History.

Etymology.

According to the latest research efforts, the name "Schweinfurt" has evolved over the course of centuries from the designations "Suinuurde", "Suinfurt", "Swinvordi", "Sweinvort" and ultimately "Sweynfurt". It is only certain that at no point in time were swine driven across a ford in the Main River. This surely would have reassured Friedrich Rückert. But it will always remain an open question as to whether the name "Schweinfurt" actually has anything to do with "swine".

Pre-BCE History.

Traces of settlement as early as 7500 years ago can be detected on today's urban area at various places. The first settlement of the historic Schweinfurt "(Village Old Town)" was also on the Main, between the two streams "Höllenbach" and "Marienbach", 1 km east of the later founded imperial city, which corresponds to the old town today. The "Village Old Town" is in its origins at least 2100 years old.

8th to 13th centuries.

The first documentary mention Schweinfurts (village old town) took place in the year 791. Schweinfurt gained importance in 941 with the mention of Count Berthold as the first member of the House of the Counts of Schweinfurt. He occupied an important position in the central Reich territory, the Duchy of Franconia. Berthold gave the king of East Francia Otto I. (936-973), who in 962 became Roman-German Emperor, valuable weapons aid against rebellious tribal dukes. As thanks Berthold of Otto I received the counties for the Folkfeld- and the Radenzgau and the Margraviate for the Nordgau, about the present-day Upper Palatinate. Thus he was and from 980 his son Henry the most powerful secular nobility in the area of today's northern Bavaria.  Later supported Count Henry of Schweinfurt (called: "Hezilo") the East Frankish Henry II (1002-1024, from 1014 Roman-German Emperor) in the royal election of 1002 and was awarded the Duke dignity of Bavarians. After the election, however, Henry II did not fulfill the promise. Thereupon it came to the "Schweinfurt Feud" in 1003. Count Heinrich lost all his possessions. The confiscated royal goods formed the core of the new bishopric of Bamberg. Hezilo, however, retained his possessions around the castle hill "Peterstirn". The family, in which Judith of Schweinfurt became a central figure in the history of the old Schweinfurt city, died in the male line of 1057 and at the latest this year marks the undisputed end of the important role of the Margraves of Schweinfurt.  To the beginnings of today's old town from the 12th century, 1 km west of the previous settlement between the both streams "Marienbach" and "Höllenbach", there are different views. The from a gradual construction to a planned Civitas Imperii (imperial city), so a founding city, by Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa, using existing royal estate, rich. In the struggle for supremacy in "Main Franconia" (region around the River Main) between the Henneberger and the Bishop of Würzburg, the city was destroyed between 1240 and 1250 "(First City Spoilage)". However, it is controversial whether this destruction was still in the old settlement between Höllenbach and Marienbach and thus a reason for the rebuilding of the city on the farther west, today's site was or whether the destruction took place here already. In a letter from King William of Holland dated January 9, 1254, it is said that Schweinfurt used to be imperial city "(... Swinforde, que olim imperii civitas fuerat)". It remains unclear whether rights have ever been withdrawn from the city or whether only reference is made to the city's destruction. However, this letter is the first documentary evidence of Schweinfurt as imperial city and thus as a place with city rights.

13th to 15th centuries.

The (inner) city fortification of the new city was built and first documented in 1258, it is still largely preserved on Marienbach today. A document from 1282 signed by Rudolf I of Habsburg states that Schweinfurt was a free city within the Holy Roman Empire. By pledge 1309 Schweinfurt came to the House of Henneberg, who maintained from 1310 to 1427 a "Reichsburg" (castle of the empire) in the old Schweinfurt city district "Zürch". The danger of being estranged from the Empire in the long run could only be banned by large financial sacrifices by self-triggering (1361/1385). As a result, numerous royal privileges strengthened the municipality in legal and economic terms.  In the 15th century began the construction of a territory around the core city, which lasted until 1620. In 1436, the fishermen's settlement of "Fischerrain", which borders on the city wall and lies just to the southwest, whose origins lie in the darkness of history, was incorporated into the city. Due to positive economic development, the city can acquire the suburb of Oberndorf in 1436. 1436/37 received the advice of the city from the Teutonic Knights for 18,000 guilders the castle on the "Peterstirn" and the associated land area with the villages Zell and Weipoltshausen, which belongs to Üchtelhausen today.

16th to 18th centuries.

Schweinfurt joined the Reformation relatively late, in 1542 since the city, together with neighboring imperial villages and imperial villages, was completely surrounded by the Catholic Hochstift Würzburg. In a confession change had to be expected military assault. The patron of the city, Count Wilhelm von Henneberg, did not offer sufficient support.  In the course of the Second Margrave War, the city was looted in 1554 and set on fire. This went as the "Second City Spoilage" in the city history ("First City Spoilage" see: 8th to 13th centuries). The reconstruction dragged on until 1615. In this form, the old town, with the exception of later modernized fortifications, remained almost unchanged until the early 19th century. In 1609 the city joined the Protestant Union. The imperial city territory was supplemented 1620 also still around Madenhausen, which also belongs to Üchtelhausen today. Due to the acquisitions, the territory of the imperial city now had an extension of 17 km from southwest to northeast. As a result of the city of Schweinfurt on the knight canton of Baunach a nearly continuous Protestant corridor was created by the Hochstifte Würzburg and Bamberg in the Protestant Duchy of Saxony.  Schweinfurt joined the Protestant Union in 1609. In the Thirty Years' War it was occupied by Gustavus Adolphus, who erected fortifications, the remains of which are still extant. In 1652 the four doctors Johann Laurentius Bausch, Johann Michael Fehr, Georg Balthasar Wolfahrt and Balthasar Metzger founded the "Academia Curiosorum" in Schweinfurt, which is known today as the German Academy of Life Scientists, "Leopoldina".  Schweinfurt remained a free imperial city until 1802, when it passed to the Electorate of Bavaria. Assigned to the grand duke of Würzburg in 1810, it was granted to the Kingdom of Bavaria four years later. The first railway junction was opened in 1852. In the following years Schweinfurt became a world leading centre for the production of ball bearings. This was to lead to grievous consequences for the city during World War II.

18th to 20th centuries.

The year 1770 marked the beginning of the industrialization of the city, with its 250-year-old industrial history. In the first century of industrialization, the chemical and paint industry started in Schweinfurt, with the construction of the Wolf's lead white mill at the Bleiweißmühlenwehr. According to Dr. Ferdinand Gademann (1880-1969), it was the oldest German lead white factory. In 1780 the factory was taken over by Johann Martin Schmidt. Further factory-similar plants of this kind originated at the Bellevue and in the neighboring suburb Niederwerrn.  Following the Reichsdeputationshauptschluss, Schweinfurt came to Bavaria in 1803, two years before the Kingdom of Bavaria was founded. 4000 people demonstrated against the Anschluss at the Rossmarkt. After the interim membership of the Grand Duchy of Würzburg (1810-1814), Schweinfurt fell in 1814 to the Kingdom of Bavaria. The villages belonging to the imperial city territory were spun off. As a result, Schweinfurt lost about two thirds of its territory.  1852 took place with the opening of the "Ludwigs-Westbahn" from Bamberg to the new Schweinfurt Stadt station the connection to the railway network. With the construction of the line to Bad Kissingen (1871) and the Schweinfurt–Meiningen railway (1874) Schweinfurt became a railway junction. In 1874, a large marshalling and central station was built 3 km west of the city station, at that time on Oberndorf district, the so-called "Central Station" and today's Schweinfurt Hauptbahnhof at the Bamberg–Rottendorf railway. It was created in a far-sighted manner amidst fields as a passenger and goods main station, with the aim of leaving as much room for the expected industrialization of the station, which also took place here until the end of the 1930s was. The Schweinfurt tram was the first municipal tram in Bavaria from 1895 to 1921 to connect the Schweinfurt Hauptbahnhof with the town center.  Unlike many other cities, the 1930s were one of the most important epochs of urban development in Schweinfurt. The number of employees of major metalworking companies rose to 20,700 by 1939. This led to a construction boom and set the course for modern urban development.

World War II.

In 1939, Schweinfurt produced most of Nazi Germany's ball bearings, and factories such as the Schweinfurter Kugellagerwerke became a target of Allied strategic bombing during World War II to cripple tank and aircraft production. Schweinfurt was bombed 22 times during Operation Pointblank by a total of 2,285 aircraft.  The Schweinfurt-Regensburg mission caused an immediate 34% loss of production and all plants but the largest were devastated by fire. Efforts to disperse the surviving machinery began immediately and the Luftwaffe deployed large numbers of interceptors along the corridor to Schweinfurt. Bombing also included the Second Raid on Schweinfurt on 14 October 1943 ("called Black Thursday because of the enormous loss of aircraft (60) and lives (600+)") and Big Week in February 1944.  Although losses of production bearings and machinery were high and much of the industrial and residential areas of the town were destroyed, killing more than a thousand civilians, the factories were restored to production and the industry dispersed. Although German planners initially thought it essential to purchase the entire output of the Swedish ball-bearing industry, losses in the production of bearings were actually made up from surpluses found within Germany in the aftermath of the first raid. The decentralized industry was able to restore output to 85% of its pre-bombing level. Hitler made restoration of ball bearing production a high priority and massive efforts were undertaken to repair and rebuild the factories, partly in bomb-proof underground facilities.  The 42nd Infantry Division (United States) entered Schweinfurt on 11 April 1945 and engaged in house-to-house fighting. On 12 April an internment camp at Goethe-Schule held male civilians aged 16–60.

U.S. Army Garrison Schweinfurt.

After the war Schweinfurt became a stronghold of the U.S. military and their dependants. Thus Schweinfurt recovered relatively quickly from its third period of destruction. The tank barracks renamed Ledward Barracks in 1946, became the headquarters of the newly founded U.S. Army Garrison Schweinfurt (USAG Schweinfurt). The U.S. Army took over the Luftwaffe Airfield as Schweinfurt Army Heliport and renamed the air base to "Conn Barracks". In the course of time, until 2014, they were expanded into large barracks with many hangars, administration buildings, a large event hall, church and sports facilities.  From the 1950s to the late 1990s, a civilian infrastructure similar to that of a small American town was successively built in the northwest of Schweinfurt. As a result of the closure of many other German U.S. sites, Schweinfurt eventually became one of Europe's largest U.S. locations. Including the "Brönnhof" training area the USAG Schweinfurt covered a total area of 29 km2. Schweinfurt formerly hosted the U.S. Army Garrison Schweinfurt, which the U.S. Army closed on 19 September 2014 due to an ongoing effort to concentrate the U.S. military's footprint in Germany to fewer communities.

Reconstruction and postwar period.

A quick, scheduled rebuilding of the town was not necessary due to the degree of destruction of 40 to 45% (see: Cityscape). Like many other West German cities and communities, Schweinfurt also experienced an unprecedented economic miracle in the 1950s and 1960s, and large-scale industry boomed. To counteract the labor shortage, guest workers were recruited from 1960 onwards.  Most of the postwar construction projects were realized under the aegis of Mayor Georg Wichtermann (SPD, 1965-1974), in the city governed by the SPD by an absolute majority. Numerous new residential districts were created. By the "Jump over the River Main" (starting from 1963) developed south of the Main River the commercial park "Port East" and the new industrial area "Port West". The infrastructure was expanded, with the Main Port (1963) and today's University of Applied Sciences Würzburg-Schweinfurt (1971).  After successful reconstruction and the boom years, the time of Mayor Kurt Petzold (SPD, 1974–1992) was marked by consolidation, but also by the oil crisis and recessions, with job cuts in the local large-scale industry. The old town renovation began in 1979, as the starting point of a 40-year-long transformation of the town that has continued to this day, with a change in image, from the gray mouse industrial town to a town with a high quality of life. In 1991, the large "Leopoldina Hospital" was opened.

The era Grieser 1992-2010.

In a town dominated by the SPD, the CSU succeeded in 1992 for the first time to make the Lord Mayor, with the political cross-starter Gudrun Grieser. The Bavarian state government under the then Prime Minister Edmund Stoiber (CSU) sympathetically accompanied the historical change of power and parts of the Bavarian State Social Court and the Bavarian State Statistics Office were relocated from Munich to Schweinfurt. During Grieser's term of office, the economic situation stabilized starting in the mid-1990s, with 4,500 new industrial jobs and around 6,000 jobs in the service sector. Trade tax revenue rose to a record high.  In the Grieser era, the town's new motto, "Industry and Art", was developed. A large number of projects, in cooperation with the construction officer Jochen Müller (SPD) gave the town a new face, set new, nationally recognized symbols in architecture and were honored with numerous architecture prizes. Among the many realized projects are the new Industrial Park "Gewerbepark Maintal" (since 1995), the Museum Georg Schäfer (2000), the "Maininsel Conference Center" (2004), the "Stadtbücherei Ebracher Hof" (2007), the Kunsthalle Schweinfurt (art gallery, 2009), the Stadtgalerie Schweinfurt, a 300 m long shopping mall 2009) with redesign of the Weststadt (westend) and the new Schweinfurt Mitte station, the Youth Hostel (2009), the "Health Park Schweinfurt" (2009) and the Campus 2 of the University of Applied Sciences Würzburg-Schweinfurt. The era of Grieser remains to this day shaping the town, like no other epoch after the reconstruction and it changed the town's image lasting positive.  In 1998, German and American veterans and survivors of the bombing raids came together to erect a war memorial to the fallen. 2004 startet the Unterfrankenshuttle "(Lower Franconia Shuttle)" of the Erfurter Bahn (EB) regional railway with lines from Schweinfurt to other parts of Lower Franconia and to South Thuringia.

Present.

The "New Hadergasse Project" was implemented under the current mayor Sebastian Remelé (CSU, since 2010). Trade tax receipts continued to rise and the town was able to save reserves. These are currently being used for the mammoth U.S. conversion project, which is currently one of the five largest military conversion projects in Germany. The i-Campus Schweinfurt in the former Ledward Barracks and the new district of Bellevue in the former Askren Manor Housing Area deserve special mention.

Geography.

Location.

Schweinfurt has a central location in Germany and is located about 40 km from Baden-Württemberg, Hesse and Thuringia, in the middle of Main Franconia, Germanic-speaking Europe and the European Union. Schweinfurt lies on the river Main, which connects the North Sea with the Black Sea via the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal. While not being part of any metropolitan area, the town is situated between the cities of Frankfurt (110 km west) and Nuremberg (90 km southeast), both with international airports.  Schweinfurt also has a natural location in the Franconian wine country, at the "Schweinfurter Rhön", with the National Natural Heritage "Brönnhof" and is surrounded by Haßberge Hills, Steigerwald, Rhön and Spessart, with several natural parks and a biosphere reserve. In sight are Steigerwald, "Gramschatzer Forest" and Rhön. The town is located in a climatically contrasting region, between the summer hot "Mainfränkischen Plates" in the south and the low mountain range in the north, with international winter sports in Oberhof.  Schweinfurt itself is also a town of great contrasts, in terms of topography, use and population structure. The bourgeois east lies on the foothills of the "Schweinfurter Rhön", is intersected by valleys with streams, with the above the "Marienbach" located old town and numerous detached houses, on the edge with vineyards and the town forest. The west, with the town center, main station and (former) working-class neighborhoods, has a high proportion of migrants. The almost uninhabited south is the largest contiguous industrial area in Bavaria.

New centrality.

As a result of the fall of the Iron Curtain, the economic and geographical situation of Schweinfurt changed fundamentally. In 2005, the Thuringian Forest Autobahn 71 Erfurt-Schweinfurt was completed as a transport "Project German Unity" No. 16. In 2017 Schweinfurt gained further centrality with the 10 billion Euro transport "Project German Unity" No. 8. Berlin is now under three and a half hours, Munich from 2:33 hours and Hamburg from 3:57 hours reachable, now two high-speed lines, with change in Bamberg and Würzburg. Berlin and Munich are about three quarters of an hour faster from Schweinfurt than from Frankfurt. Paris is in 6:22 hours reachable. As part of the "Deutsche Bahn Long-Distance Transport Offensive" Schweinfurt receives no later than December 2028 a direct "Inter City" (IC) connection, through the new IC Bamberg-Stuttgart-Tübingen.

Viticulture.

Viticulture has probably been practiced in the city for well over 1000 years. At the beginning of the 19th century, Schweinfurt was an important Franconian wine-growing and wine-trading town. At the end of the imperial city period in 1802 there were around 320 hectares of vines, which corresponds to today's largest Franconian wine-growing town in Nordheim am Main. Large parts of today's district, right up to the edge of the old town, are located on former vineyards. Goethe appreciated the Schweinfurt wine and had large quantities delivered. Today, with only 3.54 hectares of vineyards (2017), the local viticulture has hardly any economic, but still cultural importance for the self-awareness and way of life of the city.  The phylloxera appeared in Franconia in 1902 and hit the Schweinfurt area particularly hard. Since the 1980s, viticulture with the leading variety Silvaner has been carried out as planned in the historic wine locations of "Peterstirn" and "Mainleite". Due to the almost complete interruption of winegrowing, the vineyards were spared the major land consolidation of the 1970s, during which the historical structures were mostly destroyed. The small wine-cultural landscape at Peterstirn Palace remained intact. There is a family-owned winery on Peterstirn, where a wine festival takes place twice a year.

Districts.

In the Bavarian territorial reform no suburbs were incorporated into the city of Schweinfurt, which is why the urban area includes only the core city and incorporated in 1919 Oberndorf. The urban area was divided into 23 statistical districts, which are summarized in 15 districts (bold font in the table). For a long time, the Bergl was the most populous district, with 13,000 inhabitants around 1970. With only 9,163 inhabitants at the end of 2017, it was only second, after the city center, with 11,276 inhabitants.

Demographics.

In 1939, Schweinfurt had about 49,000 inhabitants. The population reached its highest level in 1970 with 58,500 inhabitants. While thereafter most German cities could compensate for a demographic-related decrease of inhabitants by incorporations, in Schweinfurt the population decreased to about 52,000 in 1987. By 1996, the population rose to 56,000, mainly due to the influx of late repatriates. However, by 2014, the number of inhabitants fell again to 51,600 people, the lowest since the early 1950s. Thereafter, contrary to the forecasts of the Bavarian State Statistics Office and the Bertelsmann Foundation, both of which merely continued the past demographic development, a positive turnaround occurred due to several factors not taken into account: refugees, US conversion, i-Campus Schweinfurt. Since 2015, the number of inhabitants has been rising steadily, most recently to 54,032 at the end of 2018.  Not included in the population statistics are members of the U.S. Army Garrison Schweinfurt stationed in and near the city between 1945 and 2014 with their families. These were at times over 12,000 people.  The urban agglomeration is in the case of Schweinfurt a better comparison size to the population of other cities. In 1994, it had 105,000 inhabitants, fell to 96,600 inhabitants (Census 9. 5. 2011) and then rose again to 100,200 inhabitants (estimate 31. 12. 2018).  Bold: highest level Red: lowest since the early 1950s

Economy.

Schweinfurt is known for its metal industry, especially ball bearing plants, FAG Kugelfischer AG, ZF Sachs AG, Bosch Rexroth and SKF. The pigment Schweinfurt Green is manufactured here. SRAM Corporation hosts the world's largest development center of the bicycle industry in Schweinfurt.  With a GDP per capita of €78,382, Schweinfurt ranks third in Germany after Wolfsburg and Frankfurt am Main.  According to a recent study by the Swiss Institute of Economic Research forecasters Schweinfurt is one of the fastest growing cities in Germany. The study confirmed the city, among other things, the highest concentration of jobs in Germany with particularly high Beschäftigungsanteil (employment share) in the German high-tech sector.  The Contor-2010 study, which was commissioned by the "Manager Magazine", ranked Schweinfurt as one of the most dynamic cities in Europe in terms of development opportunities. From rank 63 in 2007, the city significantly improved to rank 16 in 2010.

Culture and architecture.

Cityscape.

Schweinfurt has a contrasting cityscape with old and modern buildings.

Main sights.

Schweinfurt's main landmarks include:  The marketplace has a large Friedrich Rückert monument in the centre, around which weekly markets and many city festivals are held. Stadtgalerie Schweinfurt, a 300 m long shopping mall, was built 2009.  Motherwell Park and Châteaudun Park connects the surrounding medieval buildings to the old town.

Around Schweinfurt.

The region around Schweinfurt is a European cultural landscape with two UNESCO cultural heritage sites (Würzburg Residence and the town of Bamberg). The region is also a microcosm with different landscapes and contrasting climate in a small space, accessible on a day trip.

Music.

Vendetta are a thrash metal group from Schweinfurt, founded in 1984.

Schweinfurt (, ; ) is a town in the district of Lower Franconia in Bavaria, Germany. It is the administrative center of the surrounding district ("Landkreis") of Schweinfurt and a major industrial, cultural and educational hub. The urban agglomeration has 100,200 (2018) and the town's catchment area, including the Main-Rhön region and parts of South Thuringia, 759,000 inhabitants.

Schweinfurt (; vmtl. von altniederländisch "Swin", schweinfurterisch: "Schweifert") ist eine kreisfreie Stadt im Regierungsbezirk Unterfranken des Freistaats Bayern. Die Industriemetropole und Hafenstadt am Main ist Oberzentrum, Verwaltungssitz des Landkreises Schweinfurt, Standort zweier Landesbehörden und Hochschulstadt.


Biography.

Early life.

Schiele was born in 1890 in Tulln, Lower Austria. His father, Adolf Schiele, the station master of the Tulln station in the Austrian State Railways, was born in 1851 in Vienna to Karl Ludwig Schiele, a German from Ballenstedt and Aloisia Schimak; Egon Schiele's mother Marie, née Soukup, was born in 1861 in Český Krumlov (Krumau) to Johann Franz Soukup, a Czech father from Mirkovice, and Aloisia Poferl, a German Bohemian mother from Český Krumlov. As a child, Schiele was fascinated by trains, and would spend many hours drawing them, to the point where his father felt obliged to destroy his sketchbooks. When he was 11 years old, Schiele moved to the nearby city of Krems (and later to Klosterneuburg) to attend secondary school. To those around him, Schiele was regarded as a strange child. Shy and reserved, he did poorly at school except in athletics and drawing, and was usually in classes made up of younger pupils. He also displayed incestuous tendencies towards his younger sister Gertrude (who was known as "Gerti"), and his father, well aware of Egon's behaviour, was once forced to break down the door of a locked room that Egon and Gerti were in to see what they were doing (only to discover that they were developing a film). When he was sixteen he took the twelve-year-old Gerti by train to Trieste without permission and spent a night in a hotel room with her.

Academy of Fine Arts.

When Schiele was 15 years old, his father died from syphilis, and he became a ward of his maternal uncle, Leopold Czihaczek, also a railway official. Although he wanted Schiele to follow in his footsteps, and was distressed at his lack of interest in academia, he recognised Schiele's talent for drawing and unenthusiastically allowed him a tutor, the artist Ludwig Karl Strauch. In 1906 Schiele applied at the Kunstgewerbeschule (School of Arts and Crafts) in Vienna, where Gustav Klimt had once studied. Within his first year there, Schiele was sent, at the insistence of several faculty members, to the more traditional Akademie der Bildenden Künste in Vienna in 1906. His main teacher at the academy was Christian Griepenkerl, a painter whose strict doctrine and ultra-conservative style frustrated and dissatisfied Schiele and his fellow students so much that he left three years later.

Klimt and first exhibitions.

In 1907, Schiele sought out Gustav Klimt, who generously mentored younger artists. Klimt took a particular interest in the young Schiele, buying his drawings, offering to exchange them for some of his own, arranging models for him and introducing him to potential patrons. He also introduced Schiele to the Wiener Werkstätte, the arts and crafts workshop connected with the Secession. Schiele's earliest works between 1907 and 1909 contain strong similarities with those of Klimt, as well as influences from Art Nouveau. In 1908 Schiele had his first exhibition, in Klosterneuburg. Schiele left the Academy in 1909, after completing his third year, and founded the "Neukunstgruppe" ("New Art Group") with other dissatisfied students. In his early years, Schiele was strongly influenced by Klimt and Kokoschka. Although imitations of their styles, particularly with the former, are noticeably visible in Schiele's first works, he soon evolved his own distinctive style.  Klimt invited Schiele to exhibit some of his work at the 1909 Vienna "Kunstschau", where he encountered the work of Edvard Munch, Jan Toorop, and Vincent van Gogh among others. Once free of the constraints of the Academy's conventions, Schiele began to explore not only the human form, but also human sexuality. Schiele's work was already daring, but it went a bold step further with the inclusion of Klimt's decorative eroticism and with what some may like to call figurative distortions, that included elongations, deformities, and sexual openness. Schiele's self-portraits helped re-establish the energy of with their unique level of emotional and sexual honesty and use of figural distortion in place of conventional ideals of beauty. He also painted tributes to Van Gogh's "Sunflowers" as well as landscapes and still lifes.  In 1910, Schiele began experimenting with nudes and within a year a definitive style featuring emaciated, sickly-coloured figures, often with strong sexual overtones. Schiele also began painting and drawing children. Schiele's self portrait, "Kneeling Nude with Raised Hands" (1910), is considered among the most significant nude art pieces made during the 20th century. Schiele's radical and developed approach towards the naked human form challenged both scholars and progressives alike. This unconventional piece and style went against strict academia and created a sexual uproar with its contorted lines and heavy display of figurative expression. At the time, many found the explicitness of his works disturbing. From then on, Schiele participated in numerous group exhibitions, including those of the Neukunstgruppe in Prague in 1910 and Budapest in 1912; the Sonderbund, Cologne, in 1912; and several Secessionist shows in Munich, beginning in 1911. In 1911, Schiele met the seventeen-year-old Walburga (Wally) Neuzil, who lived with him in Vienna and served as a model for some of his most striking paintings. Very little is known of her, except that she had previously modelled for Gustav Klimt and might have been one of his mistresses. Schiele and Wally wanted to escape what they perceived as the claustrophobic Viennese milieu, and went to the small town of Český Krumlov (Krumau) in southern Bohemia. Krumau was the birthplace of Schiele's mother; today it is the site of a museum dedicated to Schiele. Despite Schiele's family connections in Krumau, he and his lover were driven out of the town by the residents, who strongly disapproved of their lifestyle, including his alleged employment of the town's teenage girls as models. Progressively, Schiele's work grew more complex and thematic, and he eventually would begin dealing with themes such as death and rebirth.

Neulengbach and imprisonment.

Together they moved to Neulengbach, west of Vienna, seeking inspirational surroundings and an inexpensive studio in which to work. As it was in the capital, Schiele's studio became a gathering place for Neulengbach's delinquent children. Schiele's way of life aroused much animosity among the town's inhabitants, and in April 1912 he was arrested for seducing a young girl of 13, below the 14 year old age of consent.  When the police came to his studio to place him under arrest, they seized more than a hundred drawings which they considered pornographic. Schiele was imprisoned while awaiting his trial. When his case was brought before a judge, the charges of seduction and abduction were dropped, but the artist was found guilty of exhibiting erotic drawings in a place accessible to children. In court, the judge burned one of the offending drawings over a candle flame. The twenty-one days he had already spent in custody were taken into account, and he was sentenced to a further three days' imprisonment. While in prison, Schiele created a series of 12 paintings depicting the difficulties and discomfort of being locked in a jail cell.  In 1913, the Galerie Hans Goltz, Munich, mounted Schiele's first solo show. A solo exhibition of his work took place in Paris in 1914.  In 1914, Schiele glimpsed the sisters Edith and Adéle Harms, who lived with their parents across the street from his studio in the Viennese district of Hietzing, 101 Hietzinger Hauptstraße. They were a middle-class family and Protestant by faith; their father was a master locksmith. In 1915, Schiele chose to marry the more socially acceptable Edith, but had apparently expected to maintain a relationship with Wally. However, when he explained the situation to Wally, she left him immediately and never saw him again. This abandonment led him to paint "Death and the Maiden", where Wally's portrait is based on a previous pairing, but Schiele's is newly struck. (In February 1915, Schiele wrote a note to his friend Arthur Roessler stating: "I intend to get married, advantageously. Not to Wally.") Despite some opposition from the Harms family, Schiele and Edith were married on 17 June 1915, the anniversary of the wedding of Schiele's parents.

WWI to death.

Although Schiele avoided conscription for almost a year, World War I now began to shape his life and work. Three days after his wedding, Schiele was ordered to report for active service in the army where he was initially stationed in Prague. Edith came with him and stayed in a hotel in the city, while Egon lived in an exhibition hall with his fellow conscripts. They were allowed by Schiele's commanding officer to see each other occasionally.  During the war, Schiele's paintings became larger and more detailed. His military service, however, gave him limited time, and much of his output consisted of linear drawings of scenery and military officers. Around this time, Schiele also began experimenting with the themes of motherhood and family. His wife Edith was the model for most of his female figures, but during the war (due to circumstance) many of his sitters were male. Since 1915, Schiele's female nudes became fuller in figure, but many were deliberately illustrated with a lifeless doll-like appearance.  Despite his military service, Schiele was still exhibiting in Berlin. He also had successful shows in Zürich, Prague, and Dresden. His first duties consisted of guarding and escorting Russian prisoners. Because of his weak heart and his excellent handwriting, Schiele was eventually given a job as a clerk in a POW camp near the town of Mühling. There, he was allowed to draw and paint imprisoned Russian officers; his commander, Karl Moser (who assumed that Schiele was a painter and decorator when he first met him), even gave him a disused store room to use as a studio. Since Schiele was in charge of the food stores in the camp, he and Edith could enjoy food beyond rations.  By 1917, he was back in Vienna and able to focus on his artistic career. His output was prolific, and his work reflected the maturity of an artist in full command of his talents. He was invited to participate in the Secession's 49th exhibition, held in Vienna in 1918. Schiele had fifty works accepted for this exhibition, and they were displayed in the main hall. He also designed a poster for the exhibition; it was reminiscent of the Last Supper, with a portrait of himself in the place of Christ. The show was a triumphant success. As a result, prices for Schiele's drawings increased and he received many portrait commissions.  In the autumn of 1918, the Spanish flu pandemic that claimed more than 20,000,000 lives in Europe reached Vienna. Edith, who was six months pregnant, succumbed to the disease on 28 October. Schiele died only three days after his wife. He was 28 years old. During the three days between their deaths, Schiele drew a few sketches of Edith.

Style.

Some critics such as Jane Kallir have commented upon Schiele's work as being grotesque, erotic, pornographic, or disturbing, focusing on sex, death, and discovery. He focused on portraits of others as well as himself. In his later years, while he still worked often with nudes, they were done in a more realist fashion.

Legacy.

Schiele was the subject of the biographical film, "Excess and Punishment" (aka "Egon Schiele – Exzess und Bestrafung"), a 1980 film originating in Germany with a European cast that explores Schiele's artistic demons leading up to his early death. The film was directed by Herbert Vesely and stars Mathieu Carrière as Schiele, Jane Birkin as his early artistic muse Wally Neuzil, Christine Kaufman as his wife, Edith Harms, and Kristina Van Eyck as her sister, Adele Harms. Also in 1980, the Arts Council of Great Britain produced a documentary film, "Schiele in Prison", which looked at the circumstances of Schiele's imprisonment and the veracity of his diary. In 2016 another biographical film was released, "" (German: "Egon Schiele: Tod und Mädchen").  Joanna Scott's 1990 novel "Arrogance" was based on Schiele's life and makes him the main figure. His life was also depicted in a theatrical dance production by Stephan Mazurek called "Egon Schiele", presented in May 1995, for which Rachel's, an American post-rock group, composed a score titled "Music for Egon Schiele". For The Featherstonehaughs contemporary dance company, Lea Anderson choreographed "The Featherstonehaughs Draw On The Sketchbooks Of Egon Schiele" in 1997.  Schiele's life and work have also been the subject of essays, including a discussion of his works by fashion photographer Richard Avedon in an essay on portraiture entitled "Borrowed Dogs." Mario Vargas Llosa uses the work of Schiele as a conduit to seduce and morally exploit a main character in his 1997 novel "The Notebooks of Don Rigoberto".  Wes Anderson's film "The Grand Budapest Hotel" features a painting by Rich Pellegrino that is modeled after Schiele's style which, as part of a theft, replaces a so-called Flemish/Renaissance masterpiece, but is then destroyed by the angry owner when he discovers the deception. Julia Jordan based her 1999 play "Tatjana in Color", which was produced off-Broadway at The Culture Project during the fall of 2003, on a fictionalization of the relationship between Shiele and the 12-year-old Tatjana von Mossig, the Neulengbach girl whose morals he was ultimately convicted of corrupting for allowing her to see his paintings. The opening chapters of Guy Mankowski's 2017 novel "An Honest Deceit" were cited to be heavily influenced by Schiele's paintings; in particular his portrayals of his sister, Gertrude.

Art collections.

The Leopold Museum, Vienna houses perhaps Schiele's most important and complete collection of work, featuring over 200 exhibits. The museum sold one of these, "Houses With Colorful Laundry (Suburb II)", for $40.1 million at Sotheby's in 2011. Other notable collections of Schiele's art include the Egon Schiele-Museum, Tulln, the Österreichische Galerie Belvedere, and the Albertina Graphic Collection, both in Vienna. Viktor Fogarassy collected works by Schiele, including "Dämmernde Stadt".

Auction history.

"Portrait of Wally", a 1912 portrait, was purchased by Rudolf Leopold in 1954 and became part of the collection of the Leopold Museum when it was established by the Austrian government, purchasing more than 5,000 pieces that Leopold had owned. After a 1997–1998 exhibit of Schiele's work at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, the painting was seized by order of the New York County District Attorney and had been tied up in litigation by heirs of its former owner who claim that the painting was Nazi plunder and should be returned to them.  The dispute was settled on 20 July 2010 and the picture subsequently purchased by the Leopold Museum for US$19 million. In 2013, the museum sold three drawings by Schiele for £14 million at Sotheby's London in order to settle the restitution claim over its 1914 Schiele painting "Houses by the Sea". The most expensive, "Liebespaar (Selbstdarstellung mit Wally)" (1914/15), or "Two lovers (Self Portrait With Wally)", raised the world auction record for a work on paper by the artist to £7.88 million.  On 21 June 2013 Auctionata in Berlin sold a watercolor from 1916, "Reclining Woman", at an online auction for €1.827 million (US$2.418 million). This is a world record for the most expensive work of art ever sold at an online auction.

Egon Schiele (; 12 June 1890 – 31 October 1918) was an Austrian painter. A protégé of Gustav Klimt, Schiele was a major figurative painter of the early 20th century. His work is noted for its intensity and its raw sexuality, and the many self-portraits the artist produced, including nude self-portraits. The twisted body shapes and the expressive line that characterize Schiele's paintings and drawings mark the artist as an early exponent of Expressionism.

Egon Leo Adolf Ludwig Schiele (* 12. Juni 1890 in Tulln an der Donau, Niederösterreich; † 31. Oktober 1918 in Wien) war ein österreichischer Maler des Expressionismus. Neben Gustav Klimt und Oskar Kokoschka zählt er zu den bedeutendsten bildenden Künstlern der Wiener Moderne.


Biography.

Köhl was born in Neu-Ulm, Bavaria, as one of eight children. At the age of 19 he joined the German Imperial Army to become an officer like his father. At the beginning of World War I he was a Lieutenant in the "Württembergisches Pionier-Bataillon Nr.13" ("13th Württemberg Pioneer Battalion"). After being wounded in the legs, which disqualified him for further service in the engineers, he volunteered to join the German Army Air Service. He became a pilot and later a commander of a Bomber Squadron, and received the "Pour le Mérite" in 1918. He crashed his aircraft behind enemy lines and was captured and held as a POW in France, but managed to escape and returned to Germany.  After the end of World War I he worked for the German Police and for the Reichswehr, but in 1925, he transferred to civil aviation and became the head of the "Deutsche Luft Hansa" Nightflight Branch in 1926.

Transatlantic flight.

After Charles Lindbergh crossed the Atlantic from West to East in May 1927, the idea of flying in the opposite direction, which is more difficult because of the prevailing winds, became more and more popular. In 1927, Ehrenfried Günther Freiherr von Hünefeld bought two Junkers W 33 aircraft from the Junkers company in Dessau, naming them after the two Norddeutscher Lloyd flagships and. His plans were supported by Hugo Junkers. After some test flights, and breaking the record for flight duration, Hünefeld and Köhl flew to Baldonnel, Ireland, where they met James C. Fitzmaurice, the Irish Air Corps Commandant of the Baldonnel Aerodrome. On 12 April, 1928, these three left Baldonnel in the "Bremen" and crossed the Atlantic Ocean, landing at Greenly Island on the south coast of Labrador, Canada. Even though they missed their intended destination, New York City, they were the first to cross the Atlantic by fixed-wing aircraft from Europe to America, almost nine years after the initial success at an East-West crossing by a British rigid airship.  For his feat, Köhl was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross by Calvin Coolidge, the President of the United States.  In 1935, Köhl lost his job with "Luft Hansa". As a devout Catholic and a man of strong character he then retired to a small farm in the south of Germany, rather than curry favour with the National Socialists.  Köhl died in Munich in 1938 from a kidney disease that he contracted during his flights. He was buried in Pfaffenhofen an der Roth.

Tributes.

A German Luftwaffe Airbus A310 MRTT medevac aircraft, and the Bundeswehr barracks of the Transporthubschrauber-Regiment 30 in Niederstetten are named after Hermann Köhl. There is also a street in Bremen, near the airport, which was named after him.

Hermann Köhl (15 April 1888 – 7 October 1938) was a German aviation pioneer and pilot of the first transatlantic flight by a fixed-wing aircraft from East to West.

Hermann Köhl (* 15. April 1888 in Neu-Ulm; † 7. Oktober 1938 in München) war ein deutscher Flugpionier. Er war Kampfflieger im Ersten Weltkrieg, wechselte 1925 vom Militär zur Junkers Luftverkehr AG, um dort den zivilen Nachtflugverkehr aufzubauen, und wurde bei Gründung der Luft Hansa 1926 deren erster Nachtflugleiter. Ab 1927 beteiligte er sich an Atlantikflugversuchen und war 1928 Pilot der Junkers W 33 „Bremen“ bei der ersten erfolgreichen Überquerung des Atlantiks in Ost-West-Richtung durch ein Motorflugzeug.


Discovery.

The Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered in a series of twelve caves around the site originally known as the "Ein Feshkha Caves" near the Dead Sea in the West Bank (then part of Jordan) between 1946 and 1956 by Bedouin shepherds and a team of archeologists. The practice of storing worn-out sacred manuscripts in earthenware vessels buried in the earth or within caves is related to the ancient Jewish custom of Genizah.

Initial discovery (1946–1947).

The initial discovery by Bedouin shepherd Muhammed edh-Dhib, his cousin Jum'a Muhammed, and Khalil Musa, took place between November 1946 and February 1947. The shepherds discovered seven scrolls (See Scrolls and fragments) housed in jars in a cave near what is now known as the Qumran site. John C. Trever reconstructed the story of the scrolls from several interviews with the Bedouin. Edh-Dhib's cousin noticed the caves, but edh-Dhib himself was the first to actually fall into one (the cave now called Cave 1). He retrieved a handful of scrolls, which Trever identifies as the Isaiah Scroll, Habakkuk Commentary, and the Community Rule, and took them back to the camp to show to his family. None of the scrolls were destroyed in this process. The Bedouin kept the scrolls hanging on a tent pole while they figured out what to do with them, periodically taking them out to show to their people.

Search for the Qumran caves (1948–1949).

Early in September 1948, Metropolitan bishop Mar Samuel brought some additional scroll fragments that he had acquired to Professor Ovid R. Sellers, the new Director of ASOR. By the end of 1948, nearly two years after their discovery, scholars had yet to locate the original cave where the fragments had been found. With unrest in

Qumran caves rediscovery and new scroll discoveries (1949–1951).

The rediscovery of what became known as "Cave 1" at Qumran prompted the initial excavation of the site from 15 February to 5

Excavations of Qumran and new cave discoveries (1951–1956, 2017).

In November 1951, Roland de Vaux and his team from the ASOR began a full excavation of Qumran. By February 1952, the Bedouin had discovered 30 fragments in what was to be designated Cave 2. The discovery of a second cave eventually yielded 300 fragments from 33 manuscripts, including fragments of Jubilees and the Wisdom of Sirach written in Hebrew. The following month, on 14 March 1952, the ASOR team discovered a third cave with fragments of Jubilees and the Copper Scroll. Between September and December 1952 the fragments and scrolls of Caves 4, 5, and 6 were subsequently discovered by the ASOR teams.  With the monetary

Scrolls and fragments.

The 972 manuscripts found at Qumran were found primarily in two separate formats: as scrolls and as fragments of previous scrolls and texts. In the fourth cave the fragments were torn into up to 15,000 pieces. These small fragments created somewhat of a problem for scholars. G.L. Harding, director of the Jordanian Department of Antiquities, began working on piecing the fragments together but did not finish this before his death in 1979.

Cave 1.

The original seven scrolls from Cave 1 at Qumran are the Great Isaiah Scroll (1QIsa), a second

Caves 4a and 4b.

Cave 4 was discovered in August 1952, and was excavated on 22–29 September 1952 by Gerald Lankester Harding, Roland de Vaux, and Józef Milik. Cave 4 is actually two hand-cut caves (4a and 4b), but since the fragments were mixed, they are labeled as 4Q. Cave 4 is

Cave 5.

Cave 5 was discovered alongside Cave 6 in

Cave 6.

Cave 6 was discovered alongside Cave 5 in 1952, shortly after the discovery of

Cave 7.

Cave 7 yielded fewer than 20 fragments of Greek documents, including 7Q2 (the "Letter of Jeremiah" = Baruch 6), 7Q5 (which became the subject

Cave 8.

Cave 8, along with caves 7 and 9, was one of the only caves that are accessible by passing through the settlement at Qumran. Carved into the southern end of the Qumran plateau, cave 8 was excavated by

Cave 9.

Cave 9, along with caves 7 and 8, was one of the only caves that are accessible by passing through

Cave 10.

In Cave 10 archaeologists found two ostraca with

Cave 11.

Cave 11 was discovered in 1956 and yielded 21 texts, some of which were quite long. The Temple Scroll, so called because more than half of it pertains to the construction of the Temple of Jerusalem, was found in Cave 11, and is by far the longest scroll. It is now 26.7 feet (8.15 m) long. Its original length may have been over 28 feet (8.75 m). The Temple Scroll was regarded by Yigael Yadin as "The Torah According to the Essenes". On the other hand, Hartmut Stegemann, a contemporary and

Cave 12.

Cave 12 was discovered in February 2017 on cliffs west of Qumran, near the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea. Archaeological examination found pickaxes and empty broken scroll jars, indicating that the cave had been discovered and looted in the 1950s. One

Fragments with unknown provenance.

Some fragments of scrolls have neither significant archaeological provenance nor records that reveal in which designated Qumran cave area they were found. They are

Origin.

There has been much debate about the origin of the Dead Sea Scrolls. The dominant theory remains that the scrolls were the product of a sect of Jews living at nearby Qumran called the Essenes, but this theory has come to be challenged by several modern scholars.

Qumran–Essene theory.

The view among scholars, almost universally held until the 1990s, is the "Qumran–Essene" hypothesis originally posited by Roland Guérin de Vaux and Józef Tadeusz Milik, though independently both Eliezer Sukenik and Butrus Sowmy of St Mark's Monastery connected scrolls with the Essenes well before any

Qumran–Sectarian theory.

Qumran–Sectarian theories are variations on the Qumran–Essene theory. The main point of departure from the Qumran–Essene theory is hesitation to link the Dead Sea Scrolls specifically with the Essenes. Most proponents of the Qumran–Sectarian theory understand a group of Jews living in or near Qumran to be responsible for the Dead Sea Scrolls, but do not necessarily conclude that the

Christian origin theory.

Spanish Jesuit José O'Callaghan Martínez argued in the 1960s that one fragment (7Q5) preserves a portion of text from the New Testament Gospel of Mark 6:52–53. This theory was falsified in the

Jerusalem origin theory.

Some scholars have argued that the scrolls were the product of Jews living in Jerusalem, who hid the scrolls in the caves near Qumran while fleeing from the Romans during the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE. Karl Heinrich Rengstorf first proposed that the Dead Sea Scrolls originated at the library of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem. Later, Norman Golb

Physical characteristics.

Radiocarbon dating.

Parchment from a number of the Dead Sea Scrolls has been carbon dated. The initial test performed in 1950 was on a piece of linen from one of the caves. This test gave an indicative dating of 33 CE plus or

Paleographic dating.

Analysis of letter forms, or palaeography, was applied to the texts of the Dead Sea Scrolls by a variety of scholars in the field. Major linguistic analysis by Cross and Avigad dates

Ink and parchment.

The scrolls were analyzed using a cyclotron at the University of California, Davis, where it was found that all black ink was carbon black. The red ink on the scrolls was found to be made with cinnabar (HgS, mercury sulfide). There are only four uses of this red ink in the entire collection of Dead Sea Scroll fragments. The black inks found on the scrolls that are made up of carbon soot were found to be from olive oil lamps. Honey, oil, vinegar, and water were often added to the mixture to thin the ink to a proper consistency for writing. In order to apply the ink to the scrolls, its writers used reed pens.  The Dead Sea scrolls were

Preservation.

The Dead Sea Scrolls that were found were originally preserved by the dry, arid, and low humidity conditions present within the Qumran area adjoining the Dead Sea. In addition, the lack of the use of tanning materials on the parchment of the Dead Sea Scrolls and the very low airflow in the Qumran caves also contributed significantly to their preservation. Some of the scrolls were found stored in clay jars within the Qumran caves, further helping to preserve them from deterioration. The original handling of the scrolls by archaeologists and scholars was done inappropriately, and, along with their storage in an uncontrolled environment, they began a process of more rapid deterioration than they had experienced

Photography and assembly.

Since the Dead Sea Scrolls were initially held by different parties during and after the excavation process, they were not all photographed by the same organization.

First photographs by the American Schools of Oriental Research (1948).

The first individual person to photograph a portion of the collection was John C. Trever (1916–2006), a Biblical scholar and archaeologist, who was a resident for the American Schools of Oriental Research. He photographed three of

Infrared photography and plate assembly by the Palestine Archaeological Museum (1952–1967).

A majority of the collection from the Qumran caves was acquired by the Palestine Archaeological Museum. The Museum had the scrolls photographed by Najib Albina, a local Arab photographer trained by Lewis Larsson of the American Colony in Jerusalem, Between 1952 and 1967, Albina documented the five-stage process of the sorting and assembly of the scrolls, done by the curator and staff of the Palestine Archaeological Museum, using infrared photography.

Israel Antiquities Authority and NASA digital infrared imaging (1993–2012).

Beginning in 1993, the United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration used digital infrared imaging technology to produce photographs of Dead Sea Scrolls fragments. In partnership with the Ancient Biblical Manuscript Center and West Semitic Research, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory successfully worked to expand on the use of infrared photography previously used to evaluate ancient manuscripts by expanding the range of spectra at which images are photographed. NASA used this multi-spectral imaging technique, adapted from its remote sensing and planetary probes, in order to reveal previously

Israel Antiquities Authority and DNA scroll assembly (2006–2020).

Scientists with the Israeli Antiquities Authority have used DNA from the parchment on which the Dead Sea Scrolls fragments were written, in concert with infrared digital photography, to assist in the reassembly of the scrolls. For scrolls written on parchment made from animal hide and papyrus, scientists with the museum are using DNA code to associate fragments with different scrolls and to help

Israel Museum of Jerusalem and Google digitization project (2011–2016).

In partnership with Google, the Museum of Jerusalem is working to photograph the Dead Sea Scrolls and make them available to the public digitally, although not placing the images in the public domain. The lead photographer of the project, Ardon Bar-Hama, and his team are utilizing the Alpa 12 MAX camera accompanied with a

Scholarly examination.

After most of the scrolls and fragments were moved to the Palestine Archaeological Museum in 1953, scholars began to assemble them and

Publication.

Physical publication and controversy.

Some of the fragments and scrolls were published early. Most of the longer, more complete scrolls were published soon after their discovery. All the writings in Cave 1 appeared in print between 1950 and 1956; those from eight other caves were released in 1963; and 1965 saw the publication of the Psalms Scroll from Cave 11. Their translations into English soon followed.

Controversy.

Publication of the scrolls has taken many decades, and delays have been a source of academic controversy. The scrolls were controlled by a small group of scholars headed by John Strugnell, while a majority of scholars had access neither to the scrolls nor even to photographs of the text. Scholars such as Norman Golb, publishers and

Physical description.

The majority of the scrolls consist of tiny, brittle fragments, which were published at a pace considered by many to be

"Discoveries in the Judaean Desert" (1955–2009).

The content of the scrolls was published in a 40 volume series by Oxford University Press published between 1955 and 2009 known as "Discoveries in the Judaean Desert". In 1952 the Jordanian Department of Antiquities assembled a team of scholars to begin examining, assembling, and translating the scrolls with the intent of publishing them. The initial publication, assembled

"A Preliminary Edition of the Unpublished Dead Sea Scrolls" (1991).

In 1991, researchers at Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati, Ohio, Ben Zion Wacholder and Martin Abegg, announced the creation of a computer program that used previously published scrolls to reconstruct the unpublished texts. Officials at the Huntington Library in San Marino, California, led by Head Librarian William Andrew Moffett, announced that they would allow researchers unrestricted access to

"A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls" (1991).

After further delays, attorney William John Cox undertook representation of an "undisclosed client", who had provided a complete set of the unpublished photographs, and contracted for their publication. Professors Robert Eisenman and James Robinson indexed the photographs and wrote an introduction to "A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls", which was published by the Biblical Archaeology Society in 1991. Following the publication of the Facsimile Edition, Professor Elisha Qimron sued Hershel Shanks, Eisenman,

The Facsimile Edition by Facsimile Editions Ltd, London, England (2007–2008).

In November 2007 the Dead Sea Scrolls Foundation commissioned the London publisher, Facsimile Editions Limited, to produce a facsimile edition of "The Great Isaiah Scroll" (1QIs), "The Order of the Community" (1QS), and "The Pesher to Habakkuk" (1QpHab). The facsimile was produced from 1948 photographs, and so more faithfully represents the condition of the Isaiah scroll at the time of its discovery than does the current condition of the real Isaiah scroll.  Of the first three facsimile sets, one was exhibited at the "Early Christianity and the

Digital publication.

Olive Tree Bible Software (2000–2011).

The text of nearly all of the non-biblical scrolls has been recorded and tagged for morphology by Dr. Martin Abegg, Jr., the Ben Zion Wacholder Professor of Dead Sea Scroll Studies

"The Dead Sea Scrolls Reader" (2005).

The text of almost all of the non-Biblical texts from the Dead Sea Scrolls was released on CD-ROM by publisher E.J. Brill in 2005. The 2400 page, 6 volume series, was

Israel Antiquities Authority and Google digitization project (2010–2016).

High-resolution images, including infrared photographs, of some of the Dead Sea scrolls are now available online on two dedicated websites.  On 19 October 2010, it was announced that Israeli Antiquities Authority (IAA) would scan the documents using multi-spectral imaging technology developed by NASA to produce high-resolution images of the texts, and then, through a partnership with Google, make them available online free of charge, on a searchable database and complemented by translation and other scholarly tools. The project is scheduled for completion within five years.  On 25 September 2011 the Israel Museum Digital Dead Sea Scrolls site went online. It gives users access to searchable, high-resolution images of the scrolls, as well as short explanatory videos and background information on the texts and their history. As of May 2012, five complete scrolls from the Israel Museum have been digitized for the project and are now accessible online: the Great Isaiah Scroll, the Community Rule Scroll, the Commentary on Habakkuk Scroll, the Temple Scroll, and the War Scroll.

Biblical significance.

Before the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, the oldest Hebrew-language manuscripts of the Bible were Masoretic texts dating to the 10th century CE, such as the Aleppo Codex. Today, the oldest known extant manuscripts of the Masoretic Text date from approximately the 9th century. The biblical manuscripts found among the Dead Sea Scrolls push that date back a full thousand years, to the 2nd century BCE. This was a significant discovery for Old Testament scholars who anticipated that the Dead Sea Scrolls would either affirm or repudiate the reliability of textual transmission from the original texts to the oldest Masoretic texts at hand. The discovery demonstrated the unusual accuracy of transmission over a thousand-year period, rendering it reasonable to believe that current Old Testament texts are reliable copies of the original works.  According to "The Dead Sea Scrolls" by Hebrew scholar Millar Burrows, Of the 166 "words" in Isaiah 53, there are only seventeen "letters" in question. Ten of these letters are simply a matter of spelling, which does not affect the sense. Four more letters are minor stylistic changes, such as conjunctions. The remaining three letters comprise the word "light," which is added in verse 11, and does not affect the meaning greatly.It is important to note that differences were found among fragments of texts. According to "The Oxford Companion to Archaeology":

Biblical books found.

There are 225 Biblical texts included in the Dead Sea Scroll documents, or around 22% of the total, and with deuterocanonical books the number increases to 235. The Dead Sea Scrolls contain parts of all but one of the books of the Tanakh of the Hebrew Bible and the Old Testament protocanon. They also include four of the deuterocanonical books included in Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Bibles: Tobit, Sirach,

Non-biblical books.

The majority of the texts found among the Dead Sea Scrolls are non-biblical in nature and were thought to be insignificant for understanding the composition or canonization of the Biblical books, but a different consensus

Museum exhibitions and displays.

Small portions of the Dead Sea Scrolls collections have been put on temporary display in exhibitions at museums and public venues around the world. The majority of these exhibitions took place in 1965 in the United States and the United Kingdom and from 1993 to 2011 in locations around the world. Many of the exhibitions were co-sponsored by either the Jordanian government (pre-1967) or the Israeli government (post-1967). Exhibitions were discontinued after 1965 due to the Six-Day War conflicts and have slowed down in post-2011 as the Israeli Antiquities Authority works to digitize the scrolls and place them in permanent cold storage.  The majority of the Dead Sea Scrolls

Ownership.

Past ownership.

Arrangements with the Bedouin left the scrolls in the hands of a third party until a profitable sale of them could be negotiated. That third party, George Isha'ya, was a member of the Syriac Orthodox Church, who soon contacted St Mark's Monastery in the hope of getting an appraisal of the nature of the texts. News of the find then reached Metropolitan Athanasius Yeshue Samuel, better known as Mar Samuel. After examining the scrolls and suspecting their antiquity, Mar Samuel expressed an interest in purchasing them. Four scrolls found their way into his hands: the now

Current ownership.

Almost all of the Dead Sea Scrolls collection is currently owned by Israel, and housed in the Shrine of the Book

Ownership disputes.

The official ownership of the Dead Sea Scrolls is disputed among the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, the

Copyright disputes.

There are three types of documents relating to the Dead Sea Scrolls in which copyright status can be considered ambiguous; the documents themselves, images taken of the documents, and reproductions of the documents. This ambiguity arises from differences in copyright law across different countries and the variable interpretation of such law.  In 1992 a copyright case "Qimron v. Shanks" was brought before the Israeli District court by scholar Elisha Qimron against Hershel Shanks of the Biblical Archaeology Society for violations of United States copyright law regarding his publishing of reconstructions of Dead Sea Scroll texts done by Qimron in "A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea Scrolls" which were included without his permission. Qimron's suit against the Biblical Archaeology Society was done on the grounds that the research they had

The Dead Sea Scrolls (also the Qumran Caves Scrolls) are ancient Jewish religious manuscripts that were found in the Qumran Caves in the Judaean Desert, near Ein Feshkha on the northern shore of the Dead Sea in the West Bank. Scholarly consensus dates these scrolls from the last three centuries BCE and the first century CE. The texts have great historical, religious, and linguistic significance because they include the second-oldest known surviving manuscripts of works later included in the Hebrew Bible canon, along with deuterocanonical and extra-biblical manuscripts which preserve evidence of the diversity of religious thought in late Second Temple Judaism. Almost all of the Dead Sea Scrolls are held by the state of Israel in the Shrine of the Book on the grounds of the Israel Museum, but ownership of the scrolls is disputed by Jordan and Palestine.

Die Schriftrollen vom Toten Meer (auch Qumranschriften) wurden zwischen 1947 und 1956 in elf Felshöhlen nahe der Ruinenstätte "Khirbet Qumran" im Westjordanland entdeckt. Sie umfassen rund 15.000 Fragmente von etwa 850 Rollen aus dem antiken Judentum, die von mindestens 500 verschiedenen Schreibern zwischen 250 v. Chr. und 40 n. Chr. beschriftet wurden. Darunter sind etwa 200 Texte des späteren Tanach, die bislang ältesten bekannten Bibelhandschriften. Später wurden noch weitere antike Schriftrollen in Höhlen nahe dem Westufer des Toten Meeres gefunden.


Quantum number.

As the name suggests, spin was originally conceived as the rotation of a particle around some axis. While the elementary particles do not actually rotate, this picture is correct insofar as spin obeys the same mathematical laws as quantized angular momenta do. On the other hand, spin has some peculiar properties that distinguish it from orbital angular momenta:  The conventional definition of the spin quantum number,, is, where can be any non-negative integer. Hence the allowed values of are 0,, 1,, 2, etc. The value of for an elementary particle depends only on the type of particle, and cannot be altered in any known way (in contrast to the "spin direction" described below). The spin angular momentum,, of any physical system is quantized. The allowed values of are  where is the Planck constant and is the reduced Planck constant. In contrast, orbital angular momentum can only take on integer values of ; i.e., even-numbered values of.

Fermions and bosons.

Those particles with half-integer spins, such as,,, are known as fermions, while those particles with integer spins, such as 0, 1, 2, are known as bosons. The two families of particles obey different rules and "broadly" have different roles in the world around us. A key distinction between the two families is that fermions obey the Pauli exclusion principle: that is, there cannot be two identical fermions simultaneously having the same quantum numbers (meaning, roughly, having the same position, velocity and spin direction). In contrast, bosons obey the rules of Bose–Einstein statistics and have no such restriction, so they may "bunch together" in identical states. Also, composite particles can have spins different from their component particles. For example, a helium atom in the ground state has spin 0 and behaves like a boson, even though the quarks and electrons which make it up are all fermions.  This has some profound consequences:

Spin–statistics theorem.

The spin–statistics theorem states (1) that particles with half-integer spin (fermions) obey Fermi–Dirac statistics and the Pauli Exclusion Principle, and (2) that particles with integer spin (bosons) obey Bose–Einstein statistics, occupy "symmetric states", and thus can share quantum states. The theorem relies on both quantum mechanics and the theory of special relativity, and this connection between spin and statistics has been called "one of the most important applications of the special relativity theory".

Magnetic moments.

Particles with spin can possess a magnetic dipole moment, just like a rotating electrically charged body in classical electrodynamics. These magnetic moments can be experimentally observed in several ways, e.g. by the deflection of particles by inhomogeneous magnetic fields in a Stern–Gerlach experiment, or by measuring the magnetic fields generated by the particles themselves.  The intrinsic magnetic moment of a spin particle with charge, mass, and spin angular momentum, is  where the dimensionless quantity is called the spin -factor. For exclusively orbital rotations it would be 1 (assuming that the mass and the charge occupy spheres of equal radius).  The electron, being a charged elementary particle, possesses a nonzero magnetic moment. One of the triumphs of the theory of quantum electrodynamics is its accurate prediction of the electron -factor, which has been experimentally determined to have the value, with the digits in parentheses denoting measurement uncertainty in the last two digits at one standard deviation. The value of 2 arises from the Dirac equation, a fundamental equation connecting the electron's spin with its electromagnetic properties, and the correction of... arises from the electron's interaction with the surrounding electromagnetic field, including its own field.  Composite particles also possess magnetic moments associated with their spin. In particular, the neutron possesses a non-zero magnetic moment despite being electrically neutral. This fact was an early indication that the neutron is not an elementary particle. In fact, it is made up of quarks, which are electrically charged particles. The magnetic moment of the neutron comes from the spins of the individual quarks and their orbital motions.  Neutrinos are both elementary and electrically neutral. The minimally extended Standard Model that takes into account non-zero neutrino masses predicts neutrino magnetic moments of:  where the are the neutrino magnetic moments, are the neutrino masses, and is the Bohr magneton. New physics above the electroweak scale could, however, lead to significantly higher neutrino magnetic moments. It can be shown in a model independent way that neutrino magnetic moments larger than about 10 are “unnatural” because they would also lead to large radiative contributions to the neutrino mass. Since the neutrino masses are known to be at most about 1 eV, the large radiative corrections would then have to be “fine-tuned” to cancel each other, to a large degree, and leave the neutrino mass small. The measurement of neutrino magnetic moments is an active area of research. Experimental results have put the neutrino magnetic moment at less than times the electron's magnetic moment.  On the other hand elementary particles with spin but without electric charge, such as a photon or a Z boson, do not have a magnetic moment.

Curie temperature and loss of alignment.

In ordinary materials, the magnetic dipole moments of individual atoms produce magnetic fields that cancel one another, because each dipole points in a random direction, with the overall average being very near zero. Ferromagnetic materials below their Curie temperature, however, exhibit magnetic domains in which the atomic dipole moments are locally aligned, producing a macroscopic, non-zero magnetic field from the domain. These are the ordinary "magnets" with which we are all familiar.  In paramagnetic materials, the magnetic dipole moments of individual atoms spontaneously align with an externally applied magnetic field. In diamagnetic materials, on the other hand, the magnetic dipole moments of individual atoms spontaneously align oppositely to any externally applied magnetic field, even if it requires energy to do so.  The study of the behavior of such "spin models" is a thriving area of research in condensed matter physics. For instance, the Ising model describes spins (dipoles) that have only two possible states, up and down, whereas in the Heisenberg model the spin vector is allowed to point in any direction. These models have many interesting properties, which have led to interesting results in the theory of phase transitions.

Direction.

Spin projection quantum number and multiplicity.

In classical mechanics, the angular momentum of a particle possesses not only a magnitude (how fast the body is rotating), but also a direction (either up or down on the axis of rotation of the particle). Quantum mechanical spin also contains information about direction, but in a more subtle form. Quantum mechanics states that the component of angular momentum measured along any direction can only take on the values  where is the spin component along the -axis (either,, or ), is the spin projection quantum number along the -axis, and is the principal spin quantum number (discussed in the previous section). Conventionally the direction chosen is the -axis:  where is the spin component along the -axis, is the spin projection quantum number along the -axis.  One can see that there are possible values of. The number "" is the multiplicity of the spin system. For example, there are only two possible values for a spin- particle: and. These correspond to quantum states in which the spin component is pointing in the +z or −z directions respectively, and are often referred to as "spin up" and "spin down". For a spin- particle, like a delta baryon, the possible values are +, +, −, −.

Vector.

For a given quantum state, one could think of a spin vector formula_6 whose components are the expectation values of the spin components along each axis, i.e., formula_7. This vector then would describe the "direction" in which the spin is pointing, corresponding to the classical concept of the axis of rotation. It turns out that the spin vector is not very useful in actual quantum mechanical calculations, because it cannot be measured directly:, and cannot possess simultaneous definite values, because of a quantum uncertainty relation between them. However, for statistically large collections of particles that have been placed in the same pure quantum state, such as through the use of a Stern–Gerlach apparatus, the spin vector does have a well-defined experimental meaning: It specifies the direction in ordinary space in which a subsequent detector must be oriented in order to achieve the maximum possible probability (100%) of detecting every particle in the collection. For spin- particles, this maximum probability drops off smoothly as the angle between the spin vector and the detector increases, until at an angle of 180 degrees—that is, for detectors oriented in the opposite direction to the spin vector—the expectation of detecting particles from the collection reaches a minimum of 0%.  As a qualitative concept, the spin vector is often handy because it is easy to picture classically. For instance, quantum mechanical spin can exhibit phenomena analogous to classical gyroscopic effects. For example, one can exert a kind of "torque" on an electron by putting it in a magnetic field (the field acts upon the electron's intrinsic magnetic dipole moment—see the following section). The result is that the spin vector undergoes precession, just like a classical gyroscope. This phenomenon is known as electron spin resonance (ESR). The equivalent behaviour of protons in atomic nuclei is used in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and imaging.  Mathematically, quantum-mechanical spin states are described by vector-like objects known as spinors. There are subtle differences between the behavior of spinors and vectors under coordinate rotations. For example, rotating a spin- particle by 360 degrees does not bring it back to the same quantum state, but to the state with the opposite quantum phase; this is detectable, in principle, with interference experiments. To return the particle to its exact original state, one needs a 720-degree rotation. (The Plate trick and Möbius strip give non-quantum analogies.) A spin-zero particle can only have a single quantum state, even after torque is applied. Rotating a spin-2 particle 180 degrees can bring it back to the same quantum state and a spin-4 particle should be rotated 90 degrees to bring it back to the same quantum state. The spin-2 particle can be analogous to a straight stick that looks the same even after it is rotated 180 degrees and a spin 0 particle can be imagined as sphere, which looks the same after whatever angle it is turned through.

Mathematical formulation.

Operator.

Spin obeys commutation relations analogous to those of the orbital angular momentum:  where is the Levi-Civita symbol. It follows (as with angular momentum) that the eigenvectors of and (expressed as kets in the total basis) are:  The spin raising and lowering operators acting on these eigenvectors give:  where.  But unlike orbital angular momentum the eigenvectors are not spherical harmonics. They are not functions of and. There is also no reason to exclude half-integer values of and.  In addition to their other properties, all quantum mechanical particles possess an intrinsic spin (though this value may be equal to zero). The spin is quantized in units of the reduced Planck constant, such that the state function of the particle is, say, not, but where is out of the following discrete set of values:  One distinguishes bosons (integer spin) and fermions (half-integer spin). The total angular momentum conserved in interaction processes is then the sum of the orbital angular momentum and the spin.

Pauli matrices.

The quantum mechanical operators associated with spin- observables are:  where in Cartesian components:  For the special case of spin- particles,, and are the three Pauli matrices, given by:

Pauli exclusion principle.

For systems of identical particles this is related to the Pauli exclusion principle, which states that by interchanges of any two of the particles one must have  Thus, for bosons the prefactor will reduce to +1, for fermions to −1. In quantum mechanics all particles are either bosons or fermions. In some speculative relativistic quantum field theories "supersymmetric" particles also exist, where linear combinations of bosonic and fermionic components appear. In two dimensions, the prefactor can be replaced by any complex number of magnitude 1 such as in the anyon. The above permutation postulate for -particle state functions has most-important consequences in daily life, e.g. the periodic table of the chemical elements.

Rotations.

As described above, quantum mechanics states that components of angular momentum measured along any direction can only take a number of discrete values. The most convenient quantum mechanical description of particle's spin is therefore with a set of complex numbers corresponding to amplitudes of finding a given value of projection of its intrinsic angular momentum on a given axis. For instance, for a spin- particle, we would need two numbers, giving amplitudes of finding it with projection of angular momentum equal to and, satisfying the requirement  For a generic particle with spin, we would need such parameters. Since these numbers depend on the choice of the axis, they transform into each other non-trivially when this axis is rotated. It's clear that the transformation law must be linear, so we can represent it by associating a matrix with each rotation, and the product of two transformation matrices corresponding to rotations A and B must be equal (up to phase) to the matrix representing rotation AB. Further, rotations preserve the quantum mechanical inner product, and so should our transformation matrices:  Mathematically speaking, these matrices furnish a unitary projective representation of the rotation group SO(3). Each such representation corresponds to a representation of the covering group of SO(3), which is SU(2). There is one -dimensional irreducible representation of SU(2) for each dimension, though this representation is -dimensional real for odd and -dimensional complex for even (hence of real dimension ). For a rotation by angle in the plane with normal vector formula_18, can be written  where formula_20, and is the vector of spin operators.  A generic rotation in 3-dimensional space can be built by compounding operators of this type using Euler angles: An irreducible representation of this group of operators is furnished by the Wigner D-matrix:  where  is Wigner's small d-matrix. Note that for and ; i.e., a full rotation about the -axis, the Wigner D-matrix elements become  Recalling that a generic spin state can be written as a superposition of states with definite, we see that if is an integer, the values of are all integers, and this matrix corresponds to the identity operator. However, if is a half-integer, the values of are also all half-integers, giving for all, and hence upon rotation by 2 the state picks up a minus sign. This fact is a crucial element of the proof of the spin-statistics theorem.

Lorentz transformations.

We could try the same approach to determine the behavior of spin under general Lorentz transformations, but we would immediately discover a major obstacle. Unlike SO(3), the group of Lorentz transformations SO(3,1) is non-compact and therefore does not have any faithful, unitary, finite-dimensional representations.  In case of spin- particles, it is possible to find a construction that includes both a finite-dimensional representation and a scalar product that is preserved by this representation. We associate a 4-component Dirac spinor with each particle. These spinors transform under Lorentz transformations according to the law  where are gamma matrices and is an antisymmetric 4 × 4 matrix parametrizing the transformation. It can be shown that the scalar product  is preserved. It is not, however, positive definite, so the representation is not unitary.

Measurement of spin along the -, -, or -axes.

Each of the (Hermitian) Pauli matrices has two eigenvalues, +1 and −1. The corresponding normalized eigenvectors are:  By the postulates of quantum mechanics, an experiment designed to measure the electron spin on the -, -, or -axis can only yield an eigenvalue of the corresponding spin operator (, or ) on that axis, i.e. or. The quantum state of a particle (with respect to spin), can be represented by a two component spinor:  When the spin of this particle is measured with respect to a given axis (in this example, the -axis), the probability that its spin will be measured as is just formula_29. Correspondingly, the probability that its spin will be measured as is just formula_30. Following the measurement, the spin state of the particle will collapse into the corresponding eigenstate. As a result, if the particle's spin along a given axis has been measured to have a given eigenvalue, all measurements will yield the same eigenvalue (since formula_31, etc), provided that no measurements of the spin are made along other axes.

Measurement of spin along an arbitrary axis.

The operator to measure spin along an arbitrary axis direction is easily obtained from the Pauli spin matrices. Let be an arbitrary unit vector. Then the operator for spin in this direction is simply The operator has eigenvalues of, just like the usual spin matrices. This method of finding the operator for spin in an arbitrary direction generalizes to higher spin states, one takes the dot product of the direction with a vector of the three operators for the three -, -, -axis directions.  A normalized spinor for spin- in the direction (which works for all spin states except spin down where it will give ), is:  The above spinor is obtained in the usual way by diagonalizing the matrix and finding the eigenstates corresponding to the eigenvalues. In quantum mechanics, vectors are termed "normalized" when multiplied by a normalizing factor, which results in the vector having a length of unity.

Compatibility of spin measurements.

Since the Pauli matrices do not commute, measurements of spin along the different axes are incompatible. This means that if, for example, we know the spin along the -axis, and we then measure the spin along the -axis, we have invalidated our previous knowledge of the -axis spin. This can be seen from the property of the eigenvectors (i.e. eigenstates) of the Pauli matrices that:  So when physicists measure the spin of a particle along the -axis as, for example,, the particle's spin state collapses into the eigenstate formula_35. When we then subsequently measure the particle's spin along the -axis, the spin state will now collapse into either formula_36 or formula_37, each with probability. Let us say, in our example, that we measure. When we now return to measure the particle's spin along the -axis again, the probabilities that we will measure or are each (i.e. they are formula_38 and formula_39 respectively). This implies that the original measurement of the spin along the x-axis is no longer valid, since the spin along the -axis will now be measured to have either eigenvalue with equal probability.

Higher spins.

The spin- operator forms the fundamental representation of SU(2). By taking Kronecker products of this representation with itself repeatedly, one may construct all higher irreducible representations. That is, the resulting spin operators for higher spin systems in three spatial dimensions, for arbitrarily large, can be calculated using this spin operator and ladder operators. For example, taking the Kronecker product of two spin- will yield a four dimensional representation, which is separable into a 3-dimensional spin-1 (triplet states) and a 1-dimensional spin-0 representation (singlet state).  The resulting irreducible representations yield the following spin matrices and eigenvalues in the z-basis  Also useful in the quantum mechanics of multiparticle systems, the general Pauli group is defined to consist of all -fold tensor products of Pauli matrices.  The analog formula of Euler's formula in terms of the Pauli matrices:  for higher spins is tractable, but less simple.

Parity.

In tables of the spin quantum number for nuclei or particles, the spin is often followed by a "+" or "−". This refers to the parity with "+" for even parity (wave function unchanged by spatial inversion) and "−" for odd parity (wave function negated by spatial inversion). For example, see the isotopes of bismuth in which the List of isotopes includes the column Nuclear spin and parity. For Bi-209, the only stable isotope, the entry 9/2– means that the nuclear spin is 9/2 and the parity is odd.

Applications.

Spin has important theoretical implications and practical applications. Well-established "direct" applications of spin include:  Electron spin plays an important role in magnetism, with applications for instance in computer memories. The manipulation of "nuclear spin" by radiofrequency waves (nuclear magnetic resonance) is important in chemical spectroscopy and medical imaging.  Spin-orbit coupling leads to the fine structure of atomic spectra, which is used in atomic clocks and in the modern definition of the second. Precise measurements of the -factor of the electron have played an important role in the development and verification of quantum electrodynamics. "Photon spin" is associated with the polarization of light (photon polarization).  An emerging application of spin is as a binary information carrier in spin transistors. The original concept, proposed in 1990, is known as Datta-Das spin transistor. Electronics based on spin transistors are referred to as spintronics. The manipulation of spin in dilute magnetic semiconductor materials, such as metal-doped ZnO or TiO imparts a further degree of freedom and has the potential to facilitate the fabrication of more efficient electronics.  There are many "indirect" applications and manifestations of spin and the associated Pauli exclusion principle, starting with the periodic table of chemistry.

History.

Spin was first discovered in the context of the emission spectrum of alkali metals. In 1924, Wolfgang Pauli introduced what he called a "two-valuedness not describable classically" associated with the electron in the outermost shell. This allowed him to formulate the Pauli exclusion principle, stating that no two electrons can have the same quantum state in the same quantum system.  The physical interpretation of Pauli's "degree of freedom" was initially unknown. Ralph Kronig, one of Landé's assistants, suggested in early 1925 that it was produced by the self-rotation of the electron. When Pauli heard about the idea, he criticized it severely, noting that the electron's hypothetical surface would have to be moving faster than the speed of light in order for it to rotate quickly enough to produce the necessary angular momentum. This would violate the theory of relativity. Largely due to Pauli's criticism, Kronig decided not to publish his idea.  In the autumn of 1925, the same thought came to two Dutch physicists, George Uhlenbeck and Samuel Goudsmit at Leiden University. Under the advice of Paul Ehrenfest, they published their results. It met a favorable response, especially after Llewellyn Thomas managed to resolve a factor-of-two discrepancy between experimental results and Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit's calculations (and Kronig's unpublished results). This discrepancy was due to the orientation of the electron's tangent frame, in addition to its position.  Mathematically speaking, a fiber bundle description is needed. The tangent bundle effect is additive and relativistic; that is, it vanishes if goes to infinity. It is one half of the value obtained without regard for the tangent space orientation, but with opposite sign. Thus the combined effect differs from the latter by a factor two (Thomas precession, known to Ludwik Silberstein in 1914).  Despite his initial objections, Pauli formalized the theory of spin in 1927, using the modern theory of quantum mechanics invented by Schrödinger and Heisenberg. He pioneered the use of Pauli matrices as a representation of the spin operators, and introduced a two-component spinor wave-function.  Pauli's theory of spin was non-relativistic. However, in 1928, Paul Dirac published the Dirac equation, which described the relativistic electron. In the Dirac equation, a four-component spinor (known as a "Dirac spinor") was used for the electron wave-function. Relativistic spin explained gyromagnetic anomaly, which was (in retrospect) first observed by Samuel Jackson Barnett in 1914 (see Einstein–de Haas effect). In 1940, Pauli proved the "spin-statistics theorem", which states that fermions have half-integer spin and bosons have integer spin.  In retrospect, the first direct experimental evidence of the electron spin was the Stern–Gerlach experiment of 1922. However, the correct explanation of this experiment was only given in 1927.

In quantum mechanics and particle physics, spin is an intrinsic form of angular momentum carried by elementary particles, composite particles (hadrons), and atomic nuclei.

Spin (von ‚Drehung‘, ‚Drall‘) ist in der Teilchenphysik der Eigendrehimpuls von Teilchen. Bei den fundamentalen Teilchen ist er wie die Masse eine unveränderliche innere Teilcheneigenschaft. Er beträgt ein halb- oder ganzzahliges Vielfaches (Spinquantenzahl) des reduzierten planckschen Wirkungsquantums formula_1. Abgesehen davon, dass er nicht durch die (Dreh-)Bewegung einer Masse hervorgerufen wird, hat er alle Eigenschaften eines klassisch-mechanischen Eigendrehimpulses, insbesondere bezüglich Drehimpulserhaltung und Koordinatentransformationen, und ist damit auch ein Axialvektor. Der Spin kann nur quantenmechanisch verstanden werden. Das Spin-Statistik-Theorem verbindet den Spin eines Teilchens mit der Art der statistischen Beschreibung mehrerer gleicher Teilchen: Teilchen mit einer halbzahligen Spinquantenzahl befolgen die Fermi-Dirac-Statistik und heißen Fermionen, Teilchen mit einer ganzzahligen Spinquantenzahl befolgen die Bose-Einstein-Statistik und heißen Bosonen.