budapest to play a series of games in 1904. They established a trophy called the Corinthian Cup, in which the original incarnation of BAK competed several times, and a visit of Corinthian-Casuals supporters and officials in November 2018 sparked the renewal of the friendship between the two clubs.  BAK's friendship with Corinthian-Casuals led to the inauguration of a new international competition, called the Egri Erbstein Tournament, and designed to be an invitational event for like-minded, grass-roots football clubs from all over the world. The club announced that the first edition of the tournament would be held at the Szőnyi úti Stadion, in the Zugló district of Budapest, where BAK were originally based, in June 2019. The four competing clubs were announced as BAK, Corinthian-Casuals, Budapesti EAC and Testvériség SE and it was confirmed that the winner would be awarded the Corinthian Cup, a new trophy named after that which was originally presented to the amateur football clubs of Budapest by Corinthian FC in 1905.

Budapesti Atlétikai Klub, also known as BAK, is a Hungarian football club from the town of Budapest that competes in the BLSZ III.

Budapesti AK, kurz BAK, war ein ungarischer Fußballverein aus Budapest. Er spielte insgesamt 13 Jahre in der ersten ungarischen Liga, der Nemzeti Bajnokság.


Method.

Animals are subjected to two trials during which they are forced to swim in an acrylic glass cylinder filled with water, and from which they cannot escape. The first trial lasts 15 minutes. Then, after 24-hours, a second trial is performed that lasts 5 minutes. The time that the test animal spends in the second trial without making any movements beyond those required to keep its head above water is measured. This immobility time is decreased by various types of antidepressants and also by electroconvulsive shock. Another common variant of this behavioural test specifically used for mice is conducted only for one trial and lasts six minutes. Modern implementations of the test score swimming and climbing behaviours separately, because swimming behaviour has been shown to be increased by selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, while climbing behaviour is increased by selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors such as desipramine and maprotiline.

Controversy in interpretation.

Classically, immobility in the second test has been interpreted as a behavioural correlate of negative mood, representing a kind of hopelessness in the animal. Rodents given antidepressants swim harder and longer than controls (which forms the basis for claims of the test's validity). However, there is some debate between scientists whether increased immobility instead demonstrates learning or habituation, and would therefore be a positive behavioural adaptation: the animal is less fearful because it is now familiar with the environment of the test. This interpretation is supported by the fact that even rats who are first put into a container from which they can escape (and therefore do not experience despair) show reduced mobility in the second test.  The term "behavioural despair test" bears an anthropomorphic connotation and is a somewhat subjective description as it is uncertain whether the test reliably gauges mood or despair. Strictly speaking, the descriptive term "forced swimming test" is preferred by researchers. The use of forced swimming tests is criticised by animal rights groups, notably PETA.

The behavioural despair test (or Porsolt forced swimming test) is a test, centered on a rodent's response to the threat of drowning, whose result has been interpreted as measuring susceptibility to negative mood. It is commonly used to measure the effectiveness of antidepressants, although significant criticisms of its interpretation have been made.

Der "Forced Swimming Test" (erzwungener Schwimmtest) nach Porsolt oder "Behavioural Despair Test" (Verhaltenstest über Hoffnungslosigkeit) ist ein Test, der die Reaktion von Nagetieren auf die Gefahr des Ertrinkens untersucht. Um die Wirksamkeit von Antidepressiva zu beurteilen, wird das Ergebnis dieses Testes als Maßstab der Empfindlichkeit gegenüber negativen Stimmungen ausgelegt, obwohl diese Bewertung erheblich angezweifelt wird.


Taxonomy and etymology.

It was described as a new species by British paleontologist Charles William Andrews. Its species name ""murrayi"" was likely inspired by Sir John Murray, who helped pay for Andrews's expedition to the Christmas Islands where he described it.  It has sometimes been considered synonymous with "Pipistrellus tenuis"; however, revisions of the genus based on baculum identified "Pipistrellus murrayi" as a distinct species. This was supported by genetic work conducted for the Australian Government as part of its investigation into the decline of Christmas Island ecology and the pipistrelle in mid-2009; the results of this analysis indicate that the Christmas Island Pipistrelle was closely related to but distinct from other Asian pipistrelles.

Description.

It was a small bat weighing around. It had dark brown fur, with the tips of its hairs yellowish. Its forearm was long. It was the smallest described species of bat in Australia. Its ears were triangular and rounded at the tips. Its uropatagium had a distinct calcar. Its tail protruded very slightly () past the uropatagium. The length of its head and body was long; its tail was long; its ear was ; its hind foot was long.

Biology.

This species fed on insects and roosted in tree hollows and decaying vegetation.

Decline and extinction.

The Christmas Island pipistrelle declined dramatically from 1990. It was once commonly seen throughout the island including in the settlement.  A reassessment of the number of individuals remaining in January 2009 suggested there may have been as few as 20 individuals left. The only known communal roost contained only four individuals. Three years before, there had been 54 individuals in this colony and there were several other known, similar-sized colonies. Monitoring in early 2009 showed that some bats survived in the wild, prompting the Australian government to announce on 1 July 2009, that it would attempt to rescue the bat by bringing the last remaining individuals into captivity, with assistance of volunteer bat researchers from the Australasian Bat Society. In early August 2009 Australian Government gave permission to capture the bats to establish a captive breeding program. However, after four weeks of surveying located only a single bat through its echolocation. Researchers were unable to catch it and the last echolocation call of this bat was recorded on 26 August 2009, when it went silent. On 8 September 2009, the Australian Government announced that attempts to capture the bats had failed. No Christmas Island pipistrelles have been seen or heard since, and it is believed the species is now extinct. It is believed to be the first mammal extinction in Australia in 50 years.

Cause of decline.

The cause of the Christmas Island pipistrelle's decline is unknown. Several potential threats have been suggested: predation or disturbance at roost sites, and disease. Introduced species such as the common wolf snake, giant centipede yellow crazy ant, black rat or feral cats have all been identified as potential suspects responsible for the decline either through predation or disturbance of the bats. It has also been speculated that an unidentified health threat, or poisoning from the insecticide Fipronil used to control yellow crazy ant'supercolonies' could be responsible for the decline.

The Christmas Island pipistrelle ("Pipistrellus murrayi") was a species of vesper bat found only on Christmas Island, Australia. The species is now considered to be extinct, with the last individual bat seen in August 2009 with no further sightings despite intensive efforts to locate the species.

Die Weihnachtsinsel-Zwergfledermaus ("Pipistrellus murrayi") ist eine ausgestorbene Fledermausart aus der Gattung der Zwergfledermäuse ("Pipistrellus"). Sie war auf der australischen Weihnachtsinsel endemisch. Der wissenschaftliche Artname wurde zu Ehren des britischen Ozeanographen John Murray (1841–1914) gewählt.