History.

The history of the seven-string guitar stretches back more than 230 years. During the Renaissance period (c. 1400–1600 CE), the European guitar generally had four courses, each strung with two gut strings, and the pair of strings within each course tuned in unison. By the mid-Baroque period (c. 1600–1750), it more commonly had five courses (still double-strung) and used a variety of tunings, some of them re-entrant. By the early eighteenth century, six double-strung courses had become common.  Up to this point, most stringed instruments were strung with gut strings. At around 1800, quality metal-wire strings became widely available. These new strings were more durable, remained in tune better and, most importantly, produced a "louder" sound than the traditional gut strings. As use of metal strings became more widely adopted, their greater volume output impelled luthiers to experiment more with single-strung courses on their instruments and, in a relatively short time, the modern practice of using six single strings became first common, and then standard. The changing number of courses in these early guitars may also illustrate an ongoing desire on behalf of players to increase the range of the instrument, a development similar to that gone through by the lute in earlier days. It is likely that all of these factors contributed to the development of the seven-string guitar, which has been around ever since. The seven-string guitar never became as widely accepted in Europe as the six-string instrument, but a number of composers did produce a significant body of work for the seven string. French guitarist Napoleon Coste (1805–1883) composed works with a seven-string guitar specifically in mind. The Italian guitarist Mario Maccaferri (1899–1993) was a celebrated advocate of bass strings (diapasons or bourdons) and also composed for the instrument. By contrast, in Russia the seven-string guitar became widely popular, and entire schools of playing were developed around its use. Despite some brief setbacks in the mid-20th century, during which six-string instruments rose in prominence, the seven-string Russian guitar has remained popular in Russia to this day. In the New World, a or —with fourteen strings, strung in seven double courses—has been known in Mexico since at least 1776 (Antonio Vargas). These instruments may still be found in use in Mexico, although the modern six-string instrument has become far more common. Seven-string instruments retain current popularity in parts of South America, notably Brazil, where they became an important instrument in the "choro" music of the 19th century, which is currently (2015) experiencing a revival.

Acoustic designs.

Russian.

The Russian guitar or gypsy guitar is a seven-string acoustic guitar tuned to the open G tuning (DGBDGBD), which arrived or was developed early in the 19th century in Russia, possibly as a development of the cittern, the kobza and the torban. It is known in Russia as the semistrunnaya gitara ("семиструнная гитара") or affectionately as the semistrunka ("семиструнка").  Its invention was popularized by Andrei Sychra, who also wrote a method for the guitar, as well as over one thousand compositions, seventy-five of which were republished in the 1840s by Stellovsky, and then again in the 1880s by Gutheil. Some of these were published again in the Soviet Union in 1926. Andrei Sychra in his notation, marks with a number between 1 and 4 where to fret the 7th string with the thumb. Another way that Andrei Sychra took advantage of this guitar's innovation was through natural harmonics. Because of the three strings tuned to D, harmonics could be played in synchronization.  Early instruments used gut, and later silk strings; rarely wire. In the 20th century these instruments commonly used nylon strings, like western classical guitars, though by the last third of the century both nylon-strung "classical" and metal-strung "gypsy" versions of the instrument were both plentiful. Whatever material was used for stringing, the Russian guitar is traditionally played without a pick, using fingers for either strumming or picking. The origins of the 7 string most likely came from the English "guittar" popular in the late 18th century. The added string created an extra dimension for bass notes as well as opening up chord possibilities. The seventh string is also likely to have been influenced by the harp as it is meant to played arpeggiated. It also happens that the open D tuning was a perfect fourth lower than the six string tuning. The open D string tuning of this guitar was convenient for many Russian folk songs and dances that were typically within the major key. Along with the added interval possibilities came new techniques not previously seen with 6th string guitars.  The Russian version of the seven-string guitar has been used by professionals, because of its great flexibility and its sound, but has also been popular with amateurs for accompaniment (especially Russian bards) due to the relative simplicity of some basic chords and the ease of playing alternating bass lines. While greatly popular in Russia and Ukraine, this type of guitar has only recently been generating some interest outside of its traditional homeland.  The earliest music published for a seven-string guitar was in St. Petersburg, Russia, on 15 December 1798. The school was owned by Ignác František Held (1766, Třebechovice pod Orebem, Bohemia – 1816, Brest-Litovsk, Russia).  Standard tuning for the Russian guitar is: D2 G2 B2 D3 G3 B3 D4 with a very common "classical" variant being C2 G2 B2 D3 G3 B3 D4  Other tunings include:

Brazilian.

The Brazilian seven-string guitar () is an acoustic guitar used primarily in choro and samba. It was introduced to Brazil in the late 19th century as a steel string guitar. The style of "baixaria" counterpoint and accompaniment technique was developed throughout the 20th century, especially by Dino 7 Cordas and Raphael Rabello. In the early 1980s, guitarist Luiz Otavio Braga had a nylon string version made, and this has become the norm for most contemporary choro musicians such as Yamandu Costa.  The Brazilian seven-string guitar is typically tuned like a classical guitar, but with an additional C below the low E as follows: C2 E2 A2 D3 G3 B3 E4; although some musicians tune the C down to a B resulting in: B1 E2 A2 D3 G3 B3 E4.

Classical.

Seven-string guitarists are utilized in playing traditional and contemporary "classical" repertoire. These instruments are essentially nylon-strung classical guitars with one extra (usually) bass string, and the tuning is most commonly: B1 E2 A2 D3 G3 B3 E4. Aficionados of the instrument have produced many new arrangements traditionally six-string classical guitar pieces, and the seventh string may be retuned—to C or D, for example—to accommodate these arrangements. The use of this instrument in the classical world, along with other extended range instruments having 8, 9, 10, 11, or more strings, has become common enough that several noted string manufacturers now produce and marked string sets specifically for seven-string classical guitars (La Bella; Pyramid; d'Aquisto; etc.) For example, Napoleon Coste arranged one of Franz Schubert's pieces with vocal accompaniment despite guitars being typically for solo performance at the time.

Mexican ().

There is a guitar of seven courses with double string guitar, totaling 14 strings, known as. The instrument is still played in Mexico, though it has become uncommon.

Electric designs.

Semi-hollow and hollow body electric guitars.

In the United States, the jazz guitarist George Van Eps had a seven-string guitar built for him by Epiphone Guitars in the late 1930s and a signature Gretsch seven-string in the late 60s and early 70s. The Van Eps signature guitar may be the first regular-production seven-string electric guitar. Van Eps tuned his 7th string to A.  Several others began using seven-string guitars after Van Eps, including Bucky Pizzarelli, Howard Alden, Ron Eschete, Chance Russell, and John Pizzarelli, son of Bucky Pizzarelli. Lenny Breau also used seven string instruments, but whereas the other players all used instruments with an added bass string, Breau had at least one instrument in which the seventh string was an added "treble" string, tuned to the 'A' above the high 'E' string (A4). At the time he began using the high A string, no commercially manufacturered string could withstand being tuned that high, so Breau substituted a piece of monofilament fishing line of appropriate gauge. A year later advances in materials science allowed the La Bella company to begin manufacturing a custom string for Breau's high A.  Seven-string semi-acoustic archtop guitars were used by jazz-guitarist Ralph Patt after he began exploring major-thirds tuning in 1964. Patt's tuning is a regular tuning, in the sense that all of the intervals between its successive open strings are major thirds; in contrast, the standard guitar-tuning has one major-third amid four fourths. Major-thirds tuning has a smaller scope than standard guitar-tuning, and so Patt started using seven-string guitars, which enabled major-thirds tuning to have the E-e' range of the standard tuning. He first experimented with a wide-neck Mango guitar from the 1920s, which he modified to have seven strings in 1963. In 1967 he purchased a seven-string by José Rubio.  The first seven-string electric guitars were built in the "hollowbody" or "semi-hollow" archtop styles, where the guitar has a central resonating chamber, or a central block with resonant chambers on the sides. This gave the guitar the dark woodiness, breath, and richness that is associated with traditional "jazz" tone, but also made prone to feedback at high volumes, making it problematic for rock guitar playing.

Solid body electric guitars.

In the early thirties the National String Instrument Corporation offered seven-string versions of their solid-body lap-steel guitars.  A solid body seven-string electric guitar was conceived by guitarist Lenny Breau and built by luthier Kirk Sand, debuting at the 1983 NAMM convention featuring a high A-string (rather than the low A-string of Eps). In 1987, Fender signed an agreement with Alex Gregory to produce a Stratocaster-style guitar that featured a high A-string. A small number of prototypes were made. However the unit was never put into production.  The first mass-produced seven-string was the Ibanez UV7 as a signature model for Steve Vai. It was also used by John Petrucci, Reb Beach and Korn amongst others. Vai was drawn to the idea for much of the same reasons seven-string classical and jazz players were—the extended range the additional string offered. After initial experimentation with a high A, a low B was added as the high A proved to be too prone to breaking. (Kirk Sand and Lenny Breau solved the breaking high A string problem by shortening the scale length to 22.75", Vai's Ibanez is 25.5".) Vai began touring with Whitesnake with a seven-string prototype, and then used the guitars for his 1990 release "Passion and Warfare".  The seven-string guitar became prominent when the band Korn featured Ibanez Universe guitars on their 1994 debut album. During the 1990s, manufacturers of 7-strings included Fender's subsidiary Squier and Gibson's subsidiary Epiphone.  In this time many guitarists were introduced to the extended range offered by a seven-string guitar. This was somewhat offset by a growing stigma that a seven-string guitar was a "nu metal" instrument, fit only for heavy riffing. This was ironic as Korn guitarists Munky and Head remember being told in their early days that the seven-string guitar could not be used for riffing, as it was a guitar for technical guitar players.  In the 1990s, several other heavy metal guitarists began using seven-string instruments (notably John Petrucci, Trey Azagthoth, and Erik Rutan), seeing the possibility for detuned riffing while preserving the full upper range of the guitar for solos. However, the seven-string guitar failed to really catch on at this phase in its development, and the Universe model was discontinued briefly in 1995. Historically, Matt Bellamy from Muse had used a custom red Manson seven-string to play just one song, "Citizen Erased", with a AADDGBE tuning (the song was originally recorded on a detuned six-string). However, he later started using new Manson custom seven-strings to play new songs "Supremacy", "Survival" and "Liquid State" on Muse's 2012 "The 2nd Law" album tour. Dino Cazares uses custom seven-string Ibanez guitars; Christian Olde Wolbers has his own signature Jackson seven-string guitar, Jeff Loomis has a signature model made by Schecter and Stephen Carpenter has several of his own models released by ESP.

Hybrid designs.

In the early 2000s, Roger McGuinn (renowned for his skills on the twelve-string guitar and for his long association with The Byrds) worked with C. F. Martin & Company to develop a seven-string folk guitar. McGuinn's guitar (currently being marketed by Martin) is tuned the same as a standard folk guitar with steel strings, but the third (G) string is augmented with a high octave string. Many of McGuinn's notable guitar solos utilize the G string of the twelve-string guitar to perform the main melody, and therefore the Martin seven-string guitar was designed to achieve this extended range playing without the need for doubling all six of the guitar's strings.  In 2010, Inox Guitars has created a mix of the Brazilian Viola caipira and the Russian semistrunka (семиструнка). This instrument has 2 bass strings (as the 6th and 7th strings of the semistrunka) and five treble courses (as the Viola caipira) and it is used in open tuning (GDGDGBD) as a slide guitar.

Tuning.

The 7-string guitar of today is frequently tuned with a lower B on the added seventh string (B1–E2–A2–D3–G3–B3–E4), but other common tunings exist. Many jazz and metal musicians tune in dropped A tuning (A1–E2–A2–D3–G3–B3–E4) for improved bass lines and easier power chords. Choro players usually tune the seventh string up a half-step, to C: C2-E2-A2-D3-G3-B3-E4. The common Russian guitar tunings given above are still in widespread use. And players who prefer an added "treble" string (instead of an added bass string) usually tune: E2–A2–D3–G3–B3–E4–A4.

Uses.

Seven-string guitars are used in a variety of musical styles including Classical, Jazz, Rock, Progressive Rock, and Heavy Metal. The Seven-string works well in a band setting, as its lowest note, B1 lines up well with the B0 commonly used for the lowest note of a 5+ string bass. Both the guitar and bass could drop tune as well using a lowest note of A1 and A0 respectively (with the bass this extends the range to the lowest note on a standard piano).

The seven-string guitar adds one additional string to the more common six-string guitar, commonly used to extend the bass range (usually a low B) or also to extend the treble range.

Eine siebensaitige Gitarre ist eine Gitarre mit sieben Saiten anstatt der üblichen sechs. Solche Gitarren sind nicht so weit verbreitet wie die sechssaitige Variante, jedoch benutzt eine Minderheit von Gitarristen sie seit mehr als 150 Jahren. Manche Typen dieses Instruments sind spezifisch für bestimmte Kulturen, wie zum Beispiel die russische und die brasilianische Gitarre.


Life.

Alexandrou was born in Leningrad to a Greek father (Vasilis Vasiliadis) and a Russian mother (Polina Antovna Vilgelmson). Aristotle Vasiliadis (who at that time had yet not adopted the name Aris Alexandrou) and his parents moved to Greece in 1928, initially residing in Thessaloniki and shortly thereafter in Athens.  He graduated from highschool in 1940, taking the university entrance exam at the engineering school (following his father's wishes) and failing. After that, he was admitted to the Athens University of Economics and Business. In 1942 he decided to drop out of the university and devote himself to work as a translator.  At the same time, he joined a small resistance group (this was the time of the Nazi occupation of Greece). This small group was integrated in the communist youth resistance movement; Alexandrou was not able to cope with the hierarchical organization of the communist party and therefore left the party a few months later.  The fact that he was no longer actively involved in the Party did not stop the British authorities (after the liberation of Greece and their installation there as a "de facto" ruler) from arresting him and sending to the El Tampa camp, wherein he remained up to April 1945. Furthermore, even though he did not participate in the ensuing Greek Civil War (1946-1949) he was arrested due to his refusal to disavow his political beliefs. From July 1948 up to October 1951 he was exiled to the camps of Moudros, Makronisos and Agios Efstratios.  In November 1952 he was court-martialled for draft-dodging (while he was in exile). The initial verdict was 10 years in prison; Alexandrou did time in the prisons of Averof, Aighina and Gyaros. The review board reduced his sentence down to 7 years, and he was finally discharged in August 1958.  After being discharged from prison he married Kaiti Drosou. In 1967 (after the junta of April 21) they decided to move to Paris to avoid possible new arrests.  Alexandrou died in Paris on July 2, 1979 from a heart attack, having lived to see his only novel published in French translation.

Poetry, prose and translations.

Many of Alexandrou's poems were written while he was in exile, and focus on socialism, writing, as well as more personal issues. Mayakovsky's influence is strong and made explicit.  His only novel ("Mission Box") is about the Greek civil war, ostensibly still going on in September 1949. However the locations mentioned are fictitious. The setting is the following: A team of soldiers on the communist side (which was fighting against the government side) had to carry out an all-important operation: to transport a mission box from one city to another. The mission goes haywire, and at the end the narrator (who was a member of this team) is arrested (not knowing by whom, but initially assuming that it was by "his" side). The book is made up of the "apology" that he writes out on a daily basis on the sheets of paper that his captors provide him with.  "Mission Box" is also very interesting for its elaborate prose. The last chapter is a 45-page long sentence (and actually a question since it ends with a question mark) reminiscent of the final chapter of Ulysses.  Most of Alexandrou's translations are from the Russian: this was how Alexandrou made ends meet throughout most of his life. His translations consisted mainly of prose writings (Dostoyevsky, Gorky, Ehrenburg among many others) but he also translated poems (for example Mayakovsky, Akhmatova).

Aris Alexandrou (; real name: Αριστοτέλης Βασιλειάδης, "Aristotelis Vasiliadis"; 24 November 1922 – 2 July 1979) was a Greek novelist, poet and translator. Always on the Left and always unconventional ("I belong to the non-existent party of poets"), he is the author of a single novel ("To kivotio" - "Mission Box") which is widely considered to be among the classic modern Greek works in the second half of the 20th century.

Aris Alexandrou (; * 24. November 1922 in Petrograd; † 2. Juli 1978 in Paris), bürgerlicher Name Aristoteles Vassiliadis, ist trotz des geringen Umfangs seines Werks einer der wichtigen Schriftsteller der modernen griechischen Literatur.


Biography.

Grötschel was born in Schwelm, Germany, and earned a diploma in mathematics with minor in economics in 1973 from the University of Bochum. He completed a doctorate in 1977 at the University of Bonn under the supervision of Bernhard Korte, and obtained his habilitation at Bonn in the field operations research in 1981. One year later he was appointed full professor for applied mathematics at the University of Augsburg. From 1991 until his retirement at the end of September 2015 he was, while also engaged at ZIB, full professor for information technology at Technical University Berlin. Martin Grötschel was a member of the Executive Committee of the German Mathematical Society (Deutsche Mathematiker-Vereinigung (DMV)) from 1989 to 1996 and from 1993 to 1994 its President. From 1999 to 2014 he was a member of the Executive Committee of the International Mathematical Union (IMU) and from 2007 to 2014 IMU's General Secretary. Since 2011 he has been a member of the Executive Board of the and was from 2011 to 2015 its Chair. He was co-founder and longstanding Chair of the DFG Research Center Matheon "Mathematics for key technologies".  Martin Grötschel has been married since 1976 with his wife Iris Grötschel and has three daughters.

Work.

Martin Grötschel is one of the most internationally renowned experts in the field of combinatorial optimization.  Martin Grötschel's main mathematical research fields are graph theory, linear and mixed-integer optimization and operations research. Already in his doctoral thesis, Grötschel achieved significant progress in the development of solution methods of the Traveling Salesman Problem, in particular, he contributed significantly to understanding the cutting-plane method. His publications together with L. Lovász and A. Schrijver on the ellipsoid method and its application in the combinatorial and convex optimization gained worldwide recognition.  In recent years Martin Grötschel has mainly dealt (besides addressing "classical" mathematical problems) with mathematical modelling and solving real-world problems in economy and industry. The application areas he has worked in include optimization of production planning and control, public transport and energy systems, logistics and telecommunication.  Since the early 1990s Grötschel has been working intensively in the fields electronic information and communication, library systems, Open Access and Open Science and thereto participated in numerous national and international bodies and initiatives.  The promotion of digital humanities is one of the main goals of Grötschel's BBAW presidency.

Awards and honors.

Grötschel was one of the winners of the Fulkerson Prize of the American Mathematical Society in 1982 for his work with László Lovász and Alexander Schrijver on applications of the ellipsoid method to combinatorial optimization. In 2006 the same trio won the John von Neumann Theory Prize of the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences.  The Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics and Mathematical Optimization Society gave Grötschel the George B. Dantzig Prize in 1991, and the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft gave him the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize in 1995. In 2004 he was awarded the EURO Gold Medal, the highest distinction within Operations Research in Europe. He was an invited speaker at the 2006 International Congress of Mathematicians.  Grötschel received honorary doctorates from the University of Karlsruhe in 2006, from the Vietnamese Academy of Sciences and Technology (VAST) in 2007, from the Otto-von-Guericke-Universität Magdeburg in 2008 and from the University of Augsburg in 2011. Since 2011 he has been Distinguished Affiliated Professor of Technical University of Munich.  Grötschel is member of seven national and international scientific academies: In 1995 he was a member the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities, in 1999 he became Foreign Member of the US National Academy of Engineering (NAE) for "contributions to combinatorial optimization and its applications", since 2003 he has been a member of the Deutsche Akademie der Technikwissenschaften (acatech), since 2005 of the German National Academy of Sciences Leopoldina, since 2015 of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) as Foreign Member, since 2016 of The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) for the advancement of science in the developing countries as Fellow, and in 2017 he was elected a member of the Academy of Europe Academia Europaea.  In 2013, a festschrift was published in his honor.

Martin Grötschel (born 10 September 1948) is a German mathematician known for his research on combinatorial optimization, polyhedral combinatorics, and operations research. From 1991 to 2012 he was Vice President of the Zuse Institute Berlin (ZIB) and served from 2012 to 2015 as ZIB's President. Since October 2015 he has been President of the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities (BBAW).

Martin Grötschel (* 10. September 1948 in Schwelm) ist ein deutscher Mathematiker. Von 1991 bis 2012 war er Vizepräsident und von 2012 bis 2015 Präsident des Konrad-Zuse-Zentrums für Informationstechnik (ZIB). Er ist seit dem 1. Oktober 2015 Präsident der Berlin-Brandenburgischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (BBAW).


History.

Pre-1999.

Rail services in Great Britain are mostly run under franchises operated by private train operating companies, marketed together as National Rail.  The concept of developing a network of orbital services around London goes back to the independently produced Ringrail proposals in the early 1970s. Some of these were evaluated in the London Rail Study of 1974 (the Barren Report) and Barren suggested consideration of a North London Network of orbital services, based on a later suggestion by the Ringrail Group, which involved using many existing rail routes, rather than the new construction suggested in earlier drafts of the Ringrail Plan.  The proposal from Barren was for several overlapping services mainly using the North London line, generally at 20-minute intervals. The suggested routes followed the original North London line service from Broad Street to Richmond, new services from Barking to Clapham Junction, and a third service from Ealing Broadway to North Woolwich. However, the Wilson government's continuing antipathy to the railways, along with British Rail's management's lack of interest in minor local train services, meant that few of these initiatives were

Mayor of London and GLA.

The pamphlets and briefings, first issued in 1997, initially suggested a route from Clapham Junction to the Greenwich Peninsula, intended to improve access from south London to the Millennium Dome. However, this was thwarted by architect Richard Rogers who considered that a railway route on a viaduct could cause "community severance", and so the Victorian brick viaduct was demolished. Nothing further happened to develop this network until after the new Greater London Authority (GLA) was launched in 2000. But the lobbying discreetly continued, with a series of short briefings published by one RDS member based in North London. Mayoral and GLA candidates were approached to discuss the viability of the Outer Circle concept. The principle was widely supported and was adopted into the first Mayor's Transport Plan, published in 2001.  Meanwhile, a pilot scheme was launched in 2003 to bring several National Rail

Announcements and launch.

On 20 February 2006, the DfT announced that TfL would take over management of services then provided by Silverlink Metro. Tenders were invited to operate the service under the provisional name of the North London Railway. On 5 September 2006, London Overground branding was announced, and it was confirmed that the extended East London line would be included. On 11 November 2007, TfL took over the North London Railway routes from Silverlink Metro. The following day there was an official launch ceremony at Hampstead Heath station with the Mayor of London, Ken Livingstone; there was also a later media event on the bay platform at Willesden Junction.  The launch was accompanied

East London line extension.

On 27 April 2010, the East London line became part of the London Overground network when the Phase 1 extension was completed. The former London Underground line was extended northwards, mostly along the former Broad Street viaduct of the North London line, to the re-opened, and southwards to and West Croydon.  Operations began with a limited preview service between Dalston Junction and New Cross/New Cross Gate, with full operation between Dalston Junction and West Croydon/Crystal Palace on 23 May. On 28 February 2011, the line between Dalston

South London line extension.

The next addition opened on 9 December 2012, from to via the South London line, calling at,,, and. The extension uses an alignment between Surrey Quays and just north of that had been disused since 1911; new track was laid after some major civil engineering works. Passive provision has also been made for a new station at, to be constructed when funding becomes fully

Liverpool Street station services.

On 31 May 2015 the Liverpool Street to Enfield Town, Cheshunt (via Seven Sisters) and Chingford

Network.

Introduction.

The initial network, service levels and timetables were a continuation of Silverlink Metro services, a set of routes primarily built and electrified by the North London and London & North Western railway companies in the 19th and early 20th centuries. As the Overground name implies, the majority of the network is above ground, and it mostly consists of railway lines that connect areas outside Central London, with a considerable portion of the network in Zone 2.

Services.

, the

Depots.

Highbury & Islington to New Cross, Clapham Junction, Crystal Palace and West Croydon services are served by New Cross Gate TMD.  Richmond and Clapham Junction to Stratford,

Operations.

London Overground's head office and control centre are at Swiss Cottage. Rolling stock is maintained at Willesden Junction and New Cross Gate TMDs, the latter being newly built for the extended East London line. There are also sidings at Silwood Triangle (just north of New Cross depot), built in 2013–14. Satellite locations for stabling trains include Stratford, London Euston and sidings (mainly used by London Midland), and c2c's East Ham Depot. Train crews are based at stations including Euston, Willesden Junction, Watford Junction, New Cross, Stratford and Gospel Oak. Until recently London Overground operated with a conductor or guard on its North London, West London and Gospel Oak services. With the other 60% of Overground services already operated by only a driver, it was decided in 2013 to convert these remaining two-person operated trains to driver only.

Operator.

The Overground is operated by a private company, Arriva Rail London. Following a model similar to that used for the Docklands Light Railway, TfL invited tenders for operation of the Overground. Unlike National Rail operators under the franchise control of the Department for Transport, TfL sets fares, procures rolling stock and decides service levels. The operator takes only a small element of revenue risk, with TfL taking 90% and the operator 10%.  The first operator, London Overground

Ticketing.

Ticketing is a mix of paper, Oyster cards, electronic smart cards and contactless payment cards for "pay-as-you-go" travel. As with all National Rail and TfL services in London, passengers can use a Travelcard (daily, seven-day, monthly or annual); as on other National Rail services in London, paper single, return and cheap day return tickets priced under the zonal fare scheme are also available.  As part of an effort to improve safety and protect revenue, TfL has announced that it will introduce ticket barriers at a number of stations. The stations that did not have barriers when

Ticket pricing.

Oyster PAYG is charged on the same zone-based rules as for the Underground and the Docklands Light Railway. Stations outside Greater London (except Watford Junction) are included in the new Travelcard Zones 7-9. On 2 January 2008 Acton Central was moved from

Performance.

Although a TfL service, the Overground is part of the National Rail network, unlike the Underground. The most recent figures released by Network Rail (NR), for period 7 (2013/2014), showed that it had achieved 96.6% of the Public Performance Measure (PPM) target for punctuality and reliability set by the ORR – down 0.9 percentage points on the period last year. The moving annual average (MAA) of the PPM for

Branding.

Public presentation is visually associated with TfL design standards, using similar graphic design elements to those used on the Underground. These design standards have been applied to London Overground stations, signage, rolling stock and publicity. London Overground also uses the TfL corporate typeface, New Johnston, on its signage, publicity, and stationery and on its fleet of trains. In common with other TfL services, the Overground is denoted by its own colour, a vivid orange (Pantone 158C). The orange colour was inherited from the former East London line prior to its transfer from Underground to Overground.  London Overground lines are shown on the tube map in orange; the map does

Passenger numbers.

Passenger numbers have grown very quickly since the start of London Overground in 2007. There were big increases in 2010/11 and 2011/12 due to the opening of the

Rolling stock.

Since the Overground took over from Silverlink, TfL has pursued a programme of rolling-stock replacement in order to remove from service the ageing second-generation EMUs and Class 150 DMUs it inherited from Silverlink. In 2009, Class 378 Capitalstars built by Bombardier's Derby Litchurch Lane Works were introduced on the electrified lines to replace the and units used previously, while the Class 150s were replaced by new Class 172 Turbostar units on the non-electrified Gospel Oak to Barking Line. By October 2010 the new rolling stock had completely replaced the units previously operated by Silverlink. The Class 313 and 150s were cascaded to other train operating companies Southern, First Capital Connect and First Great Western. The Class 508 units were stored at Eastleigh Works but were subsequently scrapped in 2013 after being deemed unfit.  The Class 378 trains were officially unveiled at on 13 July 2009. They include a number of tube-style features, including longitudinal seating and increased standing room to provide a high-capacity metro service. They also benefit from walk-through carriage interiors and air conditioning. The North London line has a base fleet of 24 four-car units, Class 378/2. However, these were delivered as three-car units (378/0), with the extended trains being introduced from September 2010, following platform extension works and delivery of the first 20 four-car units (378/1) for the East London line. A further 13 dual-voltage units were delivered to expand services, taking the total fleet to 57 four-car units. These trains are to be extended to five-car sets towards the end of 2014, starting with the East London line sets.  The trains are leased from newly formed rolling stock company (ROSCO) QW Rail Leasing until 2027. TfL planned initially to buy the new fleet outright, but in February 2008 announced that it would lease the trains in order to free up the £250 million capital cost of purchase, combined with reducing the risk of making a loss through any future sell-on of the fleet.  Eight two-car Class 172/0 units, leased from Angel Trains, were ordered on behalf of TfL in November 2007, and entered service in 2010. These were originally restricted to a top speed of as opposed to their intended design speed of, as it was thought there was a fault with the exhaust system requiring modifications to the original design and the already procured units. However, it transpired that the exhaust emission testing had been flawed and that there were no major problems with the units or the original design. Electrification of the Gospel Oak to Barking line was advocated by TfL, local boroughs and passenger groups, but had not been included as part of Network Rail's Route Utilisation Strategy.  On 23 May 2019 TfL announced that two units of Class 710 entered service on the Gospel Oak to Barking Line, with service on the Watford DC Line and West Anglia Route expected to start later in 2019.  Before its closure to become part of the Overground, services on the East London line were operated with London Underground A60 and A62 Stock.

Planned developments.

Night service.

London Overground began running 24-hour trains on Friday and Saturday nights, similar to the Night Tube of London Underground, between

Gospel Oak to Barking line.

Electrification.

It was announced in June 2013 that £115 million of funding for electrification was being made available as part of upgrades to rail infrastructure included in the government's 2013 spending round. At the same time Transport for London announced that they had obtained a £90 million commitment from the Chancellor of the Exchequer and the Secretary of State for Transport.

Extension to Barking Riverside.

It was announced as part of the 2014 United Kingdom budget that the Gospel Oak to Barking line would be extended to. £263 million was to be spent to extend the line to the brownfield 10,800-home Barking Riverside housing development, which Barking and Dagenham Council did not believe to be viable without improved transport connections. The developers of the site, Barking Riverside Limited, would provide £172m towards the project, with the remainder coming from Transport for London. Construction started in 2017 and was planned to be completed by 2021.

Proposed developments.

Watford DC line move to Bakerloo.

In 2007, TfL proposed re-extending the Bakerloo line to. It was suggested that most or all of the line from to Watford Junction would be used exclusively by the London Underground; London Overground services would be withdrawn. As part of this change, Overground services would have been diverted at

Croxley Link.

Plans were approved in 2011 for the Croxley Rail Link, diverting the Watford branch of London Underground's Metropolitan

Old Oak Common interchange.

A long-term plan exists to create an interchange with High Speed 2 at the proposed Old Oak Common station. Planning documents issued by the DfT suggest that the new station, on a site just south of, could open by 2025 and offer connections with the Overground on both the North London and West London lines.  The station would also be served by Crossrail, Great Western Main Line services and Heathrow Express, and the proposals indicate the possibility of interchange with the Bakerloo and Central lines.

Thamesmead extension.

In addition to the plan to extend the Gospel Oak to Barking line to Barking Riverside, there are also proposals to extend it further under the River Thames to a

Future acquisitions.

Following the completion of the first phase of the London Overground network in December 2012, TfL has expressed its intention to take over the operation of other suburban lines in the London area. As with the original London Overground system, this would involve devolving National Rail services from the DfT's franchising system to a TfL-managed concession.  On 21 January 2016 it was announced consideration was being given to the possibility of gradually transferring the suburban services operated by Southeastern, South West Trains and Govia Thameslink Railway (Great Northern, Thameslink and Southern) to TfL to create a London Suburban Metro.

Past attempts on acquiring routes.

In 2012–13 TfL and the Greater London Authority publicised a proposal for further expansion, identifying a number of services in North-East and South-East London as suitable candidates. Part of this proposal was fulfilled in May 2015 with the transfer of the Lea Valley and Romford-Upminster Lines out of to the London Overground network, but TfL's aim of acquiring Southeastern metro services currently remains at the proposal stage. Under this scheme, TfL would take over rail services out of, and to,, and, but

Greenford branch.

The Department for Transport has proposed that Transport for London should take over the Greenford to West Ealing line in West London. This would bring Greenford,,, and into the Overground network. Trains on this branch used to run directly to Paddington, but were curtailed at West Ealing in order to free up line capacity for the forthcoming Crossrail services, with West Ealing reconstructed to allow Greenford branch trains to terminate there. If this proposal were to go ahead, it would happen when the Greater Western franchise ends in 2021.

West London Orbital.

Proposals to reopen the Dudding Hill Line to passenger service as part of London Overground have been mooted for several years. In

Crowd information.

Currently on trial at Shoreditch High Street station is a system indicating the crowding in each train carriage. The technology, already in use on Thameslink trains, helps passengers find the most ideal carriage when boarding a train and should reduce dwell times at stations. If the trial is successful, it will be rolled out across the London Overground network.

London Overground (also known simply as the Overground) is a suburban rail network serving London and its environs. Established in 2007 to take over Silverlink Metro routes, it now serves a large part of the city as well as the home county of Hertfordshire, with 112 stations on nine different routes. It is complementary to the London Underground.

London Overground ist die Bezeichnung für ein S-Bahn-ähnliches Eisenbahnnetz in der britischen Hauptstadt London, das seit dem 11. November 2007 in Betrieb ist. Betreibergesellschaft ist Arriva Rail London, die im Auftrag der Dachorganisation Transport for London (TfL) den Personenverkehr auf sechs Linien abwickelt. Das Netz umfasst Strecken, die von den Bahngesellschaften Silverlink und Abellio Greater Anglia übernommen wurden, sowie eine ehemalige U-Bahn-Linie.


Design and development.

In response to the rapid emergence in Europe of twin-engine heavy fighters such as the Messerschmitt Bf 110, the army ordered development of a twin-engine, two-seat fighter in 1937, and assigned the proposal by Kawasaki Shipbuilding the designation of "Ki-38". This only went as far as a mock up, but by December of that year the army ordered a working prototype as the "Ki-45", which first flew in January 1939. Results from the test flights, however, did not meet the army's expectations. The Ha-20 "Otsu" engine was underpowered and failure-prone, while the airframe suffered from nacelle stall.  The Ki-45 did not enter service, but the army, insistent on having a working twin-engine fighter, ordered Kawasaki to continue development. Kawasaki responded by replacing the engines with the proven Nakajima Ha-25. Flight tests were promising.  In October 1940, the army ordered continued improvements such as switching to 805 kW (1,080 hp) Mitsubishi Ha-102 engines. This craft, designated "Ki-45 Kai", was completed in September 1941 and was officially adopted for use by the army in February 1942 as the "Type 2 two-seat fighter".  The prototype of a single-seat fighter variant, the "Ki-45 II", was also built; development continued under the designation Ki-96.

Operational history.

The Ki-45 was initially used as a long-range bomber escort. The 84th Independent Flight Wing (Dokuritsu Hikō Chutai) used them in June 1942 in attacks on Guilin, where they encountered, but were no match for, Curtiss P-40s flown by the Flying Tigers. In September of the same year, they met P-40s over Hanoi with similar results. It became clear that the Ki-45 could not hold its own against single-engine fighters in aerial combat.  It was subsequently deployed in several theaters in the roles of interception, attack (anti-ground as well as anti-shipping) and fleet defense. Its greatest strength turned out to be as an anti-bomber interceptor, as was the case with the Bf 110 in Europe. In New Guinea, the IJAAF used the aircraft in an anti-ship role, where the Ki-45 was heavily armed with one 37 mm (1.46 in) and two 20 mm cannons and could carry two 250 kg (550 lb) bombs on hard points under the wings. 1,675 Ki-45s of all versions were produced during the war.  The first production type ("Ko") was armed with two 12.7 mm (.50 in) Ho-103 machine gun in the nose, a single Type 97 20 mm cannon in the belly offset to the right, and a trainable 7.92 mm (.312 in) machine gun in the rear cabin; this was followed by the "Otsu" with the lower 20 mm cannon replaced by a 37 mm (1.46 in) type 94 tank gun, to counter B-17 Flying Fortress bombers. While the firepower was devastating, manual reloading meant that typically only two rounds could be fired on each gunnery pass. The next type ("Hei") restored the 20 mm cannon, and this time placed an automatic 37 mm (1.46 in) gun in the nose. A later addition in the "Tei" type were twin obliquely-firing 20 mm Ho-5 cannons behind the cockpit, and often propulsive exhaust stacks.  Soon after entering service, the Ki-45 was assigned to home defense, and several were dispatched against the Doolittle raid, though they did not see action. The craft's heavy armament proved to be effective against the B-29 Superfortress raids which started in June 1944. However, its performance was insufficient to counter B-29s flying at 10,000 m (32,800 ft). Modifications such as reduction of fuel and ordnance were attempted to raise performance, to little avail, and in the end aircraft were used effectively in aerial ramming attacks. They were also used in "kamikaze" attacks, such as the attack on USS on 2 April 1945 off Okinawa. The commanding officer and 54 crew were killed when a Toryu clipped the stacks from astern, and rammed the bridge. A second Toryu hit the foredeck, opening a 7 m (23 ft) hole in the deck. The ensuing fires demolished the ship, and after the surviving crew was rescued by fellow fast transports, destroyer escort and destroyer-transport, the ship was towed out to sea and scuttled.  In 1945, the forward and upward-firing guns showed some results with the commencement of night time bombing raids, but the lack of radar was a considerable handicap. By the spring of 1945, the advent of American carrier-based fighters and Iwo Jima-based P-51s and P-47s escorting B-29s over the skies of Japan brought the Ki-45's career to an end.  The next version, the "Kawasaki Ki-45 KAId", was developed specifically as a night fighter, which was supposed to be equipped with centimetric radar in the nose; due to production difficulties, this did not occur. The aircraft took part in night defense of the Home Islands and equipped four "sentais" from the autumn of 1944 to the war's end. They obtained notable successes, and one Ki-45 "sentai" claimed 150 victories, including eight USAAF B-29 Superfortresses in their first combat.  The Ki-45 was to be replaced in the ground-attack role by the Ki-102, but was not wholly supplanted by the war's end.  Three Ki-45s fell into communist Chinese hands after World War II. Unlike most captured Japanese aircraft, which were employed in the training role, the three Ki-45s were assigned to the 1st Squadron of the Combat Flying Group in March 1949 and were used in combat missions. These aircraft were retired in the early 1950s.

Variants.

There is sometimes a confusion in the different subtypes. The information below is based on Japanese work, not on usual 'western' data. Even the NASM claims that the Ki-45 on display is a "hei" (c) type whereas Japanese press would read it is a "tei" (d) type nightfighter version with dorsal armament.  Total production: 1,691 or 1,701 units.

Surviving aircraft.

Only one Ki-45 KAIc remains today. It was one of about 145 Japanese aircraft brought to the United States aboard the USS "Barnes" for evaluation after World War II. It underwent an overhaul at Middletown Air Depot, Pennsylvania, and was test-flown at Wright Field, Ohio, and Naval Air Station Anacostia in Washington, D.C.. The United States Army Air Forces donated the Toryu to the Smithsonian Institution in June 1946. The fuselage only is currently on display at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center, alongside a Nakajima J1N and Aichi M6A.

The Kawasaki Ki-45 "Toryu" (屠龍, "Dragonslayer") was a two-seat, twin-engine fighter used by the Imperial Japanese Army in World War II. The army gave it the designation "Type 2 Two-Seat Fighter"; the Allied reporting name was "Nick".

Die Kawasaki Ki-45 „Toryu“ (屠龍, „Drachentöter“) war ein zweimotoriges, zweisitziges Jagdflugzeug der Kaiserlich Japanischen Armee im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Die Armee gab ihr die Bezeichnung „Typ 2 zweisitziges Jagdflugzeug“, der alliierte Codename war „Nick“.


Engineering.

The earlier cars used a Rover engine from the 1948 Rover 75. A four-speed manual transmission was used with a column-mounted gear change at first and floor-mounted unit from September 1953. At first the gearbox only had synchromesh on third and top but it was added to second gear as well in 1953. A freewheel clutch, a traditional Rover feature, was fitted to cars without overdrive until mid-1959, when it was removed from the specifications, shortly before the London Motor Show in October that year.  The cars had a separate chassis with independent suspension by coil springs at the front and a live axle with half-elliptical leaf springs at the rear. The brakes on early cars were operated by a hybrid hydro-mechanical system but became fully hydraulic in 1950. Girling disc brakes replaced drums at the front from October 1959.  The complete body shells were made by the Pressed Steel company and featured aluminium/magnesium alloy (Birmabright) doors, boot lid and bonnets. If the handle was not used to close them they were easily dented so for the final 95/110 models steel was used instead. The P4 series was one of the last UK cars to incorporate rear-hinged "suicide" doors.

Rover 75.

Announced by Managing Director Spencer Wilks on 23 September 1949 the new Rover 75, now the only Rover in production, was first displayed at the opening day of the Earls Court Motor Show on 28 September 1949. It featured unusual modern styling in stark contrast with the outdated Rover 75 (P3) it replaced. Gone were the traditional radiator, separate headlamps and external running boards. In their place were a chromium grille, recessed headlamps and a streamlined body the whole width of the chassis. A steering column-mounted gear lever was fitted.  The car's styling was derived from the then controversial 1947 s. The Rover executives purchased two such vehicles and fitted the body from one of them to a prototype P4 chassis to create a development mule. James Taylor's book 'Rover P4 – The Complete Story' says that this vehicle was affectionately known as the 'Roverbaker' hybrid.  Malcolm Bobbit states "The P4 set the seal on the future with a vengeance. Rover defied its critics with the P4's new look and to get some idea of the shock of the new, consider some of its rivals... astonishment at the P4's courageous styling." The P3 had almost no boot at all yet that had been considered rather more than adequate. The new car's bonnet-like extension to its rear was ridiculed; the driver sat well forward looking out over a relatively short bonnet and the rear wheels were set well back behind the back seat. All the new car's proportions were different from all the other new cars.  Another, at the time minor, distinctive feature but this one did not catch on was the centrally mounted light in the grille where most other manufacturers of good quality cars provided a pair, one fog and one driving light often separately mounted behind the bumper. Known as the "Cyclops eye" it was discontinued in the new grille announced 23 October 1952.  Power came from a more powerful version of the previous model's 2.1 L (2103 cc/128 in3) Rover IOE straight-6 engine now with chromium-plated cylinder bores, an aluminium cylinder head with built-in induction manifold and a pair of horizontal instead of downdraught carburetters. A four-speed manual transmission was used with a column-mounted gear lever which was replaced by a floor-mounted mechanism in September 1953.  A car tested by "The Motor" magazine in 1949 had a top speed of and could accelerate from 0– in 21.6 seconds. A fuel consumption of was recorded. The test car cost £1106 including taxes. The turning circle was.

Road & Track.

"... and I honestly believe (barring the Rolls-Royce) that there is no finer car built in the world today." Bob Dearborn, Tester Road & Track. Road test no. F-4-52, August 1952.

Broader range.

After four years of the one model policy Rover returned to a range of the one car but three different sized engines. In September 1953 it announced it would supply a four-cylinder Rover 60 and a 2.6-litre Rover 90 adding them to the 75's 2.1-litre six. Rover's stated intention was "to cater for a wider field of motorists who require a quality car with varying degrees of economical running costs and performance".  On the same day there were modifications announced which were accordingly shared by all three:  Rover also announced an all-round reduction in Rover and Land-Rover prices. This was a response to a slump in both home and export sales of all British cars.<br> The "" IOE engine continued.

New engine.

The Rover 75 engine was enlarged in October 1954 to a 2.2 L (2230 cc/136 in3) version of the IOE engine.

Bigger boot.

An updated body for all Rovers was announced 7 October 1954 with major styling changes by David Bache  At the same time Rover's chairman revealed a new factory was being built to double Land-Rover production.

Separate chairs.

In September 1955 the choice of a different style of front seat, two individual seats independently adjustable, was made available on all three cars at extra cost.

Revised front mudguards.

The line of the front mudguards "which", said The Times, "previously gave the car a somewhat blunt appearance" was rearranged with the side lamps and flashing indicators in different positions. A small chrome reflector on the headlamp rim allowed the driver to know the side lights were functioning. Overdrive was made an option. These amendments were announced 11 September 1956.

Rover 60.

The Rover 60 was announced 24 September 1953 to add a more economical four-cylinder engine to Rover's range though leaving trim and equipment the same as the 75 and the new Rover 90 announced at the same time. Rover's idiosyncratic central gear change lever designed to allow three-abreast seating in front was used for this new car. Its 2.0 L (1997 cc/121 in3) engine had been used in the early Land Rover though it now had modifications including an SU carburettor. As the block was shorter than that of the 6-cylinder engine, it sat further back in the frame, and this is sometimes held to have resulted in better handling and compensated for the lack of power.  The Rover 60 shared with the Rover 75 and Rover 90 the October 1954 modifications: a bigger boot, wide rear window and flashing directions indicators all announced at the Paris Motor Show. Independently adjustable separate front seats were made available at extra cost from September 1955.  In the same way Rover 60 buyers were given the choice of a different style of front seat, two individual seats independently adjustable, available at extra cost from September 1955.  Similarly in September 1956 the shape of the front mudguards was rearranged with the side lamps and flashing indicators in different positions. A small chrome reflector on the headlamp rim allowed the driver to know the side lights were functioning. Overdrive was made an option.  In their test of the Sixty in 1954 "The Motor" magazine recorded a top speed of and acceleration from 0– of 26.5 seconds. A fuel consumption of was recorded. The test car cost £1162 including taxes.  The Rover 60 was replaced by the Rover 80 which used an updated version of the overhead-valve 2286 cc (138 in3) four used in the Land Rover of that time. The Rover 80 was announced 24 October 1959.

Rover 90.

The top-end Rover 90 appeared with a much larger more powerful inline-six at the same time, 24 September 1953 as the four-cylinder Rover 60 was introduced. Rover's idiosyncratic central gear change lever designed to allow three-abreast seating in front was used for this new car. This engine produced 90 hp (67 kW) and could propel the car to reach 90 mph (145 km/h). It has a cast-iron block with an aluminium alloy head, a bore and stroke of by and a 6.73:1 compression ratio. This was upped to 7.5:1 in 1956.  Rover's stated intention was to cater for a wider field of motorists requiring varying degrees of performance and running costs.  The Rover 90 shared with the Rover 60 and Rover 75 the October 1954 modifications: a bigger boot, wide rear window and flashing directions indicators all announced at the Paris Motor Show.  The 1956 model was launched in September 1955. Independently adjustable separate front seats were made available at extra cost and at the same time the engine's compression ratio was increased from 6.73:1 to 7.5:1, lifting power by 3 horsepower to 93. Free-wheel was dropped and Laycock de Normanville electric overdrive made available. More sensitive power brakes were provided of a redesigned pattern. The recesses in the 'B' pillars that previously housed the trafficators in pre-1955 models were deleted in this update. Pleats were added to the seats, this treatment continued on subsequent P4 models.  In September 1956 the shape of the front mudguards was rearranged with the side lamps and flashing indicators in different positions. A small chrome reflector on the headlamp rim allowed the driver to know the side lights were functioning.  Testing the Ninety in 1954 "The Motor" magazine recorded a top speed of and acceleration from 0– of 18.9 seconds. A fuel consumption of was recorded. The test car cost £1297 including taxes.  A road test of a Ninety published in "MotorSport" magazine in September 1956 described the engine as virtually inaudible when idling but the steering was "spongy and heavy" and "the roll when cornering was considerable" nevertheless, reported "MotorSport", firm suspension caused "very appreciable column shake and body judder". An owner of a Ninety at the time noted that although the suspension was very soft and comfortable on a straight road on bends the car would "wallow" over and made one feel a bit queasy.  When it was replaced by the Rover 100 in October 1959, 35,903 had been produced, making the Rover 90 the most popular car of the P4 series.

Rover 105R, 105S & 105.

Announced 16 October 1956, the 105R and 105S used a high-output, 8.5:1 compression version of the "" engine used in the 90. The higher compression was to take advantage of the higher octane fuel that had become widely available. This twin-SU carburettor engine produced 108 hp (80 kW). Both 105 models also featured the exterior changes of the rest of the range announced a month earlier. The 105S featured separate front seats, a cigar lighter, chromed wheel trim rings and twin Lucas SFT 576 spotlamps. To minimise the cost of the 105R, these additional items were not standard, however they were provided on the (higher priced) 105R De Luxe.  The 105R featured a "Roverdrive" automatic transmission. This unit was designed and built by Rover and at the time was the only British-built automatic transmission. Others had bought in units from American manufacturers such as Borg-Warner. This unit was actually a two-speed automatic (Emergency Low which can be selected manually and Drive) with an overdrive unit for a total of three forward gears. The 105S made do with a manual transmission and Laycock de Normanville overdrive incorporating a kick-down control. The 105S could reach a top speed of 101 mph (163 km).  "The Motor" magazine tested a 105R de luxe in 1957 and found it to have a top speed of and acceleration from 0– of 23.1 seconds. A fuel consumption of was recorded. The test car cost £1696 including taxes of £566.  Production of the 105 line ended in 1958 for the 105R and 1959 for the manual transmission 105S, 10,781 had been produced, two-thirds with the manual transmission option. For 1959 the manual model was described simply as a 105 and the trim and accessory level was reduced to match the other models.  When the Rover 100 was announced in October 1959 it was described as the replacement for the Rover 90 and the Rover 105.

Rover 80.

The 3-litre P5 car introduced in September 1958 was in full production and the obsolescent P4 range was reduced to just two cars, this new four-cylinder 80, announced on 24 October 1959 and the Rover 100 announced at the same time. The 80 engine was a new Land Rover-derived straight-four overhead-valve engine displacing "", entirely different from the units used in all the other models. With 80 hp (59 kW) available, the car could top 85 mph (137 km/h). Girling vacuum servo-assisted disc brakes at the front were new, and the car used wider tyres and had updated styling. Overdrive, operating on top gear only, was standard on the four-speed transmission. Options included a radio, two tone paint schemes, and either a bench or individual front seats. These options also apply to the 100 (see below).  The four-cylinder cars were never popular, and just 5,900 had been built when, after 3 years, production ended. Its place was taken by the new Rover 95 announced September 1962.  "The Motor" magazine tested an 80 in 1961 and recorded a top speed of and acceleration from 0– of 22.4 seconds. A fuel consumption of was found. The test car cost £1396 including taxes of £411.

Rover 100.

The Rover 90 and Rover 105 were replaced by the more powerful 100 announced on 24 October 1959. Its new but similar IOE straight-6 engine was a short-stroke version of the P5 3-Litre unit. The 100 could reach 100 mph (161 km/h). The interior was luxurious, with wood and leather accents on traditional English car elements like a curved "Shepherds Crook" handbrake lever. A bench front seat or individual front seats could be ordered. A heater was a standard fitting. Like the smaller 80 version, the 100 was fitted with servo-assisted Girling disc brakes at the front, keeping drum brakes at the rear. Overdrive, on top gear only, was a standard fitting.  Production ended in 1962, by which time 16,521 had been produced.  Testing the 100 in 1960, "The Motor" magazine recorded a top speed of, acceleration from 0– of 17.6 seconds and a fuel consumption of. The test car cost £1538 including taxes.

Rover 95 and Rover 110.

The final members of the series were the 95 and 110. The Rover 95 was a Rover 100 re-geared for economy and offered at the price level of the four-cylinder Rover 80 it replaced. The Rover 110 was a Rover 100 with a more powerful engine. Announced 27 September 1962 these cars represented the end of an era. They were fitted with not alloy but steel door panels to reduce cost. Their very full equipment included electric windscreen washers. Although the Roverdrive automatic had been put to rest, overdrive was standard on the 110. The 95 made do with a higher ratio final drive (3.9:1).  Both cars used the same "" version of the IOE engine. The wider availability of higher octane fuels permitted an increase in the compression ratio to 8.8:1, and the old unit now produced 123 hp (91 kW) in 110 guise, which used a Weslake cylinder head, and 102 hp (76 kW) in the 95.  The Motor magazine road tested, ref 2/64, a Rover 110 on 30 January 1963. This car achieved a mean maximum of 100.0 mph, 0-60 mph in 15.9 seconds and the standing quarter mile in 20.6 seconds. This was the fastest P4 model tested in the series by The Motor. After a successful run of some 15 years, the Rover 95 and Rover 110 were eventually replaced by Rover's wholly new Rover 2000 announced 9 October 1963 but they remained available into 1964.

Gas turbine cars.

The P4 platform was used in Rover's gas turbine programme, most notably as the origin of the JET 1 prototype shown to the public in the United Kingdom and United States in 1950 and subjected to speed tests on the Jabbeke highway in Belgium in 1952. JET 1, a mid-engine two-seat open tourer, was based on the P4 bodyshell. The original JET 1 is on display in the London Science Museum.  Two further prototypes powered by gas turbine were based on the P4. The T2 had a four-door body and its gas turbine under the bonnet at the front of the car. Problems with the T2 caused Rover to abandon the front-engine concept and rebuild the car, redesignated T2A, with the turbine over the rear wheels.

The Rover P4 series is a group of mid-size luxury saloon cars produced by the Rover Company from 1949 until 1964. They were designed by Gordon Bashford.

Der Rover P4 war eine Limousine, die von 1949 bis 1964 hergestellt wurde. Danach wurde sie durch den wesentlich moderneren Rover P6 ersetzt. Alle P4-Modelle hatten 4 Türen und 4 Sitzplätze. Die Bezeichnung P4 war ein Herstellercode, der die Modellgruppe bezeichnete, aber nicht umgangssprachlich von Kunden verwendet wurde. Diese nannten ihre Autos z. B. „Rover 90“ etc.


History.

Establishment.

Following a short period of speculation amongst financial analysts, it was announced in October 2005 that Boots Group would merge with Alliance UniChem in a deal valuing both companies equally and said to be worth around £7 billion. Rival firm Celesio, owner of the Lloyds Pharmacy chain, challenged the deal, although were rejected by the Competition Appeal Tribunal. The merger received final approval from the Office of Fair Trading in February 2006 and completed on 1 August 2006, although 96 shops were sold to comply with a condition laid down by the OFT. Former Boots Group shareholders held 50.2% of the new company, with former Alliance UniChem shareholders owning 49.8%.

Acquisition by Stefano Pessina and KKR.

On 25 April 2007, Alliance Boots was approached with a buy-out offer by New York City-based Private Equity firm Kohlberg Kravis Roberts in conjunction with Alliance Boots' then Executive Deputy Chairman, Stefano Pessina, for an estimated. Alliance Boots was the first company on the FTSE 100 share index to be bought-out by a private equity firm. Almost was advanced by investment banks, including Deutsche Bank, Citigroup, J.P. Morgan, UniCredit, Barclays, Merrill Lynch, the Bank of America and the Royal Bank of Scotland. Simultaneously the banks, as so-called "equity underwriters“, together invested around in the buyout company. The reverse takeover and subsequent privatisation was dubbed as "the best deal ever struck" by a managing partner at a private equity firm in June 2008.  Alliance Boots GmbH was established in Switzerland during 2008 and is a direct subsidiary of AB Acquisitions Holdings Limited, a company which owns 55% of Alliance Boots GmbH’s shares.

Walgreens merger.

It was announced on 19 June 2012 that Walgreens would purchase a 45% stake in Alliance Boots, as the first step in a three-year merger plan. Walgreens paid $6.7 billion for this share, and subsequently on 6 August 2014 Walgreens exercised its option to complete the second step of its strategic transaction with Alliance Boots to create the first global pharmacy-led health and beauty retailer, with over 12,000 stores worldwide. The two companies had established Walgreens Boots Alliance Development Company in late 2012 to further their integration. The first publicly visible sign of the merger came in November 2012 when Boots skincare brand No7 debuted in a Walgreens store in Los Angeles, with a view to further rolling out the Boots brand across the US.  Walgreens' shareholders approved the purchase on 29 December 2014, and it was completed on 31 December. Under the terms of the merger, the two companies became subsidiaries of a new holding company, Walgreens Boots Alliance Inc. which remains headquartered in Deerfield, Illinois. The new company is organised into four divisions, of which Walgreens and Boots each became one. The two remaining divisions are Pharmaceutical Wholesale and International Retail, which includes Alliance Healthcare, and Global Brands.

Operations.

Alliance Boots operations are split into two areas, pharmacy-led health and beauty retailing and pharmaceutical wholesaling and distribution. The Group also has a stand-alone contract manufacturing business called BCM and increasingly develops and internationalises its product brands.

Health and Beauty Retail.

Boots UK.

Boots UK formed the main retail business of Alliance Boots in the United Kingdom, and all former Alliance Pharmacy branches were rebranded as Boots. The Boots brand has a history stretching back over 160 years and is a familiar sight on Britain's high streets. Boots stores are located in prominent high street and city centre locations as well as in local communities. Most branches include a pharmacy, and focus on healthcare, personal care and cosmetic products, with most stores selling over the counter medicines.  Larger stores typically offer a variety of healthcare services in addition to dispensing prescriptions, such as flu vaccination, cholesterol screening, weight loss advice, hair retention treatment, smoking cessation advice and products, and chlamydia testing & treatment (private service). Optician services are also offered in many larger stores, with Boots Opticians providing eye tests along with the sale of spectacles and contact lenses.  Many stores also feature traditional photo processing and/or a Kodak picture kiosk where users of digital cameras and camera phones can create prints. Larger stores usually offer a range of electrical equipment such as hairdryers, curlers and foot massagers, whilst selected stores offer a range of sandwiches, baguettes, wraps, salads and beverages.  Boots operates a loyalty card programme branded as the Boots Advantage Card, and claims to have 17.8 million regular users.

Internationally.

Since 1936, there have been Boots stores outside the UK. Stores in countries as widely spread as New Zealand, Canada (see Pharma Plus) and France were all closed in the 1980s. Today, there are Boots branded stores in several countries including the UK, Norway, Ireland, The Netherlands, Thailand, as well as the Middle East.  Much of the Irish chain was acquired by purchasing Hayes Conyngham Robinson in 1998, although Boots had been present in Ireland prior to this. In 2013/2014, there were 76 stores in the Republic. In July 2011, an investigation by Ireland's National Consumer Agency found Boots to be the most expensive pharmacy for prescription drugs.  In other countries (including Kuwait, Hong Kong, and the USA), Boots products are sold from instore 'implants' in department stores and other pharmacies.

Wholesale.

Alliance Healthcare.

Alliance Healthcare formed the backbone of Alliance Boots wholesale and distribution service, with twice daily deliveries to more than 16,000 delivery points in the UK alone. Internationally, Alliance Healthcare supplies medicines, other healthcare products and related services to over 180,000 pharmacies, doctors, health centres and hospitals from over 370 distribution centres in 20 countries.  In addition to the wholesale of medicines and other healthcare products, Alliance Healthcare provides services to pharmaceutical manufacturers who are increasingly changing and adapting their approaches to distribution, while at the same time outsourcing non-core activities. These services include pre-wholesale and contract logistics, direct deliveries to pharmacies, and specialized medicine delivery including related home healthcare.  In recent years it has entered the fast-growing Russian and Chinese markets.  Alphega Pharmacy: Alphega Pharmacy offers a comprehensive range of added-value services to independent pharmacy customers, including branding, professional training and patient care, retail support services and supply benefits together with pharmacy and IT support. Alphega Pharmacy is focused on building a network of independent pharmacists across Europe under a shared brand.

Almus.

Almus is a brand of generic prescription drugs sold in five countries.  Almus is an umbrella brand for the wide range of lower cost generic medicines, which was initially launched in the UK in 2003. Alliance Boots has placed considerable emphasis on the design of the packaging in an attempt to reduce the number errors by the dispensing chemist and by the patient relating to incorrect dosage which can result in either a dangerous accidental overdose or an equally dangerous under dose. Almus has won numerous awards for the design of their packaging and documentation.

Contract manufacturing.

BCM Limited is the contract manufacturing business of Alliance Boots and manufactures a range of own-brand and third-party medicines, and cosmetic product ranges such as No 7, Kangol, Toni & Guy, FCUK, Soltan and Botanics. Some are sold through Boots stores whilst others are sold through third party stores such as French Connection and Toni & Guy. BCM has facilities in the UK, Germany, France and Poland.  BCM Specials manufactures bespoke non-licensed medicines for UK hospital and retail pharmacies.

Subsidiary companies.

Alliance Boots subsidiaries included:  Alliance Boots also had associates and joint ventures in:

Headquarters.

Alliance Boots established its group headquarters in Switzerland in 2008, following the privatization of the company by Stefano Pessina and KKR's acquisition. It retained Boots' existing Nottingham head office as its UK operational headquarters. The company was accused of making the move for tax purposes, as Switzerland had more favourable tax regime than the United Kingdom, and in January 2011, protests were held by the UK Uncut group at a number of Boots stores, including its flagship London store, which was closed down by protestors.  The group's headquarters, listed as being on Baarerstrasse in Zug, were revealed to be a post office box within the town's post office. Alliance Boots itself stated that its Swiss headquarters reflected the international nature of its wider group and that it had an administrative office in Zurich. The Guardian reported in 2016 the findings of Richard Brooks, a former tax inspector, who it said found that the “headquarters” in Zug was “one of around 50 unrelated companies dealt with by a local business service company, the proprietors of which were none too pleased with the visit” and that no Boots employees were present.  Boots' former head of corporate finance, John Ralfe, stated that he believed "the UK has lost about £100 million a year in tax" due to the move to Switzerland. Boots defended itself by reaffirming that it was a British business registered for VAT. In 2013, campaign group War on Want said on its website "New research shows that Alliance Boots, the high street chemist and pharmaceutical giant, has avoided more than £1 billion in tax since it went private six years ago through taking on excessive debts, profit shifting and corporate restructuring."  While the takeover by Walgreens was being finalized, there was growing political pressure against the company moving its headquarters from Chicago to Switzerland as part of a tax inversion to reduce its tax bill. In August 2014, Walgreens confirmed it would retain its Chicago headquarters for the newly formed group.

Alliance Boots GmbH was a multinational pharmacy-led health and beauty group with corporate headquarters in Bern, Switzerland and operational headquarters in Nottingham and Weybridge, United Kingdom.

Alliance Boots ist ein Schweizer Chemie- und Gesundheitskonzern sowie einer der bedeutendsten Pharmagroßhändler in Europa mit rechtlichem Sitz in Bern und operativer Hauptzentrale in Nottingham. Das Unternehmen ist eine Tochtergesellschaft von Walgreens Boots Alliance.


U.S. military administration 1945–1948.

Emperor Hirohito announced the surrender of the Empire of Japan to the Allied Powers on 15 August 1945. General Order No. 1 for the surrender of Japan (prepared by the Joint Chiefs of Staff of U.S. military forces and approved on 17 August 1945) prescribed separate surrender procedures for Japanese forces in Korea north and south of the 38th parallel. After Japan's surrender to the Allies (formalised on 2 September 1945), division at the 38th parallel marked the beginning of Soviet and U.S. occupation the North and South, respectively. This division was meant to be temporary, to be replaced by a trusteeship of the United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and Republic of China which would prepare for Korean independence. The trusteeship had been discussed at the Yalta Conference in February 1945. U.S. forces landed at Incheon on September 8, 1945 and established a military government shortly thereafter. Lieutenant General John R. Hodge, their commander, took charge of the government. Faced with mounting popular discontent, in October 1945 Hodge established the Korean Advisory Council. The Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea, which had operated from China, sent a delegation with three

First Republic 1948–1960.

On 15 August 1948, the Republic of Korea was formally established, with Syngman Rhee as the first president. With the establishment of Rhee's government, de jure sovereignty also passed into the new government. On September 9, 1948, a communist regime, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea), was proclaimed under Kim Il-sung. However, on December 12, 1948, by its resolution 195 in the Third General Assembly, the United Nations recognized the Republic of Korea as the sole legal government of Korea.  In 1946, the North implemented land reforms by confiscating private property, Japanese and pro-Japanese owned facilities and factories, and placed them under state ownership. Demand for land reform in the South grew strong, and it was eventually enacted in June 1949. Koreans with large landholdings were obliged to divest most of their land. Approximately 40 percent of total farm households became small landowners. However, because preemptive rights were given to people who had ties with landowners before liberation, many pro-Japanese groups obtained or retained properties.  With the country now divided, the relationship between the two Koreas turned more antagonistic as time passed. The Soviet forces having withdrawn in 1948, North Korea pressured the South to expel the United States forces, but Rhee sought to align his government strongly with America, and against both North Korea and Japan. Although talks towards normalization of relations with Japan took place, they achieved little. Meanwhile, the government took in vast sums of American aid, in amounts sometimes near the total size of the national budget. The nationalist government also continued many of the practices of the U.S. military government. In 1948, the Rhee government repressed military uprisings in Jeju, Suncheon and Yeosu. During the rebellion and its suppression 14,000 to 60,000 people were killed in all fighting. Of note, President Rhee's regime was intolerant of opposition. A famous event that highlighted this was the arrest and conviction of future President Park Chung-hee, for communist conspiracy in 1948.  The main policy of the First Republic of South Korea was anti-communism and "unification by expanding northward". The South's military was neither sufficiently equipped nor prepared, but the Rhee administration was determined to reunify Korea by

Second Republic 1960–1961.

After the student revolution, power was briefly held by an interim administration under the Foreign Minister Heo Jeong. A new parliamentary election was held on July 29, 1960. The Democratic Party, which had been in the opposition during the First Republic, easily gained power and the Second Republic was established. The revised constitution dictated the Second Republic to take the form of a parliamentary cabinet system where the President took only a nominal role. This was the first and the only instance South Korea turned to a parliamentary cabinet system instead of a presidential system. The assembly elected Yun Bo-seon as President and Chang Myon as the Prime Minister and head of government in August, 1960.  The Second Republic saw the proliferation of political activity which had been repressed under the Rhee regime. Much of this activity was from leftist and student

Military rule 1961–1963.

The May 16 coup, led by Major General Park Chung-hee on May 16, 1961, put an effective end to the Second Republic. Park was one of a group of military leaders who had been pushing for the de-politicization of the military. Dissatisfied with the cleanup measures undertaken by the Second Republic and convinced that the current disoriented state would collapse into communism, they chose to take matters into their own hands.  The National Assembly was dissolved and military officers replaced the civilian officials. In May 1961, the junta declared "Pledges of the Revolution": anticommunism was to be the nation's main policy; friendly relations would be strengthened with

Third Republic 1963–1972.

Park's administration started the Third Republic by announcing the Five-Year Economic Development Plan, an export-oriented industrialization policy. Top priority was placed on the growth of a self-reliant economy and modernization; "Development First, Unification Later" became the slogan of the times and the economy grew rapidly with vast improvement in industrial structure, especially in the basic and heavy chemical industries. Capital was needed for such development, so the Park regime used the influx of foreign aid from Japan and the United States to provide loans to export businesses, with preferential treatment in obtaining low-interest bank loans and tax benefits. Cooperating with the government, these businesses would later become the "chaebol".  Relations with Japan were normalized by the Korea-Japan treaty ratified in June 1965. This treaty brought Japanese funds in the form of loans and compensation for the damages suffered during the colonial era without an official apology from the Japanese government, sparking much protest across the nation.  The government also kept close ties with the United States, and continued to receive large amounts of aid. A status of forces agreement was concluded in 1966, clarifying the legal situation of the US forces stationed there. Soon thereafter, Korea joined the Vietnam War, eventually sending a total of 300,000 soldiers from 1964 to 1973 to fight alongside US troops and South Vietnamese Armed Forces.  Economic and technological growth during this period improved the standard for living, which expanded

Fourth Republic 1972–1979.

The Fourth Republic began with the adoption of the Yushin Constitution on November 21, 1972. This new constitution gave Park effective control over the parliament and the possibility of permanent presidency. The president would be elected through indirect election by an elected body, and the term of presidency was extended to six years with no restrictions on reappointment. The legislature and judiciary were controlled by the government, and educational guidelines were under direct surveillance as well. Textbooks supporting the ideology of the military government were authorized by the government, diminishing the responsibilities of the Ministry of Education.  Despite social and political unrest, the economy continued to flourish under the authoritarian rule with the export-based industrialization policy. The first two five-year economic development plans were successful, and the 3rd and 4th

Fifth Republic 1979–1987.

After the assassination of Park Chung-hee, Prime Minister Choi Kyu-hah took the president's role only to be usurped 6 days later by Major General Chun Doo-hwan's 1979 Coup d'état of December Twelfth. In May of the following year, a vocal civil society composed primarily of university students and labour unions led strong protests against authoritarian rule all over the country. Chun Doo-hwan declared martial law on May 17, 1980, and protests escalated. Political opponents Kim Dae-jung and Kim Jong-pil were arrested, and Kim Young-sam was confined to house arrest.  On May 18, 1980, a confrontation broke out in the city of Gwangju between protesting students of Chonnam National University and the armed forces dispatched by the Martial Law Command. The incident turned into a citywide protest that lasted nine days until May 27 and resulted in the Gwangju massacre. Immediate estimates of the civilian death toll ranged from a few dozen to 2000, with a later full investigation by the civilian government finding nearly 200 deaths and 850 injured. In June 1980, Chun ordered the National Assembly to be dissolved. He subsequently created the National Defense Emergency Policy Committee, and installed himself as a member. On 17 July, he resigned his position of KCIA Director, and then held only the position of committee member. In September 1980, President Choi Kyu-hah was forced to resign from president to give way to the new military leader, Chun Doo-hwan.  In September of that year, Chun was elected president by indirect election and inaugurated in March of the following year, officially starting the Fifth Republic. A new Constitution was established with notable changes; maintaining the presidential system but limiting it to a single 7-year term, strengthening the authority of the National Assembly, and conferring the responsibilities of appointing judiciary to the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. However, the system of indirect election of the president stayed and many military persons were appointed to highly ranked government positions, keeping the remnants of the Yushin era.  The government promised a new era

Sixth Republic 1987–present.

The Sixth Republic was established in 1987 and remains the current polity of South Korea.

Roh Tae-woo, 1988–1993.

Roh Tae-woo became president for the 13th presidential term in the first direct presidential election in 16 years. Although Roh was from a military background and one of the leaders of Chun's coup d'état, the inability of the opposition leaders Kim Dae-jung and Kim Young-sam to agree on a unified candidacy, led to his being elected. The first female presidential candidate, Hong Sook-ja, even withdrew from the race in order to back Kim Young-sam against Roh.Roh was officially inaugurated in February 1988. The government set out to eliminate past vestiges of authoritarian rule, by revising laws and decrees to fit

Kim Young-sam, 1993–1998.

Kim Young-sam was elected president in the 1992 elections after Roh's tenure. He was the country's first civilian president in 30 years since 1962 and promised to build a "New Korea". The government set out to correct the mistakes of the previous administrations. Local government elections were held in 1995, and parliamentary elections in 1996. In a response to popular demand, former presidents Chun and Roh were both indicted on charges linked to bribery, illegal funds, and in the case of Chun, responsibility for the Gwangju massacre. They were tried and sentenced to prison in December 1996.  Relations with the North improved and

Kim Dae-jung 1998–2003.

In February 1998, Kim Dae-jung was officially inaugurated. South Korea had maintained its commitment to democratize its political processes and this was the first transfer of the government between parties by peaceful means. Kim's government faced the daunting task of overcoming the economic crisis, but with the joint efforts of the government's aggressive pursuit of foreign investment, cooperation from the industrial sector, and the citizen's gold-collecting campaign, the country was able to come out of the crisis in a relatively short period of time.  Industrial reconstruction of the big conglomerate "chaebols" was pursued, a national pension system was established in 1998, educational

Roh Moo-hyun, 2003–2008.

Roh Moo-hyun was elected to the presidency in December 2002 by direct election. His victory came with much support from the younger generation and civic groups who had hopes of a participatory democracy, and Roh's administration consequently launched with the motto of "participation government". Unlike the previous governments, the administration decided to take a long-term view and execute market-based reforms at a gradual pace. This approach did not please the public, however, and by the end of 2003, approval ratings were falling.  The Roh administration succeeded in overcoming regionalism in South Korean politics, diluting the collusive ties between politics and business, empowering the civil society, settling the Korea-United States FTA issue, continuing summit

Lee Myung-bak, 2008–2013.

Roh's successor, Lee Myung-bak, was inaugurated in February 2008. Stating "creative pragmatism" as a guiding principle, Lee's administration set out to revitalize the flagging economy, re-energize diplomatic ties, stabilize social welfare, and meet the challenges of globalization. In April 2008, the ruling party secured a majority in the National Assembly elections. Also that month, summit talks with the United States addressed the Korea-US Free Trade Agreement and helped ease tensions between the two countries caused by the previous administrations. Lee agreed to lift the ban on US beef imports, which caused massive protests and demonstrations in the months that followed, as paranoia

Park Geun-hye, 2013–2017.

Park Geun-hye was inaugurated in February 2013. She is the eighteenth President of South Korea and is the eldest child of South Korea's stratocratic third President, Park Chung-hee. She was the first woman to be elected South Korean president, and to be elected as a head of state in the modern history of Northeast Asia. Over the years, however, her reputation was marred by her incompetency of handling the "Sewol" ferry disaster, and later a major scandal, leading to her impeachment in

Moon Jae-in, 2017-present.

Moon Jae-in is the current president of South Korea. He was inaugurated on May 10, 2017. As

The history of South Korea formally begins with its establishment on 15 August 1948. Korea was administratively partitioned in 1945, at the end of World War II. As Korea was under Japanese rule during World War II, Korea was officially a belligerent against the Allies by virtue of being Japanese territory. The unconditional surrender of Japan led to the division of Korea into two occupation zones (similar to the four zones in Germany), with the United States administering the southern half of the peninsula and the Soviet Union administering the area north of the 38th parallel. This division was meant to be temporary (as was in Germany) and was first intended to return a unified Korea back to its people after the United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, and Republic of China could arrange a single government for the peninsula.

Gegenstand der Geschichte Südkoreas sind die politischen, gesellschaftlichen und ökonomischen Entwicklungen der Republik Korea, die 1948 südlich des 38. Breitengrads auf der Koreanischen Halbinsel ausgerufen wurde. Die Geschichte Südkoreas und die Geschichte Nordkoreas entsprechen in ihrer Gesamtheit der Geschichte Koreas seit Ende des Zweiten Weltkriegs.


Production.

King wrote or co-wrote all of the songs on the album, several of which had already been hits for other artists such as Aretha Franklin's "(You Make Me Feel Like) A Natural Woman" and The Shirelles' "Will You Love Me Tomorrow" (in 1960). Three songs were co-written with King's ex-husband Gerry Goffin. James Taylor, who encouraged King to sing her own songs and who also played on "Tapestry", would later have a number one hit with "You've Got a Friend". Two songs were co-written with Toni Stern: "It's Too Late" and "Where You Lead".  The album was recorded at Studio B, A&M Recording Studios during January 1971 with the support of Joni Mitchell and James Taylor, plus various experienced session musicians. Several of the musicians worked simultaneously on Taylor's "Mud Slide Slim and the Blue Horizon" album.  The cover photograph was taken by A&M staff photographer Jim McCrary at King's Laurel Canyon home. It shows her sitting in a window frame, holding a tapestry that she'd hand-stitched herself, with her cat Telemachus at her feet.

Critical reception.

The album was critically well-received; "Village Voice" critic Robert Christgau felt that her voice, free of "technical decorum", would liberate female singers; while Jon Landau in "Rolling Stone" felt that King was one of the most creative pop music figures and had created an album of "surpassing personal-intimacy and musical accomplishment".

Awards.

Along with being selected Album of the Year, it also received Grammys for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance, Record of the Year ("It's Too Late"), and Song of the Year ("You've Got a Friend"), making King the first solo female artist to win the Grammy Award for Record of the Year, and the first woman to win the Grammy Award for Song of the Year.  The album remained on the "Billboard" charts for 313 weeks (second only to Pink Floyd's 724 weeks with "The Dark Side of the Moon").

Commercial performance.

"Tapestry" was number one on the "Billboard" 200 for 15 consecutive weeks. It held the record for most non-consecutive weeks at number one by a female solo artist for over 20 years, until surpassed by Whitney Houston's "" in 1993, which spent 20 weeks at number one. "Tapestry" still holds the record for most consecutive weeks at number one by a female solo artist. The album was listed on the "Billboard" 200 for 318 weeks between 1971 and 2011 (302 weeks consecutively from April 10, 1971 to January 15, 1977), the longest by a female solo artist until Adele's "21" surpassed it in 2017. In terms of time on the charts, it ranks fifth overall, and in terms of length on the charts for solo musical acts it ranks second. Of all the albums by female artists to be certified Diamond, it was the first released, although it was not the first being certified. In Canada, the album was number one for 9 weeks beginning July 3, 1971.

Legacy.

Several songs from the album were recorded by other artists and became hits while the album was still on the charts: James Taylor's 1971 cover of "You've Got a Friend" hit number one in the US and number four in the UK, and Barbra Streisand's 1971 studio recording of "Where You Lead" reached number 40 while a live recording of a medley in which Streisand paired the song with the Sweet Inspirations hit "Sweet Inspiration" reached number 37 the following year.  Various artists combined to re-record all the original tracks for more than one tribute album. The first, released in 1995 and entitled "", was certified gold. The second, in 2003, was entitled "A New Tapestry – Carole King Tribute". In 2010 Australian recording artist Marcia Hines recorded a tribute album, "Marcia Sings Tapestry".  "Her songs are like stories or sonic movies," observed Tori Amos. "You want to walk into them. With 'I Feel the Earth Move' or 'It's Too Late', you're right there."  "Tapestry" frequently appears on critics' lists of the best albums. In 2003, it ranked number 36 on "Rolling Stone"s 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, maintaining the rating in a 2012 revised list, and was listed by VH1 as number 39 on their list of 100 Greatest Albums, and was one of 50 recordings chosen to be added to the National Recording Registry. Recordings added to the National Recording Registry are picked to be preserved in the Library of Congress as they are "culturally, historically, or aesthetically important." Based on such listings, Acclaimed Music ranks "Tapestry" as the 72nd most acclaimed album in history.  In March 2016 it was announced that Carole King would perform the album live in its entirety for the first time at the British Summer Time Festival in Hyde Park, London on July 3, 2016. The performance was released the next year as "Tapestry: Live at Hyde Park".

Track listing.

All songs written by Carole King except where noted.  Side 1  Side 2  1999 CD reissue  2008 "Legacy Edition"  In 2008, Sony/BMG, Epic, and Ode released a two-disc "Legacy Edition". One disc is the original album remastered; the second disc is live performances of 11 of the 12 songs, recorded in 1973 at Boston; Columbia, Maryland; and Central Park, New York; and in 1976 at the San Francisco Opera House. "Where You Lead" is the song not included on the live disc.  Live disc track listing

Charts and certifications.

Weekly charts.

Original release

Tapestry is the second studio album by American singer-songwriter Carole King, released in 1971 on Ode Records and produced by Lou Adler. It is one of the best-selling albums of all time, with over 25 million copies sold worldwide. In the United States, it has been certified Diamond by the RIAA with more than 10 million copies sold. It received four Grammy Awards in 1972, including Album of the Year. The lead singles from the album—"It's Too Late"/"I Feel the Earth Move"—spent five weeks at number one on both the "Billboard" Hot 100 and Easy Listening charts. In 2000 it was voted number 74 in Colin Larkin's "All Time Top 1000 Albums". In 2003, "Tapestry" was ranked number 36 on "Rolling Stone" list of the 500 greatest albums of all time.

Tapestry ist das zweite und erfolgreichste Studioalbum der US-amerikanischen Musikerin Carole King, die bis dahin vor allem als Songwriterin von Rock- und Popsongs bekannt war. Das Album wurde 1971 von Lou Adlers Label Ode Records veröffentlicht.