Name.

In Serbian the village is known as "Kljajićevo" (Кљајићево), in Croatian as "Kljajićevo", in Hungarian as "Kerény", and in German as "Kernei" or "Gernei".

History.

Older settlements.

Human settlement in the territory of present-day Kljajićevo has been traced as far back as the Stone Age. In 1391, during the administration of the Kingdom of Hungary, settlement named Szent Király (Sveti Kralj) was mentioned at this location.

Ottoman administration.

During the Ottoman administration (16th–17th centuries), Bačka was part of the Sanjak of Segedin (Szeged). The former Hungarian population escaped during the Ottoman conquest and the area was then populated mostly by ethnic Serbs from the south. The village firstly was mentioned in 1590 in the Ottoman tax-lists (Defters) as "Kernja", a settlement near Sombor. Settlement was also mentioned under name "Krnjaja" in 1601 and was populated by ethnic Serbs. In the early 1700s Serbs managed cattle ranches in this area as part of the Austrian border defenses against the Ottoman Empire, and the area remained sparsely settled until the 1760s when the first Danube Swabians (who called themselves Shwoveh after the Serbian "Svabos" - Švabe) were settled in 100 new houses.

Habsburg administration.

In 1699 the Bačka came into the possession of the Habsburg Monarchy of Austria. After Maria Theresa of Austria assumed the throne in 1740, she encouraged vigorous colonization on crown lands, first of the Military Frontier and then of the whole nearby area, which had low population density after the last Ottoman Wars, as much of the Serb population had been decimated through warfare.  The new settlers in the village were primarily Austrians, Hungarians, and Bohemians from the greater empire; however, the German-speaking settlers were commonly referred to as Danube Swabian and came to call themselves Schwowe (Shwoveh). In 1763, the Imperial Advisor Anton von Cothmann, proposed to his Empress Theresia that Kernei and the surrounding territory should be settled. According to the "Conscriptio" from December 21, 1765 a new village was resettled and newly founded with 17 families, 57% of its inhabitants were ethnic Germans. Among those there were farmers, 2 smiths, 1 carpenter 1 weaver and one innkeeper. The village now was called “Kernjaja” or "Kernyaja". For the next decades, the number of settlers increased yearly, to 291 families coming to live in Kernjaja between 1794/1796, among them 83% Germans, 11% Hungarians and 6% Bohemians.  Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor from Austria extended the village with 78 new houses. The Catholic Church was built in 1791. Although the settlement had many official names it was always called "Gernei" and written Kernei by its Shwovish inhabitants until 1945. At the beginning of 1767 pupils were taught in the cantor's house. The new school was built in 1911. The church has since been converted into an Orthodox Christian church.  In the year 1805, Kernei had 2,000 inhabitants. When the number of people reached 3,500 in 1850, the proportion of the population from other nationalities was less than 5 percent. At that time there were roughly 50 Jews in the village, with their own graveyard and street, but the last Jews left sometime around 1910. The first migration away from Kernei into newly established settlements began around 1866. Around the turn of the century and thereafter, the great wave of emigration to North America began. There was a steady rise and fall in the numbers of the population so that it did not reach the 5,000 mark until 1910.

Yugoslav administration.

In 1918, as part of Banat, Bačka and Baranja, Krnjaja became part of the Kingdom of Serbia, which later together with the Kingdom of Montenegro and the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs formed the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (renamed to Yugoslavia in 1929). Between 1929 and 1941, the village was part of the Danube Banovina, one of the provinces of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.

World War II.

In 1941/42, the population of the village totaled about 6,000. When Axis Powers invaded and partitioned Yugoslavia in 1941, Krnjaja was placed under Hungarian administration. Under an agreement between Germany and Hungary, a local Nazi, Karl Gartner, became the "Ortsleiter" / "Town Leader" of Kernei. In October 1944 about half of the town fled the advancing Russian and Partisan armies. Another approximately 1000 men were in the German SS and Armed forces fighting the Russians and Partisans, and so away from the town. During the Battle of Batina, the front was stretched all the way to Apatin and Bogojevo, and these places became military bases overnight. Many Kerneiers were forced to work on the front lines digging trenches and clearing roads. After October 1944, and the arrival of Yugoslav partisans, Krnjaja came under Yugoslav military administration. In December 1944, 340 young men and women were forcibly enslaved as war reparations to the Soviet Union to work in labor camps. On March 3, 1945 2,325 Kerneiers were interned in Gakovo and Kruševlje. 242 Kerneiers, mainly Hungarian, were left in Kernei and not interned in the camps. Many, perhaps most, of the internees gradually escaped in 1946 and 47 after 706 died in the camps, mainly in 1945 to 1946.  The antifascist council for the liberation of Yugoslavia (AVNOJ) declared its mainly Danube Swabian population German public enemies and voided their citizenship and all civil rights.

Modern Kljajićevo.

After World War II, Krnjaja became part of the new Socialist Yugoslavia, within the People's Republic of Serbia and the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina. In this time, Serbs from Croatia (Lika, Gorski Kotar, Žumberak, and Kordun) began living in the abandoned, expropriated buildings in the village. The current name of the village, Kljajićevo, was introduced in 1949 and derives from Miloš Kljajić, a popular hero who was born in Kordun and was killed in Žumberak in 1944. The streets are still lined with the acacia trees planted by the Shwovish settlers, and they bloom in magnificent profusion in the spring.

Kljajićevo (Serbian Cyrillic: Кљајићево) is a village in Serbia. It is situated in the Sombor municipality, in the West Bačka District, Vojvodina province. The village has a Serb ethnic majority and its population numbered 6,012 people (2002 census).

Kljajićevo (), vormals Krnjaja, ist ein Dorf in der Gemeinde (Opština) Sombor im Bezirk West-Batschka (Zapadna Bačka) der autonomen Provinz Vojvodina in Serbien mit etwa 6000 Einwohnern. Auf Deutsch heißt der Ort Kernei, auf Ungarisch Kerény. Maria Theresia ließ den Ort 1765 mit Schwaben besiedeln, 1944 war er von rund 6.300 Donauschwaben bewohnt. Kernei hat, wie die meisten donauschwäbischen Orte, mehrere Namen, auch durch Dialekt abgewandelt: Kernyáya, Kornau, Kernai, Gorni-Szentkirály, Kernyája, Szentkirálya, Királya.


Taxonomy.

The correct scientific name of this species has been argued to be "Andrias scheuchzeri" (in which case "Andrias davidianus" would be a junior synonym) – a name otherwise restricted to an extinct species described from Swiss fossils. It has also been given the moniker of "living fossil" for being part of the family Cryptobranchidae which dates back 170 million years. It is one of only four to five known extant species of the family, the others being the slightly smaller, but otherwise very similar Japanese giant salamander ("Andrias japonicus"), the slightly larger South China giant salamander ("A. sligoi"), an undescribed species from eastern China, and the far smaller North American hellbender ("Cryptobranchus alleganiensis").  A 2018 study of mitochondrial DNA revealed that there are five wild clades of the Chinese giant salamander, as well as two only known from captives (their possible wild range is unknown). They diverged from each other 4.71–10.25 million years ago and should possibly be recognized as cryptic species. Despite this deep divergence, they can hybridize among each other, and also with the Japanese giant salamander. One of these clades was identified in 2019 as "Andrias sligoi", a species described in 1924 by Edward George Boulenger and later synonymized with "A. davidianus", with the study supporting its revival as a distinct taxon. Another as-of-yet undescribed species was also identified that formerly inhabited rivers originating from the Huangshan mountains in eastern China.

Description.

It has a large head, small eyes, and dark, wrinkly skin. Its flat, broad head has a wide mouth, round, lidless eyes, and a line of paired tubercles that run around its head and throat. Its color is typically dark brown with a mottled or speckled pattern, but it can also be other brownish tones, dark reddish, or black. Albinos, which are white or orange, have been recorded. All species of giant salamanders produce a sticky, white skin secretion that repels predators.  The average adult salamander weighs and is in length. It can reach up to in weight and in length, making it the largest amphibian species. The longest recently documented Chinese giant salamander, kept at a farm in Zhangjiajie, was in 2007. At, both this individual, and a long, individual found in a remote cave in Chongqing in December 2015, surpassed the species' typically reported maximum weight.  The giant salamander is known to vocalize, making barking, whining, hissing, or crying sounds. Some of these vocalizations bear a striking resemblance to the crying of a young human child, and as such, it is known in the Chinese language as the "infant fish" (娃娃鱼 / 鲵).

Behavior.

Feeding.

The Chinese giant salamander has been recorded feeding on insects, millipedes, horsehair worms, amphibians (both frogs and salamanders), freshwater crabs, shrimp, fish (such as "Saurogobio" and "Cobitis") and Asiatic water shrew. Presumably ingested by mistake, plant material and gravel have also been found in their stomachs. Cannibalism is frequent; in a study of 79 specimens from the Qinling–Dabashan range, the stomach content of five included remains of other Chinese giant salamanders and this made up 28% of the combined weight of all food items in the study. The most frequent items in the same study were freshwater crabs (found in 19 specimens), which made up 23% of the combined weight of all food items.  It has very poor eyesight, so it depends on special sensory nodes that run in a line on the body from head to tail. It is capable of sensing the slightest vibrations around it with the help of these nodes. Based on a captive study, most activity is from the earlier evening to the early night. Most individuals stop feeding at water temperatures above and feeding ceases almost entirely at. Temperatures of are lethal to Chinese giant salamanders.

Breeding and lifecycle.

Both sexes maintain a territory, averaging for males and for females. The reproductive cycle is initiated when the water temperature reaches and mating occurs between July and September. The female lays 400–500 eggs in an underwater breeding cavity, which is guarded by the male until the eggs hatch after 50–60 days. When laid, the eggs measure in diameter, but they increase to about double that size by absorbing water. When hatching, the larvae are about long and external gills remain until a length of about at an age of 3 years. Maturity is reached at an age of 5 to 6 years and a length of. The maximum age reached by Chinese giant salamanders is unknown, but it is at least 60 years based on captive individuals. Undocumented claims have been made of 200-year-old Chinese giant salamanders, but these are considered unreliable.

Distribution and habitat.

The Chinese giant salamander species complex comprises five clades, with multiple possibly worthy of species recognition. Their native ranges differ, but release of Chinese giant salamanders from captivity has complicated this picture. They were widespread in central, south-western and southern China, although their range is now highly fragmented. Their range spans the area from Qinghai east to Jiangsu and south to Sichuan, Guangxi and Guangdong; notably in the basins of the Yangtze, Yellow and Pearl Rivers. One is from the Pearl River basin (at least in Guangxi), two from the Yellow River basin, one from the Yangtze River basin (at least in Chongqing and Guizhou) and the final from the Qiantang River (at least in Anhui). Two additional clades are only known from captivity (their wild range is unknown) and no samples are available for the population in the Tibetan Plateau. A 2019 study has identified that the Yangtze River clade comprises the "true" "A. davidianus", the Pearl River clade comprises "A. sligoi", and the Qiantang clade comprises the undescribed Huangshan Mountains species.  Finds in Taiwan may be the result of introduction. Chinese giant salamanders have been introduced to the Kyoto Prefecture in Japan where they present a threat to the native Japanese giant salamander, as the two hybridize.  The Chinese giant salamander is entirely aquatic and lives in rocky hill streams and lakes with clear water. It typically lives in dark muddy or rocky crevices along the banks. It is usually found in forested regions at altitudes of, with most records between. There is an isolated population at an altitude of in Qinghai (Tibetan Plateau), but its taxonomic position is uncertain and the site likely does not support giant salamanders anymore due to pollution.  The salamanders prefer to live in streams of small width (on average, across), quick flow, and little depth (on average, deep). Water temperature varies depending on season, with typical range at low elevation sites being from and at high elevation sites from. Although they prefer to have quick flow in the stream, the burrows in which they lay their eggs often have much slower flow. Furthermore, their habitat often possesses very rocky, irregular stream beds with a lot of gravel and small rocks as well as some vegetation. Chinese giant salamanders are also known from subterranean rivers. As populations in aboveground rivers and lakes are more vulnerable to poaching, there are some parts of China where only the subterranean populations remain.

In captivity.

Farming.

Very large numbers are being farmed in China, but most of the breeding stock are either wild-caught or first-generation captive-bred. This is partially explained by the fact that the industry is relatively new, but some farms have also struggled to produce second-generation captive-bred offspring. Registrations showed that 2.6 million Chinese giant salamanders were kept in farms in 2011 in Shaanxi alone, far surpassing the entire countrywide wild population estimated at less than 50,000 individuals. Shaanxi farms (mainly in the Qinling Mountain region) accounted for about 70% of the total output in China in 2012, but there are also many farms in Guizhou and several in other provinces. Among 43 south Shaanxi farms surveyed, 38 bred the species in 2010 and each produced an average of c. 10,300 larvae that year. Farming of Chinese giant salamanders, herbs and mushrooms are the three most important economic activities in Shaanxi's Qinling Mountain region, and many thousands of families rely on the giant salamander farms for income. The giant salamander farming mainly supplies the food market, but whether this can be achieved to an extent where the pressure on the wild populations is reduced is doubtful. Release of captive-bred Chinese giant salamanders is supported by the government (8,000 were released in Shaanxi in 2011 alone), but represent a potential risk to the remaining wild population, as diseases such as "Ranavirus" are known from many farms. The vast majority of the farmed Chinese giant salamanders, almost 80% based on a study published in 2018, are of Yellow River origin (the so-called haplotype B), although those from other regions also occur. Farms have generally not considered this issue when releasing giant salamanders and Yellow River animals now dominate in some regions outside their original range, further endangering the native types. Additionally, release of untreated wastewater from farms may spread diseases to wild Chinese giant salamanders.

In zoos and aquariums.

As of early 2008, Species360 records show only five individuals held in US zoos (Zoo Atlanta, Cincinnati Zoo, and Saint Louis Zoological Park), and an additional four in European zoos (Dresden Zoo and Rotterdam Zoo); as well as one in the State Museum of Natural History Karlsruhe, where it is also the museum's mascot.  As of 2019, London Zoo holds four individuals (one of them on display) that were seized from an illegal importation of amphibians in 2016. A medium-sized individual, approximately long, was kept for several years at the Steinhart Aquarium in San Francisco, California, and is now on display again in the "Water Planet" section of the new California Academy of Sciences building. There are also two in residence at the Los Angeles Zoo. Additional individuals are likely kept in non-Species360 zoos and animals parks in its native China, such as Shanghai Zoo. Several of them are kept in the aquaria of Shanghai and Xian. The Osaka Aquarium Kaiyukan in Japan has both a Chinese and a Japanese giant salamander on display, as does the Saitama aquarium in Hanyū, Saitama.  Since May 2014, 33 Chinese giant salamanders, including three adults, have been held in Prague Zoo. The main attraction is the largest individual in Europe, which is long.

Decline in population.

In the past, the Chinese giant salamander was fairly common and widespread in China. Since the 1950s, the population has declined rapidly due to habitat destruction and overhunting. It has been listed as Critically Endangered in the "Chinese Red Book of Amphibians and Reptiles". Despite the Chinese Government listing the salamander as a Class II Protected Species, 100 salamanders are hunted illegally every year in the Hupingshan Natural Nature Reserve alone. Since the 1980s, 14 nature reserves have been established as an effort to conserve the species. Despite this, the population continues to decline with the salamanders becoming increasingly difficult to find. In a recent survey of the species in the Qinghai Province, none were found indicating the population size is at a significantly low number or the species is locally extinct in the province. This is believed to be due to the increased mining in the region.  In recent years populations have also declined with an epizootic "Ranavirus" infection. The disease causes severe hemorrhaging in both juveniles and adult salamanders. The virus was named the Chinese giant salamander iridovirus (GSIV).  Its natural range has suffered in the past few decades due to habitat loss and overharvesting. Consequently, many salamanders are now farmed in mesocosms across China. Furthermore, previously built concrete dams that destroyed the salamander's habitat are now fitted with stairs so that the animal can easily navigate the dam and make it back to its niche.  The Chinese giant salamander is listed as a critically endangered species. It has experienced a drastic population decline, which is estimated to be more than 80% in the last 3 generations due to human causes. Human consumption is the main threat to the Chinese giant salamander. They are considered to be a luxury food item, as well as an important source of traditional medicines in China. They are easy to hunt, so catching them is not a problem. Breeding Chinese giant salamanders is a large industry with thousands of breeding and many enterprises.

Habitat destruction.

According to a recent study, 90% of the Chinese giant salamanders' habitat was destroyed by the year 2000, and there are many human-related causes of such massive destruction. Because the salamander dwells in free-flowing streams, industrialization is a large problem for many stream-dwelling species. The construction of dams greatly disturbs their habitat by either causing these streams to dry up or to stand still, thus making it uninhabitable by the salamanders. Siltation also contributes to the degradation of their habitats by soiling the water. Deforestation in areas near the streams can worsen soil erosion and create runoff into the streams as well, which reduces the water quality to a great extent. The reduced water quality makes it much more difficult for the salamanders to absorb oxygen through their skin and can often bring death to those within the species.  Water pollution is also a great factor in the habitat destruction of the Chinese giant salamander; the immense decline in their population can be traced to, among the other major problems of over-hunting and failed conservation efforts, the tainting of the water that they live in. Mining activity in particular in areas near their streams often causes runoff that sullies the water, and farming—and all of the pesticides and chemicals that affect the soil that come with it—has a vastly negative effect on the areas near the streams as well. The presence of macronutrients in the streams can also cause algal blooms, which cloud the water and force the temperature to rise. The salamanders reside primarily in very cold underwater cavities and follow a specific nesting requirement, which means that they will only reproduce and care for their eggs in areas such as these, so changes in temperature are incredibly detrimental to their health and well-being as well as to their perpetuation as a species. These algal blooms also deplete the levels of oxygen in the water, and a lesser supply of oxygen can quite easily hold the potential to kill off many members of the dwindling species.  Many efforts have been undertaken to create reserves and faux habitats for the Chinese giant salamander so that they can reproduce without worry of soiled water, but many of these reserves have failed in having a great impact overall due to the massive overhunting of the species. No matter how many members of the species they manage to save through the reserves, the poachers still manage to capture and kill that many more. Although habitat destruction is certainly not assisting in the perpetuation of the species, it is certainly not the biggest obstacle that the Chinese giant salamander faces in its quest to avoid extinction.

Climate change.

Like other amphibians, the Chinese giant salamander is ectothermic. Most Chinese giant salamanders stop feeding at water temperatures above and feeding ceases almost entirely at. Temperatures of are lethal to Chinese giant salamanders. As a consequence, the species is vulnerable to global warming.

Overhunting.

One of the main reasons that the Chinese giant salamander, "Andrias davidianus", has been placed on the critically endangered list by the International Union for Conservation of Nature is overhunting. 75% of native species in China are harvested for food. The salamander is also used for traditional medicinal purposes. In 1989, the Chinese government placed legal protection on the salamander (category II due to its population decline by The Wild Animal Protection Law of China and Appendix I in the Convention of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna.).  But the salamander populations have continued to decline. The domestic demand for salamander meat and body parts greatly exceeds what can sustainably be harvested from the wild. Commercial captive breeding operations so far still rely on the regular introduction of new wild-caught breeding adults, because captive-bred animals have proven difficult to mate. In addition, salamander farms would need to increase their yield manifold before the black-market price of poached salamander drop significantly, meaning that a stricter enforcement of anti-poaching law is still very much the future for the Chinese giant salamander.  China's penalty for illegally hunting these creatures is very low and only comes to 50 yuan, or about US$6, which is less than hundred times less the black-market price of a salamander. Establishments such as restaurants can charge up to $250–$400 per kg.  A hunting tool known as a bow hook is one of the preferred methods used by hunters to catch the salamander. This hunting tool is made with a combination of bamboo and sharp hooks baited with frogs or smaller fish. This is used to capture the salamander and keep it alive. Some hunters use pesticides to kill the salamander.  Farmers often poach wild salamanders to stock their breeding programs, while others are hunted as food. In May 2018, CNET reported that Chinese giant salamanders were being poached and eaten into extinction, after an extensive study found they were nearly extinct in the wild. In the study, the Zoological Society of London and the Kunming Institute of Zoology in China studied sites in 16 provinces over four years. The researchers had been unable to confirm survival of wild salamanders at any of the 97 sites they surveyed. The study also brought up worries that commercial farms and conservation programs were crossbreeding what they described as five distinct species of Chinese giant salamanders. All the wild populations studied were found "critically depleted or extirpated" by the study. A related study found that some of the five distinct genetic lineages were probably already extinct in the wild.

Conservation efforts.

To understand the conservation efforts in China, it is important to know something about the events of the several past hundred years of China's history relating to social attitudes, pressures on nature and natural resources, and the political ambition to safeguard the natural environment. Each of these are significant factors and determinants of conservation efforts. Up until the year 1700, China was a country that was rampant with land reclamations, growing land exploitation, and wars. These series of events led to a huge upsurge in the diminishing of the natural biomass and as well as a reduction in spatial distribution of biotic resources. The significance of this situation was that this drastic dwindling of resources made the people of this region aware of the relationship between utilization and conservation. From 1911 to 1949, China began to move into the direction of modern industry, urbanization, civil wars, and agriculture. This transition period brought with it the depletion and disappearance of various renewable resources, as well as the pollution of various biotopes. This lack of conservation eventually led to a deteriorating environment, which meant lower standards of living for the Chinese population. This is the point when both the government and the people of China came to the epiphany that the environment matters. It was not until 1956 that modern nature conservation efforts begin to develop.  The Chinese reforms that preceded this new Chinese perspective on conservation were not only beneficial to the Chinese giant salamander, but all organisms that occupied the natural environment of China. There was a formation of a new administrative system for nature conservation, which came together in the late 1950s. This new structure was able to establish new regulations that aimed at being successful in educating the masses about the value and significance of nature conservation, promoting awareness on the present status of various species, as well as prohibiting anti-conservation efforts such as hunting and trading of protected species such as the Chinese giant salamander. Some examples would be the Environmental Protection Law of 1979, Regulation of Water and Soil Conservation of 1982, Forestry Law of 1985, as well as the Wildlife Conservation Law of 1988. It was during this time period that the Chinese giant salamander was categorized as a category II species. All these species are endangered because their population is declining or their geographic distribution is becoming restricted.  In the midst of all these conservation efforts, in the late 1970s, a program network of nature reserves was established in China. These reserves were established to uphold four major principles.  Many of these reservations were created for the overall protection of all endangered species of China and the conservation of the natural world they occupy. A few more reservations were made specifically with the idea of preserving Chinese giant salamander populations. Beginning in the 1980s, there have been more than 14 nature reserves established for the conservation of the Chinese giant salamander, such as the Zhangjiaje Giant Salamander Nature Reserve, Lushi Giant Salamander Nature Reserve, Qingyaoshan Giant Salamander Nature Reserve, Youyang Giant Salamander Nature Reserve, and the Taibai Giant Salamander Nature Reserve.  Though many efforts have been put forward, very few regulations have actually been enforced. Due to lack of strong influential regulations and lack of funding, the conservation of the Chinese giant salamander has all but failed. They continue to have major decline in their populations due to human intervention of many different sorts. Even nature reserves continue to see diminution of populations. Many of the reserves suffer from the same issues, such as shortage of funding and personnel, poaching, development of tourism, etc. Few believe that even with the major losses already suffered, the situation can still be turned around through proper protection of the Chinese giant salamander habitats, nesting sites, prevention of pollution from surface runoff, banning of certain hunting methods, and an assessment of irrigation work with nature reserves. Some believe that there also need to be more surveys carried out that institutes the conservation status and demography of the salamander, as well as having a holistic view of the life history of this species. Others say that a public information campaign is needed to better educate local inhabitants. Construction has begun on the largest artificial breeding and protection base for the endangered giant salamander in China. The base in Jing'an County, in the eastern province of Jiangxi, will breed the amphibians for scientific research, the traditional Chinese medicine industry and for exhibition in aquariums. Located in the Sanzhaolun Forest Park, the 10.83 million yuan (1.35 million U.S. dollars) project is intended to breed 60,000 giant salamanders annually when it is completed by the end of next year. The base, covering 10,000 square meters, would boost efforts to save the world's largest amphibian from extinction, said Li Xinfa, head of the Jing'an County Giant Salamander Research Center. The number of wild giant salamanders has declined rapidly due to their value as a source of traditional Chinese medicine ingredients and as food, and due to poaching, loss of habitat and pollution. It has been put on the list of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, and it is under state protection in China. EDGE (Evolutionarily Distinct & Globally Endangered) aims to ensure the future of this salamander by helping to create an environmental education programme encouraging sustainable management of wild populations.

The Chinese giant salamander ("Andrias davidianus") is one of the largest salamanders and one of the largest amphibians in the world. It is fully aquatic and is endemic to rocky mountain streams and lakes in the Yangtze river basin of central China. Either it or a close relative has been introduced to Kyoto Prefecture in Japan and Taiwan. It is considered critically endangered in the wild due to habitat loss, pollution, and overcollection, as it is considered a delicacy and used in traditional Chinese medicine. On farms in central China, it is extensively farmed and sometimes bred, although many of the salamanders on the farms are caught in the wild. It has been listed as one of the top-10 "focal species" in 2008 by the Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered project. The Chinese giant salamander is considered to be a "living fossil". Although protected under Chinese law and CITES Appendix I, the wild population has declined by more than an estimated 80% since the 1950s. Although traditionally recognized as one of two living species of "Andrias" salamander in Asia, the other being the Japanese giant salamander, evidence indicates that the Chinese giant salamander may be composed of at least five cryptic species, further compounding each individual species' endangerment.

Der Chinesische Riesensalamander ("Andrias davidianus"; bzw. ) ist das größte rezente Amphibium der Welt und damit auch der größte heute vorkommende Schwanzlurch.


Early life, education, and career.

Kohl was born and raised in Milwaukee, the son of Mary (née Hiken) and Max Kohl. His father was a Polish Jewish immigrant and his mother was a Russian Jewish immigrant. He attended Washington High School. He earned a Bachelor of Science degree from the University of Wisconsin in 1956 and a Master of Business Administration degree from Harvard Business School in 1958. While an undergraduate, he joined the Pi Lambda Phi fraternity. He was also a roommate of Major League Baseball Commissioner Bud Selig. Between 1958 and 1964, Kohl was a member of the United States Army Reserve.  After finishing graduate school, Kohl worked as an investor in real estate and the stock market, eventually spinning off his own company, Kohl Investments, to manage these assets. He and his brother became heir to a family-owned chain that included 50 grocery stores and several department stores, pharmacies and liquor stores. In 1970, Kohl was named president of Kohl's and served until the corporation was sold to BATUS Inc. (formerly British American Tobacco).  Kohl purchased the Milwaukee Bucks from Jim Fitzgerald in 1985 for $18 million to ensure the team remained in Milwaukee. In 2003, he considered an offer to sell the team to former NBA superstar Michael Jordan, but decided to retain ownership. On April 16, 2014, Kohl agreed to sell the Bucks for $550 million to New York-based billionaires Wesley Edens and Marc Lasry. Kohl was elected to the Wisconsin Athletic Hall of Fame in 2007.

Early political career.

Kohl served as Chairman of the Wisconsin Democratic Party between 1975 and 1977.

Political positions.

Kohl has been described as a populist-leaning liberal.  Kohl supported President Barack Obama's health reform legislation; he voted for the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act in December 2009, and he voted for the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010.

Fiscal policy.

He has voted in favor of most lawsuit reform measures as well as for rules tightening personal bankruptcy. He has long supported amending the U.S. Constitution to require a balanced budget. He was one of the few Democrats to vote for the tax cut passed in 2001, and he also supported the elimination of the "marriage penalty." Despite these views, he has been seen as generally supportive of progressive taxation. Like many moderate Democrats, he voted in favor of the welfare reform measures in the mid-1990s. He is also not opposed to the creation of individual, private savings accounts to supplement Social Security.  Kohl has generally had a pro-environmental record and has been an outspoken proponent of American energy independence. He supports increased production of hydrogen cars, establishing a federal goal for reducing oil consumption by 40 percent, and disallowing oil speculation in protected areas. However, he has voted against Corporate Average Fuel Economy standards. Kohl has been rated highly by groups that desire universal health care. He has voted in favor of expanding Medicare and SCHIP and has desired that prescription drugs be included under federal health coverage. During his 2006 re-election campaign, Kohl advocated that HMOs be placed under more scrutiny in order to determine if they're effectively delivering care.

Social policy.

Kohl is strongly pro-choice and opposes the death penalty. He is highly in favor of affirmative action and supports setting aside funds for women and minorities. Although he voted in favor of the 1996 Defense of Marriage Act, Kohl rejected the recent proposal to amend the U.S. Constitution to define marriage as between one man and one woman and has supported measures that ban discrimination based on sexual orientation. Kohl has consistently voted against the flag desecration amendment and in recent years has voted against restrictions on travel to Cuba and funding for TV Martí. In 2005, he secured a victory for one of his main causes: requiring handguns to be sold with child safety locks. The amendment was attached to the Protection of Lawful Commerce in Arms Act, with every Democrat and many Republicans voting in favor of the amendment. Earlier in his career, he helped push the Gun-Free Schools Act which the U.S. Supreme Court overturned in 1995 and has submitted many amendments to that effect. He is a strong supporter of public education and has rejected school vouchers. Kohl has voted in favor of allowing for the establishment of educational savings accounts.

Foreign policy.

Kohl has voted against many free trade agreements including the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and more recently the Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) and voted against the Freedom to Farm Act in 1996. However, he has also supported fast tracking trade normalization with China and establishing free trade with some smaller countries of the developing world. He voted in 2002 to authorize military force in Iraq; however, he voted against authorizing the Gulf War in 1990. Kohl has voted on a number of occasions with more liberal Democrats to reduce military spending, voting against 1996 defense appropriations increases and supporting a veto of funding new military projects. Despite having been among the 98 U.S. Senators who voted for the PATRIOT Act, Kohl subsequently opposed this legislation and has voted to require warrants for wiretapping or the detention of prisoners.

Political campaigns.

Kohl won election to the U.S. Senate in 1988 with his trademark catchphrase "Nobody's Senator But Yours". He was re-elected in 1994, 2000 and 2006. He did not seek re-election in 2012.

Personal life.

Kohl is the wealthiest resident of Milwaukee, the richest Jewish American from Wisconsin, and was one of the wealthiest U.S. Senators. In 2016, "Forbes" estimated Kohl's net worth to be around $630 million to $1.5 billion.  On May 13, 2011, Kohl announced he would not run for re-election in 2012, saying, "The office doesn't belong to me. It belongs to the people of Wisconsin, and there is something to be said for not staying in office too long."  Kohl has never married.

Philanthropy.

Kohl donated $25 million to the University of Wisconsin–Madison for construction of its new sports arena, which was named the Kohl Center. In 1990, Kohl established the Herb Kohl Educational Foundation Achievement Award Program, which provides annual grants totaling $400,000 to 200 graduating seniors, 100 teachers and 100 schools throughout Wisconsin. In 2016, he gave $1.5 million to the La Follette School of Public Affairs to create the Herb Kohl Public Service Research Competition, promoting public policy research.  Kohl surprised Wisconsin teachers in 2016 by funding every request — nearly 700 of them — to underwrite classroom projects in 140 districts through the website DonorsChoose.

Herbert H. Kohl (born February 7, 1935) is an American businessman and politician. Alongside the help of his brother and father, the Kohl family created the Kohl's Department Stores chain and Kohl went on to be president and CEO of Kohl's. Kohl is a former United States Senator from Wisconsin and a member of the Democratic Party. Kohl is also a billionaire and the former owner of the Milwaukee Bucks of the National Basketball Association. He chose not to seek re-election in 2012 and was succeeded by fellow Democrat Tammy Baldwin.

Herbert H. „Herb“ Kohl (* 7. Februar 1935 in Milwaukee, Wisconsin) ist ein US-amerikanischer Unternehmer, Politiker der Demokratischen Partei und Philanthrop.


Sociohistorical context.

The Theatre du Soleil was founded as a theatre collective in 1964, in the midst of cultural turmoil that was sweeping the western world. With the capitalist west and the Communist east locked in the midst of the Cold War, nuclear warfare was imminent while the whole of Europe was slowly recovering from the destruction of World War II. In 1965 Charles de Gaulle was re-elected President of France in the first election with direct popular vote for the office. The year 1968, a watershed for protests and turmoil around the world, was characterized by rebellion against conventional culture, huge political demonstrations, and labor strikes in France involving 11 million workers, students, and far-left politicians. It was in the middle of this period of uncertainty, changing cultural attitudes, and disillusionment that Mnouchkine, a student in land, started Le Theatre du Soleil with her peers who were interested in creating original theatre.

Timeline.

1964: Le Theatre du Soleil is established  1964–65: "Les Petits Bourgeois" presented at Théâtre Mouffetard  1965–66: "Capitaine Fracasse" presented at the Theater Récamier  1967: "La Cuisine" presented at Cirque de Montmartre  1968: "Le Songe d'une Nuit d'Ete (A Midsummer's Night's Dream)" "L'Arbre Sorcier, Jerome et la Tortue"  1969–70: "Les Clowns" presented at Festival d'Avignon, Piccolo Teatro de Milan  1970–1971: Le Theatre du Soleil moves to their permanent base, la Cartoucherie, a former munitions factory on the outskirts of Paris  "1789" opens in La Cartoucherie.  1974: Film version of "1789" released  1975: "L'Age d'Or"  1976–77: "Don Juan"  1978 "Molière," film directed by Ariane Mnouchkine and starring Philippe Caubère, presents the biography of Moliere. It was in competition for the Palme d'Or at Cannes in 1978.  1979–80: "Mephisto, Le Roman d'une Carriere"  1981–84: Translated works of Shakespeare are presented in cycles, including "Richard II" and "Henry IV" Parts 1 and 2  1985–86: "L'Histoire Terrible Mais Inachevee de Norodom Sihanouk, Roi du Cambodge"  1987–88: "L'Indiade ou L'Inde de leurs Reves"  1989: Film version of "La Nuit Miraculeuse"  1990–93: Cycle "Les Atrides" (including "Ipighenie a Aulis, Agamemnon, Les Choephores", and "Les Eumenides")  1993: "L'Inde, de Pere en Fils, de Mere en Fille"  1994: "La Ville perjure ou le Reveil des Erinyes"  1996–97: Film "Au Soleil Meme la Nuit"  1997–98: " Et Soudain des Nuits d'Eveil" "Tout est Bien qui Finit Bien"  1999–2002: "La Ville Parjure ou le Reveil des Erinyes" "Tambours sur la Digue"  2003–2006: "Le Dernier Caravanserail (Odyssees)" " Le Fleuve Cruel" "Origines et Destins"  2007–2009: "Les Ephemeres"  2008 : Film "L'Aventure du Theatre du Soleil"  2010–2011: "Les Naufrages du Fol Espoir" (reached 200th performance in February 2011)  March 19–22 – Japanese kyogen troupe, hosted by Le Theatre du Soleil at La Cartoucherie, performs traditional kyogen pieces and an adaptation of Shakespeare's "The Comedy of Errors"  May 4 – Company tour begins in Nantes  2014-2015: "Macbeth"  2016-2019: "Une Chambre en Inde" (A Room in India, performed in New York City in December 2017, at the Park Avenue Armory  2018: Kanata (directed by Robert Lepage, with the troupe of Théâtre du Soleil)

Mission and philosophy.

Founded by Ariane Mnouchkine, The Theatre du Soleil was founded in the 1960s as a reaction against traditional theatrical institutions in France. Although they have never presented a formalized mission statement, from their inception they have been characterized by a commitment to long-term collaborative rehearsal processes; the merging of a wide variety of art forms both Western and non-Western, including music, dance, and puppetry; actively communicating and mingling with their audiences; and maintaining a large, hierarchy-free company that lives together and equally shares the work of creating their productions. Company members describe working for the Theatre du Soleil as "a style of life", while a reviewer for "The New York Times" said of their production "Les Ephemeres": "The aim here is not to shape life into taut dramatic form but to present lived experience intimately and without evidence of artists' interpretation and manipulation." Mnouchkine summarized the philosophy of the organization as "Theatre du Soleil is the dream of living, working, being happy and searching for beauty and for goodness....It's trying to live for higher purposes, not for richness. It's very simple, really."  The company's productions have included both re-imaginings of classics of Western theatre such as Shakespeare's "Richard II" and Moliere's "Tartuffe", but the company is equally well known for their original works. The collective, consisting of 70 members as of July 2009, takes the concept and direction for their original productions from founder Ariane Mnouchkine, and works together in a collaborative rehearsal process that stretches out over many months to create a finished performance event. For example, their six-hour-long 2005 production "Le Dernier Caravansérail (Odyssées)" was based on a compilation of letters and interviews collected by Mnouchkine and her colleagues from refugee camps from around the world, while "Les Ephemeres" in 2009 was based on nine months of improvisations stemming from Mnouchkine's question: What would you do if you found out that all of humanity would die out within three months?  At other times, they provocatively, directly comment on contemporary events, such as their production of Tartuffe in which the title character was presented as an Islamic zealot at a time when there was a movement in France against foreign immigration. They have drawn inspiration from non-Western cultures, such as when they used bunraku-style puppetry in their production "Tambours sur la Digue." The company's emphasis on movement and physical theatre is in part due to Mnouchkine's study under Jacques Lecoq. Their performances also frequently feature direct contact between the actors and the audience members, whether through a dressing and makeup area that is open to the public's view or lunch for both actors and audience served at intermission. Beyond their production process, part of the company's philosophy includes communal living and a complete lack of hierarchy for every member of the organization. All employees, whether actors, administrators, or technicians, are paid the exact same wage, and must sometimes go without a salary for months when the company is not performing and earning income. The company lives together in shared housing and equally shares the work of cooking, cleaning, and otherwise maintaining their living space. In addition, all performers do technical work on productions, such as maintaining moving set pieces for "Les Ephemeres".

Major works.

The Theatre du Soleil's premiere performance was in 1964–65 with "Les Petits Bourgeois". The company's first widely recognized production was in 1967 with Arnold Wesker's 1957 play "The Kitchen". They continued on to form a theatre collective and produce their first major success "1789", a show about the French Revolution. Their performance suggested "the Revolution was subverted by those more concerned about property than justice". Another of the company's most famous works was "Les Atrides". This was made up of Euripides' "Iphigenia at Aulis" and Aeschylus' "The Oresteia". The production took over two years to mount, played in numerous countries including the United States and Germany, and integrated several forms of Asian dance and drama. In 2005, Le Theatre du Soleil presented "Le Dernier Caravanserail (Odyssees)" or "The Last Caravansary (Odysseys)."  One of the company's most recent major works was their production of "Les Ephemeres" created and directed by Ariane Mnouchkine. The show premiered at the 2009 Lincoln Center Festival. "Les Ephemeres" is centered on the river of time with its events both past and present. The Village Voice characterized the show's theme as "To go with the flow, to accept the fact that time is the great devastator. "Tout passe, tout casse, tout basse", says a French proverb: Everything passes, everything breaks, everything sinks." The performance is split in two three-and-a-half-hour-long sections with the full run time just over seven hours long.

Major players.

While Ariane Mnouchkine, acknowledged as the founder of the troupe, regularly acts as the company's concept creator and director, a number of her fellow students were also her collaborators in the initial founding of the company, including: Senior members such as Mnouchkine are not given preferential treatment. Mnouchkine, for example, refused to be interviewed alone for a "New York Times" article, although individuals such as Helene Cixous (playwright) and Jean-Jacques Lemetre (composer and musician) repeatedly fulfill specific production roles and have done so for many years.

Le Théâtre du Soleil (, "The Theater of the Sun") is a Parisian avant-garde stage ensemble founded by Ariane Mnouchkine, Philippe Léotard and fellow students of the "L'École Internationale de Théâtre Jacques Lecoq" in 1964 as a collective of theatre artists. Le Théâtre du Soleil is located at La Cartoucherie, a former munitions factory in the Vincennes area of eastern Paris. The company creates new theatrical works using a devising process based on utilizing physical theatre and improvisation.

Das französische Theaterkollektiv Théâtre du Soleil [teatrdysɔ'lej] wurde 1964 von Ariane Mnouchkine und Philippe Léotard, mit Hilfe von Jean-Claude Penchenat, Roberto Moscoso und Françoise Tournafond gegründet. Mnouchkine gründete die Truppe nach Absolvierung einer Ausbildung bei Jacques Lecoq. Ihre Hauptspielstätte hat die kosmopolitische Truppe vor den Toren von Paris, in der alten Munitionsfabrik von Vincennes (La Cartoucherie), wo heute noch weitere Theatergruppen ihren Sitz haben.


History.

During the Hồng Bàng period, Bắc Ninh belonged to bộ Vũ Ninh (bộ is at a local level the highest administrative unit under the dynasties of the Hùng kings). Under the Lý and Trần dynasties, it belonged to lộ Bắc Ninh; it belonged to thừa tuyên Kinh Bắc under the Lê dynasty and then changed into trấn Kinh Bắc and Bắc Ninh. Under Emperor Minh Mạng of the Nguyễn dynasty, it was renamed Bắc Ninh province in 1831.  During the Republic of Vietnam, Bắc Ninh province and the neighboring Bắc Giang Province were united as Hà Bắc Province on 27 October 1962. During the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, on 6 November 1996 at the 10th Session of the 9th National Congress, Hà Bắc province was separated into two provinces, Bắc Ninh and Bắc Giang. The administrative system of Bắc Ninh province has operated since 1 January 1997.

Geography.

Topography.

Bắc Ninh has a rather even and flat terrain, mainly sloping from north to south and west to east, causing currents to flow down into the Đuống and Thái Bình Rivers. Field areas are 3-7m high and hill and mountain areas are 300-400m high above sea level. Its hills and mountains only make up 0.53 per cent of its natural area, mainly in the two districts of Quế Võ and Tiên Du. Also, there are shallow depressions along dykes under the districts of Gia Bình, Lương Tài, Quế Võ and Yên Phong.

Natural resources.

The province's total natural land area is 822.7 km2, in which agricultural land, forestry land, specialized and residential land and unused land account for 54%, 0.7%, 31% and 14.3% respectively. The province's mineral reserve is limited: mainly construction materials such as clay in Quế Võ and Tiên Du, sandstone in Thị Cầu, Vũ Ninh, Bắc Ninh town and peat in Yên Phong.

Climate.

Bắc Ninh features a warm humid subtropical climate (Köppen "Cwa") with plentiful precipitation. Bắc Ninh is located in a tropical monsoon region. The annual average temperature is 24 °C. The highest is 30 °C in July; the lowest is 15 °C in January. The province experiences the typical climate of northern Vietnam, where summers are hot and humid, and winters are, by national standards, relatively cold and dry. Summers, lasting from May to September, are hot and humid, receiving the majority of the annual of rainfall. The winters, lasting from November to March, are relatively mild, dry (in the first half) or humid (in the second half), while spring (April) can bring light rains. Autumn (October) is the best time of the year in terms of weather. The average annual sunshine is 1,530-1,776 hours, while the relative humidity is 79%.

Administration divisions.

Bắc Ninh is subdivided into 8 district-level sub-divisions:  They are further subdivided into 6 commune-level towns (or townlets), 97 communes, and 23 wards.  The Bắc Ninh Province People's Committee is a 9-member executive council for the province. The current chairman is Nguyễn Nhân Chiến. There are several vice chairmen and chairwomen on the committee with responsibility for various province departments. The legislative branch of the province government is called the People's Council and consists of 50 deputies. Both the committee and the council are subordinate to the province's Communist Party, currently led by Party Secretary Trần Văn Túy. The chairman of the People's Committee is the No. 2 position in the city government while chairman of the People's Council is No. 3.

Demographics.

In terms of land area, Bắc Ninh is the smallest of all Vietnamese provinces (and in fact, is smaller than any of the five province-level municipalities). It is, however, home to a relatively large number of people for its size, having the highest population density of any province. On average, there are over 1,200 people for every square kilometre of land in Bắc Ninh.  According to the census of 1 April 2009, the population was 1,024,472 with a density of 1,262 people/km2, 5 times the national average. There are 27 ethnic groups in the province, of these ethnic Vietnamese comprised 99.67%.

Transport.

Bắc Ninh is situated about 30 kilometres from Hanoi and Nội Bài International Airport, and some 100 km from Haiphong, Hạ Long, Cái Lân Port and Lạng Sơn border gate.

Economy.

Bắc Ninh Province lies on the major traffic artery linking Vietnam and China – which is a strongly growing market and expected to be larger as the China - ASEAN free trade area is formed. It also lies on the Nanning - Lạng Sơn - Hanoi - Hai Phong and Nanning - Singapore economic corridors, the Hanoi capital city planning area and the busy Hanoi - Hai Phong - Quảng Ninh economic development triangle.  Bắc Ninh Province is known as a light point in industrial development, and has been lifting rapidly with long steps of industrialisation – modernisation. Bắc Ninh has 15 industrial parks with a total area of 7,681 ha, of which nine have operated effectively. The industrial parks have lured 272 foreign direct investment (FDI) projects totaling to over $3.7 billion, including those invested by Canon, Samsung, P&Tel, Sumitomo, Foxconn, ABB, Orion, PepsiCo and Nokia. They have attracted 254 domestic projects with a total registered capital of over $1 billion and a labour force of more than 83,000. Bắc Ninh has as many as 120 handicraft-producing villages, 62 of which are involved in producing traditional products such as copper casting (Đại Bái-Gia Bình), iron and steel (Đa Hội-Từ Sơn), and wooden products (Đồng Kỵ-Kim Sơn). They have the upper hand and high potential to contribute to Bắc Ninh's economic development.  In 2015, the Gross Regional Domestic Product (GRDP) increased 8.7% compared with 2014. The economic structure shifted in the right direction with agro-forestry-fishery accounting for 5.3%, industry and construction for 75.6% and service 19.1%. Industrial production value was estimated at VND 610 trillion, up 9.1%. The total retail sale of goods and consumer service revenue reached over VND 39.7 trillion, up 15.4%, the total export turnover of goods was estimated at USD 23.2 billion, up 6.4%, the total state budget revenue in the province was estimated at VND 14,500 billion, up 14.3%.

Culture.

Bắc Ninh is hometown of not only Kinh Dương Vương – the very first king of ancient Việt ethic, but also of eight Kings of the Lý Dynasty. Many historical and cultural relics such as Đô Temple (where 8 kings of the Lý Dynasty are worshipped), Dâu Pagoda, the first pagoda in Vietnamese history, Bút Tháp Pagoda (an ancient pagoda), Phật Tích Pagoda, Dâu Pagoda and the local Literature Temple. Bắc Ninh hosts thousands of local festivals from small to large, having special meaning such as the Dâu Pagoda festival, the Lim festival, the Đô Temple festival and the Bà Chúa Kho temple festival.  The quan họ style has its origins in what now constitutes the Bắc Ninh Province and was first recorded in the 13th century. It has traditionally been associated with the spring festivals that follow the celebration of Tết (the Vietnamese New Year). Quan họ is recognised as the Intangible Cultural Heritage by the UNESCO in 2009.  The village of Đông Hồ in the province of Bắc Ninh is known as the center of production of traditional Vietnamese woodblock prints (Đông Hồ painting), which are sold throughout Vietnam in time for the Lunar New Year (Tết) celebrations.  Hồ chicken (gà Hồ) is a breed originating in Bắc Ninh Province. Gà Hồ is a distinctly Vietnamese rare breed of chicken, familiar as a symbol in Vietnam. According to folklore, the chicken (particularly the roosters) have the five qualities of a man of honour: literacy, martial arts, physical strength, humanity and loyalty. The Gà Hồ rooster rising himself to welcome the sun is used as a symbol for the 3rd Asian Indoor Games, which were held in Vietnam from 30 October till 8 November 2009. The symbolism in the context of the AIGs is that the rising rooster is linked to the readiness of the sports industry of Vietnam to host this major event.  List of festivals in Bắc Ninh Province:

Education.

Primary and secondary education.

Bắc Ninh's education system is divided into 5 categories: pre-primary, primary, intermediate, secondary, and higher education.  Kindergarten is for children from 2 to 5 years old to form thinking skills (not all children must learn this level).  Primary school level is also called level I, starting at 6 years old. Level I consists of 5 grades, from grade 1 to grade 5. This is required for all students.  Secondary level education: Level II includes 4 grades, from grade 6 to grade 9. Students must learn various school subjects such as: Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry (grades 8 and 9), Biology, Technology, written language, History, Geography, Education Citizens, Foreign Language, Health and Parenting Music - Visual Arts.  In addition students have some information required such as: education outside the classroom on time, direction of education (grade 9) and use of school. To study the higher level students participate in the examination enrollment.  Further secondary school: Level III consists of 3 grades, from grade 10 to grade 12. To graduate level III, students must participate in the graduation exam secondary school of education and training. Notable high schools in Bắc Ninh include Bắc Ninh High School for the Gifted, Thuận Thành No 1 High School, among others. Though the former schools are all public, private education is also available in Bắc Ninh.  Students who want to study in schools-public school must attend an examination of birth. The exam is held every year, by the Department of Education and Training of the local lead. At this level, students also study subjects similar to those in middle school. However, students in secondary school also take a number of other activities such as business and vocational.

Higher education.

Bắc Ninh has universities and colleges, vocational training skill secondary schools and centres providing investors with labour sources suitable for demand of high technical qualifications of enterprises.  The leader also expressed his wish to share the province's experience with Angola in investment promotion, contributing to fostering the friendship between the two peoples. They signed a memorandum of understanding on cooperation in forestry exploitation and processing, and the supply of construction workers in oil and gas to the African country. Cambodia wants to tighten cooperation in many fields with Vietnam, including the northern province of Bắc Ninh, to deepen solidarity and friendship between the two countries.Cambodia will continue receiving Vietnam and Bắc Ninh Province's assistance in corruption prevention, meeting citizens and settlement of complaints and denouncements. Korea investment projects in northern Bắc Ninh Province have greatly contributed to the development of the province's key industrial sectors. Bac ninh committed to helping Hua Phan upgrade its infrastructure for agricultural production, mining and processing industries.Bắc Ninh will also help Hua Phan build a primary school and grant scholarships to students from Hua Phan studying in Vietnam. The Vietnam – Japan Friendship Organization held a prayer for peace at Bắc Ninh provincial Museum.A delegation from the ASEAN-Japan Centre visited Bắc Ninh on 24 October 2012 to learn about the investment environment in this northern province.

Bắc Ninh () is a province of Vietnam, located in the Red River Delta of the northern part of the country. It is the smallest province of Vietnam and is situated to the east of the nation's capital, Hanoi, and borders Bắc Giang Province, Hưng Yên Province, Hải Dương Province, Thái Nguyên Province and Hanoi. The province's name literally means "northern serenity".

Bắc Ninh (Hán Tự: 北寧, IPA: ) ist eine Provinz ("tỉnh") im Norden Vietnams. Der Name bedeutet etwa „Nördliche Gelassenheit“ oder „Heiterkeit des Nordens“ und stammt von der Provinz-Hauptstadt "Thành phố Bắc Ninh".


Names.

The name "great rhombicosidodecahedron" refers to the relationship with the (small) rhombicosidodecahedron (compare section Dissection).<br> There is a nonconvex uniform polyhedron with a similar name, the nonconvex great rhombicosidodecahedron.

Area and volume.

The surface area "A" and the volume "V" of the truncated icosidodecahedron of edge length "a" are:  If a set of all 13 Archimedean solids were constructed with all edge lengths equal, the truncated icosidodecahedron would be the largest.

Cartesian coordinates.

Cartesian coordinates for the vertices of a truncated icosidodecahedron with edge length 2"φ" − 2, centered at the origin, are all the even permutations of: where "φ" = is the golden ratio.

Dissection.

The truncated icosidodecahedron is the convex hull of a rhombicosidodecahedron with cuboids above its 30 squares whose height to base ratio is the golden ratio. The rest of its space can be dissected into 12 nonuniform pentagonal cupolas below the decagons and 20 nonuniform triangular cupolas below the hexagons.

Orthogonal projections.

The truncated icosidodecahedron has seven special orthogonal projections, centered on a vertex, on three types of edges, and three types of faces: square, hexagonal and decagonal. The last two correspond to the A and H Coxeter planes.

Spherical tilings and Schlegel diagrams.

The truncated icosidodecahedron can also be represented as a spherical tiling, and projected onto the plane via a stereographic projection. This projection is conformal, preserving angles but not areas or lengths. Straight lines on the sphere are projected as circular arcs on the plane.  Schlegel diagrams are similar, with a perspective projection and straight edges.

Geometric variations.

Within Icosahedral symmetry there are unlimited geometric variations of the "truncated icosidodecahedron" with isogonal faces. The truncated dodecahedron, rhombicosidodecahedron, and truncated icosahedron as degenerate limiting cases.

Truncated icosidodecahedral graph.

In the mathematical field of graph theory, a truncated icosidodecahedral graph (or great rhombicosidodecahedral graph) is the graph of vertices and edges of the truncated icosidodecahedron, one of the Archimedean solids. It has 120 vertices and 180 edges, and is a zero-symmetric and cubic Archimedean graph.

Related polyhedra and tilings.

This polyhedron can be considered a member of a sequence of uniform patterns with vertex figure (4.6.2"p") and Coxeter-Dynkin diagram. For "p" < 6, the members of the sequence are omnitruncated polyhedra (zonohedrons), shown below as spherical tilings. For "p" > 6, they are tilings of the hyperbolic plane, starting with the truncated triheptagonal tiling.

In geometry, the truncated icosidodecahedron is an Archimedean solid, one of thirteen convex isogonal nonprismatic solids constructed by two or more types of regular polygon faces.

Das Große Rhombenikosidodekaeder (auch Ikosidodekaederstumpf genannt) ist ein Polyeder, das zu den archimedischen Körpern zählt. Es setzt sich aus 30 Quadraten, 20 regelmäßigen Sechsecken sowie 12 regelmäßigen Zehnecken zusammen und ist dual zum Hexakisikosaeder.


History.

The basis for the space cooperation between China and Brazil was established in May 1984, when both countries signed a complementary agreement to the cooperation framework agreement in science and technology. In July 1988, China and Brazil signed the protocol establishing the joint research and production of the China-Brazil Earth Resources Satellites (CBERS). Brazil, emerging from a long military regime, sought to abandon the Cold War logic and establish new international partnerships. China was dedicated to its great internal reform, but was also seeking international partnerships to develop advanced technologies. The agreement was advantageous for both countries. Brazil had the chance to develop medium-size satellites at a time when it was only capable of building small ones (100 kg size). China had an international partner that posed no military threats and that was receptive of foreigners.  Brazil and China negotiated the CBERS project during two years (1986–1988), exchanging important technical information and visiting each other's facilities, and they concluded that both sides had all the human, technical and material conditions to jointly develop an Earth resource observation satellite program. The Complementary Protocol on Cooperation on Space Technology was renewed in 1994 and again in 2004.

Responsible agencies.

In Brazil, the Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (INPE or National Institute of Space Research) and the Brazilian Space Agency (; AEB) are involved with the program, as is the Brazilian industrial sector. In China, organizations involved include the China Academy of Space Technology (a sub-entity of the China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation), the China National Space Administration and various other organizations.

Satellites.

Initially the program included development and deployment of two satellites, CBERS-1 and CBERS-2. A third satellite of the same type, which was named CBERS-2B, was later added to the program. Subsequently, agreement was reached to build and launch three additional satellites, CBERS-3, 4 and 4B.

CBERS-1 and CBERS-2.

The first satellite of the series, CBERS-1, was successfully launched on October 14, 1999 on a Long March 4B. In China, it is sometimes also called ZY 1. It remained functional until August 2003.  The second satellite, CBERS-2, was successfully launched on October 21, 2003 by a Long March 4B rocket from China. It was retired from service in January 2009, after the launch of CBERS-2B.

Configuration.

CBERS-1 and 2 are almost identical satellites. They have three remote sensing multispectral cameras:

CBERS-2B.

CBERS-2B was launched on 19 September 2007 by a Long-March 4B rocket from the Taiyuan base in China. The satellite operated until June 2010. Sample images from CBERS-2B were made available on January 10, 2007.  CBERS-2B is similar to the two previous members of the series, but a new camera was added to this last satellite: High Resolution Panchromatic Camera (HRC). This camera records images in one single panchromatic band 0,50 – 0,80 μm which comprises part of the visible and of the near infrared portion of electromagnetic spectrum. The images recorded by this camera are 27 km width and have 2.7m spatial resolution. 130 days are required to obtain a full coverage of the Earth by this camera.

CBERS-3 and CBERS-4.

CBERS-3 was launched in December 2013, but it was lost after the Chang Zheng 4B rocket carrying it malfunctioned. The identical CBERS-4 satellite was successfully launched in December 2014. Both satellites carry four cameras:

CBERS-4A.

CBERS-4A was launched 20 December 2019 onboard a Long March 4B rocket from Taiyuan Satellite Launch Center.

The China–Brazil Earth Resources Satellite program (CBERS) is a technological cooperation program between Brazil and China which develops and operates Earth observation satellites.

Das China-Brazil Earth Resources Satellite Program (CBERS) (, Portugiesisch "Satélite Sino-Brasileiro de Recursos Terrestres") ist ein Gemeinschaftsprojekt zwischen Brasilien und der Volksrepublik China, bei dem eine Reihe von Erdbeobachtungssatelliten entwickelt und betrieben werden. Die für CBERS entwickelten Satellitenbusse werden auch von China für eigene Erdbeobachtungs- beziehungsweise Aufklärungssatelliten verwendet.


Identification.

Northern muriquis can be individually recognized by their natural markings and facial features, such as fur color and patterning, ear shape, and face shape and pigmentation. Their sex can usually be determined within a week or so of birth, based on the shape and positioning of their genitalia. Female muriquis are more independent than males; they leave their natal groups at an age of about six years. Female muriquis engage in sex with multiple partners, which may serve to confuse paternity, limit male aggression, or improve odds of fertilization. Male muriquis have almost no interaction with infants. When there is an interaction between the two, the infant would be the one to initiate it.

Endangered.

"B. hypoxanthus" is one of the world's most critically endangered primates, according to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. It is threatened by hunting and (in common with most other primates of the region) destruction and fragmentation of its Atlantic Forest habitat. Among the scattered populations of northern muriqui only one population, living in Caratinga is considered, as of now, viable for the next 100 years. The northern muriqui also suffers from very low genetic diversity and is poorly understood, causing problems in conservation. The estimated wild population of northern muriquis was raised from about 500 to 1000 individuals in 2005, due to new discoveries and research in other forests.

Human evolution relevance.

The northern muriqui has been argued to be important to understanding human evolution, since it is one of the few primates that has tolerant, nonhierarchial relationships among and between males and females, a feature shared with hunter-gatherer humans, but which contrasts with the ranked relationships of most other primates. Group aggression is also rare. The success of males fathering offspring links to the maternal investment they gain from their mothers and coresident female kin. This provides support to the grandmother hypothesis.

The northern muriqui ("Brachyteles hypoxanthus") is an endangered muriqui (woolly spider monkey) species endemic to Brazil. It is unusual among primates in that it shows egaliterian social relationships. It is found in the Atlantic Forest region of the Brazilian states of Rio de Janeiro, Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais and Bahia. Muriquis are the largest species of New World monkeys. The northern muriqui can grow up to 4.3 ft long. It feeds mainly on leaves and twigs, but will also eat fruit. It often hangs upside-down by its prehensile tail while eating.

Der Nördliche Spinnenaffe ("Brachyteles hypoxanthus") ist eine Primatenart aus der Familie der Klammerschwanzaffen (Atelidae): Er lebt im südöstlichen Brasilien und ist vom Aussterben bedroht.


Habitat.

Originally native to the lower Brahmaputra River, the only population ever reliably known consists of a small number of the species in a man-made pond which is part of the Bayazid Bastami shrine at Chittagong, where they are dependent on humans for survival. To the locals and worshipers, the black softshell turtle is known as mazari ("Mazar inhabitant"); specimens from this shrine were used in the first scientific description.  In a 2014 survey by Poribesh Banchao Andolon, a Bangladeshi private organization it was found that the amount of oxygen dissolved in the pond water was 2.01 mg/L, whereas the favorable level is 5 mg/L. In 2012, wildlife biologists of the Center for Advanced Research in Natural Resources and Management found a small population in the wild of Sylhet. Two tiny wild populations were discovered in Assam, in Kaziranga and in the Jia Bhoroli River which is a northern tributary of the Brahmaputra. Also, another temple population of these turtles was identified in the Kasopukhuri pond on Nilachal Hill, next to the Kamakhya Temple at Guwahati in Assam.

Biology.

Appearance.

The black softshell turtle has an observably different appearance compared to that of a common turtle. This turtle, similar to all other softshell turtles, has a semi-flexible shell that is leathery, and does not obstruct movement as much as the average hardshell. The black softshell turtle also has a very distinct nose and face, with a tube like structure protruding from its nose resembling and functioning similar to a snorkel. The ligaments of this turtle are also much more distinct than those of the normal sea turtle or land tortoise, being that they have hand-like structures that are webbed, as opposed to other turtles like sea turtles who have a wider arm. The softshell of the turtle does not protrude out from the body very far, and typically appears somewhat rigid with very little color and design.The skin of the black softshell turtle is often black or dark brown, but can often appear with white to yellow spots that appear across the head and ligaments of the turtle.

Size and Weight.

The average Bostani Turtle adult size can range from widths of 15 inches to 31 inches, and corresponding lengths of 13 inches to 28 inches. The average area of the species can range from 195 inches squared on the low end and 868 inches squared on the larger end. However, the highest recorded size for these turtles is a length of 35 inches. The weight for the average female is around 120 pounds, while the weight of the males has not yet been recorded. However, these males are visually larger indicating strong chances of a larger corresponding weight.

Life Span and Mortality Rate.

The highest recorded age for the Bostani Turtle has been determined by those living in the area directly, with claims that the oldest turtles present are approximately 150 years old. However this species has a high mortality rate at the beginning stages of life, with 94% of eggs without hatching capabilities. With an average clutch size of 20, this would allow for the survival of about one egg per two mating turtles.

Diet.

With the species existing in very limited areas with high human traffic, these turtles have become dependent upon visitors for feeding. Visitors tend to feed a mixture of grains, fruits, and various meat products. These interactions with direct feeding have created a dependence for these turtles on the people, since this species no longer has a need for hunting. This had made it hard to determine the natural diet of the species. However with the ability to consume the foods provided by the people, their diet is commonly compared to that of other species within the same genus. These organisms are on the omnivore scale of the food consumption, consisting of plants and small animals like fish and worms.

Reproduction.

Nilssonia nigricans are oviparous organisms, in which they reproduce by laying their young as eggs to be hatched. Softshell turtles are known to mature slowly with the males prepared to breed in their fourth year. The female population could take up to seven to nine years to mature. A group of eggs is known as a clutch and a female black soft shelled turtle can lay anywhere between 10-38 eggs in her clutch.The baby turtles will grow in their eggs for 92-108 days before hatching. Recently the hatching rate for this specific species has been decreasing due to these species being endangered.

Behavior.

Hibernation.

Hibernation takes place during the late autumn season until the spring for softshell turtles. They bury themselves at the bottom of a river/lake in the mud. Food is not as essential as oxygen during this period. Oxygen is needed at a reduced rate than normal and the turtles practice a technique called “pharyngeal breathing”. This means that they pump water in and out of their throat (pharynx) that contain microvillus projections of small blood vessels. This structure provides them with greater surface area to absorb more oxygen.

Near-extinction in the wilderness.

As of 2002, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature classified the species as Extinct in the Wild. In 2004, 408 turtles were found in the pond of the Bayazid Bastami shrine. According to the shrine committee staff, 90 more turtles were hatched in the pond in 2007, 74 in 2008, 96 in 2009, 28 in 2010, 45 in 2012 and 40 in 2014.  In 2017, a singular wild turtle was found in the wetlands of Old Akuk Village in Wokha District, Nagaland. DNA from the specimen sent to Bangladesh was tested and ultimately confirmed that it was a member of the black softshell species.  This extinction has been caused by human intervention, specifically the migration of people into the habitat and the contamination of water and land following this movement. The land of Bangladesh that N. nigricans have been able to occupy currently had been tested for conditions of survival and mating. The survival rate of juvenile N. nigricans is relatively low due to a low mortality of egg hatching and juvenile survival following hatching.  Human intervention has also caused a push towards extinction with intentional methods of poisoning. In 2006 there was a mass poisoning of the turtles within the Bostami Shrine pond by poachers in the area. This event occurred within the research period, as the turtles were under heavy observations and were protected from this event, while this not being the first time this method had been used. In this case many of the fish utilized by the N. nigricans for food had been poisoned, making nutrition unsustainable for the turtles. This same poisoning also changed the oxygen levels in the water, making it unsustainable for the turtles. A waiting period had passed to ensure oxygen levels were rich in the water, indicating a sustainable environment, in turn allowing the release of the species.

Conservation efforts.

Since 2013, TSA India has worked diligently to improve conditions at selected temple ponds in Assam where these turtles were discovered. Many of the ponds were eutrophic and overcrowded and often, turtles were fed human food as religious offerings. The turtles showed signs of poor nutrition and a lack of suitable nesting space resulted in eggs being deposited in areas where there was little chance of hatching. The goal of the project is to eventually rear and release juveniles from these captive colonies to supplement depleted wild populations. As part of that initiative, the TSA India team camped at the Nagshankar temple in April to observe nesting in the 40-45 adult females at that location. At that time, the team transferred ten nests to a hatchery and protected four nests onsite.  With TSA's efforts 44 turtles have hatched so far. The team is currently expanding a headstarting facility at Nagshankar temple to accommodate the turtle's hatchlings of 2016. Neonates and juveniles cannot be released back into the temple pond due to predation by larger turtles and exotic fish. For this reason, the team acquired an earthen pond in the nearest village to provide space for the fast-growing juveniles, improving survival prospects for this extremely rare softshell.  In 2018, Das et al. had collected population sizes of N. nigricans from 2006 to 2012. The population size had shown a gradual increase over time, indicating that the calculated area per turtle had decreased in accordance. He indicated that without an increase in habitat size, the carrying capacity of the species will be reached quicker. This can decrease the overall growth of the species and not allow it to grow past the current conservation status.  In 2011, Dr. Jayaditya from the Help Earth NGO found a grouping of black softshell turtles in a temple pond in Hajo, Assam. He revitalized contributions aimed towards saving and replenishing the species once again. He and his team embanked the sides of the temple pond and made adjustments to simulate a natural river system and create an ecosystem more conducive to the turtle's natural habitat. Thereafter, they observed a positive egg ratio produced around the temple premises. The State Zoo of Assam is playing an important role in this conservation project, serving as the location where baby turtles are reared for six months. When deemed fit and healthy, and capable of surviving, the young turtles are released into the wild. As of 2016, the State Zoo of Assam has released 300 turtles. Now 16 temples in Assam are helping in this important project.

The black softshell turtle or Bostami turtle ("Nilssonia nigricans)", previously placed in genus "Aspideretes") is a species of freshwater turtle found in India (Assam) and Bangladesh (Chittagong and Sylhet). It was long believed to be inbred individuals of the Indian softshell turtle ("A. gangeticus" or "N. gangeticus") or the Indian peacock softshell turtle ("A. hurum" or "N. hurum"), but while it is a close relative of the latter, it is a distinct species.In the 1800s it was believed these turtles were brought from Iran to Chittagong shrine pond by Hazrat Bayezid Bostami. His turtles he had brought to this pond were treated as sacred and respected by the public. Previously declared extinct by the International Union for Conservation of Nature in 2002, these turtles were found still to exist in a temple’s pond called the Hayagriva Madhava Temple located in Assam, India. Through conservation methods and protection of the species, some of these turtles can be found today throughout the wild, and scientists and environmental biologists are continuing to work hard to preserve this endangered species and their natural habitat.

Die Dunkle Weichschildkröte ("Nilssonia nigricans"), auch Tempel-Weichschildkröte genannt, ist eine seltene Schildkrötenart aus der Gattung der Indischen Weichschildkröten. Sie zählt zu den großwüchsigen Weichschildkröten, die die Panzerlänge der Ganges-Weichschildkröte erreichen kann. Sie galt über lange Zeit als in der Wildnis ausgestorben, mit einem einzigen Vorkommen in einem Teich, der zu einem Schrein in Chittagong im Südosten von Bangladesch gehört. Dieser Bestand betrug 1986 dreihundert Individuen und wuchs bis 2015 auf mehr als 500 Tiere an. Seit dem Beginn des 21. Jahrhunderts wurden im indischen Bundesstaat Assam weitere Haltungen in Tempeln, aber auch mehrere natürliche Populationen entdeckt. Daher wird die Dunkle Weichschildkröte heutzutage nicht mehr als in der Natur ausgestorben, sondern als akut vom Aussterben bedroht betrachtet. Der trotz Verbots florierende Handel mit Schildkröten zum Verzehr oder zur Haltung als Haustiere und die Zerstörung der Habitate stellen große Bedrohungen der Art dar.


Life.

Gribov was born in Leningrad in 1930 to a Jewish family. His father died in 1938 as a result of disease. His mother, a theater worker, not an actress, brought up alone him and his younger sister. In 1941 the family was evacuated deep into USSR and returned back in 1945. In 1947 he finished here the school course. He dreamed to become an actor, best of all, a cinema actor. However, when being in senior school classes, he expose himself to filming. Under camera he became “frozen” and lost his natural mobility. So, he follow an advise to choose another profession. His choice was physics. In 1947 Gribov enrolled in Physical Faculty of the Leningrad University that he graduated in 1952 with diploma cum laude.  Due to strong state antisemitism of that time USSR he was able only to find a position of a physics teacher in an evening school for adults - position with low prestige and salary. He spent two years there, and in 1954, after Stalin's death, joined the Ioffe Institute in Leningrad (then called the Physical-Technical Institute, PTI), and soon became the de facto leader of the theoretical department.  In the late 1950s, he participated in Lev Landau's famous weekly seminars in Moscow, where he met Isaak Pomeranchuk, who he greatly admired and with whom he collaborated intensely. When the PTI theory department where Gribov worked, became a part of the Leningrad Institute for Nuclear Physics (LNPI) in 1971, Gribov became a leader of a seminar on quantum field theory and elementary particle physics. This seminar became famous both within the Soviet Union and internationally, because of its open-ended discussions, where prominent Russian scientists often voiced vigorous objections and debated points with the speaker and with one another. In these debates, each participant was treated equally regardless of position and reputation— the only thing that mattered was the physics. Foreign guests, no matter how prestigious, would often find themselves interrupted and corrected by Gribov in mid-lecture.  Although Gribov was most interested in elementary particle physics, he enjoyed discussing problems from all fields of physics and drew many inspirations from solid-state physics. One of the principles at his institute was that a theorist should never refuse to help an experimentalist.  Gribov was not an open political dissident, but he had a reputation as an independent and critical thinker. So despite his international recognition, Gribov was not allowed to travel abroad for many decades.  In 1980, Gribov became a professor at the Landau Institute for Theoretical Physics in Moscow, and in the 1990s he was also appointed a scientific advisor at the Central Research Institute for Physics in Budapest. Towards the end of the 1990s he was a visiting professor at the Institute for Nuclear Physics in the University of Bonn. He received the 1991 Sakurai Prize, the 1991 Alexander von Humboldt Prize, and was the first recipient of the Landau Prize awarded by the Soviet Academy of Sciences. He was made a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1971 and a corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1972.  He was twice married and together with his first wife, the physicist Lilya Dubinskaya, had a son Lenja Gribov. Lenja died in a mountaineering accident shortly after he completed his PhD in theoretical physics, a tragedy which weighed on Gribov heavily. His second wife was Julia Nyri, a Hungarian physicist.

Work.

Gribov founded and led an influential school of theoretical elementary particle physics in Leningrad. He was widely admired for his physical intuition, which was often compared to that of two other prominent members of the Landau seminar Arkady Migdal and Isaak Pomeranchuk and even of Lev Landau himself.  In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Gribov recognized an inconsistency in the then popular model of the strongly interacting particles as diffracting black-disks, and replaced this hypothesis with the pomeron, a description of maximum possible interaction which is relativistically consistent. He went on to formulate the reggeon field theory, a perturbative framework for analyzing reggeon exchange.  In quantum field theory, Gribov was instrumental in understanding how Regge behavior emerges from field theories which are described by point-particles. He developed the parton model with a different focus than Richard Feynman, using partons to give a qualitative description of the pomeron as a diffusive process. close collaborators went on to formulate a perturbative description of the closely related hard pomeron within QCD.  Gribov was the first to note that covariant gauge fixing in a non-abelian gauge theory leaves a large amount of gauge freedom unfixed, which separates the Gauge field phase space into oddly shaped regions called Gribov copies which have the property that it is difficult to stay in any one copy while randomly walking around field space. Gribov noted that this is crucial for gluon confinement, since a mass gap precisely means that the field fluctuations are of a bounded size. This insight played a crucial role in Feynman's semi-quantitative explanation for the confinement phenomenon in 2+1 dimensional nonabelian gauge theory, a method which was recently extended by Karbali and Nair into a fully quantitative description of the 2+1 dimensional nonabelian gauge vacuum.  In collaboration with Lev Lipatov, he developed in 1971 an influential theory of logarithmic corrections to deep-inelastic lepton–hadron scattering and electron-positron hadron-production, using evolution equations for the structure functions of the hadrons, the quark–gluon distribution functions. This was a foundational advance in perturbative QCD. This work was extended by Guido Altarelli and Giorgio Parisi and by Dokshitzer and is still very active today.  In his last years, Gribov was attempting to construct a theory for quark confinement based on a rough analogy to the electromagnetic phenomenon of maximum nuclear charge.

Vladimir Naumovich Gribov (Russian Влади́мир Нау́мович Гри́бов; March 25, 1930, LeningradAugust 13, 1997, Budapest) was a prominent Russian theoretical physicist, who worked on high-energy physics, quantum field theory and the Regge theory of the strong interactions.

Wladimir Naumowitsch Gribow (, wiss. Transliteration "Vladimir Naumovič Gribov", im Englischen zitiert als Vladimir Gribov; * 25. März 1930 in Leningrad; † 13. August 1997 in Budapest) war ein führender russischer theoretischer Physiker, der sich mit Hochenergiephysik und Quantenfeldtheorie (QFT) beschäftigte.