Names.

His full name was Abu'l Fath Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah I. He was born Fat'h Khan or Fateh Khan. He titled himself, "Sultân al-Barr, Sultân al-Bahr", Sultan of the Land, Sultan of the Sea.  Of the origin of Mahmúd's surname Begra or Begarha, two explanations are given in "Bird’s History of Gujarát" (p. 202) and "Mirăt-i-Ahmedi" (Persian Text, pp. 74):

Early life.

On the death of Kutb-ud-dín Ahmad Shah II, the nobles raised to the throne his uncle Dáúd Khan, son of Ahmad Shah I. But as Dáúd appointed low-born men to high offices and committed improper acts. Within a short period of seven or twenty-seven days, he was deposed, and in 1459 his half-brother Fateh Khán, the son of Muhammad Shah II by Bíbi Mughli, a daughter of Jám Júna of Samma dynasty ruling from Thatta in Sindh; was seated on the throne at the age of little more than thirteen with the title of Mahmúd Sháh I.  The close connection of Fateh Khán with the saintly Sháh Álam is frequently mentioned by with Gujarát chroniclers. According to the "Mirăt-i-Sikandari" (Persian Text, 66–70) of his two daughters Jám Júna intended Bíbi Mughli the more beautiful for the Saint and Bíbi Mirghi the less comely for the Sultán. By bribing the Jám's envoys the king secured the prettier sister. The enraged Saint was consoled by his father who said: My son, to you will come both the cow and the calf. After Muhammad Shah II's death, fear of Kutb-ud-dín Ahmad Shah II's designs against the young Fateh Khán forced Bíbi Mughli to seek safety with her sister, and on her sister's death she married the Saint. Kutb-ud-dín made several attempts to seize Fateh Khán. But by the power of the Saint when Kutb-ud-dín attempted to seize him, Fateh Khán in body as well as in dress became a girl. According to one account Kutb-ud-dín met his death in an attempt to carry off Fateh Khán. As he rode a mad camel, the king struck at the phantom, and his sword cleaving the air gashed his knee. This was the Saint's sword, which against his will, for he knew it would be the death of the king, Kutb-ud-dín forced Sháh Álam to bind round him before the battle of Kapadvanj against Mahmud Khilji of Malwa Sultanate.

Reign.

Early years.

Soon his uncle Dáúd Khan died. Shortly after certain of the nobles including Seiful Mulk, Kabír-ud-dín Sultáni surnamed Akd-ul-Mulk, Burhán-ul-Mulk and Hisám-ul-Mulk represented to the Sultán that the minister Shaâbán Imád-ul-Mulk contemplated treason and wished to set his son on the throne. Having seized and imprisoned the minister in the Bhadra Fort and set five hundred of their trusted retainers as guards over him, the rebels retired to their homes. At nightfall Abdulláh, the chief of the elephant stables, going to the young Sultán represented to him that the nobles who had imprisoned Imád-ul-Mulk were the real traitors and had determined to place Habíb Khán, an uncle of the Sultán's, on the throne. The Sultán consulting his mother and some of his faithful friends ordered Abdulláh at daybreak to equip all his elephants in full armour and draw them up in the square before the Bhadra. He then seated himself on the throne and in a voice of feigned anger ordered one of the courtiers to bring out Shaâbán Imád-ul-Mulk, that he might wreak his vengeance upon him. As these orders were not obeyed the Sultán rose, and walking up the Bhadra called: “Bring out Shaâbán!” The guards brought forth Imád-ul-Mulk, and the Sultán ordered his fetters to be broken. Some of the nobles’ retainers made their submission to the Sultán, others fled and hid themselves. In the morning, hearing what had happened, the refractory nobles marched against the Sultán. Many advised the Sultán to cross the Sabarmati river by the postern gate and retire from the city, and, after collecting an army, to march against the nobles. Giving no ear to these counsels the young Sultán ordered Abdulláh to charge the advancing nobles with his six hundred elephants. The charge dispersed the malcontents who fled and either hid themselves in the city or betook themselves to the country. Some were killed, some were trampled by the Sultán's orders under the elephants’ feet, and one was pardoned.  In 1461 or 1462, according to "Farishtah", Nizam Shah Bahmani (r. 1461–1463), the sultan of the Bahmani Sultanate in Deccan, whose country had been invaded by Sultán Mahmud Khilji of Malwa Sultanate, applied for help to the Gujarát king. Mahmúd Sháh at once started to Nizám Sháh's aid, and on his way receiving another equally pressing letter from the Deccan sovereign, and being joined by the Báhmani general Khwájáh Jehán Gáwán, he pushed on with all speed by way of Burhanpur. When Sultán Mahmúd Khilji heard of his approach, he retired to his own country by way of Gondwana, from thirst and from the attacks of the Gonds, losing 5000 to 6000 men. The king of Gujarát, after receiving the thanks of the Deccan sovereign, returned to his own dominions. In 1462, Sultán Mahmúd Khilji made another incursion into the Deccan at the head of 90,000 horse, plundering and laying waste the country as far as Daulatabad. Again the Deccan sovereign applied for help to Mahmúd Sháh, and on hearing of Mahmúd's advance the Málwa Sultán retired a second time to his own dominions. Mahmúd Sháh wrote to the Málwa Sultán to desist from harassing the Deccan, threatening, in case of refusal, to march at once upon Mandu. His next expedition was against the pirate zamíndárs of the hill fort of Barur and the bandar of Dûn or Dahanu, whose fort he took, and after imposing an annual tribute allowed the chief to continue to hold his hundred villages.

Junagadh (Girnar).

Mahmúd Sháh next turned his thoughts to the conquest of the mountain citadel, Uparkot, of Girnar hill near Junagadh in Sorath (now in Saurashtra region of Gujarat). In 1467, he made an attack on the fort of Junágaḍh, and receiving the submission of Ra Mandalika III, the Chudasama ruler, returned to his capital. In the following year, hearing that the Junágaḍh chief continued to visit his idol temple in state with a golden umbrella and other ensigns of royalty, Mahmúd despatched an army to Junágaḍh, and the chief sent the obnoxious umbrella to the king, accompanied by fitting presents. In 1469, Mahmúd once more sent an army to ravage Sorath, with the intention of finally conquering both Junágaḍh and Girnár. While Mahmúd was on the march the Rá Mandalika suddenly joined him, and asking why the Sultán was so bent on his destruction when he had committed no fault, agreed to do whatever Mahmúd might command. The king replied there is no fault like infidelity, and ordered the Rá to embrace Islam. The chief, now thoroughly alarmed, fled by night and made his way into Girnár. In 1472–73, after a siege of nearly two years, forced by the failure of his stores, he quitted the fort and handing the keys to the king, converted to Islam. Though the Rá's life was spared, Sorath from this date became a crown possession, and was governed by an officer appointed by the king and stationed at Junágaḍh.  At the close of the war, in 1479, Mahmúd Sháh repaired the fort Jehánpanáh, the present outer or town wall of Junágaḍh, and, charmed with the beauty of the neighbourhood, settled sayads and learned men at Junágaḍh and other towns in Sorath. He induced the nobles to build houses, himself raised a palace and made the new city his capital under the name of Mustafábad and enforced his claims as overlord on all the neighbouring chiefs. In the times of Ahmad Shah I, these chieftains, including even the Junágaḍh Rá himself, had paid tribute. But Mahmúd established rule so firmly that the duty of collecting the tribute was entrusted to an officer permanently settled in the country. The author of the "Mirăt-i-Sikandari" dilates on the dense woods round Junágaḍh, full of mango, ráen, jámbu, gúlar, ámli, and áonla trees (Mangifera indica, Mimusops hexandra, Eugenia jambolana, Ficus glomerata, Tamarindus indica, and Emblica officinalis.), and notes that this forest tract was inhabited by Khánts.  In 1480, when Mahmúd Sháh was at Junágaḍh, Khudáwand Khán and others, who were weary of the king's constant warfare, incited his eldest son Áhmed Khan to assume royal power. But Imád-ul-Mulk, by refusing to join, upset their plans, and on the king's return the conspiracy was stamped out.

Champaner (Pavagadh).

In 1479, Mahmúd Sháh sent an army to ravage Champaner then held by Khichi Chauhan Rajputs which titled themselves as Raval. About this time, hearing that the neighbourhood was infested with robbers, he founded the city of Mehmúdábád (now Mahemdavad) on the banks of the Vatrak river, about eighteen miles south of Áhmedábád. Several monuments in Mahemdavad are credited to him including Bhammariyo Kuvo, a well; Chanda-Suraj No Mehal, a palace and Roza-Rozi.  In 1482 there was a partial famine in Gujarát, and the Chámpáner country being exempt from scarcity the commandant of Morámli or Rasúlábád, a post in the Gáekwár's Sáonli district on the Chámpáner frontier, made several forays across the border. In return the chief attacked the commandant and defeated him, killing most of his men and capturing two elephants and several horses. On hearing this Mahmúd Sháh set out for Baroda (now Vadodara) with a powerful army. When Mahmúd reached Baroda the Rával of Chámpáner, becoming alarmed, sent ambassadors and sued for forgiveness. The king rejected his overtures, saying: "Except the sword and the dagger no message shall pass between me and you." The Rával made preparations for a determined resistance, and sent messengers to summon Ghiás-ud-dín Khilji of Málwa Sultanate to his aid. To prevent this junction Mahmúd Sháh entrusted the siege to his nobles and marched to Dahod, on which Sultán Ghiás-ud-dín withdrew to Mándu. On his return from Dahod, the Sultán began building a Jáma Mosque at Chámpáner to show that he would not leave the place till he had taken the hill-fort of Pavagadh. After the siege had lasted more than twenty months (April 1483–December 1484), the Mahmud's soldiers noticed that for an hour or two in the morning most of the soldiers of Raval were off duty bathing and dressing. A morning assault was planned and the first gate carried. Then Malik Ayáz Sultáni finding a practicable breach passed through with some of his men and took the great gate. The Rával and his Rájputs rushed out in a fierce but unavailing charge. The Rával and his minister Dúngarshi fell wounded into the conqueror's hands, and, on refusing to embrace Islám, were put to death. Pavagadh was conquered on 21 November 1484. The Rával's son, who was entrusted to Seif-ul-Mulk, and converted to Islam, afterwards, in the reign of Muzaffar Sháh (1523–1526), was ennobled by the title of Nizám-ul-Mulk.  On the capture of Pávágaḍh, Mahmúd Sháh built a wall round the town of Chámpáner, and made it his capital under the name of Muhammadábád. Under Mahmúd's orders the neighbourhood became stocked with mangoes, pomegranates, figs, grapes, sugarcane, plantains, oranges, custard apples, khirnis or ráens (Mimusops indica or hexandra), jackfruit, and cocoapalms, as well as with roses, chrysanthemums, jasmins, champás, and sweet pandanus. A sandal grove near Chámpáner is said to have had trees large enough to help his nobles to build their mansions. At the instance of the Sultán a Khurásáni beautified one of the gardens with fountains and cascades. A Gujaráti named Hálur learning the principle improved on his master's design in a garden about four miles west of Chámpáner, which in his honour still bears the name Halol. It took 23 years to build the town. The town finally succumbed to attacks from the Mughal Empire under Humayun in 1535.  The magnificent Jama mosque of Champaner is considered as one of the finest architectural edifices in Gujarat. It is an imposing structure on a high plinth with two tall minarets 30 m tall, 172 pillars and seven mihrabs. The central dome, the placement of balconies and carved entrance gates with fine stone "jalis". Other Champaner structures attributed to the Begada period are the Kevada Masjid, Citadel Jahanpanah, Shahar ki Masjid, Mandvi the customs house, Nagina Masjid, Bava Man's Masjid, Khajuri Masjid, Ek Minar Masjid, and the Lila Gumbaz. Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park is now UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Last years.

In 1494–95 Mahmúd went against Bahádur Khán Gíláni, a vassal of the Bahmani Sultanate, who from Goa and Dabhol had harassed the Gujarát harbours. Gilani was earlier warned by attacking Mahim island (now in Mumbai) by 20 ships under Yakut the Abyssinian, the slave of Begada. This time he sent an army by land and 300 boats by sea to attack Dabhol under Malik Sarang Kivam-ul-Mulk. The Bahmani Sultán, fearing the consequences to himself, marched against Bahádur Khán, and, capturing him alive, struck off his head, and sent it to the Gujarát monarch, who returned to his own country.  In 1499–1500, hearing that Násir-ud-dín of Málwa had killed his father Ghiás-ud-dín and seated himself on the throne, the Sultán prepared to advance against him, but was appeased by Násir-ud-dín's humble attitude. The next seven years passed without any warlike expedition.  Cambay (now Khambhat) was an important port of the Gujarat Sultanate. It was an essential intermediary in east–west trade, between the Red Sea, Egypt and Malacca. Gujaratis were important middlemen bringing spices from the Maluku Islands as well as silk from China, and then selling them to the Mamluks and Arabs. The Portuguese had entered India and were strengthening their presence in Arabian Sea. Mahmud Begada allied with the Kozhikkodu Samutiri (anglicised to Zamorin of Calicut) to defeat the Portuguese. He then asked his trade partners, the Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo, for help. In 1508, near Daman, on his way to Chaul, Mahmúd heard of the victory gained in the Battle of Chaul over the Portuguese by the Gujarát squadron under Malik Ayyaz Sultáni, in concert with the Egyptian fleet of the Mamluks. In 1509, the Battle of Diu, a naval battle was fought near Diu port between the Portuguese Empire and a joint fleet of the Gujarat Sultanate under Malik Ayyaz, the Mamlûk Burji Sultanate of Egypt, the Zamorin of Calicut with support of the Turkish feet of Ottoman Empire, the Republic of Venice and the Republic of Ragusa (Dubrovnik). The Portuguese won the battle and the event marks the start of European colonialism in Asia.  From 1508, Mahmúd remained at his capital till his death in December 1511 at the age of sixty-six years and three months, after a reign of fifty-four years and one month. Mahmúd was buried at Sarkhej Roza near Ahmedabad and received the after-death title of "Khúdáigán-i-Halím" or the Meek Lord.  Immediately before his death Sultán Mahmúd was informed that Sháh Ismáil Safawi of Persia had sent him a friendly embassy headed by Yádgár Beg Kazil-básh. As the Kazil-báshes were known to be Shia, the Sultán, who was a staunch Sunni, prayed that he might not be forced to see a Shia's face during his last days. His prayer was heard. He died before the Persian embassy entered the city.  During the last days of Sultán Mahmúd, Sayed Muhammad of Jaunpur, who claimed to be the Mahdi or Messiah, came from Jaunpur and lodged in Tájkhán Sálár's mosque near the Jamalpur gate of Áhmedábád. His sermons drew crowds, and were so persuasive that he gained a large body of followers, who believed his eloquence to be due to "hál" or inspiration. Mahmúd's ministers persuaded him not to see the Jaunpur preacher.

Administration.

His religious ardour, his love of justice, his bravery, and his wise measures entitle Mahmúd to the highest place among the Gujarát kings. One of the measures which the "Mirăt-i-Sikandari" specially notices is his continuance of land grants to the son of the holder, and in cases where there was no male issue of half the grant to the daughter. His firm policy of never ousting the landholder except for proved oppression or exaction was productive of such prosperity that the revenue increased two, three and in some cases tenfold. The roads were safe from freebooters and trade was secure. A rule forbidding soldiers to borrow money at interest is favourably noticed. A special officer was appointed to make advances to needy soldiers with the power to recover from their pay in fixed instalments. Mahmúd also devoted much attention to the culture of fruit trees.  In Mahmúd's reign an instance is mentioned of the form of compensation. Some merchants bringing horses and other goods for sale from Irák and Khurásán were plundered in Sirohi limits. The king caused them to give in writing the price of their horses and stuffs, and paying them from his own treasury recovered the amount from the Rája of Sirohi.  Mahmúd Begada's court was adorned by several pious and high-minded nobles. In life they vied with one another in generous acts; and after death, according to the Persian poet Urfi, they left their traces in the characters and carvings of stone walls and marble piles. First among these nobles the "Mirăt-i-Sikandari" (Persian Text, 132, 142) mentions Dáwar-ul-Mulk, whose god-fearing administration made his estates so prosperous that they were coveted by princes of the blood. As Thánadár of Amron in north Kathiawad, he spread Islám from Morbi to Bhuj, and after his death his fame as a spirit-ruling guardian drew hosts of sick and possessed to his shrine near Morbi. The second was Malik Ayáz, governor of Diu, who built the strong fortress afterwards reconstructed by the Portuguese. He also built a tower on an under-water rock, and from the tower drew a massive iron chain across the mouth of the harbour. A substantial bridge over the creek, that runs through the island of Diu, was afterwards destroyed by the Portuguese. The third was Khudáwand Khán Ālím, the founder of Ālímpura a suburb to the south of Áhmedábád, adorned with a mosque of sandstone and marble. He introduced the cultivation of melons figs and sugarcane into Gujarát from Bijapur. The fourth was Imád-ul-Mulk Āsas who founded Isanpur, a suburb between Sháh Álam's suburb of Islámpur and Vatva (all now in Ahmedabad), and planted along the road groves of khirnis and mangoes. The fifth was Tájkhán Sálár, so loved of his peers that after his death none of them would accept his title. The sixth was Malik Sárang Kiwám-ul-Mulk, a Rájput by birth, the founder of the suburb of Sarangpur and its mosque to the east of Áhmedábád. The seventh and eighth were the Khurásáni brothers Aâzam and Moâzzam, who built a cistern, a mosque, and a their tomb between Vasna and Sarkhej.

Family.

Besides Khalíl Khán, who succeeded him, Mahmúd had three sons: Muhammad Kála, Ápá Khán, and Áhmed Khán. Kála, son of Ráni Rúp Manjhri died during his father's lifetime as did his mother, who was buried in Mánek Chowk in Áhmedábád in the building known as the Ráni's Hazíra. The second son Ápá Khán was caught trespassing in a noble's harím, and was ordered by the Sultán to be poisoned. The third son was the Áhmed Khán whom Khudáwand Khán sought to raise to the throne during Sultán Mahmúd's lifetime.

In culture.

Some European travellers circulated popular tales about him under the erroneous name "Turk Mahmud Shah I Begada", "the Poison Sultan," and those became the source for the English satirist Samuel Butler's seventeenth-century lines: "The Prince of Cambay's daily food/ Is asp and basilisk and toad". These tales told that he was given mild poisons from his childhood which had made him poisonous and immune to poisons.

Sultan Mahmud Begada or Mahmud Shah I (), was the most prominent Sultan of Gujarat Sultanate. Raised to the throne at young age, he successfully captured Pavagadh and Junagadh forts in battles which gave him his name "Begada". He established Champaner as the capital. He was responsible for the destruction of the Dwarkadhish temple in Dwarka, Gujarat, one of the Char Dhams considered sacred by Hindus.

Abu’l Fath Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah I., bekannt als Mahmud Begada oder Mahmud Begarha (* 1445 in Ahmedabad; † 23. November 1511 in Ahmedabad) war während seiner Regierungszeit (1458–1511) der mächtigste Herrscher des von 1407 bis 1572 existierenden Sultanats Gujarat. Er bezeichnete sich selbst als "Sultân al-Barr", "Sultân al-Bahr" („Herrscher über das Land und über das Meer“).


History.

The term was proposed by De Duve in 1963. Phagocytosis was discovered by Élie Metchnikoff in 1882.

Endocytosis pathways.

Endocytosis pathways can be subdivided into four categories: namely, receptor-mediated endocytosis (also known as clathrin-mediated endocytosis), caveolae, pinocytosis, and phagocytosis.  More recent experiments have suggested that these morphological descriptions of endocytic events may be inadequate, and a more appropriate method of classification may be based upon the clathrin-dependence of particular pathways, with multiple subtypes of clathrin-dependent and clathrin-independent endocytosis. Mechanistic insight into non-phagocytic, clathrin-independent endocytosis has been lacking, but a recent study has shown how Graf1 regulates a highly prevalent clathrin-independent endocytic pathway known as the CLIC/GEEC pathway.

Principal components of endocytic pathway.

The endocytic pathway of mammalian cells consists of distinct membrane compartments, which internalize molecules from the plasma membrane and recycle them back to the surface (as in early endosomes and recycling endosomes), or sort them to degradation (as in late endosomes and lysosomes). The principal components of the endocytic pathway are:  It was recently found that an eisosome serves as a portal of endocytosis in yeast.

Clathrin-mediated endocytosis.

The major route for endocytosis in most cells, and the best-understood, is that mediated by the molecule clathrin. This large protein assists in the formation of a coated pit on the inner surface of the plasma membrane of the cell. This pit then buds into the cell to form a coated vesicle in the cytoplasm of the cell. In so doing, it brings into the cell not only a small area of the surface of the cell but also a small volume of fluid from outside the cell.  Coats function to deform the donor membrane to produce a vesicle, and they also function in the selection of the vesicle cargo. Coat complexes that have been well characterized so far include coat protein-I (COP-I), COP-II, and clathrin. Clathrin coats are involved in two crucial transport steps: (i) receptor-mediated and fluid-phase endocytosis from the plasma membrane to early endosome and (ii) transport from the TGN to endosomes. In endocytosis, the clathrin coat is assembled on the cytoplasmic face of the plasma membrane, forming pits that invaginate to pinch off (scission) and become free CCVs. In cultured cells, the assembly of a CCV takes ~ 1min, and several hundred to a thousand or more can form every minute. The main scaffold component of clathrin coat is the 190-kD protein called clathrin heavy chain (CHC), which is associated with a 25- kD protein called clathrin light chain (CLC), forming three-legged trimers called triskelions.  Vesicles selectively concentrate and exclude certain proteins during formation and are not representative of the membrane as a whole. AP2 adaptors are multisubunit complexes that perform this function at the plasma membrane. The best-understood receptors that are found concentrated in coated vesicles of mammalian cells are the LDL receptor (which removes LDL from circulating blood), the transferrin receptor (which brings ferric ions bound by transferrin into the cell) and certain hormone receptors (such as that for EGF).  At any one moment, about 25% of the plasma membrane of a fibroblast is made up of coated pits. As a coated pit has a life of about a minute before it buds into the cell, a fibroblast takes up its surface by this route about once every 16 minutes. Coated vesicles formed from the plasma membrane have a diameter of about 36 nm and a lifetime measured in a few seconds. Once the coat has been shed, the remaining vesicle fuses with endosomes and proceeds down the endocytic pathway. The actual budding-in process, whereby a pit is converted to a vesicle, is carried out by clathrin assisted by a set of cytoplasmic proteins, which includes dynamin and adaptors such as adaptin.  Coated pits and vesicles were first seen in thin sections of tissue in the electron microscope by Matt Lions and Parker George. The importance of them for the clearance of LDL from blood was discovered by Richard G. Anderson, Michael S. Brown and Joseph L. Goldstein in 1977. Coated vesicles were first purified by Barbara Pearse, who discovered the clathrin coat molecule in 1976.

Endocytosis is a cellular process in which substances are brought into the cell. The material to be internalized is surrounded by an area of cell membrane, which then buds off inside the cell to form a vesicle containing the ingested material. Endocytosis includes pinocytosis (cell drinking) and phagocytosis (cell eating). It is a form of active transport.

Die Endozytose ist ein zellulärer Vorgang, bei dem durch Einstülpung von Bereichen der Zellmembran aus der Umgebung der Zelle Flüssigkeit und Partikel aufgenommen werden. Weiterhin wird dadurch die Zusammensetzung der Zellmembran reguliert und der Transport von Rezeptoren von der Zellmembran vermittelt. Sie kommt bei allen Eukaryoten vor.


Olympische Sommerspiele 2016/Teilnehmer (Österreich)

Background.

Austria participated in twenty-seven Summer Olympics between its debut at the 1896 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece, and the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The nation chose table tennis player Liu Jia as its flagbearer in the opening ceremony and the sailing duo of Thomas Zajac and Tanja Frank for the closing ceremony. They were one of the three nations who used more than one person to bear the flag in the closing ceremony. A delegation of 71 athletes, 37 men and 34 women, travelled to Rio de Janeiro and competed across 22 sports. Among the sports represented by its athletes, Austria marked its Olympic debut in golf (new to the 2016 Games), as well as its return to diving after 8 years, rowing and weightlifting after 12 years, and archery after 32 years. Austrian athletes have won a total of 86 medals at the Summer Olympic Games.

Archery.

Laurence Baldauff qualified for the women's individual recurve by obtaining one of the eight Olympic places available from the 2015 World Archery Championships in Copenhagen, Denmark. Each match consisted of up to 5 sets of 3 arrows per archer. The archer with the best score in each set won the set, earning 2 points. If the score was tied, each archer received 1 point. She achieved a score of 619 to seal a forty-first seed in the ranking round. Baldauff was eliminated in the round of 64 by Bombayla Devi Laishram of India.

Athletics.

Austrian athletes have so far achieved qualifying standards in the following athletics events (up to a maximum of 3 athletes in each event):

Badminton.

Austria has qualified two badminton players for each of the following events into the Olympic tournament. Elisabeth Baldauf was selected among the top 34 individual shuttlers in the women's singles based on the BWF World Rankings as of 5 May 2016, while David Obernorsterer picked up one of the spare athlete berths from the doubles as the next highest-ranked eligible player in the men's singles. The duo, which frequently plays together in international open events, both made their individual Olympic debut. Both of them lost all their games and came last in their groups. Obernosterer competed in group E of the men's singles event together with Lin Dan, Vladimir Malkov, and Nguyễn Tiến Minh. His first game was against Lin. Lin has previously won two gold medals in the 2012 Olympics and 2008 Olympics. On 11 August, Obernosterer lost the first set 5–21 and the second 11–21. The following day, he lost 18–21 and 14–21 against Minh. Finally, on 14 August, he lost 11–21 and 10–21 to Malkov. He failed to qualify for the round of 16.  Meanwhile, Elisabeth Baldauf was in group N of the women's singles along with Tai Tzu-ying and Natalia Perminova. She lost her first game on 11 August against Tai 11–21 in the first set and 9–21 in the second. Two days later, she lost her second and final game against Perminova 17–21 and 8–21. Tai ended up qualifying for the elimination round by beating Perminova 21-12 and 21-9 but was then eliminated by Pusarla Sindhu who later won the silver medal.

Canoeing.

Slalom.

For the K-1 slalom events, 21 boats qualified for the heats. The 15 best times from the two runs in the heats qualified for the semifinals, and then the best 10 boats from the semifinals qualified for the finals. Austrian canoeists have qualified a maximum of one boat in each of the following classes through the 2015 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships. London 2012 sixth-place finalist Corinna Kuhnle (women's K-1) and rookie Mario Leitner (men's K-1) were named to the Austrian roster on 20 June 2016. Mario Leitner finished his first run in the men's kayaking event in 93.29 seconds and his second run with a worse time of 93.89 seconds. He finished in the fifteenth allotted position, thus qualifying for the semifinals. However, he finished fifteenth with a time of 100.25 seconds, missing out the finals by a 4.57-second deficit. Meanwhile, Corinna Kuhnle finished her first run with a time of 109.63 seconds and her second in 107.02 seconds, placing twelfth overall and making her way to the semifinals. In the semifinals, she finished with her best time of the event with 101.54 seconds, which ranked her first in the semifinals. She could not match that time and came fifth in 104.75 seconds, missing the podium by 2.26 seconds.

Sprint.

Austria has received a spare berths from the International Canoe Federation to enter two boats each in the women's K-1 200 m and the women's K-2 500 m to the Olympics, as the next highest-ranked nation, not yet qualified, at the 2015 Canoe Sprint World Championships, and as a response to the forfeiture of five boats held by the Russians due to their previous doping bans and their implications in the "disappearing positive methodology" set out in the McClaren Report on Russia's state-sponsored doping. Two-time Olympic kayakers Yvonne Schuring and Viktoria Schwarz, along with rookie Ana Roxana Lehaci, were named to the Austrian roster on 27 July 2016. Viktoria Schwarz participated in the K-1 200 metres. In the heats, she finished fifth in 42.847 seconds, qualifying for the semifinals. Rounding off her semifinal heat with a seventh-place time in 43.072, Schwarz was ineligible to compete in any of the final rounds.  Lehaci and Schuring participated in the K-2 500 metres, finishing sixth with a time of 1:46.429 minutes and automatically qualified for the semifinals. If they would have finished first, they would have automatically qualified for the A finals. They finished fourth behind Alyssa Bull and Alyce Burnett of Australia, failing to qualify for the A final. The Austrian duos' time was 1:44.462 minutes and the Australians' was 1:44.290. In the B final, they finished third in 1:48.834 minutes, ranking eleventh overall.

Cycling.

Road.

Austrian riders qualified for a maximum of two quota places in the men's Olympic road race by virtue of their top 15 final national ranking in the 2015 UCI Europe Tour. One additional spot was awarded to the Austrian cyclist in the women's road race by virtue of her top 100 individual placement in the 2016 UCI World Rankings. The entire road cycling squad was named to the Austrian roster for the Games on 12 July 2016.

Mountain biking.

Austria has qualified one mountain biker for the men's Olympic cross-country race, as a result of his nation's fourteenth-place finish in the UCI Olympic Ranking List of 25 May 2016. London 2012 Olympian Alexander Gehbauer was named to the Austrian roster for the Games on 10 July 2016.

Diving.

Austria received an invitation from FINA to send a diver competing in the men's individual springboard to the Olympics, based on his results at the 2016 FINA World Cup series. Constantin Blaha was chosen to compete in the men's 3-metre springboard event. He previously competed in the men's 3m springboard event of the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, China. He was awarded a total of 351.95 points over six dives. He ranked 27th and failed to qualify for the semifinals. He also did not qualify for the semifinals in Beijing, placing 22nd.

Equestrian.

Austria entered one equestrian into the competition by virtue of a top two finish from South Western Europe in the individual FEI Olympic rankings. Dressage rider veteran Victoria Max-Theurer was chosen to participate. Max-Theurer has previously participated in the 2004 Athens Olympics, 2008 Beijing Olympics, and the 2012 London Olympics. She made the Grand Prix Special in both 2004 and 2012, but did not qualify for it in 2008. She rode Della Cavalleria instead of her usual horse Blind Date. On 11 August, Max-Theurer appeared in the Grand Prix and ranked thirty-third with a score of 71.129. She failed to advance to the Grand Prix Special and Freestyle.

Fencing.

Austria has entered one fencer into the Olympic competition. This was Austria's third appearance in the sport in a row. René Pranz had claimed his Olympic spot as the sole winner of the men's foil at the European Zonal Qualifier in Prague, Czech Republic. He played in a round of 64 game against returning Olympian Guilherme Toldo of Brazil and lost in an exciting 14–15 scoreline. Toldo went on to the quarter finals before being defeated by Daniele Garozzo, who later won the gold medal.

Golf.

Austria has entered two golfers into the Olympic tournament. Bernd Wiesberger (world no. 51) and Christine Wolf (world no. 317) qualified directly among the top 60 eligible players for their respective individual events based on the IGF World Rankings as of 11 July 2016. In the first round of the men's event, Bernd Wiesberger finished three over par with 74. He was tied for fiftieth with 5 other competitors. He improved in the second round, jumping up 28 spots to the twenty-second position, tying with eight other golfers. His score for the round was four under par, 67. At the end of the round, his total was 141. The third round took place on 13 August. Wiesberger had a score of 69 for the round, two under par. The round ascended him by 8 ranks, making him tied for fourteenth with a score of 210. On the fourth and final round, he had a score of 68, three under par. His final ranking was tied for eleventh with a score of 270, six under par.  In the women's golfing event, Christine Wolf achieved a score of 71, meeting par and placing twenty-sixth for the round. The second round was her best one scorewise, in which she achieved a score of 69, two under par, but still dropped two places. She had a big drop in the third round with a score of 77, six over par. The round resulted in her dropping 11 spaces, ending with a tie with Carlota Ciganda of Spain. In the final round, Wolf nearly matched her previous performance, but improved by 1, achieving a score of 76. Her final score was 293 scores, nine over par. She ranked 43rd overall.

Gymnastics.

Artistic.

Austria has entered one artistic gymnast into the Olympic competition. Lisa Ecker had claimed her Olympic spot in the women's apparatus and all-around events at the Olympic Test Event in Rio de Janeiro. Once it was announced she made the event, she thanked her trainer Johanna Gratt. Ecker said that "[Gratt] put everything together perfectly and gotten the best out of her. Now my dream of being in the Olympic Games is coming true." She had a total score of 52.966 in the qualification round, finishing forty-third and failing to qualify for the finals.

Rhythmic.

Austria has qualified one rhythmic gymnast in the individual all-around for the Games by claiming one of eight available Olympic spots at the Olympic Test Event in Rio de Janeiro. She was awarded 16.833 points for the hoop section and 16.666 for the ball section. Her best score was the juggling clubs section, in which she received 17.166 points. Ruprecht had 17.166 points for the final section, which was the ribbon. In total, she placed twentieth with 69.698 points, thus not qualifying for the finals.

Judo.

Austria has qualified a total of five judokas for each of the following weight classes at the Games. Daniel Allerstorfer, Kathrin Unterwurzacher, Bernadette Graf, two-time Olympian Sabrina Filzmoser, and Beijing 2008 silver medalist Ludwig Paischer were ranked among the top 22 eligible judokas for men and top 14 for women in the IJF World Ranking List of 30 May 2016. Paischer participated in the men's -60 kg event. His first game was in the round of 32 against Hovhannes Davtyan of Armenia. Following 27 seconds, Paischer lost 000–100. Meanwhile, Daniel Allerstorfer participated in the men's +100 kg. He lost in the round of 32 against Renat Saidov of Russia 000 to 010.  In the women's events, Filzmoser participated in the women's -57 kg. She, like both male competitors, was eliminated in the first round she competed in. Nekoda Smythe-Davis of Great Britain overpowered her, finishing the match with a 000–011 scoreline. Unterwurzacher competed in the women's -63 kg event. Her first bout was in the round of 16 against two-time Olympian Estefania García of Ecuador, which she won 010–000 with a waza-ari. Her next game was against Miku Tashiro of Japan. Tashiro beat Unterwurzacher with a yuko, and so Unterwurzacher moved to the repechage match against Anicka van Emden of Netherlands. Mirroring the previous score, Unterwurzacher lost by a waza-ari 000–001. She ranked seventh overall. Graf had a similar system. She beat Maria Portela in a 000–000 contest due to a shido, but lost her next game against Laura Vargas Koch by an ippon. Unlike Unterwurzacher, Graf won the repechage bout against Kelitae Zupancic 010–001. In the bronze medal match, Graf competed against Sally Conway of Great Britain. She lost it 000 to 001. Her final ranking was 5th.

Rowing.

Austria has qualified two boats for each of the following classes into the Olympic regatta, signifying the nation's Olympic return to the sport for the first time since 2004. Rowers competing in the men's lightweight double sculls and women's single sculls had confirmed Olympic places for their boats at the 2015 FISA World Championships in Lac d'Aiguebelette, France.

Sailing.

Austrian sailors have qualified one boat in each of the following classes through the 2014 ISAF Sailing World Championships, the individual fleet Worlds, and European qualifying regattas. The entire sailing team was announced by the Austrian Olympic Committee on 29 March 2016 at the initial stage of the nomination meeting, with 49er crew Nico Delle-Karth and Nikolaus Resch remarkably going to their fourth Olympics.

Shooting.

Austrian shooters have achieved quota places for the following events by virtue of their best finishes at the 2014 and 2015 ISSF World Championships, the 2015 ISSF World Cup series, and European Championships or Games, as long as they obtained a minimum qualifying score (MQS) by 31 March 2016. The entire shooting squad was named to the Austrian roster for the Games on 1 July 2016.

Swimming.

Austrian swimmers have so far achieved qualifying standards in the following events (up to a maximum of 2 swimmers in each event at the Olympic Qualifying Time (OQT), and potentially 1 at the Olympic Selection Time (OST)):  Two-time Olympic swimmer Birgit Koschischek, London 2012 Olympian Lisa Zaiser, and rookie Felix Auböck were selected as part of the second batch of nominated Austrian athletes for the Games on 23 June 2016.

Synchronized swimming.

Austria has fielded a squad of two synchronized swimmers to compete only in the women's duet by virtue of their sixth-place finish at the FINA Olympic test event in Rio de Janeiro. The Alexandri twin sisters, Anna-Marie and Eirini-Marina were chosen to participate. They had the eleventh highest score in their technical routine with 85.0637. In the free routine, they finished twelfth with 85.5333 points, adding up to a total of 170.3304. The Alexandri sisters finished the preliminary round in the last qualifying spot for the finals, where they were awarded 85.5333 points for the free routine. They placed twelfth in a total of 170.5970 points.

Table tennis.

Austria has fielded a team of six athletes into the table tennis competition at the Games. Chinese-born Liu Jia secured one of ten available Olympic spots in the women's singles by winning the group final match at the European Qualification Tournament in Halmstad, Sweden. Meanwhile, Sofia Polcanova, Stefan Fegerl, and London 2012 Olympian Robert Gardos were automatically selected among the top 22 eligible players each in their respective singles events based on the ITTF Olympic Rankings.  Daniel Habesohn and Beijing 2008 Olympian Li Qiangbing were each awarded the third spot to build the men's and women's teams for the Games by virtue of a top 10 national finish in the ITTF Olympic Rankings.

Tennis.

Austria entered two tennis players into the men's doubles events. Oliver Marach and Alexander Peya had claimed one of eight ITF Olympic men's doubles places, as Austria's top-ranked tennis pair outside of direct qualifying position in the ATP World Rankings as of 6 June 2016. In the round of 32, the duo beat Aliaksandr Bury and Max Mirny of Belarus two sets to none. In the following round, Marach and Peya beat Americans Brian Baker and Rajeev Ram in the first set 6–4 but lost the next set following a tiebreaker, before closing it out with a 6–3 win in a 2 hour match. The Austrian pair lost in the quarterfinals to eventual gold medallists Marc López and Rafael Nadal of Spain.

Triathlon.

Austria has qualified a total of three triathletes for the following events at the Olympics. Sara Vilic and London 2012 Olympian Lisa Perterer were ranked among the top 40 eligible triathletes in the women's event based on the ITU Olympic Qualification List as of 15 May 2016. Meanwhile, Thomas Springer was selected as the highest-ranked triathlete from Europe in the men's event based on the ITU Points List.

Volleyball.

Beach.

Two Austria men's beach volleyball teams qualified directly for the Olympics; one by virtue of their nation's top 15 placement in the FIVB Olympic Rankings as of 13 June 2016, and the other by winning the final match over Belgium at the 2016 CEV Continental Cup in Stavanger, Norway. These places were awarded to three-time Olympians Clemens Doppler and Alexander Horst, along with rookies Alexander Huber and Robin Seidl.

Weightlifting.

Austria has received an unused quota place from IWF to send a male weightlifter to the Olympics, signifying the nation's return to the sport for the first time since 2004. Sargis Martirosjan, who has previously competed in the 2014 and 2015 World Weightlifting Championships as well as the 2015 and 2016 European Weightlifting Championships was chosen to participate. He successfully cleared his first snatch of, but then scratched his next two attempts of, ending him in a tie for tenth. In the clean and jerk section, he cleared all of his attempts, starting with, moving on to, and ending on, placing him in eleventh position for the round. His total score of 389 kilograms put him to eleventh overall.

Wrestling.

Austria received a spare host berth freed up by Brazil as the next highest-ranked eligible nation, not yet qualified, to send a wrestler competing in the men's Greco-Roman 85 kg to the Olympics, based on the results from the World Championships. Thomas Reichenauer, the president of the Austrian Wrestling Association nominated Amer Hrustanović, who previously competed in the 2012 London Olympics, citing his hard work in recent years. Hrustanović beat Finn Rami Hietaniemi in the round of 16 before losing to eventual bronze medal winner Javid Hamzatau in the quarterfinals, finishing tenth overall.

Austria competed at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from 5 to 21 August 2016. It was the nation's twenty-seventh appearance at the Summer Olympics. Austrian athletes have appeared in every edition of the Summer Olympic Games, with the exception of the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp. The Austrian Olympic Committee () confirmed a squad of 71 athletes, 37 men and 34 women, to compete across 22 sports at the Games. The nation's full roster had one more participant than the previous two Games.

Österreich nahm an den Olympischen Spielen 2016 in Rio de Janeiro teil. Der vom Österreichischen Olympischen Comité (ÖOC) nominierte Kader umfasste 71 Sportler.


History.

The first work on a cryptographically secured chain of blocks was described in 1991 by Stuart Haber and W. Scott Stornetta. They wanted to implement a system where document timestamps could not be tampered with. In 1992, Haber, Stornetta, and Dave Bayer incorporated Merkle trees to the design, which improved its efficiency by allowing several document certificates to be collected into one block.  The first blockchain was conceptualized by a person (or group of people) known as Satoshi Nakamoto in 2008. Nakamoto improved the design in an important way using a Hashcash-like method to timestamp blocks without requiring them to be signed by a trusted party and introducing a difficulty parameter to stabilize rate with which blocks are added to the chain. The design was implemented the following year by Nakamoto as a core component of the cryptocurrency bitcoin, where it serves as the public ledger for all transactions on the network.  In August 2014, the bitcoin blockchain file size, containing records of all transactions that have occurred on the network, reached 20 GB (gigabytes). In January 2015, the size had grown to almost 30 GB, and from January 2016 to January 2017, the bitcoin blockchain grew from 50 GB to 100 GB in size. The ledger size had exceeded 200 GiB by early 2020.  The words "block" and "chain" were used separately in Satoshi Nakamoto's original paper, but were eventually popularized as a single word, "blockchain," by 2016.  According to Accenture, an application of the diffusion of innovations theory suggests that blockchains attained a 13.5% adoption rate within financial services in 2016, therefore reaching the early adopters phase. Industry trade groups joined to create the Global Blockchain Forum in 2016, an initiative of the Chamber of Digital Commerce.  In May 2018, Gartner found that only 1% of CIOs indicated any kind of blockchain adoption within their organisations, and only 8% of CIOs were in the short-term "planning or [looking at] active experimentation with blockchain".

Structure.

A blockchain is a decentralized, distributed, and oftentimes public, digital ledger consisting of records called "blocks" that is used to record transactions across many computers so that any involved block cannot be altered retroactively, without the alteration of all subsequent blocks. This allows the participants to verify and audit transactions independently and relatively inexpensively. A blockchain database is managed autonomously using a peer-to-peer network and a distributed timestamping server. They are authenticated by mass collaboration powered by collective self-interests. Such a design facilitates robust workflow where participants' uncertainty regarding data security is marginal. The use of a blockchain removes the characteristic of infinite reproducibility from a digital asset. It confirms that each unit of value was transferred only once, solving the long-standing problem of double spending. A blockchain has been described as a "value-exchange protocol". A blockchain can maintain title rights because, when properly set up to detail the exchange agreement, it provides a record that compels offer and acceptance.

Blocks.

Blocks hold batches of valid transactions that are hashed and encoded into a Merkle tree. Each block includes the cryptographic hash of the prior block in the blockchain, linking the two. The linked blocks form a chain. This iterative process confirms the integrity of the previous block, all the way back to the original genesis block.  Sometimes separate blocks can be produced concurrently, creating a temporary fork. In addition to a secure hash-based history, any blockchain has a specified algorithm for scoring different versions of the history so that one with a higher score can be selected over others. Blocks not selected for inclusion in the chain are called orphan blocks. Peers supporting the database have different versions of the history from time to time. They keep only the highest-scoring version of the database known to them. Whenever a peer receives a higher-scoring version (usually the old version with a single new block added) they extend or overwrite their own database and retransmit the improvement to their peers. There is never an absolute guarantee that any particular entry will remain in the best version of the history forever. Blockchains are typically built to add the score of new blocks onto old blocks and are given incentives to extend with new blocks rather than overwrite old blocks. Therefore, the probability of an entry becoming superseded decreases exponentially as more blocks are built on top of it, eventually becoming very low. For example, bitcoin uses a proof-of-work system, where the chain with the most cumulative proof-of-work is considered the valid one by the network. There are a number of methods that can be used to demonstrate a sufficient level of computation. Within a blockchain the computation is carried out redundantly rather than in the traditional segregated and parallel manner.

Block time.

The "block time" is the average time it takes for the network to generate one extra block in the blockchain. Some blockchains create a new block as frequently as every five seconds. By the time of block completion, the included data becomes verifiable. In cryptocurrency, this is practically when the transaction takes place, so a shorter block time means faster transactions. The block time for Ethereum is set to between 14 and 15 seconds, while for bitcoin it is on average 10 minutes.

Decentralization.

By storing data across its peer-to-peer network, the blockchain eliminates a number of risks that come with data being held centrally. The decentralized blockchain may use ad hoc message passing and distributed networking.  Peer-to-peer blockchain networks lack centralized points of vulnerability that computer crackers can exploit; likewise, it has no central point of failure. Blockchain security methods include the use of public-key cryptography. A "public key" (a long, random-looking string of numbers) is an address on the blockchain. Value tokens sent across the network are recorded as belonging to that address. A "private key" is like a password that gives its owner access to their digital assets or the means to otherwise interact with the various capabilities that blockchains now support. Data stored on the blockchain is generally considered incorruptible.  Every node in a decentralized system has a copy of the blockchain. Data quality is maintained by massive database replication and computational trust. No centralized "official" copy exists and no user is "trusted" more than any other. Transactions are broadcast to the network using software. Messages are delivered on a best-effort basis. Mining nodes validate transactions, add them to the block they are building, and then broadcast the completed block to other nodes. Blockchains use various time-stamping schemes, such as proof-of-work, to serialize changes. Alternative consensus methods include proof-of-stake. Growth of a decentralized blockchain is accompanied by the risk of centralization because the computer resources required to process larger amounts of data become more expensive.

Openness.

Open blockchains are more user-friendly than some traditional ownership records, which, while open to the public, still require physical access to view. Because all early blockchains were permissionless, controversy has arisen over the blockchain definition. An issue in this ongoing debate is whether a private system with verifiers tasked and authorized (permissioned) by a central authority should be considered a blockchain. Proponents of permissioned or private chains argue that the term "blockchain" may be applied to any data structure that batches data into time-stamped blocks. These blockchains serve as a distributed version of multiversion concurrency control (MVCC) in databases. Just as MVCC prevents two transactions from concurrently modifying a single object in a database, blockchains prevent two transactions from spending the same single output in a blockchain. Opponents say that permissioned systems resemble traditional corporate databases, not supporting decentralized data verification, and that such systems are not hardened against operator tampering and revision. Nikolai Hampton of "Computerworld" said that "many in-house blockchain solutions will be nothing more than cumbersome databases," and "without a clear security model, proprietary blockchains should be eyed with suspicion."

Permissionless.

The great advantage to an open, permissionless, or public, blockchain network is that guarding against bad actors is not required and no access control is needed. This means that applications can be added to the network without the approval or trust of others, using the blockchain as a transport layer.  Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies currently secure their blockchain by requiring new entries to include a proof of work. To prolong the blockchain, bitcoin uses Hashcash puzzles. While Hashcash was designed in 1997 by Adam Back, the original idea was first proposed by Cynthia Dwork and Moni Naor and Eli Ponyatovski in their 1992 paper "Pricing via Processing or Combatting Junk Mail".  In 2016, venture capital investment for blockchain-related projects was weakening in the USA but increasing in China. Bitcoin and many other cryptocurrencies use open (public) blockchains., bitcoin has the highest market capitalization.

Permissioned (private) blockchain.

Permissioned blockchains use an access control layer to govern who has access to the network. In contrast to public blockchain networks, validators on private blockchain networks are vetted by the network owner. They do not rely on anonymous nodes to validate transactions nor do they benefit from the network effect. Permissioned blockchains can also go by the name of 'consortium' blockchains.

Disadvantages of private blockchain.

Nikolai Hampton pointed out in "Computerworld" that "There is also no need for a '51 percent' attack on a private blockchain, as the private blockchain (most likely) already controls 100 percent of all block creation resources. If you could attack or damage the blockchain creation tools on a private corporate server, you could effectively control 100 percent of their network and alter transactions however you wished." This has a set of particularly profound adverse implications during a financial crisis or debt crisis like the financial crisis of 2007–08, where politically powerful actors may make decisions that favor some groups at the expense of others, and "the bitcoin blockchain is protected by the massive group mining effort. It's unlikely that any private blockchain will try to protect records using gigawatts of computing power — it's time consuming and expensive." He also said, "Within a private blockchain there is also no 'race'; there's no incentive to use more power or discover blocks faster than competitors. This means that many in-house blockchain solutions will be nothing more than cumbersome databases."

Blockchain analysis.

The analysis of public blockchains has become increasingly important with the popularity of bitcoin, Ethereum, litecoin and other cryptocurrencies. A blockchain, if it is public, provides anyone who wants access to observe and analyse the chain data, given one has the know-how. The process of understanding and accessing the flow of crypto has been an issue for many cryptocurrencies, crypto-exchanges and banks. The reason for this is accusations of blockchain enabled cryptocurrencies enabling illicit dark market trade of drugs, weapons, money laundering etc. A common belief has been that cryptocurrency is private and untraceable, thus leading many actors to use it for illegal purposes. This is changing and now specialised tech-companies provide blockchain tracking services, making crypto exchanges, law-enforcement and banks more aware of what is happening with crypto funds and fiat crypto exchanges. The development, some argue, has led criminals to prioritise use of new cryptos such as Monero. The question is about public accessibility of blockchain data and the personal privacy of the very same data. It is a key debate in cryptocurrency and ultimately in blockchain.

Uses.

Blockchain technology can be integrated into multiple areas. The primary use of blockchains today is as a distributed ledger for cryptocurrencies, most notably bitcoin. There are a few operational products maturing from proof of concept by late 2016. Businesses have been thus far reluctant to place blockchain at the core of the business structure.

Cryptocurrencies.

Most cryptocurrencies use blockchain technology to record transactions. For example, the bitcoin network and Ethereum network are both based on blockchain. On 8 May 2018 Facebook confirmed that it would open a new blockchain group which would be headed by David Marcus, who previously was in charge of Messenger. Facebook's planned cryptocurrency platform, Libra, was formally announced on June 18, 2019.

Smart contracts.

Blockchain-based smart contracts are proposed contracts that can be partially or fully executed or enforced without human interaction. One of the main objectives of a smart contract is automated escrow. An IMF staff discussion reported that smart contracts based on blockchain technology might reduce moral hazards and optimize the use of contracts in general. But "no viable smart contract systems have yet emerged." Due to the lack of widespread use their legal status is unclear.

Financial services.

Major portions of the financial industry are implementing distributed ledgers for use in banking, and according to a September 2016 IBM study, this is occurring faster than expected.  Banks are interested in this technology because it has potential to speed up back office settlement systems.  Banks such as UBS are opening new research labs dedicated to blockchain technology in order to explore how blockchain can be used in financial services to increase efficiency and reduce costs.  Berenberg, a German bank, believes that blockchain is an "overhyped technology" that has had a large number of "proofs of concept", but still has major challenges, and very few success stories.  In December 2018, Bitwala launched Europe's first regulated blockchain banking solution that enables users to manage both their bitcoin and euro deposits in one place with the safety and convenience of a German bank account. The bank account is hosted by the Berlin-based solarisBank.  The blockchain has also given rise to Initial coin offerings (ICOs) as well as a new category of digital asset called Security Token Offerings (STOs), also sometimes referred to as Digital Security Offerings (DSOs). STO/DSOs may be conducted privately or on a public, regulated stock exchange and are used to tokenize traditional assets such as company shares as well as more innovative ones like intellectual property, real estate, art, or individual products. A number of companies are active in this space providing services for compliant tokenization, private STOs, and public STOs.

Video games.

A blockchain game "CryptoKitties", launched in November 2017. The game made headlines in December 2017 when a cryptokitty character - an in-game virtual pet - was sold for more than US$100,000. "CryptoKitties" illustrated scalability problems for games on Ethereum when it created significant congestion on the Ethereum network with about 30% of all Ethereum transactions being for the game.  "CryptoKitties" also demonstrated how blockchains can be used to catalog game assets (digital assets).

Energy trading.

Blockchain is also being used in peer-to-peer energy trading.

Supply chain.

There are a number of efforts and industry organizations working to employ blockchains in supply chain management.  Everledger is one of the inaugural clients of IBM's blockchain-based tracking service.  Walmart and IBM are running a trial to use a blockchain-backed system for supply chain monitoring — all nodes of the blockchain are administered by Walmart and are located on the IBM cloud.  Hyperledger Grid develops open components for blockchain supply chain solutions.

Domain Names.

Blockchain domain names are another use of blockchain on the rise. Unlike regular domain names, blockchain domain names are entirely an asset of the domain owner and can only be controlled by the owner through a private key. Blockchain domains, pave way to having sites that are more resistant to censorship and thus enabling freedom of speech as there are no authorities or individuals that can intervene on controlling a domain except the private key holder. Again, they are a better option to replace the traditional cryptocurrency wallet addresses as one can easily memorize the domain and use it for receiving payments.  Organizations providing blockchain domain name services include Unstoppable Domains, Namecoin and Ethereum Name Services.

Other uses.

Blockchain technology can be used to create a permanent, public, transparent ledger system for compiling data on sales, tracking digital use and payments to content creators, such as wireless users or musicians. In 2017, IBM partnered with ASCAP and PRS for Music to adopt blockchain technology in music distribution. Imogen Heap's Mycelia service has also been proposed as blockchain-based alternative "that gives artists more control over how their songs and associated data circulate among fans and other musicians."  New distribution methods are available for the insurance industry such as peer-to-peer insurance, parametric insurance and microinsurance following the adoption of blockchain. The sharing economy and IoT are also set to benefit from blockchains because they involve many collaborating peers. Online voting is another application of the blockchain. The use of blockchain in libraries is being studied with a grant from the U.S. Institute of Museum and Library Services.  Other designs include:

Types.

Currently, there are at least four types of blockchain networks — public blockchains, private blockchains, consortium blockchains and hybrid blockchains.

Public blockchains.

A public blockchain has absolutely no access restrictions. Anyone with an Internet connection can send transactions to it as well as become a validator (i.e., participate in the execution of a consensus protocol). Usually, such networks offer economic incentives for those who secure them and utilize some type of a Proof of Stake or Proof of Work algorithm.  Some of the largest, most known public blockchains are the bitcoin blockchain and the Ethereum blockchain.

Private blockchains.

A private blockchain is permissioned. One cannot join it unless invited by the network administrators. Participant and validator access is restricted.

Hybrid blockchains.

A hybrid blockchain has a combination of centralized and decentralized features. The exact workings of the chain can vary based on which portions of centralization decentralization are used.

Sidechains.

A sidechain is a designation for a blockchain ledger that runs in parallel to a primary blockchain. Entries from the primary blockchain (where said entries typically represent digital assets) can be linked to and from the sidechain; this allows the sidechain to otherwise operate independently of the primary blockchain (e.g., by using an alternate means of record keeping, alternate consensus algorithm, etc.).

Academic research.

In October 2014, the MIT Bitcoin Club, with funding from MIT alumni, provided undergraduate students at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology access to $100 of bitcoin. The adoption rates, as studied by Catalini and Tucker (2016), revealed that when people who typically adopt technologies early are given delayed access, they tend to reject the technology.

Adoption decision.

Motivations for adopting blockchain technology have been investigated by researchers. Janssen et al. provided a framework for analysis. Koens & Poll pointed out that adoption could be heavily driven by non-technical factors. Based on behavioral models, Li discussed the differences between adoption at individual level and at organization level.

Collaboration.

Scholars in business and management have started studying the role of blockchains to support collaboration. It has been argued that blockchains can foster both cooperation (i.e., prevention of opportunistic behavior) and coordination (i.e., communication and information sharing). Thanks to reliability, transparency, traceability of records, and information immutability, blockchains facilitate collaboration in a way that differs both from the traditional use of contracts and from relational norms. Contrary to contracts, blockchains do not directly rely on the legal system to enforce agreements. In addition, contrary to the use of relational norms, blockchains do not require trust or direct connections between collaborators.

Blockchain and internal audit.

The need for internal audit to provide effective oversight of organizational efficiency will require a change in the way that information is accessed in new formats. Blockchain adoption requires a framework to identify the risk of exposure associated with transactions using blockchain. The Institute of Internal Auditors has identified the need for internal auditors to address this transformational technology. New methods are required to develop audit plans that identify threats and risks. The Internal Audit Foundation study, "Blockchain and Internal Audit," assesses these factors. The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants has outlined new roles for auditors as a result of blockchain.

Energy use of proof-of-work blockchains.

The Bank for International Settlements has criticized the public proof-of-work blockchains for high energy consumption. Nicholas Weaver, of the International Computer Science Institute at the University of California, Berkeley examines blockchain's online security, and the energy efficiency of proof-of-work public blockchains, and in both cases finds it grossly inadequate. The 31—45 TWh of electricity used for bitcoin in 2018 produced 17—22.9 MtCO2.

Journals.

In September 2015, the first peer-reviewed academic journal dedicated to cryptocurrency and blockchain technology research, "Ledger", was announced. The inaugural issue was published in December 2016. The journal covers aspects of mathematics, computer science, engineering, law, economics and philosophy that relate to cryptocurrencies such as bitcoin.  The journal encourages authors to digitally sign a file hash of submitted papers, which are then timestamped into the bitcoin blockchain. Authors are also asked to include a personal bitcoin address in the first page of their papers for non-repudiation purposes.

A blockchain, originally block chain, is a growing list of records, called "blocks", that are linked using cryptography. Each block contains a cryptographic hash of the previous block, a timestamp, and transaction data (generally represented as a Merkle tree).

Eine Blockchain (auch "Block Chain," für "Blockkette") ist eine kontinuierlich erweiterbare Liste von Datensätzen, „Blöcke“ genannt, die mittels kryptographischer Verfahren miteinander verkettet sind. Jeder Block enthält dabei typischerweise einen kryptographisch sicheren Hash (Streuwert) des vorhergehenden Blocks, einen Zeitstempel und Transaktionsdaten.


Thébault's problem I.

Given any parallelogram, construct on its sides four squares external to the parallelogram. The quadrilateral formed by joining the centers of those four squares is a square.  It is a special case of van Aubel's theorem and a square version of the Napoleon's theorem.

Thébault's problem II.

Given a square, construct equilateral triangles on two adjacent edges, either both inside or both outside the square. Then the triangle formed by joining the vertex of the square distant from both triangles and the vertices of the triangles distant from the square is equilateral.

Thébault's problem III.

Given any triangle ABC, and any point M on BC, construct the incircle and circumcircle of the triangle. Then construct two additional circles, each tangent to AM, BC, and to the circumcircle. Then their centers and the center of the incircle are colinear.  Until 2003, academia thought this third problem of Thébault the most difficult to prove. It was published in the American Mathematical Monthly in 1938, and proved by Dutch mathematician H. Streefkerk in 1973. However, in 2003, Jean-Louis Ayme discovered that Y. Sawayama, an instructor at The Central Military School of Tokyo, independently proposed and solved this problem in 1905.  An "external" version of this theorem, where the incircle is replaced by an excircle and the two additional circles are external to the circumcircle, is found in Shay Gueron (2002). A proof based on Casey's theorem is in the paper.

Thébault's theorem is the name given variously to one of the geometry problems proposed by the French mathematician Victor Thébault, individually known as Thébault's problem I, II, and III.

Als Probleme von Thébault bezeichnet man drei Probleme aus der Elementargeometrie, die von dem französischen Mathematiker Victor Thébault (1882–1960) publiziert wurden. Da es sich hierbei ausschließlich um (inzwischen) bewiesene Aussagen handelt, werden sie gelegentlich auch als Sätze von Thébault bezeichnet, insbesondere für das erste und das dritte Problem hat sich in der Literatur die Bezeichnung Satz von Thébault eingebürgert.


Plot.

Buster (Buster Keaton), a sidewalk tintype portrait photographer in New York City, develops a crush on Sally (Marceline Day), a secretary who works for MGM Newsreels. To be near her, he purchases an old film camera, emptying his bank account, and attempts to get a job as one of MGM's filmers. Harold (Harold Goodwin), an MGM cameraman who has designs on Sally himself, mocks his ambition.  Sally, however, encourages Buster and suggests he film anything and everything. Buster's first attempts show his total lack of experience. He double exposes or over exposes much of the footage, and the rest is simply no good. Despite this setback, Sally agrees to go out with Buster, after her Sunday date cancels. They go to the city plunge (pool), where Buster gets involved in numerous mishaps. Later, Harold offers Sally a ride home; Buster has to sit in the rumble seat, where he gets drenched in the rain.  The next day, Sally gives him a hot tip she has just received that something big is going to happen in Chinatown. In his rush to get there, he accidentally runs into an organ grinder, who falls and apparently kills his monkey. A nearby cop makes Buster pay for the monkey and take its body with him. The monkey turns out only to be dazed and joins Buster on his venture.  In Chinatown, Buster films the outbreak of a Tong War, narrowly escaping death on several occasions. At the end, he is rescued from Tong members by the timely arrival of the police, led by a cop (Harry Gribbon) who had been the unintentional victim of several of Buster's antics over the last few days. The cop tries to have him committed to the mental hospital, but Buster makes his escape with his camera intact.  Returning to MGM, Buster and the newsreel company's boss are dismayed to find that he apparently forgot to load film into his camera. When Sally finds herself in trouble for giving Buster the tip, Buster offers to make amends by leaving MGM alone once and for all.  Buster returns to his old job, but does not give up on filming, setting up to record a boat race. He then discovers that he has Tong footage after all; the mischievous monkey had switched the reels. Sally and Harold are speeding along in one of the boats. When Harold makes too sharp a turn, the two are thrown into the river. Harold saves himself, but Sally is trapped by the circling boat. Buster stops filming to jump in and rescues her. The monkey gets behind the camera to film the daring rescue. When Buster rushes to a drug store to get medical supplies to revive her, Harold returns and takes credit for the rescue. The two go off, leaving the broken-hearted Buster behind.  Buster decides to send his Tong footage to MGM free of charge. The boss decides to screen it for Harold and Sally for laughs, but is thrilled by what he sees, calling it the best camerawork he has seen in years. They also see footage of Buster's boat footage and the monkey's shot of Buster's rescue of Sally. The boss sends Sally to get Buster. She tells him he is in for a great reception. Buster assumes a ticker-tape parade is in his honor, whereas it is really for Charles Lindbergh.

Production.

On January 26, 1928 Keaton signed a two-year deal with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. The deal required 2 films per year from Keaton and paid him $3,000 a week, making him the third highest-paid actor at the studio. Keaton brought most of his own crew with him from his own independent production company. He immediately pitched the idea for "The Cameraman" to MGM, who paid him $1,250 for it. Keaton later said that the MGM deal was "the worst mistake of my life."  The film was overseen by producer Lawrence Weingarten. Weingarten and Keaton fought on set and Weingarten called Keaton a child. Keaton was accustomed to complete control over his own productions and was unaccustomed to interference from producers. However MGM's head of production Irving Thalberg loved the finished film and laughed during screenings of its rushes (a rare display of emotion from Thalberg). 22 writers were assigned to work on it, but Keaton convinced Thalberg to throw out the script and allow him to film it his own way.  "The Cameraman" would later serve as inspiration for part of the 1950 comedy "Watch the Birdie", starring Red Skelton, with Keaton working as a gagman for MGM and serving as an advisor to Skelton.

Critical reception.

The film was a box office hit, grossing $797,000, and was well-received by film critics. MGM writing department used the film to train new writers as a "perfectly constructed comedy" for decades.  Critic Mordaunt Hall, writing for the "New York Times", liked the film and the work of Buster Keaton. He said, "Mr. Keaton's latest effort is "The Cameraman," which is filled with guffaws and grins, the sort of thing with many original and adroitly worked-out gags. But whether they belong to the story is immaterial...There are other sections that are wild and watery, but nonetheless humorous."  David Robinson wrote that the film "betrays nothing of the struggle and strain that went into its preparation. It is a lucid, beautifully formed dramatic comedy."

Honors.

In 2005, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".

Preservation status.

"The Cameraman" was at one point considered a lost film, destroyed in the 1965 MGM vault fire. However, a complete print was discovered in Paris in 1968. Another print, of much higher quality, although missing some footage, was discovered in 1991. The two prints were combined into a version which now is available.

The Cameraman is a 1928 American silent comedy film directed by Edward Sedgwick and an uncredited Buster Keaton. The picture stars Keaton, Marceline Day, Harold Goodwin, and others.

Buster Keaton, der Filmreporter, später neubetitelt als "Der Kameramann", ist eine US-amerikanische Stummfilm-Komödie aus dem Jahre 1928. Die Hauptrolle übernahm Buster Keaton, der auch gemeinsam mit Edward Sedgwick die Regie führte. Nach seiner Trennung von Produzent Joseph Schenck war es Keatons erster Film bei seinem neuen Studio Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. Obwohl "The Cameraman" an den Kinokassen durchaus Erfolg hatte, wurde es der letzte Film, bei dem Keaton weitgehend künstlerische Kontrolle besaß. Den Wechsel zu MGM bezeichnete Keaton später als größten Fehler seines Lebens.


Early life and education.

Scharff went to school in Lübeck, Germany and moved to Marburg, Germany, to study biology in 1979. She went on to study experimental neurobiology and neuroethology at Adelphi university in New York with Carol Diakow. From 1984, she worked with Fernando Nottebohm at Rockefeller university where she earned her degree of Ph.D. Studying bird song, the researchers were involved in a series of studies that showed the generation of new neurons in the adult brain. These findings contradicted the then-established view that the brain was equipped with a fixed number of neurons at the time of birth. She moved to Paris in 1991, where she worked at the Institut d'Embryology Cellulaire et Moléculaire. She returned to New York as a Postdoctoral Associate to work with Nottebohm again in 1994. She was a group leader at the Max Planck institute for Molecular Genetics in Berlin from 2001 to 2005 before she became a professor at the Free University of Berlin in 2005.

Work.

Scharff studies birdsong in canaries and zebra finches. Here, her work is concerned with mechanisms of learning in acoustic communication and the neural pathways that control it. Further, her work focusses on the control of neuronal regeneration and replacement in adult birds. She was also involved in the decoding of the zebra finch genome. Her research suggested an important role of the gene FOXP2 in sound learning in both birds and humans, leading to a potential better understanding of hereditary disorders of speech.  Since 2012, Scharff is a member of the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities.

Personal life.

Scharff has two daughters with microbiologist Arturo Zychlinsky.

Constance Scharff, Ph.D., (born 1959) is a German zoologist and neuroethologist and Professor at the Free University of Berlin. She is particularly notable for her research on birdsong, neurogenesis and regeneration.

Constance Scharff (* 13. August 1959) ist eine deutsche Zoologin und Neuro- und Verhaltensbiologin. Sie ist Hochschullehrerin an der FU Berlin.


Anatolia.

Beyliks were small Turkish principalities (or petty kingdoms) governed by Beys, which were founded across Anatolia at the end of the 11th century in a first period, and more extensively during the decline of the Seljuq Sultanate of Rum during the second half of the 13th century.  The Ottoman Empire quickly collected itself under Mehmed I and his son Murad II re-incorporated most of these beyliks into Ottoman territory in a space of around 25 years. The final blow for the Karamanids was struck by Mehmed II who conquered their lands and re-assured a homogeneous rule in Anatolia. The further steps towards a single rule by the Ottomans were taken by Selim I who conquered territories of Ramadanids and Dulkadirids in 1515 during his campaign against the Mamluks, and his son Süleyman the Magnificent who more or less completely united the present territories of Turkey (and much more) in his 1534 campaign. Many of the former Anatolian beyliks became the basis for administrative subdivisions in the Ottoman Empire.

England.

Before the Kingdom of England was established as a united entity, there were various kingdoms in the area—of which the main seven were known as the heptarchy. These were Wessex, Mercia, Northumbria (which also extended into present-day Scotland and originally formed from the earlier kingdoms of Deira and Bernicia), East Anglia (formed from the union of the early kingdoms of Suffolk and Norfolk), Sussex, Kent, and Essex. Other small Anglo-Saxon kingdoms existed at various points, including Hwicce, Lindsey (which survived as the Parts of Lindsey, Lincolnshire) and the Wihtwara (Isle of Wight). These are commonly referred to as "petty kingdoms".  During the 9th and 10th centuries the Norse also established the Kingdom of Jórvík centred around York, and the Five Boroughs of the Danelaw (aka Danish Mercia). They also controlled the Kingdom of East Anglia during this period.  Prior to the arrival of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes (the later Anglo-Saxons) what is now England was ruled by numerous Brittonic kings, which are discussed under Wales below.

Iberian peninsula.

The taifa were the various Islamic petty kingdoms that existed in Iberia after the collapse of the Caliphate of Cordoba in 1031.  There were various Christian petty kingdoms as well on the peninsula that, in the Middle Ages, consolidated into the modern states of Spain and Portugal. Over time, these consolidated into two "Crowns" that were themselves unified in the late 15th and early 16th centuries to the unified Kingdom of Spain,  These include:  The Kingdom of Portugal remained independent throughout most of the period of consolidation, except for a period of 60 years (1580-1640) when it was part of the Iberian Union.

Ireland.

The earliest known kingdoms or tribes in Ireland are referred to in Ptolemy's "Geography", written in the 2nd century. He names the Vennicni, Rhobogdi, Erdini, Magnatae, Autini, Gangani, Vellabori, Darini, Voluntii (identified as the Ulaid nation or Uluti tribe), Eblani, Cauci, Menapii, Coriondi and Brigantes tribes and kingdoms.  Irish medieval pseudohistory gives a seemingly idealized division of kingdoms. The island is traditionally divided into five provinces or "fifths" (Old Irish ', Modern Irish '), four of which survive today:'(Ulster, modern Irish ') in the north,'(Connacht) in the west,'(Munster, modern Irish ') in the south west, and'(Leinster, modern Irish ') in the south east. The fifth kingdom, (whose name has survived in the modern counties of Meath and Westmeath, modern Irish'and ") in the centre/east, ceased to exist in the Middle Ages.  At various points in history there existed a High King of Ireland, who ruled over the other kings as suzerain, much like the British High Kings and Anglo-Saxon Bretwalda. There also existed Kings of Tara who did not rule all of Ireland but were recognised as holding positions of authority over the other kings. These two titles were not mutually exclusive and were often held by the same individual.  Each of the kings of these kingdoms (titled'or 'king of over-kings') was himself an over-king of several regional kings (titled'or '), who in turn ruled over several ', whose rulers held the title'or '. The territories and hierarchy of all of these constantly shifted as old dynasties died and new ones formed, and as lower kings took higher positions. Many of these " survived as later Irish baronies.  Several of the regional kings were at various points independent of their provincial over-king and indeed rivalled them in power and territory.'was originally part of Connacht but much of it lay in what is today Ulster. It later split into East and West Bréifne.'(Oriel) and'(also known as the Northern Uí Néill, in contrast to the Southern Uí Néill who ruled ';'or ', both meaning "the North"; '; and Tyrone/') were nominally part of '.'(Ossory) was originally part of ', but lay between'and'and was controlled by both at various points. Dál Riata was also an Irish (sub-)kingdom, which mostly lay in modern Argyll and Bute in Scotland but originated in and initially extended into north-eastern Ireland and was (nominally) subject to '. In the 12th century Munster was split into two smaller over-kingdoms:'(Desmond, literally South Munster) and'(Thomond, literally North Munster).  In addition to the Irish petty kingdoms, there was a Norse presence on the island from the 9th century. They conquered Dublin, where they established the Kingdom of Dublin (Old Norse: ', Old Irish: '), which at various points was closely tied with the Norse Kingdom of Jórvík which was centred on modern York, England. The Norse also controlled several other coastal settlements, including Wexford, Waterford, Cork and Limerick.

Nepal.

Before the unification of Nepal by the Shah Dynasty there were dozens of petty kingdoms. The Karnali region was called the Baise Rajya (, i.e. 22 Kingdoms, and the Gandaki region to the east was called Chaubisi rajya (), i.e. 24 Kingdoms.

Norway.

The petty kingdoms of Norway numbered at least 28:

Serbia.

Medieval Serbia comprised, at various time periods, smaller kingdoms of Rascia, Zeta (Dioclea, corresponding to portions of contemporary Montenegro), Syrmia and the duchy of Hum (roughly corresponding to present-day Herzegovina and some of its surroundings).

Scotland.

There were many petty kingdoms in Scotland before its unification. They can be grouped by language:

Sweden.

According to the Norse sagas, and modern history, Sweden was divided into more-or-less independent units in some areas corresponding to the folklands and the modern traditional provinces. According to the sagas, the folklands and provinces of eastern Svealand were united under the Swedish king at Gamla Uppsala. Moreover, the domains of this king could also include parts of Götaland and even southern Norway. This probably reflects the volatile politics of Iron Age Scandinavia. The province of Småland once consisted of several petty kingdoms; indeed, the name Småland means small lands/countries.

Wales.

Rarely has the country of Wales formed one cohesive kingdom. For the greater part of its history, Wales evolved into four kingdoms, or principalities, following the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century. Mountainous terrain, forested river valleys, and remote upland moors contributed to a strong sense of localism and autonomy, though the Welsh people shared a deeply felt sentiment of nationality, as reflected in Welsh law codified in the 10th century. According to historian Professor John Davies, there are four geographic regions more or less equal in terms of resources and population, from which four principalities emerged: Ynys Môn for Gwynedd, the Severn river valley for Powys, the Vale for Glamorgan and the lands up to the Wye (Morgannwg), and the Ystrad Tywi (Valley of the Tywi) for Deheubarth. Rhodri the Great inherited Gwynedd from his father and Powys through his mother, and married Angharad of Seisyllwg (Ceredigion and Carmarthenshire) and ruling there by right of his wife. Rhodri exerted great influence in the rest of Wales as well, and after his death his realms were divided amongst his sons. Nevertheless, the House of Aberffraw of Gwynedd, as the senior line descendants of Rhodri the Great, claimed overlordship over the whole of Wales, though they would encounter resistance by junior dynasts of Dinefwr. It would not be until the 1216 Council of Aberdyfi that the Aberffraw line under Llywelyn the Great would be able to secure their position as Prince of the Welsh.

Hen Ogledd.

There existed other Brittonic petty kingdoms outside modern Wales and the North West of England. These are collectively known as "" or 'the Old North'. With the exception of "Ystrad Clut", which became part of Scotland in around the 11th century, most of these had been absorbed into Anglo-Saxon kingdoms by the 8th century.

A petty kingdom is a kingdom described as minor or "petty" by contrast to an empire or unified kingdom that either preceded or succeeded it (e.g. the numerous kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon England unified into the Kingdom of England in the 10th century, or the numerous Gaelic kingdoms of Ireland as the Kingdom of Ireland in the 16th century). Alternatively, a petty kingdom would be a minor kingdom in the immediate vicinity of larger kingdoms, such as the medieval Kingdom of Mann and the Isles relative to the kingdoms of Scotland or England or the Viking kingdoms of Scandinavia.

Der lateinische Begriff regulus (Plural "reguli") ist das Deminutiv zu "rex" („König“) und wird im Deutschen gewöhnlich als Kleinkönig wiedergegeben (in der angloamerikanischen Forschung bezeichnet man ihn als "petty king"). In der Regel bezeichnet dies einen Herrscher in Antike oder Mittelalter, der über einen Teilverband eines Stammes herrschte (für den Gegensatz dazu steht der Großkönig), bzw. allgemein den Machthaber eines (zumeist monarchisch geprägten) unabhängigen, aber lokal stark beschränkten Herrschaftsraums in vormoderner Zeit. Das jeweilige Herrschaftsgebiet wird in der Fachliteratur vereinzelt als "Kleinkönigreich" bezeichnet.


Early life.

Born on 27 February 1918 in Edgecliff, New South Wales, Martin left Australia for the United Kingdom in 1939. He intended to study medicine at the University of Edinburgh, but instead volunteered to join the Royal Air Force (RAF) on 28 August 1940.

Military career.

Second World War.

Martin commenced his operational career with No. 455 Squadron RAAF in October 1941, flying the Handley Page Hampden. In February 1942, he captained the first all-Australian crewed bombing sortie against Germany. Martin soon acquired a reputation for low-level flying in order to avoid anti-aircraft fire and fighters. After 13 operations, he and his crew joined No. 50 Squadron RAF. Flying Hampdens, Avro Manchesters, and finally Avro Lancasters, they completed their tour in October 1942, Martin being awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross (DFC).  Martin's penchant for low flying contributed to his selection in March 1943 for assignment to the newly formed No. 617 Squadron under Wing Commander Guy Gibson. Martin took part in the "Dambusters" raid on the night of 16/17 May 1943. He piloted the Lancaster bomber AJ-P "Popsie" (officially known as AJ-P "Peter") in the first formation, which was assigned to attack the Möhne Dam in Western Germany. Martin's plane was hit by anti-aircraft fire during the attack, but he successfully accomplished the bombing run and returned. He was awarded a Distinguished Service Order (DSO) for his actions. Martin was considered one of the best pilots in the squadron and was known for his dry jokes and constant good humour that he exhibited at all times, even when he was under considerable pressure.  Following Gibson's retirement from operations and the immediate loss in action of his successor, Squadron Leader George Holden, Martin assumed temporary command of No. 617 Squadron. Later, under the command of Wing Commander Leonard Cheshire, Martin participated in various pin-point attacks on targets in France, Italy and Germany, often employing the new Tallboy bomb as seen in Operation Garlic. In February 1944, during an attack on the Anthéor railway Viaduct in the French Riviera, Martin's Lancaster was hit by flak, knocking out the two port engines and killing the bomb aimer Bob Hay, while wounding another crew member. Martin could not make the return trip to England, and flew on south toward an RAF base at Corsica before diverting further to the United States Army Air Forces base at Sardinia. The mission was Martin's 49th sortie flying a heavy bomber.  When Martin returned to England he was transferred out of No. 617 Squadron and placed in No. 100 Group's No. 515 Squadron, flying the de Havilland Mosquito on serrate night fighter missions in support of Bomber Command aircraft. By late 1944, Martin had flown another 34 operations, where he claimed two aircraft shot down, and three destroyed (and one damaged) on the ground.

Post-war.

After the war, Martin attended a course at the RAF Staff College in Haifa and in 1945 joined the headquarters staff of No. 100 Group. He broke the speed record for flying from London to Cape Town, completing the 6,717 mile journey in a time of 21 hours, 31 minutes in a Mosquito, for which he won the Oswald Watt Gold Medal and the Britannia Trophy. In 1947 he flew the meteorological Mosquito for the first transatlantic jet crossing in support of No. 54 Squadron's de Havilland Vampires.  Martin was appointed to a succession of staff jobs: Air Attache, Tel Aviv in 1952; Operation Plans Division in 1955; and Group Captain — Electronic Warfare, HQ Signals Command in 1959, before becoming Aide-de-camp to the Queen in 1964. He then served for three years from 1967 to 1970 as Air Officer Commanding No. 38 Group. In 1970 he was appointed Commander-in-Chief RAF Germany and finally, in 1973, Air Member for Personnel.

Later life.

After retiring from the RAF on 31 October 1974, Martin worked for aircraft manufacturer Hawker Siddeley as an advisor. Sir Harold Martin died at his home in London on 3 November 1988, and is buried at Gunnersbury Cemetery. M

Air Marshal Sir Harold Brownlow Morgan "Micky" Martin, (27 February 1918 – 3 November 1988) was an Australian bomber pilot and senior commander in the Royal Air Force (RAF). He took part in Operation Chastise, the RAF's "Dambusters" raid in 1943, and was described by journalist Sir Max Hastings as "one of the three great bomber pilots of the war". He rose to become a senior officer in the RAF, commanding RAF Germany and later serving as Air Member for Personnel, a member of the Air Council, the RAF's controlling body.

Sir Harold Brownlow „Mickie“ Martin KCB DSO DFC AFC (* 27. Februar 1918 in Australien; † 3. November 1988) war ein britischer Luftwaffenoffizier der Royal Air Force, der zuletzt im Range eines Generalleutnants ("Air Marshal") zwischen 1973 und 1974 als "Air Member for Personnel" im Luftwaffenstab und damit auch Mitglied des Luftwaffenausschusses ("Air Force Board") des Verteidigungsministeriums war. Während des Zweiten Weltkrieges war er als Pilot der "No. 617 Squadron", den sogenannten "Dam Busters", in der "Operation Chastise" maßgeblich an der Zerstörung der Möhnetalsperre beteiligt und erhielt hierfür den Distinguished Service Order.