Biography.

Caillois was born in Reims, but moved to Paris as a child. There he studied at the Lycée Louis-le-Grand, an elite school where students took courses after graduating from secondary school in order to prepare for entry examinations for France's most prestigious university, the École Normale Supérieure. Caillois's efforts paid off and he graduated as a "normalien" in 1933. After this he studied at the École Pratique des Hautes Études, where he came into contact with thinkers such as Georges Dumézil, Alexandre Kojève and Marcel Mauss.  The years before the war were marked by Caillois's increasingly leftist political commitment, particularly in his fight against fascism. He was also engaged in Paris's avant-garde intellectual life. With Georges Bataille he founded the College of Sociology, a group of intellectuals who lectured regularly to one another. Formed partly as a reaction to the Surrealist movement that was dominant in the 1920s, the College sought to move away from surrealism's focus on the fantasy life of an individual's unconscious and focus instead more on the power of ritual and other aspects of communal life. Caillois's background in anthropology and sociology, and particularly his interest in the sacred, exemplified this approach. He participated in Bataille's review "Acéphale" (1936–39).  Caillois left France in 1939 for Argentina, where he stayed until the end of World War II. During the war he was active in fighting the spread of Nazism in Latin America as an editor and author of anti-Nazi periodicals. From 1940 to 1945, he lived in South America. In 1948, after the War, he worked with UNESCO and traveled widely. In 1971 he was elected to the Académie française. In 1977, he started to write a book with the painter Bernard Mandeville. In 1978, Caillois wrote "Le fleuve Alphée", an award-winning autobiographical essay (Marcel Proust Awards and European Union Prize for Literature), followed by Cases d’un échiquier. He died, aged 65, in Kremlin-Bicêtre.  Today Caillois is remembered for founding and editing "Diogenes", an interdisciplinary journal funded by UNESCO, and "La Croix du Sud" ("Southern Cross"), a collection of books translated from contemporary Latin American authors published by Gallimard that is responsible for introducing authors such as Jorge Luis Borges, Alejo Carpentier and Victoria Ocampo to the French-speaking public. He is also widely cited in the nascent field of ludology, primarily from passages in his book "Les Jeux et les Hommes(1958)." The book has been translated to English by Meyer Barash in 1961 as "Man, Play and Games".

Caillois' key ideas on play.

Caillois built critically on an earlier theory of play developed by the Dutch cultural historian Johan Huizinga in his book "Homo Ludens" (1938). Huizinga had discussed the importance of play as an element of culture and society. He used the term "Play Theory" to define the conceptual space in which play occurs, and argued that play is a necessary (though not sufficient) condition for the generation of culture.  Caillois began his own book "Man, Play and Games" (1961) with Huizinga's definition of play:  "Summing up the formal characteristics of play we might call it a free activity standing quite consciously outside "ordinary" life as being "not serious," but at the same time absorbing the player intensely and utterly. It is an activity connected with no material interest, and no profit can be gained by it. It proceeds within its own proper boundaries of time and space according to fixed rules and in an orderly manner. It promotes the formation of social groupings which tend to surround themselves with secrecy and to stress their difference from the common world by disguise or other means."  Caillois disputed Huizinga's emphasis on competition in play. He also noted the considerable difficulty in arriving at a comprehensive definition of play, concluding that play is best described by six core characteristics:  Caillois' definition has itself been criticized by subsequent thinkers; and ultimately, despite Caillois' attempt at a definitive treatment, definitions of play remain open to negotiation.  Caillois distinguished four categories of games:  It's worth noting that these categories can be combined to create a more diverse experience and enhance the players interaction, for example poker is a form of Agon-Alea, Alea is present in the form of the cards and their combinations, but it's not the only winning factor; since Agon is present in the form of bluffing, making your opponent think you have better cards by rising the bet, therefore putting pressure on the other players and thus making it possible to win by having a card combination but winning by implementing the bluff skill.  Caillois also described a dualistic polarity within which the four categories of games can be variously located:  Caillois disagreed particularly with Huizinga's treatment of gambling. Huizinga had argued in "Homo Ludens" that the risk of death or of losing money corrupts the freedom of "pure play". Thus to Huizinga, card-games are not play but "deadly earnest business". Moreover, Huizinga considered gambling to be a "futile activity" which inflicts damage on society. Thus Huizinga argued that gambling is a corruption of a more original form of play.  Against this, Caillois argued that gambling is a true game, a mode of play that falls somewhere between games of skill or competition and games of chance (i.e. between the "Agon" and "Alea" categories). Whether or not a game involves money or a risk of death, it can be considered a form of "Agon" or "Alea" as long as it provides social activity and triumph for the winner. Gambling is "like a combat in which equality of chances is artificially created, in order that adversaries should confront each other under ideal conditions, susceptible of giving precise and incontestable value to the winner’s triumph."

Caillois' interest in mimicry.

When Caillois worked with Bataille at the College of Sociology, they worked on two essays on insects in the 1930s: "‘La mante religieuse. De la biologie à la psychanalyse’" (1934) and "‘Mimétisme et la psychasthénie légendaire’" (1935) Caillois identifies "the praying mantis and mimicking animals as nature’s automatons and masquerades." He formulates "in his peculiarly naturalist fashion what it would mean to act and create without the intervention of the sovereign ego, that magnificent artifact of the modern West that surrealism and the avant-garde have taken such drastic measures to counteract." These articles "might read like two obscurantist entomological studies that, in a way some would describe as bizarre, try to contradict all evolutionary explications for animal cannibalism and mimicry. Their publication in the context of [the surrealist journal] "Minotaure" makes it possible to see them as the search for figures that evidence the possibility of intelligence without thought, creativity without art, and agency in the absence of the (human) agent."

Roger Caillois French Literary Prize.

The Roger Caillois French Literary Prize for Latin American Literature was created in 1991 and has also been awarded to figures such as Carlos Fuentes, José Donoso and Adolfo Bioy Casares.

Bibliography.

"The Saragossa Manuscript" by Jan Potocki, ed. and preface by Roger Caillois, trans. Elisabeth Abbott. New York, Orion Press, 1960.  "Man and the Sacred", trans. Meyer Barash. New York, Free Press of Glencoe, 1960.  "Man, Play and Games", trans. Meyer Barash. New York, Free Press of Glencoe, 1961.  "The Dream Adventure", ed. Roger Caillois. New York, Orion Press, 1963.  "The Mask of Medusa". New York, C.N. Potter, 1964.  "The Dream and Human Societies", ed. Roger Caillois and G. E. Von Grunebaum. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1966.  "L'ecriture des pierres". Geneve, Editions d'Art Albert Skira, 1970.  "Le champ des signes: récurrences dérobées: aperçu sur l'unité et la continuité du monde physique intellectuel et imaginaire ou premiers éléments d'une poétique généralisée", with 25 illustrations by Estève. Paris, Hermann, 1978.  "The Mystery Novel", trans. Roberto Yahni and A.W. Sadler. New York, Laughing Buddha Press, 1984.  "The Writing of Stones", with an introduction by Marguerite Yourcenar. Charlottesville, University of Virginia Press, 1985.  "The Edge of Surrealism: A Roger Caillois Reader", ed. Claudine Frank, trans. Claudine Frank and Camille Naish. Durham, Duke University Press, 2003.  "Pontius Pilate: A Novel", trans. Charles Lam Markmann, with an introduction by Ivan Strenski. Charlottesville, University of Virginia Press, 2006.

Roger Caillois (; 3 March 1913 – 21 December 1978) was a French intellectual whose idiosyncratic work brought together literary criticism, sociology, and philosophy by focusing on diverse subjects such as games, play as well as the sacred. He was also instrumental in introducing Latin American authors such as Jorge Luis Borges, Pablo Neruda and Miguel Ángel Asturias to the French public. After his death, the French Literary award Prix Roger Caillois was named after him in 1991.

Roger Caillois (* 3. März 1913 in Reims; † 21. Dezember 1978 in Paris) war ein französischer Soziologe, Literaturkritiker und Philosoph.


History.

Origins.

"Langepas, Uray, and Kogalym" oil (Lukoil) was established by the USSR Council of Ministers Decree No. 18 on November 25, 1991 as a state-owned enterprise. In the new company, three oil production companies, Langepasneftegaz, Uraineftegaz, and Kogalymneftegaz, processing company Permnefteorgsintez, and the Volgograd and Novosibirsk refineries, were merged (the latter soon came under the control of the authorities of Bashkortostan).  The central figure in the company's founding was the Soviet deputy minister of oil production Vagit Alekperov. He came to believe the only way Russians could compete against western companies was to copy their business model. That meant vertically integrating the three branches of the industry—exploration, refining, and distribution—that were strictly separate under the old Soviet system.  On April 5, 1993, Lukoil transformed itself from a state-owned enterprise to a private open joint-stock company based on Presidential Decree No. 1403 of November 17, 1992. The Decree also applied to other state-owned oil companies as well.

1990s.

In 1994, Lukoil became the first company to begin offering shares of stock on the new Russian Trading System.  In 1995, Lukoil controlled the stakes of nine oil-producing, marketing and service enterprises in Western Siberia, the Urals, and Volgograd Oblast in order to abide by Government Decree No. 861 of September 1, 1995. In the same year, a 5% stake of Lukoil was sold by the state with a minimum excess of the starting price in an auction. In November 1995, Lukoil filed with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission to issue American depositary receipts on Western stock markets. This allowed United States investors for the first time, to be able to buy shares in a Russian company.  In 1996, Lukoil started contributing to the Shah Deniz natural gas project, and started to build its own tanker fleet as well.  In 1997, Lukoil signed a contract with the Iraqi Ministry of Oil for the development and production of the second stage of the West Qurna-2 oil field. After Saddam Hussein's regime was overthrown, the project was suspended and later terminated.  In 1999, Lukoil acquired numerous enterprises such as the Odessa Oil Refinery in Ukraine, the Burgas Oil Refinery in Bulgaria, and KomiTEK.

2000s.

In 2000, Lukoil acquired American oil company Getty Oil, resulting in the control of a network of gas stations in the United States as well as the first time Lukoil enters the American oil market.  In September 2004, ConocoPhillips purchased a 7.6% stake in Lukoil for about $2 billion. According to some commentators, the sale of this deal was planned before in a personal meeting between Russian President Vladimir Putin and ConocoPhillips' president and CEO, James Mulva. After the auction, Lukoil and ConocoPhillips announced the creation of a strategic alliance. Later, the American company increased its stake to 20% in Lukoil and sold to the Russian company part of its network of gas stations in the United States and Western Europe. The two oil companies also agreed to jointly develop an oil and gas field in the northern Timan-Pechora area of Russia (Komi Republic) and intended to secure the rights to develop the West Qurna Field in Iraq, one of the country's largest.  Uzbekistan's deputy prime minister Ergash Shaismatov announced on 30 August 2006 that the Uzbek government and an international consortium consisting of state-run Uzbekneftegaz, Lukoil Overseas, Petronas, Korea National Oil Corporation, and China National Petroleum Corporation signed a production sharing agreement to explore and develop oil and gas fields in the Aral Sea, stating "The Aral Sea is largely unknown, but it holds a lot of promise in terms of finding oil and gas. There is risk of course but we believe in the success of this unique project". In December 2006, Lukoil announced the acquisition of 376 filling stations in six European countries: Belgium, the Czech Republic, Finland, Hungary, Poland, and Slovakia, form ConocoPhillips.  In 2007, Lukoil established a joint-venture with Gazprom and in 2008, established a joint-venture as well with Italian oil company ERG S.p.A.. In 2009, Lukoil and Norwegian oil company Statoil won a tender offer for the development of the West Qurna Field in Iraq. However, in early 2012, Statoil withdrew from the project, resulting in Lukoil consolidating 75% of development of the oil field.

2010s.

From 2010 to February 2011, ConocoPhillips sold its whole 20% stake in Lukoil due to its difficult financial situation.  In September 2012, Lukoil created a shared service centre in the Czech Republic to provide accounting services to its subsidiaries in Belgium, Poland, and Bulgaria. In December 2012, Lukoil bought the Imilor field for ₽50.8 billion in the Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug to explore and develop the hydrocarbon deposits located there.  In February 2013, Lukoil sold the Odessa Oil Refinery to the Ukrainian "East European Fuel and Energy Company" (VETEK). For Lukoil, the oil refinery was unprofitable when production was stopped as early as October 2010 and the refinery finally closed in the summer of 2013. In April 2013, Lukoil agreed to buy Hess Corporation's Russian unit for $2.05 billion.  In 2014, the company faced a sharp decline in retail sales in Ukraine by 42%, caused by Russian intervention in Ukraine. As a result, the management of Lukoil has agreed to sell a 100% its subsidiary Lukoil Ukraine to the Austrian company AMIC Energy Management, which was announced at the end of July 2014.  In 2014, Lukoil sold its service stations in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary.  In 2015, it sold its service stations in Estonia and Ukraine, and in 2016, it sold its service stations in Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and Cyprus.

Operations.

Oil and gas production.

Hydrocarbon reserves.

The company's proved hydrocarbon reserves as of January 1, 2011 amounted to 17.255 billion barrels of oil equivalent, including 13.319 billion barrels of petroleum and 0.67 trillion cubic meters of natural gas. In terms of proved oil reserves, Lukoil, according to its own information, was the sixth-largest private oil company in the world at the time.  In addition, probable hydrocarbon reserves as of January 1, 2011 were 8.46 billion barrels of oil equivalent (including oil 6.47 billion barrels of petroleum and 0.34 trillion cubic meters of natural gas). Possible reserves were 3.17 billion barrels of oil equivalent (including 2.78 billion barrels of petroleum and 65.7 billion cubic meters of natural gas).  More than half of Lukoil's oil reserves are concentrated in Western Siberia. Its main production operator is Lukoil-Western Siberia located in the Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug. About half of the natural gas reserves are located in the deposits located on the Gyda Peninsula in the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug.

Major oil fields.

The operating fund of oil wells of Lukoil on October 1, 2005 was 26 626 wells, the idle fund - 4532 or 17% of the operating one. As compared to the beginning of 2005, the operating fund increased by 124 wells, and the non-operating fund decreased by 209 wells. The operating fund of injection wells was 8079 as of October 1, 2005 (133 wells more than at the end of 2004), the operating fund - 6238 wells (263 wells more than at the end of 2004).

Domestic projects.

On July 1, 2005, Lukoil and ConocoPhillips created a joint-venture "Naryanmarneftegaz" to develop oil and gas deposits in the Timan-Pechora Basin in the north of the European Russia. Lukoil's share in the joint venture is 70%, while ConocoPhillips' share is 30%.  In December 2011, Lukoil established a joint venture with Bashneft to develop the Trebs and Titov oil fields. Total recoverable reserves and oil resources from these fields are 89.73 million tons in C1 category, 50.33 million tons in C2 category and 59.29 million tons in category C3.

Foreign projects.

The operator of Lukoil's foreign projects in the exploration and production sector is its subsidiary, Lukoil Overseas.  Lukoil is involved in the implementation of 16 projects for the exploration and development of structures and deposits in the following countries:  The extraction of hydrocarbons from all the above projects is carried out only in Kazakhstan (5.5 million tons of oil and 1.9 billion cubic meters in 2006) and Egypt (0.2 million tons).

Oil and gas processing.

Lukoil owns seven oil-processing companies in Eastern Europe with total capacity of 82.1 million tons per year. In Russia it owns large refineries in Volgograd, Perm, Nizhny Novgorod, and Ukhta refineries and mini-refineries in Uray and Kogalym. It also owns refineries in Bulgaria, Romania, and Italy, and has a 45%-stake in an oil refining complex in the Netherlands. The company is also in talks to reconstruct Sonara refinery plant in Cameroon, which belongs to Cameroon's national refining company, Sonara. <nowiki>*</nowiki> – 49% and 45% shares respectively  The company also owns Korobkovsky, Usinsky, Perm, and Lokosovsky gas processing plants as well as several petrochemical plants in Budennovsk, Saratov and Kalush, Ukraine, all managed by Lukoil-Neftechim. In 1999–2013 it owned the Odessa Oil Refinery (3.6 mln tpa) which it sold to VETEK of Serhiy Kurchenko.  In 2007, the refinery processed 52,164 thousand tons of oil, including 42,548 thousand tons at Russian plants. In 2005, the gas refining plants of the company processed 2,261 million cubic meters of gas raw materials and 479,000 tons of a wide fraction of light hydrocarbons.  Speaking at a press conference in New York on October 18, 2006, the company's CEO Vagit Alekperov said Lukoil is refusing to build a new refinery in Russia. According to him, "at this stage it is inexpedient and economically inefficient." At the same time, Lukoil planned to build a large complex in Kalmykia for the processing of natural gas from the North Caspian fields worth over $ 3 billion. The work was supposed to start in the spring of 2008. Also in March 2007, Lukoil announced it would expand the capacity in the Lukoil Neftochim Burgas refinery in Burgas, Bulgaria from 7.5 million tons to 10 million tons of oil per year.

Petrochemistry.

The subsidiary company Lukoil-Neftekhim specializes in petrochemistry, and operates the Stavrolen (Budyonnovsk), Saratovorgsintez, and the Karpatneftekhim (Kalush, Ukraine) petrochemical plants. Petrochemical facilities are also part of the Neftochim Burgas Combine in Bulgaria. "Lukoil" is the largest producer of alkene and acrylonitrile in Eastern Europe. Together with Sibur, Lukoil-Neftekhim owns a controlling stake in the Polief plant.  In 2005, Lukoil-Neftekhim's petrochemical enterprises produced 1.8 million tons of commercial products, including 402,000 tons of polyethylene and 128,000 tons of acrylic acid nitrile. In addition, 372.5 thousand tons of petrochemical products were produced at the Bulgarian oil refinery Lukoil Neftochim Burgas.  One of the most important petrochemical projects of Lukoil is the construction of the Caspian gas chemical complex. The complex would produce a wide range of petrochemical products, including products of basic organic synthesis, polyethylene, and polypropylene.

Transportation.

Transportation of oil produced by Lukoil in Russia is carried out for the most part by the pipelines of Transneft, as well as by rail and water transport. Oil produced at the company's fields in Kazakhstan is transported through pipelines such as the Caspian Pipeline Consortium.  Lukoil owns a number of oil and oil products terminals used for the export of oil and oil products:

Sales.

Lukoil sells petrol in 59 regions of Russia and in 17 other countries, both CIS and Western: Azerbaijan, Belarus, Belgium (through its subsidiary Jet until late 2008, since rebranded to Lukoil), Bulgaria, Croatia (operated by Lukoil Croatia, but under the brand name "Europa-Mil"), Finland (Teboil), Georgia, Italy, Luxembourg, Moldova, Montenegro, Netherlands, North Macedonia, Romania, Serbia, Turkey and the United States., it had 166 tank farms and 5,867 filling stations.  Retail sale of oil products is carried out for the most part under the trademark Lukoil. In the US, part of the company's filling stations operate under the trademark Mobil and formerly under the Getty trademark.

Power generation.

Lukoil has the aggregate power generation capacity of 5,800 MW, of which 73% is for commercial use. Lukoil generates about 99% of electrical power of the Astrakhan Oblast and 62% of the Krasnodar Krai. Its main power generation subsidiaries are Lukoil-Volgogradenergo, Lukoil-Rostovenergo, Luikoil-Kubanenergo, Lukoil-Astrakhanenergo, and Lukoil-Stavropolenergo.  Lukoil operates two solar power plants at its own refineries in Romania and Bulgaria with respective capacity of 9 MW and 1.3 MW. A 10-MW solar plant is under construction at the Volgograd Refinery. It also owns an 84-MW wind farm in Topolog, Romania.

Sponsorship.

Lukoil has been titular sponsor of FC Spartak Moscow since 2000. The company's vice president, Leonid Fedun, is also the owner of the club since 2003. Since 2001, the company has been sponsoring the Children's Football League. In addition, the company sponsors a number of regional Russian teams in various sports.  In particular, the company sponsors the Volgograd water polo club "Lukoil-Spartak". Lukoil also sponsors the Russian Olympic Committee and is one of the founders of the Russian Olympians Support Fund. In February 2014, Lukoil signed an agreement with the government of Arkhangelsk Oblast about supporting Vodnik. Vodnik was the dominant force of Russian bandy for a decade, starting in the mid-1990s.  Lukoil has been involved in motorsports for more than ten years. The Lukoil Racing team is a leading Russian motorsport organization and has achieved notable successes both in Russia and in Europe, winning more than 60 championships over the years.. Lukoil's operations include management, driver training and support, engineering expertise and a quality technical environment.  In addition to Russia, Lukoil sponsors various sports teams in all countries where it operates. The company sponsors the football club FC Rapid București of Romania, the football club FC Zimbru Chișinău of Moldova, the National Federation of Motorsport of Ukraine, and the men's basketball club Lukoil-Akademik, the women's Lukoil-Neftohimik, the volleyball, acrobatic clubs and club of the same name rowing, as well as the club of martial arts "Lukoil-Ikken" of Bulgaria.

Corporate affairs.

Shareholders.

In July 2010, the top managers of the company owned the largest stake (more than 30%) of the company's shares: CEO Vagit Alekperov owning 20.6% and vice-president Leonid Fedun owning 9.8%. The American oil company ConocoPhillips owned 19.21% but due to financial difficulties, completely withdrew from the shareholders of Lukoil, selling its shares, and in part to Lukoil itself by February 2011. The remaining shares were freely traded on the London Stock Exchange, the Frankfurt Stock Exchange, the Russian Trading System, and the Moscow Interbank Currency Exchange. Market capitalization of the company was $60.4 billion as of June 2018.

Management.

Board of Directors.

List of directors that were elected on June 21, 2018:

Subsidiaries.

The company "Lukoil" owns controlling stakes or otherwise controls the following main organizations:

Environmental record.

According to Lukoil, their numbers in 2007 recorded a drop of 7.8% in the volume of pollutant effects and a drop of 3.8% in the area of contaminated lands compared to 2006. These numbers came after an appeal from EMERCON, the Ministry of the Russian Federation for Civil Defense, Emergencies and Natural Disaster Recovery, which proposed that Lukoil participate in the development of monitoring, prevention, and emergency recovery systems.  In an effort to increase productivity, Lukoil organized a contract to begin an oil pumping block in the Azerbaijan sector of the Caspian Sea. It arranged an Environmental Impact Assessment of the drill site in order to organize a second exploration drill. This block, D-222, was the largest prospective structure in the north-east section of the Caspian Sea as of 2008. The key issue of the assessment was the amount of damage the block would be doing to fish stock in the area. Taking into account the depth of the operation of about 700 meters, the amount of harm was predicted to be minimal, with most of the fish harmed being plankton and benthos. A rescue and salvage ship was supposed to be placed into operation to mitigate the impact on the area. Lukoil was reported in 2008 to have developed contingency plans for oil spills, and implemented environmental monitoring.  At the same time, Lukoil faces criticism from various environmental organizations. In particular, the company's oil production on the Baltic Sea near Kaliningrad Oblast was criticized as it is 22 kilometers away from the Curonian Spit, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.  According to a number of critics, Lukoil inherited the worst standards of the Soviet oil industry with respect to the environment, not taking enough responsibility to minimize pollution in its oil fields and refineries.  Lukoil has been ranked as among the 14th best of 92 oil, gas, and mining companies on indigenous rights and resource extraction in the Arctic.

Controversies.

Incidents.

On one of the storage ponds of JSC "Lukoil-Volgograd-neftepererabotka" during the period from July 25 to August 8, 1996, the oil sludge was ignited due to the unacceptable conduct of welding operations. The surface layer of oil products was formed during the last two decades, and a similar ignition in this area was already noted in 1972. As a result of the 1996 fire, about 50,000 tons of oil products were burned, since even the soil was saturated with volatile fractions at this site. In the fire, the concentration of carbon monoxide exceeded the permissible standards by almost 28 times, nitrogen dioxide tripled, hydrogen sulfide and phenol more than 1.5 times. In the residential areas of the Krasnoarmeysky district of Volgograd, located 7 km from the fire, as well as in the nearby settlements - B. and M. Chapurnik, Dubov Gully, Chervlen, Tingut - the content of combustion products in the air also exceeded the maximum permissible concentration. In the liquidation of this major technogenic emergency situation with severe environmental consequences, the divisions of the Ministry of Emergency Situations of Russia took part.  In the fall of 2003, the Russian Emergencies Ministry revealed the oil spill as a result of the depressurization of the interfacial oil pipeline belonging to the TPP Lukoil-Usinskneftegaz on the territory of the Komi Republic near the city of Usinsk. The area of oil pollution in one case was about 1.8 thousand m2, in the second - 377 m2.  On January 25, 2011 at about 10:00 (local time), as a result of oil leakage in the engine room LGPZ (CCI "Langepasneftegaz"), there was a fire. Fire extinguished more than 50 fighter. The plant suspended its work.  On April 20, 2012 at the Trebs field, developed jointly by Lukoil and Bashneft, there was an accident that caused significant damage to the natural environment: over a day, continued flowing of oil from the re-opened well, which led to large-scale contamination of the territory. According to the press service of the administration of the Nenets Autonomous District, the contamination area exceeded 5 thousand square meters, the volume of spilled oil, according to Bashneft, was 600 tonnes (in independent sources numbers were up to 2.2 thousand tonnes).

Antitrust law violations.

In November 2009, the Federal Antimonopoly Service of Russia (FAS) imposed a record fine of ₽6.54 billion on the company for violating antitrust legislation. The fine was imposed for the abuse of the company's dominant position in the wholesale market of petroleum products in the first half of 2009, expressed in "the seizure of goods from circulation" and the creation of "discriminatory conditions for the sale of petroleum products to individual counterparties." As FAS has calculated, these actions led to an increase in prices in the wholesale markets of motor gasoline, diesel fuel, and aviation kerosene in the first half of 2009.

The PJSC Lukoil Oil Company ( stylized as LUKOIL) is a Russian multinational energy corporation headquartered in Moscow, specializing in the business of extraction, production, transport, and sale of petroleum, natural gas, and petroleum products. It was formed in 1991 when three state-run, western Siberian companies named after the respective town in Khanty–Mansi Autonomous Okrug that each was based in, Langepasneftegaz, Urayneftegaz, and Kogalymneftegaz, merged. Its name is the combination of the acronym LUK (initials of the oil-producing cities of Langepas, Uray, Kogalym) and the English word "oil".

Lukoil (eigene Schreibweise "LUKOIL", ) ist ein russischer Mineralölkonzern. Das heute international aufgestellte Unternehmen ist im RTS Index gelistet. In den Forbes Global 2000 der weltgrößten Unternehmen belegt Lukoil Platz 98 (Stand: GJ 2017). Das Unternehmen kam Anfang 2018 auf einen Börsenwert von über 60 Mrd. USD.


History.

In 1807, Assumption became the eighth parish of the Orleans Territory. Its history is rooted in its waterways and its large expanse of fertile soils ideal for farming. Settled in the middle 18th century by French and Spanish settlers, the area retains strong cultural ties to its past with conversational French still common among residents. Assumption was also a final destination for many of the French Acadians exiled from Nova Scotia between 1755 and 1764.  After the Confederacy forced the surrender of Fort Sumter, South Carolina, in 1861, the Assumption Parish Police Jury appropriated $1,000 to provide uniforms for military volunteers against the Union. By contrast, Lafayette Parish contributed $6,000. Plaquemines Parish approved a gift of $10 to $15 per month for needy volunteer families.

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the parish has a total area of, of which is land and (7.1%) is water.

Demographics.

As of the 2010 United States census, there were 23,421 people living in the parish. 66.8% were White, 30.5% Black or African American, 0.6% Native American, 0.2% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 1.0% of some other race and 0.9% of two or more races. 2.1% were Hispanic or Latino (of any race). 38.2% were of French, French Canadian or Cajun and 9.4% American ancestry.  As of the census of 2000, there were 23,388 people, 8,239 households, and 6,311 families living in the parish. The population density was 69 people per square mile (27/km2). There were 9,635 housing units at an average density of 28 per square mile (11/km2). The racial makeup of the parish was 67.17% White, 31.52% Black or African American, 0.31% Native American, 0.24% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.17% from other races, and 0.59% from two or more races. 1.21% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 81.14% of the population over the age of five spoke only English at home, while 17.58% reported speaking French or Cajun French.  There were 8,239 households out of which 37.90% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.80% were married couples living together, 14.90% had a female householder with no husband present, and 23.40% were non-families. 20.30% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.20% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.81 and the average family size was 3.26.  In the parish the age distribution of the population shows 28.50% under the age of 18, 9.80% from 18 to 24, 28.70% from 25 to 44, 22.20% from 45 to 64, and 10.90% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females there were 93.90 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.90 males.  The median income for a household in the parish was $31,168, and the median income for a family was $36,052. Males had a median income of $35,941 versus $18,065 for females. The per capita income for the parish was $14,008. About 19.50% of families and 21.80% of the population were below the poverty line, including 28.40% of those under age 18 and 21.70% of those age 65 or over.

Education.

The Assumption Parish School Board operates local public schools. Assumption High School serves the whole parish. There is one private school in the parish, Saint Elizabeth School, which was founded in 1834.

National Guard.

The 928th Sapper Company, a unit of the 769th Engineer Battalion and the 225th Engineer Brigade.

Communities.

Village.

Napoleonville is the only incorporated community in the parish.

Politics.

During the "Solid South" era, conflicts over trade policy often caused Assumption Parish to deviate somewhat from overwhelming Democratic support, as did rebellion in the Acadiana region against Woodrow Wilson's perceived hostility towards France. In 1936, Assumption Parish broke heavily from state and national political trends to support Governor Alfred Landon of Kansas, the Republican nominee for U.S. President in the race against Franklin D. Roosevelt. Though Landon received only 11.1 percent of the vote in Louisiana, he took 60.6 percent in Assumption and 41.5 percent in another sugar-growing parish, Lafourche.  Since the Dixiecrat revolt, by contrast, Assumption has been a typical rural South Louisiana parish in its political behaviour. It backed Dixiecrat Strom Thurmond in 1948 and Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1956 before showing powerful pro-Catholic behaviour in 1960 and then turning powerfully against liberal Midwestern Democrats in 1968 and 1972. With the nomination of the more centrist Jimmy Carter in 1976, Assumption became again Democratic leaning until the 2000s, when, like all of the rural white South, it has turned powerfully Republican due to disagreements with the Democratic Party's liberal views on social issues.

Assumption Parish () is a parish located in the U.S. state of Louisiana. As of the 2010 census, the population was 23,421. Its parish seat is Napoleonville. Assumption Parish was established in 1807, as one of the original parishes of the Territory of Orleans.

Das Assumption Parish () ist ein Parish im Bundesstaat Louisiana der Vereinigten Staaten. Bei der Volkszählung im Jahr 2010 hatte das Parish 23.421 Einwohner und eine Bevölkerungsdichte von 26,7 Einwohnern pro Quadratkilometer. Der Verwaltungssitz (Parish Seat) ist Napoleonville, benannt nach J. L. Napoleon, einem hier ansässigen Plantagenbesitzer.


History.

Before being divided, Carroll Parish was named for Charles Carroll of Carrollton, Maryland, the only Roman Catholic signer of the Declaration of Independence and the last surviving signer of the document. It was organized by European Americans after the Louisiana Purchase.  West Carroll Parish has a long history of inhabitants who predated the formation of the United States by thousands of years. For a complete history of West Carroll Parish, see "Between the Rivers" by Florence McKoin, Claitor's Publishing Company of Baton Rouge.  On the south end of West Carroll Parish is Poverty Point, a nearly square-mile complex of ancient major earthwork semi-circles and radiating lanes, plus additional platform mounds. This is one of the largest Native American earthworks in North America. Archeologists have determined that the site was built in the Late Archaic period beginning about 1500 BCE, and it was the central trading grounds for the Poverty Point culture that occupied the lower Mississippi River Valley. It has been referred to as the New York City of more than two millennia ago. Artifacts show trading reached to present-day Georgia and Great Lakes states such as Wisconsin. Later historic tribes in the area included the Choctaw and Chickasaw.  Though the area was explored by many French and Spanish in the 16th through 18th centuries, they did not establish permanent settlements, favoring areas on rivers with more direct access to the Gulf and major markets.

US annexation and development.

After the United States' Louisiana Purchase of 1803, all of Northeast Louisiana was considered part of Ouachita Parish, including West Carroll. In 1807, a Methodist minister, Moses Floyd, settled on the west bank of the Bayou Macon. Later a trading post known as "Floyd" developed, and the village began to grow. It developed less than a mile from the Poverty Point site.  As the European-American population of Ouachita Parish continued to increase, the area was organized into smaller parishes; in 1832 Carroll Parish was carved out of Ouachita by the state legislature. This was in the period of Indian Removal, when most members of local tribes were moved to Indian Territory (now Oklahoma) to extinguish their land claims in Louisiana.  The parish seat was located in Lake Providence on the banks of the Mississippi River. Throughout the early part of the 19th century, the European-American population of the western portion of Carroll Parish continued to grow; its economy was based mainly on cotton production and timber. By 1855 the population had grown to the point where there were enough votes to move the parish seat west of the Bayou Macon and Floyd was selected. This area had developed into a thriving trading post due to steamboat traffic on the Macon. In 1856 construction began on the new courthouse, which was finished in late 1857.  With the move of the parish seat, more professionals and tradesmen settled in Floyd, and the town grew markedly. It developed as a typical frontier town with a hotel, post office, general store, and saloons.  In January 1861 the Louisiana Legislature voted to secede from the Union and declare itself a free and sovereign state. Less than two months later, Louisiana joined the Confederacy. According to the book, "Between the Rivers," the war resulted in a divide that would eventually lead to the creation of West Carroll Parish:  When the Confederate Flag flew over the court house in Floyd, it was saluted by nearly everyone, but not so with our neighbors across the river. Plantation|Planters to the east, either out of conviction to their consciences or to save their property, signed an oath of allegiance to the United States, thus bringing a rift among neighbors who were willing to lose everything including their lives, for the cause of the South; and, they felt very bitter toward any neighbor signing such an oath. (Note: This oath was required after Union forces occupied Louisiana.)  There was little fighting in this area associated with the Civil War. Union efforts were focused on trying to gain and maintain control of the Mississippi River, especially at Vicksburg, Mississippi.  Some historians believed that insurgent activity, such as the Quantrill Gang, which operated primarily in Missouri, replaced regular forces. This area was isolated and vast lowland swamps surrounded Floyd. Frank James was said to come through with Quantrill in the winter of 1863–1864, on their way to and from Texas. In the early 1870s during Reconstruction, Frank and his brother Jesse James continued their outlaw activities, robbing banks for personal gain from Missouri to Texas.  During the Reconstruction era, local leaders opposed those appointed by the federally appointed state government. Some people worked against the provision of rights to freedmen. In the 1870s, chapters of the White League developed throughout Louisiana, paramilitary groups that intimidated Republicans, suppressed voting by freedmen, and supported white Democrats returning to power in the state legislature.

Post-Reconstruction to present.

Federal troops were withdrawn from the state in March 1877 as part of a federal compromise. Soon after white Democrats regained power in the state legislature, they approved the creation of West Carroll Parish, which had a majority-white population. Initially it had a population of 800 people and 200 families, both white and black. East Carroll Parish was majority black, as it had been the center of cotton plantation agriculture, dependent on the labor of numerous enslaved African Americans. After emancipation, they voted in support of the Republican Party.  Cotton and timber continued to be the life-blood of the new parish, although areas dependent on agriculture in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century had economic difficulties. The parish had ten cotton gins and three sawmills, and steamboats continued to run Bayou Macon as the main hub of transportation. Steamboat traffic on the Boeuf and Macon rivers dwindled due to the competition of railways constructed through the South. With the railroad, parish towns began to develop along the north-south road (La. 17). Among these were Pioneer, Forest, Oak Grove and Kilbourne. Closest to the parish seat and with a major sawmill, Pioneer grew rapidly.  In January 1909, Oak Grove was incorporated. Many of the parish's prominent citizens, such as Leopold Lipp, considered it as the intersection of the North-South and East-West (La. 2) roads. It was to become the economic center of the parish in the near future.  In 1915, an election was held to move the parish seat from Floyd to a town located on the railroad. The two towns competing for the honor were Oak Grove and Pioneer. With the largest population living in the south end of the parish, the people of Pioneer felt confident they would get the seat; but, the people of the north end of the parish gained the selection of Oak Grove by a small margin. With the parish seat moved, Pioneer began to decline.  In 1916, construction began on the new courthouse at Oak Grove. Before it was completed, a hail storm and tornado devastated the town late that year. It destroyed the first theater, a large majority of the new courthouse, and many other buildings in town. In January 1917 the new courthouse was opened, and so began of the modern era of Oak Grove. Its Main Street had businesses varying from general stores, drug stores, a modern theater, cafes, two banks and more.  The economy of the parish continued to be dominated by the timber and cotton industry. In the early part of the 20th century, Donald B. Fiske opened a state-of the art cotton gin and compress to complement his sawmill. It became one of the largest employers of the parish.  After World War II, the town and parish continued to prosper with new industry and business. In 1950, the most modern movie theatre in the South was opened by Fiske, and it is still in operation today. In this area, farmers began to cultivate sweet potatoes rather than cotton. The textile industry gradually moved out of southern mills to offshore locations out of the United States. A cannery was built along the railroad, and operated until near the end of the 20th century.  In the 1960s and 1970s, city growth continued, with the construction of a modern hospital and nursing home, and the Wells Lamont garment factory. In 1969 the entrepreneur Shelton Ruffin built a pre-manufactured pole barn for personal use. Its style and construction quickly gained in popularity around the region, thus spurring the formation of Ruffin Building Systems. It is now one of the largest manufacturers of metal buildings in the South and ships buildings internationally.  With the coming of the 1980s and the rise of the large department stores in malls, business on Main Street began to decline. But this historic district continues to remain vibrant with over 50 percent of its buildings occupied.  By the early 21st century, entertainment and retail shopping have become major parts of the economy in West Carroll. In 2004 the Thomas Jason Lingo Community Center opened with a 1,000-seat auditorium; it has many live events each year. The Fiske Theatre has been renovated and returned to regular operation as a first-run movie theatre. Both of these venues attract families from all over Northeast Louisiana and Southeast Arkansas to the parish for entertainment. The opening of a Super Wal-Mart in 2006 has contributed to West Carroll becoming a regional retail hub.  Today agriculture is still king in West Carroll; the main crops are corn, rice, cotton, and sweet potatoes. But the largest employers are West Carroll Health Systems, West Carroll School Board, Ruffin Building Systems, and Wal-Mart. West Carroll has five banking institutions to serve people's financial needs.

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the parish has a total area of, of which is land and (0.3%) is water.

Law enforcement.

The West Carroll Sheriff's Office provides full-time law enforcement for the parish and has seventeen full-time deputies. Scott Mathews now serves as sheriff.

Demographics.

2010.

Whereas according to the 2010 U.S. Census Bureau:

2000.

As of the census of 2000, there were 12,314 people, 4,458 households, and 3,249 families residing in the parish. The population density was 34 people per square mile (13/km2). There were 4,980 housing units at an average density of 14 per square mile (5/km2). The racial makeup of the parish was 79.89% White, 18.88% Black or African American, 0.25% Native American, 0.13% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.43% from other races, and 0.41% from two or more races. 1.35% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 4,458 households out of which 33.30% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.80% were married couples living together, 12.30% had a female householder with no husband present, and 27.10% were non-families. 24.80% of all households were made up of individuals and 13.80% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.59 and the average family size was 3.09.  In the parish the population was spread out with 25.60% under the age of 18, 9.70% from 18 to 24, 26.50% from 25 to 44, 22.60% from 45 to 64, and 15.50% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females there were 102.10 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 99.50 males.  The median income for a household in the parish was $24,637, and the median income for a family was $31,806. Males had a median income of $28,211 versus $18,477 for females. The per capita income for the parish was $12,302. About 18.20% of families and 23.40% of the population were below the poverty line, including 30.80% of those under age 18 and 22.30% of those age 65 or over.

Politics.

West Carroll Parish, unlike the smaller in population East Carroll Parish, is majority white, with a population that has strongly favored the Republican since the late 20th century in presidential elections. In 2012, Mitt Romney polled 3,628 ballots (79.8 percent) of the vote, with 853 votes (18.8 percent) for U.S. President Barack Obama. The 80–19 split nearly parallels the racial composition of West Carroll. In majority African American East Carroll Parish, however, Obama won nearly 62 percent of the ballots. In 2008, Obama received 878 votes (17.6 percent), compared to Republican U.S. Senator John McCain's 4,045 votes (81.1 percent).  In 1992, the two major party presidential candidates virtually split West Carroll Parish. Republican U.S. President George H.W. Bush prevailed with 2,082 votes (40.7 percent) to Bill Clinton's 2,068 (40.4 percent). Ross Perot of Texas, running that year as an Independent, held another 771 votes (15.1 percent). In 1988, Bush handily defeated Michael Dukakis in West Carroll Parish, 3,077 (64.1 percent) to 1,607 (33.5 percent).  The last Democrat to win the presidential contest in West Carroll Parish was Jimmy Carter of Georgia in his 1976 defeat of U.S. President Gerald Ford, Jr.

Education.

West Carroll Parish public schools are operated by the West Carroll Parish School Board. The public school system consist of four high schools and one elementary school that consistently rank at the top of the state in test scores and on the athletic field.

National Guard.

The 921ST Engineer Company (Vertical) of the 528th Engineer Brigade resides in Oak Grove, Louisiana.

West Carroll Parish () is a parish located in the northeastern part of the U.S. state of Louisiana. As of the 2010 census, the population was 11,604. The parish seat is Oak Grove. The parish was founded in 1877, when Carroll Parish was divided.

Das West Carroll Parish () ist ein Parish im Bundesstaat Louisiana der Vereinigten Staaten. Im Jahr 2010 hatte das Parish 11.604 Einwohner und eine Bevölkerungsdichte von 12,5 Einwohnern pro Quadratkilometer. Der Verwaltungssitz (Parish Seat) ist Oak Grove.


Harassing agents.

These are substances that are not intended to kill or injure. They are often referred to as Riot Control Agents (RCAs) and may be used by civilian police forces against criminals and rioters, or in the military for training purposes. These agents also have tactical utility to force combatants out of concealed or covered positions for conventional engagement, and preventing combatants from occupying contaminated terrain or operating weapons. In general, harassing agents are sensory irritants that have fleeting concentration dependent effects that resolve within minutes after removal. Casualty effects are not anticipated to exceed 24-hours nor require medical attention.

Tear agents.

These sensory irritants produce immediate pain to the eyes and irritate mucous membranes (aka "lachrymatory agent" or "lachrymator").

Vomiting agents.

These sensory irritants are also termed sternators or nose irritants. They irritate the mucous membranes to produce congestion, coughing, sneezing, and eventually nausea.

Malodorants.

These are compounds with a very strong and unpleasant smell, which produce powerfully aversive effects without the toxic effects of tear agents or vomiting agents.

Incapacitating agents.

These are substances that produce debilitating effects with limited probability of permanent injury or loss of life. The casualty effects typically last over 24 hours, and though medical evacuation and isolation is recommended, it is not required for complete recovery. These, together with harassing agents, are sometimes called nonlethal agents. There may be as high as 5% fatalities with the use of these agents.

Psychological agents.

These are substances that produce casualty effects through mental disturbances such as delirium or hallucination.

Other incapacitating agents.

These substances have also been investigated as incapacitants, though they operate more through interactions outside the central nervous system.

Lethal agents.

These substances are for producing chemical casualties without regard to long-term consequences or loss of life. They cause injuries that require medical treatment.

Blister agents.

A "blister agent" is a chemical compound that irritates and causes injury to the skin. These substances also attack the eyes, or any other tissue they contact.

Vesicants.

The vesicants are substances that produce large fluid-filled blisters on the skin.

Urticants.

The urticants are substances that produce a painful weal on the skin. These are sometimes termed skin necrotizers and are known as the most painful substances produced.

Blood agents.

These substances are metabolic poisons that interfere with the life-sustaining processes of the blood.

Choking agents.

These substances are sometime referred to as "pulmonary agent" or "lung irritants" and cause injury to the lung-blood barrier resulting in Asphyxia.

Nerve agents.

Nerve agents are substances that disrupt the chemical communications through the nervous system. One mechanism of disruption, utilized by the G, GV, and V series of chemicals is caused by blocking the acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme that normally destroys and stops the activity of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter. Poisoning by these nerve agents leads to an accumulation of acetylcholine at the nerve axon, producing a perpetual excited state in the nerve (e.g. constant muscle contraction). The eventual exhaustion of muscles leads to respiratory failure and death. A separate class of nerve agents are related to Tetrodotoxin, frequently abbreviated as TTX, is a potent neurotoxin with no known antidote. Tetrodotoxin blocks action potentials in nerves by binding to the voltage-gated, fast sodium channels in nerve cell membranes, essentially preventing any affected nerve cells from firing by blocking the channels used in the process.

G series.

These are high volatility nerve agents that are typically used for a nonpersistent to semipersistent effect.

GV series.

These agents have a volatility between the V and G agents and are typically used for a semi-persistent to persistent effect.

V series.

These agents have low volatility and are typically used for a persistent effect or liquid contact hazard.

T series.

These agents are related to the puffer fish

A "chemical weapon agent (CWA)" is a chemical substance whose toxic properties are used to kill, injure or incapacitate human beings. About 70 different chemicals have been used or stockpiled as chemical weapon agents during the 20th century. These agents may be in liquid, gas or solid form.

Liste chemischer Kampfstoffe, die meist künstlich zu dem Zweck hergestellt werden oder wurden, feindliche Soldaten im Kriegsfall zu töten oder kampfunfähig zu machen, Demonstranten auseinanderzutreiben oder – bei weiterer Definition des Begriffes „chemischer Kampfstoff“ – die Nahrungsmittelversorgung des Feindes abzuschneiden (siehe: Entlaubungsmittel), die Sicht des Gegners zu beeinträchtigen (siehe: Nebel- und Augenkampfstoffe) oder feindliche Stellungen und gepanzerte Fahrzeuge unbrauchbar zu machen (siehe: Brandkampfstoffe). Explizit dargestellt sind die Ersteinsätze im Ersten Weltkrieg, Zweiten Weltkrieg und Vietnamkrieg. Die Liste erhebt keinen Anspruch auf Vollständigkeit. Eine Zuordnung zu den einzelnen Kampfstoffgruppen ist nicht immer eindeutig möglich.


Early life.

Charles Henry Dow was born in Sterling, Connecticut, on November 6, 1851. When he was six years old his father, who was a farmer, died. The family lived in the hills of eastern Connecticut, not far from Rhode Island. Dow did not have much education or training, but he managed to find work at the age of 21 with the "Springfield Daily Republican", in Massachusetts. He worked there from 1872 until 1875 as a city reporter for Samuel Bowles, who taught his reporters to write crisp, detailed articles. Dow then moved on to Rhode Island, joining the "Providence Star", where he worked for two years as a night editor. He also reported for the "Providence Evening Press". In 1877, Dow joined the staff of the prominent "Providence Journal". George W. Danielson, the editor there, had not wanted to hire the 26-year-old, but Dow would not take no for an answer. Upon learning that Dow had worked for Bowles for three years, Danielson reconsidered and gave Dow a job writing business stories.  Dow specialized in articles on regional history, some of which were later published in pamphlet form. Dow made history come alive in his writing by explaining the development of various industries and their future prospects. In 1877, he published a History of Steam Navigation between New York and Providence. Three years later, he published "Newport: The City by the Sea". It was an account of Newport, Rhode Island's settlement, rise, decline, and rebirth as a summer vacation spot and the location of a naval academy, training station, and war college. Dow reported on Newport real estate investments, recording the money earned and lost during the city's history. He also wrote histories of public education and the prison system in the state. Danielson was so impressed with Dow's careful research that he assigned him to accompany a group of bankers and reporters to Leadville, Colorado, to report on silver mining. The bankers wanted the publicity in order to gain investors in the mines.  In 1879, Dow and various tycoons, geologists, lawmakers, and investors set out on a four-day train trip to reach Colorado. Dow learned a great deal about the world of money on that journey as the men smoked cigars, played cards, and swapped stories. He interviewed many highly successful financiers and heard what sort of information the investors on Wall Street needed to make money. The businessmen seemed to like and trust Dow, knowing that he would quote them accurately and keep a confidence. Dow wrote nine "Leadville Letters" based on his experiences there. He described the Rocky Mountains, the mining companies, and the boomtown's gambling, saloons, and dance halls. He also wrote of raw capitalism and the information that drove investments, turning people into millionaires in a moment. He described the disappearance of the individual mine-owners and the financiers who underwrote shares in large mining consortiums. In his last letter, Dow warned, "Mining securities are not the thing for widows and orphans or country clergymen, or unworldly people of any kind to own. But for a businessman, who must take risks in order to make money; who will buy nothing without careful, thorough investigation; and who will not risk more than he is able to lose, there is no other investment in the market today as tempting as mining stock."

Working on Wall Street.

In 1880, Dow left Providence for New York City, realizing that the ideal location for business and financial reporting was there. The 29-year-old found work at the Kiernan Wall Street Financial News Bureau, which delivered by messenger hand written financial news to banks and brokerages. When John J. Kiernan asked Dow to find another reporter for the Bureau, Dow invited Edward Davis Jones to work with him. Jones and Dow had met when they worked together at the Providence Evening Press. Jones, a Brown University dropout, could skillfully and quickly analyze a financial report. He, like Dow, was committed to reporting on Wall Street without bias. Other reporters could be bribed into reporting favorably on a company to drive up stock prices. Dow and Jones refused to manipulate the stock market.  The two young men believed that Wall Street needed another financial news bureau. In November 1882, they started their own agency, Dow, Jones & Company. The business' headquarters was located in the basement of a candy store. Charles Bergstresser was the chief financier of the fledgling company, but chose to be a silent partner. Bergstresser's strength lay in his interviewing skills. Jones once remarked that he could make a wooden Indian talk and tell the truth.  In November 1883, the company started putting out an afternoon two-page summary of the day's financial news called the Customers' Afternoon Letter. It soon achieved a circulation of over 1,000 subscribers and was considered an important news source for investors. It included the Dow Jones stock average, an index that included nine railroad issues, one steamship line, and Western Union.  Simultaneously to his work in publishing, in 1885 Dow also served as a Partner in the NYSE brokerage house of Goodbody, Glynn and Dow where he remained until its dissolution six years later. His Partner, Robert Goodbody, was an Irish citizen and thus at that time ineligible to own a seat. By 1891, both men would part ways. Robert would start his own firm entitled Robert Goodbody & Co, which would become the fifth largest brokerage firm in the United States, before being bought by Merrill Lynch in 1971.

Birth of the "Wall Street Journal".

In 1889, the company had 50 employees. The partners realized that the time was right to transform their two-page news summary into a real newspaper. The first issue of "The Wall Street Journal" appeared on July 8, 1889. It cost two cents per issue or five dollars for a one-year subscription. Dow was the editor and Jones managed the deskwork. The paper gave its readers a policy statement: "Its object is to give fully and fairly the daily news attending the fluctuations in prices of stocks, bonds, and some classes of commodities. It will aim steadily at being a paper of news and not a paper of opinions." The paper's motto was "The truth in its proper use." Its editors promised to put out a paper that could not be controlled by advertisers. The paper had a private wire to Boston and telegraph connections to Washington, Philadelphia, and Chicago. It also had correspondents in several cities, including London.  Dow often warned his reporters about exchanging slanted stories for stock tips or free stock. Crusading for honesty in financial reporting, Dow would publish the names of companies that hesitated to give information about profit and loss. Soon after that, the newspaper gained power and respect from the reading public. Vermont Royster, a later editor of the "Wall Street Journal", said Dow always believed business information was not the "private province of brokers and tycoons".  In 1898, the "Wall Street Journal" put out its first morning edition. The paper now covered more than just financial news. It also covered war, which it reported without rhetoric, unlike many other papers. Dow also added an editorial column called "Review and Outlook" and "Answers to Inquirers," in which readers sent investment questions to be answered. Edward Jones retired in 1899, but Dow and Bergstresser continued working. Dow still wrote editorials, now focusing on the place that government held in American business. The "Wall Street Journal" set a precedent in reporting during the election of 1900 by endorsing a political candidate, the incumbent president William McKinley.

Dow Jones Industrial Average.

In the 1890s, Dow saw that the recession was ending. In 1893, many mergers began taking place, resulting in the formation of huge corporations. These corporations sought markets for their stock shares. The wildly speculative market meant investors needed information about stock activity. Dow took this opportunity to devise the Dow Jones Industrial Average in 1896. By tracking the closing stock prices of twelve companies, adding up their stock prices, and dividing by twelve, Dow came up with his average. The first such average appeared in the "Wall Street Journal" on May 26, 1896. The industrial index became a popular indicator of stock market activity. In 1897, the company created an average for railroad stocks.  Dow also developed the Dow theory, which stated that a relationship existed between stock market trends and other business activity. Dow felt that if the industrial average and the railroad average both moved in the same direction, it meant that a meaningful economic shift was occurring. He also concluded that if both indexes reached a new high, it signaled a bull market was under way. Dow did not believe that his ideas should be used as the only forecaster of market ups and downs. He thought they should be only one tool of many that investors used to make business decisions.

Death.

In 1902, Dow began to have health problems and Bergstresser wanted to retire. The two sold their shares of the company to Clarence Barron, their Boston correspondent. Dow wrote his last editorial in April 1902. About eight months later, on December 4, 1902, he died at his home at 161 Lefferts Place, Brooklyn, New York, at the age of 51. Charles Dow died of a heart attack and is interred in North Burial Ground in Providence, Rhode Island.

Charles Henry Dow (; November 6, 1851 – December 4, 1902) was an American journalist who co-founded Dow Jones & Company with Edward Jones and Charles Bergstresser.

Charles Henry Dow (* 6. November 1851 in Sterling, Connecticut, USA; † 4. Dezember 1902 in Brooklyn, New York, NY) war ein amerikanischer Journalist, Wirtschaftswissenschaftler und Herausgeber des Wall Street Journal.


Early life.

Burrows was born in Hugoton, Kansas, the son of William Franklin Burrows Jr, and Gladys Marie Wilcox (1917–1993) on November 30, 1945. He took his grandmother's maiden name as his stage name to keep from being confused with another actor. Growing up, his parents would drop him off at the movie theater often in their rural town.  After leaving high school he started out as a journalist for the Associated Press, and later became a popular voice on radio that took him first to Canada then to New York City. After a brief stint with a touring theater group, he worked as a stuntman at Boot Hill in Dodge City, Kansas. From there he went on to the University of Kansas. After finishing college, he joined an acting company.

Career.

Drago began his acting career in 1979. His early films included "No Other Love", "Windwalker" and the Jeff Bridges vehicle "Cutter's Way". He went on to guest star in numerous television series, including: "Hill Street Blues", "Moonlighting", "Walker Texas Ranger" and "Trapper John, M.D.".  The role that brought his career international prominence was as the gangster assassin Frank Nitti in Brian De Palma's 1987 blockbuster cinema film "The Untouchables". Subsequently, Drago appeared in numerous films and television roles; the latter list included "The X-Files" and a recurring role in "The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr."  In 1999 he played the demon Barbas in the WB series "Charmed". His character was supposed to appear in only one episode, but due to popularity with fans he was brought back for six additional episodes, appearing in five of the show's eight seasons.  His film resume includes "", "", and "Pale Rider". He also was featured in Michael Jackson's 2001 music video "You Rock My World". Drago also played a mysterious stranger who gave a boy a special key in the Mike + The Mechanics music video for "Silent Running (On Dangerous Ground)" in 1985.  Other film roles include Gregg Araki's 2004 film "Mysterious Skin", the remake of horror film "The Hills Have Eyes", "", and Takashi Miike's "Masters of Horror" episode "Imprint", which Showtime pulled from the air due to "disturbing content."

Death.

Drago died in Los Angeles on June 24, 2019 at the age of 73 from complications of a stroke.

Personal life.

Drago was married to actress Silvana Gallardo from 1980 until her death in 2012. He had two sons, one of whom is actor Darren E. Burrows.

William Eugene Burrows Jr. (November 30, 1945 – June 24, 2019), known professionally by his stage name Billy Drago, was an American television and film actor. Frequently cast in the role of villain, Drago's films included Clint Eastwood's western "Pale Rider" and Brian De Palma's "The Untouchables". He also had recurring roles in the television series "The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr." and "Charmed".

Billy Drago (bürgerlich "William Eugene Burrows"; * 30. November 1945 in Hugoton, Kansas; † 24. Juni 2019 in Los Angeles, Kalifornien) war ein US-amerikanischer Schauspieler.


Technology.

The SCMaglev system uses an electrodynamic suspension (EDS) system. Installed in the trains' bogies are superconducting magnets, and the guideways contain two sets of metal coils.  The current levitation system utilizes a series of coils wound into a "figure 8" along both walls of the guideway. These coils are also cross-connected underneath the track.  As the train accelerates, the magnetic fields of its superconducting magnets induce a current into these coils due to the magnetic field induction effect. If the train were centered with the coils, the electrical potential would be balanced and no currents would be induced. However, as the train runs on rubber wheels at relatively low speeds, the magnetic fields are positioned below the center of the coils, causing the electrical potential to no longer be balanced. This creates a reactive magnetic field opposing the superconducting magnet's pole (in accordance with Lenz's law), and a pole above that attracts it. Once the train reaches, there is sufficient current flowing to lift the train above the guideway.  These coils also generate guiding and stabilizing forces. Because they are cross-connected underneath the guideway, if the train moves off-center, currents are induced into the connections that correct its positioning. SCMaglev also utilizes a linear synchronous motor (LSM) propulsion system, which powers a second set of coils in the guideway.

History.

Japanese National Railways (JNR) began research on a linear propulsion railway system in 1962 with the goal of developing a train that could travel between Tokyo and Osaka in one hour. Shortly after Brookhaven National Laboratory patented superconducting magnetic levitation technology in the United States in 1969, JNR announced development of its own superconducting maglev (SCMaglev) system. The railway made its first successful SCMaglev run on a short track at its Railway Technical Research Institute in 1972.

Miyazaki test track.

In 1977, SCMaglev testing moved to a new 7 km test track in Hyūga, Miyazaki. By 1980, the track was modified from a "reverse-T" shape to the "U" shape used today. In April 1987, JNR was privatized, and Central Japan Railway Company (JR Central) took over SCMaglev development.  In 1989, JR Central decided to build a better testing facility with tunnels, steeper gradients, and curves. After the company moved maglev tests to the new facility, the company's Railway Technical Research Institute began to allow testing of ground effect trains, an alternate technology based on aerodynamic interaction between the train and the ground, at the Miyazaki Test Track in 1999.

Yamanashi maglev test line.

Construction of the Yamanashi maglev test line began in 1990. The "priority section" of the line in Tsuru, Yamanashi, opened in 1997. MLX01 trains were tested there from 1997 to fall 2011, when the facility was closed to extend the line to and to upgrade it to commercial specifications.

Commercial use.

Japan.

In 2009, Japan's Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism decided that the SCMaglev system was ready for commercial operation. In 2011, the ministry gave JR Central permission to operate the SCMaglev system on their planned Chūō Shinkansen linking Tokyo and Nagoya by 2027, and to Osaka by 2045. Construction is currently underway.

United States.

Since 2010, JR Central has promoted the SCMaglev system in international markets, particularly the Northeast Corridor of the United States, as the Northeast Maglev. In 2013, Prime Minister Shinzō Abe met with the 44th U.S. President Barack Obama and offered to provide the first portion of the SC Maglev track free, a distance of approximately 40 miles. In 2016, the Federal Railroad Administration awarded $27.8 million to the Maryland Department of Transportation to prepare preliminary engineering and NEPA analysis for an SCMaglev train between Baltimore, MD, and Washington, DC.

Australia.

In late 2015, JR Central partnered with Mitsui and General Electric in Australia to form a joint venture named Consolidated Land and Rail Australia to provide a commercial funding model using private investors that could build the SC Maglev (linking Sydney, Canberra and Melbourne), create 8 new self-sustaining inland cities linked to the high speed connection, and contribute to the community.

The SCMaglev (superconducting maglev, formerly called the MLU) is a magnetic levitation (maglev) railway system developed by Central Japan Railway Company (JR Central) and the Railway Technical Research Institute.

Der japanische JR-Maglev ist eine 1997 in den Testbetrieb gegangene Magnetschwebebahn ("Mag"netic "Lev"itation). Es verkehren experimentelle Züge MLX01 und serienreife Züge L0. Die 43 km lange Teststrecke in der Präfektur Yamanashi wird in den nächsten Jahrzehnten Teil einer 500 km/h schnellen Verbindung zwischen den Städten Tokio und Osaka. Der JR-Maglev ist ein elektrodynamisches Schwebesystem (EDS) mit folgenden Besonderheiten: Nicht der Zug umfasst den Fahrweg, sondern der Fahrweg trogförmig den Zug. Große, eisenlose, supraleitende Spulen in den Zügen erlauben einen großen Luftspalt im Fahrweg. Normalleitende Spulen an dessen Seitenwänden sind so geformt und verschaltet, dass darin Ströme nur in dem Maße induziert werden, wie der Zug von einer symmetrischen Lage abweicht. Hinter diesen Spulen liegt der dreiphasig erregte Langstator für den Antrieb und zum Bremsen.


Name.

Although its creation was authorized in 1754, Hampshire County was not actually organized until 1757 because the area was not considered safe due to the outbreak of the French and Indian War (1754–1763). According to Samuel Kercheval's "A History of the Valley of Virginia" (1833), the county was named in honor of its several prize hogs. The story goes that Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron (1693–1781), who owned the Royal Grant to the area, came upon some very large hogs in Winchester and asked where they had been raised. He was told that they were from the South Branch Potomac River Valley (now Hampshire County). He remarked that when a county was formed west of Frederick that he would name it in honor of the county Hampshire, England, famous for its very fat hogs.

History.

Earliest European settlers.

Romney was initially settled by hunters and traders around 1725. In 1738, John Pearsall (or Pearsoll) and his brother Job built homes and in 1758 a fort (Fort Pearsall) for defense against Native Americans in present-day Romney. Their settlement was then known as Pearsall's Flats. In 1748, Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron sent a surveying party, including 16-year-old George Washington, to survey his lands along the Potomac and South Branch Potomac rivers. Washington spent three summers and falls surveying Lord Fairfax's Northern Neck estate, which included all of the present-day Eastern Panhandle of West Virginia. In April 1748, he laid off several lots in an area known as the Trough, about south of Romney, and he is known to have been in present-day Romney on October 19, 1749. Oral traditions claimed that Washington laid present-day Romney out into lots at that time, but written records from that era indicate that Romney was surveyed and laid out into lots by James Genn prior to Washington's arrival. Genn was also employed by Lord Fairfax.

18th century Hampshire County.

In 1756, Fort Pearsall was constructed on Job Pearsall's plantation for protection against Native American raids and George Washington provisioned and garrisoned the Fort at various times until 1758. At that time, there were at least 100 people living in the general area. Following the end of hostilities in the area, Lord Fairfax recognized that more settlers would be interested in moving into the area and that he could earn some extra revenue by selling plots in the town. He sent a survey party to Romney in 1762 to formally lay out the town into 100 lots. At that time, he renamed the town Romney, in honor of the Cinque Ports city on the English Channel in Kent.  Confusion ensued for several decades concerning land ownership within the town, as counterclaims were made by the original settlers, and those who purchased lots laid out by Lord Fairfax's surveyors.  The first meeting of the Hampshire County Court was held in 1757, at Fort Pleasant, now Old Fields in Hardy County, and was presided by the Right Honorable Thomas Bryan Martin, Lord Fairfax's nephew. By that time, Hampshire County's population had fallen dramatically as most of the settlers had fled the county in fear of the Native Americans. The only families remaining lived near Fort Pearsall, near present-day Romney, and Fort Edwards, at present-day Capon Bridge on the Cacapon River. The vast majority of the remaining settlers, however, were in the vicinity of present Old Fields-Moorefield-Petersburg and were protected by the several forts in the area, including Fort Pleasant  Once the Native Americans were defeated at the Battle of Point Pleasant in 1774 settlers, once again, returned to the county. Additionally, with the end of the American Revolution, the Virginia Legislature nullified the English grant to Lord Fairfax in the region. The legislature gave fee simple grants to settlers who already had contracts with Lord Fairfax, and opened up the remaining lands as public domain open to settlement. By 1790, when the first national census was taken, Hampshire County had 7,346 residents, making it the second most populous county in the present state of West Virginia at that time. Berkeley was the most populous county, with 19,713 people. There were nine counties that comprised the present state, with a total population of 55,873 people.  During the Whiskey Rebellion in 1794, many Hampshire County men volunteered to serve under Major General Daniel Morgan to put down the insurrection. The men most likely volunteered at Moorefield in Hardy County and then marched north to Cumberland, Maryland. Approximately 1,200 of the 12,950 men under Morgan's command came from the area that would later become West Virginia.

Early churches.

Many early settlers of the Cacapon area were German Baptist Brethren (or Dunkers), pacifist farmers who often befriended local natives in frontier areas. Other early missionaries helped to sustain the religious faith of the early European inhabitants. In 1775 two Baptist missionaries among a group of settlers moved to the Cacapon and organized the first European church in the county. In 1771 the work of the Methodist Episcopal Church was begun, in which later developments led to the formation of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. In 1753 Hampshire County had been formed into a parish by the Protestant Episcopal Church and from 1772 until his death in 1777 Rev. Nathaniel Manning served on the Glebe near present-day Moorefield. In 1787 a Primitive Baptist church was established at North River. Soon after the American Revolution there was preaching by the Presbyterians at different points in the county. In 1792 a Presbyterian church was organized at Romney and another, Mount Bethel Church, at Three Churches.

Early industry.

The wide lowlands of Hampshire County certainly invited agriculture, and fields of wheat and tobacco surrounded the important truck-patch of the settler. The rolling uplands offered pasturage for horses, cattle, sheep, and hogs, which were driven across country to market at Winchester. The streams abounded in fish and the mountains contained not only game but timber and stone for early settlers' homes. The limestone was burned for lime at Bloomery Gap, where remains of old lime-kilns give evidence of an early industry. Soon it was discovered that some of the strata contained iron ore. Much of it was transported to present-day Keyser, from an area along South Branch Potomac River south of the present limits of the county. In Bloomery Gap, a ruined furnace still stands, mute evidence of another former industry. In the early days the increasing population stimulated not only farming and grazing but every industry of a new country. Hampshire County was also known for its many gunmakers, located on or near the main road from Winchester to Romney. Among them were, Henry Topper,Jacob Kline,George Young, Benjamin Shane,George Glaze,William Britton and the Sheetz Family.

19th century Hampshire County.

The building of the Northwestern Turnpike (U.S. Route 50) was an integral part of the development of Hampshire County. General Daniel Morgan first suggested the road be built in 1748, but his recommendations were not acted upon until the 1830s. Colonel Claudius Crozet, a Frenchman who had previously worked for Napoleon Bonaparte, engineered the road which connected Parkersburg with Winchester, Virginia. The turnpike traversed Hampshire County stretching through the communities of Capon Bridge, Loom, Hanging Rock, Pleasant Dale, Augusta, Frenchburg, Shanks, and Romney. Through the years, Romney became an important rest stop for travelers on the turnpike. This aided the local economy as hotels and taverns began to appear in the area.  During the American Civil War, the Hampshire Guards and Frontier Riflemen joined the Confederate Army. Although there were no major battles in Hampshire County, Romney changed hands at least fifty-six times during the war. It was often a case of one army evacuating the area allowing the opposing army to move into the town. This places Romney second behind Winchester as the town that changed hands the most during the American Civil War. On June 11, 1861, it changed hands twice in the same day. Some local Hampshire County historians speculate that Romney actually changed hands more than Winchester, but there are no surviving records to support the claim.  In 1863, West Virginia's counties were divided into civil townships, with the intention of encouraging local government. This proved impractical in the heavily rural state, and in 1872 the townships were converted into magisterial districts. Between 1866, when Mineral County was formed from the western portion of Hampshire County, and 1871, when part of southern Mineral County was returned to Hampshire, the county was divided into six townships: Bloomery, Capon, Gore, Romney, Sherman, and Springfield. These became magisterial districts in 1872, and a seventh district, Mill Creek, was formed in part from the land that had been in Mineral County from 1866 to 1871.

Geography.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of, of which is land and (0.7%) is water.

Demographics.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 20,203 people, 7,955 households, and 5,640 families residing in the county. The population density was 32 people per square mile (12/km2). There were 11,185 housing units at an average density of 17 per square mile (7/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 98.04% White, 0.83% Black or African American, 0.24% Native American, 0.16% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.12% from other races, and 0.59% from two or more races. 0.55% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.  There were 7,955 households out of which 31.30% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.70% were married couples living together, 9.50% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.10% were non-families. 24.60% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.60% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.49 and the average family size was 2.94.  In the county, the population was spread out with 25.10% under the age of 18, 7.10% from 18 to 24, 27.60% from 25 to 44, 25.60% from 45 to 64, and 14.60% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 99.70 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.30 males.  The median income for a household in the county was $31,666, and the median income for a family was $37,616. Males had a median income of $28,884 versus $19,945 for females. The per capita income for the county was $14,851. About 12.90% of families and 16.30% of the population were below the poverty line, including 22.70% of those under age 18 and 13.10% of those age 65 or over.

2010 census.

As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 23,964 people, 9,595 households, and 6,606 families residing in the county. The population density was. There were 13,688 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the county was 97.2% white, 1.0% black or African American, 0.2% Asian, 0.2% American Indian, 0.1% Pacific islander, 0.2% from other races, and 1.1% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 1.0% of the population. In terms of ancestry, 29.0% were German, 12.9% were American, 11.9% were Irish, and 8.0% were English.  Of the 9,595 households, 29.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.3% were married couples living together, 9.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 31.2% were non-families, and 25.8% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 2.91. The median age was 42.6 years.  The median income for a household in the county was $31,792 and the median income for a family was $45,447. Males had a median income of $36,828 versus $25,347 for females. The per capita income for the county was $17,752. About 11.0% of families and 16.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 20.1% of those under age 18 and 18.2% of those age 65 or over.

Politics.

During the Virginia Secession Convention, Hampshire County voted against secession, but much of this vote was within what is now part of heavily Unionist and Republican Mineral County, which was detached from it after the war. Following the detachment of Mineral – which was not to give a Democratic majority before 1936 or after 1976 – Hampshire County became solidly Democratic, not voting for any Republican candidate between 1868 and 1952 inclusive. However, since 1968 Hampshire County has not voted for any Democratic presidential candidate apart from Jimmy Carter in 1976, and since 2000 it has suffered the same drastic declines in Democratic support as the rest of socially conservative West Virginia. Donald Trump won the county by an overwhelming margin in 2016.

Hampshire County is a county in the U.S. state of West Virginia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 23,964. Its county seat is Romney, West Virginia's oldest town (1762). The county was created by the Virginia General Assembly in 1754, from parts of Frederick and Augusta Counties (Virginia) and is the state's oldest county. The county lies in both West Virginia's Eastern Panhandle and Potomac Highlands regions.

Hampshire County ist ein County im Bundesstaat West Virginia der Vereinigten Staaten. Der Verwaltungssitz (County Seat) ist Romney, die älteste Stadt im Staat.