Design.

The pike was a long weapon, varying considerably in size, from long. It was approximately in weight, with sixteenth-century military writer Sir John Smythe recommending lighter rather than heavier pikes. It had a wooden shaft with an iron or steel spearhead affixed. The shaft near the head was often reinforced with metal strips called "cheeks" or langets. When the troops of opposing armies both carried the pike, it often grew in a sort of arms race, getting longer in both shaft and head length to give one side's pikemen an edge in combat. The extreme length of such weapons required a strong wood such as well-seasoned ash for the pole, which was tapered towards the point to prevent the pike from sagging on the ends, although drooping or slight flection of the shaft was always a problem in pike handling. It is a common mistake to refer to a bladed polearm as a pike; such weapons are more generally halberds, glaives or voulges.  The great length of the pikes allowed a great concentration of spearheads to be presented to the enemy, with their wielders at a greater distance, but also made pikes unwieldy in close combat. This meant that pikemen had to be equipped with an additional, shorter weapon such as a dagger or mace in order to defend themselves should the fighting degenerate into a melee. In general, however, pikemen attempted to avoid such disorganized combat, in which they were at a disadvantage. To compound their difficulties in a melee, the pikeman often did not have a shield, or had only a small shield which would be of limited use in close-quarters fighting.

Tactics.

The pike, being unwieldy, was typically used in a deliberate, defensive manner, often alongside other missile and melee weapons. However, better-trained troops were capable of using the pike in an aggressive attack with each rank of pikemen being trained to hold their pikes so that they presented enemy infantry with four or five layers of spearheads bristling from the front of the formation.  As long as it kept good order, such a formation could roll right over enemy infantry but it did have weaknesses. The men were all moving forward facing in a single direction and could not turn quickly or efficiently to protect the vulnerable flanks or rear of the formation. Nor could they maintain cohesion over uneven ground, as the Scots discovered to their cost at the Battle of Flodden. The huge block of men carrying such unwieldy spears could be difficult to maneuver in any way other than straightforward movement.  As a result, such mobile pike formations sought to have supporting troops protect their flanks or would maneuver to smash the enemy before they could be outflanked themselves. There was also the risk that the formation would become disordered, leading to a confused melee in which pikemen had the vulnerabilities mentioned above.  According to Sir John Smythe, there were two ways for two opposing pike formations to confront one another: cautious or aggressive. The cautious approach involved fencing at the length of the pike, while the aggressive approach involved quickly closing distance, with each of the first five ranks giving a single powerful thrust. In the aggressive approach, the first rank would then immediately resort to swords and daggers if the thrusts from the first five ranks failed to break the opposing pike formation. Smythe considered the cautious approach laughable.  Although primarily a military weapon, the pike could be surprisingly effective in single combat and a number of 16th-century sources explain how it was to be used in a dueling situation; fencers of the time often practiced with and competed against each other with long staves in place of pikes. George Silver considered the pike one of the more advantageous weapons for single combat in the open, giving it odds over all weapons shorter than or the sword and dagger/shield combination.

History.

Ancient Europe.

Although very long spears had been used since the dawn of organized warfare (notably illustrated in art showing Sumerian and Minoan warriors and hunters), the earliest recorded use of a pike-like weapon in the tactical method described above involved the Macedonian sarissa, used by the troops of Alexander the Great's father, Philip II of Macedon, and successive dynasties, which dominated warfare for several centuries in many countries.  After the fall of the last successor of Macedon, the pike largely fell out of use for the next 1000 or so years. The one exception to this appears to have been in Germany, where Tacitus recorded Germanic tribesmen in the 2nd century AD as using "over-long spears". He consistently refers to the spears used by the Germans as being "massive" and "very long" suggesting that he is describing in essence a pike. Caesar, in his De Bello Gallico, describes the Helvetii as fighting in a tight, phalanx-like formation with spears jutting out over their shields. Caesar was probably describing an early form of the shieldwall so popular in later times.

Medieval Europe revival.

In the Middle Ages, the principal users of the pike were urban militia troops such as the Flemings or the peasant array of the lowland Scots. For example, the Scots used a spear formation known as the "schiltron" in several battles during the Wars of Scottish Independence including the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314, and the Flemings used their "geldon" long spear to absorb the attack of French knights at the Battle of the Golden Spurs in 1302, before other troops in the Flemish formation counterattacked the stalled knights with goedendags. Both battles were seen by contemporaries as stunning victories of commoners over superbly equipped, mounted, military professionals, where victory was owed to the use of the pike and the brave resistance of the commoners who wielded them.  These formations were essentially immune to the attacks of mounted men-at-arms as long as the knights obligingly threw themselves on the spear wall and the foot soldiers remained steady under the morale challenge of facing a cavalry charge, but the closely packed nature of pike formations rendered them vulnerable to enemy archers and crossbowmen who could shoot them down with impunity, especially when the pikemen did not have adequate armor. Many defeats, such as at Roosebeke and Halidon Hill, were suffered by the militia pike armies when faced by cunning foes who employed their archers and crossbowmen to thin the ranks of the pike blocks before charging in with their (often dismounted) men-at-arms. Medieval pike formations tended to have better success when they operated in an aggressive fashion. The Scots at the Battle of Stirling Bridge (1297), for example, utilized the momentum of their charge to overrun an English army while the Englishmen were crossing a narrow bridge. At the Battle of Laupen (1339), Bernese pikemen overwhelmed the infantry forces of the opposing Habsburg/Burgundian army with a massive charge before wheeling over to strike and rout the Austro-Burgundian horsemen as well. At the same time however such aggressive action required considerable tactical cohesiveness or suitable terrain to protect the vulnerable flanks of the pike formations especially from the attack of mounted man-at-arms, when these features not available Medieval militia pikes often suffered costly failures such as at Battles of Mons-en-Pevele (1304), Cassel (1328), Roosebeke (1382) and Othee (1408). The constant success of the Swiss mercenaries in the later period was attributed to their extreme discipline and tactical unity due to semi-professional nature, allowing a pike block to somewhat alleviate the threat presented by flanking attacks.  It was not uncommon for aggressive pike formations to be composed of dismounted men-at-arms, as at the Battle of Sempach (1386), where the dismounted Austrian vanguard, using their lances as pikes, had some initial success against their predominantly halberd-equipped Swiss adversaries. Dismounted Italian men-at-arms also used the same method to defeat the Swiss at the Battle of Arbedo (1422). Equally, well-armored Scottish nobles (accompanied even by King James IV) were recorded as forming the leading ranks of Scottish pike blocks at the Battle of Flodden, incidentally rendering the whole formation resistant to English archery.

Renaissance Europe heyday.

The Swiss solved the pike's earlier problems and brought a renaissance to pike warfare in the 15th century, establishing strong training regimens to ensure they were masters of handling the "Spiess" (the German term for "skewer") on maneuvers and in combat; they also introduced marching to drums for this purpose. This meant that the pike blocks could rise to the attack, making them less passive and more aggressive formations, but sufficiently well trained that they could go on the defensive when attacked by cavalry. German soldiers known as Landsknechts later adopted Swiss methods of pike handling.  The Scots predominantly used shorter spears in their schiltron formation; their attempt to adopt the longer Continental pike was dropped for general use after its ineffective use led to humiliating defeat at the Battle of Flodden.  Such Swiss and Landsknecht phalanxes also contained men armed with two-handed swords, or "Zweihänder", and halberdiers for close combat against both infantry and attacking cavalry.  The Swiss were confronted with the German "Landsknecht" who used similar tactics as the Swiss, but more pikes in the more difficult "deutschen Stoss" (holding a pike that had its weight in the lower 1/3 at the end with two hands), which was utilized in a more flexible attacking column.  The high military reputation of the Swiss and the "Landsknechts" again led to the employment of mercenary units across Europe in order to train other armies in their tactics. These two, and others who had adopted their tactics, faced off in several wars, leading to a series of developments as a result.  These formations had great successes on the battlefield, starting with the astonishing victories of the Swiss cantons against Charles the Bold of Burgundy in the Burgundian Wars, in which the Swiss participated in 1476 and 1477. In the battles of Grandson, Morat and Nancy, the Swiss not only successfully resisted the attacks of enemy knights, as the relatively passive Scottish and Flemish infantry squares had done in the earlier Middle Ages, but also marched to the attack with great speed and in good formation, their attack columns steamrolling the Burgundian forces, sometimes with great massacre.  The deep pike attack column remained the primary form of effective infantry combat for the next forty years, and the Swabian War saw the first conflict in which both sides had large formations of well-trained pikemen. After that war, its combatants—the Swiss (thereafter generally serving as mercenaries) and their Landsknecht imitators—would often face each other again in the Italian Wars, which would become in many ways the military proving ground of the Renaissance.

Ancient China.

Pikes and long halberds were in use in ancient China from the Warring States period since the 5th century BC. Infantrymen used a variety of long polearm weapons, but the most popular was the dagger-axe, pike-like long spear, and the "ji". The dagger-axe and "ji" came in various lengths, from 9 to 18 feet; the weapon consisted of a thrusting spear with a slashing blade appended to it. Dagger-axes and "ji" were an extremely popular weapon in various kingdoms, especially for the Qin state and Qin Dynasty, and possibly the succeeding Han Dynasty, who produced 18-foot-long halberd and pike-like weapons, as well as 22 foot long pikes during the war against Xiongnu.

Classical Japan.

During the continuous European development of the pike, Japan experienced a parallel evolution of pole weapons.  In Classical Japan, the Japanese style of warfare was generally fast-moving and aggressive, with far shallower formations than their European equivalents. The naginata and yari were more commonly used than swords for Japanese ashigaru foot soldiers and dismounted samurai due to their greater reach. Naginata, first used around 750 AD, had curved sword-like blades on wooden shafts with often spiked metal counterweights. They were typically used with a slashing action and forced the introduction of shin guards as cavalry battles became more important. Yari were spears of varying lengths; their straight blades usually had sharpened edges or protrusions from the central blade, and were fitted to a hollowed shaft with an extremely long tang.

Medieval Japan.

During the later half of the 16th century in Medieval Japan, pikes used were generally long, but sometimes up to 10 meters in length. By this point pikemen were becoming the main forces in armies. They formed lines, combined with arquebusiers and spearmen. Formations were generally only two or three rows deep.  Trans-Atlantic armies appear to have possessed spears of pike dimensions, but in the absence for most of their existence of any cavalry threat did not develop the same traditions of massed close-order pike formations.  The rise of firearms and artillery in the 16th century made the large formations consisting entirely of pikemen vulnerable to being shot down despite their close-combat power. The decline of the combat column of pikemen was starkly displayed at the terrible Battle of Bicocca in 1522, for instance, where arquebusiers contributed to the heavy defeat of a force of Swiss pikemen.

Pike and shot.

In the aftermath of the Italian Wars, from the end of the 15th century to the late 16th century, most European armies adopted the use of the pike, often in conjunction with primitive firearms such as the arquebus and caliver, to form large pike and shot formations.  The quintessential example of this development was the Spanish Tercio, which consisted of a large square of pikemen with small, mobile squadrons of arquebusiers moving along its perimeter, as well as traditional men-at-arms. These three elements formed a mutually supportive combination of tactical roles: the arquebusiers harried the enemy line, the pikemen protected the arquebusiers from enemy cavalry charges, and the men-at-arms, typically armed with swords and javelins, fought off enemy pikemen when two opposing squares made contact. The Tercio deployed smaller numbers of pikemen than the huge Swiss and Landsknecht columns, and their formation ultimately proved to be much more flexible on the battlefield.  Mixed formations of men quickly became the norm for European infantrymen, with many, but not all, seeking to imitate the Tercio; in England, a combination of billmen, longbowmen, and men-at-arms remained the norm, though this changed when the supply of yew on the island dwindled.  The percentage of men who were armed with firearms in Tercio-like formations steadily increased as firearms advanced in technology. This advance is believed to be the demise of cavalry when in fact it revived it. In the late sixteenth into the 17th century, smaller pike formations were used, invariably defending attached musketeers, often as a central block with two sub-units of shooters, called "sleeves of shot", on either side of the pikes. Although the cheaper and versatile infantry increasingly adopted firearms, cavalry's proportion in the army remained high.  During the English Civil War (1642–1651) the New Model Army (1646–1660) initially had two musketeers for each pikeman. By about 1650 the New Model Army had all but stopped using pikemen. One of the advantages that the New Model Army gained by this was mobility—musketeers who wore no armour marched on average about a day which was about more than pikemen could manage.  Two musketeers for each pikeman was not the agreed mix used throughout Europe, and when in 1658 Oliver Cromwell, by then the Lord Protector, sent a contingent of the New Model Army to Flanders to support his French allies under the terms of their treaty of friendship (the Treaty of Paris, 1657) he supplied regiments with equal numbers of musketeers and pikemen. On the battlefield, the musketeers lacked protection against enemy cavalry, and the two types of foot soldier supported each other.  The post Restoration English Army used pikemen and by 1697 (the last year of the Nine Years' War) English infantry battalions fighting in the Low Countries still had two musketeers to every pikemen and fought in the now traditional style of pikemen five ranks deep in the centre, with six ranks of musketeers on each side.  According to John Kersey in 1706, the pike was typically in length.

End of the pike era.

The late 17th century saw the decline of the pike in most European armies. This started with the development of the plug bayonet, followed by the socket bayonet. This adds a long blade of up to 60 cm (2 feet) to the end of the musket, allowing the musket to act as a pike-like weapon when held out with both hands. Although they didn't have the full reach of pikes, bayonets were effective against cavalry charges, which used to be the main weakness of musketeer formations; pikemen were no longer needed to protect musketeers from cavalry. Furthermore, improvements in artillery caused most European armies to abandon large formations in favor of multiple staggered lines, both to minimize casualties and to present a larger frontage for volley fire. Thick hedges of bayonets proved to be an effective anti-cavalry solution, and improved musket firepower was now so deadly that combat was often decided by shooting alone. A common end date for the use of the pike in infantry formations is 1700, such as the Prussian and Austrian armies. Other armies, such as the Swedish and the Russian, continued to use it for several decades afterward (the Swedes of King Charles XII in particular using it to great effect until 1721). During the American Revolution (1775-1783), pikes called "trench spears" made by local blacksmiths saw limited use until enough bayonets could be procured for general use by both Continental Army and attached militia units.  Throughout the Napoleonic era, the spontoon, a kind of shortened pike with side-wings, was retained as a symbol by some NCOs; in practice it was probably more useful for gesturing and signaling than as a weapon.  As late as Poland's Kościuszko Uprising in 1794, the pike reappeared as a child of necessity which became, for a short period, a surprisingly effective weapon on the battlefield. In this case, General Thaddeus Kosciuszko, facing a shortage of firearms and bayonets to arm landless serf partisans recruited straight from the wheat fields, had their sickles and scythes heated and straightened out into something resembling crude "war scythes". These weaponized agricultural accouterments were then used in battle as both cutting weapons, as well as makeshift pikes. The peasant "pikemen" armed with these crude instruments played a pivotal role in securing a near impossible victory against a far larger and better equipped Russian army at the Battle of Racławice on April 4 of that year.  Civilian pikeman played a similar role, though outnumbered and outgunned, in the 1798 Rising in Ireland four years later. Here, especially in the Wexford Rebellion and in Dublin, the pike was useful mainly as a weapon by men and women fighting on foot against cavalry armed with guns.  Improvised pikes, made from bayonets on poles, were used by escaped convicts during the Castle Hill rebellion of 1804.  As late as the Napoleonic Wars, at the dawn of the 19th century, even the Russian militia (mostly landless peasants, like the Polish partisans before them) could be found carrying shortened pikes into battle. As the 19th century progressed, the obsolete pike would still find a use in such countries as Ireland, Russia, China, and Australia, generally in the hands of desperate peasant rebels who did not have access to firearms. John Brown planned to arm a rebel slave army in America largely with pikes.  One attempt to resurrect the pike as a primary infantry weapon occurred during the American Civil War (1861–1865) when the Confederate States of America planned to recruit twenty regiments of pikemen in 1862. In April 1862 it was authorised that every Confederate infantry regiment would include two companies of pikemen, a plan supported by Robert E. Lee. Many pikes were produced but were never used in battle and the plan to include pikemen in the army was abandoned.  Shorter versions of pikes called "boarding pikes" were also used on warships—typically to repel boarding parties—as late as the third quarter of the 19th century (1850–1875).  The great Hawaiian warrior king Kamehameha I had an elite force of men armed with very long spears who seem to have fought in a manner identical to European pikemen, despite the usual conception of his people's general disposition for individualistic dueling as their method of close combat. It is not known whether Kamehameha himself introduced this tactic or if it was taken from the use of traditional Hawaiian weapons.  The pike was issued as a British Home Guard weapon in 1942 after the War Office acted on a letter from Winston Churchill saying ""every man must have a weapon of some kind, be it only a mace or pike"". However, these hand-held weapons never left the stores after the pikes had "generated an almost universal feeling of anger and disgust from the ranks of the Home Guard, demoralised the men and led to questions being asked in both Houses of Parliament". The pikes, made from obsolete Lee–Enfield rifle bayonet blades welded to a steel tube, took the name of ""Croft's Pikes"" after Henry Page Croft, the Under-Secretary of State for War who attempted to defend the fiasco by stating that they were a "silent and effective weapon".  In Spain, beginning in 1715 and ending in 1977, there were night guards in cities called "serenos" who carried a short pike of 1.5 meters in length (4.9 feet) called "chuzo".  Pikes live on today only in ceremonial roles, being used to carry the colours of an infantry regiment and with the Company of Pikemen and Musketeers of the Honourable Artillery Company, or by some of the infantry units on duty during their rotation as guard for the President of the Italian Republic at the Quirinale, in Rome.

A pike is a pole weapon, a very long thrusting spear formerly used extensively by infantry. Pikes were used regularly in European warfare from the Late Middle Ages to the early 18th century, and were wielded by foot soldiers deployed in close quarters, until their replacement by the bayonet. The pike found extensive use with Landsknecht armies and Swiss mercenaries, who employed it as their main weapon and used it in pike square formations. A similar weapon, the sarissa, was also used by Alexander the Great's Macedonian phalanx infantry to great effect. Generally, a spear becomes a pike when it is too long to be wielded with one hand in combat.

Ein Spieß (auch Pike von französisch "piquer" ‚stechen‘) ist eine historische Stichwaffe zu Jagd- und Kriegszwecken, die im Unterschied zum Speer bzw. Wurfspieß nicht geworfen wird. Synonym wird oft der Begriff "Lanze" verwendet, was jedoch eigentlich den Spieß des Reiters bezeichnet.


Improvements.

Streaming.

Generally, file transfer protocols break down a file into a series of "packet"s, and then send them one-at-a-time to the receiver. Each packet is sent with a "checksum" or "cyclic redundancy check" (CRC) that can be used to determine if the packet was received correctly. If the packet is received correctly an ACK message is sent and the sender then starts sending the next packet.  The telephone system introduces a small delay known as "latency" that interferes with this process. Even if the receiver sends the ACK immediately, the delay in the phone lines means there will always be some time before the sender receives it and sends the next packet. As modem speeds increase, this delay represents a larger and larger number of packets that could have been sent during the delay, decreasing the "channel efficiency".  XMODEM used 128-bytes of data, the "payload", in its packet format. In the era of 300 bps modems, a packet took about four seconds to send, and typical latencies were on the order of of a second, so the performance overhead was not significant. However, as speeds increase the problem became acute; at 2400 bps a packet takes about to send, so about of the available bandwidth is wasted waiting for ACKs. At 9600 bps a packet requires only 0.13 seconds to send, so about of the bandwidth is wasted.  One solution to this problem is the use of a sliding window. These protocols address latency by allowing the sender to continue sending a number of packets without waiting for an ACK. The number of packets that it allows to continue is the "window", which was typically between two and sixteen packets in most implementations. A number of new versions of XMODEM with sliding window support appeared in the early 1980s.  Sliding windows are useful for latencies on the order of several packet lengths, which is the case for XMODEM on conventional phone lines. However, it is not enough to address longer latencies found on overseas phone calls or X.25 services such as PC Pursuit, where the latencies are on the order of a second or longer. In other cases, where the reverse channel was much slower than the sending one, as was the case for Telebit or US Robotics modems, even the small number of ACKs might overwhelm the return channel and cause the transfer to pause.  ZMODEM addressed these problems by removing the need for ACKs at all, allowing the sender to send data continually as long as the receiver detected no errors. Only NAKs had to be sent, if and only if there was a problem. Since ZMODEM was often used on links with built-in error correction, like X.25, the receiver would often not send a single message back to the sender. As a result, the system would send the entire file in a continual stream, and ZMODEM referred to itself as a "streaming protocol".  ZMODEM's performance was so improved over previous common protocols that it generally replaced even special protocols such as YMODEM-g, which included no error correction at all and instead relied on error-free links maintained by the modems. Although YMODEM-g was faster, the lack of other features such as restartable transfers made it less appealing.

Restart.

XMODEM, and most protocols based on it, managed packet order by prefixing the data with a packet number from 1 to 255. Windowed versions used this packet number to indicate which packets had been received property, or specify one that had not. Since the packets were 128 bytes long, this meant the maximum amount of data that could be transferred before the packet numbers rolled over was 32 kB.  ZMODEM replaced the packet number with the actual location in the file, indicated by a 32-bit number. This allowed it to send NAK messages that re-wound the transfer to the point of failure, regardless of how long the file might be. This same feature was also used to re-start transfers if they failed or were deliberately interrupted. In this case, the receiver would look to see how much data had been previously received and then send a NAK with that location, automatically triggering the sender to start from that point.

Auto-start.

Auto-starting simplified management by allowing the sending machine to start the transfer. Previously the user had to first request the file from the sender, placing it into a "waiting" state, then return to their local program and invoke a command to start the transfer. With auto-transfer, they simply requested the file, the sender would then automatically trigger the transfer in the user's program.

Variations.

A number of modified versions of ZMODEM appeared. ZedZap was a variant of ZMODEM with 8 kbyte blocks for better performance on high-speed modems. LeechZmodem was a mischievous ZMODEM variant (among similar XMODEM and YMODEM derivatives) that cheated BBS download quotas. A backwards compatible extension of ZMODEM with 32 kbyte and 64 kbyte block lengths was created by ADONTEC in 2002 and 2007 to increase performance on high-speed error free connections like ISDN or TCP/IP networks.  The most notable ZMODEM implementations were from Chuck Forsberg's Omen Technology, Inc. These included DSZ (DOS Send ZMODEM), GSZ (Graphical Send ZMODEM), and the ubiquitous (l)rzsz for Unix variants.  In more current times, the developers of Synchronet have created a modern X/Y/ZMODEM implementation named SEXYZ, loosely based on the zmtx/zmrx package, which runs natively on Windows and Unix variants, supports long filenames and faster, more reliable data transfers. The ZMODEM implementation from SEXYZ has also been incorporated into the SyncTERM project. Synchronet, SEXYZ, and SyncTERM are all open-source, cross-platform, BBS-centric projects.  Forsberg himself collected a number of improvements into ZMODEM-90. The first of these is MobyTurbo, which removed control quoting to further improve performance, about 15%. Even on networks that "eat" control characters, ZMODEM-90 can be tailored to quote only those characters the network actually eats, as opposed to every possible one. A similar improvement allows ZMODEM-90 to work on 7-bit networks, whereas earlier protocols (with the notable exception of Kermit) had all demanded 8-bits to one degree or another. Finally, ZMODEM-90 includes a basic run-length encoding compression system to further improve performance on uncompressed files.

ZMODEM is a file transfer protocol developed by Chuck Forsberg in 1986, in a project funded by Telenet in order to improve file transfers on their X.25 network. In addition to dramatically improved performance compared to older protocols, ZMODEM also offered restartable transfers, auto-start by the sender, an expanded 32-bit CRC, and control character quoting supporting 8-bit clean transfers, allowing it to be used on networks that would not pass control characters.

Das ZMODEM oder auch "Z-Modem" ist ein Protokoll, welches eine gesicherte Übertragung von Dateien zwischen Rechnersystemen ermöglicht. Es wurde von Chuck Forsberg im Jahr 1986 entwickelt und vor allem Anfang der 1990er Jahre in Bereich von Mailboxsystemen populär und löste für den Dateitransfer Vorgängerprotokolle wie XMODEM und YMODEM ab. Heute wird es primär im Bereich von Terminalprogrammen zum Transfer von Firmware zwischen Computersystemen verwendet und findet im Bereich von internet-basierenden Netzen zur Datenübertragung kaum noch Anwendung. Lediglich im seit Ende der 1990er Jahre langsam aussterbenden FidoNet ist ZMODEM noch die erste Wahl.


Geography.

Big Timber is located at (45.833224, -109.950361).  According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, of which, is land and is water.

Climate.

Big Timber has a cool semi-arid climate (Köppen "BSk") bordering on a humid continental climate ("Dfb"). Although winters can be frigid, frequent chinook winds will raise temperatures above on an average twenty days between December and February, and have raised them to or above on ten occasions during these months since 1894. The chinooks mean Big Timber's 31.3 days per year failing to top freezing is among the fewest in Montana, with the average window for such maxima being from November 11 to March 18. In the absence of chinooks, temperatures fall to on seventeen mornings during an average winter, although such temperatures were reached just once in 1999/2000 but as many as thirty-four times during the very cold winters of 1935/1936 and 1978/1979. The average window for zero temperatures is from December 4 to February 25. The coldest temperature in Big Timber has been during the notorious 1936 cold wave on February 15, whilst February 1936 was also the coldest month on record at, shading January 1916 which averaged.  Spring is typically windy with temperatures nearly so variable as in winter: the last frost typically arrives on May 19, but temperatures have reached as early as March 22 of 1928 and have fallen to zero Fahrenheit as late as April 13, 1928 and April 12, 1997. Late in spring thunderstorms increase in frequency and during late spring and early summer these provide most of Big Timber's annual precipitation. The wettest calendar year since 1894 has been 1957 with and the driest 1939 with, whilst the wettest single month has been May 1981 with  During the summer, days can be very hot, with maxima of on 28.5 afternoons and over on 1.1, although mornings very rarely stay above. The record hottest temperature is on July 21, 1931 and the hottest morning on July 31 of 1936.  The fall season is usually short and variable, with snow occasionally falling in September, but at other times hot weather can extend into October or even November.

Demographics.

2010 census.

As of the census of 2010, there were 1,641 people, 751 households, and 429 families residing in the city. The population density was. There were 933 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 95.9% White, 0.1% African American, 0.5% Native American, 0.7% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 0.5% from other races, and 2.3% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.8% of the population.  There were 751 households, of which 28.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.5% were married couples living together, 9.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.1% had a male householder with no wife present, and 42.9% were non-families. 38.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 20.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.13 and the average family size was 2.82.  The median age in the city was 45.5 years. 23.1% of residents were under the age of 18; 5.8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 20.8% were from 25 to 44; 25.2% were from 45 to 64; and 25.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.5% male and 51.5% female.

2000 census.

As of the census of 2000, there were 1,650 people, 711 households, and 430 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,752.6 people per square mile (677.7/km). There were 812 housing units at an average density of 862.5 per square mile (333.5/km). The racial makeup of the city was 96.61% White, 0.79% Native American, 0.30% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 0.73% from other races, and 1.52% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.70% of the population.  There were 711 households, out of which 27.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.2% were married couples living together, 5.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 39.5% were non-families. 34.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 19.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.24 and the average family size was 2.92.  In the city, the population was spread out, with 23.7% under the age of 18, 6.6% from 18 to 24, 23.2% from 25 to 44, 23.7% from 45 to 64, and 22.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females there were 96.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.9 males.  The median income for a household in the city was $30,595, and the median income for a family was $38,869. Males had a median income of $29,000 versus $17,596 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,569. About 9.3% of families and 10.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 15.9% of those under age 18 and 7.6% of those age 65 or over.

Big Timber is a city in, and the county seat of Sweet Grass County, Montana, United States. The population was 1,641 at the 2010 census.

Der Ort Big Timber liegt im Sweet Grass County, im US-Bundesstaat Montana und hat 1650 Einwohner (Stand: 2000). Big Timber liegt verkehrstechnisch günstig am großen Interstate 90, auf halber Strecke zwischen den Städten Billings und Bozeman. Der Ort ist County Seat (Verwaltungssitz) des Sweet Grass County.


History.

Snog's first album "Lies Inc." was released in 1992 and Pieter Bourke, who has since worked with Dead Can Dance and Lisa Gerrard, joined the band soon afterwards. The second album "Dear Valued Customer", which drew heavily on techno influences, was then released in 1994. Also in 1994, the side projects Soma (Thrussell and Pieter Bourke) and Black Lung.  By 1997, the band was primarily a solo project for Thrussell, who collaborated with guest musicians on recordings. The next album release was "Buy Me... I'll Change Your Life" and country western-style guitar was featured, as well as a cover version of Lee Hazlewood's "Let the Little Flowers Grow". "Third Mall from the Sun" followed in 1999 and the album blended the styles of the previous two albums, in addition to new influences. Thrussell described the progression of Snog's musical styles in a 1998 interview with "Sonic Boom Magazine": "In the past Snog has written a lot of dance floor material and while it has been successful, I kind of felt that I needed to write something different. I intentionally try and do something new with every Snog release. I do not want to get caught up in the musical trap of remaking the same album over and over".  "Third Mall from the Sun" was followed by the remix album "Relax into the Abyss". In 2003, the album "Beyond the Valley of the Proles" was released and its follow-up "Snog vs. the Faecal Juggernaut of Mass Culture" was released three years later.  Snog continued to release music into the 21st century and the EP "Everything Is Under Control" (consists of remixes and the additional song "The Lament of the Lost Sheep") was released on iTunes on 25 March 2013. The EP was followed by the 23 April 2013 album release "Babes In Consumerland" and both recordings are part of a contract with the Metropolis record label.  A music video for "Everything Is Under Control" was published on the Internet on 19 March 2013. On 20 March 2013 Snog also released a 12" vinyl record with French record label M-Tronic entitled "The Plug-In Drug"; produced as blue-coloured vinyl and limited to 300 copies, the record features three songs from "Babes In Consumerland", in addition to remixes and unreleased songs.

Politics.

Thrussell's songs frequently contain themes of anti-consumerism, individuality and opposition to the idea of Big Brother.  The albums "Third Mall from the Sun" (1999), "Relax into the Abyss" (2000) and "Beyond the Valley of the Proles" (2003), "The Last Days of Rome" (2006) and "City" (2008) featured artwork by Canadian artist Chris Woods, whose paintings lampoon the advertising tactics of major corporations such as McDonald's, The Gap and Nike.  Snog supports the copying of its music and depending on the recording label, many releases are designated copyleft (or "copyright-free"), as indicated by a crossed-out "©" symbol that is printed on the album case.

Reception.

In a 2008 review of "The Last Days of Rome", Matthew Rich from "Left Hip Magazine" described Snog as "the greatest band at the moment".

Snog is a band that was formed by Australian musician Dee Thrussell, along with fellow art school friends Tim McGrath and Julia Bourke in 1989. The band's music is a fusion of many different styles, including industrial, techno, ambient, experimental, funk and country music. The band name is a reference to "kissing and cuddling".

Snog ist eine Band, die sich in den Genres Electropop, IDM, Techno, Ambient, Experimental und ebenso in Country und Funk verwirklicht. Sie wurde 1988 durch die australischen Musiker David Thrussel, Tim McGrath und Julia Bourke gegründet. Der Bandname symbolisiert laut Thrussel die Marxistische Begrifflichkeit des Niederreißens von Barrieren zwischen Menschen.


Life.

Frear was born October 29, 1863 in Grass Valley, California. His father, Reverend Walter Frear, was born in Poughkeepsie, New York August 16, 1828, graduated from Yale in 1851, came to the Kingdom of Hawaii as a missionary, and then lived in California when he was born. His mother was Frances Elmira Foster. The family returned to Honolulu in 1870, where his father was pastor of the Fort Street Church until 1881. He graduated from Punahou School in 1881, Yale with a B.A. in 1885, and Yale law school in 1890. On August 1, 1893 he married Mary Emma Dillingham, the daughter of industrialist Benjamin Dillingham. They had two daughters: Virginia (1900–?) and Margaret (1908–?).  He was appointed as circuit judge on January 1, 1893 by Queen Liliuokalani. On March 7, 1893 he was promoted to serve on the Supreme Court of the Provisional Government. After the death of Albert Francis Judd, on July 5, 1900 he became Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of what was then the Territory of Hawaii.  Frear was appointed governor after George R. Carter by President Theodore Roosevelt on August 15, 1907. Alfred S. Hartwell replaced him as Chief Justice. He was a member of the Republican Party of Hawaii. After the election of Woodrow Wilson, Frear was replaced by the first governor from the Democratic Party of Hawaii, Lucius Pinkham in November 1913. He died January 22, 1948 in Honolulu, Hawaii.  The Frears founded the Mary D. and Walter F. Frear Eleemosynary Trust to sponsor educational projects. Frear Hall, a dormitory building built in the 1950s on the University of Hawaii at Manoa campus, was named after Governor Frear's wife Mary Dillingham Frear, a member of the University's Board of Regents from 1920–1943. The aging structure was demolished in 2006, to make way for a new dorm facility also called Frear Hall completed in the Summer of 2008.  The Frear Center, located at 1132 Bishop Street, was named after Walter and Mary Frear. It is a classroom building of Hawaii Pacific University, and was designed for information systems and computer science courses. The trust also supported Chaminade University of Honolulu.

Walter Francis Frear (October 29, 1863 – January 22, 1948) was a lawyer and judge in the Kingdom of Hawaii and Republic of Hawaii, and the third Territorial Governor of Hawaii from 1907 to 1913.

Walter Francis Frear (* 29. Oktober 1863 in Grass Valley, Kalifornien; † 22. Januar 1948 in Honolulu, Hawaii) war von 1907 bis 1913 der dritte Territorialgouverneur von Hawaii. Frear war Mitglied der Republikanischen Partei und Oberster Staatsrichter ("Chief Justice") am "Hawaiʻi Supreme Court".


Early life.

Thomas Brunner was born in Oxford, England, in April 1821, and baptised four months later on 22 August. He was the oldest son of William Brunner, an Oxford attorney who was also the county coroner. He was of Swiss descent, his father's parents having emigrated to England at the time of the French Revolution. The Brunner family were active in the Oxford community, Thomas' parents raising him and his siblings to appreciate cultural and charitable activities. In 1836, at the age of fifteen, Brunner was apprenticed to an architect, Thomas Greenshields, to learn architecture and surveying. Over the next five years, he became proficient in both skills.

Service with the New Zealand Company.

In 1841, Brunner's father put his son's name forward to the New Zealand Company, which was seeking prospective emigrants for its proposed settlement in the South Island of New Zealand. The company wanted to populate its new settlement with well educated young men of excellent character and with leadership potential. Furthermore, apprentice surveyors, at the time known as "improvers", were in particular demand and Brunner, aided by character references from his employer and other notable residents of Oxford, was duly selected to join the company. In addition to his work as an improver, he was to assist the settlement's principal surveyor, Frederick Tuckett.  Brunner joined a party of six other young improvers which left England on 27 April 1841 aboard the "Whitby". During the voyage to New Zealand, the improvers received further instruction and were tested by having to prepare draft layouts for the new settlement, Brunner's plan being the best of these. On 18 September, the "Whitby" arrived at Port Nicholson, the New Zealand Company's first settlement. The approximate site for the new settlement had yet to be finalised; initially intended for Banks Peninsula, this location was vetoed by the Governor of New Zealand, William Hobson. Instead, it was to be located at the top of the South Island, at Tasman Bay. Early the following month a convoy of the company's ships, with Brunner aboard one them, crossed the Cook Strait to Tasman Bay. After scouting the area for three weeks, a site adjacent a deep and sheltered natural harbour was identified as being suitable for the settlement.  For the next two years Brunner assisted in the laying out of the settlement, which was to be called Nelson. A drawback with the Nelson settlement was its lack of pasture and the colony began to appropriate more and more of the plains in the nearby Wairau Valley, much to the displeasure of local Māori. Several personnel of the company, including Arthur Wakefield, the senior official of the company in Nelson, were killed in the Wairau Affray in June 1843. The New Zealand Company was forced to look south for more farming land. Brunner was sent to scout the Motueka Valley but failed to penetrate far due to poor weather. From local Māori he heard of a large plain to the south and passed on his findings to Tuckett. In August 1843, Tuckett dispatched Brunner to confirm the reports. Brunner, accompanied by Kehu, a Māori he had befriended, was again defeated by poor weather.  Life in Nelson was hard for the colonists. The company had limited finances and tightened its expenditure which affected the salaries of its employees. In 1844, it had to halt its operations for a time. Although Nelson had 300 landowners, nearly two thirds were absentee owners and only 80 actually lived in the town. Brunner lived at Riwaka, a nearby village, and, in addition to carrying out survey work along the Motueka River, helped in the design and building of houses in the area. He ended his service with the company in August 1844.

Exploring the West Coast.

In February 1846, Brunner and Kehu, accompanied by Charles Heaphy and William Fox, undertook an expedition southwest of Nelson. Fox was the resident agent for the New Zealand Company in Nelson and provided the equipment and provisions for the party in addition to paying a salary to Brunner and Heaphy. Land in Nelson for farming was still scarce but it was hoped that beyond the steep hills to the southwest, good pastoral land would be found. Difficult terrain faced them; high mountain ranges topped with snow and ice, steep bush, numerous rivers and gorges. Food sources included roots and berries; birds could be snared and eels caught from streams. Along the coast, shellfish and gull eggs added to the diet.  The party, each carrying a load of, trekked to Lake Rotoiti and then climbed the high ranges that backed onto the lake. On 11 February, they saw Lake Rotoroa and made their way to its shores and spent two days exploring the area. They gained the Buller River on 18 February and walked its banks as far as the Maruia River. Here, believing themselves to be only 20 miles from the coast, dwindling provisions prevented them proceeding to the mouth of the Buller River. Guided by Kehu, the party traversed the Hope Saddle on their way back to Nelson, which they reached on 1 March.  Brunner was keen for further exploration and Fox persuaded him to scout along the West Coast to the mouth of the Buller River in the hope of finding suitable land for farming. Brunner, Kehu and Heaphy left Nelson on 17 March on what became a five-month expedition tracing the western coast of South Island as far south as what is now known as Hokitika. Their journey began from Golden Bay, and they made their way to West Wanganui where Brunner hired a local Māori, Etau, as a porter for the party. The expedition hit a snag when the local chief barred their journey south but Brunner and Heaphy mollified him with some tobacco. They continued along the coast, climbing sometimes steep cliffs and fording rivers as they went. Their movements would be held up at times due to rain and high tides. At night, they would shelter in small caves augmented with a screen of Nikau palm leaves. They crossed the Karamea River on 20 April and reached the Buller River ten days later. This had to be crossed using an old canoe that was repaired by Kehu and Etau. After safely getting across, they stayed at the local pā (village). In early May, they sighted the Southern Alps. At the Arahura River (a tributary of the Grey River), the southernmost point of the expedition, they were hosted by the local Ngāi Tahu tribe at Taramakau Pā. Poor weather plagued their return trip back along the coast but they reached Nelson on 18 August.

The Great Journey.

On 3 December 1846, Brunner began what became his longest and most arduous expedition. He planned to follow the Buller River to the sea and then trek down the West Coast as far south as Milford Sound. During his previous expedition, he had been told of the existence of a route through the Southern Alps by the Māori at the Arahura River. He hoped to discover this route and use it to cross the Southern Alps and reach Canterbury. He was accompanied once again by Kehu, who brought along his wife. Another Māori, Pitewate, a friend of Kehu's, also joined the venture, accompanied by his wife. Brunner provided clothing and shoes for his companions. The wives proved problematic during the journey as they quarrelled, sometimes supported by their husbands, and Brunner would have to mediate.  Stocked with provisions that included two guns, of tobacco, of flour, salt and pepper, biscuits and tea, the party travelled by mules and canoe for the first two weeks until they reached Buller River. They then followed the path of the river down to the coast. The journey was difficult; the party was constantly bothered by sandflies and rain and they had to ford the river several times. They settled into a routine of trekking for a week then camping for the same period to restock their provisions, living off freshwater fish and cabbage- and fern-tree roots. By May 1847, they were at the final reaches of the Buller but food was becoming so scarce to find, they had to kill Brunner's dog. He noted its flesh was "... something between mutton and pork. It is too richly flavoured to eat by itself." This incident led to him being nicknamed "Kai Kuri" (dog eater).  Brunner was disappointed at the condition of the land along the banks of the Buller River as it neared the coast. He had briefly scouted the area on his previous journey and believed it had potential for pastoral farming. He now found it too damp and mossy to be cultivated. The party reached the mouth of the Buller on 1 June and made their way to the pā that Brunner and Heaphy had stayed at on their last journey but on arrival, found that it had been abandoned. They continued on down to the Arahura River and reached the Taramakau Pā where they stayed for three months over the worst of the winter months. On 12 October, Brunner continued south with some local Māori. He went as far south as Tititira Head, near Paringa where in December he severely sprained his ankle. After recovering, he decided to make his way back to Taramakau Pā. From here he along with his companions, journeyed up the Arahura River and in late January 1848, discovered the coalfield and lake which now bears his name. He wanted to continue on this route to Canterbury but Kehu and Pitewate would have none of it. The party began to make their way back to Nelson.  They travelled north via a tributary of the Arahura River which eventually met the Buller River, which they reached in March. In April, while making his way up the Buller Gorge, Brunner suffered paralysis of his leg. The party had to lay up for a week for Brunner to recover some use of his body. With the aid of Kehu (Pitewate and his wife abandoned the party when Brunner became ill), he was able to reach Nelson in June 1848, thus ending after 550 days what he described as his 'Great Journey'.  In Nelson, many people had thought Brunner dead and he readily recognised that he would not have survived his endeavours without the aid of Kehu, writing: "... I found my native Ekehu of much use - invaluable indeed, but the other three rather an encumbrance - I could have made better progress without them; but to Ekehu I owe my life - he is a faithful and attached servant." As well as further information about the West Coast, Brunner informed the colony that coal was to be found in the Grey River valley. However, he also considered, mistakenly, that "there is nothing on the West Coast worth incurring the expense of exploring."  Reports of Brunner's endeavours on the West Coast soon spread to Wellington and England. He wrote an account of his journey which was first published by Charles Elliott, the editor of the local newspaper the "Nelson Examiner", and later, in 1850, in the "Journal of the Royal Geographical Society". The Royal Geographical Society also awarded him their Patron's Medal and appointed him a Fellow of the Society. His exploits were also recognised in France, the Société de géographie (French Geographic Society) awarding him a diploma in 1852.

Later life.

Brunner's constitution was considerably impaired by his exertions and his health never fully returned. Despite this, after a period of recovery he set out in November 1848 with three companions, including Kehu, to discover a quicker route between Nelson and Wairau. This involved travelling the paths of the Maitai and Wairoa Rivers to their headwaters. The weather was poor throughout the six-week trip and Brunner was in discomfort for much of the ultimately unsuccessful venture, which determined that the existing route to Wairau was the fastest.  Apart from a short period doing contract surveying for the New Zealand Company in March 1849, Brunner remained unemployed and wrote numerous letters to his contacts. His former travelling companion, William Fox, and Dillon Bell, chief agent of the New Zealand Company, also sought to find him a job and through them, he was able to find work as a clerk with the Canterbury Association between September 1849 and February 1850. He returned to Nelson in May 1850 and secured full-time employment as a surveyor with the New Zealand Company, but with the proviso that he would be able to take on private work which did not interfere with his duties. To supplement his income Brunner began to take on architectural commissions.  In 1851, the New Zealand Company was still struggling financially and eventually transferred its land to the New Zealand Government. Brunner's employment with the company ceased and he, after writing a letter soliciting for surveying work, was appointed the Government Surveyor with an annual salary of £100 (2014 approximation £8,000). This was still a low salary for a professional and Brunner was allowed to continue with his architectural commissions, working from an office he had purchased in Nelson. He was kept busy for the next several years; in addition to carrying out and supervising survey work in the area, he took on responsibility for some public works. He drew up plans for roading, bridges and botanical gardens. On 11 October 1855, Brunner married Jane Robson, the 26-year-old daughter of a labourer who had brought his family to New Zealand the previous year. It was a respectable match for Jane as Brunner was considered a particularly eligible bachelor in Nelson, one of around 45 professionals working in the town of about 1600 people. His salary had increased to £300 (£24,000) and he was now Chief Surveyor for the Nelson Province, the local returning officer and the Commissioner of Native Reserves for Nelson. He also owned three properties, including his Nelson office.  Brunner returned to the mouth of the Buller River in March 1861 but this time aboard a ship. Working in much greater comfort than on his last visit to the area in 1848, with other members of his staff he surveyed and laid out sections for what would become the town of Westport. Later that month he did the same for Greymouth. The work was soon completed and the party returned to Nelson in April 1861.  Brunner designed St Michael's Church in Waimea West in 1866, which was probably New Zealand's first memorial church. It commemorates Captain Francis H. Blundell, an early settler who died in 1865 and is buried here. The previous church on the site from 1843 was the first church in the Nelson Province. On 5 April 1984, St Michael's was registered with the New Zealand Historic Places Trust (now Heritage New Zealand) as a Category I structure with registration number 248.

Retirement and death.

Brunner retired in 1869 at the relatively young age of 46. He remained employed by the Nelson Provincial Council as a consultant surveyor and was also head of the Nelson Survey Department. His administration skills were not up to the latter role and many of the surveys produced under his supervision were of poor quality. He also continued to seek private work and contributed to a report on the suitability of the Buller region for settlement and this was published in early 1873. On his retirement in 1869 he had retained his offices of sheriff, returning officer and registration officer but was relieved of these in 1872 in cost-cutting measures by the Nelson Provincial Council. This did not meet with the approval of locals.  In late 1873, Brunner suffered a paralysis of his left side which prevented him from working. By mid-April 1874, he had sufficiently recovered to begin soliciting the provincial government for suitable employment. However, on the morning of 22 April he suffered a stroke and died few hours later. His funeral service was held at Nelson Cathedral and was attended by several hundred people. A large Māori contingent, including his long-time friend Kehu, was also present. Brunner was buried at Wakapuaka Cemetery. He was survived by his wife, who moved to England soon after his death. She lived with her brother until her death in 1895. The couple had no children.

Honorofic eponyms and memorials.

Several geographic features are named for him. Brunner, originally called Brunnerton, is a small settlement on the Grey River inland from Greymouth where he first found coal. It is the site of the former Brunner Mine, best known for New Zealand's worst mine disaster in 1896. Lake Brunner is located some by road from here, upstream along the Arnold River; Brunner went there after his coal discovery. Another feature named for him is the Brunner Range, which is located east of the valley through which the Inangahua River flows. A plaque to his memory lies in the Nelson Cathedral.

Thomas Brunner (April 1821 – 22 April 1874) was an English-born surveyor and explorer remembered for his exploration of the West Coast of New Zealand's South Island.

Thomas Brunner (getauft am 22. August 1821 in Oxford, England; † 22. April 1874 in Nelson, Neuseeland) war ein in England geborener Landvermesser und Entdecker, dessen Vorfahren während der Französischen Revolution aus der Schweiz nach England auswanderten und der vor allem die Westküsten-Region auf der Südinsel Neuseelands erforschte. Nach ihm ist der Lake Brunner benannt.


Orbit and classification.

"Ankara" orbits the Sun in the middle of the main-belt at a distance of 2.3–3.1 AU once every 4 years and 5 months (1,618 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.15 and an inclination of 6° with respect to the ecliptic. It was first observed as at Uccle Observatory in 1933, extending the body's observation arc by 4 years prior to its official discovery observation at Heidelberg.

Physical characteristics.

Rotation period.

A rotational lightcurve of "Ankara" was obtained from photometric observations by French amateur astronomer René Roy in September 2004. Lightcurve analysis gave a rotation period of 31.8 hours with a brightness variation of 0.21 magnitude (). While not being a slow rotator, "Ankara"s spin rate is slower than that of most asteroids, which typically rotate within 20 hours once around their axis.

Diameter and albedo.

According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite, and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, "Ankara" measures between 17.834 and 19.82 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.258 and 0.320.  The "Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link" (CALL) assumes a lower albedo of 0.10 – a compromise value that lies between the albedos for stony (0.20) and carbonaceous (0.057) asteroids, chosen by CALL for all non-family asteroids with a semi-major axis between 2.6 and 2.7 AU – and consequently calculates a larger diameter of 29.08 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 10.8, as a body's diameter and albedo are inversely related to each other.

Naming.

This minor planet was named after the Turkish capital Ankara. The official naming citation was proposed by Wolfgang Gleißberg, a German Solar astronomer, who immigrated to Turkey, after he was dismissed at the Breslau Observatory in Nazi Germany in 1933, because he had a Jewish grandfather. The citation was first mentioned in "The Names of the Minor Planets" by Paul Herget in 1955 ().

1457 Ankara, provisional designation, is a stony asteroid from the central region of the asteroid belt, approximately 18 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 3 August 1937, by German astronomer Karl Reinmuth at Heidelberg Observatory in southwest Germany, and later named for the Turkish capital city of Ankara.

(1457) Ankara ist ein Asteroid des Hauptgürtels, der am 3. August 1937 vom deutschen Astronomen Karl Wilhelm Reinmuth in Heidelberg entdeckt wurde.


Early life.

Robert Peck was born into a working-class family in Leeds, West Riding of Yorkshire on 23 August 1945. He was educated at Leeds Modern School in Lawnswood, and Leeds College of Art where he received a Diploma in Art and Design.

Career.

Stage career.

Before breaking into film and television work, Peck was a regular actor with the Royal Shakespeare Company alongside Ian McKellen, Donald Sinden and Judi Dench. Between 1979–80 he played Iago alongside Donald Sinden in "Othello", in both Stratford and London. He made a memorable appearance on stage in the Royal Shakespeare Company production of "The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby", originally by Charles Dickens, playing two characters: the boisterous Yorkshireman John Browdie and the predatory Sir Mulberry Hawk, and repeated these roles on Broadway and when the production was filmed for television in 1981. He played the character of Macduff in Trevor Nunn's acclaimed 1976 stage and television versions of William Shakespeare's "Macbeth", and re-appeared in another production of Macbeth in 1982. According to Peck's fellow Royal Shakespeare Theatre performer and veteran actor Sir Ian McKellen, Peck is the actor he considers he "learned the most from".

"Edge of Darkness".

Peck's television career began in the 1970s, with his first television roles being in the BBC's "Thirty-Minute Theatre" anthology series in 1972, in which he appeared in the episode "Bypass". He also appeared in various other successful television productions such as "Z-Cars" and "Play for Today". He also appeared in the films "Royal Flash" and "Parker".  In 1985 television writer Troy Kennedy Martin - who had previously written the screenplay for the film "The Italian Job" and created the popular police procedural television series "Z-Cars" (in which Peck had appeared during the 1970s) - cast Peck in the starring role of policeman Ronald Craven in his television miniseries "Edge of Darkness". This crime drama/political thriller follows Peck's character as he attempts to unravel the truth behind the brutal murder of his daughter, portrayed in the series by Joanne Whalley. Another of Peck's co-stars in the series was US actor Joe Don Baker, along with fellow UK actors Charles Kay and Ian McNeice.  The series was broadcast on BBC Two in six episodes from 4 November to 9 December 1985. During its run the show attracted four million viewers and spiralled Peck to fame, winning him a British Academy Television Award for Best Actor at the British Academy of Film and Television Arts Awards. After the series ended, Peck had become a figure of popularity and a national favourite.

Film success.

After gaining popularity for his starring role in "Edge of Darkness", Peck began appearing in films. After a few theatre appearances, Peck made his first appearance as a main character in a film again playing a policeman, John Graham, based in Kenya 1950, who takes under his wing the son of a murdered black priest in the 1987 film "The Kitchen Toto". He also appeared in the 1987 film "On the Black Hill", adapted from the 1982 novel of the same name by Bruce Chatwin. The role which really launched his career as a film actor was his portrayal of the android Byron, in the post-apocalyptic science-fiction adventure film "Slipstream" (1989), in which he appeared alongside Mark Hamill, Bill Paxton, F. Murray Abraham, Ben Kingsley and Robbie Coltrane. During the late-1980s, he also appeared in television shows including "The Storyteller", "The Jim Henson Hour" and "Screen One".  Peck also voiced all the male characters in the children's live action TV series combined with stop motion animation, "Forget Me Not Farm" on the BBC in 1990.  Peck's image and popularity increased with appearances in films including the 1990 film "Lord of the Flies" as the (unnamed) marine officer. He also appeared in "Screen Two", "Screenplay" and "A TV Dante", as well as in the television films, "The Black Velvet Gown" and "An Ungentlemanly Act". In 1993, Peck made his biggest film appearance, when he was cast as park gamekeeper Robert Muldoon in the blockbuster smash hit "Jurassic Park".  After appearing in "Jurassic Park", Peck appeared in the television show "The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles" (1993) playing General Targo in one episode. He also played Italian Romantic composer Giuseppe Verdi in a television film documenting the life of the composer.

Later years.

In the later years of his life and career, Peck appeared in more films, portraying the roles of Captain Sebastian Belger in "Merisairas", Françoise's father in "Surviving Picasso", Ravn in "Smilla's Sense of Snow", Harry Briggs in "" and Denton (based on Lancelot Dent) in the film "The Opium War" (Chinese: 鸦片战争; pinyin: "yapian zhanzheng"). He also appeared in the direct-to-TV film "The Scold's Bridle" (1998).  In 2000, a year after Peck's death from cancer, the stop-motion animated film "The Miracle Maker", was released, in which Peck voiced the character of Joseph of Arimathea. The film was dedicated to Peck's memory.

Awards.

Peck won a British Academy Television Award for Best Actor at the British Academy of Film and Television Arts in 1986 for his portrayal of maverick policeman Ronald Craven in the television miniseries "Edge of Darkness".

Personal life.

Peck and actress Jill Baker were married for 17 years, from 1982 until his death, in 1999. They had three children: Hannah (born 1983), George (born 1986) and Milly (born 1990).

Death.

In November 1994, Peck was diagnosed with an undisclosed type of cancer. Peck was said to be undergoing chemotherapy and radiotherapy and his agent claimed that he was making a recovery. Nevertheless, Peck died at his home in London on 4 April 1999, at the age of 53. Peck's funeral took place in London, and his close friend and "Edge of Darkness" co-star Ian McNeice read a eulogy at the service. He was cremated in London and his ashes were given to his family.

Robert Peck (23 August 1945 – 4 April 1999) was an English stage, television and film actor best known for his roles as Ronald Craven in the television serial "Edge of Darkness", for which he won the BAFTA TV Award for Best Actor, and as gamekeeper Robert Muldoon in the film "Jurassic Park".

Bob Peck (* 23. August 1945 in Leeds, England; † 4. April 1999 in London, England) war ein britischer Schauspieler. Bekanntheit erlangte er durch die Rolle des "Ronald Craven" in der Fernsehserie "Am Rande der Finsternis" und als Wildhüter "Robert Muldoon" in "Jurassic Park".


Design and description.

Construction of a seaplane carrier was authorized by the Japanese government in its "eight-six" fleet program of 1918. A planned sister ship, named "Shokaku", was cancelled in 1922 before any construction started. "Hōshō" was the second warship, after the British, to be built from the keel up as an aircraft carrier, but was launched and completed earlier than "Hermes".  "Hōshō" was initially designed as a seaplane carrier like the British with a forward flying-off deck, 32 aircraft, four low-angle guns, and four anti-aircraft (AA) guns. The plan was revised after reports were received from Japanese observers with the Royal Navy in Europe about the desirability to be able to land aircraft on the ship. The new requirements were modeled on after she received her rear flight deck in 1918. The ship was to be capable of and fitted with a forward flight deck, superstructure and funnels amidships, and a large hangar aft. Shortly thereafter based on observations of landing trials on "Furious" and, the world's first flush-decked aircraft carrier, "Hōshō"s flight deck design was revised in April 1919. The superstructure was removed and the funnels were moved to one side to create an unobstructed, full-length flight deck, and the ship was reclassified as an aircraft carrier. The ship's hull was based on that of a large cruiser and she was given a small island. Her three funnels were mounted on the starboard side and swiveled to lie horizontal during flight operations. "Hōshō"s designed speed was reduced to, based on British experiences during World War I.

General characteristics.

"Hōshō" was completed with an overall length of. She had a beam of and a mean draft of. The ship displaced at standard load, and at normal load. Her crew totaled 512 officers and men. The ship was almost completely unarmored.

Propulsion.

"Hōshō" had two Parsons geared turbine sets with a total of driving two propeller shafts. Eight Kampon Type B water-tube boilers with a working pressure of and a temperature of provided steam to the turbines, although only four were oil-fired. The other four used a mix of oil and coal. The ship's designed speed was 25 knots, but she made from on her sea trials on 30 November 1922. She carried of fuel oil and of coal, an extraordinary total for such a small ship, to give her a range of at.  To reduce rolling and increase stability for aircraft operations, a gyrostabilizer produced by the American Sperry Gyroscope Company was installed. The installation initially proved unreliable as the Japanese technicians were badly trained by Sperry, but eventually the system proved its worth as the technicians gained experience.

Flight deck arrangements.

"Hōshō"s flight deck was long and wide. The forward end sloped down at an angle of −5° to help aircraft accelerate during takeoff. A small island was mounted well forward on the starboard side and contained the ship's bridge and air operations control center. The island was fitted with a small tripod mast intended to mount the ship's fire-control system. Fifteen different types of landing equipment were evaluated before the British longitudinal wire system was adopted. Low landing speeds of the time meant that aircraft had little difficulty in stopping, but their light weight made them vulnerable to wind gusts that could blow them over the side of the carrier, and the longitudinal wires helped to prevent that. Forward of the island was a collapsible crane for loading aircraft into the forward hangar.  The flight deck, unlike those on Royal Navy carriers, was superimposed on the ship's hull rather than constructed as a strength deck supporting the carrier's hull structure. A system of lights and mirrors along the flight deck assisted pilots in landing on the carrier.  "Hōshō" was the only Japanese aircraft carrier with two hangars. The forward hangar was and only one deck in height as it was intended to house nine small aircraft, such as fighters. The two-story rear hangar measured at the forward end and at the rear end. It was designed to house six large aircraft, such as torpedo bombers, as well as six reserve aircraft. Each hangar was served by an aircraft elevator. The forward elevator was and the aft elevator measured.

Air group.

"Hōshō" had a normal capacity of fifteen aircraft, subject to the limitations of her hangars. She was first commissioned with an air group of nine Mitsubishi 1MF (Type 10) fighters and three to six Mitsubishi B1M3 (Type 13) torpedo bombers. In 1928, the fighters were replaced by the A1N1 (Type 3). Three years later the air group consisted of Nakajima A2N (Type 90) fighters and Mitsubishi B2M (Type 89) torpedo bombers. In 1938 Nakajima A4N (Type 95) fighters and Yokosuka B3Y (Type 92) bombers flew from the ship. In 1940 the air group was modernized with Mitsubishi A5M (Type 96) "Claude" fighters and Yokosuka B4Y1 (Type 96) "Jean" bombers.

Armament.

"Hōshō" was armed with four 50-caliber 14 cm/50 3rd Year Type guns, two on each side. The two forward guns had a firing arc of 150°, including straight ahead, while the rear guns could fire 120° on either side. They fired projectiles at a rate of six to ten rounds per minute with a muzzle velocity of about ; at 35°, they had a maximum range of. A heavy gun armament was provided for "Hōshō"; as carrier doctrine was just evolving at this time, the impracticability of carriers engaging in gun duels had not yet been realized. Her large flight deck and lack of armor made her a vulnerable target in surface battles.  A pair of 40-caliber 8 cm/40 3rd Year Type guns on disappearing mounts provided "Hōshō"s only anti-aircraft defense. They were positioned on the flight deck, just forward of the rear elevator. These guns fired projectiles at a muzzle velocity of about ; at 45°, this provided a maximum range of, and they had a maximum ceiling of at 75° elevation. Their effective rate of fire was 13 to 20 rounds per minute.

Service.

Early career.

"Hōshō"'s keel was laid down by the Asano Shipbuilding Company in Tsurumi-ku, Yokohama, on 16 December 1920. She was launched on 13 November 1921 and towed to Yokosuka Naval Arsenal for completion on 10 January 1922. "Hōshō" was delayed by repeated design changes and late deliveries of equipment, pushing the commissioning date from March to 27 December 1922. She was commissioned lacking much of her aviation equipment, and did not begin landing trials until 22 February 1923.  The first landings were made by British pilots under contract, who were quickly replaced by Japanese pilots trained by the British Aviation Mission. After "Hōshō" was commissioned, experienced aircrews requested changes, and the ship was modified by the Yokosuka Navy Arsenal from 6 June to 20 August 1924. The island, tripod mast, and aircraft crane were removed since they partially obstructed the flight deck and obscured pilot visibility. The forward part of the flight deck was made horizontal, and the 8 cm AA guns were moved forward, close to the position of the former island and out of the way of landing operations. After the island was removed, the carrier's flight operations were controlled from a platform extending from the side of the flight deck, a design that would be repeated in subsequent Japanese aircraft carriers. The ship was then assigned to the 1st Fleet until 15 November 1924.  "Hōshō" was fitted with a net used as a crash barrier aft of the forward elevator between 10 March and 2 July 1925. The barrier was intended to prevent landing aircraft from colliding with aircraft preparing to take off, and stop them from falling into the open elevator well. The barrier was hydraulically operated and could be erected in three seconds.  As the first of her kind, "Hōshō" provided valuable experience and insight into carrier air operations for the IJN. The ship was used for testing aircraft and equipment, particularly various types of arresting gear and optical landing aids. The lessons learned influenced the design and construction of and the subsequent conversions of and into aircraft carriers. "Hōshō" was actively used to develop carrier operational methods and tactics for the IJN during the 1920s. She was assigned to the First Carrier Division with "Akagi" on 1 April 1928. During the 1930s "Hōshō" was fitted with three different types of transverse arresting gear for trials.

Shanghai.

Along with "Kaga", "Hōshō" was assigned to the First Carrier Division and sent to China during the Shanghai Incident that began in January 1932. Operating with the Third Fleet, "Hōshō" arrived at the mouth of the Yangtze River on 1 February. Her aircraft participated in the IJN's first aerial combat on 5 February when three fighters, escorting two attack aircraft, were engaged by nine Chinese fighters; one Chinese fighter was damaged. Two days later, the two carriers sent some of their aircraft to Kunda Airfield where they flew ground attack missions in support of the Imperial Japanese Army. Between 23 and 26 February, "Kaga" and "Hōshō" bombers attacked Chinese airfields at Hangzhou and Suzhou, destroying a number of Chinese aircraft on the ground. On 26 February, six fighters from "Hōshō", escorting nine attack aircraft from "Kaga" on one of the bombing raids, shot down two of five Chinese fighters that engaged them. The First Carrier Division rejoined the Combined Fleet on 20 March, after a ceasefire had been declared on 3 March.

Fourth Fleet incident.

"Hōshō" participated in the Combined Fleet Maneuvers of 1935 where she was attached to the IJN Fourth Fleet. The fleet was caught out in a typhoon on 23 September. The carrier and a number of other Japanese ships were badly damaged in what was referred to as the "Fourth Fleet incident." The ship's forward flight deck collapsed and part had to be cut away before the carrier could proceed to Yokosuka for repairs. The Fourth Fleet incident and the Tomozuru Incident of 1934, in which a top-heavy torpedo boat capsized in heavy weather, caused the Japanese command to investigate the stability of all their ships, resulting in a number of design changes to improve stability and increase hull strength.  While the "Hōshō" was at the dockyard between 22 November 1935 and 31 March 1936, her stability was improved; the forward flight deck's supports were reinforced and increased in number; the ship's AA guns, aircraft crane and upper deck aviation fuel tanks were removed; the funnels were fixed in the horizontal position with their mouths angled slightly downwards; the front sides of "Hōshō"s forward hangar and bridge were reinforced; and the ship's hull was reinforced in the vicinity of her rear hangar to increase her longitudinal strength. At full load, her metacentric height after these changes was. Six twin 13.2 mm Type 93 Hotchkiss machine guns were also fitted.

Sino-Japanese War.

During the Sino-Japanese War, "Hōshō" returned to the Third Fleet and supported land operations of the army in China around August or October 1937 with "Ryūjō", later joined by "Kaga". "Hōshō's" air unit began flying ground support missions in the Shanghai area on 16 July. Three of the ship's Nakajima A2N fighters engaged two Martin B-10 heavy bombers on 25 July, shooting down one of them.  The ship departed on 1 September to refuel, but did not return to the Shanghai area. Accompanied by "Ryūjō", she sailed to the South China coast and began operations against Chinese forces near Canton on 21 September. On that day, "Hōshō" contributed six fighters to escort bombers attacking airfields at Tienho and Paiyun. They claimed six enemy aircraft shot down, but the range proved to be too long. Five of the fighters ran out of fuel and had to ditch in the sea, although the aircrews were rescued. "Hōshō" and "Ryūjō" bombers continued with almost daily attack missions until the end of September. "Hōshō" and "Ryūjō" returned to the Shanghai area on 3 October and "Hōshō's" aircraft were temporarily transferred to Kunda airfield to support ground operations. On 17 October, "Hōshō" transferred all of her aircraft to "Ryūjō" and returned to Japan.  "Hōshō" was placed in on 1 December 1937. Her aircraft elevators were enlarged in 1939: the forward elevator to and the rear elevator to. On 12 August 1939 "Hōshō" was deemed useful as a training carrier and, in critical battles, as a platform for A4N1 (Type 95) fighters and B4Y1 (Type 96) torpedo bombers, for as long as those planes remained serviceable. A later investigation determined on 23 December 1940 that she could not operate the latest aircraft types like the Mitsubishi A6M Zero, the Aichi D3A "Val", or the Nakajima B5N "Kate" in combat. Also, the small size of the carrier's airgroup limited the ship's potential value to the fleet in any future conflicts.

World War II.

Pearl Harbor and Midway.

"Hōshō" began the Pacific War in the Third Carrier Division assigned to the 1st Fleet under Vice Admiral Shirō Takasu. The carrier, captained by Kaoru Umetani, was tasked along with to provide air support, including scouting, anti-submarine patrols, and combat air patrol for the Combined Fleet's "Main Body" battle-line of six battleships:,,,,, and. With the Main Body, "Hōshō" sortied from the Inland Sea on 7 December 1941 to provide distant cover for the carrier forces under Chūichi Nagumo which were attacking Pearl Harbor. The battleship force turned back east of Japan, but "Hōshō" became separated on 10 December due to radio silence restrictions while conducting anti-submarine air operations. The carrier was located by scout aircraft the next day east of the Main Body and returned to port at Kure on 12 December. On 29 May 1942, "Hōshō" sortied from Japan with the rest of the fleet for the operation which resulted in the Battle of Midway, providing modest air protection, scouting, and anti-submarine support for the Main Body, now consisting of the battleships, "Nagato", and "Mutsu". Her aircraft complement for the operation consisted of eight obsolete Yokosuka B4Y carrier attack aircraft (torpedo bombers).  With the Main Body trailing behind the carrier striking force, "Hōshō" missed the major portion of the battle in which Nagumo's four fleet carriers were ambushed and fatally damaged by US carrier aircraft on 4 June. The next day, "Hōshō" aircraft helped guide the remnants of Nagumo's force to a rendezvous with the Main Body. Around the same time, one of "Hōshō"s aircraft, crewed by pilot Shigeo Nakamura and observer Kiyoshi Ōniwa, discovered the burning, sinking. Photographs of the abandoned carrier taken by Ōniwa have been described as "among the most dramatic of the war in the Pacific". With the battle lost, a significant strategic defeat for Japan, the carrier returned to Japan with the rest of the fleet, arriving at the Hashirajima anchorage on 14 June.

Training ship.

After her return to Japan, "Hōshō" was transferred to the Third Fleet, unofficially assigned to the training fleet (later called the Mobile Force Training Force), and officially assigned in October. She conducted flight training in the Inland Sea for aircraft that flew in from shore bases, since no aircraft were based on board "Hōshō". On 15 January 1943, the 50th Air Flotilla was created for carrier aircrew training and both "Hōshō" and "Ryūhō" were assigned to the new unit. The two ships provided carrier landing training and served as target ships for torpedo training. In January 1944, "Hōshō" was reassigned to the 12th Air Fleet, then to the Combined Fleet, but continued to perform the same mission of training fleet carrier pilots in the Inland Sea. In this role, "Hōshō" shuttled back and forth between Kure and the Western Inland Sea, spending equal amounts of time at each location. In order to service new and larger aircraft like the Nakajima B6N "Jill" torpedo bomber and the Yokosuka D4Y "Judy" dive bomber, the flight deck was extended over at each end to a total length of from 27 March to 26 April 1944. "Hōshō" also received new arresting gear and a new crash barrier. The additional weight high up in the ship adversely affected her stability and she was restricted from operations in bad weather lest she capsize. At some point during the war the ship's 14 cm guns were removed and she received about twenty 25-millimeter Type 96 autocannons in single mounts. They fired projectiles at a muzzle velocity of ; at 50°, this provided a maximum range of, and an effective ceiling of. The 15-round magazines needed to be changed frequently, and the maximum effective rate of fire was only between 110 and 120 rounds per minute.  After the modifications, "Hōshō" continued to provide training to navy pilots in the Inland Sea, including acting as a target ship for torpedo training. At 05:30 on 19 March 1945, possibly while berthed at Kure, the carrier was caught in an air raid by carrier aircraft from the United States Task Force 58. "Hōshō"s flight deck was damaged by three bomb hits which killed six crewmen. Emergency repairs were made and her captain was ordered to keep her in readiness on 10 April. However, this order was revoked two days later and the carrier became a "4th reserve ship" with most of her crew transferred elsewhere. "Hōshō" was taken out of reserve as a "special guard ship" on 1 June and many of her crew were transferred back. During this time, the ship remained moored and camouflaged off Nishinomishima at Kure.  "Hōshō" was slightly damaged by a single bomb or aerial rocket hit when the Allies attacked Kure again in July 1945. Information is scarce on the extent of the ship's involvement in the action, but it appears the carrier's participation was minimal, as it embarked no aircraft at the time. "Hōshō" was repaired within 15 days, but the termination of hostilities in September 1945 found the carrier still docked at Kure.

Post-war.

After the war, "Hōshō" served as a repatriation transport to retrieve Japanese servicemen and civilians stationed overseas and return them to Japan. In October and November 1945, accompanied by the cruiser "Kashima", she carried 700 passengers from Wotje Atoll, 311 from Jaluit Atoll, and an undocumented number from Enewetak Atoll to Uraga, Kanagawa.  In December 1945, "Hōshō"s overhanging flight deck at the bow was cut off and her hangars were modified to carry more passengers. Thereafter, she undertook more repatriation missions beginning with one to Wewak on 5 January 1946 and subsequent trips to China. In total, the carrier made nine repatriation trips before 15 August 1946 and transported about 40,000 passengers.  "Hōshō" was transferred to the Ministry of the Interior on 31 August for disposal. She was scrapped in Osaka from 2 September 1946 to 1 May 1947 by the Kyōwa Shipbuilding Company.

"Hōshō" and her aircraft group participated in the Shanghai Incident in 1932 and in the opening stages of the Sino-Japanese War in late 1937. During those two conflicts, the carrier's aircraft supported Imperial Japanese Army ground operations and engaged in aerial combat with aircraft of the Nationalist Chinese Air Force. The small size of the ship and her assigned airgroups (usually around 15 aircraft) limited the effectiveness of her contributions to combat operations. As a result, the carrier was placed in after her return to Japan from China and she became a training carrier in 1939.

Die Hōshō (jap., dt. „Fliegender Phoenix“) war der erste Flugzeugträger der Kaiserlich Japanischen Marine und auch der erste bereits im Konzept geplante Flugzeugträger weltweit.


Coat of arms.

Salouf's coat of arms depicts a shield with a black background, in the middle a white fleur-de-lys. In each corner and at the bottom is one six pointed silver star. The design is from the shield of Benedict Fontana (a hero of Graubünden) who lived in Salouf.

History.

Salouf is first mentioned in 1160 as "Salugo".

Geography.

Salouf had an area,, of. Of this area, 42.5% is used for agricultural purposes, while 28.2% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 1.2% is settled (buildings or roads) and the remainder (28.1%) is non-productive (rivers, glaciers or mountains).  The former municipality is located the Surses sub-district of the Albula district. The village lies on a ledge on the east side of Piz Toissa (). It consists of the village of Salouf and the hamlets of Mulegn und Del. Until 1943 Salouf was known as Salux.

Demographics.

Salouf had a population (as of 2014) of 216., about 1.9% of the population was made up of foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years the population has decreased at a rate of -3.2%. , the gender distribution of the population was 48.8% male and 51.2% female. The age distribution,, in Salouf is; 7 people or 19.4% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old. 2 people or 5.6% are 10 to 14, and 2 people or 5.6% are 15 to 19. Of the adult population, no one is between 20 and 29 years old. 6 people or 16.7% are 30 to 39, 6 people or 16.7% are 40 to 49, and 3 people or 8.3% are 50 to 59. The senior population distribution is 3 people or 8.3% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 5 people or 13.9% are 70 to 79, there is 1 person or 2.8% who is 80 to 89, and 1 person or 2.8% who is 90 to 99.  In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the CVP which received 40.8% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the SVP (25.6%), the SPS (16.4%) and the FDP (14.6%).  In Salouf about 69.5% of the population (between age 25-64) have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education (either university or a "Fachhochschule").  Salouf has an unemployment rate of 0.57%., there were 39 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 15 businesses involved in this sector. 40 people are employed in the secondary sector and there are 5 businesses in this sector. 32 people are employed in the tertiary sector, with 7 businesses in this sector.  The historical population is given in the following table:

Languages.

The main language of the local people is the Surmiran dialect of Romansh. Its use has declined in recent decades, though to a lesser degree than in neighbouring communities. In 1880 it was 99.1% and 88.54% in 1980., most of the population still speaks Rhaeto-Romance (77.6%), with German being second most common (19.5%) and Portuguese being third ( 1.5%).

Heritage sites of national significance.

The "Tgesa Fontana" or Hotel Fontana is listed as a Swiss heritage sites of national significance.

Salouf (until 1943 officially called Salux) is a village and former municipality in the Sursés in the district of Albula in the canton of Graubünden in Switzerland. On 1 January 2016 the former municipalities of Bivio, Cunter, Marmorera, Mulegns, Riom-Parsonz, Salouf, Savognin, Sur and Tinizong-Rona merged to form the new municipality of Surses.

Salouf ( und bis 1943 offiziell "Salux", lokal aufgrund der Diphthongverhärtung als [] ausgesprochen) war bis zum 31. Dezember 2015 eine politische Gemeinde im Kreis Surses im Bezirk Albula des Kantons Graubünden in der Schweiz. Am 1. Januar 2016 fusionierte Salouf mit den Gemeinden Bivio, Cunter, Marmorera, Mulegns, Riom-Parsonz, Savognin, Sur und Tinizong-Rona zur neuen Gemeinde Surses.


Taxonomy.

Until 2015, the species "Fringilla teydea" was classified into two subspecies: "Fringilla teydea polatzeki" from Gran Canaria and "Fringilla teydea teydea" from Tenerife. However, a study published in March 2016 showed that a classification as different species, "Fringilla polatzeki" and "Fringilla teydea", is justified.

Description.

Tenerife blue chaffinches resemble common chaffinches, but they are noticeably larger, and have a thicker bill. They are characteristically more uniform in their plumage, and they lack a dark cap. Females are a dull grey-brown, but can be distinguished from chaffinches by their weaker wing bars. Breeding males are unmistakable, with the namesake largely blue plumage and a grey bill.

Distribution.

This bird is found only in the highlands of Tenerife.  The species' primary habitat is mountain Canary Island pine ("Pinus canariensis") forest. It is most common in coniferous forest areas with dense undergrowth, but it is also found in laurel and pine woodland, tree-heath, and scrub. It prefers habitat at around, but it will descend in bad weather.

Behaviour.

The Tenerife blue chaffinch's song is shorter and weaker than that of the common chaffinch, and the flight call is croakier. It primarily eats Canary Island pine seeds. Like the common chaffinch, but, unlike most other finches, its young are fed extensively on insects. Breeding from the end of April to late July or early August, it builds a nest from pine needles and broom branches, and lays two eggs. This bird is not migratory. Individuals may form small flocks outside the breeding season, sometimes associating with common chaffinches and other finches.

The Tenerife blue chaffinch ("Fringilla teydea") is a species of passerine bird in the finch family Fringillidae. It is endemic to Tenerife in Spain's Canary Islands. This bird is the natural symbol of this island, together with the Canary Islands dragon tree.

Juan Hipólito del Sagrado Corazón de Jesús Yrigoyen Alem (* 12. Juli 1852 in Buenos Aires; † 3. Juli 1933 ebenda) war ein argentinischer Politiker. Er war zweimal Staatspräsident Argentiniens. Als Mitglied der Radikalen Partei (Unión Cívica Radical) wurde er 1916 zum Staatspräsidenten gewählt. Seine erste Präsidentschaft endete 1922. Im Jahre 1928 wurde er erneut zum Präsidenten gewählt und 1930 durch einen Militärputsch gestürzt.