Early life.

Background and childhood.

The surname "Heber" probably derives from "Haybergh", a hill in the Craven district of Yorkshire, where the family originated. The Hebers held the lordship of the manor of Marton, and were granted a coat of arms during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. In 1752 Richard Heber received the manor and estate of Hodnet Hall in Shropshire as a bequest from a cousin of his wife. This included patronage of the parish of Hodnet. On Richard Heber's death in 1766 his brother Reginald, who was co-rector of the parish of Malpas in Cheshire, inherited the Shropshire estate and additionally became rector of Hodnet. His first marriage, to Mary Baylie, produced a son, Richard Heber, who became a noted book collector and Member of Parliament for Oxford University. His second marriage to Mary Allanson, after Mary Baylie's death, produced two further sons, the elder, born at Malpas on 21 April 1783, being named Reginald after his father.  At the age of eight the younger Reginald began five years at the local grammar school at Whitchurch. In 1796 he was sent to Bristow's, a small private school in Neasden a few miles north of Central London. This provided intensive learning for around a dozen boys, preparing them for eventual entry to Oxford or Cambridge. At Bristow's he met John Thornton, who became a lifelong friend, sharing an interest in church history and beliefs; a lengthy letter from Heber to Thornton is described by Heber's biographer Arthur Montefiore as worthy of a learned theologian. In October 1800 Heber entered Brasenose College, Oxford; Thornton's decision to go to Cambridge was a matter for Heber's regret.

Oxford.

There were family connections with Brasenose, Heber's brother Richard being a fellow at the time and his father was a former fellow. The college Master was William Cleaver, a friend of Reginald Senior and frequent visitor to Hodnet Hall. In his first year, Heber won the University Prize for Latin Verse, and began to develop local repute as a Romantic poet. In 1803 he entered a long poem, "Palestine", for the Newdigate Prize. He had been helped in composing it by Walter Scott, a family friend, before Scott's years of fame. The poem was enthusiastically received when Heber declaimed it at that year's Encaenia ceremony. It was later published and set to music by William Crotch, who had been professor of music at Oxford since 1797. Montefiore, in 1902, described it as "the most successful and popular piece of religious verse of the first half of the [19th] century". Heber's later biographer Derrick Hughes finds its contemporary acclaim puzzling: "It is not a good, not even a mediocre poem; it is leaden".  The death of Reginald Senior in February 1804 left the living of parish of St Luke, Hodnet vacant, and may have prompted Heber's decision to seek ordination, though he delayed it for some years. In his degree examinations he did honourably rather than brilliantly; Montefiore quotes a contemporary view that Heber's main contribution to university life was in fields outside formal academic success, particularly as a thinker, a poet and an orator: "Reginald Heber was a star whose lustre was as steady as it was clear." He took his bachelor's degree in the summer of 1804 and was elected to a fellowship of All Souls College, Oxford. He also won the University's Bachelor's Prize for an English prose essay.

European journey.

Heber and Thornton had planned to follow their graduation with a Grand Tour of Europe. However, in 1804 the Napoleonic Wars made much of Europe inaccessible, and so they delayed their departure until the summer of 1805 and took a route through Sweden, Norway and Finland to Russia, instead of the usual journey through France and Italy. In July 1805, they sailed for Gothenburg in Sweden, then travelled northward by stage coach, via Vänern and Uddevalla, to Kristiania (Oslo) in Norway. After a short stay there, they moved through the wild Dovre Region to Trondheim, where they observed the practice of skiing for the first time (Heber referred to it as "skating").  They then turned south-east, re-entered Sweden and travelled through Uppsala to Stockholm. Towards the end of September they crossed the Gulf of Bothnia to Åbo (Turku), site of Europe's most northerly university, in the part of Finland then under Swedish rule. They proceeded eastwards and reached St Petersburg at the end of October. They spent two months in the city; through influential British Embassy contacts they visited places generally closed to the public, including Tsar Alexander's private quarters in the Winter Palace. They experienced Muslim worship at first hand as the city's large Muslim population observed Ramadan; Heber described the crowds gathered for prayer in an improvised mosque as "the most decent and attentive congregation [he] had seen since leaving England."  Heber and Thornton had meant to remain in St Petersburg until after the New Year, then if possible return home through Germany. This was thwarted by Napoleon's victory at Austerlitz on 2 December 1805 and the treaties that followed. Instead they extended their stay in Russia, leaving St Petersburg on 31 December 1805 by sledge for the 500-mile journey to Moscow, where they arrived on 3 January. They found it a hospitable city—in a letter home Heber refers to it as an "overgrown village"—and they made friends with many of its leading citizens and clergy. They left by stage coach on 13 March, heading south towards the Crimea and the Black Sea. This took them through the Cossack country of the Don River Basin. Heber sent home a vivid account of the night celebrations for Easter at Novo Tcherkask, the Cossack capital: "The soft plaintive chaunt of the choir, and their sudden change at the moment of daybreak to the full chorus of 'Christ is risen' were altogether what a poet or a painter would have studied with delight".  In the Crimea, Heber observed the manners and practices of the region's large Muslim community. He expressed pleasure at being greeted with the oriental "salaam". The course of the war in Europe had meanwhile shifted to allow Heber and Thornton to pass through Poland, Hungary, Austria and Germany to the port of Hamburg, by way of Austerlitz, where they heard accounts of the recent battle. While making sketches of the scene, Heber was briefly mistaken for a French spy by local farmers. At Hamburg the two travellers boarded Lord Morpeth's private yacht and sailed for England, arriving at Great Yarmouth on 14 October 1806.

Rector of Hodnet.

Parish priest.

On his return to England, Heber prepared for Holy Orders at Oxford, where he found time for literary pursuits, was active in university politics and led a busy social life. He was ordained as deacon at the end of February 1807 and received full priest's orders from the Bishop of Oxford on 24 May 1807. He was then inducted into the family living, as rector of Hodnet; he was later to describe his role as "a half-way station between a parson and a squire". At first he divided his time between his parish and Oxford, where he fulfilled duties at All Souls. He had not at this time determined his own doctrinal position; writing to Thornton he admitted that he was still searching: "Pray for me, my dear friend, that I may have my eyes open to the truth... and if it please God that I persevere in his ministry I may undertake the charge with a quiet mind and a good conscience". A High churchman by upbringing, Heber was a strong opponent of factional rivalry; he eventually found a place around the midpoint of the Anglican spectrum between the High Church and evangelical wings, with perhaps a slight inclination towards the evangelicals.  On 9 April 1809 Heber married Amelia Shipley, the youngest daughter of the Dean of St Asaph. He withdrew from Oxford, having secured his M.A., and set himself up permanently in the Hodnet rectory; finding this too small for his wife's liking he had the house demolished and a larger replacement built. In September 1813 Heber preached a sermon in Shrewsbury to the British and Foreign Bible Society, a missionary organisation of which he had been a member since his undergraduate days. The sermon ended with what Hughes describes as Heber's first public declaration in support of the work of overseas missions. He refused an appointment as a canon at Durham, preferring to continue his work in Hodnet in which, after 1814, he was assisted by his younger brother, the Revd Thomas Heber, who served as his curate until his death, at the age of 31, in 1816. The employment of a curate enabled Heber to devote more time to his literary pursuits, and to accept an invitation, in 1815, to deliver the Bampton Lectures at Oxford. He chose as his subject "The Personality and the Office of the Christian Comforter"; the series was published in 1822.  In 1817 Heber accepted the post of canon at St Asaph, the relative proximity of which enabled the extra duties to be carried out without interfering with his parish work. His main literary task during these years was a biography and critical study of the complete works of the 17th-century cleric Jeremy Taylor; the works, with Heber's critique, were published in 15 volumes between 1820 and 1822. This period of Heber's life was saddened by the death, on 24 December 1818, of his infant daughter after a short illness. Two more daughters were born later, in 1821 and 1824 respectively; both lived to adulthood. In 1822 Heber was elected to the church office of Preacher of Lincoln's Inn, which would require a regular term of residence in London. He saw this both as an extension of his service to the Church and as a means of renewing contact with old friends.

Hymn writer.

At the start of the 19th century the Anglican authorities officially disapproved of the singing of hymns in churches, other than metrical psalms, although there was considerable informal hymn-singing in parishes. Heber, according to the poet John Betjeman, was a professed admirer of the hymns of John Newton and William Cowper, and was one of the first High Church Anglicans to write his own. In all he wrote 57, mainly between 1811 and 1821. Heber wished to publish his hymns in a collection, in which he proposed to include some by other writers. In October 1820 he sought help from the Bishop of London, William Howley, in obtaining official recognition of his collection from the Archbishop of Canterbury. In a noncommittal reply Howley suggested that Heber should publish the hymns, although he proposed to withhold episcopal approval until public reaction could be gauged. Heber began preparing the publication, but was unable to complete arrangements before his departure for India in 1823. The collection was eventually published in 1827, after Heber's death, as "Hymns Written and Adapted to the Weekly Church Service of the Year".  Betjeman characterised Heber's style as consciously literary, with careful choices of adjectives and vivid figures of speech: "poetic imagery was as important as didactic truth". A more recent analysis by J. R. Watson draws attention to Heber's tendency to deliver what he terms "a rather obvious sermon", and to his mixing of powerful description with "a rather trite moralism". A handful of Heber's hymns have survived into popular use into the 21st century. One whose popularity has waned is the missionary hymn "From Greenland's Icy Mountains", written in 1819 as part of a country-wide campaign on behalf of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (SPG). Watson describes this as "a conspicuous example of that fervent belief to convert the world to Christianity which led Heber and others to lay down their lives in the mission field", and while widely sung until the second half of the 20th century, it was for instance omitted from the 1982 revision of the Episcopal Church hymnal. Betjeman felt that in the modern world, the words of this hymn seem patronising and insensitive to other beliefs, with references to "...every prospect pleases and only man is vile", and to "the heathen in his blindness [bowing] down to wood and stone". These phrases and the assumptions behind them offended Gandhi, who drew attention to them in a speech at YMCA Calcutta (Kolkata) in 1925: "My own experience in my travels throughout India has been to the contrary... [Man] is not vile. He is as much a seeker after truth as you and I are, possibly more so". Other Heber texts remain popular, and the "Dictionary of North American Hymnology" noted that most of his hymns remain in use.

Bishop of Calcutta.

Appointment.

The see of Calcutta had been established in 1814. It covered much of the Indian subcontinent and Ceylon, together with Australia and parts of southern Africa. The first bishop, Thomas Middleton, who had been consecrated in 1814, died in office in July 1822. At the time the head of the Indian Board of Control was Charles Williams-Wynn, an old Oxford friend of Heber's. In December 1822 Williams-Wynn wrote to Heber, not directly offering his friend the post—the wording appeared to anticipate a refusal—but nevertheless leaving Heber the opportunity to claim the office, should he wish. Heber had a longstanding interest in the work of overseas missions; he supported not only the SPG but also its more recently formed evangelical sister-body, the Church Missionary Society (CMS), and while still at Oxford had helped to found the British and Foreign Bible Society (BFBS).  Heber was attracted to the post, his interest in distant places having been stimulated by his early travels, but his initial response to the implied offer was cautious. He first asked Williams-Wynn whether there was a suitable local man for the appointment and he was told there was not. His next concern was whether his wife and infant daughter should be exposed to the rigours of the Indian climate, and also if his own health was adequate. After consultation with doctors and discussion with his family, Heber wrote to Williams-Wynn on 2 January 1823, refusing the post. Within days he had written again, regretting the refusal and asking if the post was still available, at which Williams-Wynn quickly obtained the formal approval of King George IV to the appointment. Heber spent the next few months at Hodnet preparing for his departure; during this period he gave a farewell sermon at Oxford, after which the degree of Doctor of Divinity (D.D.) was conferred on him. On 1 June 1823 Heber was formally consecrated as Bishop of Calcutta at Lambeth Palace, by the Archbishop of Canterbury. Two weeks later he departed for India with Amelia and his daughter Emily.

In office.

The new bishop arrived in Calcutta on 10 October 1823. After his ceremonial installation by the Governor General, Lord Amherst, Heber preached his first sermon as bishop on Sunday 12 October, in St John's Cathedral Church. He faced many challenges arising from tasks unfinished at the time of his predecessor's death and from the long hiatus without a bishop. A major area of concern was Bishop's College, a training school for local clergy founded by Middleton in 1820, the development of which had stalled due to financial and management problems. Heber reinvigorated the project by extensive fundraising, by persuading the government to increase its grant of land, and by restarting the building programme; within a few months the college boasted a library and a new chapel. In June 1824 Heber, using a power provided to him by recent Act of Parliament, ordained as deacon the first native Indian to receive Holy Orders.  Heber was interested in all aspects of Indian life and quickly made friends, both with the local population and with the representatives of non-Anglican churches. Occasionally his easy manner and lavish hospitality clashed with the principles of the more puritan and evangelical of his clergy; one such, Isaac Wilson of the CMS, used a sermon to mount a direct attack on the bishop after what he considered were excessive celebrations following a baptismal service. Wilson was forced to apologise after Heber threatened him with a Consistory court.

Travels.

On 15 June 1824 Heber set out on a tour of northern India, accompanied by his personal chaplain, Martin Stowe, and Daniel Corrie, the Archdeacon of Calcutta. Amelia remained in Calcutta; earlier in the year she had given birth to her third daughter, Harriet. The general plan was to travel by boat to the upper waters of the River Ganges, then overland into the foothills of the Himalayas before turning south and west, crossing Rajputana to reach Bombay. The journey was almost aborted near to its beginning when Stowe fell ill in Dacca and died there; after some hesitation, Heber decided that the tour should continue. Early in August the party reached Benares (now Varanasi), the largest of the cities in the Ganges plain, where Heber spent several weeks. It was a wholly Indian city without a European population, sacred to Hindus, Sikhs and Buddhists but with a well-established CMS school and a substantial Christian minority. Heber consecrated a new church, and when he conducted a Holy Communion service in both English and Hindustani, a large congregation of Christians and Hindus thronged the church.  The party left Benares in mid-September. After reaching Allahabad they continued overland, accompanied by an armed troop of sepoys. On 28 November they reached their farthest northerly point, at Almora in the Kumaon region. Their subsequent path southward took them to Delhi, the ancient Mughal capital, where Heber was presented to the ageing emperor Akbar Shah II in his dilapidated palace; Heber wrote of the emperor as "the venerable ruin of a mighty stock". In the final stages of the journey to Bombay, at Nadiad, Heber met with Sahajanand Swami, the region's leading Hindu religious leader. Heber had hopes of converting the Swami to Christianity, but was disappointed in the meeting and finally dismissed the Swami as a worshipper of images. On 19 April Heber arrived in Bombay, to be greeted a week later by Amelia and his daughters, who had arrived by sea from Calcutta.  Heber remained in Bombay for four months, and then decided that, instead of sailing directly for Calcutta, he would visit Ceylon on the way. He arrived at Galle on 25 August and spent five weeks touring the main cities before departing for Calcutta where he arrived on 19 October 1825 after an absence of 16 months.

Final months.

Heber wished to pass on to the Governor General, Lord Amherst, much of what he had learned and observed on his long voyage, and on his return to Calcutta busied himself with a series of detailed reports. He also wrote to Williams-Wynn in London, strongly criticising the East India Company's stewardship of its Indian territories. He was concerned that few Indians were promoted to senior posts, and noted the "bullying, insolent manner" towards Indians that was widespread amongst the Company authorities. Many local matters also demanded Heber's attention: the next phase in the development of Bishop's College, the preparation of a Hindustani dictionary, and a series of ordinations including that of Abdul Masih, an elderly Lutheran whose reception into Anglican orders had earlier been resisted by Bishop Middleton, on unspecified grounds  In spite of the pressures on his time, Heber set out again on 30 January 1826, this time heading south for Madras, Pondicherry, Tanjore, and ultimately Travancore. One reason for the tour was to examine the issue of caste, which persisted in Southern India. In Tanjore on Easter Day, 26 March 1826, Heber preached to more than 1300, and on the following day conducted a confirmation service for a large Tamil congregation. On 1 April he moved on to Trichinopoly where, next day, he confirmed 42 people. On 3 April, after attending an early-morning service at which he gave a blessing in the Tamil language, Heber returned to his bungalow for a cold bath. Immediately after plunging into the water he died, possibly from the shock of the cold water in the intense heat. Watson records that a contemporary engraving shows his body "being carried from the bath by his servant and chaplain, the latter immaculately attired in a frock coat and top hat". His funeral was held the next day at St John's church, where he had preached his final sermon; he was buried within the church, on the north side of the altar.

Memorials and legacy.

Although Heber's episcopate had been brief he had made a considerable impression, and news of his death brought many tributes from around India. Sir Charles Grey, an old Oxford friend who was serving as Calcutta's Chief Justice, spoke of Heber's cheerfulness, his lack of self-importance, his good humour, patience and kindness. Flags were flown at half-mast in Madras and Calcutta, and the Governor-General ordered a salute of 42 guns—one for each completed year of the bishop's life. In several cities public subscriptions were opened to raise funds for monuments. In St John's church in Trichinopoly, initially a simple plaque above the grave recorded the date and place of Heber's death; this was in due course made much more elaborate. In St George's church, Madras, a large sculpture by Francis Chantrey was erected, depicting Heber ministering to members of his flock. Reflecting Heber's interest in the training of local ordinands, further funds were raised to provide Heber scholarships at Bishop's College; in Trichinopoly a school founded by the German missionary Christian Friedrich Schwarz became the Heber Memorial School.  It took four months for reports of Heber's death to reach England. At Oxford, representatives of Brasenose and All Souls opened a fund for an appropriate memorial; this idea was taken over by Williams-Wynn, who wanted a national rather than an Oxford-based monument. From the large sum collected, Chantrey was paid £3,000 for a huge marble sculpture that was placed in St Paul's Cathedral, London. More modest memorials were raised in the parish churches at Hodnet and Malpas. During his time is St Asaph, Heber became a good friend of the poet, Felicia Hemans, and in 1826 she published a poetic tribute "To the Memory of Bishop Heber" in The Asiatic Journal.  Heber was soon commemorated in print; as well as the publication of his hymns collection in 1827, the journal that he had kept during his northern India tour of 1824–25 was published in 1828 and proved a great commercial success. Less popular was the three-volume biography and letters collection that Amelia published in 1830. In the ensuing years various collections of Heber's poetry appeared. Hughes observes that although some of the lighter verses are neat and amusing, the general quality is such that had Heber been only a poet, he would quickly have been forgotten. He achieved a more lasting niche as a hymn-writer; according to Hughes, among his hymns with enduring appeal are the Epiphany hymn "Brightest and best of the sons of the morning"; "The Son of God Goes Forth to War", dedicated to the church's saints and martyrs, and the Trinity Sunday hymn "Holy, Holy, Holy, Lord God Almighty". The last one is probably the most widely known of all Trinity hymns and owes a great deal of its popularity to John Bacchus Dykes's tune "Nicea": Watson observes that the tune's "magnificent grandeur carries the long lines effortlessly". Hughes mentions two more Heber hymns that, he says, deserve to be better known: "God that madest earth and heaven" and "By cool Siloam's shady rill".  Heber's pioneering commitment to the mission fields was expressed, half a century after his death, by the author Charlotte Mary Yonge: "Heber was one of the first English churchmen who perceived that to enlarge her borders and strengthen her stakes was the bounden duty of the living Church". He led through example, and through his writings which "did much to spread knowledge of, and therefore interest in, the field of labour in which he died". The Anglican Church of Canada commemorates Heber on 4 April each year.  In July 1830 Amelia Heber married Count Demetrius Valsamachi, a Greek diplomat who became a British subject and was later knighted by Queen Victoria. Amelia lived until 1870. Her daughter Emily married Algernon Percy, the son of the Bishop of Carlisle, and the younger daughter Harriet married a son of Heber's friend John Thornton.

Reginald Heber (21 April 1783 – 3 April 1826) was an English bishop, man of letters and hymn-writer. After 16 years as a country parson, he served as Bishop of Calcutta until his death at the age of 42. The son of a rich landowner and cleric, Heber gained fame at the University of Oxford as a poet. After graduation he made an extended tour of Scandinavia, Russia and Central Europe. Ordained in 1807, he took over his father's old parish, Hodnet, Shropshire. He also wrote hymns and general literature, including a study of the works of the 17th-century cleric Jeremy Taylor.

Reginald Heber (geb. 21. April 1783 in Malpas, Cheshire; gest. 3. April 1826 in Trichinopoly (heute Tiruchirappalli)) war ein anglikanischer Geistlicher und Bischof der Church of England, Missionar und Literat, der heute hauptsächlich als Kirchenlieddichter und Erneuerer des englischen Kirchliedes in Erinnerung ist.


Description.

The game consisted of a program called the "umpire" and a designated section of the computer's memory known as the "arena", into which two or more small programs, written by the players, were loaded. The programs were written in 7090 machine code, and could call a number of functions provided by the umpire in order to probe other locations within the arena, kill opposing programs, and claim vacant memory for copies of themselves.  The game ended after a set amount of time, or when copies of only one program remained alive. The player who wrote the last surviving program was declared winner.  Up to 20 memory locations within each program (fewer in later versions of the game) could be designated as "protected". If one of these protected locations was probed by another program, the umpire would immediately transfer control to the program that was probed. This program would then continue to execute until it, in turn, probed a protected location of some other program, and so forth.  While the programs were responsible for copying and relocating themselves, they were forbidden from altering memory locations outside themselves without permission from the umpire. As the programs were executed directly by the computer, there was no physical mechanism in place to prevent cheating. Instead, the source code for the programs was made available for study after each game, allowing players to learn from each other and to verify that their opponents hadn't cheated.  The smallest program that could reproduce, locate enemies and kill them consisted of about 30 instructions. McIlroy developed a 15-instruction program that could locate and kill enemies but not reproduce; while not very lethal, it was effectively unkillable, as it was shorter than the limit of 20 protected instructions. In later games the limit on protected instructions was lowered because of this.  The "ultimately lethal" program developed by Morris had 44 instructions, and employed an adaptive strategy. Once it successfully located the start of an enemy program, it would probe some small distance ahead of this location. If it succeeded in killing the enemy, it would remember the distance and use it on subsequent encounters. If it instead hit a protected location, then the next time it gained control it chose a different distance. Any new copies were initialized with a successful value. In this way, Morris's program evolved into multiple subspecies, each specifically adapted to kill a particular enemy.

Darwin was a programming game invented in August 1961 by Victor A. Vyssotsky, Robert Morris Sr., and M. Douglas McIlroy. (Dennis Ritchie is sometimes incorrectly cited as a co-author, but was not involved.) The game was developed at Bell Labs, and played on an IBM 7090 mainframe there. The game was only played for a few weeks before Morris developed an "ultimate" program that eventually brought the game to an end, as no-one managed to produce anything that could defeat it.

Darwin wurde im August 1961 von Victor A. Vyssotsky, Robert Morris Sr., und M. Douglas McIlroy an den Bell Labs auf einem IBM 7090 Großrechner entwickelt und gilt als erstes Programmierspiel. Es wurde nur einige Wochen gespielt, bevor Morris ein „ultimatives“ Programm entwickelte, das nicht besiegt werden konnte. Die Originalversion von Darwin ist nicht mehr erhalten. Später erschienen Varianten für IBM/360-Systeme. Aus den 80er Jahren existiert nur noch eine Neuimplementierung von G. A. Edgar für Zilog Z80 CP/M-Systeme, auch als Kompilat für den Mac. Core War greift die Spielidee von Darwin auf und setzt sie mit einer virtuellen Maschine um.


Iso Isetta (Italy).

The car originated with the Italian firm of Iso SpA. In the early 1950s the company was building refrigerators, motor scooters and small three-wheeled trucks. Iso's owner, Renzo Rivolta, decided to build a small car for mass distribution. By 1952 the engineers Ermenegildo Preti and Pierluigi Raggi had designed a small car that used the motorcycle engine of the Iso Moto 200 and named it Isetta—an Italian diminutive meaning "little iso".  The Isetta caused a sensation when it was introduced to the motoring press in Turin in November 1953. It was unlike anything seen before. Small (only long by wide) and egg-shaped, with bubble-type windows, the entire front end of the car hinged outwards to allow entry. In the event of a crash, the driver and passenger were to exit through the canvas sunroof. The steering wheel and instrument panel swung out with the single door, simplifying access to the single bench seat. The seat provided reasonable comfort for two occupants, and perhaps a small child. Behind the seat was a large parcel shelf with a spare wheel located below. A heater was optional, and ventilation was provided by opening the fabric sunroof.  Power came from a, split-single two-stroke motorcycle engine. The engine was started by a combination generator-starter known as "Dynastart". A manual gearbox provided four forward speeds and reverse. A chain drive connected the gearbox to a solid rear axle with a pair of closely spaced rear wheels. The first prototypes had one wheel at the rear, but having a single rear wheel made the car prone to roll-overs, so the rear wheel layout was changed to two wheels set apart from each other. This narrow track eliminated the need for a differential. The front axle was a modified version of a Dubonnet independent front suspension.  The Isetta took over 30 seconds to reach from rest. Top speed was only about. The fuel tank held only ; the Isetta would get somewhere between and.  In 1954, Iso entered several Isettas in the legendary Mille Miglia where they took the top three spots in the economy classification. Over a distance of, the drivers achieved an average speed of over. However, despite its initial success, the Isetta was beginning to slip in popularity at home, mainly due to renewed competition from Fiat with its 500C model.  Renzo Rivolta wanted to concentrate on his new Iso Rivolta sports car, and was interested in doing licensing deals. Plants in Spain and Belgium were already assembling "Isettas" and "Autocarros" using Italian-made Iso components. BMW began talking with Rivolta in mid-1954 and bought not just a license but the complete Isetta body tooling as well. Rivolta also negotiated licensing deals with companies in France and Brazil.  After constructing some 1000 units, production of the Italian built cars ceased in 1955, but Iso continued to build the Isetta in Spain until 1958.

Iso Autocarro.

In addition to the Iso Isetta "vettura" described above, Iso also built the "Autocarro", a commercial version with full-width rear axle. The "Autocarro" was offered in several body styles—a flatbed pickup, enclosed truck, a tilt-bed or even a fire engine—although some of these might not have been sold. The "Autocarro" was very popular in Italy, and many manufacturers produced some variant of the type.  Iso had previously produced a motorcycle-type "Isocarro". The Iso "Autocarro" was larger than most, with its four-wheel layout, conventional rear axle with differential and leaf springs, and a large tubular frame. It could carry a load. The name "Isetta Autocarro" was also used. It is thought that more than 4,000 "Autocarros" were built.

VELAM Isetta (France).

In 1954, VELAM acquired a licence from Iso to manufacture a car based on the Isetta. Since Iso had sold the body making equipment to BMW, VELAM developed their own body but used the original Iso engine. The VELAM body was rounder and more egg-like than Iso's Isetta and was known by the French as the 'yogurt pot'. Instead of a chassis like the Italian and German versions, there was a sub-frame bolted to the body at the rear, which held the rear tires, engine, and transmission. The front suspension was bolted to the front of the body. The front door was opened by push button instead of a handle, and the speedometer was mounted in the center of the steering wheel.  VELAM started production of the car in 1955 at the old Talbot factory at Suresnes, France, and the car was introduced at the 1955 Paris car show. All told, five versions of the car were built: the standard Isetta, a convertible version, a luxury version, a one-off "Sport" version, and a race car. Due to competition from the Renault Dauphine, production ceased in 1958.

De Carlo - Isetta (Argentina).

Metalmecánica Company, joined the regime automotive manufacturing 1959, starting the assembly of licensed vehicles BMW (Isetta and BMW 700), in 1964, Metalmecánica redesigns the front and back of the De Carlo 700, becoming its first redesign made in Argentina, in 1965 begins to assemble under license of the French company SIMCA, the model Ariane.  Some 1,413 of the De Carlo 600 were manufactured from 1959 to 1962

Romi-Isetta (Brazil).

In 1955, Iso licensed the Isetta to Romi, a machine-tool manufacturer headquartered in the city of Santa Bárbara d'Oeste, in the State of São Paulo. The Isetta was chosen because it was considered an ideal vehicle for use in the cities by virtue of its size and economy. Released on September 5, 1956, it was the first car produced in Brazil. The car had received government approval as a part of a state-supported drive to establish an automotive industry in Brazil, but ended up being built without government backing.  Some 3,000 of the Romi-Isettas were manufactured from 1956 to 1961. They kept the Iso design and used Iso engines until 1958; in 1959 they switched to the BMW 300 cc engines.

BMW Isetta (Germany).

BMW made the Isetta its own. They redesigned the powerplant around a BMW one-cylinder, four-stroke, 247 cc motorcycle engine which generated. Although the major elements of the Italian design remained intact, BMW re-engineered much of the car, so much so that none of the parts between a BMW Isetta Moto Coupe and an Iso Isetta are interchangeable. The first BMW Isetta appeared in April 1955.  In May 1962, three years after launching the conventionally modern-looking BMW 700, BMW ceased production of Isettas. A total of 161,728 units had been built.

BMW Isetta 250.

While it retained the "bubble window" styling, it differed from the Italian model in that its headlamps were fixed separately to the sides of the bodywork and it carried the BMW badge below the windscreen. The car was also redesigned to take a modified version of the 250 cc four-stroke engine from the BMW R25/3 motorcycle and the front suspension was changed. The single-cylinder generated at 5800 rpm. The crankcase and cylinder were made of cast iron, the cylinder head of aluminium. However, the head was rotated by 180° compared with the motorcycle engine. The twin-bearing crankshaft was also different in the Isetta power unit, being larger and featuring reinforced bearings. One of the reasons for this was the heavy "Dynastart" unit which combined the dynamo and self-starter. The fuel mixture was provided by a Bing sliding throttle side draft motorcycle carburetor. In addition to further changes of detail, the BMW engineers enlarged the sump for installation in the car and cooled the engine by means of a radial fan and shrouded ducting.  The power train from the four-speed gearbox to the two rear wheels was also unusual: fixed to the gearbox output drive was something called a "Hardy disc", which was a cardan joint made of rubber. On the other side of it was a cardan shaft, and finally a second Hardy disc, which in turn was located at the entrance to a chain case. A duplex chain running in an oil bath led finally to a rigid shaft, at each end of which were the two rear wheels. Thanks to this elaborate power transfer, the engine-gearbox unit was both free of tension and well soundproofed in its linkage to the rear axle.  In Germany, the Isetta could even be driven with a motorcycle license. The top speed of the Isetta 250 was rated as.  The first BMW Isetta rolled off the line in April 1955, and in the next eight months some 10,000 were produced.

BMW Isetta 300.

In 1956, the government of the Federal Republic of Germany changed the regulations for motor vehicles. Class IV licences issued from that time onward could only be used to operate small motorcycles and could no longer be used to operate motor vehicles with a capacity of less than 250 cc. At the same time, the maximum capacity allowed for the Isetta's tax category was 300 cc. Class IV licences issued before the change in the regulations were grandfathered and allowed to be used as before.  This change in regulations encouraged BMW to revise their Isetta microcars. In February 1956 a 300cc engine was introduced. The engineers enlarged the single cylinder to a bore and stroke, which gave a displacement of exactly 298 cc; at the same time, they raised the compression ratio from 6.8 to 7.0:1. As a result, the engine power output rose to at 5200 rpm, and the torque rose to at 4600 rpm. The maximum speed remained at, yet there was a marked increase in flexibility, chiefly noticeable on gradients.  In October 1956, the Isetta Moto Coupe DeLuxe (sliding-window Isetta) was introduced. The bubble windows were replaced by longer, sliding side windows.

BMW 600.

The BMW 600 was intended as an enlarged Isetta with more power and a more conventional four-wheel configuration.  The front end of the 600 was virtually unchanged from the Isetta, but the 600's wheelbase was stretched to accommodate four seats. A conventional rear axle was added. BMW introduced the semi-trailing arm independent suspension on the 600. This suspension would be used on almost every new model for the next four decades. Because of the increased size and weight, the 600 had a more powerful engine than the Isetta. The 600 had the 582 cc twin engine from the R67 motorcycle. Top speed was.  In two years, only 34,000 600s were produced, partly due to price competition with the entry-level VW Beetle. In the late 1950s, consumers wanted cars that looked like cars, and they had lost interest in economy models. Sales of the 600 were, however, aided by the energy crisis of 1956–1957.

BMW Isetta (United Kingdom).

In 1957, Isetta of Great Britain began producing Isetta 300 models at their factory in the former Brighton railway works under licence from BMW. The factory had no access by road, therefore components were delivered by rail and finished cars were shipped out the same way.  The British cars had right-hand drive with the door hinged from the right hand side of the car and the steering column moved across to the right as well. Right-hand drive meant that both the driver and the engine were on the same side, so a counterweight was added to the left side to compensate. Dunlop tyres were used, and Lucas electrics replaced the German Hella and Bosch components, with a different headlamp housing being used. Girling brake components replaced the ATE brake parts.  The Isetta was not popular in the UK until a three-wheeled version was introduced. Although three-wheeled vehicles are more prone to rolling over, there was a financial advantage: they could evade automobile legislation and taxation by being classed as three-wheeled motorcycles, and could be driven with a motorcycle licence. Isetta of Great Britain continued to produce four-wheeled Isettas, but only for export to Canada, New Zealand, and Australia.  In 1962, Isetta of Great Britain also stopped production of the little cars but continued to produce Isetta engines until 1964.

Isetta replica kits.

The now defunct British firm Tri-Tech, under the model name "Zetta", sold a kit car or even an assembled complete BMW Isetta lookalike replica from modern parts, including Honda CN 250 cc single-cylinder water-cooled engines with automatic transmission (standard) or Kawasaki 500 GPS two-cylinder water-cooled motorcycle engines with optional manual transmission.  Some parts, new or used, were from "donor" vehicles. Front suspension and steering were from the Bedford Rascal (later sold under the Vauxhall marque) or the original and almost identical Suzuki Supercarry light duty van or pick-up. Drum brakes and wheels were from Morris and the subsequent British Leyland Motor Corporation Mini. Prices ranged from c. £2650 for the kit up to c. £9450 for a complete version.  It could be legally registered for use under British laws. Tri-Tech also supplied some body parts which can be used for running non-exact restorations of BMW Isettas.

Microlino.

In 2016 Swiss entrepreneur Wim Ouboter, from Micro Mobility Systems, showed a proof-of-concept electric car called Microlino at the Geneva Motor Show, based on the original Isetta body design but with a new chassis and suspension. Production of the vehicle in Italy was set to commence by the end of 2017, but was postponed to late 2018. The company reported in September 2018 it has pre-orders for 8,000 vehicles, which will cost EUR 12,000 each.

References.

Notes Citations

The Isetta is an Italian-designed microcar built under license in a number of different countries, including Argentina, Spain, Belgium, France, Brazil, Germany, and the United Kingdom. Because of its egg shape and bubble-like windows, it became known as a bubble car, a name also given to other similar vehicles.

Die Iso Isetta ist ein Rollermobil, das Iso Rivolta in den 1950er Jahren entwickelte und ab 1953 in Italien produzierte. Iso Rivolta stellte die Produktion Ende 1955 ein.


Early life and education.

Colotka was born in Sedliacka Dubová, Dolný Kubín district, on 10 January 1925. He studied law at Comenius University in Bratislava and graduated in 1950.

Career.

Following the graduation Colotka joined the University of Bratislava and taught civil and family law. He was the prorector of the university from 1959 to 1961. He served at the International Court of Justice at the Hague from 1963 to 1968. He became professor of civil law in 1964.  He was a member of both the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia and the Slovak Communist Party. He was made deputy prime minister of Czechoslovakia in 1968. He was appointed president of the Czechoslovak Federal Assembly in the meeting of the Czech communist party held on 16–17 January 1969, replacing Josef Smrkovský in the post. And Colotka was a deputy at the Assembly from 1969 to 1989. He became a member of the Czechoslovak Communist Party's presidium in April 1969 and of its central committee in May 1971. He was elected to the Slovak Communist Party's presidium in May 1969 and to the central committee in May 1971.  He was appointed Prime Minister of the Slovak Socialist Republic on 4 May 1969, replacing Stefan Sádovský in the post. He also served as deputy prime minister of Czechoslovakia from 1969 to 1988. He resigned from premiership on 12 October 1988 and was replaced by Ivan Knotek in the post. Colotka also resigned from the Czechoslovak Communist Party's presidium in October 1988.  He was appointed Czechoslovak ambassador to France in late 1988 and served in the post until 19 January 1990.

Controversy.

Colotka was among the communist leaders who were interrogated about their role in the 1968 Soviet invasion. On 11 July 1990, Colotka was also arrested and accused of embezzlement, abuse of power and theft.

Peter Colotka (10 January 1925 – 20 April 2019) was a Slovak academic, lawyer and politician. He was the prime minister of the Slovak Socialist Republic from 1969 to 1988.

Peter Colotka (* 10. Januar 1925 in Sedliacka Dubová, Okres Dolný Kubín, Tschechoslowakei; † 21. April 2019) war ein tschechoslowakischer Jurist, Hochschullehrer und Politiker der Kommunistischen Partei der Tschechoslowakei KSČ "(Komunistická strana Československa)" sowie der Kommunistischen Partei der Slowakei KSS "(Komunistická strana Slovenska)", der unter anderem zwischen 1968 und 1988 stellvertretender Ministerpräsident der Tschechoslowakischen Sozialistischen Republik (ČSSR) sowie von 1969 bis 1988 Ministerpräsident der Teilrepublik Slowakische Sozialistische Republik war.


History.

Archaeological excavations to the north-west of the castle have shown that a Roman fort, with a garrison of perhaps 300, existed at this site between 80 AD and 170 AD.  This site was the administrative center for the Barony of Crawford, at that time the largest and most influential barony in southern Scotland. The Barony was established before 1100 when records of the period show Thorlongus of the Merse as Overlord of Crawford. From this line descended the surname of Crawford as the original occupants of the barony. Crawford Castle was in existence by 1175, and was probably built as an earthwork and timber castle some time before this by the Crawford family.  The Lindsay family inherited half of the Barony of Crawford, known as Crawford Parish, via a marriage in 1215 to the younger daughter of Sir John Crawford, who died in 1246 without male issue. (Sir John's elder daughter Margaret married a Douglas scion.) The Crawford family retained the other half, known as Crawfordjohn Parish, as the Barony had been divided among the Crawford family four generations earlier. Crawford Castle is located in Crawford Parish. From an early date, the Clan Carmichael of Meadowflat acted as hereditary constables of the castle, retaining this post under successive owners.  In 1398, Robert II granted the title of Earl of Crawford to David Lindsay, who had won great praise on St George’s Day, 23 April 1390 for bravery in a duel with the Englishman Baron Welles on London Bridge after Welles, at a banquet in Edinburgh, and presumably after too much alcohol issued, as Champion of England, the challenge: "Let words have no place; if ye know not the Chivalry and Valiant deeds of Englishmen; appoint me a day and a place where ye list, and ye shall have experience."  At the accession of James IV in 1488 the barony of Crawford was transferred to Archibald Douglas, 5th Earl of Angus for supporting his father, James III, against the young prince's rebellion. The Earls of Angus held the castle until 1578, when their estates were forfeited by the young James V. James used Crawford as a hunting lodge until his own death in 1542. His mistress, Elizabeth Carmichael, was the daughter of the hereditary constable.  After 1542 the barony was returned to the Earls of Angus, the keepership of the Carmichaels of Meadowflat coming to an end in 1595. In 1633 the 11th earl was created Marquess of Douglas, and the castle was probably rebuilt after this date. The castle then passed to the Duke of Hamilton, before being sold to Sir George Colebrooke in the 18th century. After a period of use as a farmhouse, the building was abandoned at the end of the 18th century, and much of the stone reused to build the present Crawford Castle Farm. Four stone tablets bearing coats of arms, one with the date 1648, are built into the west and south walls of the Castle Crawford House.

Ruins.

The early earthworks of Crawford Castle comprise a motte around 5m high, with a surrounding ditch and a bailey some 45m by 33m to the south-west. On the motte are the remains of a curtain wall, surrounding an enclosure around 20m square. There may have been round towers at the corners of this enclosure, which probably dates to the 16th or early 17th centuries. A range of buildings on the south-west side of the castle were built at around the same time. This tower-like range was of three storeys, plus an attic, with a vaulted basement and projecting chimney-breast. To the south-east, a second range was added later in the 17th century, providing more spacious accommodation with larger windows. The prominent arched recess in the east wall suggests that a single storey building of some kind projected from the main structure at this location. Much of the present remains probably date from the 17th century rebuilding by the Marquess of Douglas.  Crawford Castle is specified in a list of monuments published by the Minister of Public Building and Works under the Ancient Monuments Consolidation and Amendment Act 1913. It is now a Scheduled Ancient Monument. The Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland lists the site as a castle or motte.

Crawford Castle, substantially in ruins, is located on the north bank of the River Clyde, around half a mile north of Crawford, South Lanarkshire, Scotland. The ruins stand on an earlier motte and bailey earthwork. The castle was formerly known as Lindsay Tower, after its former owners, the Lindsay family. The strategic location of the castle, at, guards the approach from England into the upper Clyde Valley.

Crawford Castle ist eine Burgruine am Nordufer des Clyde, etwa 800 Meter nördlich des Dorfes "Crawford" in der schottischen Verwaltungseinheit South Lanarkshire. Die Ruinen stehen auf dem Erdwerk einer früheren Motte. Früher wurde die Burg nach ihren früheren Besitzern, dem Clan Lindsay, Lindsay Tower genannt. Die Burg war strategisch günstig auf dem Weg von England in das obere Clyde-Tal gelegen.


Mission.

The festival has been established by the Institut Théodore Gouvy and the Choeur d'hommes de Hombourg-Haut (male choir founded in 1865 with Gouvy's support). The festival is aimed at rediscovering the major works of the composer. The first edition took place in 1995. Since then, the festival is supported by the town of Hombourg-Haut, the region Grand Est and the Moselle (department).  The festival is intended to be a series of six concerts spread out over the year. A close relationship has been established with the Orchestre national de Lorraine, major participant in the Festival.

Programming.

Each concert associates a work of Gouvy with works of other composers. This mix is most often based on highlights of the musical scene or on other topical issues as the 10th anniversary of the twinning between Hombourg-Haut and San Giorgio di Pesaro in 2016 (with an Ouverture of Rossini, the 4th symphony of 4Mendelssohn and the 1st symphony of Gouvy (both symphonies have been composed in Italy).  Participating vocal groups, artists and orchestras include conductors like Pierre Cao, Jacques Mercier, Joachim Fontaine, soloists like Jean-Efflam Bavouzet, Françoise Pollet, Jean-Pierre Wallez... ; choirs like the Choir of the monks of Saint-Alexander Nevski monastery, the female Choir Rimsky-Korsakov of Saint-Petersburg, Oxford Voices, Psalette de Lorraine... ; chamber music ensembles like Ricercare or the Chamber Orchestra of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg (KMVL)...; string quartets (Quatuor Varèse, Quatuor Denis Clavier) etc.

Venues.

The concerts are generally held in the collegiate church of Saint-Stephen. The New Year concert takes now place in the new "Espace Wendel".

30th edition of the festival in 2019.

The 30th edition coincides with the 200th anniversary of Théodore Gouvy's birth.  The fourth concert (on July 4, exactly 200 years after Gouvy's birth) provided the opportunity to inaugurate the statue erected in the honour of the composer and to re-create one of his cantatas, Aslega. This work has been premiered in Paris in 1876 and was the first cantata Gouvy composed for soloists, choir and orchestra. The composer reworked it (1888-1892). Nevertheless this second version (with German libretto) has never been published and performed. The performance was directed by Jacques Mercier.

The Théodore Gouvy International Festival ("Festival international Théodore Gouvy") is an annual festival of classical music held in honour of Franco-German composer, Théodore Gouvy. The festival is located in Hombourg-Haut (region Grand Est), the town where the composer, from 1867 onwards, used to spend the summer with his family.

Das Festival international Théodore Gouvy ("Internationale Festspiele Théodore Gouvy") ist ein Festival für klassische Musik, welches zu Ehren von Louis Théodore Gouvy (1819–1898) alljährlich in der ehemaligen Stiftskirche Saint-Étienne in Hombourg-Haut (deutsch "Oberhomburg") in der historischen Region Lothringen stattfindet. In diesem Ort hatte Théodore Gouvy mit seiner Familie ab 1867 im Sommer seinen Wohnsitz.


Early life.

Lajos Szabó was born in Budapest on 1 July 1902. In 1919 he was dismissed from vocational secondary school due to his sympathies with the Hungarian Soviet Republic. At the beginning of the 1920s, he took part in the illegal Communist movement for a few months.

A Self-Taught Philosopher.

In the first half of the 1920s, Lajos Szabó worked in Vienna and Budapest as a bookshop-assistant. Between 1928 and 1930 he became a member of the "work circle" of Lajos Kassák. He wrote two articles for the journal "Munka". It was at this time that he got acquainted with Karl Korsch. Together with several other members of the Munkakör (Movement of Work), Lajos Szabó was expelled from this communist organisation. The secessionists called themselves the Hungarian movement of the opposition. This leftist, anti-capitalist and, at the same time, anti-Bolshevik social movement was also connected to the uncompromising Marxism of Karl Korsch

Cooperation with Béla Tábor.

In 1930 Lajos Szabó got to know Béla Tábor with whom he had a close work relationship until the end of his life. Between 1931 and 1932, Lajos Szabó spent some months in Berlin and Frankfurt. He studied at the Institute for Social Research and in 1933 and 1934 he went on study tours to Vienna and to Paris.  He wrote "Vádirat a szellem ellen" (The Indictment of the Spirit) in 1936 together with Béla Tábor. In 1937 "A hit logikája – Teocentrikus logika" (The Logic of Faith: A Theocentric Logic) was published. The second part of this work was published only long after his death. Lajos Szabó wrote a number of studies that were published only after his death: "Megjegyzések a marxizmus kritikájához" [Remarks on the Critique of Marxism], "A tudományos szocializmus bírálatához" [A Contribution to the Critique of Scientific Socialism], "A mammonizmus természetrajzához" [On the Nature of Mammonism], "Adalékok a halmazelmélet kérdéseihez" [Contributions to the Theory of Sets], Nietzsche).  A very important study by Lajos Szabó is "Biblia és romantika" (The Bible and Romanticism) which was written based on a lecture he gave in 1941.  In 1938 he married Magda Pallós who died in 1946. In 1940 he was called up for labour service, but a few weeks later he was dismissed from the army due to his tuberculosis. He was hospitalised at the New St John's Hospital in Budakeszi. His close friend Lajos Vajda was treated at the same hospital ward. In the spring of 1944 Szabó was deported to Auschwitz. He survived and returned home to Hungary at the end of 1945.

Budapest Dialogical School.

Lajos Szabó and Béla Tábor laid the foundations of the Budapest Dialogical School in the post-war years. During these years they cooperated closely with Béla Hamvas, a writer and essayist and also with Lajos Fülep, an art historian. Lajos Szabó, Béla Tábor and Béla Hamvas came together regularly to discuss problems of philosophy and art theory, and their "intellectual community" came to be known as the "Thursday Talks". Stefánia Mándy, the wife of Béla Tábor and Katalin Kemény the wife of Béla Hamvas also took part in these conversations.  Lajos Szabó published two writings in 1946: Irodalom és rémület (Literature and Fright) "Diárium" and Művészet és vallás (Art and Religion) in "Mouseion". Between 1946 and 1948 he delivered lectures to young intellectuals. His talks included detailed value theoretical and value psychological analyses. In these lectures Lajos Szabó strove at a synthesis of the pre-philosophical situation (e.g. Indian tradition and the pre-Socratic philosophers) with the post-philosophical approach, i.e. the critique of philosophy, religion and art which is to be found in the works of the great figures of the 19th century, such as Søren Aabye Kierkegaard, Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky and Friedrich Nietzsche).  Lajos Szabó's thinking is closely related to the achievements of the philosophy of the dialogue as represented by Ferdinand Ebner, Franz Rosenzweig and Martin Buber, and he called himself also a "language philosopher". At the beginning of his lectures on value theory he pointed out that he identifies himself primarily with the Biblicism of Ferdinand Ebner, because he regards this approach basically unassailable, well-founded and as the one that goes furthest, although he believed that in important respects—primarily with regard to the evaluation of mathematics and art-- Biblicism has to be re-examined and also criticised.  The most active participants of the seminar lectures were Attila Kotányi and György Kunszt who also made written records of the lectures. The lectures covered the following topics: psychology, value and sign theory, economics, existentialism, the Indian traditions, theory of sets, the concept of language maths and prismatism. The printed version of these lectures could be published only after 1990, long after Szabó ́s death. Lajos Szabó participated actively in the activities of the Európai Iskola (European School), which was a neo-avantgarde group of visual artists and writers. From 1949 on, in the period of Stalinist dictatorship in Hungary, close relationships emerged between the then underground movement of the Budapest School of the Philosophy of the Dialogue and the banned avantgarde visual artists, especially those who were members of the European School.  From the mid-1950s on, Lajos Szabó started to draw calligraphies. The year 1954 saw the creation of the first calligraphies which can be regarded to be "meditations expressed through drawings". After 1956 he left Hungary with his wife. He stayed in Vienna till the end of 1957 following which, till the end of 1961, he lived in Brussels. In 1960 Lajos Szabó travelled around West Germany, and his calligraphies were exhibited in Munich, Dortmund, Hamburg and Hagen. In 1962 he moved to Düsseldorf. In 1966 he had an exhibition in Paris. Lajos Szabó adopted the pseudonym "AO". On the one hand, this can be regarded as an ancronym formed from the adjective "anti-organisational", on the other hand, A and O were the vowels contained in his first and last names. For a period of time, he signed the calligraphies with "AO". Later, however, AO got transformed into a visual motif.  Lajos Szabó died on 21 October 1967 in Düsseldorf. His grave is in the Jewish cemetery of the town.

Lajos Szabó, the philosopher.

Although the knowledge of Marxism and its ways of thinking were indeed present in Lajos Szabó's thinking, his main sources were existentialist thinkers in particular the twentieth-century philosophy of the dialogue represented by Franz Rosenzweig and, above all, Ferdinand Ebner (Das Wort and die geistigen Realitäten).  These are the most important topics in the writings of Lajos Szabó:  His most-cited work, written together with his close associate, Béla Tábor, is "Vádirat a szellem ellen" (Indictment of the Spirit) consists of three parts.  This book takes the whole of intellectual life to account: "Someone should at last undertake performing the embarrassing task, and pull off the veil of innocence from the only factor which has remained intact so far in a world splintered along conflicting interests and characterised by the "bellum omnium contra omnes", the spirit. (...) We are aware that when we undertake revealing intellectual life we become traitors to the class of intelligentsia. The «creative intelligentsia» seems to have had a very good time in the position which it occupied in the invisible hierarchy of society. It was the social class which could accuse without being accused, which could pass judgements without being judged. (...) This is an elegant and risk-free position to take. Nations fought terrible battles, millions died and the spirit could be the accuser: come and behold the work of politicians! Masses live in abject poverty, classes lose the ground below their feet, the mechanism of production bogs down, and the spirit can assume the role of the accuser: come and behold the social structure! Terrible epidemics decimate whole peoples and sordid sins are revealed, and the spirit can become the accuser again: come and see today's health-care! And what if we also mentioned all the depraved standards of morality! And all the accusations brought up by the intelligentsia are accompanied by a gestures of being ignored: if only the spirit could assume power...!"  The first part of the Indictment of the Spirit deals with the ongoing fragmentation of the spirit, which can be primarily seen in the arts and humanities. In this process language as a rational means of dialogue is ruined. The spirit renounces its leadership role, and pursues modest goals. This crisis can only be overcome if everyone who devotes their energies to researching a problem considers all the other proposed solutions to the problem as a personal challenge as a personal question addressed to them. The representatives of the spirit have to be aware of their own character traits, and also know, that in addition to influencing the masses, they themselves should learn from them.  The second part of this work deals with the practice and the theory of the spirit. The authors point out that the spirit has retreated into the theory, accepting at the same time the fact that practice has subjugated theory.  The third part of the book deals with the "geography of the spirit" The problem of Marxism, the authors point out, is that the objective of this movement, i.e. the creation of a new man, is not compatible with the dictatorial means whereby this objective is to be achieved. The authors, followers of the philosophy of the dialogue, assert that the main cause of the crisis is the helplessness of the spirit.  In his review, Béla Hamvas pointed out that this book should be regarded an anthropological study. He finishes his evaluation with the following words: "The real history of man is man's history of becoming godlike (...) Being a man means to have a fate, in which, in spite of errors and mistakes, there is always an opportunity for becoming godlike." This book review by Béla Hamvas, which at the time of its writing the publisher refused to publish because he thought the reviewer gave this work too much recognition, finishes with the highly topical, indeed poetic statement: "Life becomes more and more difficult for man, because he knows more and more. And he who knows a lot, and does not live accordingly, points out Jan van Ruysbroek, is lost once and for all."

Lajos Szabó, the calligrapher.

In the last stage of Szabó's life, a speculative graphic art played an important role. "Szabó's genre within graphic art is the abstract calligraphy (...) When calligraphy is substituted by abstract calligraphy, this means that the letters are substituted by signs and by the image. A religious person must have a great deal of courage to make this step towards abstraction. Lajos Szabó came to the recognition that signs, inspired by letters and replacing them, are the direct manifestations of the soul."  Lajos Szabó created his first calligraphies in 1954. "The abstract line of the emerging works »is not the abstraction of something«. It is not the abstract reflection of something concrete in reality, but it is rather the primary reality. It is the sign, the reflection and the breakthrough of the growing soul, it is »non-representational« in a way defined by Malewitsch. It is an inventive, internal spiritual reality. The carrier of this reality is just the line. The manifestations of the line are the traces that the pencil or the pen leave on a sheet of paper.  A meaningful number of calligraphies originating from the period preceding the end of 1956 was exhibited in 1980 in the Budapest Club of Young Artists. (The curators of the exhibition were Dániel Bíró and Botond Kocsis.)  In December 1957 Lajos Szabó's works were exhibited together with the works of Lajos Vajda, Endre Bálint, Attila Kotányi und Lyubomir Szabó in the Brussels Palais Des Beaux Arts.  Lajos Szabó's calligraphies are preserved in a number of non-Hungarian museums: Musée Royal, Brussels; Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen Rotterdam; Museum Kunstpalast, Düsseldorf; Staatliche Kunstsammlung Stuttgart; Sammlung Haubrich im Museum Ludwig Köln; Städtisches Kunstmuseum, Duisburg; Stiftung Lehmbruch Museum-Zentrum Internationalen Skulptur, Duisburg; Kunstmuseum Bochum Kunstsammlung.  The Berlin Calligraphy Collection in Berlin's Akademie der Künste has a total of 414 calligraphies by Lajos Szabó which were created before Szabó's emigration to the West.

Lajos Szabó (born 1 July 1902 in Budapest; died 21 October 1967 in Düsseldorf) was a Hungarian philosopher and one of the founders of the "Budapest Dialogical School".

Lajos Szabó (* 1. Juli 1902 in Budapest; † 21. Oktober 1967 in Düsseldorf) war ein ungarischer Philosoph und einer der Gründer der Budapester Dialogischen Schule.


Plot.

Ralph, a famous screenwriter now in his seventies and terminally ill, revisits his moral principles and desires to die with dignity. He wants to reconnect with his estranged son, Michael. He also wants to make sure he doesn't become a burden to his loving, much younger wife Anna as he goes "into that good night".

Production.

The film was shot in Algarve, Portugal for five weeks, and produced by London film investment company Goldfinch Studios LTD, formerly GSP Studios.

Reception.

Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an approval rating of 56% based on 16 critics, and an average rating of 5.1/10.  Neil Young of "The Hollywood Reporter" gave the film a positive review and wrote that it "passes muster strictly as a showcase for Hurt and Dance." Wendy Ide of Screen Daily also gave the film a positive review and wrote "So effortlessly good is Hurt, however, that he rather outclasses the rest." James Luxford from "Picturehouse Spotlight" wrote that "That Good Night", "is an absorbing British drama that explores issues that with resonate with everyone who sees it. Featuring performances that will inspire conversations long after the credits have rolled, it is a fitting tribute to one of our most instinctive talents." "CineVue"s Jamie Neish rated the film 2/5, and wrote "The film never feels truly worthy of Hurt's talents and doesn't utilise his abilities as well as it could have done." "The Times" also gave it 2/5, and stated "It's more mawkish than melancholic."

That Good Night is a 2017 British drama film directed by Eric Styles and starring John Hurt. It is based on N. J. Crisp's 1996 play of the same name. It is also notable for being Hurt's final film, although "Damascus Cover" (filmed earlier) was released later.

That Good Night ist ein britisch-portugiesisches Filmdrama von Eric Styles, das am 22. Juni 2017 im Rahmen des Edinburgh International Film Festivals seine Premiere feierte.


Background.

On 13 January 2016, members of the Mazhilis voted unanimously to request President Nursultan Nazarbayev dissolve parliament. The reason was due to Nazarbayev's warning about a "real crisis" caused by low oil prices. One week later, the Nazarbayev set 20 March as the date for the snap elections, which would be held concurrently with elections to maslihats (local legislative bodies).

Electoral system.

The 98 directly-elected members of the Mazhilis were elected from a single nationwide constituency by proportional representation with a 7% electoral threshold. Seats were allocated using the largest remainder method. If parties had an equal largest remainder, the party that was registered first was awarded the seat. If only one party crossed the threshold, the party with the second highest number of votes was to be awarded at least two seats. A further nine seats were elected by the Assembly of People, a body selected by the President.

Conduct.

Observers from the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe's Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (OSCE/ODIHR), the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly (PA) and the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE) announced in their joint press release that the elections had been "efficiently organised with some progress noted, but they indicated that Kazakhstan still has a considerable way to go in meeting its OSCE commitments for democratic elections". The statement added: "The legal framework restricts fundamental civil and political rights, and comprehensive reform is required."

Results.

The nine nominees were Sauytbek Abdrahmov, Vladimir Bozhko, Natalya Zhumadildayeva, Roman Kim, Narine Mikaelyan, Ahmet Muradov, Shaimardan Nurumov, Yury Tymochenko and Shakir Khakhazov.

Legislative elections were held in Kazakhstan on 20 March 2016. The date was set by president Nursultan Nazarbayev on 20 January 2016, when he dissolved the Mazhilis after it had requested dissolution on 13 January, with the reason cited being the economic crisis caused by low oil prices. Normally, the term of the Mazhilis would have expired in Autumn 2016.

Die vorgezogene Parlamentswahl in Kasachstan 2016 fand am 20. März 2016 statt. Gewählt wurden 98 Mitglieder der Mäschilis, dem Unterhaus des kasachischen Parlaments. Die OSZE stellte fest, dass die Wahl demokratische Standards nicht erfüllte.


Geographical features.

A series of small hills surround the basin, which has an oval shape, almost round, with a circumference at top of about 8 km (five miles). The sides of the basin rise abruptly at an angle of about 75°. At the base of the sides, the lake has a circumference of about 4.8 km (three miles). The slopes are covered with tree-savannah, housing teak ("Tectona grandis"), "Wrightia tinctoria", "Butea monosperma", and "Helicteres isora", and with shrub-savannah housing "Acacia nilotica" and "Ziziphus spp.". Along the lake shore, non-native "Prosopis juliflora" is spreading. Millet, maize, okra, banana, and papaya are the main cultivated crops.  The water of the lake contains various salts and sodas. During dry weather, when evaporation reduces the water level, large quantities of soda are collected. Two small streams, named Purna and Penganga, drain into the lake, and a well of fresh water is located on the southern side, close to the water's edge.

Geological origin: Impact crater.

Lonar Lake lies within the only known extraterrestrial impact crater found within the great Deccan Traps, a huge basaltic formation in India. The lake was initially believed to be of volcanic origin, but now it is recognized as an impact crater. Lonar Lake was created by the impact of either a comet or of an asteroid. The presence of plagioclase that has been either converted into maskelynite or contains planar deformation features has confirmed the impact origin of this crater. It is believed that only shock metamorphism caused by a hypervelocity impact can transform plagioclase into maskelynite, or create planar deformation features. The presence of impact deformation of basalt layers comprising the rim, of shocked breccia inside the crater, of shatter cones, and of the non-volcanic ejecta blanket surrounding the crater all support the impact origin of Lonar Lake.  The crater has an oval shape. The meteorite impact came from the east, at an angle of 35 to 40 degrees.  There are various estimates of the age of the crater. Earlier thermoluminescence analyses gave a result of 52,000 years, while recent argon-argon dating suggests that the crater is much older; it could be 570 000 ± 47 000 years old. This greater age is in line with the degree of erosion of the crater rim.  As a result of the studies, the geological features of the Lonar crater have been divided into five distinguishable zones, exhibiting distinct geomorphic characteristics. The five zones are:

History.

The lake was first mentioned in ancient scriptures such as the Skanda Purana and the Padma Purana.  The Ain-i-Akbari, a document written about 1600 CE, states: These mountains produce all the requisites for making glass and soap. And here are saltpetre works which yield a considerable revenue to the State, from the duties collected. On these mountains is a spring of salt water, but the water from the centre and the edges is perfectly fresh.  The first European to visit the lake was a British officer, J.E. Alexander, in 1823.  Buldhana district in Maharashtra, where the lake is located, was once part of the Maurya Empire empire and then part of the Satavahana Empire. The Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas also ruled this area. During the period of the Mughals, Yadavas, Nizam, and the British, trade prospered in this area. Several temples found on the periphery of the Lake are known as Yadava temples and also as Hemadpanti temples (named after Hemadri Ramgaya).

Ambar Lake.

There is a small circular depression at a distance of around from the main lake, believed to be caused by a splinter of the meteor that hit the ground to also make a crater. There is a Hanuman temple near this lake, with the idol made of rock believed to be highly magnetic. The water from Ambar lake is being drained by local farmers. This lake is sometimes also called "Chhota" (little) Lonar.

By-products of the lake.

The "Gazetteer" chronicles the findings of the British administrators and scientists, notably, Colonel Mackenzie, scientist Dr. I. B. Lyon, J. O. Malcolmson and Plymen, agricultural chemist. Some extracts from Plymen's report, given in quotes, are informative.  "The saline deposits obtained from the lake are rather of an exceptional nature. Compared with the most famous salt lake in India, the Sambhar Lake in Rajsthan (India), it will be seen that whereas at Lonar the carbonates of soda are the most important, in the case of the Sambhar Lake the deposits of sodium chloride or common salt give the lake its value. The modes of formation are also entirely different and it is practically certain that the Lonar salts are derived from an unknown source in the bed of the lake. It is true that water is continually flowing into the lake and that except by evaporation there is no loss. The main feeder stream could not however supply this amount of alkali nor could the other smaller supplies coming in during the rains, for on all sides of the lake vegetation is abundant, particularly where the main stream flows in continuously. Were any quantity of alkali present in this water, vegetation would suffer considerably and, with exception of a few varieties of plants, eventually die out entirely." "The salts collected from this lake vary in their nature and composition and from their-appearance are easily separated by men accustomed to handling them. Various names are given to some five or six main varieties, but there is no fixed line between one salt and another, their compositions depending upon the period and condition of crystallization. At the present time large quantities of these salts are lying on the shores of the lake..." With the process of crystallization, sodium chloride or common salt is formed along with the carbonates of soda resulting in a number of products, as explained below.  Kala Namak and Nimak Dalla are found in white crystalline masses. Khuppal is obtained in solid compact lumps and consists of a mixture of carbonates and chlorides in roughly equal proportions. Pipadi or Papri, which has a similar chemical composition, is very different in appearance. It is frequently tinged, slightly pink in colour and hollow air spaces are found between the crystalline masses which are formed in flakes or layers. Bhuski has no definite structure but consists of a soft flaky powder mixed with a quantity of impurity. It can be compared to small salt substance or baking soda. The salts are not all obtained in the same way or at the same period of the year. Pipadi and Bhuski are deposited on the shores of the lake as the water dries up in the hot weather, Pipadi being the upper layer and therefore the purer. Except for Bhuski the salts are in a fairly pure state and contain only small proportions of earthy matter. Their further purification is not considered difficult.  Commercial exploitation of the salts from the lake is recorded from 1842, including the period of Government of Nizam, and until 1903. Presently, there is only a very small local demand for these Lonar Lake products.

Gaylussite mineral.

Gaylussite is the mineral has been recently reported from drill core in Lonar lake. Gaylussite is a carbonate mineral, a hydrated sodium calcium carbonate, formula NaCa(CO)·5HO. It occurs as translucent, vitreous white to grey to yellow monoclinic prismatic crystals. It is an unstable mineral which dehydrates in dry air and decomposes in water.  "Streptomyces alkalithermotolerans" is an alkaliphilic and thermotolerant bacterium species from the genus of "Streptomyces" which has been isolated from the Lonar soda lake in India.

Lake ecosystem.

The chemical characteristics of the lake shows two distinct regions that do not mix – an outer neutral (pH 7) and an inner alkaline (pH 11) each with its own flora and fauna. The lake is a haven for a wide range of plant and animal life. Resident and migratory birds such as black-winged stilts, brahminy ducks, grebes, shelducks (European migrants), shovellers, teals, herons, red-wattled lapwings, rollers or blue jays, baya weavers, parakeets, hoopoes, larks, tailorbirds, magpies, robins and swallows are found on the lake. Among reptiles, the monitor lizard is reported to be prominent. The lake is also home to thousands of peafowls, chinkara and gazelles. The area of was declared as Lonar Wildlife Sanctuary by the government on 20 November 2015.

Microbial diversity.

While the Lonar Lake appears green for most of the year due to the presence of dense blooms of cyanobacteria such as "Arthrospira" spp., bacteria and archaea belonging to diverse functional groups such as methanogens, methanotrophs, phototrophs, denitrifiers, sulfur oxidizers, sulfate reducers, heterotrophs and syntrophs have been reported. Diverse alveolates, fungi, stramenopiles, choanoflagellates, amoebozoans and cercozoans, and many novel lineages of putative micro-eukaryotes were detected in molecular surveys of Lonar Lake sediments. Gene sequences of ciliated protozoans such as "Oxytricha longa" and fungi belonging to "Candida" spp. were also recovered from lake sediment microcosms containing enriched populations of methylotrophic bacteria. A new species of fungus "Curvularia lonarensis" has been described from the lake.  Noteworthy functional groups of microorganisms:

Methylotrophic microorganisms.

Methylotrophs belonging to "Methylomicrobium", "Methylophaga" and "Bacillus" species have been identified in the Lonar Lake sediments. Methane-oxidizing methylotrophs (methanotrophs) were also detected in the surface scum atop the lake water-column. A novel species of non-methane-utilizing methylotroph "Methylophaga lonarensis" was isolated in pure culture from lake sediment microcosms. This haloalkaliphilic bacterium synthesizes and intracellularly accumulates organic solutes such as ectoine that are of biotechnological interest. Methylotrophic methanogenesis has been reported in Lonar Lake sediments and the primary microorganism (archaeon) that is responsible was identified as being closely related to "Methanolobus oregonensis".

Endolithic microorganisms.

Endolithic bacteria belonging to the phyla "Actinobacteria", "Acidobacteria", "Proteobacteria", "Firmicutes", "Cyanobacteria" and "Bacteroidetes", and endolithic archaea belonging to the phyla "Thaumarchaeota" and "Euryarchaeota" were detected in Lonar basalt rock samples that were retrieved from the crater walls and the lake-bed. The diversity and richness of endolithic bacteria in these samples were estimated to be higher than that of endolithic archaea. Most of the detected endolithic prokaryotes were identified as being putative methanotrophs, methanogens, phototrophs, ammonia-oxidizers, nitrogen-fixers, denitrifiers, dissimilatory sulfate-reducers and metal-reducers.

Nitrogen-fixing microorganisms.

Nonsymbiotic nitrogen-fixing microorganisms such as "Halomonas" sp., "Paracoccus" sp., "Klebsiella" sp., "Slackia" sp., and "Actinopolyspora" sp. have been reported from this lake. All the nitrogen fixers are haloalkaliphilic in nature as they can grow only at pH-11. Some of the bacteria and actinomycetes isolated from this lake are able to grow on some components of inorganic medium containing "martian soil simulant components".

2020 color change.

In early June 2020, the lake turned red/pink in a span of 2–3 days. Initial scientific reports suggested that lowered water levels, growth of Halobacterium and Dunaliella salina, increased Carotenoid levels, which in turn led to color change.

Religious setting.

Numerous temples surround the lake, most of which stand in ruins today, except for the temple of Daitya Sudan at the centre of the Lonar town, which was built in honour of Vishnu's victory over the giant Lonasur. It is a fine example of early Hindu architecture. Vishnumandir, Wagh Mahadev, Mora Mahadev, Munglyacha Mandir and Goddess Kamalaja Devia are the other temples found inside the crater.

Daitya Sudan temple.

Daitya Sudan Temple is a Vishnu temple dated to the Chalukya Dynasty which ruled Central and Southern India between the 6th and 12th centuries. It belongs to the Hemadpanthi class and is built in the form of an irregular star. It features carvings similar to those seen at Khajuraho temples. The deity of this temple is made of an ore with a high metal content that resembles stone. The ceiling of the temple has carvings. The exterior walls are also covered with carved figures. The plinth of the temple is about in height and the unfinished roof suggests an intended pyramidal form for the tower.  The temple of Daitya Sudan at Lonar is the best example of the Hemadpanthi style. From the standing image of Surya in the principal niche on the back of the temple, it is conjectured that the temple was originally dedicated to the Sun god. However, in the present form its vaishnav temple of god vishnu in its daityasudan avatar. There is a story that a demon by the name of Lonasur or Lavanasur used to reside in this locality along with his sisters. He was killed by lord Vishnu in his Daityasudan Avatar hence the name.  The temple measures. long by. broad. It is a tree chamber temple, the inner most being garbh gruh, the sanctum sanctorum, where the idol of lord vishnu standing atop Lavanasur is there. The present day idol was made by bholse rulers of Nagpur after the original went missing. The second chamber is called antarl where individual pooja are performed, on the roof of this block one can see beautiful cravings of puranic stories viz. Killing of Lavanasur by Lord Krishna and appearance of Dhar of Lonar; story of Kansa and Krishna, story of Narasimha and HiranKashyap and lastly raskrida. The outermost chamber is called as sabhamandap which is meant for group offerings and performance. This portion as well as the entrance gate does not match the style and construction elements of the temple overall. The brickwork might have been added later to the damaged or unfinished temple, which may be attributed to various invasions post the 10th century.  The main entrance of the temple is east facing. The principle niche at the back of the temple has an image of Surya, the sun god, which gives rise to the speculation that this might have been dedicated to him. The niche on south has an image of Chamunda. The one on left of the temple i.e. north has Narasimha in it. All of these three niches are built like mini temples in themselves having elaborate pillars, base and decoration.  There are numerous ridges onto the temple with different decoration, images having iconic as well as artistic significance. Many of the images depict deities or incidents on Hindu Puranas.

Threats to Lonar lake.

Lonar lake faces anthropological and environmental problems as listed below:  The crater is protected as a geological landmark and authorities have recognized the role of the historical and archaeological heritage in the lake, nevertheless action is needed to prevent the adverse impact of settlements and religious festivities on the local ecosystem. Various civic activities (e.g. "Save Lonar") for the protection of Lonar crater are on-going.

Gallery.

Panoramic views of Lonar Crater

Lonar Lake, also known as Lonar crater, is a notified National Geo-heritage Monument, saline, soda lake, located at Lonar in Buldhana district, Maharashtra, India. Lonar Lake was created by an asteroid collision with earth impact during the Pleistocene Epoch. It is one of the four known, hyper-velocity, impact craters in basaltic rock anywhere on Earth. The other three basaltic impact structures are in southern Brazil. Lonar Lake has a mean diameter of and is about below the crater rim. The meteor crater rim is about in diameter.

Der Lonar-See (Marathi:, engl. "Lonar Lake") ist ein Salz- und Natronsee bei Lonar im Buldhana-Distrikt im indischen Bundesstaat Maharashtra. Der See entstand durch einen Meteoritenimpakt während des Pleistozäns. Er gehört als Stätte 22 zu den nationalen geologischen Denkmälern Indiens.


Overview.

The station, which in its final years was owned and operated by Npower, was oil-fired, powered by heavy fuel oil. A pipeline connected the station to the nearby Fawley oil refinery. Because oil is more expensive than other fuels such as coal and natural gas, Fawley did not operate continuously, but came on line at times of high demand.  It was also connected to the National Grid with circuits going to Nursling and a tunnel under Southampton Water to Chilling then to Lovedean with a local substation at Botley Wood.  A dock was included in the construction, to allow for the delivery of oil by sea; however, after one ship delivery (essentially a trial) this facility remained disused.

History.

Fawley was built by Mitchell Construction Architect Colin Morse RIBA for the CEGB between 1965 and 1969. It was commissioned in 1971 as a 2,000-megawatt (MW) power station, with four 500 MW generating units, each consisting of a boiler supplying steam to a turbine that powers an associated generator. The boilers were capable of delivering 1788.0 kg/s of steam at 158.6 bar and 538°C. The cooling pumps were Britain's largest with a flow of 210,000 GPM. One was driven by an experimental super-conducting electric motor.  The operating data for the main plant is shown in the table:  The electricity output, in GWh, is shown graphically:<graph>{ }</graph>The high output in 1984/5 as associated with the 1984/5 Miners' Strike, and the shortage of coal for coal-fired power stations. There were also 4 × 17.5 MW auxiliary gas turbine generators on the Fawley site giving a total output of 70 MW, these machines had been commissioned in September 1969.  Two units were mothballed in 1995, leaving the station with a capacity of only 1,000 MW.  On 18 September 2012, RWE npower announced they would be shutting down Fawley power station by the end of March 2013, due to the EU Large Combustion Plant Directive. The power station was duly shut on 31 March 2013. The decommissioning and demolition of the plant is expected to take several years, and the future of the site remains undecided.

Proposed Fawley B station.

CEGB plans for a coal-fired Fawley B station were not pursued following privatisation of the industry in the late 1980s.

Impact on wildlife.

When the plant was operating the screens on the plants cooling water lines were found to kill as many as 50,000 fish a week. By the 80s intermittent plant operation meant that the annual kill total was around 200,000. While this may have resulted in reduced numbers of some species such as bass others like sand smelt seem unaffected.

Media.

The unique round structure housing the control room for the station was used to represent the "World Control Center" building depicted in the 1975 movie "Rollerball".  Some scenes for the 2015 movie "" were filmed on location at Fawley power station.  The second series of British medical comedy "Green Wing" featured a scene that was shot in the control room.  In the "Red Dwarf" (series XI) the episode "Give and Take" had a scene that was filmed inside the control room.  The 2017 Channel 4 programme "Spies" filmed at the station and inside the control room.  The final episode "Harvest" of series 4 of "Endeavour" used the power station and control room.  The exterior of the power station was used as a filming location for the "Star Wars" film "".  The location was used as the extraction point for the 2018 series of "Celebrity Hunted". The successful fugitives escaped by speedboat, exiting into Southampton Water.

Regeneration.

In 2017 it was announced that the power station site would be turned into over 1,500 homes. The project went on display to the public on 27 September 2017.

Fawley Power Station was an oil-fired power station located on the western side of Southampton Water, between the villages of Fawley and Calshot in Hampshire, England. Its chimney is a prominent (and navigationally useful) landmark, but it is not, as is sometimes claimed, the highest point in Hampshire (which is Pilot Hill).

Das Kraftwerk Fawley war ein in der südenglischen Grafschaft Hampshire nahe der Ortschaft Fawley im District New Forest gelegenes ölbefeuertes Dampfkraftwerk. Bauherr der von 1964 bis 1971 errichteten Anlage war das Central Electricity Generating Board (CEGB). Es wurde 2013 vom Eigentümer und Betreiber RWE npower, einem der Rechtsnachfolger der CEGB, aufgrund der EU-Richtlinie "2001/80/EG vom 23. Oktober 2001 zur Begrenzung von Schadstoffemissionen von Großfeuerungsanlagen in die Luft" außer Betrieb genommen.


History.

The islands of Cape Verde were discovered between 1460 and 1462 by Portuguese and Genoese sailors in the service of the Portuguese Crown. There is no evidence of human settlement on Cape Verde prior to the arrival of the Portuguese. Due to Cape Verde's proximity to the African coast, Portuguese sailors began to settle on the islands and given their strategic position, the islands served as a trading and supply warehouse, with particular emphasis on the Atlantic slave trade, particularly to Brazil. By the 19th century, the slave traded ended for Cape Verde, and many people of African origin settled on the islands and mixed with many of the Portuguese settlers creating the predominantly "mestiça" society of the islands today.  In 1956, Amílcar Cabral created the African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC), fighting against colonialism and starting a march for independence. In 1972, during the Portuguese Colonial War, autonomy was granted to the islands and Portuguese Cape Verde held its only parliamentary elections in 1973, however, unlike other Portuguese colonies, there was no armed conflict in Cape Verde, and ultimately independence for Cape Verde resulted from negotiation with Portugal after the April 1974 Carnation Revolution. Cape Verde was granted independence on 5 July 1975.  Since independence, relations between Cape Verde and Portugal have remained strong. There are many cultural similarities between both nations and many of Cape Verde's inhabitants have Portuguese ancestry. There have also been several high-level visits between leaders of both nations and both countries work closely together within the Community of Portuguese Language Countries.

Transportation.

There are direct flights between both nations with the following airlines: Cabo Verde Airlines and TAP Air Portugal.

Trade.

In 1998, Cape Verde and Portugal signed a Trade agreement. In 2017, trade between both nations totaled €284 million Euros. Portugal is Cape Verde's second largest trading partner (after Spain).

Cape Verde–Portugal relations refers to the diplomatic relations between the Republic of Cabo Verde and the Portuguese Republic. Both nations are members of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries and the United Nations.

Die kapverdisch-portugiesischen Beziehungen beschreiben das zwischenstaatliche Verhältnis zwischen Kap Verde und Portugal. Die Länder unterhalten seit 1975 direkte diplomatische Beziehungen.


Life.

Fritz Max Cahén was born to a Jewish father; his mother was possibly Christian. His father, Eugen Cahén, was a founder of the Saar Produce Exchange, and a member of the Hansabund. Fritz Max Cahén graduated from the College of Metz (Alsace-Lorraine) and Saarbruecken University Marburg/Lahn. He took postgraduate courses at the Sorbonne (Paris) and Haute Ecole des Sciences Politiques et Sociales (Paris). In 1916 he married Eugenie Caroline Auguste Stamm, a Protestant, according to a marriage certificate in possession of the family. Fritz Max Cahén had one son that same year, artist Oscar Cahén. A reference work on Jewish émigrés also refers to a second son, Ulrich, born in 1925; if true, this child was not raised by Fritz Max and Eugenie.  Before the first World War, Cahén moved in German avant-garde art circles, contributing translations of Apollinaire to the Expressionist periodical "Der Sturm". As a young critic, he saw a connection between politics and art, suggesting in 1914 that the First World War would be fought over the future of German Expressionism, rather than Belgium's neutrality or the Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria of June 1914.  As a civil servant in the German Legation in Copenhagen 1916 - 1918, Cahén became "personal advisor" to Count Brockdorff-Rantzau, High Commissioner at the Versailles Peace Conference. Cahén wrote articles for many newspapers and magazines, sometimes under the name Lynkeus, including "Die Schaubuehne" (Berlin), "Deutsche Politik" (Berlin), "Politiken" (Copenhagen), "L'Europe Nouvelle" (Paris), "Die Bruecke" (Prague), "Berliner Tageblatt, Frankfurter Zeitung", "Commentator" (USA), "Koelnische Zeitung, Skaanska Aftonbladet" (Sweden), "Deutsche Kunst und Decoration" (Darmstadt).  In 1933, Cahén took refuge in Prague, where he co-wrote the script for "Kiss in the Snow" (directed by Rudolf Katscher), the German-language version of the 1934 film "Polibek ve sněhu" (directed by Václav Binovec). In Prague Cahén also intensified his political activities, and on February 5, 1936 he founded the Volkssozialistische Bewegung with Hans Jaeger and Arthur Arzt. The British authorities, but not the Americans, suspected Cahén of being a Soviet spy.  In 1937, Cahén traveled to the United States in order to raise awareness of Nazi activities and to write "Men Against Hitler", which outlined the resistance activities he had participated in. Cahén asserted that half of German citizens did not actually support the Nazi regime and that their disaffection represented an opportunity to overthrow Hitler. He had the support of Wythe Williams, editor of the "Greenwich Times"; Williams acted as a literary agent, and translator, and wrote the book's introduction as well. Cahén also joined the New York-based group the German-American Council for the Liberation of Germany From Nazism, later renamed Association of Free Germans.  With the outbreak of the Second World War, Fritz Max Cahén was stuck in the United States and he lived there until 1954, when he returned to Germany and resumed his civil service work and writing. Meanwhile, his wife and son Oscar Cahén had become Canadian citizens; his wife joined him in Germany in the 1950s. Fritz Max Cahén died in Bonn, August 29, 1966.

Fritz Max Cahén (alias Lynkeus) (born December 8, 1891 in Saarlouis; died August 29, 1966 in Bonn) was active in the Weimar Republic government and later founded the anti-Nazi political alliance Volkssozialistische Bewegung (Cahén later referred to it as, in English, the German Front Against Hitlerism). He worked as a journalist and also authored the books "Der Weg nach Versailles" (1963) and "Men Against Hitler" (1939).

Fritz Max Cahén (geboren 8. Dezember 1891 in Saarlouis; gestorben 29. August 1966 in Bonn) war ein deutscher Journalist und Widerstandskämpfer gegen den Nationalsozialismus.